Update output_topic_details.txt

output_topic_details.txt

@@ -78,433 +78,67 @@ Topic: Phases of a Chess Game
 
 Description: The three phases of a chess game are the opening, the middlegame, and the endgame.
 
+Routine changes also tend to happen seasonally for most dogs and their owners. In the summer, you’ll likely be walking your dog earlier or later in the day to avoid high temperatures and make walks more comfortable and safer for your dog. However, in the winter months, people usually walk their dogs later in the morning or earlier in the evening to walk during daylight. School or work schedule changes are also times when you may need to adjust your dog’s routine so that you can keep up with all your commitments.
+Model-Rival Or Mirror Dog Training method
+One of the most interesting dog training method you can use for your dog. This method suggests that dogs learn by observation, providing a model of ideal behaviour or rival to compete for resources, dogs come to learn imitate behaviours.
+So you or the trainer can be the model and appreciating them for completing tasks on command as well as punishing them for misbehaving. 
+The targeted model can also act as an opponent, competing to do the right task for a reward, fascinating the dog to pick up on the task and accomplish it quickly. 
+Mirror training also has the same principle, the owner of the dog is the model offering rewards for any accomplished tasks or good behaviour. This method can be very effective if you think that you have a strong bond with your dog. 
+
+Classical Conditioning method
+Defining classical conditioning can be well described without Pavlov’s dog theory.
+Ivan Pavlov ran experiments where a bell would be rung each time before meat powder was sprayed into a dog’s mouth. Obviously, the meat powder caused the dog to be slobber.
+At this point, the bell ringing was a totally unrelated event to the dog salivating. But the point is, by the ringing of the bell before the meat powder was given, the dog learnt that the bell ringing meant that the meat on the way. 
+Classical conditioning occurs daily without any effort from us. You can see that when the dog bowl rattle, your dog start to salivate. When the dog sees you pick up his meal, he gets excited to do anything. These are not a natural behaviour, these are outcomes of classical conditioning.
+
+Operant conditioning is related to instrumental conditioning, it is a learning process that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through this method, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence (negative or positive) for that behaviour.
+Dog training methods
+If your beloved dog performs something appreciating, he is likely to increase performing that behaviour. As similar, if your dog performs something bad, over time, he will learn to eliminate the behaviour. So by punishing something bad we can decrease them, and by reinforcing good behaviours, you can increase them. 
+This method is very effective, and it has been used to train many animals for many decades now. You can go for it too, it’s a best practice.
+
+
+Traditional Dog Training
+Traditional dog training is based on the presumption that dogs required to learn to obey commands or signals given by their trainers/owners. The dog has respect for the owner’s authority.
+The leader of the gang
+It was widely thought that left to themselves dogs form ‘packs’ with a structured hierarchy completing in the ‘alpha’ or ‘top dog’ that controls all the other dogs. The traditional dog training requires the owner to be the alpha or the leader by suppressing any attempts by their dog to become the alpha in the family.
+Train Your Dog by Using Best Methods
+The fight for power
+In the past, there were many aspects of unwanted dog behaviour that were seen as a sign of the struggle for the pack leader position. 
+It included behaviour like as ignoring the owner’s commands or signals, aggressiveness etc. In that case, owners were encouraged to dominate the dogs by using aggressive body postures and the action that dogs notice intimidating. 
+This method allows a dog to make mistakes, and then punishments are given to reduce the behaviour in the future.  
+
+Science-Based Training method
+In science-based training, in-depth understanding of dogs, their nature, behaviour, classical conditioning, punishers, reinforcers, everything related to it comes into account. 
+Science-based dog training is continually being improved from the outcomes of investigations by animal behaviourists to try to truly understand dogs.
+Science-based dog training or it can be considered as modern methods as well. It is important to remember that all dogs learn according to the laws of science. The dogs learn by the outcomes of their behaviour, whatever those consequences may be. In this method, all trainers follow the law of science. 
+The difference between the traditional and modern is that the traditional trainers are often unaware of the law of the science that underpins the results they are getting.
+
+Positive Reinforcement method
+Dog training methods
+Positive reinforcement is indeed the part of operant conditioning, but it should be described as a sole method when the trainer exclusively uses it. The theory of this method is simply straightforward. The dog will repeat good behaviour when he will be rewarded for the accomplishment. on the other hand, bad behaviour does not get any recognition. If any correction needed it will come as the form of removal of rewards; anything being taken back away from the dog. In this way, the dog comes to learn what should do and what not.
+Certainly, positive reinforcement requires regularity. So, everyone in your home requires to use the same commands and reward system, so that the dog can use to it. Give them a reward every time after completing any desired task. It is probably the best method that you can use for your dog.
+
+Negative Reinforcement method
+Don’t necessarily think negative is always mean bad. In this context, it certainly doesn’t mean to be abusive to your dog. Here negative means taking something bad away and reinforce means trying to increase a behaviour.
+Therefore, negative reinforcement is taking something undesirable to develop behaviour. 
+For Example Suppose you are walking in the park, and you want your dog to walk left side, but he is walking at the right side, just pull him correct him to the left. So which one you think better? I think negative one would be more effective, though there are mixed opinions regarding this.
+
+Clicker Training method
+This is considered as one of the most highly effective and popular methods of dog training. This training method uses a hand device to create a sound that is used to signify the point at which the dog completes a polite/desirable behaviour. 
+It is easy to use for the new dog owners because it is easy to create a sound with a device than your voice. Therefore it creates a better understanding between you and your dog that leads to more productive training. 
+After many repetitions of this act, your dog will come to learn the functions of the clicker device, and you will have the pleasant behaviour form your dog. 
+
+Relationship-Based Training
+This type of method based on training combining several different methods, but it directs to a more personalised approach for dog and owner. It is nothing but the only relationship between the dog and the human that leads to everything. This method seeks to meet the needs of both dog and owner and establish their connection. Actually, it is something like mutual understanding, and it is surely beneficial to both. In this method, the owner must know his dog’s psychology, body language and how to meet their basic needs before each training session starts. 
+For example, a dog must learn to “sit” in a room before trying to make the command in a park with squirrels and kids and other games. The difficulty level increases gradually.
 
 
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-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
-This article is about the Western board game. For other chess games or other uses, see Chess (disambiguation).
-Chess
-A selection of white and black chess pieces on a checkered surface.
-Part of a Staunton chess set
-Left to right: white king, black rook, black queen, white pawn, black knight, white bishop
-Years active	c. 1475 to present[1] (predecessors c. 900 years earlier)
-Genres	
-Board game
-Abstract strategy game
-Mind sport
-Players	2
-Chance	None
-Skills	Strategy, tactics
-Synonyms	
-International chess
-Western chess
-Chess is a board game for two players. It is sometimes called international chess or Western chess to distinguish it from related games such as xiangqi (Chinese chess) and shogi (Japanese chess).
-
-Chess is an abstract strategy game that involves no hidden information and no elements of chance. It is played on a chessboard with 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. The players, referred to as "White" and "Black", each control sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns. White moves first, followed by Black. The game is won by checkmating the opponent's king, i.e. threatening it with inescapable capture. There are several ways a game can end in a draw.
-
-The recorded history of chess goes back at least to the emergence of a similar game, chaturanga, in seventh-century India. The rules of chess as they are known today emerged in Europe at the end of the 15th century, with standardization and universal acceptance by the end of the 19th century. Today, chess is one of the world's most popular games, and is played by millions of people worldwide.
-
-Organized chess arose in the 19th century. Chess competition today is governed internationally by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; the International Chess Federation). The first universally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; Ding Liren is the current World Champion.
-
-A huge body of chess theory has developed since the game's inception. Aspects of art are found in chess composition, and chess in its turn influenced Western culture and the arts, and has connections with other fields such as mathematics, computer science, and psychology. One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine. In 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer to beat the reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov. Today's chess engines are significantly stronger than the best human players and have deeply influenced the development of chess theory; however, chess is not a solved game.
-
-This article uses algebraic notation to describe chess moves.
-Rules
-Main article: Rules of chess
-The rules of chess are published by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; "International Chess Federation"), chess's world governing body, in its Handbook.[2] Rules published by national governing bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ in some details. FIDE's rules were most recently revised in 2023.
-
-Setup
-
-Setup at the start of a chess game
-Chess sets come in a wide variety of styles. The Staunton pattern is the most common, and is usually required for competition. Chess pieces are divided into two sets, usually light and dark colored, referred to as white and black, regardless of the actual color or design. The players of the sets are referred to as White and Black, respectively. Each set consists of sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns.
-
-The game is played on a square board of eight rows (called ranks) and eight columns (called files). By convention, the 64 squares alternate in color and are referred to as light and dark squares; common colors for chessboards are white and brown, or white and green.
-
-Initial position
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-a8 black rookb8 black knightc8 black bishopd8 black queene8 black kingf8 black bishopg8 black knighth8 black rooka7 black pawnb7 black pawnc7 black pawnd7 black pawne7 black pawnf7 black pawng7 black pawnh7 black pawna2 white pawnb2 white pawnc2 white pawnd2 white pawne2 white pawnf2 white pawng2 white pawnh2 white pawna1 white rookb1 white knightc1 white bishopd1 white queene1 white kingf1 white bishopg1 white knighth1 white rook
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-First row: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, rook. Second row: pawns.
-The pieces are set out as shown in the diagram and photo. Thus, on White's first rank, from left to right, the pieces are placed as follows: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, rook. Eight pawns are placed on the second rank. Black's position mirrors White's, with an equivalent piece on the same file. The board is placed with a light square at the right-hand corner nearest to each player. The correct position of the light square may be remembered by the phrase "light on right", while the correct positions of the king and queen may be remembered by the phrase "queen on her own color" (i.e. the white queen begins on a light square, and the black queen on a dark square).
-
-In competitive games, the piece colors are allocated to players by the organizers; in informal games, the colors are usually decided randomly, for example by a coin toss, or by one player concealing a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the other, and having the opponent choose.
-
-Movement
-White moves first, after which players alternate turns, moving one piece per turn (except for castling, when two pieces are moved). A piece is moved to either an unoccupied square or one occupied by an opponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play. With the sole exception of en passant, all pieces capture by moving to the square that the opponent's piece occupies. Moving is compulsory; a player may not skip a turn, even when having to move is detrimental.
-
-Each piece has its own way of moving. In the diagrams, crosses mark the squares to which the piece can move if there are no intervening piece(s) of either color (except the knight, which leaps over any intervening pieces). All pieces except the pawn can capture an enemy piece if it is on a square to which they could move if the square were unoccupied. Pieces are generally not permitted to move through squares occupied by pieces of either color, except for the knight and during castling.
-
-Moves of the king
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-e6 black crossf6 black crossg6 black crosse5 black crossf5 white kingg5 black crosse4 black crossf4 black crossg4 black cross
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-Moves of a rook
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-d8 black crossd7 black crossd6 black crossa5 black crossb5 black crossc5 black crossd5 white rooke5 black crossf5 black crossg5 black crossh5 black crossd4 black crossd3 black crossd2 black crossd1 black cross
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-Moves of a bishop
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-h8 black crossa7 black crossg7 black crossb6 black crossf6 black crossc5 black crosse5 black crossd4 white bishopc3 black crosse3 black crossb2 black crossf2 black crossa1 black crossg1 black cross
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-Moves of a queen
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-d8 black crossh8 black crossa7 black crossd7 black crossg7 black crossb6 black crossd6 black crossf6 black crossc5 black crossd5 black crosse5 black crossa4 black crossb4 black crossc4 black crossd4 white queene4 black crossf4 black crossg4 black crossh4 black crossc3 black crossd3 black crosse3 black crossb2 black crossd2 black crossf2 black crossa1 black crossd1 black crossg1 black cross
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-Moves of a knight
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-c7 black crosse7 black crossb6 black crossf6 black crossd5 white knightb4 black crossf4 black crossc3 black crosse3 black cross
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-Moves of a pawn
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-b5 black crossc5 black circled5 black crossc4 white pawnf4 black circlee3 black crossf3 black circleg3 black crossf2 white pawn
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-The king moves one square in any direction. There is also a special move called castling that involves moving the king and a rook. The king is the most valuable piece—attacks on the king must be immediately countered, and if this is impossible, the game is immediately lost (see Check and checkmate below).
-A rook can move any number of squares along a rank or file, but cannot leap over other pieces. Along with the king, a rook is involved during the king's castling move.
-A bishop can move any number of squares diagonally, but cannot leap over other pieces.
-A queen combines the power of a rook and bishop and can move any number of squares along a rank, file, or diagonal, but cannot leap over other pieces.
-A knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank, file, or diagonal. (Thus the move forms an "L"-shape: two squares vertically and one square horizontally, or two squares horizontally and one square vertically.) The knight is the only piece that can leap over other pieces.
-A pawn can move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file, or on its first move it can advance two squares along the same file, provided both squares are unoccupied (black dots in the diagram). A pawn can capture an opponent's piece on a square diagonally in front of it by moving to that square (black crosses). It cannot capture a piece while advancing along the same file. A pawn has two special moves: the en passant capture and promotion.
-Check and checkmate
-Main articles: Check and Checkmate
-When a king is under immediate attack, it is said to be in check. A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position where the king is no longer in check. There are three ways to counter a check:
-
-Capture the checking piece.
-Interpose a piece between the checking piece and the king (which is possible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and there is a square between it and the king).
-Move the king to a square where it is not under attack.
-Castling is not a permissible response to a check.[2]
-
-The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no legal way to get it out of check. It is never legal for a player to make a move that puts or leaves the player's own king in check. In casual games, it is common to announce "check" when putting the opponent's king in check, but this is not required by the rules of chess and is usually not done in tournaments.[3]
-
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-c6 black kingc2 white rooke1 white king
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-The black king is in check by the rook.
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-e3 black bishopf3 black bishoph3 black kingh1 white king
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-White is in checkmate, being unable to escape attack by the bishop on f3.
-Castling
-Main article: Castling
-
-Examples of castling (view animation)
-Once per game, each king can make a move known as castling. Castling consists of moving the king two squares toward a rook of the same color on the same rank, and then placing the rook on the square that the king crossed.
-
-Castling is permissible if the following conditions are met:[2]
-
-Neither the king nor the rook has previously moved during the game.
-There are no pieces between the king and the rook.
-The king is not in check and does not pass through or finish on a square attacked by an enemy piece.
-Castling is still permitted if the rook is under attack, or if the rook crosses an attacked square.
-
-En passant
-
-Main article: En passant
-
-Examples of pawn moves:
-(left) promotion; (right) en passant
-When a pawn makes a two-step advance from its starting position and there is an opponent's pawn on a square next to the destination square on an adjacent file, then the opponent's pawn can capture it en passant ("in passing"), moving to the square the pawn passed over. This can be done only on the turn immediately following the enemy pawn's two-square advance; otherwise, the right to do so is forfeited. For example, in the animated diagram, the black pawn advances two squares from g7 to g5, and the white pawn on f5 can take it en passant on g6 (but only immediately after the black pawn's advance).
-
-Promotion
-Main article: Promotion
-When a pawn advances to its eighth rank, as part of the move, it is promoted and must be exchanged for the player's choice of queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases, another piece is chosen; this is called underpromotion. In the animated diagram, the pawn on c7 can be advanced to the eighth rank and be promoted. There is no restriction on the piece promoted to, so it is possible to have more pieces of the same type than at the start of the game (e.g., two or more queens). If the required piece is not available (e.g. a second queen) an inverted rook is sometimes used as a substitute, but this is not recognized in FIDE-sanctioned games.
-
-End of the game
-Win
-A game can be won in the following ways:
-
-Checkmate: The opposing king is in check and the opponent has no legal move. (See check and checkmate above.)
-Resignation: A player may resign, conceding the game to the opponent.[4] If, however, the opponent has no way of checkmating the resigned player, this is a draw under FIDE Laws.[2] Most tournament players consider it good etiquette to resign in a hopeless position.[5][6]
-Win on time: In games with a time control, a player wins if the opponent runs out of time, even if the opponent has a superior position, as long as the player has a theoretical possibility to checkmate the opponent were the game to continue.
-Forfeit: A player who cheats, violates the rules, or violates the rules of conduct specified for the particular tournament can be forfeited. Occasionally, both players are forfeited.[2]
-Draw
-There are several ways a game can end in a draw:
-
-Stalemate: If the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check, the position is a stalemate, and the game is drawn.
-Dead position: If neither player is able to checkmate the other by any legal sequence of moves, the game is drawn. For example, if only the kings are on the board, all other pieces having been captured, checkmate is impossible, and the game is drawn by this rule. On the other hand, if both players still have a knight, there is a highly unlikely yet theoretical possibility of checkmate, so this rule does not apply. The dead position rule supersedes the previous rule which referred to "insufficient material", extending it to include other positions where checkmate is impossible, such as blocked pawn endings where the pawns cannot be attacked.
-Draw by agreement: In tournament chess, draws are most commonly reached by mutual agreement between the players. The correct procedure is to verbally offer the draw, make a move, then start the opponent's clock. Traditionally, players have been allowed to agree to a draw at any point in the game, occasionally even without playing a move. More recently efforts have been made to discourage short draws, for example by forbidding draw offers before move thirty.
-Threefold repetition: This most commonly occurs when neither side is able to avoid repeating moves without incurring a disadvantage. In this situation, either player can claim a draw; this requires the players to keep a valid written record of the game so that the claim can be verified by the arbiter if challenged. The three occurrences of the position need not occur on consecutive moves for a claim to be valid. The addition of the fivefold repetition rule in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene immediately and declare the game a draw after five occurrences of the same position, consecutive or otherwise, without requiring a claim by either player. FIDE rules make no mention of perpetual check; this is merely a specific type of draw by threefold repetition.
-Fifty-move rule: If during the previous 50 moves no pawn has been moved and no capture has been made, either player can claim a draw. The addition of the seventy-five-move rule in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene and immediately declare the game drawn after 75 moves without a pawn move or capture, without requiring a claim by either player. There are several known endgames where it is possible to force a mate but it requires more than 50 moves before a pawn move or capture is made; examples include some endgames with two knights against a pawn and some pawnless endgames such as queen against two bishops. Historically, FIDE has sometimes revised the fifty-move rule to make exceptions for these endgames, but these have since been repealed. Some correspondence chess organizations do not enforce the fifty-move rule.[note 1]
-Draw on time: In games with a time control, the game is drawn if a player is out of time and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate the player.[2]
-Draw by resignation: Under FIDE Laws, a game is drawn if a player resigns and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate that player.[2]
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-c6 white queena5 black kingc4 white king
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-Black (to move) is not in check and has no legal move. The result is stalemate.
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-e6 black kinge5 white bishope4 white king
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-A dead position; White's king and bishop are insufficient to checkmate.
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-8	
-d6 black kingb5 black pawne5 black pawnh5 black pawnb4 white pawne4 white pawnh4 white pawnd3 white king
-8
-7	7
-6	6
-5	5
-4	4
-3	3
-2	2
-1	1
-a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
-Also a dead position; neither king can capture the other's pawns in order to promote a pawn and give checkmate.
-Time control
-A chess clock with a brown base. A digital display shows the remaining time for each side.
-A digital chess clock
-In competition, chess games are played with a time control. If a player's time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided the opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate).[2] The duration of a game ranges from long (or "classical") games, which can take up to seven hours (even longer if adjournments are permitted), to bullet chess (under 3 minutes per player for the entire game). Intermediate between these are rapid chess games, lasting between one and two hours per game, a popular time control in amateur weekend tournaments.
-
-Time is controlled using a chess clock that has two displays, one for each player's remaining time. Analog chess clocks have been largely replaced by digital clocks, which allow for time controls with increments.
-
-Time controls are also enforced in correspondence chess competitions. A typical time control is 50 days for every 10 moves.
-
-Notation
-Main article: Algebraic notation
-Historically, many different notation systems have been used to record chess moves; the standard system today is short-form algebraic notation.[8] In this system, each square is uniquely identified by a set of coordinates, a–h for the files followed by 1–8 for the ranks. The usual format is
-
-initial of the piece moved – file of destination square – rank of destination square
-The pieces are identified by their initials. In English, these are K (king), Q (queen), R (rook), B (bishop), and N (knight; N is used to avoid confusion with king). For example, Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file, 5th rank" (that is, to the square g5). Different initials may be used for other languages. In chess literature, figurine algebraic notation (FAN) is frequently used to aid understanding independent of language.
-
-
-Square names in algebraic chess notation
-To resolve ambiguities, an additional letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved (e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3"; R1e2 means "rook on the first rank moves to e2"). For pawns, no letter initial is used; so e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4".
-
-If the piece makes a capture, "x" is usually inserted before the destination square. Thus Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used to identify the pawn making the capture, for example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on d5). Ranks may be omitted if unambiguous, for example, exd (pawn on the e-file captures a piece somewhere on the d-file). A minority of publications use ":" to indicate a capture, and some omit the capture symbol altogether. In its most abbreviated form, exd5 may be rendered simply as ed. An en passant capture may optionally be marked with the notation "e.p."
-
-If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move (for example, e1=Q or e1Q). Castling is indicated by the special notations 0-0 (or O-O) for kingside castling and 0-0-0 (or O-O-O) for queenside castling. A move that places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation "+" added. There are no specific notations for discovered check or double check. Checkmate can be indicated by "#". At the end of the game, "1–0" means White won, "0–1" means Black won, and "½–½" indicates a draw.[2] Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols. For example: "!" indicates a good move; "!!" an excellent move; "?" a mistake; "??" a blunder; "!?" an interesting move that may not be best; or "?!" a dubious move not easily refuted.[9]
-
-
-"Scholar's mate"
-For example, one variation of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate (see animated diagram) can be recorded:
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- 1. e4 e5 2. Qh5?! Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6?? 4. Qxf7#
-Variants of algebraic notation include long algebraic, in which both the departure and destination square are indicated; abbreviated algebraic, in which capture signs, check signs, and ranks of pawn captures may be omitted; and Figurine Algebraic Notation, used in chess publications for universal readability regardless of language.
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-Portable Game Notation (PGN) is a text-based file format for recording chess games, based on short form English algebraic notation with a small amount of markup. PGN files (suffix .pgn) can be processed by most chess software, as well as being easily readable by humans.
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-Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive notation, in which files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies the first rank at the beginning of the game. In descriptive notation, the common opening move 1.e4 is rendered as "1.P-K4" ("pawn to king four"). Another system is ICCF numeric notation, recognized by the International Correspondence Chess Federation though its use is in decline.
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-In tournament games, players are normally required to keep a score (record of the game). For this purpose, only algebraic notation is recognized in FIDE-sanctioned events; game scores recorded in a different notation system may not be used as evidence in the event of a dispute.
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-Chess in public spaces
-Chess is often played casually in public spaces such as parks and town squares.
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-Public chess tables in the Jardin du Luxembourg, Paris
-Public chess tables in the Jardin du Luxembourg, Paris
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-Men playing chess, Kutaisi, Georgia, 2014
-Men playing chess, Kutaisi, Georgia, 2014
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-A girl playing chess in Mexico City.
-A girl playing chess in Mexico City.
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-Chess game in Kilifi, Kenya
-Chess game in Kilifi, Kenya
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-Giant chess on Cathedral Square, Christchurch, New Zealand.
-Giant chess on Cathedral Square, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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-On a street of Santiago de Cuba.
-On a street of Santiago de Cuba.
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-Chess players in the Széchenyi baths of Budapest, Hungary.
-Chess players in the Széchenyi baths of Budapest, Hungary.
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-A girl playing chess in Salatiga, Indonesia.
-A girl playing chess in Salatiga, Indonesia.
-Organized competition
-Tournaments and matches
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-Tata Steel Chess Tournament 2019, Wijk aan Zee (the Netherlands)
-Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, and congresses. Thousands of chess tournaments, matches, and festivals are held around the world every year catering to players of all levels.
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-Tournaments with a small number of players may use the round-robin format, in which every player plays one game against every other player. For a large number of players, the Swiss system may be used, in which each player is paired against an opponent who has the same (or as similar as possible) score in each round. In either case, a player's score is usually calculated as 1 point for each game won and one-half point for each game drawn. Variations such as "football scoring" (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw) may be used by tournament organizers, but ratings are always calculated on the basis of standard scoring. A player's score may be reported as total score out of games played (e.g. 5½/8), points for versus points against (e.g. 5½–2½), or by number of wins, losses and draws (e.g. +4−1=3).
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-The term "match" refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two players, or a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game against a player of the other team.
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-Governance
-Chess's international governing body is usually known by its French acronym FIDE (pronounced FEE-day) (French: Fédération internationale des échecs), or International Chess Federation. FIDE's membership consists of the national chess organizations of over 180 countries; there are also several associate members, including various supra-national organizations, the International Braille Chess Association (IBCA), International Committee of Chess for the Deaf (ICCD), and the International Physically Disabled Chess Association (IPCA).[10] FIDE is recognized as a sports governing body by the International Olympic Committee,[11] but chess has never been part of the Olympic Games.
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-Garry Kasparov, former World Chess Champion
-FIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess Championship, a role it assumed in 1948. The current World Champion is Ding Liren of China.[12] The reigning Women's World Champion is Ju Wenjun from China.[13]
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-Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship, the tournaments for the World Championship qualification cycle, and the various national championships. Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players. Examples include Spain's Linares event, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters, and Wijk aan Zee's Tata Steel tournament.
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-Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess Championship.
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-The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships include both team and individual events; these are held independently of FIDE.
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-Titles and rankings
-Main article: Chess titles
-In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and most national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo. An average club player has a rating of about 1500; the highest FIDE rating of all time, 2882, was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list.[14]
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-Players may be awarded lifetime titles by FIDE:[16]
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-Grandmaster (GM; sometimes International Grandmaster or IGM is used) is awarded to world-class chess masters. Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. Before FIDE will confer the title on a player, the player must have an Elo rating of at least 2500 at one time and three results of a prescribed standard (called norms) in tournaments involving other grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's. There are other milestones a player can achieve to attain the title, such as winning the World Junior Championship.
-International Master (IM). The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400.
-FIDE Master (FM). The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE rating of 2300 or more.
-Candidate Master (CM). Similar to FM, but with a FIDE rating of at least 2200.
-The above titles are open to both men and women. There are also separate women-only titles; Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), Woman FIDE Master (WFM) and Woman Candidate Master (WCM). These require a performance level approximately 200 Elo rating points below the similarly named open titles, and their continued existence has sometimes been controversial. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the open GM title: 40 as of July 2023.[note 2]
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-FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers.[17][18] International titles are also awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). National chess organizations may also award titles.
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-Theory
-Main articles: Chess theory, Chess tactics, Chess strategy, Chess libraries, List of chess books, and List of chess periodicals
-Chess has an extensive literature. In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R. Murray estimated the total number of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000.[19] B.H. Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000.[20] David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, "Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. No one knows how many have been printed."[20] Significant public chess libraries include the John G. White Chess and Checkers Collection at Cleveland Public Library, with over 32,000 chess books and over 6,000 bound volumes of chess periodicals;[21] and the Chess & Draughts collection at the National Library of the Netherlands, with about 30,000 books.[22]
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-Chess theory usually divides the game of chess into three phases with different sets of strategies: the opening, typically the first 10 to 20 moves, when players move their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle; the middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawn promotion is often decisive.
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-Opening theory is concerned with finding the best moves in the initial phase of the game. There are dozens of different openings, and hundreds of variants. The Oxford Companion to Chess lists 1,327 named openings and variants.[23]
 
 Middlegame theory is usually divided into chess tactics and chess strategy. Chess strategy concentrates on setting and achieving long-term positional advantages during the game – for example, where to place different pieces – while tactics concerns immediate maneuver. These two aspects of the gameplay cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved through tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play.
 
 Endgame theory is concerned with positions where there are only a few pieces left. These positions are categorized according to the pieces, for example "King and pawn" endings or "Rook versus minor piece" endings.
 
-Opening
-Main article: Chess opening
-A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as openings and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defense. They are catalogued in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet positional play (for example, the Réti Opening) to very aggressive (the Latvian Gambit). In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to more than 30 moves.[24] Professional players spend years studying openings and continue doing so throughout their careers, as opening theory continues to evolve.
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-The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar:[25]
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-Development: This is the technique of placing the pieces (particularly bishops and knights) on useful squares where they will have an optimal impact on the game.
-Control of the center: Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily, and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent.
-King safety: It is critical to keep the king safe from dangerous possibilities. A correctly timed castling can often enhance this.
-Pawn structure: Players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled, or backward pawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position.
-Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a small advantage. This initially gives White the initiative.[26] Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and achieve equality, or to develop dynamic counterplay in an unbalanced position.
 
-Middlegame
-Main article: Chess middlegame
-The middlegame is the part of the game that starts after the opening. There is no clear line between the opening and the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have been developed. (Similarly, there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame; see start of the endgame.) Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position.[27] The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur. Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain. Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king. Some typical patterns have their own names; for example, the Boden's Mate or the Lasker–Bauer combination.[28]
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-Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings that result in a specific type of pawn structure. An example is the minority attack, which is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside. The study of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the resulting middlegames.[29]
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-Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transition into an endgame (i.e. simplify). Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two-pawn advantage.[30]
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-Tactics
-Main article: Chess tactics
-In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or a computer. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In quiet positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited number of forced variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves.
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-Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example: pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences.[31] Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of material, and double attacks – can be combined into more complicated sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players.[32] A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination.[32] Brilliant combinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' skills, is a position where a decisive combination is available and the challenge is to find it.[33]
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-Strategy
 Main article: Chess strategy
 Example of underlying pawn structure
 a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	
@@ -606,7 +240,6 @@ The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in
 
 Chess in the Netherlands (1864)
 As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books, and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example, the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824.[81] Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling, and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory.
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 The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard Staunton, a leading English chess player, and was held in London in 1851. It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen, who was hailed as the leading chess master. His brilliant, energetic attacking style was typical for the time.[82][83] Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal Game and Evergreen Game or Morphy's "Opera Game" were regarded as the highest possible summit of the art of chess.[84]
 
 Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with the American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy. Morphy won against all important competitors (except Staunton, who refused to play), including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.[85]