Daily Papers

Large language models (LLMs) excel at general question-answering (Q&A) but often fall short in specialized domains due to a lack of domain-specific knowledge. Commercial companies face the dual challenges of privacy protection and resource constraints when involving LLMs for fine-tuning. This paper propose a novel framework, Self-Evolution, designed to address these issues by leveraging lightweight open-source LLMs through multiple iterative fine-tuning rounds. To enhance the efficiency of iterative fine-tuning, Self-Evolution employ a strategy that filters and reinforces the knowledge with higher value during the iterative process. We employed Self-Evolution on Qwen1.5-7B-Chat using 4,000 documents containing rich domain knowledge from China Mobile, achieving a performance score 174% higher on domain-specific question-answering evaluations than Qwen1.5-7B-Chat and even 22% higher than Qwen1.5-72B-Chat. Self-Evolution has been deployed in China Mobile's daily operation and maintenance for 117 days, and it improves the efficiency of locating alarms, fixing problems, and finding related reports, with an average efficiency improvement of over 18.6%. In addition, we release Self-Evolution framework code in https://github.com/Zero-Pointer/Self-Evolution.

This paper investigates the impact of domain-specific model fine-tuning and of reasoning mechanisms on the performance of question-answering (Q&A) systems powered by large language models (LLMs) and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). Using the FinanceBench SEC financial filings dataset, we observe that, for RAG, combining a fine-tuned embedding model with a fine-tuned LLM achieves better accuracy than generic models, with relatively greater gains attributable to fine-tuned embedding models. Additionally, employing reasoning iterations on top of RAG delivers an even bigger jump in performance, enabling the Q&A systems to get closer to human-expert quality. We discuss the implications of such findings, propose a structured technical design space capturing major technical components of Q&A AI, and provide recommendations for making high-impact technical choices for such components. We plan to follow up on this work with actionable guides for AI teams and further investigations into the impact of domain-specific augmentation in RAG and into agentic AI capabilities such as advanced planning and reasoning.

Public and private actors struggle to assess the vast amounts of information about sustainability commitments made by various institutions. To address this problem, we create a novel tool for automatically detecting corporate, national, and regional net zero and reduction targets in three steps. First, we introduce an expert-annotated data set with 3.5K text samples. Second, we train and release ClimateBERT-NetZero, a natural language classifier to detect whether a text contains a net zero or reduction target. Third, we showcase its analysis potential with two use cases: We first demonstrate how ClimateBERT-NetZero can be combined with conventional question-answering (Q&A) models to analyze the ambitions displayed in net zero and reduction targets. Furthermore, we employ the ClimateBERT-NetZero model on quarterly earning call transcripts and outline how communication patterns evolve over time. Our experiments demonstrate promising pathways for extracting and analyzing net zero and emission reduction targets at scale.

The explosive growth of videos on streaming media platforms has underscored the urgent need for effective video quality assessment (VQA) algorithms to monitor and perceptually optimize the quality of streaming videos. However, VQA remains an extremely challenging task due to the diverse video content and the complex spatial and temporal distortions, thus necessitating more advanced methods to address these issues. Nowadays, large multimodal models (LMMs), such as GPT-4V, have exhibited strong capabilities for various visual understanding tasks, motivating us to leverage the powerful multimodal representation ability of LMMs to solve the VQA task. Therefore, we propose the first Large Multi-Modal Video Quality Assessment (LMM-VQA) model, which introduces a novel spatiotemporal visual modeling strategy for quality-aware feature extraction. Specifically, we first reformulate the quality regression problem into a question and answering (Q&A) task and construct Q&A prompts for VQA instruction tuning. Then, we design a spatiotemporal vision encoder to extract spatial and temporal features to represent the quality characteristics of videos, which are subsequently mapped into the language space by the spatiotemporal projector for modality alignment. Finally, the aligned visual tokens and the quality-inquired text tokens are aggregated as inputs for the large language model (LLM) to generate the quality score and level. Extensive experiments demonstrate that LMM-VQA achieves state-of-the-art performance across five VQA benchmarks, exhibiting an average improvement of 5% in generalization ability over existing methods. Furthermore, due to the advanced design of the spatiotemporal encoder and projector, LMM-VQA also performs exceptionally well on general video understanding tasks, further validating its effectiveness. Our code will be released at https://github.com/Sueqk/LMM-VQA.

With the breakthrough of multi-modal large language models, answering complex visual questions that demand advanced reasoning abilities and world knowledge has become a much more important testbed for developing AI models than ever. However, equipping AI models with robust cross-modality reasoning ability remains challenging since the cognition scheme of humans has not been understood systematically. In this paper, we believe that if we can collect visual clues in the given image as much as possible, we will recognize the image more accurately, understand the question better, recall relevant knowledge more easily, and finally reason out the answer. We discover these rich visual clues by mining question-answer pairs in images and sending them into multi-modal large language models as prompts. We call the proposed method Q&A Prompts. Specifically, we first use the image-answer pairs and the corresponding questions in the training set as inputs and outputs to train a visual question generation model. Then, we use an image tagging model to identify various instances and send packaged image-tag pairs into the visual question generation model to generate relevant questions with the extracted image tags as answers. Finally, we encode these generated question-answer pairs as prompts with a visual-aware prompting module and send them into pre-trained multi-modal large language models to reason out the final answers. Experimental results show that, compared with state-of-the-art methods, our Q&A Prompts achieves substantial improvements on the challenging visual question answering datasets requiring reasoning over diverse world knowledge, such as OK-VQA and A-OKVQA.

The recent advancements in artificial intelligence highlight the potential of language models in psychological health support. While models trained on data from mental health service platform have achieved preliminary success, challenges persist in areas such as data scarcity, quality, and ensuring a solid foundation in psychological techniques. To address these challenges, this study introduces a novel approach to enhance the precision and efficacy of psychological support through large language models. Specifically, we design a specific prompt derived from principles of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and have generated the CBT QA dataset, specifically for Chinese psychological health Q&A based on CBT structured intervention strategies. Unlike previous methods, our dataset emphasizes professional and structured response. Utilizing this dataset, we fine-tuned the large language model, giving birth to CBT-LLM, the large-scale language model specifically designed for Cognitive Behavioral Therapy techniques. Empirical evaluations demonstrate that CBT-LLM excels in generating structured, professional, and highly relevant responses in psychological health support tasks, showcasing its practicality and quality. The model is available on Hugging Face: https://huggingface.co/Hongbin37/CBT-LLM.

We present WebFAQ, a large-scale collection of open-domain question answering datasets derived from FAQ-style schema.org annotations. In total, the data collection consists of 96 million natural question-answer (QA) pairs across 75 languages, including 47 million (49%) non-English samples. WebFAQ further serves as the foundation for 20 monolingual retrieval benchmarks with a total size of 11.2 million QA pairs (5.9 million non-English). These datasets are carefully curated through refined filtering and near-duplicate detection, yielding high-quality resources for training and evaluating multilingual dense retrieval models. To empirically confirm WebFAQ's efficacy, we use the collected QAs to fine-tune an in-domain pretrained XLM-RoBERTa model. Through this process of dataset-specific fine-tuning, the model achieves significant retrieval performance gains, which generalize - beyond WebFAQ - to other multilingual retrieval benchmarks evaluated in zero-shot setting. Last but not least, we utilize WebFAQ to construct a set of QA-aligned bilingual corpora spanning over 1000 language pairs using state-of-the-art bitext mining and automated LLM-assessed translation evaluation. Due to our advanced, automated method of bitext dataset generation, the resulting bilingual corpora demonstrate higher translation quality compared to similar datasets. WebFAQ and all associated resources are publicly available on GitHub and HuggingFace.

Retrieval augmented language models have recently become the standard for knowledge intensive tasks. Rather than relying purely on latent semantics within the parameters of large neural models, these methods enlist a semi-parametric memory to encode an index of knowledge for the model to retrieve over. Most prior work has employed text passages as the unit of knowledge, which has high coverage at the cost of interpretability, controllability, and efficiency. The opposite properties arise in other methods which have instead relied on knowledge base (KB) facts. At the same time, more recent work has demonstrated the effectiveness of storing and retrieving from an index of Q-A pairs derived from text lewis2021paq. This approach yields a high coverage knowledge representation that maintains KB-like properties due to its representations being more atomic units of information. In this work we push this line of research further by proposing a question-answer augmented encoder-decoder model and accompanying pretraining strategy. This yields an end-to-end system that not only outperforms prior QA retrieval methods on single-hop QA tasks but also enables compositional reasoning, as demonstrated by strong performance on two multi-hop QA datasets. Together, these methods improve the ability to interpret and control the model while narrowing the performance gap with passage retrieval systems.

While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable potential in natural language generation and instruction following, a persistent challenge lies in their susceptibility to "hallucinations", which erodes trust in their outputs. Although Uncertainty Quantification (UQ) presents a promising solution, its accurate implementation within the context of LLMs remains a significant hurdle. To address this critical roadblock, our research originates from a fundamental heuristic insight: tokens within auto-regressive LLM-generated text do not equally reflect the underlying meaning. Some tokens carry greater relevance and representativeness than others, owing to the phenomenon of "linguistic redundancy", wherein a select few keywords suffice to convey the essence of lengthy sentences. Regrettably, existing methodologies treat all tokens with equal importance when estimating uncertainty, disregarding these inherent generative inequalities. Our analysis reveals a significant issue with state-of-the-art: numerous tokens (and sentences) of limited semantic significance receive equal or even excessive weighting during uncertainty estimation. To rectify this bias, we propose to jointly Shifting Attention to more Relevant (SAR) components, at both the token- and the sentence-levels for accurate uncertainty estimation. We conduct extensive experiments involving a range of popular "off-the-shelf" LLMs, including instruction-tuned LLMs such as Vicuna, WizardLM, and LLaMA-2-chat, as well as pretrained LLMs like OPT and LLaMA, with model sizes extending up to 33B parameters. We carry out evaluation across various free-form question-answering tasks, encompassing domains such as reading comprehension, science Q&A, and medical Q&A. Our experimental results demonstrate the superior performance of SAR in addressing the challenges of uncertainty estimation within the realm of LLMs.

Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) is a prevalent approach to infuse a private knowledge base of documents with Large Language Models (LLM) to build Generative Q\&A (Question-Answering) systems. However, RAG accuracy becomes increasingly challenging as the corpus of documents scales up, with Retrievers playing an outsized role in the overall RAG accuracy by extracting the most relevant document from the corpus to provide context to the LLM. In this paper, we propose the 'Blended RAG' method of leveraging semantic search techniques, such as Dense Vector indexes and Sparse Encoder indexes, blended with hybrid query strategies. Our study achieves better retrieval results and sets new benchmarks for IR (Information Retrieval) datasets like NQ and TREC-COVID datasets. We further extend such a 'Blended Retriever' to the RAG system to demonstrate far superior results on Generative Q\&A datasets like SQUAD, even surpassing fine-tuning performance.

Recent advances in Natural Language Processing (NLP), and specifically automated Question Answering (QA) systems, have demonstrated both impressive linguistic fluency and a pernicious tendency to reflect social biases. In this study, we introduce Q-Pain, a dataset for assessing bias in medical QA in the context of pain management, one of the most challenging forms of clinical decision-making. Along with the dataset, we propose a new, rigorous framework, including a sample experimental design, to measure the potential biases present when making treatment decisions. We demonstrate its use by assessing two reference Question-Answering systems, GPT-2 and GPT-3, and find statistically significant differences in treatment between intersectional race-gender subgroups, thus reaffirming the risks posed by AI in medical settings, and the need for datasets like ours to ensure safety before medical AI applications are deployed.

Visual Question Answering (VQA) is a complicated task that requires the capability of simultaneously processing natural language and images. Initially, this task was researched, focusing on methods to help machines understand objects and scene contexts in images. However, some text appearing in the image that carries explicit information about the full content of the image is not mentioned. Along with the continuous development of the AI era, there have been many studies on the reading comprehension ability of VQA models in the world. As a developing country, conditions are still limited, and this task is still open in Vietnam. Therefore, we introduce the first large-scale dataset in Vietnamese specializing in the ability to understand text appearing in images, we call it ViTextVQA (Vietnamese Text-based Visual Question Answering dataset) which contains over 16,000 images and over 50,000 questions with answers. Through meticulous experiments with various state-of-the-art models, we uncover the significance of the order in which tokens in OCR text are processed and selected to formulate answers. This finding helped us significantly improve the performance of the baseline models on the ViTextVQA dataset. Our dataset is available at this https://github.com/minhquan6203/ViTextVQA-Dataset{link} for research purposes.

Humans seek information regarding a specific topic through performing a conversation containing a series of questions and answers. In the pursuit of conversational question answering research, we introduce the PCoQA, the first Persian Conversational Question Answering dataset, a resource comprising information-seeking dialogs encompassing a total of 9,026 contextually-driven questions. Each dialog involves a questioner, a responder, and a document from the Wikipedia; The questioner asks several inter-connected questions from the text and the responder provides a span of the document as the answer for each question. PCoQA is designed to present novel challenges compared to previous question answering datasets including having more open-ended non-factual answers, longer answers, and fewer lexical overlaps. This paper not only presents the comprehensive PCoQA dataset but also reports the performance of various benchmark models. Our models include baseline models and pre-trained models, which are leveraged to boost the performance of the model. The dataset and benchmarks are available at our Github page.

Large language models (LLMs) have shown impressive results while requiring little or no direct supervision. Further, there is mounting evidence that LLMs may have potential in information-seeking scenarios. We believe the ability of an LLM to attribute the text that it generates is likely to be crucial in this setting. We formulate and study Attributed QA as a key first step in the development of attributed LLMs. We propose a reproducible evaluation framework for the task and benchmark a broad set of architectures. We take human annotations as a gold standard and show that a correlated automatic metric is suitable for development. Our experimental work gives concrete answers to two key questions (How to measure attribution?, and How well do current state-of-the-art methods perform on attribution?), and give some hints as to how to address a third (How to build LLMs with attribution?).

We present Q-ViD, a simple approach for video question answering (video QA), that unlike prior methods, which are based on complex architectures, computationally expensive pipelines or use closed models like GPTs, Q-ViD relies on a single instruction-aware open vision-language model (InstructBLIP) to tackle videoQA using frame descriptions. Specifically, we create captioning instruction prompts that rely on the target questions about the videos and leverage InstructBLIP to obtain video frame captions that are useful to the task at hand. Subsequently, we form descriptions of the whole video using the question-dependent frame captions, and feed that information, along with a question-answering prompt, to a large language model (LLM). The LLM is our reasoning module, and performs the final step of multiple-choice QA. Our simple Q-ViD framework achieves competitive or even higher performances than current state of the art models on a diverse range of videoQA benchmarks, including NExT-QA, STAR, How2QA, TVQA and IntentQA.

Question answering plays a pivotal role in human daily life because it involves our acquisition of knowledge about the world. However, due to the dynamic and ever-changing nature of real-world facts, the answer can be completely different when the time constraint in the question changes. Recently, Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable intelligence in question answering, while our experiments reveal that the aforementioned problems still pose a significant challenge to existing LLMs. This can be attributed to the LLMs' inability to perform rigorous reasoning based on surface-level text semantics. To overcome this limitation, rather than requiring LLMs to directly answer the question, we propose a novel approach where we reframe the Question Answering task as Programming (QAaP). Concretely, by leveraging modern LLMs' superior capability in understanding both natural language and programming language, we endeavor to harness LLMs to represent diversely expressed text as well-structured code and select the best matching answer from multiple candidates through programming. We evaluate our QAaP framework on several time-sensitive question answering datasets and achieve decent improvement, up to 14.5% over strong baselines. Our codes and data are available at https://github.com/TianHongZXY/qaap

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable performances on a wide range of natural language understanding and generation tasks. We observe that the LLMs provide effective priors in exploiting linguistic shortcuts for temporal and causal reasoning in Video Question Answering (VideoQA). However, such priors often cause suboptimal results on VideoQA by leading the model to over-rely on questions, i.e., linguistic bias, while ignoring visual content. This is also known as `ungrounded guesses' or `hallucinations'. To address this problem while leveraging LLMs' prior on VideoQA, we propose a novel framework, Flipped-VQA, encouraging the model to predict all the combinations of langleV, Q, Arangle triplet by flipping the source pair and the target label to understand their complex relationships, i.e., predict A, Q, and V given a VQ, VA, and QA pairs, respectively. In this paper, we develop LLaMA-VQA by applying Flipped-VQA to LLaMA, and it outperforms both LLMs-based and non-LLMs-based models on five challenging VideoQA benchmarks. Furthermore, our Flipped-VQA is a general framework that is applicable to various LLMs (OPT and GPT-J) and consistently improves their performances. We empirically demonstrate that Flipped-VQA not only enhances the exploitation of linguistic shortcuts but also mitigates the linguistic bias, which causes incorrect answers over-relying on the question. Code is available at https://github.com/mlvlab/Flipped-VQA.

Mainframe operating systems, despite their inception in the 1940s, continue to support critical sectors like finance and government. However, these systems are often viewed as outdated, requiring extensive maintenance and modernization. Addressing this challenge necessitates innovative tools that can understand and interact with legacy codebases. To this end, we introduce XMainframe, a state-of-the-art large language model (LLM) specifically designed with knowledge of mainframe legacy systems and COBOL codebases. Our solution involves the creation of an extensive data collection pipeline to produce high-quality training datasets, enhancing XMainframe's performance in this specialized domain. Additionally, we present MainframeBench, a comprehensive benchmark for assessing mainframe knowledge, including multiple-choice questions, question answering, and COBOL code summarization. Our empirical evaluations demonstrate that XMainframe consistently outperforms existing state-of-the-art LLMs across these tasks. Specifically, XMainframe achieves 30% higher accuracy than DeepSeek-Coder on multiple-choice questions, doubles the BLEU score of Mixtral-Instruct 8x7B on question answering, and scores six times higher than GPT-3.5 on COBOL summarization. Our work highlights the potential of XMainframe to drive significant advancements in managing and modernizing legacy systems, thereby enhancing productivity and saving time for software developers.

Medical image analysis is essential to clinical diagnosis and treatment, which is increasingly supported by multi-modal large language models (MLLMs). However, previous research has primarily focused on 2D medical images, leaving 3D images under-explored, despite their richer spatial information. This paper aims to advance 3D medical image analysis with MLLMs. To this end, we present a large-scale 3D multi-modal medical dataset, M3D-Data, comprising 120K image-text pairs and 662K instruction-response pairs specifically tailored for various 3D medical tasks, such as image-text retrieval, report generation, visual question answering, positioning, and segmentation. Additionally, we propose M3D-LaMed, a versatile multi-modal large language model for 3D medical image analysis. Furthermore, we introduce a new 3D multi-modal medical benchmark, M3D-Bench, which facilitates automatic evaluation across eight tasks. Through comprehensive evaluation, our method proves to be a robust model for 3D medical image analysis, outperforming existing solutions. All code, data, and models are publicly available at: https://github.com/BAAI-DCAI/M3D.

In this report, we introduce Vintern-1B, a reliable 1-billion-parameters multimodal large language model (MLLM) for Vietnamese language tasks. By integrating the Qwen2-0.5B-Instruct language model with the InternViT-300M-448px visual model, Vintern-1B is optimized for a range of applications, including optical character recognition (OCR), document extraction, and general question-answering in Vietnamese context. The model is fine-tuned on an extensive dataset of over 3 million image-question-answer pairs, achieving robust performance and reliable results across multiple Vietnamese language benchmarks like OpenViVQA and ViTextVQA. Vintern-1B is small enough to fit into various on-device applications easily. Additionally, we have open-sourced several Vietnamese vision question answering (VQA) datasets for text and diagrams, created with Gemini 1.5 Flash. Our models are available at: https://huggingface.co/5CD-AI/Vintern-1B-v2.

We publicly release a new large-scale dataset, called SearchQA, for machine comprehension, or question-answering. Unlike recently released datasets, such as DeepMind CNN/DailyMail and SQuAD, the proposed SearchQA was constructed to reflect a full pipeline of general question-answering. That is, we start not from an existing article and generate a question-answer pair, but start from an existing question-answer pair, crawled from J! Archive, and augment it with text snippets retrieved by Google. Following this approach, we built SearchQA, which consists of more than 140k question-answer pairs with each pair having 49.6 snippets on average. Each question-answer-context tuple of the SearchQA comes with additional meta-data such as the snippet's URL, which we believe will be valuable resources for future research. We conduct human evaluation as well as test two baseline methods, one simple word selection and the other deep learning based, on the SearchQA. We show that there is a meaningful gap between the human and machine performances. This suggests that the proposed dataset could well serve as a benchmark for question-answering.

Language models (LMs) can perform complex reasoning either end-to-end, with hidden latent state, or compositionally, with transparent intermediate state. Composition offers benefits for interpretability and safety, but may need workflow support and infrastructure to remain competitive. We describe iterated decomposition, a human-in-the-loop workflow for developing and refining compositional LM programs. We improve the performance of compositions by zooming in on failing components and refining them through decomposition, additional context, chain of thought, etc. To support this workflow, we develop ICE, an open-source tool for visualizing the execution traces of LM programs. We apply iterated decomposition to three real-world tasks and improve the accuracy of LM programs over less compositional baselines: describing the placebo used in a randomized controlled trial (25% to 65%), evaluating participant adherence to a medical intervention (53% to 70%), and answering NLP questions on the Qasper dataset (38% to 69%). These applications serve as case studies for a workflow that, if automated, could keep ML systems interpretable and safe even as they scale to increasingly complex tasks.

Hybrid data combining both tabular and textual content (e.g., financial reports) are quite pervasive in the real world. However, Question Answering (QA) over such hybrid data is largely neglected in existing research. In this work, we extract samples from real financial reports to build a new large-scale QA dataset containing both Tabular And Textual data, named TAT-QA, where numerical reasoning is usually required to infer the answer, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, counting, comparison/sorting, and the compositions. We further propose a novel QA model termed TAGOP, which is capable of reasoning over both tables and text. It adopts sequence tagging to extract relevant cells from the table along with relevant spans from the text to infer their semantics, and then applies symbolic reasoning over them with a set of aggregation operators to arrive at the final answer. TAGOPachieves 58.0% inF1, which is an 11.1% absolute increase over the previous best baseline model, according to our experiments on TAT-QA. But this result still lags far behind performance of expert human, i.e.90.8% in F1. It is demonstrated that our TAT-QA is very challenging and can serve as a benchmark for training and testing powerful QA models that address hybrid form data.

When immigrating to a new country, it is easy to feel overwhelmed by the need to obtain information on financial support, housing, schooling, language courses, and other issues. If relocation is rushed or even forced, the necessity for high-quality answers to such questions is all the more urgent. Official immigration counselors are usually overbooked, and online systems could guide newcomers to the requested information or a suitable counseling service. To this end, we present OMoS-QA, a dataset of German and English questions paired with relevant trustworthy documents and manually annotated answers, specifically tailored to this scenario. Questions are automatically generated with an open-source large language model (LLM) and answer sentences are selected by crowd workers with high agreement. With our data, we conduct a comparison of 5 pretrained LLMs on the task of extractive question answering (QA) in German and English. Across all models and both languages, we find high precision and low-to-mid recall in selecting answer sentences, which is a favorable trade-off to avoid misleading users. This performance even holds up when the question language does not match the document language. When it comes to identifying unanswerable questions given a context, there are larger differences between the two languages.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) plays a crucial role in digitizing historical and multilingual documents, yet OCR errors -- imperfect extraction of the text, including character insertion, deletion and permutation -- can significantly impact downstream tasks like question-answering (QA). In this work, we introduce a multilingual QA dataset MultiOCR-QA, designed to analyze the effects of OCR noise on QA systems' performance. The MultiOCR-QA dataset comprises 60K question-answer pairs covering three languages, English, French, and German. The dataset is curated from OCR-ed old documents, allowing for the evaluation of OCR-induced challenges on question answering. We evaluate MultiOCR-QA on various levels and types of OCR errors to access the robustness of LLMs in handling real-world digitization errors. Our findings show that QA systems are highly prone to OCR induced errors and exhibit performance degradation on noisy OCR text.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable zero-shot and few-shot capabilities in unseen tasks, including context-grounded question answering (QA) in English. However, the evaluation of LLMs' capabilities in non-English languages for context-based QA is limited by the scarcity of benchmarks in non-English languages. To address this gap, we introduce Indic-QA, the largest publicly available context-grounded question-answering dataset for 11 major Indian languages from two language families. The dataset comprises both extractive and abstractive question-answering tasks and includes existing datasets as well as English QA datasets translated into Indian languages. Additionally, we generate a synthetic dataset using the Gemini model to create question-answer pairs given a passage, which is then manually verified for quality assurance. We evaluate various multilingual Large Language Models and their instruction-fine-tuned variants on the benchmark and observe that their performance is subpar, particularly for low-resource languages. We hope that the release of this dataset will stimulate further research on the question-answering abilities of LLMs for low-resource languages.

Recent advancements in large language model(LLM) performance on medical multiple choice question (MCQ) benchmarks have stimulated interest from healthcare providers and patients globally. Particularly in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) facing acute physician shortages and lack of specialists, LLMs offer a potentially scalable pathway to enhance healthcare access and reduce costs. However, their effectiveness in the Global South, especially across the African continent, remains to be established. In this work, we introduce AfriMed-QA, the first large scale Pan-African English multi-specialty medical Question-Answering (QA) dataset, 15,000 questions (open and closed-ended) sourced from over 60 medical schools across 16 countries, covering 32 medical specialties. We further evaluate 30 LLMs across multiple axes including correctness and demographic bias. Our findings show significant performance variation across specialties and geographies, MCQ performance clearly lags USMLE (MedQA). We find that biomedical LLMs underperform general models and smaller edge-friendly LLMs struggle to achieve a passing score. Interestingly, human evaluations show a consistent consumer preference for LLM answers and explanations when compared with clinician answers.

This work presents a novel architecture for building Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) systems to improve Question Answering (QA) tasks from a target corpus. Large Language Models (LLMs) have revolutionized the analyzing and generation of human-like text. These models rely on pre-trained data and lack real-time updates unless integrated with live data tools. RAG enhances LLMs by integrating online resources and databases to generate contextually appropriate responses. However, traditional RAG still encounters challenges like information dilution and hallucinations when handling vast amounts of data. Our approach addresses these challenges by converting corpora into a domain-specific dataset and RAG architecture is constructed to generate responses from the target document. We introduce QuIM-RAG (Question-to-question Inverted Index Matching), a novel approach for the retrieval mechanism in our system. This strategy generates potential questions from document chunks and matches these with user queries to identify the most relevant text chunks for generating accurate answers. We have implemented our RAG system on top of the open-source Meta-LLaMA3-8B-instruct model by Meta Inc. that is available on Hugging Face. We constructed a custom corpus of 500+ pages from a high-traffic website accessed thousands of times daily for answering complex questions, along with manually prepared ground truth QA for evaluation. We compared our approach with traditional RAG models using BERT-Score and RAGAS, state-of-the-art metrics for evaluating LLM applications. Our evaluation demonstrates that our approach outperforms traditional RAG architectures on both metrics.

Question answering (QA) can only make progress if we know if an answer is correct, but for many of the most challenging and interesting QA examples, current evaluation metrics to determine answer equivalence (AE) often do not align with human judgments, particularly more verbose, free-form answers from large language models (LLM). There are two challenges: a lack of data and that models are too big: LLM-based scorers can correlate better with human judges, but this task has only been tested on limited QA datasets, and even when available, update of the model is limited because LLMs are large and often expensive. We rectify both of these issues by providing clear and consistent guidelines for evaluating AE in machine QA adopted from professional human QA contests. We also introduce a combination of standard evaluation and a more efficient, robust, and lightweight discriminate AE classifier-based matching method (CFMatch, smaller than 1 MB), trained and validated to more accurately evaluate answer correctness in accordance with adopted expert AE rules that are more aligned with human judgments.

Question answering (QA) and Machine Reading Comprehension (MRC) tasks have significantly advanced in recent years due to the rapid development of deep learning techniques and, more recently, large language models. At the same time, many benchmark datasets have become available for QA and MRC tasks. However, most existing large-scale benchmark datasets have been created predominantly using synchronous document collections like Wikipedia or the Web. Archival document collections, such as historical newspapers, contain valuable information from the past that is still not widely used to train large language models. To further contribute to advancing QA and MRC tasks and to overcome the limitation of previous datasets, we introduce ChroniclingAmericaQA, a large-scale dataset with 485K question-answer pairs created based on the historical newspaper collection Chronicling America. Our dataset is constructed from a subset of the Chronicling America newspaper collection spanning 120 years. One of the significant challenges for utilizing digitized historical newspaper collections is the low quality of OCR text. Therefore, to enable realistic testing of QA models, our dataset can be used in three different ways: answering questions from raw and noisy content, answering questions from cleaner, corrected version of the content, as well as answering questions from scanned images of newspaper pages. This and the fact that ChroniclingAmericaQA spans the longest time period among available QA datasets make it quite a unique and useful resource.

Question answering (QA) has become an important application in the advanced development of large language models. General pre-trained large language models for question-answering are not trained to properly understand the knowledge or terminology for a specific domain, such as finance, healthcare, education, and customer service for a product. To better cater to domain-specific understanding, we build an in-house question-answering system for Adobe products. We propose a novel framework to compile a large question-answer database and develop the approach for retrieval-aware finetuning of a Large Language model. We showcase that fine-tuning the retriever leads to major improvements in the final generation. Our overall approach reduces hallucinations during generation while keeping in context the latest retrieval information for contextual grounding.

Question answering (QA) can only make progress if we know if an answer is correct, but for many of the most challenging and interesting QA examples, current answer correctness (AC) metrics do not align with human judgments, particularly verbose, free form answers from large language models (LLM). There are two challenges: a lack of data and that models are too big. LLM based scorers correlate better with humans, but this expensive task has only been tested on limited QA datasets. We rectify these issues by providing clear guidelines for evaluating machine QA adopted from human QA contests. We also introduce Precise ANswer correctness Determination and Adjudication (PANDA), a small, efficient, deterministic AC classifier (812 KB) that more accurately evaluates answer correctness.

Question answering (QA) has significantly benefitted from deep learning techniques in recent years. However, domain-specific QA remains a challenge due to the significant amount of data required to train a neural network. This paper studies the answer sentence selection task in the Bible domain and answer questions by selecting relevant verses from the Bible. For this purpose, we create a new dataset BibleQA based on bible trivia questions and propose three neural network models for our task. We pre-train our models on a large-scale QA dataset, SQuAD, and investigate the effect of transferring weights on model accuracy. Furthermore, we also measure the model accuracies with different answer context lengths and different Bible translations. We affirm that transfer learning has a noticeable improvement in the model accuracy. We achieve relatively good results with shorter context lengths, whereas longer context lengths decreased model accuracy. We also find that using a more modern Bible translation in the dataset has a positive effect on the task.

Question Answering (QA) in NLP is the task of finding answers to a query within a relevant context retrieved by a retrieval system. Yet, the mix of relevant and irrelevant information in these contexts can hinder performance enhancements in QA tasks. To address this, we introduce a context filtering approach that removes non-essential details, summarizing crucial content through Reward Modeling. This method emphasizes keeping vital data while omitting the extraneous during summarization model training. We offer a framework for developing efficient QA models by discerning useful information from dataset pairs, bypassing the need for costly human evaluation. Furthermore, we show that our approach can significantly outperform the baseline, as evidenced by a 6.8-fold increase in the EM Per Token (EPT) metric, which we propose as a measure of token efficiency, indicating a notable token-efficiency boost for low-resource settings.

Question Answering (QA) has proved to be an arduous challenge in the area of natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence (AI). Many attempts have been made to develop complete solutions for QA as well as improving significant sub-modules of the QA systems to improve the overall performance through the course of time. Questions are the most important piece of QA, because knowing the question is equivalent to knowing what counts as an answer (Harrah in Philos Sci, 1961 [1]). In this work, we have attempted to understand questions in a better way by using Quantum Machine Learning (QML). The properties of Quantum Computing (QC) have enabled classically intractable data processing. So, in this paper, we have performed question classification on questions from two classes of SelQA (Selection-based Question Answering) dataset using quantum-based classifier algorithms-quantum support vector machine (QSVM) and variational quantum classifier (VQC) from Qiskit (Quantum Information Science toolKIT) for Python. We perform classification with both classifiers in almost similar environments and study the effects of circuit depths while comparing the results of both classifiers. We also use these classification results with our own rule-based QA system and observe significant performance improvement. Hence, this experiment has helped in improving the quality of QA in general.

Question Answering (QA) returns concise answers or answer lists from natural language text given a context document. Many resources go into curating QA datasets to advance robust models' development. There is a surge of QA datasets for languages like English, however, this is not true for Amharic. Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia, is the second most spoken Semitic language in the world. There is no published or publicly available Amharic QA dataset. Hence, to foster the research in Amharic QA, we present the first Amharic QA (AmQA) dataset. We crowdsourced 2628 question-answer pairs over 378 Wikipedia articles. Additionally, we run an XLMR Large-based baseline model to spark open-domain QA research interest. The best-performing baseline achieves an F-score of 69.58 and 71.74 in reader-retriever QA and reading comprehension settings respectively.

Question answering (QA) models often rely on large-scale training datasets, which necessitates the development of a data generation framework to reduce the cost of manual annotations. Although several recent studies have aimed to generate synthetic questions with single-span answers, no study has been conducted on the creation of list questions with multiple, non-contiguous spans as answers. To address this gap, we propose LIQUID, an automated framework for generating list QA datasets from unlabeled corpora. We first convert a passage from Wikipedia or PubMed into a summary and extract named entities from the summarized text as candidate answers. This allows us to select answers that are semantically correlated in context and is, therefore, suitable for constructing list questions. We then create questions using an off-the-shelf question generator with the extracted entities and original passage. Finally, iterative filtering and answer expansion are performed to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the answers. Using our synthetic data, we significantly improve the performance of the previous best list QA models by exact-match F1 scores of 5.0 on MultiSpanQA, 1.9 on Quoref, and 2.8 averaged across three BioASQ benchmarks.

Question Answering (QA) systems are increasingly deployed in applications where they support real-world decisions. However, state-of-the-art models rely on deep neural networks, which are difficult to interpret by humans. Inherently interpretable models or post hoc explainability methods can help users to comprehend how a model arrives at its prediction and, if successful, increase their trust in the system. Furthermore, researchers can leverage these insights to develop new methods that are more accurate and less biased. In this paper, we introduce SQuARE v2, the new version of SQuARE, to provide an explainability infrastructure for comparing models based on methods such as saliency maps and graph-based explanations. While saliency maps are useful to inspect the importance of each input token for the model's prediction, graph-based explanations from external Knowledge Graphs enable the users to verify the reasoning behind the model prediction. In addition, we provide multiple adversarial attacks to compare the robustness of QA models. With these explainability methods and adversarial attacks, we aim to ease the research on trustworthy QA models. SQuARE is available on https://square.ukp-lab.de.

Question answering (QA) systems have gained explosive attention in recent years. However, QA tasks in Vietnamese do not have many datasets. Significantly, there is mostly no dataset in the medical domain. Therefore, we built a Vietnamese Healthcare Question Answering dataset (ViHealthQA), including 10,015 question-answer passage pairs for this task, in which questions from health-interested users were asked on prestigious health websites and answers from highly qualified experts. This paper proposes a two-stage QA system based on Sentence-BERT (SBERT) using multiple negatives ranking (MNR) loss combined with BM25. Then, we conduct diverse experiments with many bag-of-words models to assess our system's performance. With the obtained results, this system achieves better performance than traditional methods.

The need for Question Answering datasets in low resource languages is the motivation of this research, leading to the development of Kencorpus Swahili Question Answering Dataset, KenSwQuAD. This dataset is annotated from raw story texts of Swahili low resource language, which is a predominantly spoken in Eastern African and in other parts of the world. Question Answering (QA) datasets are important for machine comprehension of natural language for tasks such as internet search and dialog systems. Machine learning systems need training data such as the gold standard Question Answering set developed in this research. The research engaged annotators to formulate QA pairs from Swahili texts collected by the Kencorpus project, a Kenyan languages corpus. The project annotated 1,445 texts from the total 2,585 texts with at least 5 QA pairs each, resulting into a final dataset of 7,526 QA pairs. A quality assurance set of 12.5% of the annotated texts confirmed that the QA pairs were all correctly annotated. A proof of concept on applying the set to the QA task confirmed that the dataset can be usable for such tasks. KenSwQuAD has also contributed to resourcing of the Swahili language.

Question Answering (QA) is a task in which a machine understands a given document and a question to find an answer. Despite impressive progress in the NLP area, QA is still a challenging problem, especially for non-English languages due to the lack of annotated datasets. In this paper, we present the Japanese Question Answering Dataset, JaQuAD, which is annotated by humans. JaQuAD consists of 39,696 extractive question-answer pairs on Japanese Wikipedia articles. We finetuned a baseline model which achieves 78.92% for F1 score and 63.38% for EM on test set. The dataset and our experiments are available at https://github.com/SkelterLabsInc/JaQuAD.

Question answering (QA) tasks have been posed using a variety of formats, such as extractive span selection, multiple choice, etc. This has led to format-specialized models, and even to an implicit division in the QA community. We argue that such boundaries are artificial and perhaps unnecessary, given the reasoning abilities we seek to teach are not governed by the format. As evidence, we use the latest advances in language modeling to build a single pre-trained QA model, UnifiedQA, that performs surprisingly well across 17 QA datasets spanning 4 diverse formats. UnifiedQA performs on par with 9 different models that were trained on individual datasets themselves. Even when faced with 12 unseen datasets of observed formats, UnifiedQA performs surprisingly well, showing strong generalization from its out-of-format training data. Finally, simply fine-tuning this pre-trained QA model into specialized models results in a new state of the art on 6 datasets, establishing UnifiedQA as a strong starting point for building QA systems.

Question answering (QA) models have shown rapid progress enabled by the availability of large, high-quality benchmark datasets. Such annotated datasets are difficult and costly to collect, and rarely exist in languages other than English, making training QA systems in other languages challenging. An alternative to building large monolingual training datasets is to develop cross-lingual systems which can transfer to a target language without requiring training data in that language. In order to develop such systems, it is crucial to invest in high quality multilingual evaluation benchmarks to measure progress. We present MLQA, a multi-way aligned extractive QA evaluation benchmark intended to spur research in this area. MLQA contains QA instances in 7 languages, namely English, Arabic, German, Spanish, Hindi, Vietnamese and Simplified Chinese. It consists of over 12K QA instances in English and 5K in each other language, with each QA instance being parallel between 4 languages on average. MLQA is built using a novel alignment context strategy on Wikipedia articles, and serves as a cross-lingual extension to existing extractive QA datasets. We evaluate current state-of-the-art cross-lingual representations on MLQA, and also provide machine-translation-based baselines. In all cases, transfer results are shown to be significantly behind training-language performance.

Factual questions typically can be answered correctly at different levels of granularity. For example, both ``August 4, 1961'' and ``1961'' are correct answers to the question ``When was Barack Obama born?''. Standard question answering (QA) evaluation protocols, however, do not explicitly take this into account and compare a predicted answer against answers of a single granularity level. In this work, we propose GRANOLA QA, a novel evaluation setting where a predicted answer is evaluated in terms of accuracy and informativeness against a set of multi-granularity answers. We present a simple methodology for enriching existing datasets with multi-granularity answers, and create GRANOLA-EQ, a multi-granularity version of the EntityQuestions dataset. We evaluate a range of decoding methods on GRANOLA-EQ, including a new algorithm, called Decoding with Response Aggregation (DRAG), that is geared towards aligning the response granularity with the model's uncertainty. Our experiments show that large language models with standard decoding tend to generate specific answers, which are often incorrect. In contrast, when evaluated on multi-granularity answers, DRAG yields a nearly 20 point increase in accuracy on average, which further increases for rare entities. Overall, this reveals that standard evaluation and decoding schemes may significantly underestimate the knowledge encapsulated in LMs.

Existing question answering (QA) datasets fail to train QA systems to perform complex reasoning and provide explanations for answers. We introduce HotpotQA, a new dataset with 113k Wikipedia-based question-answer pairs with four key features: (1) the questions require finding and reasoning over multiple supporting documents to answer; (2) the questions are diverse and not constrained to any pre-existing knowledge bases or knowledge schemas; (3) we provide sentence-level supporting facts required for reasoning, allowing QA systems to reason with strong supervision and explain the predictions; (4) we offer a new type of factoid comparison questions to test QA systems' ability to extract relevant facts and perform necessary comparison. We show that HotpotQA is challenging for the latest QA systems, and the supporting facts enable models to improve performance and make explainable predictions.

Document Question Answering (QA) presents a challenge in understanding visually-rich documents (VRD), particularly those dominated by lengthy textual content like research journal articles. Existing studies primarily focus on real-world documents with sparse text, while challenges persist in comprehending the hierarchical semantic relations among multiple pages to locate multimodal components. To address this gap, we propose PDF-MVQA, which is tailored for research journal articles, encompassing multiple pages and multimodal information retrieval. Unlike traditional machine reading comprehension (MRC) tasks, our approach aims to retrieve entire paragraphs containing answers or visually rich document entities like tables and figures. Our contributions include the introduction of a comprehensive PDF Document VQA dataset, allowing the examination of semantically hierarchical layout structures in text-dominant documents. We also present new VRD-QA frameworks designed to grasp textual contents and relations among document layouts simultaneously, extending page-level understanding to the entire multi-page document. Through this work, we aim to enhance the capabilities of existing vision-and-language models in handling challenges posed by text-dominant documents in VRD-QA.

Commonsense question answering (QA) research requires machines to answer questions based on commonsense knowledge. However, this research requires expensive labor costs to annotate data as the basis of research, and models that rely on fine-tuning paradigms only apply to specific tasks, rather than learn a general commonsense reasoning ability. As a more robust method, zero-shot commonsense question answering shows a good prospect. The current zero-shot framework tries to convert triples in commonsense knowledge graphs (KGs) into QA-form samples as the pre-trained data source to incorporate commonsense knowledge into the model. However, this method ignores the multi-hop relationship in the KG, which is also an important central problem in commonsense reasoning. In this paper, we propose a novel multi-hop commonsense knowledge injection framework. Specifically, it explores multi-hop reasoning paradigm in KGs that conform to linguistic logic, and we further propose two multi-hop QA generation methods based on KGs. Then, we utilize contrastive learning to pre-train the model with the synthetic QA dataset to inject multi-hop commonsense knowledge. Extensive experiments on five commonsense question answering benchmarks demonstrate that our framework achieves state-of-art performance.

Clinical Question Answering (QA) systems enable doctors to quickly access patient information from electronic health records (EHRs). However, training these systems requires significant annotated data, which is limited due to the expertise needed and the privacy concerns associated with clinical data. This paper explores generating Clinical QA data using large language models (LLMs) in a zero-shot setting. We find that naive prompting often results in easy questions that do not reflect the complexity of clinical scenarios. To address this, we propose two prompting strategies: 1) instructing the model to generate questions that do not overlap with the input context, and 2) summarizing the input record using a predefined schema to scaffold question generation. Experiments on two Clinical QA datasets demonstrate that our method generates more challenging questions, significantly improving fine-tuning performance over baselines. We compare synthetic and gold data and find a gap between their training efficacy resulting from the quality of synthetically generated answers.

Existing question answering (QA) systems owe much of their success to large, high-quality training data. Such annotation efforts are costly, and the difficulty compounds in the cross-lingual setting. Therefore, prior cross-lingual QA work has focused on releasing evaluation datasets, and then applying zero-shot methods as baselines. This work proposes a synthetic data generation method for cross-lingual QA which leverages indirect supervision from existing parallel corpora. Our method termed PAXQA (Projecting annotations for cross-lingual (x) QA) decomposes cross-lingual QA into two stages. First, we apply a question generation (QG) model to the English side. Second, we apply annotation projection to translate both the questions and answers. To better translate questions, we propose a novel use of lexically-constrained machine translation, in which constrained entities are extracted from the parallel bitexts. We apply PAXQA to generate cross-lingual QA examples in 4 languages (662K examples total), and perform human evaluation on a subset to create validation and test splits. We then show that models fine-tuned on these datasets outperform prior synthetic data generation models over several extractive QA datasets. The largest performance gains are for directions with non-English questions and English contexts. Ablation studies show that our dataset generation method is relatively robust to noise from automatic word alignments, showing the sufficient quality of our generations. To facilitate follow-up work, we release our code and datasets at https://github.com/manestay/paxqa .

The aerospace industry relies on massive collections of complex and technical documents covering system descriptions, manuals or procedures. This paper presents a question answering (QA) system that would help aircraft pilots access information in this documentation by naturally interacting with the system and asking questions in natural language. After describing each module of the dialog system, we present a multi-task based approach for the QA module which enables performance improvement on a Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOM) dataset. A method to combine scores from the retriever and the QA modules is also presented.

Current evaluation benchmarks for question answering (QA) in Indic languages often rely on machine translation of existing English datasets. This approach suffers from bias and inaccuracies inherent in machine translation, leading to datasets that may not reflect the true capabilities of EQA models for Indic languages. This paper proposes a new benchmark specifically designed for evaluating Hindi EQA models and discusses the methodology to do the same for any task. This method leverages large language models (LLMs) to generate a high-quality dataset in an extractive setting, ensuring its relevance for the target language. We believe this new resource will foster advancements in Hindi NLP research by providing a more accurate and reliable evaluation tool.

Open-domain question answering (QA) is known to involve several underlying knowledge and reasoning challenges, but are models actually learning such knowledge when trained on benchmark tasks? To investigate this, we introduce several new challenge tasks that probe whether state-of-the-art QA models have general knowledge about word definitions and general taxonomic reasoning, both of which are fundamental to more complex forms of reasoning and are widespread in benchmark datasets. As an alternative to expensive crowd-sourcing, we introduce a methodology for automatically building datasets from various types of expert knowledge (e.g., knowledge graphs and lexical taxonomies), allowing for systematic control over the resulting probes and for a more comprehensive evaluation. We find automatically constructing probes to be vulnerable to annotation artifacts, which we carefully control for. Our evaluation confirms that transformer-based QA models are already predisposed to recognize certain types of structural lexical knowledge. However, it also reveals a more nuanced picture: their performance degrades substantially with even a slight increase in the number of hops in the underlying taxonomic hierarchy, or as more challenging distractor candidate answers are introduced. Further, even when these models succeed at the standard instance-level evaluation, they leave much room for improvement when assessed at the level of clusters of semantically connected probes (e.g., all Isa questions about a concept).

Multi-hop Question Answering (QA) necessitates complex reasoning by integrating multiple pieces of information to resolve intricate questions. However, existing QA systems encounter challenges such as outdated information, context window length limitations, and an accuracy-quantity trade-off. To address these issues, we propose a novel framework, the Hierarchical Retrieval-Augmented Generation Model with Rethink (HiRAG), comprising Decomposer, Definer, Retriever, Filter, and Summarizer five key modules. We introduce a new hierarchical retrieval strategy that incorporates both sparse retrieval at the document level and dense retrieval at the chunk level, effectively integrating their strengths. Additionally, we propose a single-candidate retrieval method to mitigate the limitations of multi-candidate retrieval. We also construct two new corpora, Indexed Wikicorpus and Profile Wikicorpus, to address the issues of outdated and insufficient knowledge. Our experimental results on four datasets demonstrate that HiRAG outperforms state-of-the-art models across most metrics, and our Indexed Wikicorpus is effective. The code for HiRAG is available at https://github.com/2282588541a/HiRAG

Existing open-domain question answering (QA) models are not suitable for real-time usage because they need to process several long documents on-demand for every input query. In this paper, we introduce the query-agnostic indexable representation of document phrases that can drastically speed up open-domain QA and also allows us to reach long-tail targets. In particular, our dense-sparse phrase encoding effectively captures syntactic, semantic, and lexical information of the phrases and eliminates the pipeline filtering of context documents. Leveraging optimization strategies, our model can be trained in a single 4-GPU server and serve entire Wikipedia (up to 60 billion phrases) under 2TB with CPUs only. Our experiments on SQuAD-Open show that our model is more accurate than DrQA (Chen et al., 2017) with 6000x reduced computational cost, which translates into at least 58x faster end-to-end inference benchmark on CPUs.

Open-domain question answering (QA) tasks usually require the retrieval of relevant information from a large corpus to generate accurate answers. We propose a novel approach called Generator-Retriever-Generator (GRG) that combines document retrieval techniques with a large language model (LLM), by first prompting the model to generate contextual documents based on a given question. In parallel, a dual-encoder network retrieves documents that are relevant to the question from an external corpus. The generated and retrieved documents are then passed to the second LLM, which generates the final answer. By combining document retrieval and LLM generation, our approach addresses the challenges of open-domain QA, such as generating informative and contextually relevant answers. GRG outperforms the state-of-the-art generate-then-read and retrieve-then-read pipelines (GENREAD and RFiD) improving their performance by at least by +5.2, +4.2, and +1.6 on TriviaQA, NQ, and WebQ datasets, respectively. We provide code, datasets, and checkpoints at https://github.com/abdoelsayed2016/GRG.

Information seeking users often pose questions with false presuppositions, especially when asking about unfamiliar topics. Most existing question answering (QA) datasets, in contrast, assume all questions have well defined answers. We introduce CREPE, a QA dataset containing a natural distribution of presupposition failures from online information-seeking forums. We find that 25% of questions contain false presuppositions, and provide annotations for these presuppositions and their corrections. Through extensive baseline experiments, we show that adaptations of existing open-domain QA models can find presuppositions moderately well, but struggle when predicting whether a presupposition is factually correct. This is in large part due to difficulty in retrieving relevant evidence passages from a large text corpus. CREPE provides a benchmark to study question answering in the wild, and our analyses provide avenues for future work in better modeling and further studying the task.

The problem of Question Answering (QA) has attracted significant research interest for long. Its relevance to language understanding and knowledge retrieval tasks, along with the simple setting makes the task of QA crucial for strong AI systems. Recent success on simple QA tasks has shifted the focus to more complex settings. Among these, Multi-Hop QA (MHQA) is one of the most researched tasks over the recent years. The ability to answer multi-hop questions and perform multi step reasoning can significantly improve the utility of NLP systems. Consequently, the field has seen a sudden surge with high quality datasets, models and evaluation strategies. The notion of `multiple hops' is somewhat abstract which results in a large variety of tasks that require multi-hop reasoning. This implies that different datasets and models differ significantly which makes the field challenging to generalize and survey. This work aims to provide a general and formal definition of MHQA task, and organize and summarize existing MHQA frameworks. We also outline the best methods to create MHQA datasets. The paper provides a systematic and thorough introduction as well as the structuring of the existing attempts to this highly interesting, yet quite challenging task.

Multi-hop Question Answering (QA) requires the machine to answer complex questions by finding scattering clues and reasoning from multiple documents. Graph Network (GN) and Question Decomposition (QD) are two common approaches at present. The former uses the "black-box" reasoning process to capture the potential relationship between entities and sentences, thus achieving good performance. At the same time, the latter provides a clear reasoning logical route by decomposing multi-hop questions into simple single-hop sub-questions. In this paper, we propose a novel method to complete multi-hop QA from the perspective of Question Generation (QG). Specifically, we carefully design an end-to-end QG module on the basis of a classical QA module, which could help the model understand the context by asking inherently logical sub-questions, thus inheriting interpretability from the QD-based method and showing superior performance. Experiments on the HotpotQA dataset demonstrate that the effectiveness of our proposed QG module, human evaluation further clarifies its interpretability quantitatively, and thorough analysis shows that the QG module could generate better sub-questions than QD methods in terms of fluency, consistency, and diversity.

The predictions of question answering (QA)systems are typically evaluated against manually annotated finite sets of one or more answers. This leads to a coverage limitation that results in underestimating the true performance of systems, and is typically addressed by extending over exact match (EM) with pre-defined rules or with the token-level F1 measure. In this paper, we present the first systematic conceptual and data-driven analysis to examine the shortcomings of token-level equivalence measures. To this end, we define the asymmetric notion of answer equivalence (AE), accepting answers that are equivalent to or improve over the reference, and publish over 23k human judgments for candidates produced by multiple QA systems on SQuAD. Through a careful analysis of this data, we reveal and quantify several concrete limitations of the F1 measure, such as a false impression of graduality, or missing dependence on the question. Since collecting AE annotations for each evaluated model is expensive, we learn a BERT matching (BEM) measure to approximate this task. Being a simpler task than QA, we find BEM to provide significantly better AE approximations than F1, and to more accurately reflect the performance of systems. Finally, we demonstrate the practical utility of AE and BEM on the concrete application of minimal accurate prediction sets, reducing the number of required answers by up to x2.6.

The goal of question answering (QA) is to answer any question. However, major QA datasets have skewed distributions over gender, profession, and nationality. Despite that skew, model accuracy analysis reveals little evidence that accuracy is lower for people based on gender or nationality; instead, there is more variation on professions (question topic). But QA's lack of representation could itself hide evidence of bias, necessitating QA datasets that better represent global diversity.

Open-domain question answering (QA) is the tasl of identifying answers to natural questions from a large corpus of documents. The typical open-domain QA system starts with information retrieval to select a subset of documents from the corpus, which are then processed by a machine reader to select the answer spans. This paper describes Mindstone, an open-domain QA system that consists of a new multi-stage pipeline that employs a traditional BM25-based information retriever, RM3-based neural relevance feedback, neural ranker, and a machine reading comprehension stage. This paper establishes a new baseline for end-to-end performance on question answering for Wikipedia/SQuAD dataset (EM=58.1, F1=65.8), with substantial gains over the previous state of the art (Yang et al., 2019b). We also show how the new pipeline enables the use of low-resolution labels, and can be easily tuned to meet various timing requirements.

State-of-the-art question answering (QA) models exhibit a variety of social biases (e.g., with respect to sex or race), generally explained by similar issues in their training data. However, what has been overlooked so far is that in the critical domain of biomedicine, any unjustified change in model output due to patient demographics is problematic: it results in the unfair treatment of patients. Selecting only questions on biomedical topics whose answers do not depend on ethnicity, sex, or sexual orientation, we ask the following research questions: (RQ1) Do the answers of QA models change when being provided with irrelevant demographic information? (RQ2) Does the answer of RQ1 differ between knowledge graph (KG)-grounded and text-based QA systems? We find that irrelevant demographic information change up to 15% of the answers of a KG-grounded system and up to 23% of the answers of a text-based system, including changes that affect accuracy. We conclude that unjustified answer changes caused by patient demographics are a frequent phenomenon, which raises fairness concerns and should be paid more attention to.

Recent advances in tabular question answering (QA) with large language models are constrained in their coverage and only answer questions over a single table. However, real-world queries are complex in nature, often over multiple tables in a relational database or web page. Single table questions do not involve common table operations such as set operations, Cartesian products (joins), or nested queries. Furthermore, multi-table operations often result in a tabular output, which necessitates table generation capabilities of tabular QA models. To fill this gap, we propose a new task of answering questions over multiple tables. Our model, MultiTabQA, not only answers questions over multiple tables, but also generalizes to generate tabular answers. To enable effective training, we build a pre-training dataset comprising of 132,645 SQL queries and tabular answers. Further, we evaluate the generated tables by introducing table-specific metrics of varying strictness assessing various levels of granularity of the table structure. MultiTabQA outperforms state-of-the-art single table QA models adapted to a multi-table QA setting by finetuning on three datasets: Spider, Atis and GeoQuery.

The continuous development of Question Answering (QA) datasets has drawn the research community's attention toward multi-domain models. A popular approach is to use multi-dataset models, which are models trained on multiple datasets to learn their regularities and prevent overfitting to a single dataset. However, with the proliferation of QA models in online repositories such as GitHub or Hugging Face, an alternative is becoming viable. Recent works have demonstrated that combining expert agents can yield large performance gains over multi-dataset models. To ease research in multi-agent models, we extend UKP-SQuARE, an online platform for QA research, to support three families of multi-agent systems: i) agent selection, ii) early-fusion of agents, and iii) late-fusion of agents. We conduct experiments to evaluate their inference speed and discuss the performance vs. speed trade-off compared to multi-dataset models. UKP-SQuARE is open-source and publicly available at http://square.ukp-lab.de.

The recent explosion of question answering (QA) datasets and models has increased the interest in the generalization of models across multiple domains and formats by either training on multiple datasets or by combining multiple models. Despite the promising results of multi-dataset models, some domains or QA formats may require specific architectures, and thus the adaptability of these models might be limited. In addition, current approaches for combining models disregard cues such as question-answer compatibility. In this work, we propose to combine expert agents with a novel, flexible, and training-efficient architecture that considers questions, answer predictions, and answer-prediction confidence scores to select the best answer among a list of answer candidates. Through quantitative and qualitative experiments we show that our model i) creates a collaboration between agents that outperforms previous multi-agent and multi-dataset approaches in both in-domain and out-of-domain scenarios, ii) is highly data-efficient to train, and iii) can be adapted to any QA format. We release our code and a dataset of answer predictions from expert agents for 16 QA datasets to foster future developments of multi-agent systems on https://github.com/UKPLab/MetaQA.

This paper presents stacked attention networks (SANs) that learn to answer natural language questions from images. SANs use semantic representation of a question as query to search for the regions in an image that are related to the answer. We argue that image question answering (QA) often requires multiple steps of reasoning. Thus, we develop a multiple-layer SAN in which we query an image multiple times to infer the answer progressively. Experiments conducted on four image QA data sets demonstrate that the proposed SANs significantly outperform previous state-of-the-art approaches. The visualization of the attention layers illustrates the progress that the SAN locates the relevant visual clues that lead to the answer of the question layer-by-layer.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have issues with document question answering (QA) in situations where the document is unable to fit in the small context length of an LLM. To overcome this issue, most existing works focus on retrieving the relevant context from the document, representing them as plain text. However, documents such as PDFs, web pages, and presentations are naturally structured with different pages, tables, sections, and so on. Representing such structured documents as plain text is incongruous with the user's mental model of these documents with rich structure. When a system has to query the document for context, this incongruity is brought to the fore, and seemingly trivial questions can trip up the QA system. To bridge this fundamental gap in handling structured documents, we propose an approach called PDFTriage that enables models to retrieve the context based on either structure or content. Our experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed PDFTriage-augmented models across several classes of questions where existing retrieval-augmented LLMs fail. To facilitate further research on this fundamental problem, we release our benchmark dataset consisting of 900+ human-generated questions over 80 structured documents from 10 different categories of question types for document QA.

Despite substantial progress in multilingual extractive Question Answering (QA), models with high and uniformly distributed performance across languages remain challenging, especially for languages with limited resources. We study cross-lingual transfer mainly focusing on the Generalized Cross-Lingual Transfer (G-XLT) task, where the question language differs from the context language - a challenge that has received limited attention thus far. Our approach seeks to enhance cross-lingual QA transfer using a high-performing multilingual model trained on a large-scale dataset, complemented by a few thousand aligned QA examples across languages. Our proposed strategy combines cross-lingual sampling and advanced self-distillation training in generations to tackle the previous challenge. Notably, we introduce the novel mAP@k coefficients to fine-tune self-knowledge distillation loss, dynamically regulating the teacher's model knowledge to perform a balanced and effective knowledge transfer. We extensively evaluate our approach to assess XLT and G-XLT capabilities in extractive QA. Results reveal that our self-knowledge distillation approach outperforms standard cross-entropy fine-tuning by a significant margin. Importantly, when compared to a strong baseline that leverages a sizeable volume of machine-translated data, our approach shows competitive results despite the considerable challenge of operating within resource-constrained settings, even in zero-shot scenarios. Beyond performance improvements, we offer valuable insights through comprehensive analyses and an ablation study, further substantiating the benefits and constraints of our approach. In essence, we propose a practical solution to improve cross-lingual QA transfer by leveraging a few data resources in an efficient way.

The first step of processing a question in Question Answering(QA) Systems is to carry out a detailed analysis of the question for the purpose of determining what it is asking for and how to perfectly approach answering it. Our Question analysis uses several techniques to analyze any question given in natural language: a Stanford POS Tagger & parser for Arabic language, a named entity recognizer, tokenizer,Stop-word removal, Question expansion, Question classification and Question focus extraction components. We employ numerous detection rules and trained classifier using features from this analysis to detect important elements of the question, including: 1) the portion of the question that is a referring to the answer (the focus); 2) different terms in the question that identify what type of entity is being asked for (the lexical answer types); 3) Question expansion ; 4) a process of classifying the question into one or more of several and different types; and We describe how these elements are identified and evaluate the effect of accurate detection on our question-answering system using the Mean Reciprocal Rank(MRR) accuracy measure.

Retrieval augmented generation (RAG) has become the standard in long context question answering (QA) systems. However, typical implementations of RAG rely on a rather naive retrieval mechanism, in which texts whose embeddings are most similar to that of the query are deemed most relevant. This has consequences in subjective QA tasks, where the most relevant text may not directly contain the answer. In this work, we propose a novel extension to RAG systems, which we call Retrieval from AI Derived Documents (RAIDD). RAIDD leverages the full power of the LLM in the retrieval process by deriving inferred features, such as summaries and example questions, from the documents at ingest. We demonstrate that this approach significantly improves the performance of RAG systems on long-context QA tasks.

Healthcare systems continuously generate vast amounts of electronic health records (EHRs), commonly stored in the Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard. Despite the wealth of information in these records, their complexity and volume make it difficult for users to retrieve and interpret crucial health insights. Recent advances in Large Language Models (LLMs) offer a solution, enabling semantic question answering (QA) over medical data, allowing users to interact with their health records more effectively. However, ensuring privacy and compliance requires edge and private deployments of LLMs. This paper proposes a novel approach to semantic QA over EHRs by first identifying the most relevant FHIR resources for a user query (Task1) and subsequently answering the query based on these resources (Task2). We explore the performance of privately hosted, fine-tuned LLMs, evaluating them against benchmark models such as GPT-4 and GPT-4o. Our results demonstrate that fine-tuned LLMs, while 250x smaller in size, outperform GPT-4 family models by 0.55% in F1 score on Task1 and 42% on Meteor Task in Task2. Additionally, we examine advanced aspects of LLM usage, including sequential fine-tuning, model self-evaluation (narcissistic evaluation), and the impact of training data size on performance. The models and datasets are available here: https://huggingface.co/genloop

There is increasing evidence that question-answering (QA) systems with Large Language Models (LLMs), which employ a knowledge graph/semantic representation of an enterprise SQL database (i.e. Text-to-SPARQL), achieve higher accuracy compared to systems that answer questions directly on SQL databases (i.e. Text-to-SQL). Our previous benchmark research showed that by using a knowledge graph, the accuracy improved from 16% to 54%. The question remains: how can we further improve the accuracy and reduce the error rate? Building on the observations of our previous research where the inaccurate LLM-generated SPARQL queries followed incorrect paths, we present an approach that consists of 1) Ontology-based Query Check (OBQC): detects errors by leveraging the ontology of the knowledge graph to check if the LLM-generated SPARQL query matches the semantic of ontology and 2) LLM Repair: use the error explanations with an LLM to repair the SPARQL query. Using the chat with the data benchmark, our primary finding is that our approach increases the overall accuracy to 72% including an additional 8% of "I don't know" unknown results. Thus, the overall error rate is 20%. These results provide further evidence that investing knowledge graphs, namely the ontology, provides higher accuracy for LLM powered question answering systems.

While exam-style questions are a fundamental educational tool serving a variety of purposes, manual construction of questions is a complex process that requires training, experience and resources. Automatic question generation (QG) techniques can be utilized to satisfy the need for a continuous supply of new questions by streamlining their generation. However, compared to automatic question answering (QA), QG is a more challenging task. In this work, we fine-tune a multilingual T5 (mT5) transformer in a multi-task setting for QA, QG and answer extraction tasks using Turkish QA datasets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first academic work that performs automated text-to-text question generation from Turkish texts. Experimental evaluations show that the proposed multi-task setting achieves state-of-the-art Turkish question answering and question generation performance on TQuADv1, TQuADv2 datasets and XQuAD Turkish split. The source code and the pre-trained models are available at https://github.com/obss/turkish-question-generation.

Fact-centric information needs are rarely one-shot; users typically ask follow-up questions to explore a topic. In such a conversational setting, the user's inputs are often incomplete, with entities or predicates left out, and ungrammatical phrases. This poses a huge challenge to question answering (QA) systems that typically rely on cues in full-fledged interrogative sentences. As a solution, we develop CONVEX: an unsupervised method that can answer incomplete questions over a knowledge graph (KG) by maintaining conversation context using entities and predicates seen so far and automatically inferring missing or ambiguous pieces for follow-up questions. The core of our method is a graph exploration algorithm that judiciously expands a frontier to find candidate answers for the current question. To evaluate CONVEX, we release ConvQuestions, a crowdsourced benchmark with 11,200 distinct conversations from five different domains. We show that CONVEX: (i) adds conversational support to any stand-alone QA system, and (ii) outperforms state-of-the-art baselines and question completion strategies.

Augmenting Large Language Models (LLMs) for Question Answering (QA) with domain specific data has attracted wide attention. However, domain data often exists in a hybrid format, including text and semi-structured tables, posing challenges for the seamless integration of information. Table-to-Text Generation is a promising solution by facilitating the transformation of hybrid data into a uniformly text-formatted corpus. Although this technique has been widely studied by the NLP community, there is currently no comparative analysis on how corpora generated by different table-to-text methods affect the performance of QA systems. In this paper, we address this research gap in two steps. First, we innovatively integrate table-to-text generation into the framework of enhancing LLM-based QA systems with domain hybrid data. Then, we utilize this framework in real-world industrial data to conduct extensive experiments on two types of QA systems (DSFT and RAG frameworks) with four representative methods: Markdown format, Template serialization, TPLM-based method, and LLM-based method. Based on the experimental results, we draw some empirical findings and explore the underlying reasons behind the success of some methods. We hope the findings of this work will provide a valuable reference for the academic and industrial communities in developing robust QA systems.

Nowadays, Question Answering (QA) tasks receive significant research focus, particularly with the development of Large Language Model (LLM) such as Chat GPT [1]. LLM can be applied to various domains, but it contradicts the principles of information transmission when applied to the Islamic domain. In Islam we strictly regulates the sources of information and who can give interpretations or tafseer for that sources [2]. The approach used by LLM to generate answers based on its own interpretation is similar to the concept of tafseer, LLM is neither an Islamic expert nor a human which is not permitted in Islam. Indonesia is the country with the largest Islamic believer population in the world [3]. With the high influence of LLM, we need to make evaluation of LLM in religious domain. Currently, there is only few religious QA dataset available and none of them using Sirah Nabawiyah especially in Indonesian Language. In this paper, we propose the Question Answering Sirah Nabawiyah (QASiNa) dataset, a novel dataset compiled from Sirah Nabawiyah literatures in Indonesian language. We demonstrate our dataset by using mBERT [4], XLM-R [5], and IndoBERT [6] which fine-tuned with Indonesian translation of SQuAD v2.0 [7]. XLM-R model returned the best performance on QASiNa with EM of 61.20, F1-Score of 75.94, and Substring Match of 70.00. We compare XLM-R performance with Chat GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 [1]. Both Chat GPT version returned lower EM and F1-Score with higher Substring Match, the gap of EM and Substring Match get wider in GPT-4. The experiment indicate that Chat GPT tends to give excessive interpretations as evidenced by its higher Substring Match scores compared to EM and F1-Score, even after providing instruction and context. This concludes Chat GPT is unsuitable for question answering task in religious domain especially for Islamic religion.

We present a comprehensive study of chart visual question-answering(QA) task, to address the challenges faced in comprehending and extracting data from chart visualizations within documents. Despite efforts to tackle this problem using synthetic charts, solutions are limited by the shortage of annotated real-world data. To fill this gap, we introduce a benchmark and dataset for chart visual QA on real-world charts, offering a systematic analysis of the task and a novel taxonomy for template-based chart question creation. Our contribution includes the introduction of a new answer type, 'list', with both ranked and unranked variations. Our study is conducted on a real-world chart dataset from scientific literature, showcasing higher visual complexity compared to other works. Our focus is on template-based QA and how it can serve as a standard for evaluating the first-order logic capabilities of models. The results of our experiments, conducted on a real-world out-of-distribution dataset, provide a robust evaluation of large-scale pre-trained models and advance the field of chart visual QA and formal logic verification for neural networks in general.

With social media becoming increasingly pop-ular on which lots of news and real-time eventsare reported, developing automated questionanswering systems is critical to the effective-ness of many applications that rely on real-time knowledge. While previous datasets haveconcentrated on question answering (QA) forformal text like news and Wikipedia, wepresent the first large-scale dataset for QA oversocial media data. To ensure that the tweetswe collected are useful, we only gather tweetsused by journalists to write news articles. Wethen ask human annotators to write questionsand answers upon these tweets. Unlike otherQA datasets like SQuAD in which the answersare extractive, we allow the answers to be ab-stractive. We show that two recently proposedneural models that perform well on formaltexts are limited in their performance when ap-plied to our dataset. In addition, even the fine-tuned BERT model is still lagging behind hu-man performance with a large margin. Our re-sults thus point to the need of improved QAsystems targeting social media text.

Recent work on open domain question answering (QA) assumes strong supervision of the supporting evidence and/or assumes a blackbox information retrieval (IR) system to retrieve evidence candidates. We argue that both are suboptimal, since gold evidence is not always available, and QA is fundamentally different from IR. We show for the first time that it is possible to jointly learn the retriever and reader from question-answer string pairs and without any IR system. In this setting, evidence retrieval from all of Wikipedia is treated as a latent variable. Since this is impractical to learn from scratch, we pre-train the retriever with an Inverse Cloze Task. We evaluate on open versions of five QA datasets. On datasets where the questioner already knows the answer, a traditional IR system such as BM25 is sufficient. On datasets where a user is genuinely seeking an answer, we show that learned retrieval is crucial, outperforming BM25 by up to 19 points in exact match.

We present a unified dataset for document Question-Answering (QA), which is obtained combining several public datasets related to Document AI and visually rich document understanding (VRDU). Our main contribution is twofold: on the one hand we reformulate existing Document AI tasks, such as Information Extraction (IE), into a Question-Answering task, making it a suitable resource for training and evaluating Large Language Models; on the other hand, we release the OCR of all the documents and include the exact position of the answer to be found in the document image as a bounding box. Using this dataset, we explore the impact of different prompting techniques (that might include bounding box information) on the performance of open-weight models, identifying the most effective approaches for document comprehension.

We introduce REALTIME QA, a dynamic question answering (QA) platform that announces questions and evaluates systems on a regular basis (weekly in this version). REALTIME QA inquires about the current world, and QA systems need to answer questions about novel events or information. It therefore challenges static, conventional assumptions in open-domain QA datasets and pursues instantaneous applications. We build strong baseline models upon large pretrained language models, including GPT-3 and T5. Our benchmark is an ongoing effort, and this paper presents real-time evaluation results over the past year. Our experimental results show that GPT-3 can often properly update its generation results, based on newly-retrieved documents, highlighting the importance of up-to-date information retrieval. Nonetheless, we find that GPT-3 tends to return outdated answers when retrieved documents do not provide sufficient information to find an answer. This suggests an important avenue for future research: can an open-domain QA system identify such unanswerable cases and communicate with the user or even the retrieval module to modify the retrieval results? We hope that REALTIME QA will spur progress in instantaneous applications of question answering and beyond.

To evaluate Large Language Models (LLMs) for question answering (QA), traditional methods typically focus on directly assessing the immediate responses generated by the models based on the given question and context. In the common use case of humans seeking AI assistant's help in finding information, these non-interactive evaluations do not account for the dynamic nature of human-model conversations, and interaction-aware evaluations have shown that accurate QA models are preferred by humans (Lee et al., 2023). Recent works in human-computer interaction (HCI) have employed human evaluators to conduct interactions and evaluations, but they are often prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to scale. In this work, we introduce an automatic evaluation framework IQA-EVAL to Interactive Question Answering Evaluation. More specifically, we introduce LLM-based Evaluation Agent (LEA) that can: (1) simulate human behaviors to generate interactions with IQA models; (2) automatically evaluate the generated interactions. Moreover, we propose assigning personas to LEAs to better simulate groups of real human evaluators. We show that: (1) our evaluation framework with GPT-4 (or Claude) as the backbone model achieves a high correlation with human evaluations on the IQA task; (2) assigning personas to LEA to better represent the crowd further significantly improves correlations. Finally, we use our automatic metric to evaluate five recent representative LLMs with over 1000 questions from complex and ambiguous question answering tasks, which comes with a substantial cost of $5k if evaluated by humans.

In recent years, there is strong emphasis on mining medical data using machine learning techniques. A common problem is to obtain a noiseless set of textual documents, with a relevant content for the research question, and developing a Question Answering (QA) model for a specific medical field. The purpose of this paper is to present a new methodology for building a medical dataset and obtain a QA model for analysis of symptoms and impact on daily life for a specific disease domain. The ``Mental Health'' forum was used, a forum dedicated to people suffering from schizophrenia and different mental disorders. Relevant posts of active users, who regularly participate, were extrapolated providing a new method of obtaining low-bias content and without privacy issues. Furthermore, it is shown how to pre-process the dataset to convert it into a QA dataset. The Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT), DistilBERT, RoBERTa, and BioBERT models were fine-tuned and evaluated via F1-Score, Exact Match, Precision and Recall. Accurate empirical experiments demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed method for obtaining an accurate dataset for QA model implementation. By fine-tuning the BioBERT QA model, we achieved an F1 score of 0.885, showing a considerable improvement and outperforming the state-of-the-art model for mental disorders domain.

Seeking answers to questions within long scientific research articles is a crucial area of study that aids readers in quickly addressing their inquiries. However, existing question-answering (QA) datasets based on scientific papers are limited in scale and focus solely on textual content. To address this limitation, we introduce SPIQA (Scientific Paper Image Question Answering), the first large-scale QA dataset specifically designed to interpret complex figures and tables within the context of scientific research articles across various domains of computer science. Leveraging the breadth of expertise and ability of multimodal large language models (MLLMs) to understand figures, we employ automatic and manual curation to create the dataset. We craft an information-seeking task involving multiple images that cover a wide variety of plots, charts, tables, schematic diagrams, and result visualizations. SPIQA comprises 270K questions divided into training, validation, and three different evaluation splits. Through extensive experiments with 12 prominent foundational models, we evaluate the ability of current multimodal systems to comprehend the nuanced aspects of research articles. Additionally, we propose a Chain-of-Thought (CoT) evaluation strategy with in-context retrieval that allows fine-grained, step-by-step assessment and improves model performance. We further explore the upper bounds of performance enhancement with additional textual information, highlighting its promising potential for future research and the dataset's impact on revolutionizing how we interact with scientific literature.

Large language models (LLMs) achieve remarkable performance on challenging benchmarks that are often structured as multiple-choice question-answering (QA) tasks. Zero-shot Chain-of-Thought (CoT) prompting enhances reasoning in LLMs but provides only vague and generic guidance ("think step by step"). This paper introduces ARR, an intuitive and effective zero-shot prompting method that explicitly incorporates three key steps in QA solving: analyzing the intent of the question, retrieving relevant information, and reasoning step by step. Comprehensive experiments across diverse and challenging QA tasks demonstrate that ARR consistently improves the Baseline (without ARR prompting) and outperforms CoT. Ablation and case studies further validate the positive contributions of each component: analyzing, retrieving, and reasoning. Notably, intent analysis plays a vital role in ARR. Additionally, extensive evaluations across various model sizes, LLM series, and generation settings solidify the effectiveness, robustness, and generalizability of ARR.

We present FoQA, a Faroese extractive question-answering (QA) dataset with 2,000 samples, created using a semi-automated approach combining Large Language Models (LLMs) and human validation. The dataset was generated from Faroese Wikipedia articles using GPT-4-turbo for initial QA generation, followed by question rephrasing to increase complexity and native speaker validation to ensure quality. We provide baseline performance metrics for FoQA across multiple models, including LLMs and BERT, demonstrating its effectiveness in evaluating Faroese QA performance. The dataset is released in three versions: a validated set of 2,000 samples, a complete set of all 10,001 generated samples, and a set of 2,395 rejected samples for error analysis.

Existing approaches to video understanding, mainly designed for short videos from a third-person perspective, are limited in their applicability in certain fields, such as robotics. In this paper, we delve into open-ended question-answering (QA) in long, egocentric videos, which allows individuals or robots to inquire about their own past visual experiences. This task presents unique challenges, including the complexity of temporally grounding queries within extensive video content, the high resource demands for precise data annotation, and the inherent difficulty of evaluating open-ended answers due to their ambiguous nature. Our proposed approach tackles these challenges by (i) integrating query grounding and answering within a unified model to reduce error propagation; (ii) employing large language models for efficient and scalable data synthesis; and (iii) introducing a close-ended QA task for evaluation, to manage answer ambiguity. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our method, which also achieves state-of-the-art performance on the QAEgo4D and Ego4D-NLQ benchmarks. Code, data, and models are available at https://github.com/Becomebright/GroundVQA.

Retrieval augmented generation (RAG) with large language models (LLMs) for Question Answering (QA) entails furnishing relevant context within the prompt to facilitate the LLM in answer generation. During the generation, inaccuracies or hallucinations frequently occur due to two primary factors: inadequate or distracting context in the prompts, and the inability of LLMs to effectively reason through the facts. In this paper, we investigate whether providing aligned context via a carefully selected passage sequence leads to better answer generation by the LLM for multi-hop QA. We introduce, "GenSco", a novel approach of selecting passages based on the predicted decomposition of the multi-hop questions}. The framework consists of two distinct LLMs: (i) Generator LLM, which is used for question decomposition and final answer generation; (ii) an auxiliary open-sourced LLM, used as the scorer, to semantically guide the Generator for passage selection. The generator is invoked only once for the answer generation, resulting in a cost-effective and efficient approach. We evaluate on three broadly established multi-hop question answering datasets: 2WikiMultiHop, Adversarial HotPotQA and MuSiQue and achieve an absolute gain of 15.1 and 5.9 points in Exact Match score with respect to the best performing baselines over MuSiQue and 2WikiMultiHop respectively.

We present a novel approach to adapting pre-trained large language models (LLMs) to perform question answering (QA) and speech continuation. By endowing the LLM with a pre-trained speech encoder, our model becomes able to take speech inputs and generate speech outputs. The entire system is trained end-to-end and operates directly on spectrograms, simplifying our architecture. Key to our approach is a training objective that jointly supervises speech recognition, text continuation, and speech synthesis using only paired speech-text pairs, enabling a `cross-modal' chain-of-thought within a single decoding pass. Our method surpasses existing spoken language models in speaker preservation and semantic coherence. Furthermore, the proposed model improves upon direct initialization in retaining the knowledge of the original LLM as demonstrated through spoken QA datasets. Audio samples can be found at https://michelleramanovich.github.io/spectron/spectron

Neural abstractive summarization models are prone to generate content inconsistent with the source document, i.e. unfaithful. Existing automatic metrics do not capture such mistakes effectively. We tackle the problem of evaluating faithfulness of a generated summary given its source document. We first collected human annotations of faithfulness for outputs from numerous models on two datasets. We find that current models exhibit a trade-off between abstractiveness and faithfulness: outputs with less word overlap with the source document are more likely to be unfaithful. Next, we propose an automatic question answering (QA) based metric for faithfulness, FEQA, which leverages recent advances in reading comprehension. Given question-answer pairs generated from the summary, a QA model extracts answers from the document; non-matched answers indicate unfaithful information in the summary. Among metrics based on word overlap, embedding similarity, and learned language understanding models, our QA-based metric has significantly higher correlation with human faithfulness scores, especially on highly abstractive summaries.

The goal of this work is to build conversational Question Answering (QA) interfaces for the large body of domain-specific information available in FAQ sites. We present DoQA, a dataset with 2,437 dialogues and 10,917 QA pairs. The dialogues are collected from three Stack Exchange sites using the Wizard of Oz method with crowdsourcing. Compared to previous work, DoQA comprises well-defined information needs, leading to more coherent and natural conversations with less factoid questions and is multi-domain. In addition, we introduce a more realistic information retrieval(IR) scenario where the system needs to find the answer in any of the FAQ documents. The results of an existing, strong, system show that, thanks to transfer learning from a Wikipedia QA dataset and fine tuning on a single FAQ domain, it is possible to build high quality conversational QA systems for FAQs without in-domain training data. The good results carry over into the more challenging IR scenario. In both cases, there is still ample room for improvement, as indicated by the higher human upperbound.

Scholastic trivia competitions test knowledge and intelligence through mastery of question answering. Modern question answering benchmarks are one variant of the Turing test. Specifically, answering a set of questions as well as a human is a minimum bar towards demonstrating human-like intelligence. This paper makes the case that the format of one competition -- where participants can answer in the middle of hearing a question (incremental) -- better differentiates the skill between (human or machine) players. Additionally, merging a sequential decision-making sub-task with question answering (QA) provides a good setting for research in model calibration and opponent modeling. Thus, embedded in this task are three machine learning challenges: (1) factoid QA over thousands of Wikipedia-like answers, (2) calibration of the QA model's confidence scores, and (3) sequential decision-making that incorporates knowledge of the QA model, its calibration, and what the opponent may do. We make two contributions: (1) collecting and curating a large factoid QA dataset and an accompanying gameplay dataset, and (2) developing a model that addresses these three machine learning challenges. In addition to offline evaluation, we pitted our model against some of the most accomplished trivia players in the world in a series of exhibition matches spanning several years. Throughout this paper, we show that collaborations with the vibrant trivia community have contributed to the quality of our dataset, spawned new research directions, and doubled as an exciting way to engage the public with research in machine learning and natural language processing.

We introduce RJUA-QA, a novel medical dataset for question answering (QA) and reasoning with clinical evidence, contributing to bridge the gap between general large language models (LLMs) and medical-specific LLM applications. RJUA-QA is derived from realistic clinical scenarios and aims to facilitate LLMs in generating reliable diagnostic and advice. The dataset contains 2,132 curated Question-Context-Answer pairs, corresponding about 25,000 diagnostic records and clinical cases. The dataset covers 67 common urological disease categories, where the disease coverage exceeds 97.6\% of the population seeking medical services in urology. Each data instance in RJUA-QA comprises: (1) a question mirroring real patient to inquiry about clinical symptoms and medical conditions, (2) a context including comprehensive expert knowledge, serving as a reference for medical examination and diagnosis, (3) a doctor response offering the diagnostic conclusion and suggested examination guidance, (4) a diagnosed clinical disease as the recommended diagnostic outcome, and (5) clinical advice providing recommendations for medical examination. RJUA-QA is the first medical QA dataset for clinical reasoning over the patient inquiries, where expert-level knowledge and experience are required for yielding diagnostic conclusions and medical examination advice. A comprehensive evaluation is conducted to evaluate the performance of both medical-specific and general LLMs on the RJUA-QA dataset.

Zero-shot spoken language understanding (SLU) enables systems to comprehend user utterances in new domains without prior exposure to training data. Recent studies often rely on large language models (LLMs), leading to excessive footprints and complexity. This paper proposes the use of Whisper, a standalone speech processing model, for zero-shot end-to-end (E2E) SLU. To handle unseen semantic labels, SLU tasks are integrated into a question-answering (QA) framework, which prompts the Whisper decoder for semantics deduction. The system is efficiently trained with prefix-tuning, optimising a minimal set of parameters rather than the entire Whisper model. We show that the proposed system achieves a 40.7% absolute gain for slot filling (SLU-F1) on SLURP compared to a recently introduced zero-shot benchmark. Furthermore, it performs comparably to a Whisper-GPT-2 modular system under both in-corpus and cross-corpus evaluation settings, but with a relative 34.8% reduction in model parameters.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have recently made impressive strides in natural language understanding tasks. Despite their remarkable performance, understanding their decision-making process remains a big challenge. In this paper, we look into bringing some transparency to this process by introducing a new explanation dataset for question answering (QA) tasks that integrates knowledge graphs (KGs) in a novel way. Our dataset includes 12,102 question-answer-explanation (QAE) triples. Each explanation in the dataset links the LLM's reasoning to entities and relations in the KGs. The explanation component includes a why-choose explanation, a why-not-choose explanation, and a set of reason-elements that underlie the LLM's decision. We leverage KGs and graph attention networks (GAT) to find the reason-elements and transform them into why-choose and why-not-choose explanations that are comprehensible to humans. Through quantitative and qualitative evaluations, we demonstrate the potential of our dataset to improve the in-context learning of LLMs, and enhance their interpretability and explainability. Our work contributes to the field of explainable AI by enabling a deeper understanding of the LLMs decision-making process to make them more transparent and thereby, potentially more reliable, to researchers and practitioners alike. Our dataset is available at: https://github.com/chen-zichen/XplainLLM_dataset.git

This paper reviews the state-of-the-art of language models architectures and strategies for "complex" question-answering (QA, CQA, CPS) with a focus on hybridization. Large Language Models (LLM) are good at leveraging public data on standard problems but once you want to tackle more specific complex questions or problems (e.g. How does the concept of personal freedom vary between different cultures ? What is the best mix of power generation methods to reduce climate change ?) you may need specific architecture, knowledge, skills, methods, sensitive data protection, explainability, human approval and versatile feedback... Recent projects like ChatGPT and GALACTICA have allowed non-specialists to grasp the great potential as well as the equally strong limitations of LLM in complex QA. In this paper, we start by reviewing required skills and evaluation techniques. We integrate findings from the robust community edited research papers BIG, BLOOM and HELM which open source, benchmark and analyze limits and challenges of LLM in terms of tasks complexity and strict evaluation on accuracy (e.g. fairness, robustness, toxicity, ...) as a baseline. We discuss some challenges associated with complex QA, including domain adaptation, decomposition and efficient multi-step QA, long form and non-factoid QA, safety and multi-sensitivity data protection, multimodal search, hallucinations, explainability and truthfulness, temporal reasoning. We analyze current solutions and promising research trends, using elements such as: hybrid LLM architectural patterns, training and prompting strategies, active human reinforcement learning supervised with AI, neuro-symbolic and structured knowledge grounding, program synthesis, iterated decomposition and others.

The availability of large, high-quality datasets has been one of the main drivers of recent progress in question answering (QA). Such annotated datasets however are difficult and costly to collect, and rarely exist in languages other than English, rendering QA technology inaccessible to underrepresented languages. An alternative to building large monolingual training datasets is to leverage pre-trained language models (PLMs) under a few-shot learning setting. Our approach, QAmeleon, uses a PLM to automatically generate multilingual data upon which QA models are trained, thus avoiding costly annotation. Prompt tuning the PLM for data synthesis with only five examples per language delivers accuracy superior to translation-based baselines, bridges nearly 60% of the gap between an English-only baseline and a fully supervised upper bound trained on almost 50,000 hand labeled examples, and always leads to substantial improvements compared to fine-tuning a QA model directly on labeled examples in low resource settings. Experiments on the TyDiQA-GoldP and MLQA benchmarks show that few-shot prompt tuning for data synthesis scales across languages and is a viable alternative to large-scale annotation.

Factual consistency is an essential quality of text summarization models in practical settings. Existing work in evaluating this dimension can be broadly categorized into two lines of research, entailment-based and question answering (QA)-based metrics, and different experimental setups often lead to contrasting conclusions as to which paradigm performs the best. In this work, we conduct an extensive comparison of entailment and QA-based metrics, demonstrating that carefully choosing the components of a QA-based metric, especially question generation and answerability classification, is critical to performance. Building on those insights, we propose an optimized metric, which we call QAFactEval, that leads to a 14% average improvement over previous QA-based metrics on the SummaC factual consistency benchmark, and also outperforms the best-performing entailment-based metric. Moreover, we find that QA-based and entailment-based metrics can offer complementary signals and be combined into a single metric for a further performance boost.

A major challenge of research on non-English machine reading for question answering (QA) is the lack of annotated datasets. In this paper, we present GermanQuAD, a dataset of 13,722 extractive question/answer pairs. To improve the reproducibility of the dataset creation approach and foster QA research on other languages, we summarize lessons learned and evaluate reformulation of question/answer pairs as a way to speed up the annotation process. An extractive QA model trained on GermanQuAD significantly outperforms multilingual models and also shows that machine-translated training data cannot fully substitute hand-annotated training data in the target language. Finally, we demonstrate the wide range of applications of GermanQuAD by adapting it to GermanDPR, a training dataset for dense passage retrieval (DPR), and train and evaluate the first non-English DPR model.

Large language models (LLMs) are prone to hallucinations in question-answering (QA) tasks when faced with ambiguous questions. Users often assume that LLMs share their cognitive alignment, a mutual understanding of context, intent, and implicit details, leading them to omit critical information in the queries. However, LLMs generate responses based on assumptions that can misalign with user intent, which may be perceived as hallucinations if they misalign with the user's intent. Therefore, identifying those implicit assumptions is crucial to resolve ambiguities in QA. Prior work, such as AmbigQA, reduces ambiguity in queries via human-annotated clarifications, which is not feasible in real application. Meanwhile, ASQA compiles AmbigQA's short answers into long-form responses but inherits human biases and fails capture explicit logical distinctions that differentiates the answers. We introduce Conditional Ambiguous Question-Answering (CondAmbigQA), a benchmark with 200 ambiguous queries and condition-aware evaluation metrics. Our study pioneers the concept of ``conditions'' in ambiguous QA tasks, where conditions stand for contextual constraints or assumptions that resolve ambiguities. The retrieval-based annotation strategy uses retrieved Wikipedia fragments to identify possible interpretations for a given query as its conditions and annotate the answers through those conditions. Such a strategy minimizes human bias introduced by different knowledge levels among annotators. By fixing retrieval results, CondAmbigQA evaluates how RAG systems leverage conditions to resolve ambiguities. Experiments show that models considering conditions before answering improve performance by 20%, with an additional 5% gain when conditions are explicitly provided. These results underscore the value of conditional reasoning in QA, offering researchers tools to rigorously evaluate ambiguity resolution.

Question-answering for domain-specific applications has recently attracted much interest due to the latest advancements in large language models (LLMs). However, accurately assessing the performance of these applications remains a challenge, mainly due to the lack of suitable benchmarks that effectively simulate real-world scenarios. To address this challenge, we introduce two product question-answering (QA) datasets focused on Adobe Acrobat and Photoshop products to help evaluate the performance of existing models on domain-specific product QA tasks. Additionally, we propose a novel knowledge-driven RAG-QA framework to enhance the performance of the models in the product QA task. Our experiments demonstrated that inducing domain knowledge through query reformulation allowed for increased retrieval and generative performance when compared to standard RAG-QA methods. This improvement, however, is slight, and thus illustrates the challenge posed by the datasets introduced.

Transformer models have achieved promising results on natural language processing (NLP) tasks including extractive question answering (QA). Common Transformer encoders used in NLP tasks process the hidden states of all input tokens in the context paragraph throughout all layers. However, different from other tasks such as sequence classification, answering the raised question does not necessarily need all the tokens in the context paragraph. Following this motivation, we propose Block-skim, which learns to skim unnecessary context in higher hidden layers to improve and accelerate the Transformer performance. The key idea of Block-Skim is to identify the context that must be further processed and those that could be safely discarded early on during inference. Critically, we find that such information could be sufficiently derived from the self-attention weights inside the Transformer model. We further prune the hidden states corresponding to the unnecessary positions early in lower layers, achieving significant inference-time speedup. To our surprise, we observe that models pruned in this way outperform their full-size counterparts. Block-Skim improves QA models' accuracy on different datasets and achieves 3 times speedup on BERT-base model.

In this paper, we investigate which questions are challenging for retrieval-based Question Answering (QA). We (i) propose retrieval complexity (RC), a novel metric conditioned on the completeness of retrieved documents, which measures the difficulty of answering questions, and (ii) propose an unsupervised pipeline to measure RC given an arbitrary retrieval system. Our proposed pipeline measures RC more accurately than alternative estimators, including LLMs, on six challenging QA benchmarks. Further investigation reveals that RC scores strongly correlate with both QA performance and expert judgment across five of the six studied benchmarks, indicating that RC is an effective measure of question difficulty. Subsequent categorization of high-RC questions shows that they span a broad set of question shapes, including multi-hop, compositional, and temporal QA, indicating that RC scores can categorize a new subset of complex questions. Our system can also have a major impact on retrieval-based systems by helping to identify more challenging questions on existing datasets.

Visual question answering (VQA) is known as an AI-complete task as it requires understanding, reasoning, and inferring about the vision and the language content. Over the past few years, numerous neural architectures have been suggested for the VQA problem. However, achieving success in zero-shot VQA remains a challenge due to its requirement for advanced generalization and reasoning skills. This study explores the impact of incorporating image captioning as an intermediary process within the VQA pipeline. Specifically, we explore the efficacy of utilizing image captions instead of images and leveraging large language models (LLMs) to establish a zero-shot setting. Since image captioning is the most crucial step in this process, we compare the impact of state-of-the-art image captioning models on VQA performance across various question types in terms of structure and semantics. We propose a straightforward and efficient question-driven image captioning approach within this pipeline to transfer contextual information into the question-answering (QA) model. This method involves extracting keywords from the question, generating a caption for each image-question pair using the keywords, and incorporating the question-driven caption into the LLM prompt. We evaluate the efficacy of using general-purpose and question-driven image captions in the VQA pipeline. Our study highlights the potential of employing image captions and harnessing the capabilities of LLMs to achieve competitive performance on GQA under the zero-shot setting. Our code is available at https://github.com/ovguyo/captions-in-VQA.

We present Twin Answer Sentences Attack (TASA), an adversarial attack method for question answering (QA) models that produces fluent and grammatical adversarial contexts while maintaining gold answers. Despite phenomenal progress on general adversarial attacks, few works have investigated the vulnerability and attack specifically for QA models. In this work, we first explore the biases in the existing models and discover that they mainly rely on keyword matching between the question and context, and ignore the relevant contextual relations for answer prediction. Based on two biases above, TASA attacks the target model in two folds: (1) lowering the model's confidence on the gold answer with a perturbed answer sentence; (2) misguiding the model towards a wrong answer with a distracting answer sentence. Equipped with designed beam search and filtering methods, TASA can generate more effective attacks than existing textual attack methods while sustaining the quality of contexts, in extensive experiments on five QA datasets and human evaluations.

With a rise in false, inaccurate, and misleading information in propaganda, news, and social media, real-world Question Answering (QA) systems face the challenges of synthesizing and reasoning over contradicting information to derive correct answers. This urgency gives rise to the need to make QA systems robust to misinformation, a topic previously unexplored. We study the risk of misinformation to QA models by investigating the behavior of the QA model under contradicting contexts that are mixed with both real and fake information. We create the first large-scale dataset for this problem, namely Contra-QA, which contains over 10K human-written and model-generated contradicting pairs of contexts. Experiments show that QA models are vulnerable under contradicting contexts brought by misinformation. To defend against such a threat, we build a misinformation-aware QA system as a counter-measure that integrates question answering and misinformation detection in a joint fashion.

While day-to-day questions come with a variety of answer types, the current question-answering (QA) literature has failed to adequately address the answer diversity of questions. To this end, we present GooAQ, a large-scale dataset with a variety of answer types. This dataset contains over 5 million questions and 3 million answers collected from Google. GooAQ questions are collected semi-automatically from the Google search engine using its autocomplete feature. This results in naturalistic questions of practical interest that are nonetheless short and expressed using simple language. GooAQ answers are mined from Google's responses to our collected questions, specifically from the answer boxes in the search results. This yields a rich space of answer types, containing both textual answers (short and long) as well as more structured ones such as collections. We benchmarkT5 models on GooAQ and observe that: (a) in line with recent work, LM's strong performance on GooAQ's short-answer questions heavily benefit from annotated data; however, (b) their quality in generating coherent and accurate responses for questions requiring long responses (such as 'how' and 'why' questions) is less reliant on observing annotated data and mainly supported by their pre-training. We release GooAQ to facilitate further research on improving QA with diverse response types.

We introduce PubMedQA, a novel biomedical question answering (QA) dataset collected from PubMed abstracts. The task of PubMedQA is to answer research questions with yes/no/maybe (e.g.: Do preoperative statins reduce atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass grafting?) using the corresponding abstracts. PubMedQA has 1k expert-annotated, 61.2k unlabeled and 211.3k artificially generated QA instances. Each PubMedQA instance is composed of (1) a question which is either an existing research article title or derived from one, (2) a context which is the corresponding abstract without its conclusion, (3) a long answer, which is the conclusion of the abstract and, presumably, answers the research question, and (4) a yes/no/maybe answer which summarizes the conclusion. PubMedQA is the first QA dataset where reasoning over biomedical research texts, especially their quantitative contents, is required to answer the questions. Our best performing model, multi-phase fine-tuning of BioBERT with long answer bag-of-word statistics as additional supervision, achieves 68.1% accuracy, compared to single human performance of 78.0% accuracy and majority-baseline of 55.2% accuracy, leaving much room for improvement. PubMedQA is publicly available at https://pubmedqa.github.io.

Recent years have witnessed an increasing interest in image-based question-answering (QA) tasks. However, due to data limitations, there has been much less work on video-based QA. In this paper, we present TVQA, a large-scale video QA dataset based on 6 popular TV shows. TVQA consists of 152,545 QA pairs from 21,793 clips, spanning over 460 hours of video. Questions are designed to be compositional in nature, requiring systems to jointly localize relevant moments within a clip, comprehend subtitle-based dialogue, and recognize relevant visual concepts. We provide analyses of this new dataset as well as several baselines and a multi-stream end-to-end trainable neural network framework for the TVQA task. The dataset is publicly available at http://tvqa.cs.unc.edu.

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly being used to generate synthetic data for training and evaluating models. However, it is unclear whether they can generate a good quality of question answering (QA) dataset that incorporates knowledge and cultural nuance embedded in a language, especially for low-resource languages. In this study, we investigate the effectiveness of using LLMs in generating culturally relevant commonsense QA datasets for Indonesian and Sundanese languages. To do so, we create datasets for these languages using various methods involving both LLMs and human annotators, resulting in ~4.5K questions per language (~9K in total), making our dataset the largest of its kind. Our experiments show that automatic data adaptation from an existing English dataset is less effective for Sundanese. Interestingly, using the direct generation method on the target language, GPT-4 Turbo can generate questions with adequate general knowledge in both languages, albeit not as culturally 'deep' as humans. We also observe a higher occurrence of fluency errors in the Sundanese dataset, highlighting the discrepancy between medium- and lower-resource languages.

When people answer questions about a specific situation, e.g., "I cheated on my mid-term exam last week. Was that wrong?", cognitive science suggests that they form a mental picture of that situation before answering. While we do not know how language models (LMs) answer such questions, we conjecture that they may answer more accurately if they are also provided with additional details about the question situation, elaborating the "scene". To test this conjecture, we train a new model, DREAM, to answer questions that elaborate the scenes that situated questions are about, and then provide those elaborations as additional context to a question-answering (QA) model. We find that DREAM is able to create better scene elaborations (more accurate, useful, and consistent) than a representative state-of-the-art, zero-shot model (Macaw). We also find that using the scene elaborations as additional context improves the answer accuracy of a downstream QA system, including beyond that obtainable by simply further finetuning the QA system on DREAM's training data. These results suggest that adding focused elaborations about a situation can improve a system's reasoning about it, and may serve as an effective way of injecting new scenario based knowledge into QA models. Finally, our approach is dataset-neutral; we observe improved QA performance across different models, with even bigger gains on models with fewer parameters. We make our dataset and model publicly available at https://github.com/allenai/dream.

We propose Semantic Parser Localizer (SPL), a toolkit that leverages Neural Machine Translation (NMT) systems to localize a semantic parser for a new language. Our methodology is to (1) generate training data automatically in the target language by augmenting machine-translated datasets with local entities scraped from public websites, (2) add a few-shot boost of human-translated sentences and train a novel XLMR-LSTM semantic parser, and (3) test the model on natural utterances curated using human translators. We assess the effectiveness of our approach by extending the current capabilities of Schema2QA, a system for English Question Answering (QA) on the open web, to 10 new languages for the restaurants and hotels domains. Our models achieve an overall test accuracy ranging between 61% and 69% for the hotels domain and between 64% and 78% for restaurants domain, which compares favorably to 69% and 80% obtained for English parser trained on gold English data and a few examples from validation set. We show our approach outperforms the previous state-of-the-art methodology by more than 30% for hotels and 40% for restaurants with localized ontologies for the subset of languages tested. Our methodology enables any software developer to add a new language capability to a QA system for a new domain, leveraging machine translation, in less than 24 hours.

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has emerged as a promising approach to enhance the performance of large language models (LLMs) in knowledge-intensive tasks such as those from medical domain. However, the sensitive nature of the medical domain necessitates a completely accurate and trustworthy system. While existing RAG benchmarks primarily focus on the standard retrieve-answer setting, they overlook many practical scenarios that measure crucial aspects of a reliable medical system. This paper addresses this gap by providing a comprehensive evaluation framework for medical question-answering (QA) systems in a RAG setting for these situations, including sufficiency, integration, and robustness. We introduce Medical Retrieval-Augmented Generation Benchmark (MedRGB) that provides various supplementary elements to four medical QA datasets for testing LLMs' ability to handle these specific scenarios. Utilizing MedRGB, we conduct extensive evaluations of both state-of-the-art commercial LLMs and open-source models across multiple retrieval conditions. Our experimental results reveals current models' limited ability to handle noise and misinformation in the retrieved documents. We further analyze the LLMs' reasoning processes to provides valuable insights and future directions for developing RAG systems in this critical medical domain.

We present PeerQA, a real-world, scientific, document-level Question Answering (QA) dataset. PeerQA questions have been sourced from peer reviews, which contain questions that reviewers raised while thoroughly examining the scientific article. Answers have been annotated by the original authors of each paper. The dataset contains 579 QA pairs from 208 academic articles, with a majority from ML and NLP, as well as a subset of other scientific communities like Geoscience and Public Health. PeerQA supports three critical tasks for developing practical QA systems: Evidence retrieval, unanswerable question classification, and answer generation. We provide a detailed analysis of the collected dataset and conduct experiments establishing baseline systems for all three tasks. Our experiments and analyses reveal the need for decontextualization in document-level retrieval, where we find that even simple decontextualization approaches consistently improve retrieval performance across architectures. On answer generation, PeerQA serves as a challenging benchmark for long-context modeling, as the papers have an average size of 12k tokens. Our code and data is available at https://github.com/UKPLab/peerqa.

Retrieval-augmented generation supports language models to strengthen their factual groundings by providing external contexts. However, language models often face challenges when given extensive information, diminishing their effectiveness in solving questions. Context compression tackles this issue by filtering out irrelevant information, but current methods still struggle in realistic scenarios where crucial information cannot be captured with a single-step approach. To overcome this limitation, we introduce CompAct, a novel framework that employs an active strategy to condense extensive documents without losing key information. Our experiments demonstrate that CompAct brings significant improvements in both performance and compression rate on multi-hop question-answering (QA) benchmarks. CompAct flexibly operates as a cost-efficient plug-in module with various off-the-shelf retrievers or readers, achieving exceptionally high compression rates (47x).

Electronic Health Records (EHRs), which contain patients' medical histories in various multi-modal formats, often overlook the potential for joint reasoning across imaging and table modalities underexplored in current EHR Question Answering (QA) systems. In this paper, we introduce EHRXQA, a novel multi-modal question answering dataset combining structured EHRs and chest X-ray images. To develop our dataset, we first construct two uni-modal resources: 1) The MIMIC- CXR-VQA dataset, our newly created medical visual question answering (VQA) benchmark, specifically designed to augment the imaging modality in EHR QA, and 2) EHRSQL (MIMIC-IV), a refashioned version of a previously established table-based EHR QA dataset. By integrating these two uni-modal resources, we successfully construct a multi-modal EHR QA dataset that necessitates both uni-modal and cross-modal reasoning. To address the unique challenges of multi-modal questions within EHRs, we propose a NeuralSQL-based strategy equipped with an external VQA API. This pioneering endeavor enhances engagement with multi-modal EHR sources and we believe that our dataset can catalyze advances in real-world medical scenarios such as clinical decision-making and research. EHRXQA is available at https://github.com/baeseongsu/ehrxqa.

Knowledge underpins reasoning. Recent research demonstrates that when relevant knowledge is provided as additional context to commonsense question answering (QA), it can substantially enhance the performance even on top of state-of-the-art. The fundamental challenge is where and how to find such knowledge that is high quality and on point with respect to the question; knowledge retrieved from knowledge bases are incomplete and knowledge generated from language models are inconsistent. We present Rainier, or Reinforced Knowledge Introspector, that learns to generate contextually relevant knowledge in response to given questions. Our approach starts by imitating knowledge generated by GPT-3, then learns to generate its own knowledge via reinforcement learning where rewards are shaped based on the increased performance on the resulting question answering. Rainier demonstrates substantial and consistent performance gains when tested over 9 different commonsense benchmarks: including 5 datasets that are seen during model training, as well as 4 datasets that are kept unseen. Our work is the first to report that knowledge generated by models that are orders of magnitude smaller than GPT-3, even without direct supervision on the knowledge itself, can exceed the quality of commonsense knowledge elicited from GPT-3.

There is a lack of benchmarks for evaluating large language models (LLMs) in long-form medical question answering (QA). Most existing medical QA evaluation benchmarks focus on automatic metrics and multiple-choice questions. While valuable, these benchmarks fail to fully capture or assess the complexities of real-world clinical applications where LLMs are being deployed. Furthermore, existing studies on evaluating long-form answer generation in medical QA are primarily closed-source, lacking access to human medical expert annotations, which makes it difficult to reproduce results and enhance existing baselines. In this work, we introduce a new publicly available benchmark featuring real-world consumer medical questions with long-form answer evaluations annotated by medical doctors. We performed pairwise comparisons of responses from various open and closed-source medical and general-purpose LLMs based on criteria such as correctness, helpfulness, harmfulness, and bias. Additionally, we performed a comprehensive LLM-as-a-judge analysis to study the alignment between human judgments and LLMs. Our preliminary results highlight the strong potential of open LLMs in medical QA compared to leading closed models. Code & Data: https://github.com/lavita-ai/medical-eval-sphere

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) framework has shown promising potential in knowledge-intensive question answering (QA) by retrieving external corpus and generating based on augmented context. However, existing approaches only consider the query itself, neither specifying the retrieval preferences for the retrievers nor informing the generators of how to refer to the retrieved documents for the answers, which poses a significant challenge to the QA performance. To address these issues, we propose Rule-Guided Retrieval-Augmented Generation with LMs, which explicitly introduces symbolic rules as demonstrations for in-context learning (RuleRAG-ICL) to guide retrievers to retrieve logically related documents in the directions of rules and uniformly guide generators to generate answers attributed by the guidance of the same set of rules. Moreover, the combination of queries and rules can be further used as supervised fine-tuning data to update retrievers and generators (RuleRAG-FT) to achieve better rule-based instruction following capability, leading to retrieve more supportive results and generate more acceptable answers. To emphasize the attribution of rules, we construct five rule-aware QA benchmarks, including three temporal and two static scenarios, and equip RuleRAG with several kinds of retrievers and generators. Experiments demonstrate that training-free RuleRAG-ICL effectively improves the retrieval quality of +89.2% in Recall@10 scores and generation accuracy of +103.1% in exact match scores over standard RAG on average across the five benchmarks, and further fine-tuned RuleRAG-FT consistently yields more significant performance enhancement. Extensive analyses indicate that RuleRAG scales well with increasing numbers of retrieved documents and exhibits generalization ability for untrained rules.

Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) is widely used to enable Large Language Models (LLMs) perform Question Answering (QA) tasks in various domains. However, RAG based on open-source LLM for specialized domains has challenges of evaluating generated responses. A popular framework in the literature is the RAG Assessment (RAGAS), a publicly available library which uses LLMs for evaluation. One disadvantage of RAGAS is the lack of details of derivation of numerical value of the evaluation metrics. One of the outcomes of this work is a modified version of this package for few metrics (faithfulness, context relevance, answer relevance, answer correctness, answer similarity and factual correctness) through which we provide the intermediate outputs of the prompts by using any LLMs. Next, we analyse the expert evaluations of the output of the modified RAGAS package and observe the challenges of using it in the telecom domain. We also study the effect of the metrics under correct vs. wrong retrieval and observe that few of the metrics have higher values for correct retrieval. We also study for differences in metrics between base embeddings and those domain adapted via pre-training and fine-tuning. Finally, we comment on the suitability and challenges of using these metrics for in-the-wild telecom QA task.

We introduce SPAGHETTI: Semantic Parsing Augmented Generation for Hybrid English information from Text Tables and Infoboxes, a hybrid question-answering (QA) pipeline that utilizes information from heterogeneous knowledge sources, including knowledge base, text, tables, and infoboxes. Our LLM-augmented approach achieves state-of-the-art performance on the Compmix dataset, the most comprehensive heterogeneous open-domain QA dataset, with 56.5% exact match (EM) rate. More importantly, manual analysis on a sample of the dataset suggests that SPAGHETTI is more than 90% accurate, indicating that EM is no longer suitable for assessing the capabilities of QA systems today.

In this paper, we establish a benchmark for table visual question answering, referred to as the TableVQA-Bench, derived from pre-existing table question-answering (QA) and table structure recognition datasets. It is important to note that existing datasets have not incorporated images or QA pairs, which are two crucial components of TableVQA. As such, the primary objective of this paper is to obtain these necessary components. Specifically, images are sourced either through the application of a stylesheet or by employing the proposed table rendering system. QA pairs are generated by exploiting the large language model (LLM) where the input is a text-formatted table. Ultimately, the completed TableVQA-Bench comprises 1,500 QA pairs. We comprehensively compare the performance of various multi-modal large language models (MLLMs) on TableVQA-Bench. GPT-4V achieves the highest accuracy among commercial and open-sourced MLLMs from our experiments. Moreover, we discover that the number of vision queries plays a significant role in TableVQA performance. To further analyze the capabilities of MLLMs in comparison to their LLM backbones, we investigate by presenting image-formatted tables to MLLMs and text-formatted tables to LLMs, respectively. Our findings suggest that processing visual inputs is more challenging than text inputs, as evidenced by the lower performance of MLLMs, despite generally requiring higher computational costs than LLMs. The proposed TableVQA-Bench and evaluation codes are available at https://github.com/naver-ai/tablevqabench{https://github.com/naver-ai/tablevqabench}.

Large Language Models for code (code LLMs) have witnessed tremendous progress in recent years. With the rapid development of code LLMs, many popular evaluation benchmarks, such as HumanEval, DS-1000, and MBPP, have emerged to measure the performance of code LLMs with a particular focus on code generation tasks. However, they are insufficient to cover the full range of expected capabilities of code LLMs, which span beyond code generation to answering diverse coding-related questions. To fill this gap, we propose InfiBench, the first large-scale freeform question-answering (QA) benchmark for code to our knowledge, comprising 234 carefully selected high-quality Stack Overflow questions that span across 15 programming languages. InfiBench uses four types of model-free automatic metrics to evaluate response correctness where domain experts carefully concretize the criterion for each question. We conduct a systematic evaluation for over 100 latest code LLMs on InfiBench, leading to a series of novel and insightful findings. Our detailed analyses showcase potential directions for further advancement of code LLMs. InfiBench is fully open source and continuously expanding to foster more scientific and systematic practices for code LLM evaluation.

Large language models (LLM) learn diverse knowledge present in the large-scale training dataset via self-supervised training. Followed by instruction-tuning, LLM acquires the ability to return correct information for diverse questions. However, adapting these pre-trained LLMs to new target domains, such as different organizations or periods, for the question-answering (QA) task incurs a substantial annotation cost. To tackle this challenge, we propose a novel task, unsupervised LLM adaptation for question answering. In this task, we leverage a pre-trained LLM, a publicly available QA dataset (source data), and unlabeled documents from the target domain. Our goal is to learn LLM that can answer questions about the target domain. We introduce one synthetic and two real datasets to evaluate models fine-tuned on the source and target data, and reveal intriguing insights; (i) fine-tuned models exhibit the ability to provide correct answers for questions about the target domain even though they do not see any questions about the information described in the unlabeled documents, but (ii) they have difficulties in accessing information located in the middle or at the end of documents, and (iii) this challenge can be partially mitigated by replacing input tokens with random ones during adaptation.

FinanceBench is a first-of-its-kind test suite for evaluating the performance of LLMs on open book financial question answering (QA). It comprises 10,231 questions about publicly traded companies, with corresponding answers and evidence strings. The questions in FinanceBench are ecologically valid and cover a diverse set of scenarios. They are intended to be clear-cut and straightforward to answer to serve as a minimum performance standard. We test 16 state of the art model configurations (including GPT-4-Turbo, Llama2 and Claude2, with vector stores and long context prompts) on a sample of 150 cases from FinanceBench, and manually review their answers (n=2,400). The cases are available open-source. We show that existing LLMs have clear limitations for financial QA. Notably, GPT-4-Turbo used with a retrieval system incorrectly answered or refused to answer 81% of questions. While augmentation techniques such as using longer context window to feed in relevant evidence improve performance, they are unrealistic for enterprise settings due to increased latency and cannot support larger financial documents. We find that all models examined exhibit weaknesses, such as hallucinations, that limit their suitability for use by enterprises.

The Scholarly Question Answering over Linked Data (Scholarly QALD) at The International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC) 2023 challenge presents two sub-tasks to tackle question answering (QA) over knowledge graphs (KGs). We answer the KGQA over DBLP (DBLP-QUAD) task by proposing a neuro-symbolic (NS) framework based on PSYCHIC, an extractive QA model capable of identifying the query and entities related to a KG question. Our system achieved a F1 score of 00.18% on question answering and came in third place for entity linking (EL) with a score of 71.00%.

Models of various NLP tasks have been shown to exhibit stereotypes, and the bias in the question answering (QA) models is especially harmful as the output answers might be directly consumed by the end users. There have been datasets to evaluate bias in QA models, while bias mitigation technique for the QA models is still under-explored. In this work, we propose BMBI, an approach to mitigate the bias of multiple-choice QA models. Based on the intuition that a model would lean to be more biased if it learns from a biased example, we measure the bias level of a query instance by observing its influence on another instance. If the influenced instance is more biased, we derive that the query instance is biased. We then use the bias level detected as an optimization objective to form a multi-task learning setting in addition to the original QA task. We further introduce a new bias evaluation metric to quantify bias in a comprehensive and sensitive way. We show that our method could be applied to multiple QA formulations across multiple bias categories. It can significantly reduce the bias level in all 9 bias categories in the BBQ dataset while maintaining comparable QA accuracy.

Although counterfactual reasoning is a fundamental aspect of intelligence, the lack of large-scale counterfactual open-domain question-answering (QA) benchmarks makes it difficult to evaluate and improve models on this ability. To address this void, we introduce the first such dataset, named IfQA, where each question is based on a counterfactual presupposition via an "if" clause. For example, if Los Angeles was on the east coast of the U.S., what would be the time difference between Los Angeles and Paris? Such questions require models to go beyond retrieving direct factual knowledge from the Web: they must identify the right information to retrieve and reason about an imagined situation that may even go against the facts built into their parameters. The IfQA dataset contains over 3,800 questions that were annotated annotated by crowdworkers on relevant Wikipedia passages. Empirical analysis reveals that the IfQA dataset is highly challenging for existing open-domain QA methods, including supervised retrieve-then-read pipeline methods (EM score 36.2), as well as recent few-shot approaches such as chain-of-thought prompting with GPT-3 (EM score 27.4). The unique challenges posed by the IfQA benchmark will push open-domain QA research on both retrieval and counterfactual reasoning fronts.

Semantic answer type prediction (SMART) is known to be a useful step towards effective question answering (QA) systems. The SMART task involves predicting the top-k knowledge graph (KG) types for a given natural language question. This is challenging due to the large number of types in KGs. In this paper, we propose use of extreme multi-label classification using Transformer models (XBERT) by clustering KG types using structural and semantic features based on question text. We specifically improve the clustering stage of the XBERT pipeline using textual and structural features derived from KGs. We show that these features can improve end-to-end performance for the SMART task, and yield state-of-the-art results.

Human reading comprehension often requires reasoning of event semantic relations in narratives, represented by Event-centric Question-Answering (QA). To address event-centric QA, we propose a novel QA model with contrastive learning and invertible event transformation, call TranCLR. Our proposed model utilizes an invertible transformation matrix to project semantic vectors of events into a common event embedding space, trained with contrastive learning, and thus naturally inject event semantic knowledge into mainstream QA pipelines. The transformation matrix is fine-tuned with the annotated event relation types between events that occurred in questions and those in answers, using event-aware question vectors. Experimental results on the Event Semantic Relation Reasoning (ESTER) dataset show significant improvements in both generative and extractive settings compared to the existing strong baselines, achieving over 8.4% gain in the token-level F1 score and 3.0% gain in Exact Match (EM) score under the multi-answer setting. Qualitative analysis reveals the high quality of the generated answers by TranCLR, demonstrating the feasibility of injecting event knowledge into QA model learning. Our code and models can be found at https://github.com/LuJunru/TranCLR.

We introduce a new dataset for Question Rewriting in Conversational Context (QReCC), which contains 14K conversations with 80K question-answer pairs. The task in QReCC is to find answers to conversational questions within a collection of 10M web pages (split into 54M passages). Answers to questions in the same conversation may be distributed across several web pages. QReCC provides annotations that allow us to train and evaluate individual subtasks of question rewriting, passage retrieval and reading comprehension required for the end-to-end conversational question answering (QA) task. We report the effectiveness of a strong baseline approach that combines the state-of-the-art model for question rewriting, and competitive models for open-domain QA. Our results set the first baseline for the QReCC dataset with F1 of 19.10, compared to the human upper bound of 75.45, indicating the difficulty of the setup and a large room for improvement.

In this work, we introduce ChatQA, a family of conversational question answering (QA) models, that obtain GPT-4 level accuracies. Specifically, we propose a two-stage instruction tuning method that can significantly improve the zero-shot conversational QA results from large language models (LLMs). To handle retrieval in conversational QA, we fine-tune a dense retriever on a multi-turn QA dataset, which provides comparable results to using the state-of-the-art query rewriting model while largely reducing deployment cost. Notably, our ChatQA-70B can outperform GPT-4 in terms of average score on 10 conversational QA datasets (54.14 vs. 53.90), without relying on any synthetic data from OpenAI GPT models.

Large language models (LLMs) have made significant advancements in various natural language processing tasks, including question answering (QA) tasks. While incorporating new information with the retrieval of relevant passages is a promising way to improve QA with LLMs, the existing methods often require additional fine-tuning which becomes infeasible with recent LLMs. Augmenting retrieved passages via prompting has the potential to address this limitation, but this direction has been limitedly explored. To this end, we design a simple yet effective framework to enhance open-domain QA (ODQA) with LLMs, based on the summarized retrieval (SuRe). SuRe helps LLMs predict more accurate answers for a given question, which are well-supported by the summarized retrieval that could be viewed as an explicit rationale extracted from the retrieved passages. Specifically, SuRe first constructs summaries of the retrieved passages for each of the multiple answer candidates. Then, SuRe confirms the most plausible answer from the candidate set by evaluating the validity and ranking of the generated summaries. Experimental results on diverse ODQA benchmarks demonstrate the superiority of SuRe, with improvements of up to 4.6% in exact match (EM) and 4.0% in F1 score over standard prompting approaches. SuRe also can be integrated with a broad range of retrieval methods and LLMs. Finally, the generated summaries from SuRe show additional advantages to measure the importance of retrieved passages and serve as more preferred rationales by models and humans.

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has rapidly advanced the language model field, particularly in question-answering (QA) systems. By integrating external documents during the response generation phase, RAG significantly enhances the accuracy and reliability of language models. This method elevates the quality of responses and reduces the frequency of hallucinations, where the model generates incorrect or misleading information. However, these methods exhibit limited retrieval accuracy when faced with numerous indistinguishable documents, presenting notable challenges in their practical application. In response to these emerging challenges, we present HiQA, an advanced multi-document question-answering (MDQA) framework that integrates cascading metadata into content and a multi-route retrieval mechanism. We also release a benchmark called MasQA to evaluate and research in MDQA. Finally, HiQA demonstrates the state-of-the-art performance in multi-document environments.

Retriever-augmented instruction-following models are attractive alternatives to fine-tuned approaches for information-seeking tasks such as question answering (QA). By simply prepending retrieved documents in its input along with an instruction, these models can be adapted to various information domains and tasks without additional fine-tuning. While the model responses tend to be natural and fluent, the additional verbosity makes traditional QA evaluation metrics such as exact match (EM) and F1 unreliable for accurately quantifying model performance. In this work, we investigate the performance of instruction-following models across three information-seeking QA tasks. We use both automatic and human evaluation to evaluate these models along two dimensions: 1) how well they satisfy the user's information need (correctness), and 2) whether they produce a response based on the provided knowledge (faithfulness). Guided by human evaluation and analysis, we highlight the shortcomings of traditional metrics for both correctness and faithfulness. We then propose simple token-overlap based and model-based metrics that reflect the true performance of these models. Our analysis reveals that instruction-following models are competitive, and sometimes even outperform fine-tuned models for correctness. However, these models struggle to stick to the provided knowledge and often hallucinate in their responses. We hope our work encourages a more holistic evaluation of instruction-following models for QA. Our code and data is available at https://github.com/McGill-NLP/instruct-qa

The diversity and complexity of Indic languages present unique challenges for natural language processing (NLP) tasks, particularly in the domain of question answering (QA).To address these challenges, this paper explores the application of State Space Models (SSMs),to build efficient and contextually aware QA systems tailored for Indic languages. SSMs are particularly suited for this task due to their ability to model long-term and short-term dependencies in sequential data, making them well-equipped to handle the rich morphology, complex syntax, and contextual intricacies characteristic of Indian languages. We evaluated multiple SSM architectures across diverse datasets representing various Indic languages and conducted a comparative analysis of their performance. Our results demonstrate that these models effectively capture linguistic subtleties, leading to significant improvements in question interpretation, context alignment, and answer generation. This work represents the first application of SSMs to question answering tasks in Indic languages, establishing a foundational benchmark for future research in this domain. We propose enhancements to existing SSM frameworks, optimizing their applicability to low-resource settings and multilingual scenarios prevalent in Indic languages.

Hallucination is a well-known phenomenon in text generated by large language models (LLMs). The existence of hallucinatory responses is found in almost all application scenarios e.g., summarization, question-answering (QA) etc. For applications requiring high reliability (e.g., customer-facing assistants), the potential existence of hallucination in LLM-generated text is a critical problem. The amount of hallucination can be reduced by leveraging information retrieval to provide relevant background information to the LLM. However, LLMs can still generate hallucinatory content for various reasons (e.g., prioritizing its parametric knowledge over the context, failure to capture the relevant information from the context, etc.). Detecting hallucinations through automated methods is thus paramount. To facilitate research in this direction, we introduce a sophisticated dataset, DelucionQA, that captures hallucinations made by retrieval-augmented LLMs for a domain-specific QA task. Furthermore, we propose a set of hallucination detection methods to serve as baselines for future works from the research community. Analysis and case study are also provided to share valuable insights on hallucination phenomena in the target scenario.

Pre-trained Generative models such as BART, T5, etc. have gained prominence as a preferred method for text generation in various natural language processing tasks, including abstractive long-form question answering (QA) and summarization. However, the potential of generative models in extractive QA tasks, where discriminative models are commonly employed, remains largely unexplored. Discriminative models often encounter challenges associated with label sparsity, particularly when only a small portion of the context contains the answer. The challenge is more pronounced for multi-span answers. In this work, we introduce a novel approach that uses the power of pre-trained generative models to address extractive QA tasks by generating indexes corresponding to context tokens or sentences that form part of the answer. Through comprehensive evaluations on multiple extractive QA datasets, including MultiSpanQA, BioASQ, MASHQA, and WikiQA, we demonstrate the superior performance of our proposed approach compared to existing state-of-the-art models.

Large Language Models (LLMs), although powerful in general domains, often perform poorly on domain-specific tasks like medical question answering (QA). Moreover, they tend to function as "black-boxes," making it challenging to modify their behavior. Addressing this, our study delves into model editing utilizing in-context learning, aiming to improve LLM responses without the need for fine-tuning or retraining. Specifically, we propose a comprehensive retrieval strategy to extract medical facts from an external knowledge base, and then we incorporate them into the query prompt for the LLM. Focusing on medical QA using the MedQA-SMILE dataset, we evaluate the impact of different retrieval models and the number of facts provided to the LLM. Notably, our edited Vicuna model exhibited an accuracy improvement from 44.46% to 48.54%. This work underscores the potential of model editing to enhance LLM performance, offering a practical approach to mitigate the challenges of black-box LLMs.

Large Language Model (LLM) has gained popularity and achieved remarkable results in open-domain tasks, but its performance in real industrial domain-specific scenarios is average since there is no specific knowledge in it. This issue has attracted widespread attention, but there are few relevant benchmarks available. In this paper, we provide a benchmark Question Answering (QA) dataset named MSQA, which is about Microsoft products and IT technical problems encountered by customers. This dataset contains industry cloud-specific QA knowledge, which is not available for general LLM, so it is well suited for evaluating methods aimed at improving domain-specific capabilities of LLM. In addition, we propose a new model interaction paradigm that can empower LLM to achieve better performance on domain-specific tasks where it is not proficient. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the approach following our model fusion framework outperforms the commonly used LLM with retrieval methods.

It is well documented that NLP models learn social biases, but little work has been done on how these biases manifest in model outputs for applied tasks like question answering (QA). We introduce the Bias Benchmark for QA (BBQ), a dataset of question sets constructed by the authors that highlight attested social biases against people belonging to protected classes along nine social dimensions relevant for U.S. English-speaking contexts. Our task evaluates model responses at two levels: (i) given an under-informative context, we test how strongly responses reflect social biases, and (ii) given an adequately informative context, we test whether the model's biases override a correct answer choice. We find that models often rely on stereotypes when the context is under-informative, meaning the model's outputs consistently reproduce harmful biases in this setting. Though models are more accurate when the context provides an informative answer, they still rely on stereotypes and average up to 3.4 percentage points higher accuracy when the correct answer aligns with a social bias than when it conflicts, with this difference widening to over 5 points on examples targeting gender for most models tested.

Recent studies have explored the use of Large Language Models (LLMs) with Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) for Knowledge Graph Question Answering (KGQA). They typically require rewriting retrieved subgraphs into natural language formats comprehensible to LLMs. However, when tackling complex questions, the knowledge rewritten by existing methods may include irrelevant information, omit crucial details, or fail to align with the question's semantics. To address them, we propose a novel rewriting method CoTKR, Chain-of-Thought Enhanced Knowledge Rewriting, for generating reasoning traces and corresponding knowledge in an interleaved manner, thereby mitigating the limitations of single-step knowledge rewriting. Additionally, to bridge the preference gap between the knowledge rewriter and the question answering (QA) model, we propose a training strategy PAQAF, Preference Alignment from Question Answering Feedback, for leveraging feedback from the QA model to further optimize the knowledge rewriter. We conduct experiments using various LLMs across several KGQA benchmarks. Experimental results demonstrate that, compared with previous knowledge rewriting methods, CoTKR generates the most beneficial knowledge representation for QA models, which significantly improves the performance of LLMs in KGQA.

In the rapidly evolving landscape of Natural Language Processing (NLP), Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in tasks such as question answering (QA). However, the accessibility and practicality of utilizing these models for industrial applications pose significant challenges, particularly concerning cost-effectiveness, inference speed, and resource efficiency. This paper presents a comprehensive benchmarking study comparing open-source LLMs with their non-open-source counterparts on the task of question answering. Our objective is to identify open-source alternatives capable of delivering comparable performance to proprietary models while being lightweight in terms of resource requirements and suitable for Central Processing Unit (CPU)-based inference. Through rigorous evaluation across various metrics including accuracy, inference speed, and resource consumption, we aim to provide insights into selecting efficient LLMs for real-world applications. Our findings shed light on viable open-source alternatives that offer acceptable performance and efficiency, addressing the pressing need for accessible and efficient NLP solutions in industry settings.

Table understanding capability of Large Language Models (LLMs) has been extensively studied through the task of question-answering (QA) over tables. Typically, only a small part of the whole table is relevant to derive the answer for a given question. The irrelevant parts act as noise and are distracting information, resulting in sub-optimal performance due to the vulnerability of LLMs to noise. To mitigate this, we propose CABINET (Content RelevAnce-Based NoIse ReductioN for TablE QuesTion-Answering) - a framework to enable LLMs to focus on relevant tabular data by suppressing extraneous information. CABINET comprises an Unsupervised Relevance Scorer (URS), trained differentially with the QA LLM, that weighs the table content based on its relevance to the input question before feeding it to the question-answering LLM (QA LLM). To further aid the relevance scorer, CABINET employs a weakly supervised module that generates a parsing statement describing the criteria of rows and columns relevant to the question and highlights the content of corresponding table cells. CABINET significantly outperforms various tabular LLM baselines, as well as GPT3-based in-context learning methods, is more robust to noise, maintains outperformance on tables of varying sizes, and establishes new SoTA performance on WikiTQ, FeTaQA, and WikiSQL datasets. We release our code and datasets at https://github.com/Sohanpatnaik106/CABINET_QA.

Recently, the development of large language models (LLMs) has attracted wide attention in academia and industry. Deploying LLMs to real scenarios is one of the key directions in the current Internet industry. In this paper, we present a novel pipeline to apply LLMs for domain-specific question answering (QA) that incorporates domain knowledge graphs (KGs), addressing an important direction of LLM application. As a real-world application, the content generated by LLMs should be user-friendly to serve the customers. Additionally, the model needs to utilize domain knowledge properly to generate reliable answers. These two issues are the two major difficulties in the LLM application as vanilla fine-tuning can not adequately address them. We think both requirements can be unified as the model preference problem that needs to align with humans to achieve practical application. Thus, we introduce Knowledgeable Preference AlignmenT (KnowPAT), which constructs two kinds of preference set called style preference set and knowledge preference set respectively to tackle the two issues. Besides, we design a new alignment objective to align the LLM preference with human preference, aiming to train a better LLM for real-scenario domain-specific QA to generate reliable and user-friendly answers. Adequate experiments and comprehensive with 15 baseline methods demonstrate that our KnowPAT is an outperforming pipeline for real-scenario domain-specific QA with LLMs. Our code is open-source at https://github.com/zjukg/KnowPAT.

We introduce CHIME, a cross-passage hierarchical memory network for question answering (QA) via text generation. It extends XLNet introducing an auxiliary memory module consisting of two components: the context memory collecting cross-passage evidences, and the answer memory working as a buffer continually refining the generated answers. Empirically, we show the efficacy of the proposed architecture in the multi-passage generative QA, outperforming the state-of-the-art baselines with better syntactically well-formed answers and increased precision in addressing the questions of the AmazonQA review dataset. An additional qualitative analysis revealed the interpretability introduced by the memory module.

To bridge the gap between the capabilities of the state-of-the-art in factoid question answering (QA) and what users ask, we need large datasets of real user questions that capture the various question phenomena users are interested in, and the diverse ways in which these questions are formulated. We introduce ComQA, a large dataset of real user questions that exhibit different challenging aspects such as compositionality, temporal reasoning, and comparisons. ComQA questions come from the WikiAnswers community QA platform, which typically contains questions that are not satisfactorily answerable by existing search engine technology. Through a large crowdsourcing effort, we clean the question dataset, group questions into paraphrase clusters, and annotate clusters with their answers. ComQA contains 11,214 questions grouped into 4,834 paraphrase clusters. We detail the process of constructing ComQA, including the measures taken to ensure its high quality while making effective use of crowdsourcing. We also present an extensive analysis of the dataset and the results achieved by state-of-the-art systems on ComQA, demonstrating that our dataset can be a driver of future research on QA.

Long-context modeling capabilities have garnered widespread attention, leading to the emergence of Large Language Models (LLMs) with ultra-context windows. Meanwhile, benchmarks for evaluating long-context LLMs are gradually catching up. However, existing benchmarks employ irrelevant noise texts to artificially extend the length of test cases, diverging from the real-world scenarios of long-context applications. To bridge this gap, we propose a novel long-context benchmark, Loong, aligning with realistic scenarios through extended multi-document question answering (QA). Unlike typical document QA, in Loong's test cases, each document is relevant to the final answer, ignoring any document will lead to the failure of the answer. Furthermore, Loong introduces four types of tasks with a range of context lengths: Spotlight Locating, Comparison, Clustering, and Chain of Reasoning, to facilitate a more realistic and comprehensive evaluation of long-context understanding. Extensive experiments indicate that existing long-context language models still exhibit considerable potential for enhancement. Retrieval augmented generation (RAG) achieves poor performance, demonstrating that Loong can reliably assess the model's long-context modeling capabilities.

Large language models (LLMs) encode extensive world knowledge through pre-training on massive datasets, which can then be fine-tuned for the question-answering (QA) task. However, effective strategies for fine-tuning LLMs for the QA task remain largely unexplored. To address this gap, we categorize supervised fine-tuning (SFT) data based on the extent of knowledge memorized by the pretrained LLMs and conduct a series of empirical analyses. Our experiments, involving four LLMs from three different model families, focus on three key factors: the amount of data required for SFT, the impact of different SFT datasets on model performance, and how data requirements vary across LLMs. The results show that as few as 60 data points during the SFT stage can activate the knowledge encoded during pre-training, enabling LLMs to perform the QA task. Additionally, SFT with data of varying memory levels has a significant impact on LLM performance, with the optimal dataset differing based on the specific model being fine-tuned. Future research will delve deeper into the mechanisms underlying these phenomena.

Hallucination, or the generation of incorrect or fabricated information, remains a critical challenge in large language models (LLMs), particularly in high-stake domains such as legal question answering (QA). In order to mitigate the hallucination rate in legal QA, we first introduce a benchmark called LegalHalBench and three automatic metrics to evaluate the common hallucinations when LLMs answer legal questions. We then propose a hallucination mitigation method that integrates behavior cloning and a novel Hard Sample-aware Iterative Direct Preference Optimization (HIPO). We conduct extensive real-data experiments to validate the effectiveness of our approach. Our results demonstrate remarkable improvements in various metrics, including the newly proposed Non-Hallucinated Statute Rate, Statute Relevance Rate, Legal Claim Truthfulness, as well as traditional metrics such as METEOR, BERTScore, ROUGE-L, and win rates.

Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) enables Large Language Models (LLMs) to generalize to new information by decoupling reasoning capabilities from static knowledge bases. Traditional RAG enhancements have explored vertical scaling -- assigning subtasks to specialized modules -- and horizontal scaling -- replicating tasks across multiple agents -- to improve performance. However, real-world applications impose diverse Service Level Agreements (SLAs) and Quality of Service (QoS) requirements, involving trade-offs among objectives such as reducing cost, ensuring answer quality, and adhering to specific operational constraints. In this work, we present a systems-oriented approach to multi-agent RAG tailored for real-world Question Answering (QA) applications. By integrating task-specific non-functional requirements -- such as answer quality, cost, and latency -- into the system, we enable dynamic reconfiguration to meet diverse SLAs. Our method maps these Service Level Objectives (SLOs) to system-level parameters, allowing the generation of optimal results within specified resource constraints. We conduct a case study in the QA domain, demonstrating how dynamic re-orchestration of a multi-agent RAG system can effectively manage the trade-off between answer quality and cost. By adjusting the system based on query intent and operational conditions, we systematically balance performance and resource utilization. This approach allows the system to meet SLOs for various query types, showcasing its practicality for real-world applications.

In this paper, we introduce FAMMA, an open-source benchmark for financial multilingual multimodal question answering (QA). Our benchmark aims to evaluate the abilities of multimodal large language models (MLLMs) in answering questions that require advanced financial knowledge and sophisticated reasoning. It includes 1,758 meticulously collected question-answer pairs from university textbooks and exams, spanning 8 major subfields in finance including corporate finance, asset management, and financial engineering. Some of the QA pairs are written in Chinese or French, while a majority of them are in English. These questions are presented in a mixed format combining text and heterogeneous image types, such as charts, tables, and diagrams. We evaluate a range of state-of-the-art MLLMs on our benchmark, and our analysis shows that FAMMA poses a significant challenge for these models. Even advanced systems like GPT-4o and Claude-35-Sonnet achieve only 42\% accuracy. Additionally, the open-source Qwen2-VL lags notably behind its proprietary counterparts. Lastly, we explore GPT o1-style reasoning chains to enhance the models' reasoning capabilities, which significantly improve error correction. Our FAMMA benchmark will facilitate future research to develop expert systems in financial QA. The leaderboard is available at https://famma-bench.github.io/famma/ .

Retrieval augmented generation (RAG) enhances the accuracy and reliability of generative AI models by sourcing factual information from external databases, which is extensively employed in document-grounded question-answering (QA) tasks. Off-the-shelf RAG flows are well pretrained on general-purpose documents, yet they encounter significant challenges when being applied to knowledge-intensive vertical domains, such as electronic design automation (EDA). This paper addresses such issue by proposing a customized RAG framework along with three domain-specific techniques for EDA tool documentation QA, including a contrastive learning scheme for text embedding model fine-tuning, a reranker distilled from proprietary LLM, and a generative LLM fine-tuned with high-quality domain corpus. Furthermore, we have developed and released a documentation QA evaluation benchmark, ORD-QA, for OpenROAD, an advanced RTL-to-GDSII design platform. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed RAG flow and techniques have achieved superior performance on ORD-QA as well as on a commercial tool, compared with state-of-the-arts. The ORD-QA benchmark and the training dataset for our customized RAG flow are open-source at https://github.com/lesliepy99/RAG-EDA.

Considering the limited internal parametric knowledge, retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has been widely used to extend the knowledge scope of large language models (LLMs). Despite the extensive efforts on RAG research, in existing methods, LLMs cannot precisely assess the relevance of retrieved documents, thus likely leading to misleading or even incorrect utilization of external knowledge (i.e., retrieved documents). To address this issue, in this paper, we propose REAR, a RElevance-Aware Retrieval-augmented approach for open-domain question answering (QA). As the key motivation, we aim to enhance the self-awareness of source relevance for LLMs, so as to adaptively utilize external knowledge in RAG systems. Specially, we develop a new architecture for LLM based RAG system, by incorporating a specially designed rank head that precisely assesses the relevance of retrieved documents. Furthermore, we propose an improved training method based on bi-granularity relevance fusion and noise-resistant training. By combining the improvements in both architecture and training, our proposed REAR can better utilize external knowledge by effectively perceiving the relevance of retrieved documents. Experiments on four open-domain QA tasks show that REAR significantly outperforms previous a number of competitive RAG approaches. Our code and data can be accessed at https://github.com/RUCAIBox/REAR.

Recent instruction-finetuned large language models (LMs) have achieved notable performances in various tasks, such as question-answering (QA). However, despite their ability to memorize a vast amount of general knowledge across diverse tasks, they might be suboptimal on specific tasks due to their limited capacity to transfer and adapt knowledge to target tasks. Moreover, further finetuning LMs with labeled datasets is often infeasible due to their absence, but it is also questionable if we can transfer smaller LMs having limited knowledge only with unlabeled test data. In this work, we show and investigate the capabilities of smaller self-adaptive LMs, only with unlabeled test data. In particular, we first stochastically generate multiple answers, and then ensemble them while filtering out low-quality samples to mitigate noise from inaccurate labels. Our proposed self-adaption strategy demonstrates significant performance improvements on benchmark QA datasets with higher robustness across diverse prompts, enabling LMs to stay stable. Code is available at: https://github.com/starsuzi/T-SAS.

We propose a simple yet effective strategy to incorporate event knowledge extracted from event trigger annotations via posterior regularization to improve the event reasoning capability of mainstream question-answering (QA) models for event-centric QA. In particular, we define event-related knowledge constraints based on the event trigger annotations in the QA datasets, and subsequently use them to regularize the posterior answer output probabilities from the backbone pre-trained language models used in the QA setting. We explore two different posterior regularization strategies for extractive and generative QA separately. For extractive QA, the sentence-level event knowledge constraint is defined by assessing if a sentence contains an answer event or not, which is later used to modify the answer span extraction probability. For generative QA, the token-level event knowledge constraint is defined by comparing the generated token from the backbone language model with the answer event in order to introduce a reward or penalty term, which essentially adjusts the answer generative probability indirectly. We conduct experiments on two event-centric QA datasets, TORQUE and ESTER. The results show that our proposed approach can effectively inject event knowledge into existing pre-trained language models and achieves strong performance compared to existing QA models in answer evaluation. Code and models can be found: https://github.com/LuJunru/EventQAviaPR.

In this paper, we release a largest ever medical Question Answering (QA) dataset with 26 million QA pairs. We benchmark many existing approaches in our dataset in terms of both retrieval and generation. Experimental results show that the existing models perform far lower than expected and the released dataset is still challenging in the pre-trained language model era. Moreover, we also experimentally show the benefit of the proposed dataset in many aspects: (i) trained models for other QA datasets in a zero-shot fashion; and (ii) as external knowledge for retrieval-augmented generation (RAG); and (iii) improving existing pre-trained language models by using the QA pairs as a pre-training corpus in continued training manner. We believe that this dataset will not only contribute to medical research but also facilitate both the patients and clinical doctors. See https://github.com/FreedomIntelligence/Huatuo-26M.

The information in tables can be an important complement to text, making table-based question answering (QA) systems of great value. The intrinsic complexity of handling tables often adds an extra burden to both model design and data annotation. In this paper, we aim to develop a simple table-based QA model with minimal annotation effort. Motivated by the fact that table-based QA requires both alignment between questions and tables and the ability to perform complicated reasoning over multiple table elements, we propose an omnivorous pretraining approach that consumes both natural and synthetic data to endow models with these respective abilities. Specifically, given freely available tables, we leverage retrieval to pair them with relevant natural sentences for mask-based pretraining, and synthesize NL questions by converting SQL sampled from tables for pretraining with a QA loss. We perform extensive experiments in both few-shot and full settings, and the results clearly demonstrate the superiority of our model OmniTab, with the best multitasking approach achieving an absolute gain of 16.2% and 2.7% in 128-shot and full settings respectively, also establishing a new state-of-the-art on WikiTableQuestions. Detailed ablations and analyses reveal different characteristics of natural and synthetic data, shedding light on future directions in omnivorous pretraining. Code, pretraining data, and pretrained models are available at https://github.com/jzbjyb/OmniTab.

A key limitation in current datasets for multi-hop reasoning is that the required steps for answering the question are mentioned in it explicitly. In this work, we introduce StrategyQA, a question answering (QA) benchmark where the required reasoning steps are implicit in the question, and should be inferred using a strategy. A fundamental challenge in this setup is how to elicit such creative questions from crowdsourcing workers, while covering a broad range of potential strategies. We propose a data collection procedure that combines term-based priming to inspire annotators, careful control over the annotator population, and adversarial filtering for eliminating reasoning shortcuts. Moreover, we annotate each question with (1) a decomposition into reasoning steps for answering it, and (2) Wikipedia paragraphs that contain the answers to each step. Overall, StrategyQA includes 2,780 examples, each consisting of a strategy question, its decomposition, and evidence paragraphs. Analysis shows that questions in StrategyQA are short, topic-diverse, and cover a wide range of strategies. Empirically, we show that humans perform well (87%) on this task, while our best baseline reaches an accuracy of sim66%.

Large vision-language models (LVLMs) have demonstrated remarkable achievements, yet the generation of non-factual responses remains prevalent in fact-seeking question answering (QA). Current multimodal fact-seeking benchmarks primarily focus on comparing model outputs to ground truth answers, providing limited insights into the performance of modality-specific modules. To bridge this gap, we introduce VisualSimpleQA, a multimodal fact-seeking benchmark with two key features. First, it enables streamlined and decoupled evaluation of LVLMs in visual and linguistic modalities. Second, it incorporates well-defined difficulty criteria to guide human annotation and facilitates the extraction of a challenging subset, VisualSimpleQA-hard. Experiments on 15 LVLMs show that even state-of-the-art models such as GPT-4o achieve merely 60%+ correctness in multimodal fact-seeking QA on VisualSimpleQA and 30%+ on VisualSimpleQA-hard. Furthermore, the decoupled evaluation across these models highlights substantial opportunities for improvement in both visual and linguistic modules. The dataset is available at https://huggingface.co/datasets/WYLing/VisualSimpleQA.

Recent advancements of large language models (LLMs) have led to claims of AI surpassing humans in natural language processing (NLP) tasks such as textual understanding and reasoning. This work investigates these assertions by introducing CAIMIRA, a novel framework rooted in item response theory (IRT) that enables quantitative assessment and comparison of problem-solving abilities of question-answering (QA) agents: humans and AI systems. Through analysis of over 300,000 responses from ~70 AI systems and 155 humans across thousands of quiz questions, CAIMIRA uncovers distinct proficiency patterns in knowledge domains and reasoning skills. Humans outperform AI systems in knowledge-grounded abductive and conceptual reasoning, while state-of-the-art LLMs like GPT-4 and LLaMA show superior performance on targeted information retrieval and fact-based reasoning, particularly when information gaps are well-defined and addressable through pattern matching or data retrieval. These findings highlight the need for future QA tasks to focus on questions that challenge not only higher-order reasoning and scientific thinking, but also demand nuanced linguistic interpretation and cross-contextual knowledge application, helping advance AI developments that better emulate or complement human cognitive abilities in real-world problem-solving.

Augmenting Large Language Models (LLMs) with information retrieval capabilities (i.e., Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG)) has proven beneficial for knowledge-intensive tasks. However, understanding users' contextual search intent when generating responses is an understudied topic for conversational question answering (QA). This conversational extension leads to additional concerns when compared to single-turn QA as it is more challenging for systems to comprehend conversational context and manage retrieved passages over multiple turns. In this work, we propose a method for enabling LLMs to decide when to retrieve in RAG settings given a conversational context. When retrieval is deemed necessary, the LLM then rewrites the conversation for passage retrieval and judges the relevance of returned passages before response generation. Operationally, we build on the single-turn SELF-RAG framework (Asai et al., 2023) and propose SELF-multi-RAG for conversational settings. SELF-multi-RAG demonstrates improved capabilities over single-turn variants with respect to retrieving relevant passages (by using summarized conversational context) and assessing the quality of generated responses. Experiments on three conversational QA datasets validate the enhanced response generation capabilities of SELF-multi-RAG, with improvements of ~13% measured by human annotation.

Question Answering (QA) datasets are crucial in assessing reading comprehension skills for both machines and humans. While numerous datasets have been developed in English for this purpose, a noticeable void exists in less-resourced languages. To alleviate this gap, our paper introduces machine-translated versions of FairytaleQA, a renowned QA dataset designed to assess and enhance narrative comprehension skills in young children. By employing fine-tuned, modest-scale models, we establish benchmarks for both Question Generation (QG) and QA tasks within the translated datasets. In addition, we present a case study proposing a model for generating question-answer pairs, with an evaluation incorporating quality metrics such as question well-formedness, answerability, relevance, and children suitability. Our evaluation prioritizes quantifying and describing error cases, along with providing directions for future work. This paper contributes to the advancement of QA and QG research in less-resourced languages, promoting accessibility and inclusivity in the development of these models for reading comprehension. The code and data is publicly available at github.com/bernardoleite/fairytaleqa-translated.

As large language models (LLMs) grow larger and more sophisticated, assessing their "reasoning" capabilities in natural language grows more challenging. Recent question answering (QA) benchmarks that attempt to assess reasoning are often limited by a narrow scope of covered situations and subject matters. We introduce WikiWhy, a QA dataset built around a novel auxiliary task: explaining why an answer is true in natural language. WikiWhy contains over 9,000 "why" question-answer-rationale triples, grounded on Wikipedia facts across a diverse set of topics. Each rationale is a set of supporting statements connecting the question to the answer. WikiWhy serves as a benchmark for the reasoning capabilities of LLMs because it demands rigorous explicit rationales for each answer to demonstrate the acquisition of implicit commonsense knowledge, which is unlikely to be easily memorized. GPT-3 baselines achieve only 38.7% human-evaluated correctness in the end-to-end answer & explain condition, leaving significant room for future improvements.

Multihop reasoning remains an elusive goal as existing multihop benchmarks are known to be largely solvable via shortcuts. Can we create a question answering (QA) dataset that, by construction, requires proper multihop reasoning? To this end, we introduce a bottom-up approach that systematically selects composable pairs of single-hop questions that are connected, i.e., where one reasoning step critically relies on information from another. This bottom-up methodology lets us explore a vast space of questions and add stringent filters as well as other mechanisms targeting connected reasoning. It provides fine-grained control over the construction process and the properties of the resulting k-hop questions. We use this methodology to create MuSiQue-Ans, a new multihop QA dataset with 25K 2-4 hop questions. Relative to existing datasets, MuSiQue-Ans is more difficult overall (3x increase in human-machine gap), and harder to cheat via disconnected reasoning (e.g., a single-hop model has a 30 point drop in F1). We further add unanswerable contrast questions to produce a more stringent dataset, MuSiQue-Full. We hope our datasets will help the NLP community develop models that perform genuine multihop reasoning.

Modern systems for multi-hop question answering (QA) typically break questions into a sequence of reasoning steps, termed chain-of-thought (CoT), before arriving at a final answer. Often, multiple chains are sampled and aggregated through a voting mechanism over the final answers, but the intermediate steps themselves are discarded. While such approaches improve performance, they do not consider the relations between intermediate steps across chains and do not provide a unified explanation for the predicted answer. We introduce Multi-Chain Reasoning (MCR), an approach which prompts large language models to meta-reason over multiple chains of thought, rather than aggregating their answers. MCR examines different reasoning chains, mixes information between them and selects the most relevant facts in generating an explanation and predicting the answer. MCR outperforms strong baselines on 7 multi-hop QA datasets. Moreover, our analysis reveals that MCR explanations exhibit high quality, enabling humans to verify its answers.

Reinforcement learning (RL) in long horizon and sparse reward tasks is notoriously difficult and requires a lot of training steps. A standard solution to speed up the process is to leverage additional reward signals, shaping it to better guide the learning process. In the context of language-conditioned RL, the abstraction and generalisation properties of the language input provide opportunities for more efficient ways of shaping the reward. In this paper, we leverage this idea and propose an automated reward shaping method where the agent extracts auxiliary objectives from the general language goal. These auxiliary objectives use a question generation (QG) and question answering (QA) system: they consist of questions leading the agent to try to reconstruct partial information about the global goal using its own trajectory. When it succeeds, it receives an intrinsic reward proportional to its confidence in its answer. This incentivizes the agent to generate trajectories which unambiguously explain various aspects of the general language goal. Our experimental study shows that this approach, which does not require engineer intervention to design the auxiliary objectives, improves sample efficiency by effectively directing exploration.

It is challenging for current one-step retrieve-and-read question answering (QA) systems to answer questions like "Which novel by the author of 'Armada' will be adapted as a feature film by Steven Spielberg?" because the question seldom contains retrievable clues about the missing entity (here, the author). Answering such a question requires multi-hop reasoning where one must gather information about the missing entity (or facts) to proceed with further reasoning. We present GoldEn (Gold Entity) Retriever, which iterates between reading context and retrieving more supporting documents to answer open-domain multi-hop questions. Instead of using opaque and computationally expensive neural retrieval models, GoldEn Retriever generates natural language search queries given the question and available context, and leverages off-the-shelf information retrieval systems to query for missing entities. This allows GoldEn Retriever to scale up efficiently for open-domain multi-hop reasoning while maintaining interpretability. We evaluate GoldEn Retriever on the recently proposed open-domain multi-hop QA dataset, HotpotQA, and demonstrate that it outperforms the best previously published model despite not using pretrained language models such as BERT.

Question Generation (QG) is a Natural Language Processing (NLP) task that aids advances in Question Answering (QA) and conversational assistants. Existing models focus on generating a question based on a text and possibly the answer to the generated question. They need to determine the type of interrogative word to be generated while having to pay attention to the grammar and vocabulary of the question. In this work, we propose Interrogative-Word-Aware Question Generation (IWAQG), a pipelined system composed of two modules: an interrogative word classifier and a QG model. The first module predicts the interrogative word that is provided to the second module to create the question. Owing to an increased recall of deciding the interrogative words to be used for the generated questions, the proposed model achieves new state-of-the-art results on the task of QG in SQuAD, improving from 46.58 to 47.69 in BLEU-1, 17.55 to 18.53 in BLEU-4, 21.24 to 22.33 in METEOR, and from 44.53 to 46.94 in ROUGE-L.

Automatic question generation (QG) serves a wide range of purposes, such as augmenting question-answering (QA) corpora, enhancing chatbot systems, and developing educational materials. Despite its importance, most existing datasets predominantly focus on English, resulting in a considerable gap in data availability for other languages. Cross-lingual transfer for QG (XLT-QG) addresses this limitation by allowing models trained on high-resource language datasets to generate questions in low-resource languages. In this paper, we propose a simple and efficient XLT-QG method that operates without the need for monolingual, parallel, or labeled data in the target language, utilizing a small language model. Our model, trained solely on English QA datasets, learns interrogative structures from a limited set of question exemplars, which are then applied to generate questions in the target language. Experimental results show that our method outperforms several XLT-QG baselines and achieves performance comparable to GPT-3.5-turbo across different languages. Additionally, the synthetic data generated by our model proves beneficial for training multilingual QA models. With significantly fewer parameters than large language models and without requiring additional training for target languages, our approach offers an effective solution for QG and QA tasks across various languages.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant capabilities, particularly in the domain of question answering (QA). However, their effectiveness in QA is often undermined by the vagueness of user questions. To address this issue, we introduce single-round instance-level prompt optimization, referred to as question rewriter. By enhancing the intelligibility of human questions for black-box LLMs, our question rewriter improves the quality of generated answers. The rewriter is optimized using direct preference optimization based on feedback collected from automatic criteria for evaluating generated answers; therefore, its training does not require costly human annotations. The experiments across multiple black-box LLMs and long-form question answering (LFQA) datasets demonstrate the efficacy of our method. This paper provides a practical framework for training question rewriters and sets a precedent for future explorations in prompt optimization within LFQA tasks. Code is available at https://github.com/3244we/Question-Rewriter.

Pre-trained language models (PLMs) have shown unprecedented potential in various fields, especially as the backbones for question-answering (QA) systems. However, they tend to be easily deceived by tricky questions such as "How many eyes does the sun have?". Such frailties of PLMs often allude to the lack of knowledge within them. In this paper, we find that the PLMs already possess the knowledge required to rebut such questions, and the key is how to activate the knowledge. To systematize this observation, we investigate the PLMs' responses to one kind of tricky questions, i.e., the false premises questions (FPQs). We annotate a FalseQA dataset containing 2365 human-written FPQs, with the corresponding explanations for the false premises and the revised true premise questions. Using FalseQA, we discover that PLMs are capable of discriminating FPQs by fine-tuning on moderate numbers (e.g., 256) of examples. PLMs also generate reasonable explanations for the false premise, which serve as rebuttals. Further replaying a few general questions during training allows PLMs to excel on FPQs and general questions simultaneously. Our work suggests that once the rebuttal ability is stimulated, knowledge inside the PLMs can be effectively utilized to handle FPQs, which incentivizes the research on PLM-based QA systems.

Retrieval-Augmented Large Language Models (LLMs), which incorporate the non-parametric knowledge from external knowledge bases into LLMs, have emerged as a promising approach to enhancing response accuracy in several tasks, such as Question-Answering (QA). However, even though there are various approaches dealing with queries of different complexities, they either handle simple queries with unnecessary computational overhead or fail to adequately address complex multi-step queries; yet, not all user requests fall into only one of the simple or complex categories. In this work, we propose a novel adaptive QA framework, that can dynamically select the most suitable strategy for (retrieval-augmented) LLMs from the simplest to the most sophisticated ones based on the query complexity. Also, this selection process is operationalized with a classifier, which is a smaller LM trained to predict the complexity level of incoming queries with automatically collected labels, obtained from actual predicted outcomes of models and inherent inductive biases in datasets. This approach offers a balanced strategy, seamlessly adapting between the iterative and single-step retrieval-augmented LLMs, as well as the no-retrieval methods, in response to a range of query complexities. We validate our model on a set of open-domain QA datasets, covering multiple query complexities, and show that ours enhances the overall efficiency and accuracy of QA systems, compared to relevant baselines including the adaptive retrieval approaches. Code is available at: https://github.com/starsuzi/Adaptive-RAG.

Question Answering (QA) datasets have been instrumental in developing and evaluating Large Language Model (LLM) capabilities. However, such datasets are scarce for languages other than English due to the cost and difficulties of collection and manual annotation. This means that producing novel models and measuring the performance of multilingual LLMs in low-resource languages is challenging. To mitigate this, we propose SynDARin, a method for generating and validating QA datasets for low-resource languages. We utilize parallel content mining to obtain human-curated paragraphs between English and the target language. We use the English data as context to generate synthetic multiple-choice (MC) question-answer pairs, which are automatically translated and further validated for quality. Combining these with their designated non-English human-curated paragraphs form the final QA dataset. The method allows to maintain the content quality, reduces the likelihood of factual errors, and circumvents the need for costly annotation. To test the method, we created a QA dataset with 1.2K samples for the Armenian language. The human evaluation shows that 98% of the generated English data maintains quality and diversity in the question types and topics, while the translation validation pipeline can filter out sim70% of data with poor quality. We use the dataset to benchmark state-of-the-art LLMs, showing their inability to achieve human accuracy with some model performances closer to random chance. This shows that the generated dataset is non-trivial and can be used to evaluate reasoning capabilities in low-resource language.

Question answering (QA) is the task of answering questions posed in natural language with free-form natural language answers extracted from a given passage. In the OpenQA variant, only a question text is given, and the system must retrieve relevant passages from an unstructured knowledge source and use them to provide answers, which is the case in the mainstream QA systems on the Web. QA systems currently are mostly limited to the English language due to the lack of large-scale labeled QA datasets in non-English languages. In this paper, we show that effective, low-cost OpenQA systems can be developed for low-resource contexts. The key ingredients are (1) weak supervision using machine-translated labeled datasets and (2) a relevant unstructured knowledge source in the target language context. Furthermore, we show that only a few hundred gold assessment examples are needed to reliably evaluate these systems. We apply our method to Turkish as a challenging case study, since English and Turkish are typologically very distinct and Turkish has limited resources for QA. We present SQuAD-TR, a machine translation of SQuAD2.0, and we build our OpenQA system by adapting ColBERT-QA and retraining it over Turkish resources and SQuAD-TR using two versions of Wikipedia dumps spanning two years. We obtain a performance improvement of 24-32% in the Exact Match (EM) score and 22-29% in the F1 score compared to the BM25-based and DPR-based baseline QA reader models. Our results show that SQuAD-TR makes OpenQA feasible for Turkish, which we hope encourages researchers to build OpenQA systems in other low-resource languages. We make all the code, models, and the dataset publicly available at https://github.com/boun-tabi/SQuAD-TR.

Question answering (QA) is a fundamental means to facilitate assessment and training of narrative comprehension skills for both machines and young children, yet there is scarcity of high-quality QA datasets carefully designed to serve this purpose. In particular, existing datasets rarely distinguish fine-grained reading skills, such as the understanding of varying narrative elements. Drawing on the reading education research, we introduce FairytaleQA, a dataset focusing on narrative comprehension of kindergarten to eighth-grade students. Generated by educational experts based on an evidence-based theoretical framework, FairytaleQA consists of 10,580 explicit and implicit questions derived from 278 children-friendly stories, covering seven types of narrative elements or relations. Our dataset is valuable in two folds: First, we ran existing QA models on our dataset and confirmed that this annotation helps assess models' fine-grained learning skills. Second, the dataset supports question generation (QG) task in the education domain. Through benchmarking with QG models, we show that the QG model trained on FairytaleQA is capable of asking high-quality and more diverse questions.

Modern Question Answering (QA) and Reasoning approaches based on Large Language Models (LLMs) commonly use prompting techniques, such as Chain-of-Thought (CoT), assuming the resulting generation will have a more granular exploration and reasoning over the question space and scope. However, such methods struggle with generating outputs that are faithful to the intermediate chain of reasoning produced by the model. On the other end of the spectrum, neuro-symbolic methods such as Faithful CoT (F-CoT) propose to combine LLMs with external symbolic solvers. While such approaches boast a high degree of faithfulness, they usually require a model trained for code generation and struggle with tasks that are ambiguous or hard to formalise strictly. We introduce Faithful Logic-Aided Reasoning and Exploration (\ours), a novel interpretable approach for traversing the problem space using task decompositions. We use the LLM to plan a solution, soft-formalise the query into facts and predicates using a logic programming code and simulate that code execution using an exhaustive multi-hop search over the defined space. Our method allows us to compute the faithfulness of the reasoning process w.r.t. the generated code and analyse the steps of the multi-hop search without relying on external solvers. Our methods achieve SOTA results on 7 out of 9 diverse reasoning benchmarks. We also show that model faithfulness positively correlates with overall performance and further demonstrate that {\ours} allows pinpointing the decisive factors sufficient for and leading to the correct answer with optimal reasoning during the multi-hop search.

Natural Question Answering (QA) datasets play a crucial role in evaluating the capabilities of large language models (LLMs), ensuring their effectiveness in real-world applications. Despite the numerous QA datasets that have been developed, there is a notable lack of region-specific datasets generated by native users in their own languages. This gap hinders the effective benchmarking of LLMs for regional and cultural specificities. Furthermore, it also limits the development of fine-tuned models. In this study, we propose a scalable, language-independent framework, NativQA, to seamlessly construct culturally and regionally aligned QA datasets in native languages, for LLM evaluation and tuning. We demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed framework by designing a multilingual natural QA dataset, \mnqa, consisting of ~64k manually annotated QA pairs in seven languages, ranging from high to extremely low resource, based on queries from native speakers from 9 regions covering 18 topics. We benchmark open- and closed-source LLMs with the MultiNativQA dataset. We also showcase the framework efficacy in constructing fine-tuning data especially for low-resource and dialectally-rich languages. We made both the framework NativQA and MultiNativQA dataset publicly available for the community (https://nativqa.gitlab.io).

Existing question answering (QA) datasets are no longer challenging to most powerful Large Language Models (LLMs). Traditional QA benchmarks like TriviaQA, NaturalQuestions, ELI5 and HotpotQA mainly study ``known unknowns'' with clear indications of both what information is missing, and how to find it to answer the question. Hence, good performance on these benchmarks provides a false sense of security. A yet unmet need of the NLP community is a bank of non-factoid, multi-perspective questions involving a great deal of unclear information needs, i.e. ``unknown uknowns''. We claim we can find such questions in search engine logs, which is surprising because most question-intent queries are indeed factoid. We present Researchy Questions, a dataset of search engine queries tediously filtered to be non-factoid, ``decompositional'' and multi-perspective. We show that users spend a lot of ``effort'' on these questions in terms of signals like clicks and session length, and that they are also challenging for GPT-4. We also show that ``slow thinking'' answering techniques, like decomposition into sub-questions shows benefit over answering directly. We release sim 100k Researchy Questions, along with the Clueweb22 URLs that were clicked.

In-context learning (ICL) approaches typically leverage prompting to condition decoder-only language model generation on reference information. Just-in-time processing of a context is inefficient due to the quadratic cost of self-attention operations, and caching is desirable. However, caching transformer states can easily require almost as much space as the model parameters. When the right context isn't known in advance, caching ICL can be challenging. This work addresses these limitations by introducing models that, inspired by the encoder-decoder architecture, use cross-attention to condition generation on reference text without the prompt. More precisely, we leverage pre-trained decoder-only models and only train a small number of added layers. We use Question-Answering (QA) as a testbed to evaluate the ability of our models to perform conditional generation and observe that they outperform ICL, are comparable to fine-tuned prompted LLMs, and drastically reduce the space footprint relative to standard KV caching by two orders of magnitude.

Reasoning about time is of fundamental importance. Many facts are time-dependent. For example, athletes change teams from time to time, and different government officials are elected periodically. Previous time-dependent question answering (QA) datasets tend to be biased in either their coverage of time spans or question types. In this paper, we introduce a comprehensive probing dataset \tempreason to evaluate the temporal reasoning capability of large language models. Our dataset includes questions of three temporal reasoning levels. In addition, we also propose a novel learning framework to improve the temporal reasoning capability of large language models, based on temporal span extraction and time-sensitive reinforcement learning. We conducted experiments in closed book QA, open book QA, and reasoning QA settings and demonstrated the effectiveness of our approach. Our code and data are released on https://github.com/DAMO-NLP-SG/TempReason.

The way users acquire information is undergoing a paradigm shift with the advent of ChatGPT. Unlike conventional search engines, ChatGPT retrieves knowledge from the model itself and generates answers for users. ChatGPT's impressive question-answering (QA) capability has attracted more than 100 million users within a short period of time but has also raised concerns regarding its reliability. In this paper, we perform the first large-scale measurement of ChatGPT's reliability in the generic QA scenario with a carefully curated set of 5,695 questions across ten datasets and eight domains. We find that ChatGPT's reliability varies across different domains, especially underperforming in law and science questions. We also demonstrate that system roles, originally designed by OpenAI to allow users to steer ChatGPT's behavior, can impact ChatGPT's reliability. We further show that ChatGPT is vulnerable to adversarial examples, and even a single character change can negatively affect its reliability in certain cases. We believe that our study provides valuable insights into ChatGPT's reliability and underscores the need for strengthening the reliability and security of large language models (LLMs).

Recent efforts have augmented language models (LMs) with external tools or environments, leading to the development of language agents that can reason and act. However, most of these agents rely on few-shot prompting techniques with off-the-shelf LMs. In this paper, we investigate and argue for the overlooked direction of fine-tuning LMs to obtain language agents. Using a setup of question answering (QA) with a Google search API, we explore a variety of base LMs, prompting methods, fine-tuning data, and QA tasks, and find language agents are consistently improved after fine-tuning their backbone LMs. For example, fine-tuning Llama2-7B with 500 agent trajectories generated by GPT-4 leads to a 77% HotpotQA performance increase. Furthermore, we propose FireAct, a novel approach to fine-tuning LMs with trajectories from multiple tasks and prompting methods, and show having more diverse fine-tuning data can further improve agents. Along with other findings regarding scaling effects, robustness, generalization, efficiency and cost, our work establishes comprehensive benefits of fine-tuning LMs for agents, and provides an initial set of experimental designs, insights, as well as open questions toward language agent fine-tuning.

We introduce the Extract-Refine-Retrieve-Read (ERRR) framework, a novel approach designed to bridge the pre-retrieval information gap in Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) systems through query optimization tailored to meet the specific knowledge requirements of Large Language Models (LLMs). Unlike conventional query optimization techniques used in RAG, the ERRR framework begins by extracting parametric knowledge from LLMs, followed by using a specialized query optimizer for refining these queries. This process ensures the retrieval of only the most pertinent information essential for generating accurate responses. Moreover, to enhance flexibility and reduce computational costs, we propose a trainable scheme for our pipeline that utilizes a smaller, tunable model as the query optimizer, which is refined through knowledge distillation from a larger teacher model. Our evaluations on various question-answering (QA) datasets and with different retrieval systems show that ERRR consistently outperforms existing baselines, proving to be a versatile and cost-effective module for improving the utility and accuracy of RAG systems.

This paper proposes a Question-Answering (QA) system for the telecom domain using 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) technical documents. Alongside, a hybrid dataset, Telco-DPR, which consists of a curated 3GPP corpus in a hybrid format, combining text and tables, is presented. Additionally, the dataset includes a set of synthetic question/answer pairs designed to evaluate the retrieval performance of QA systems on this type of data. The retrieval models, including the sparse model, Best Matching 25 (BM25), as well as dense models, such as Dense Passage Retriever (DPR) and Dense Hierarchical Retrieval (DHR), are evaluated and compared using top-K accuracy and Mean Reciprocal Rank (MRR). The results show that DHR, a retriever model utilising hierarchical passage selection through fine-tuning at both the document and passage levels, outperforms traditional methods in retrieving relevant technical information, achieving a Top-10 accuracy of 86.2%. Additionally, the Retriever-Augmented Generation (RAG) technique, used in the proposed QA system, is evaluated to demonstrate the benefits of using the hybrid dataset and the DHR. The proposed QA system, using the developed RAG model and the Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT)-4, achieves a 14% improvement in answer accuracy, when compared to a previous benchmark on the same dataset.

We study how to characterize and predict the truthfulness of texts generated from large language models (LLMs), which serves as a crucial step in building trust between humans and LLMs. Although several approaches based on entropy or verbalized uncertainty have been proposed to calibrate model predictions, these methods are often intractable, sensitive to hyperparameters, and less reliable when applied in generative tasks with LLMs. In this paper, we suggest investigating internal activations and quantifying LLM's truthfulness using the local intrinsic dimension (LID) of model activations. Through experiments on four question answering (QA) datasets, we demonstrate the effectiveness ohttps://info.arxiv.org/help/prep#abstractsf our proposed method. Additionally, we study intrinsic dimensions in LLMs and their relations with model layers, autoregressive language modeling, and the training of LLMs, revealing that intrinsic dimensions can be a powerful approach to understanding LLMs.

Financial analysis is an important tool for evaluating company performance. Practitioners work to answer financial questions to make profitable investment decisions, and use advanced quantitative analyses to do so. As a result, Financial Question Answering (QA) is a question answering task that requires deep reasoning about numbers. Furthermore, it is unknown how well pre-trained language models can reason in the financial domain. The current state-of-the-art requires a retriever to collect relevant facts about the financial question from the text and a generator to produce a valid financial program and a final answer. However, recently large language models like GPT-3 have achieved state-of-the-art performance on wide variety of tasks with just a few shot examples. We run several experiments with GPT-3 and find that a separate retrieval model and logic engine continue to be essential components to achieving SOTA performance in this task, particularly due to the precise nature of financial questions and the complex information stored in financial documents. With this understanding, our refined prompt-engineering approach on GPT-3 achieves near SOTA accuracy without any fine-tuning.

Recently, Large Language Models (LLMs) have showcased remarkable capabilities in natural language understanding. While demonstrating proficiency in everyday conversations and question-answering situations, these models frequently struggle in domains that require precision, such as medical applications, due to their lack of domain-specific knowledge. In this paper, we describe the procedure for building a powerful, open-source language model specifically designed for medicine applications, termed as PMC-LLaMA. Our contributions are threefold: (i) we systematically investigate the process of adapting a general-purpose foundation language model towards medical domain, this involves data-centric knowledge injection through the integration of 4.8M biomedical academic papers and 30K medical textbooks, as well as comprehensive fine-tuning for alignment with domain-specific instructions; (ii) we contribute a large-scale, comprehensive dataset for instruction tuning. This dataset encompasses medical question-answering (QA), rationale for reasoning, and conversational dialogues, comprising a total of 202M tokens; (iii) we conduct thorough ablation studies to demonstrate the effectiveness of each proposed component. While evaluating on various public medical question-answering benchmarks, our lightweight PMCLLaMA, which consists of only 13 billion parameters, exhibits superior performance, even surpassing ChatGPT. All models, codes, datasets can be found in https://github.com/chaoyi-wu/PMC-LLaMA.

Recent studies show that Question Answering (QA) based on Answer Sentence Selection (AS2) can be improved by generating an improved answer from the top-k ranked answer sentences (termed GenQA). This allows for synthesizing the information from multiple candidates into a concise, natural-sounding answer. However, creating large-scale supervised training data for GenQA models is very challenging. In this paper, we propose to train a GenQA model by transferring knowledge from a trained AS2 model, to overcome the aforementioned issue. First, we use an AS2 model to produce a ranking over answer candidates for a set of questions. Then, we use the top ranked candidate as the generation target, and the next k top ranked candidates as context for training a GenQA model. We also propose to use the AS2 model prediction scores for loss weighting and score-conditioned input/output shaping, to aid the knowledge transfer. Our evaluation on three public and one large industrial datasets demonstrates the superiority of our approach over the AS2 baseline, and GenQA trained using supervised data.

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) enhances the question-answering (QA) abilities of large language models (LLMs) by integrating external knowledge. However, adapting general-purpose RAG systems to specialized fields such as science and medicine poses unique challenges due to distribution shifts and limited access to domain-specific data. To tackle this, we propose SimRAG, a self-training approach that equips the LLM with joint capabilities of question answering and question generation for domain adaptation. Our method first fine-tunes the LLM on instruction-following, question-answering, and search-related data. Then, it prompts the same LLM to generate diverse domain-relevant questions from unlabeled corpora, with an additional filtering strategy to retain high-quality synthetic examples. By leveraging these synthetic examples, the LLM can improve their performance on domain-specific RAG tasks. Experiments on 11 datasets, spanning two backbone sizes and three domains, demonstrate that SimRAG outperforms baselines by 1.2\%--8.6\%.

The observations documented in Cyber Threat Intelligence (CTI) reports play a critical role in describing adversarial behaviors, providing valuable insights for security practitioners to respond to evolving threats. Recent advancements of Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant potential in various cybersecurity applications, including CTI report understanding and attack knowledge graph construction. While previous works have proposed benchmarks that focus on the CTI extraction ability of LLMs, the sequential characteristic of adversarial behaviors within CTI reports remains largely unexplored, which holds considerable significance in developing a comprehensive understanding of how adversaries operate. To address this gap, we introduce AttackSeqBench, a benchmark tailored to systematically evaluate LLMs' capability to understand and reason attack sequences in CTI reports. Our benchmark encompasses three distinct Question Answering (QA) tasks, each task focuses on the varying granularity in adversarial behavior. To alleviate the laborious effort of QA construction, we carefully design an automated dataset construction pipeline to create scalable and well-formulated QA datasets based on real-world CTI reports. To ensure the quality of our dataset, we adopt a hybrid approach of combining human evaluation and systematic evaluation metrics. We conduct extensive experiments and analysis with both fast-thinking and slow-thinking LLMs, while highlighting their strengths and limitations in analyzing the sequential patterns in cyber attacks. The overarching goal of this work is to provide a benchmark that advances LLM-driven CTI report understanding and fosters its application in real-world cybersecurity operations. Our dataset and code are available at https://github.com/Javiery3889/AttackSeqBench .

This paper explores the problems of Question Answering (QA) and Named Entity Recognition (NER) in five diverse languages. We tested five Large Language Models with various prompting methods, including zero-shot, chain-of-thought reasoning, and translation techniques. Our results show that while some models consistently outperform others, their effectiveness varies significantly across tasks and languages. We saw that advanced prompting techniques generally improved QA performance but had mixed results for NER; and we observed that language difficulty patterns differed between tasks. Our findings highlight the need for task-specific approaches in multilingual NLP and suggest that current models may develop different linguistic competencies for different tasks.

While recent Large Language Models (LLMs) have proven useful in answering user queries, they are prone to hallucination, and their responses often lack credibility due to missing references to reliable sources. An intuitive solution to these issues would be to include in-text citations referring to external documents as evidence. While previous works have directly prompted LLMs to generate in-text citations, their performances are far from satisfactory, especially when it comes to smaller LLMs. In this work, we propose an effective training framework using fine-grained rewards to teach LLMs to generate highly supportive and relevant citations, while ensuring the correctness of their responses. We also conduct a systematic analysis of applying these fine-grained rewards to common LLM training strategies, demonstrating its advantage over conventional practices. We conduct extensive experiments on Question Answering (QA) datasets taken from the ALCE benchmark and validate the model's generalizability using EXPERTQA. On LLaMA-2-7B, the incorporation of fine-grained rewards achieves the best performance among the baselines, even surpassing that of GPT-3.5-turbo.

Question processing is a fundamental step in a question answering (QA) application, and its quality impacts the performance of QA application. The major challenging issue in processing question is how to extract semantic of natural language questions (NLQs). A human language is ambiguous. Ambiguity may occur at two levels; lexical and syntactic. In this paper, we propose a new approach for resolving lexical ambiguity problem by integrating context knowledge and concepts knowledge of a domain, into shallow natural language processing (SNLP) techniques. Concepts knowledge is modeled using ontology, while context knowledge is obtained from WordNet, and it is determined based on neighborhood words in a question. The approach will be applied to a university QA system.

Understanding information from visually rich documents remains a significant challenge for traditional Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) methods. Existing benchmarks predominantly focus on image-based question answering (QA), overlooking the fundamental challenges of efficient retrieval, comprehension, and reasoning within dense visual documents. To bridge this gap, we introduce ViDoSeek, a novel dataset designed to evaluate RAG performance on visually rich documents requiring complex reasoning. Based on it, we identify key limitations in current RAG approaches: (i) purely visual retrieval methods struggle to effectively integrate both textual and visual features, and (ii) previous approaches often allocate insufficient reasoning tokens, limiting their effectiveness. To address these challenges, we propose ViDoRAG, a novel multi-agent RAG framework tailored for complex reasoning across visual documents. ViDoRAG employs a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM)-based hybrid strategy to effectively handle multi-modal retrieval. To further elicit the model's reasoning capabilities, we introduce an iterative agent workflow incorporating exploration, summarization, and reflection, providing a framework for investigating test-time scaling in RAG domains. Extensive experiments on ViDoSeek validate the effectiveness and generalization of our approach. Notably, ViDoRAG outperforms existing methods by over 10% on the competitive ViDoSeek benchmark.

Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) improves correctness of Question Answering (QA) and addresses hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs), yet greatly increase computational costs. Besides, RAG is not always needed as may introduce irrelevant information. Recent adaptive retrieval methods integrate LLMs' intrinsic knowledge with external information appealing to LLM self-knowledge, but they often neglect efficiency evaluations and comparisons with uncertainty estimation techniques. We bridge this gap by conducting a comprehensive analysis of 35 adaptive retrieval methods, including 8 recent approaches and 27 uncertainty estimation techniques, across 6 datasets using 10 metrics for QA performance, self-knowledge, and efficiency. Our findings show that uncertainty estimation techniques often outperform complex pipelines in terms of efficiency and self-knowledge, while maintaining comparable QA performance.

Despite their success at many natural language processing (NLP) tasks, large language models (LLMs) still struggle to effectively leverage knowledge for knowledge-intensive tasks, manifesting limitations such as generating incomplete, non-factual, or illogical answers. These limitations stem from inadequate knowledge awareness of LLMs during vanilla fine-tuning. To address these problems, we propose a knowledge-aware fine-tuning (KnowTuning) method to explicitly and implicitly improve the knowledge awareness of LLMs. We devise an explicit knowledge-aware generation stage to train LLMs to explicitly identify knowledge triples in answers. We also propose an implicit knowledge-aware comparison stage to train LLMs to implicitly distinguish between reliable and unreliable knowledge, in three aspects: completeness, factuality, and logicality. Extensive experiments on both generic and medical question answering (QA) datasets confirm the effectiveness of KnowTuning, through automatic and human evaluations, across various sizes of LLMs. Finally, we demonstrate that the improvements of KnowTuning generalize to unseen QA datasets.

The language ability of Large Language Models (LLMs) is often unbalanced towards English because of the imbalance in the distribution of the pre-training data. This disparity is demanded in further fine-tuning and affecting the cross-lingual abilities of LLMs. In this paper, we propose to empower Instructiontuned LLMs (It-LLMs) in languages other than English by building semantic alignment between them. Hence, we propose CrossAlpaca, an It-LLM with cross-lingual instruction-following and Translation-following demonstrations to improve semantic alignment between languages. We validate our approach on the multilingual Question Answering (QA) benchmarks XQUAD and MLQA and adapted versions of MMLU and BBH. Our models, tested over six different languages, outperform the It-LLMs tuned on monolingual data. The final results show that instruction tuning on non-English data is not enough and that semantic alignment can be further improved by Translation-following demonstrations.

Challenges in the automated evaluation of Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) Question-Answering (QA) systems include hallucination problems in domain-specific knowledge and the lack of gold standard benchmarks for company internal tasks. This results in difficulties in evaluating RAG variations, like RAG-Fusion (RAGF), in the context of a product QA task at Infineon Technologies. To solve these problems, we propose a comprehensive evaluation framework, which leverages Large Language Models (LLMs) to generate large datasets of synthetic queries based on real user queries and in-domain documents, uses LLM-as-a-judge to rate retrieved documents and answers, evaluates the quality of answers, and ranks different variants of Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) agents with RAGElo's automated Elo-based competition. LLM-as-a-judge rating of a random sample of synthetic queries shows a moderate, positive correlation with domain expert scoring in relevance, accuracy, completeness, and precision. While RAGF outperformed RAG in Elo score, a significance analysis against expert annotations also shows that RAGF significantly outperforms RAG in completeness, but underperforms in precision. In addition, Infineon's RAGF assistant demonstrated slightly higher performance in document relevance based on MRR@5 scores. We find that RAGElo positively aligns with the preferences of human annotators, though due caution is still required. Finally, RAGF's approach leads to more complete answers based on expert annotations and better answers overall based on RAGElo's evaluation criteria.

Mapping and navigation services like Google Maps, Apple Maps, Openstreet Maps, are essential for accessing various location-based data, yet they often struggle to handle natural language geospatial queries. Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) show promise in question answering (QA), but creating reliable geospatial QA datasets from map services remains challenging. We introduce MapQaTor, a web application that streamlines the creation of reproducible, traceable map-based QA datasets. With its plug-and-play architecture, MapQaTor enables seamless integration with any maps API, allowing users to gather and visualize data from diverse sources with minimal setup. By caching API responses, the platform ensures consistent ground truth, enhancing the reliability of the data even as real-world information evolves. MapQaTor centralizes data retrieval, annotation, and visualization within a single platform, offering a unique opportunity to evaluate the current state of LLM-based geospatial reasoning while advancing their capabilities for improved geospatial understanding. Evaluation metrics show that, MapQaTor speeds up the annotation process by at least 30 times compared to manual methods, underscoring its potential for developing geospatial resources, such as complex map reasoning datasets. The website is live at: https://mapqator.github.io/ and a demo video is available at: https://youtu.be/7_aV9Wmhs6Q.

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has demonstrated significant proficiency in conducting question-answering (QA) tasks within a specified corpus. Nonetheless, numerous failure instances of RAG in QA still exist. These failures are not solely attributable to the limitations of Large Language Models (LLMs); instead, they predominantly arise from the retrieval of inaccurate information for LLMs due to two limitations: (1) Current RAG methods segment the corpus without considering semantics, making it difficult to find relevant context due to impaired correlation between questions and the segments. (2) There is a trade-off between missing essential context with fewer context retrieved and getting irrelevant context with more context retrieved. In this paper, we introduce a RAG framework (SAGE), to overcome these limitations. First, to address the segmentation issue without considering semantics, we propose to train a semantic segmentation model. This model is trained to segment the corpus into semantically complete chunks. Second, to ensure that only the most relevant chunks are retrieved while the irrelevant ones are ignored, we design a chunk selection algorithm to dynamically select chunks based on the decreasing speed of the relevance score, leading to a more relevant selection. Third, to further ensure the precision of the retrieved chunks, we propose letting LLMs assess whether retrieved chunks are excessive or lacking and then adjust the amount of context accordingly. Experiments show that SAGE outperforms baselines by 61.25% in the quality of QA on average. Moreover, by avoiding retrieving noisy context, SAGE lowers the cost of the tokens consumed in LLM inference and achieves a 49.41% enhancement in cost efficiency on average. Additionally, our work offers valuable insights for boosting RAG.

Chaining language model (LM) calls as composable modules is fueling a new powerful way of programming. However, ensuring that LMs adhere to important constraints remains a key challenge, one often addressed with heuristic "prompt engineering". We introduce LM Assertions, a new programming construct for expressing computational constraints that LMs should satisfy. We integrate our constructs into the recent DSPy programming model for LMs, and present new strategies that allow DSPy to compile programs with arbitrary LM Assertions into systems that are more reliable and more accurate. In DSPy, LM Assertions can be integrated at compile time, via automatic prompt optimization, and/or at inference time, via automatic selfrefinement and backtracking. We report on two early case studies for complex question answering (QA), in which the LM program must iteratively retrieve information in multiple hops and synthesize a long-form answer with citations. We find that LM Assertions improve not only compliance with imposed rules and guidelines but also enhance downstream task performance, delivering intrinsic and extrinsic gains up to 35.7% and 13.3%, respectively. Our reference implementation of LM Assertions is integrated into DSPy at https://github.com/stanfordnlp/dspy

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) offers an effective approach for addressing question answering (QA) tasks. However, the imperfections of the retrievers in RAG models often result in the retrieval of irrelevant information, which could introduce noises and degrade the performance, especially when handling multi-hop questions that require multiple steps of reasoning. To enhance the multi-hop reasoning ability of RAG models, we propose TRACE. TRACE constructs knowledge-grounded reasoning chains, which are a series of logically connected knowledge triples, to identify and integrate supporting evidence from the retrieved documents for answering questions. Specifically, TRACE employs a KG Generator to create a knowledge graph (KG) from the retrieved documents, and then uses an Autoregressive Reasoning Chain Constructor to build reasoning chains. Experimental results on three multi-hop QA datasets show that TRACE achieves an average performance improvement of up to 14.03% compared to using all the retrieved documents. Moreover, the results indicate that using reasoning chains as context, rather than the entire documents, is often sufficient to correctly answer questions.

Knowledge conflict arises from discrepancies between information in the context of a large language model (LLM) and the knowledge stored in its parameters. This can hurt performance when using standard decoding techniques, which tend to ignore the context. Existing test-time contrastive methods seek to address this by comparing the LLM's output distribution with and without the context and adjust the model according to the contrast between them. However, we find that these methods frequently misjudge the degree of conflict and struggle to handle instances that vary in their amount of conflict, with static methods over-adjusting when conflict is absent. We propose a fine-grained, instance-level approach called AdaCAD, which dynamically infers the weight of adjustment based on the degree of conflict, as measured by the Jensen-Shannon divergence between distributions representing contextual and parametric knowledge. Our experiments across four models on six diverse question-answering (QA) datasets and three summarization tasks demonstrate that our training-free adaptive method consistently outperforms other decoding methods on QA, with average accuracy gains of 14.21% (absolute) over a static contrastive baseline, and improves the factuality of summaries by 5.59 (AlignScore). Furthermore, our analysis shows that while decoding with contrastive baselines hurts performance when conflict is absent, AdaCAD mitigates these losses, making it more applicable to real-world datasets in which some examples have conflict and others do not.

Several previous studies have considered language- and domain-specific large language models (LLMs) as separate topics. This study explores the combination of a non-English language and a high-demand industry domain, focusing on a Japanese business-specific LLM. This type of a model requires expertise in the business domain, strong language skills, and regular updates of its knowledge. We trained a 13-billion-parameter LLM from scratch using a new dataset of business texts and patents, and continually pretrained it with the latest business documents. Further we propose a new benchmark for Japanese business domain question answering (QA) and evaluate our models on it. The results show that our pretrained model improves QA accuracy without losing general knowledge, and that continual pretraining enhances adaptation to new information. Our pretrained model and business domain benchmark are publicly available.

Large language models (LLMs) have recently shown great advances in a variety of tasks, including natural language understanding and generation. However, their use in high-stakes decision-making scenarios is still limited due to the potential for errors. Selective prediction is a technique that can be used to improve the reliability of the LLMs by allowing them to abstain from making predictions when they are unsure of the answer. In this work, we propose a novel framework for adaptation with self-evaluation to improve the selective prediction performance of LLMs. Our framework is based on the idea of using parameter-efficient tuning to adapt the LLM to the specific task at hand while improving its ability to perform self-evaluation. We evaluate our method on a variety of question-answering (QA) datasets and show that it outperforms state-of-the-art selective prediction methods. For example, on the CoQA benchmark, our method improves the AUACC from 91.23% to 92.63% and improves the AUROC from 74.61% to 80.25%.

Most tasks in natural language processing can be cast into question answering (QA) problems over language input. We introduce the dynamic memory network (DMN), a neural network architecture which processes input sequences and questions, forms episodic memories, and generates relevant answers. Questions trigger an iterative attention process which allows the model to condition its attention on the inputs and the result of previous iterations. These results are then reasoned over in a hierarchical recurrent sequence model to generate answers. The DMN can be trained end-to-end and obtains state-of-the-art results on several types of tasks and datasets: question answering (Facebook's bAbI dataset), text classification for sentiment analysis (Stanford Sentiment Treebank) and sequence modeling for part-of-speech tagging (WSJ-PTB). The training for these different tasks relies exclusively on trained word vector representations and input-question-answer triplets.

Large language models (LLMs) have shown significant promise in question-answering (QA) tasks, particularly in retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) scenarios and long-context applications. However, their performance is hindered by noisy reference documents, which often distract from essential information. Despite fine-tuning efforts, Transformer-based architectures struggle to prioritize relevant content. This is evidenced by their tendency to allocate disproportionate attention to irrelevant or later-positioned documents. Recent work proposes the differential attention mechanism to address this issue, but this mechanism is limited by an unsuitable common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) and high computational costs. Inspired by the operational amplifier (OpAmp), we propose the OpAmp adaptation to address these challenges, which is implemented with adapters efficiently. By integrating the adapter into pre-trained Transformer blocks, our approach enhances focus on the golden context without costly training from scratch. Empirical evaluations on noisy-context benchmarks reveal that our Qwen2.5-OpAmp-72B model, trained with our OpAmp adaptation, surpasses the performance of state-of-the-art LLMs, including DeepSeek-V3 and GPT-4o.

Knowledge Graphs (KGs) can serve as reliable knowledge sources for question answering (QA) due to their structured representation of knowledge. Existing research on the utilization of KG for large language models (LLMs) prevalently relies on subgraph retriever or iterative prompting, overlooking the potential synergy of LLMs' step-wise reasoning capabilities and KGs' structural nature. In this paper, we present DoG (Decoding on Graphs), a novel framework that facilitates a deep synergy between LLMs and KGs. We first define a concept, well-formed chain, which consists of a sequence of interrelated fact triplets on the KGs, starting from question entities and leading to answers. We argue that this concept can serve as a principle for making faithful and sound reasoning for KGQA. To enable LLMs to generate well-formed chains, we propose graph-aware constrained decoding, in which a constraint derived from the topology of the KG regulates the decoding process of the LLMs. This constrained decoding method ensures the generation of well-formed chains while making full use of the step-wise reasoning capabilities of LLMs. Based on the above, DoG, a training-free approach, is able to provide faithful and sound reasoning trajectories grounded on the KGs. Experiments across various KGQA tasks with different background KGs demonstrate that DoG achieves superior and robust performance. DoG also shows general applicability with various open-source LLMs.

Enabling Large Language Models (LLMs) to generate citations in Question-Answering (QA) tasks is an emerging paradigm aimed at enhancing the verifiability of their responses when LLMs are utilizing external references to generate an answer. However, there is currently no unified framework to standardize and fairly compare different citation generation methods, leading to difficulties in reproducing different methods and a comprehensive assessment. To cope with the problems above, we introduce \name, an open-source and modular toolkit designed to facilitate the implementation and evaluation of existing citation generation methods, while also fostering the development of new approaches to improve citation quality in LLM outputs. This tool is highly extensible, allowing users to utilize 4 main modules and 14 components to construct a pipeline, evaluating an existing method or innovative designs. Our experiments with two state-of-the-art LLMs and 11 citation generation baselines demonstrate varying strengths of different modules in answer accuracy and citation quality improvement, as well as the challenge of enhancing granularity. Based on our analysis of the effectiveness of components, we propose a new method, self-RAG \snippet, obtaining a balanced answer accuracy and citation quality. Citekit is released at https://github.com/SjJ1017/Citekit.

We introduce a novel framework, LM-Guided CoT, that leverages a lightweight (i.e., <1B) language model (LM) for guiding a black-box large (i.e., >10B) LM in reasoning tasks. Specifically, the lightweight LM first generates a rationale for each input instance. The Frozen large LM is then prompted to predict a task output based on the rationale generated by the lightweight LM. Our approach is resource-efficient in the sense that it only requires training the lightweight LM. We optimize the model through 1) knowledge distillation and 2) reinforcement learning from rationale-oriented and task-oriented reward signals. We assess our method with multi-hop extractive question answering (QA) benchmarks, HotpotQA, and 2WikiMultiHopQA. Experimental results show that our approach outperforms all baselines regarding answer prediction accuracy. We also find that reinforcement learning helps the model to produce higher-quality rationales with improved QA performance.

In the realms of computer vision and natural language processing, Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) have become indispensable tools, proficient in generating textual descriptions based on visual inputs. Despite their advancements, our investigation reveals a noteworthy bias in the generated content, where the output is primarily influenced by the underlying Large Language Models (LLMs) prior rather than the input image. Our empirical experiments underscore the persistence of this bias, as LVLMs often provide confident answers even in the absence of relevant images or given incongruent visual input. To rectify these biases and redirect the model's focus toward vision information, we introduce two simple, training-free strategies. Firstly, for tasks such as classification or multi-choice question-answering (QA), we propose a ``calibration'' step through affine transformation to adjust the output distribution. This ``Post-Hoc debias'' approach ensures uniform scores for each answer when the image is absent, serving as an effective regularization technique to alleviate the influence of LLM priors. For more intricate open-ended generation tasks, we extend this method to ``Debias sampling'', drawing inspirations from contrastive decoding methods. Furthermore, our investigation sheds light on the instability of LVLMs across various decoding configurations. Through systematic exploration of different settings, we significantly enhance performance, surpassing reported results and raising concerns about the fairness of existing evaluations. Comprehensive experiments substantiate the effectiveness of our proposed strategies in mitigating biases. These strategies not only prove beneficial in minimizing hallucinations but also contribute to the generation of more helpful and precise illustrations.

Designing high-quality educational questions is a challenging and time-consuming task. In this work, we propose a novel approach that utilizes prompt-based techniques to generate descriptive and reasoning-based questions. However, current question-answering (QA) datasets are inadequate for conducting our experiments on prompt-based question generation (QG) in an educational setting. Therefore, we curate a new QG dataset called EduProbe for school-level subjects, by leveraging the rich content of NCERT textbooks. We carefully annotate this dataset as quadruples of 1) Context: a segment upon which the question is formed; 2) Long Prompt: a long textual cue for the question (i.e., a longer sequence of words or phrases, covering the main theme of the context); 3) Short Prompt: a short textual cue for the question (i.e., a condensed representation of the key information or focus of the context); 4) Question: a deep question that aligns with the context and is coherent with the prompts. We investigate several prompt-based QG methods by fine-tuning pre-trained transformer-based large language models (LLMs), namely PEGASUS, T5, MBART, and BART. Moreover, we explore the performance of two general-purpose pre-trained LLMs such as Text-Davinci-003 and GPT-3.5-Turbo without any further training. By performing automatic evaluation, we show that T5 (with long prompt) outperforms all other models, but still falls short of the human baseline. Under human evaluation criteria, TextDavinci-003 usually shows better results than other models under various prompt settings. Even in the case of human evaluation criteria, QG models mostly fall short of the human baseline. Our code and dataset are available at: https://github.com/my625/PromptQG

Information Technology (IT) Operations (Ops), particularly Artificial Intelligence for IT Operations (AIOps), is the guarantee for maintaining the orderly and stable operation of existing information systems. According to Gartner's prediction, the use of AI technology for automated IT operations has become a new trend. Large language models (LLMs) that have exhibited remarkable capabilities in NLP-related tasks, are showing great potential in the field of AIOps, such as in aspects of root cause analysis of failures, generation of operations and maintenance scripts, and summarizing of alert information. Nevertheless, the performance of current LLMs in Ops tasks is yet to be determined. In this paper, we present OpsEval, a comprehensive task-oriented Ops benchmark designed for LLMs. For the first time, OpsEval assesses LLMs' proficiency in various crucial scenarios at different ability levels. The benchmark includes 7184 multi-choice questions and 1736 question-answering (QA) formats in English and Chinese. By conducting a comprehensive performance evaluation of the current leading large language models, we show how various LLM techniques can affect the performance of Ops, and discussed findings related to various topics, including model quantification, QA evaluation, and hallucination issues. To ensure the credibility of our evaluation, we invite dozens of domain experts to manually review our questions. At the same time, we have open-sourced 20% of the test QA to assist current researchers in preliminary evaluations of their OpsLLM models. The remaining 80% of the data, which is not disclosed, is used to eliminate the issue of the test set leakage. Additionally, we have constructed an online leaderboard that is updated in real-time and will continue to be updated, ensuring that any newly emerging LLMs will be evaluated promptly. Both our dataset and leaderboard have been made public.

While large language models (LLMs) are proficient at question-answering (QA), it is not always clear how (or even if) an answer follows from their latent "beliefs". This lack of interpretability is a growing impediment to widespread use of LLMs. To address this, our goals are to make model beliefs and their inferential relationships explicit, and to resolve inconsistencies that may exist, so that answers are supported by interpretable chains of reasoning drawn from a consistent network of beliefs. Our approach, which we call REFLEX, is to add a rational, self-reflecting layer on top of the LLM. First, given a question, we construct a belief graph using a backward-chaining process to materialize relevant model beliefs (including beliefs about answer candidates) and their inferential relationships. Second, we identify and minimize contradictions in that graph using a formal constraint reasoner. We find that REFLEX significantly improves consistency (by 8%-11% absolute) without harming overall answer accuracy, resulting in answers supported by faithful chains of reasoning drawn from a more consistent belief system. This suggests a new style of system architecture in which an LLM extended with a rational layer can provide an interpretable window into system beliefs, add a systematic reasoning capability, and repair latent inconsistencies present in the LLM.

Systems for knowledge-intensive tasks such as open-domain question answering (QA) usually consist of two stages: efficient retrieval of relevant documents from a large corpus and detailed reading of the selected documents to generate answers. Retrievers and readers are usually modeled separately, which necessitates a cumbersome implementation and is hard to train and adapt in an end-to-end fashion. In this paper, we revisit this design and eschew the separate architecture and training in favor of a single Transformer that performs Retrieval as Attention (ReAtt), and end-to-end training solely based on supervision from the end QA task. We demonstrate for the first time that a single model trained end-to-end can achieve both competitive retrieval and QA performance, matching or slightly outperforming state-of-the-art separately trained retrievers and readers. Moreover, end-to-end adaptation significantly boosts its performance on out-of-domain datasets in both supervised and unsupervised settings, making our model a simple and adaptable solution for knowledge-intensive tasks. Code and models are available at https://github.com/jzbjyb/ReAtt.

Multi-dimensional evaluation is the dominant paradigm for human evaluation in Natural Language Generation (NLG), i.e., evaluating the generated text from multiple explainable dimensions, such as coherence and fluency. However, automatic evaluation in NLG is still dominated by similarity-based metrics, and we lack a reliable framework for a more comprehensive evaluation of advanced models. In this paper, we propose a unified multi-dimensional evaluator UniEval for NLG. We re-frame NLG evaluation as a Boolean Question Answering (QA) task, and by guiding the model with different questions, we can use one evaluator to evaluate from multiple dimensions. Furthermore, thanks to the unified Boolean QA format, we are able to introduce an intermediate learning phase that enables UniEval to incorporate external knowledge from multiple related tasks and gain further improvement. Experiments on three typical NLG tasks show that UniEval correlates substantially better with human judgments than existing metrics. Specifically, compared to the top-performing unified evaluators, UniEval achieves a 23% higher correlation on text summarization, and over 43% on dialogue response generation. Also, UniEval demonstrates a strong zero-shot learning ability for unseen evaluation dimensions and tasks. Source code, data and all pre-trained evaluators are available on our GitHub repository (https://github.com/maszhongming/UniEval).

The state of the art in open-domain question answering (QA) relies on an efficient retriever that drastically reduces the search space for the expensive reader. A rather overlooked question in the community is the relationship between the retriever and the reader, and in particular, if the whole purpose of the retriever is just a fast approximation for the reader. Our empirical evidence indicates that the answer is no, and that the reader and the retriever are complementary to each other even in terms of accuracy only. We make a careful conjecture that the architectural constraint of the retriever, which has been originally intended for enabling approximate search, seems to also make the model more robust in large-scale search. We then propose to distill the reader into the retriever so that the retriever absorbs the strength of the reader while keeping its own benefit. Experimental results show that our method can enhance the document recall rate as well as the end-to-end QA accuracy of off-the-shelf retrievers in open-domain QA tasks.

We describe a new class of learning models called memory networks. Memory networks reason with inference components combined with a long-term memory component; they learn how to use these jointly. The long-term memory can be read and written to, with the goal of using it for prediction. We investigate these models in the context of question answering (QA) where the long-term memory effectively acts as a (dynamic) knowledge base, and the output is a textual response. We evaluate them on a large-scale QA task, and a smaller, but more complex, toy task generated from a simulated world. In the latter, we show the reasoning power of such models by chaining multiple supporting sentences to answer questions that require understanding the intension of verbs.

The development of video large multimodal models (LMMs) has been hindered by the difficulty of curating large amounts of high-quality raw data from the web. To address this, we propose an alternative approach by creating a high-quality synthetic dataset specifically for video instruction-following, namely LLaVA-Video-178K. This dataset includes key tasks such as detailed captioning, open-ended question-answering (QA), and multiple-choice QA. By training on this dataset, in combination with existing visual instruction tuning data, we introduce LLaVA-Video, a new video LMM. Our experiments demonstrate that LLaVA-Video achieves strong performance across various video benchmarks, highlighting the effectiveness of our dataset. We plan to release the dataset, its generation pipeline, and the model checkpoints.

We propose a general framework called Text Modular Networks(TMNs) for building interpretable systems that learn to solve complex tasks by decomposing them into simpler ones solvable by existing models. To ensure solvability of simpler tasks, TMNs learn the textual input-output behavior (i.e., language) of existing models through their datasets. This differs from prior decomposition-based approaches which, besides being designed specifically for each complex task, produce decompositions independent of existing sub-models. Specifically, we focus on Question Answering (QA) and show how to train a next-question generator to sequentially produce sub-questions targeting appropriate sub-models, without additional human annotation. These sub-questions and answers provide a faithful natural language explanation of the model's reasoning. We use this framework to build ModularQA, a system that can answer multi-hop reasoning questions by decomposing them into sub-questions answerable by a neural factoid single-span QA model and a symbolic calculator. Our experiments show that ModularQA is more versatile than existing explainable systems for DROP and HotpotQA datasets, is more robust than state-of-the-art blackbox (uninterpretable) systems, and generates more understandable and trustworthy explanations compared to prior work.

Knowledge hallucination have raised widespread concerns for the security and reliability of deployed LLMs. Previous efforts in detecting hallucinations have been employed at logit-level uncertainty estimation or language-level self-consistency evaluation, where the semantic information is inevitably lost during the token-decoding procedure. Thus, we propose to explore the dense semantic information retained within LLMs' INternal States for hallucInation DEtection (INSIDE). In particular, a simple yet effective EigenScore metric is proposed to better evaluate responses' self-consistency, which exploits the eigenvalues of responses' covariance matrix to measure the semantic consistency/diversity in the dense embedding space. Furthermore, from the perspective of self-consistent hallucination detection, a test time feature clipping approach is explored to truncate extreme activations in the internal states, which reduces overconfident generations and potentially benefits the detection of overconfident hallucinations. Extensive experiments and ablation studies are performed on several popular LLMs and question-answering (QA) benchmarks, showing the effectiveness of our proposal.

In this work, we address question answering (QA) over a hybrid of tabular and textual data that are very common content on the Web (e.g. SEC filings), where discrete reasoning capabilities are often required. Recently, large language models (LLMs) like GPT-4 have demonstrated strong multi-step reasoning capabilities. We then consider harnessing the amazing power of LLMs to solve our task. We abstract a Step-wise Pipeline for tabular and textual QA, which consists of three key steps, including Extractor, Reasoner and Executor, and initially design an instruction to instantiate the pipeline and validate that GPT-4 outperforms all existing methods. However, utilizing an online LLM like GPT-4 holds various challenges in terms of cost, latency, and data security risk, which motivates us to specialize smaller LLMs in this task. We develop a TAT-LLM language model by fine-tuning LLaMA 2 with the training data generated automatically from existing expert-annotated datasets following the Step-wise Pipeline. The experimental results have verified that our TAT-LLM model can outperform all baseline models, including the previous best fine-tuned models and very large-scale LLMs like GPT-4 on FinQA, TAT-QA and TAT-DQA benchmarks. We hope our work can serve as a pioneering example of specializing smaller language models for specific tasks.

Knowledge-intensive tasks (e.g., open-domain question answering (QA)) require a substantial amount of factual knowledge and often rely on external information for assistance. Recently, large language models (LLMs) (e.g., ChatGPT), have demonstrated impressive prowess in solving a wide range of tasks with world knowledge, including knowledge-intensive tasks. However, it remains unclear how well LLMs are able to perceive their factual knowledge boundaries, particularly how they behave when incorporating retrieval augmentation. In this study, we present an initial analysis of the factual knowledge boundaries of LLMs and how retrieval augmentation affects LLMs on open-domain QA. Specially, we focus on three primary research questions and analyze them by examining QA performance, priori judgement and posteriori judgement of LLMs. We show evidence that LLMs possess unwavering confidence in their capabilities to respond to questions and the accuracy of their responses. Furthermore, retrieval augmentation proves to be an effective approach in enhancing LLMs' awareness of knowledge boundaries, thereby improving their judgemental abilities. Additionally, we also find that LLMs have a propensity to rely on the provided retrieval results when formulating answers, while the quality of these results significantly impacts their reliance. The code to reproduce this work is available at https://github.com/RUCAIBox/LLM-Knowledge-Boundary.

Surprising videos, e.g., funny clips, creative performances, or visual illusions, attract significant attention. Enjoyment of these videos is not simply a response to visual stimuli; rather, it hinges on the human capacity to understand (and appreciate) commonsense violations depicted in these videos. We introduce FunQA, a challenging video question answering (QA) dataset specifically designed to evaluate and enhance the depth of video reasoning based on counter-intuitive and fun videos. Unlike most video QA benchmarks which focus on less surprising contexts, e.g., cooking or instructional videos, FunQA covers three previously unexplored types of surprising videos: 1) HumorQA, 2) CreativeQA, and 3) MagicQA. For each subset, we establish rigorous QA tasks designed to assess the model's capability in counter-intuitive timestamp localization, detailed video description, and reasoning around counter-intuitiveness. We also pose higher-level tasks, such as attributing a fitting and vivid title to the video, and scoring the video creativity. In total, the FunQA benchmark consists of 312K free-text QA pairs derived from 4.3K video clips, spanning a total of 24 video hours. Extensive experiments with existing VideoQA models reveal significant performance gaps for the FunQA videos across spatial-temporal reasoning, visual-centered reasoning, and free-text generation.

Query-document relevance prediction is a critical problem in Information Retrieval systems. This problem has increasingly been tackled using (pretrained) transformer-based models which are finetuned using large collections of labeled data. However, in specialized domains such as e-commerce and healthcare, the viability of this approach is limited by the dearth of large in-domain data. To address this paucity, recent methods leverage these powerful models to generate high-quality task and domain-specific synthetic data. Prior work has largely explored synthetic data generation or query generation (QGen) for Question-Answering (QA) and binary (yes/no) relevance prediction, where for instance, the QGen models are given a document, and trained to generate a query relevant to that document. However in many problems, we have a more fine-grained notion of relevance than a simple yes/no label. Thus, in this work, we conduct a detailed study into how QGen approaches can be leveraged for nuanced relevance prediction. We demonstrate that -- contrary to claims from prior works -- current QGen approaches fall short of the more conventional cross-domain transfer-learning approaches. Via empirical studies spanning 3 public e-commerce benchmarks, we identify new shortcomings of existing QGen approaches -- including their inability to distinguish between different grades of relevance. To address this, we introduce label-conditioned QGen models which incorporates knowledge about the different relevance. While our experiments demonstrate that these modifications help improve performance of QGen techniques, we also find that QGen approaches struggle to capture the full nuance of the relevance label space and as a result the generated queries are not faithful to the desired relevance label.

Large language models (LLMs) have significantly advanced the field of natural language processing, with GPT models at the forefront. While their remarkable performance spans a range of tasks, adapting LLMs for real-world business scenarios still poses challenges warranting further investigation. This paper presents an empirical analysis aimed at bridging the gap in adapting LLMs to practical use cases. To do that, we select the question answering (QA) task of insurance as a case study due to its challenge of reasoning. Based on the task we design a new model relied on LLMs which are empowered by additional knowledge extracted from insurance policy rulebooks and DBpedia. The additional knowledge helps LLMs to understand new concepts of insurance for domain adaptation. Preliminary results on two QA datasets show that knowledge enhancement significantly improves the reasoning ability of GPT-3.5 (55.80% and 57.83% in terms of accuracy). The analysis also indicates that existing public knowledge bases, e.g., DBPedia is beneficial for knowledge enhancement. Our findings reveal that the inherent complexity of business scenarios often necessitates the incorporation of domain-specific knowledge and external resources for effective problem-solving.

Large language models (LLMs) have revolutionized natural language processing (NLP) with impressive performance across various text-based tasks. However, the extension of text-dominant LLMs to with speech generation tasks remains under-explored. In this work, we introduce a text-to-speech (TTS) system powered by a fine-tuned Llama model, named TTS-Llama, that achieves state-of-the-art speech synthesis performance. Building on TTS-Llama, we further propose MoLE-Llama, a text-and-speech multimodal LLM developed through purely late-fusion parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) and a mixture-of-expert architecture. Extensive empirical results demonstrate MoLE-Llama's competitive performance on both text-only question-answering (QA) and TTS tasks, mitigating catastrophic forgetting issue in either modality. Finally, we further explore MoLE-Llama in text-in-speech-out QA tasks, demonstrating its great potential as a multimodal dialog system capable of speech generation.

The zero-shot chain of thought (CoT) approach is often used in question answering (QA) by language models (LMs) for tasks that require multiple reasoning steps, typically enhanced by the prompt "Let's think step by step." However, some QA tasks hinge more on accessing relevant knowledge than on chaining reasoning steps. We introduce a simple general prompting technique, called PREP, that involves using two instances of LMs: the first (LM1) generates relevant information, and the second (LM2) answers the question based on this information. PREP is designed to be general and independent of the user's domain knowledge, making it applicable across various QA tasks without the need for specialized prompt engineering. To evaluate the effectiveness of our prompting method, we create a dataset of 100 binary-choice questions, derived from an extensive schematic dataset on artifact parts and material composition. These questions ask which of two artifacts is less likely to share materials with another artifact. Such questions probe the LM's knowledge of shared materials in the part structure of different artifacts. We test our method on our dataset and three published commonsense reasoning datasets. The average accuracy of our method is consistently higher than that of all the other tested methods across all the tested datasets.

Retrieval-Augmented Language Models (RALMs) have significantly improved performance in open-domain question answering (QA) by leveraging external knowledge. However, RALMs still struggle with unanswerable queries, where the retrieved contexts do not contain the correct answer, and with conflicting information, where different sources provide contradictory answers due to imperfect retrieval. This study introduces an in-context learning-based approach to enhance the reasoning capabilities of RALMs, making them more robust in imperfect retrieval scenarios. Our method incorporates Machine Reading Comprehension (MRC) demonstrations, referred to as cases, to boost the model's capabilities to identify unanswerabilities and conflicts among the retrieved contexts. Experiments on two open-domain QA datasets show that our approach increases accuracy in identifying unanswerable and conflicting scenarios without requiring additional fine-tuning. This work demonstrates that in-context learning can effectively enhance the robustness of RALMs in open-domain QA tasks.

Answer Sentence Selection (AS2) is a critical task for designing effective retrieval-based Question Answering (QA) systems. Most advancements in AS2 focus on English due to the scarcity of annotated datasets for other languages. This lack of resources prevents the training of effective AS2 models in different languages, creating a performance gap between QA systems in English and other locales. In this paper, we introduce new high-quality datasets for AS2 in five European languages (French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish), obtained through supervised Automatic Machine Translation (AMT) of existing English AS2 datasets such as ASNQ, WikiQA, and TREC-QA using a Large Language Model (LLM). We evaluated our approach and the quality of the translated datasets through multiple experiments with different Transformer architectures. The results indicate that our datasets are pivotal in producing robust and powerful multilingual AS2 models, significantly contributing to closing the performance gap between English and other languages.

Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have exhibited notable efficacy in question-answering (QA) tasks across diverse domains. Their prowess in integrating extensive web knowledge has fueled interest in developing LLM-based autonomous agents. While LLMs are efficient in decoding human instructions and deriving solutions by holistically processing historical inputs, transitioning to purpose-driven agents requires a supplementary rational architecture to process multi-source information, establish reasoning chains, and prioritize critical tasks. Addressing this, we introduce FinMem, a novel LLM-based agent framework devised for financial decision-making. It encompasses three core modules: Profiling, to customize the agent's characteristics; Memory, with layered message processing, to aid the agent in assimilating hierarchical financial data; and Decision-making, to convert insights gained from memories into investment decisions. Notably, FinMem's memory module aligns closely with the cognitive structure of human traders, offering robust interpretability and real-time tuning. Its adjustable cognitive span allows for the retention of critical information beyond human perceptual limits, thereby enhancing trading outcomes. This framework enables the agent to self-evolve its professional knowledge, react agilely to new investment cues, and continuously refine trading decisions in the volatile financial environment. We first compare FinMem with various algorithmic agents on a scalable real-world financial dataset, underscoring its leading trading performance in stocks. We then fine-tuned the agent's perceptual span and character setting to achieve a significantly enhanced trading performance. Collectively, FinMem presents a cutting-edge LLM agent framework for automated trading, boosting cumulative investment returns.

We present BYOKG, a universal question-answering (QA) system that can operate on any knowledge graph (KG), requires no human-annotated training data, and can be ready to use within a day -- attributes that are out-of-scope for current KGQA systems. BYOKG draws inspiration from the remarkable ability of humans to comprehend information present in an unseen KG through exploration -- starting at random nodes, inspecting the labels of adjacent nodes and edges, and combining them with their prior world knowledge. In BYOKG, exploration leverages an LLM-backed symbolic agent that generates a diverse set of query-program exemplars, which are then used to ground a retrieval-augmented reasoning procedure to predict programs for arbitrary questions. BYOKG is effective over both small- and large-scale graphs, showing dramatic gains in QA accuracy over a zero-shot baseline of 27.89 and 58.02 F1 on GrailQA and MetaQA, respectively. On GrailQA, we further show that our unsupervised BYOKG outperforms a supervised in-context learning method, demonstrating the effectiveness of exploration. Lastly, we find that performance of BYOKG reliably improves with continued exploration as well as improvements in the base LLM, notably outperforming a state-of-the-art fine-tuned model by 7.08 F1 on a sub-sampled zero-shot split of GrailQA.