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	<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/loose.dtd">
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	<title>GNU gettext utilities: 15. Other Programming Languages</title>

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	<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" border="0">
	<tr><td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_14.html#SEC261" title="Beginning of this chapter or previous chapter"> << </a>]</td>
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	<td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_toc.html#SEC_Top" title="Cover (top) of document">Top</a>]</td>
	<td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_toc.html#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents">Contents</a>]</td>
	<td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_21.html#SEC387" title="Index">Index</a>]</td>
	<td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_abt.html#SEC_About" title="About (help)"> ? </a>]</td>
	</tr></table>

	<hr size="2">
	<a name="Programming-Languages"></a>
	<a name="SEC262"></a>
	<h1 class="chapter"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC256">15. Other Programming Languages</a> </h1>

	<p>While the presentation of <code>gettext</code> focuses mostly on C and
	implicitly applies to C++ as well, its scope is far broader than that:
	Many programming languages, scripting languages and other textual data
	like GUI resources or package descriptions can make use of the gettext
	approach.
	</p>


	<a name="Language-Implementors"></a>
	<a name="SEC263"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC257">15.1 The Language Implementor's View</a> </h2>

	<p>All programming and scripting languages that have the notion of strings
	are eligible to supporting <code>gettext</code>. Supporting <code>gettext</code>
	means the following:
	</p>
	<ol>
	<li>
	You should add to the language a syntax for translatable strings. In
	principle, a function call of <code>gettext</code> would do, but a shorthand
	syntax helps keeping the legibility of internationalized programs. For
	example, in C we use the syntax <code>_("string")</code>, and in GNU awk we use
	the shorthand <code>_"string"</code>.

	</li><li>
	You should arrange that evaluation of such a translatable string at
	runtime calls the <code>gettext</code> function, or performs equivalent
	processing.

	</li><li>
	Similarly, you should make the functions <code>ngettext</code>,
	<code>dcgettext</code>, <code>dcngettext</code> available from within the language.
	These functions are less often used, but are nevertheless necessary for
	particular purposes: <code>ngettext</code> for correct plural handling, and
	<code>dcgettext</code> and <code>dcngettext</code> for obeying other locale-related
	environment variables than <code>LC_MESSAGES</code>, such as <code>LC_TIME</code> or
	<code>LC_MONETARY</code>. For these latter functions, you need to make the
	<code>LC_*</code> constants, available in the C header <code><locale.h></code>,
	referenceable from within the language, usually either as enumeration
	values or as strings.

	</li><li>
	You should allow the programmer to designate a message domain, either by
	making the <code>textdomain</code> function available from within the
	language, or by introducing a magic variable called <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code>.
	Similarly, you should allow the programmer to designate where to search
	for message catalogs, by providing access to the <code>bindtextdomain</code>
	function or — on native Windows platforms — to the <code>wbindtextdomain</code>
	function.

	</li><li>
	You should either perform a <code>setlocale (LC_ALL, "")</code> call during
	the startup of your language runtime, or allow the programmer to do so.
	Remember that gettext will act as a no-op if the <code>LC_MESSAGES</code> and
	<code>LC_CTYPE</code> locale categories are not both set.

	</li><li>
	A programmer should have a way to extract translatable strings from a
	program into a PO file. The GNU <code>xgettext</code> program is being
	extended to support very different programming languages. Please
	contact the GNU <code>gettext</code> maintainers to help them doing this.
	The GNU <code>gettext</code> maintainers will need from you a formal
	description of the lexical structure of source files. It should
	answer the questions:
	<ul>
	<li>
	What does a token look like?
	</li><li>
	What does a string literal look like? What escape characters exist
	inside a string?
	</li><li>
	What escape characters exist outside of strings? If Unicode escapes
	are supported, are they applied before or after tokenization?
	</li><li>
	What is the syntax for function calls? How are consecutive arguments
	in the same function call separated?
	</li><li>
	What is the syntax for comments?
	</li></ul>
	<p>Based on this description, the GNU <code>gettext</code> maintainers
	can add support to <code>xgettext</code>.
	</p>
	<p>If the string extractor is best integrated into your language's parser,
	GNU <code>xgettext</code> can function as a front end to your string extractor.
	</p>
	</li><li>
	The language's library should have a string formatting facility.
	Additionally:
	<ol>
	<li>
	There must be a way, in the format string, to denote the arguments by a
	positional number or a name. This is needed because for some languages
	and some messages with more than one substitutable argument, the
	translation will need to output the substituted arguments in different
	order. See section <a href="gettext_4.html#SEC29">Special Comments preceding Keywords</a>.
	</li><li>
	The syntax of format strings must be documented in a way that translators
	can understand. The GNU <code>gettext</code> manual will be extended to
	include a pointer to this documentation.
	</li></ol>
	<p>Based on this, the GNU <code>gettext</code> maintainers can add a format string
	equivalence checker to <code>msgfmt</code>, so that translators get told
	immediately when they have made a mistake during the translation of a
	format string.
	</p>
	</li><li>
	If the language has more than one implementation, and not all of the
	implementations use <code>gettext</code>, but the programs should be portable
	across implementations, you should provide a no-i18n emulation, that
	makes the other implementations accept programs written for yours,
	without actually translating the strings.

	</li><li>
	To help the programmer in the task of marking translatable strings,
	which is sometimes performed using the Emacs PO mode (see section <a href="gettext_4.html#SEC28">Marking Translatable Strings</a>),
	you are welcome to
	contact the GNU <code>gettext</code> maintainers, so they can add support for
	your language to ‘<tt>po-mode.el</tt>’.
	</li></ol>

	<p>On the implementation side, two approaches are possible, with
	different effects on portability and copyright:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li>
	You may link against GNU <code>gettext</code> functions if they are found in
	the C library. For example, an autoconf test for <code>gettext()</code> and
	<code>ngettext()</code> will detect this situation. For the moment, this test
	will succeed on GNU systems and on Solaris 11 platforms. No severe
	copyright restrictions apply, except if you want to distribute statically
	linked binaries.

	</li><li>
	You may emulate or reimplement the GNU <code>gettext</code> functionality.
	This has the advantage of full portability and no copyright
	restrictions, but also the drawback that you have to reimplement the GNU
	<code>gettext</code> features (such as the <code>LANGUAGE</code> environment
	variable, the locale aliases database, the automatic charset conversion,
	and plural handling).
	</li></ul>


	<a name="Programmers-for-other-Languages"></a>
	<a name="SEC264"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC258">15.2 The Programmer's View</a> </h2>

	<p>For the programmer, the general procedure is the same as for the C
	language. The Emacs PO mode marking supports other languages, and the GNU
	<code>xgettext</code> string extractor recognizes other languages based on the
	file extension or a command-line option. In some languages,
	<code>setlocale</code> is not needed because it is already performed by the
	underlying language runtime.
	</p>

	<a name="Translators-for-other-Languages"></a>
	<a name="SEC265"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC259">15.3 The Translator's View</a> </h2>

	<p>The translator works exactly as in the C language case. The only
	difference is that when translating format strings, she has to be aware
	of the language's particular syntax for positional arguments in format
	strings.
	</p>


	<a name="c_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC266"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC260">15.3.1 C Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>C format strings are described in POSIX (IEEE P1003.1 2001), section
	XSH 3 fprintf(),
	<a href="http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/007904975/functions/fprintf.html">http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/007904975/functions/fprintf.html</a>.
	See also the fprintf() manual page,
	<a href="http://www.linuxvalley.it/encyclopedia/ldp/manpage/man3/printf.3.php">http://www.linuxvalley.it/encyclopedia/ldp/manpage/man3/printf.3.php</a>,
	<a href="http://informatik.fh-wuerzburg.de/student/i510/man/printf.html">http://informatik.fh-wuerzburg.de/student/i510/man/printf.html</a>.
	</p>
	<p>Although format strings with positions that reorder arguments, such as
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">"Only %2$d bytes free on '%1$s'."
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>which is semantically equivalent to
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">"'%s' has only %d bytes free."
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>are a POSIX/XSI feature and not specified by ISO C 99, translators can rely
	on this reordering ability: On the few platforms where <code>printf()</code>,
	<code>fprintf()</code> etc. don't support this feature natively, ‘<tt>libintl.a</tt>’
	or ‘<tt>libintl.so</tt>’ provides replacement functions, and GNU <code><libintl.h></code>
	activates these replacement functions automatically.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX1109"></a>
	<a name="IDX1110"></a>
	<p>As a special feature for Farsi (Persian) and maybe Arabic, translators can
	insert an ‘<samp>I</samp>’ flag into numeric format directives. For example, the
	translation of <code>"%d"</code> can be <code>"%Id"</code>. The effect of this flag,
	on systems with GNU <code>libc</code>, is that in the output, the ASCII digits are
	replaced with the ‘<samp>outdigits</samp>’ defined in the <code>LC_CTYPE</code> locale
	category. On other systems, the <code>gettext</code> function removes this flag,
	so that it has no effect.
	</p>
	<p>Note that the programmer should <em>not</em> put this flag into the
	untranslated string. (Putting the ‘<samp>I</samp>’ format directive flag into an
	<var>msgid</var> string would lead to undefined behaviour on platforms without
	glibc when NLS is disabled.)
	</p>

	<a name="objc_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC267"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC261">15.3.2 Objective C Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Objective C format strings are like C format strings. They support an
	additional format directive: "%@", which when executed consumes an argument
	of type <code>Object *</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="python_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC268"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC262">15.3.3 Python Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>There are two kinds of format strings in Python: those acceptable to
	the Python built-in format operator <code>%</code>, labelled as
	‘<samp>python-format</samp>’, and those acceptable to the <code>format</code> method
	of the ‘<samp>str</samp>’ object.
	</p>
	<p>Python <code>%</code> format strings are described in
	Python Library reference /
	5. Built-in Types /
	5.6. Sequence Types /
	5.6.2. String Formatting Operations.
	<a href="https://docs.python.org/2/library/stdtypes.html#string-formatting-operations">https://docs.python.org/2/library/stdtypes.html#string-formatting-operations</a>.
	</p>
	<p>Python brace format strings are described in PEP 3101 – Advanced
	String Formatting, <a href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101/">https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101/</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="java_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC269"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC263">15.3.4 Java Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>There are two kinds of format strings in Java: those acceptable to the
	<code>MessageFormat.format</code> function, labelled as ‘<samp>java-format</samp>’,
	and those acceptable to the <code>String.format</code> and
	<code>PrintStream.printf</code> functions, labelled as ‘<samp>java-printf-format</samp>’.
	</p>
	<p>Java format strings are described in the JDK documentation for class
	<code>java.text.MessageFormat</code>,
	<a href="https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/text/MessageFormat.html">https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/text/MessageFormat.html</a>.
	See also the ICU documentation
	<a href="http://icu-project.org/apiref/icu4j/com/ibm/icu/text/MessageFormat.html">http://icu-project.org/apiref/icu4j/com/ibm/icu/text/MessageFormat.html</a>.
	</p>
	<p>Java <code>printf</code> format strings are described in the JDK documentation
	for class <code>java.util.Formatter</code>,
	<a href="https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/Formatter.html">https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/Formatter.html</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="csharp_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC270"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC264">15.3.5 C# Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>C# format strings are described in the .NET documentation for class
	<code>System.String</code> and in
	<a href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpConFormattingOverview.asp">http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpConFormattingOverview.asp</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="javascript_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC271"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC265">15.3.6 JavaScript Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Although JavaScript specification itself does not define any format
	strings, many JavaScript implementations provide printf-like
	functions. <code>xgettext</code> understands a set of common format strings
	used in popular JavaScript implementations including Gjs, Seed, and
	Node.JS. In such a format string, a directive starts with ‘<samp>%</samp>’
	and is finished by a specifier: ‘<samp>%</samp>’ denotes a literal percent
	sign, ‘<samp>c</samp>’ denotes a character, ‘<samp>s</samp>’ denotes a string,
	‘<samp>b</samp>’, ‘<samp>d</samp>’, ‘<samp>o</samp>’, ‘<samp>x</samp>’, ‘<samp>X</samp>’ denote an integer,
	‘<samp>f</samp>’ denotes floating-point number, ‘<samp>j</samp>’ denotes a JSON
	object.
	</p>

	<a name="scheme_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC272"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC266">15.3.7 Scheme Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Scheme format strings are documented in the SLIB manual, section
	Format Specification.
	</p>

	<a name="lisp_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC273"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC267">15.3.8 Lisp Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Lisp format strings are described in the Common Lisp HyperSpec,
	chapter 22.3 Formatted Output,
	<a href="http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/iiip/doc/CommonLISP/HyperSpec/Body/sec_22-3.html">http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/iiip/doc/CommonLISP/HyperSpec/Body/sec_22-3.html</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="elisp_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC274"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC268">15.3.9 Emacs Lisp Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Emacs Lisp format strings are documented in the Emacs Lisp reference,
	section Formatting Strings,
	<a href="https://www.gnu.org/manual/elisp-manual-21-2.8/html_chapter/elisp_4.html#SEC75">https://www.gnu.org/manual/elisp-manual-21-2.8/html_chapter/elisp_4.html#SEC75</a>.
	Note that as of version 21, XEmacs supports numbered argument specifications
	in format strings while FSF Emacs doesn't.
	</p>

	<a name="librep_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC275"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC269">15.3.10 librep Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>librep format strings are documented in the librep manual, section
	Formatted Output,
	<a href="http://librep.sourceforge.net/librep-manual.html#Formatted%20Output">http://librep.sourceforge.net/librep-manual.html#Formatted%20Output</a>,
	<a href="http://www.gwinnup.org/research/docs/librep.html#SEC122">http://www.gwinnup.org/research/docs/librep.html#SEC122</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="ruby_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC276"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC270">15.3.11 Ruby Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Ruby format strings are described in the documentation of the Ruby
	functions <code>format</code> and <code>sprintf</code>, in
	<a href="https://ruby-doc.org/core-2.7.1/Kernel.html#method-i-sprintf">https://ruby-doc.org/core-2.7.1/Kernel.html#method-i-sprintf</a>.
	</p>
	<p>There are two kinds of format strings in Ruby:
	</p><ul>
	<li>
	Those that take a list of arguments without names. They support
	argument reordering by use of the <code>%<var>n</var>$</code> syntax. Note
	that if one argument uses this syntax, all must use this syntax.
	</li><li>
	Those that take a hash table, containing named arguments. The
	syntax is <code>%<<var>name</var>></code>. Note that <code>%{<var>name</var>}</code> is
	equivalent to <code>%<<var>name</var>>s</code>.
	</li></ul>


	<a name="sh_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC277"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC271">15.3.12 Shell Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Shell format strings, as supported by GNU gettext and the ‘<samp>envsubst</samp>’
	program, are strings with references to shell variables in the form
	<code>$<var>variable</var></code> or <code>${<var>variable</var>}</code>. References of the form
	<code>${<var>variable</var>-<var>default</var>}</code>,
	<code>${<var>variable</var>:-<var>default</var>}</code>,
	<code>${<var>variable</var>=<var>default</var>}</code>,
	<code>${<var>variable</var>:=<var>default</var>}</code>,
	<code>${<var>variable</var>+<var>replacement</var>}</code>,
	<code>${<var>variable</var>:+<var>replacement</var>}</code>,
	<code>${<var>variable</var>?<var>ignored</var>}</code>,
	<code>${<var>variable</var>:?<var>ignored</var>}</code>,
	that would be valid inside shell scripts, are not supported. The
	<var>variable</var> names must consist solely of alphanumeric or underscore
	ASCII characters, not start with a digit and be nonempty; otherwise such
	a variable reference is ignored.
	</p>

	<a name="awk_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC278"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC272">15.3.13 awk Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>awk format strings are described in the gawk documentation, section
	Printf,
	<a href="https://www.gnu.org/manual/gawk/html_node/Printf.html#Printf">https://www.gnu.org/manual/gawk/html_node/Printf.html#Printf</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="lua_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC279"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC273">15.3.14 Lua Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Lua format strings are described in the Lua reference manual, section String Manipulation,
	<a href="https://www.lua.org/manual/5.1/manual.html#pdf-string.format">https://www.lua.org/manual/5.1/manual.html#pdf-string.format</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="object_002dpascal_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC280"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC274">15.3.15 Object Pascal Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Object Pascal format strings are described in the documentation of the
	Free Pascal runtime library, section Format,
	<a href="https://www.freepascal.org/docs-html/rtl/sysutils/format.html">https://www.freepascal.org/docs-html/rtl/sysutils/format.html</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="smalltalk_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC281"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC275">15.3.16 Smalltalk Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Smalltalk format strings are described in the GNU Smalltalk documentation,
	class <code>CharArray</code>, methods ‘<samp>bindWith:</samp>’ and
	‘<samp>bindWithArguments:</samp>’.
	<a href="https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/gst-manual/gst_68.html#SEC238">https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/gst-manual/gst_68.html#SEC238</a>.
	In summary, a directive starts with ‘<samp>%</samp>’ and is followed by ‘<samp>%</samp>’
	or a nonzero digit (‘<samp>1</samp>’ to ‘<samp>9</samp>’).
	</p>

	<a name="qt_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC282"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC276">15.3.17 Qt Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Qt format strings are described in the documentation of the QString class
	<a href="file:/usr/lib/qt-4.3.0/doc/html/qstring.html">file:/usr/lib/qt-4.3.0/doc/html/qstring.html</a>.
	In summary, a directive consists of a ‘<samp>%</samp>’ followed by a digit. The same
	directive cannot occur more than once in a format string.
	</p>

	<a name="qt_002dplural_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC283"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC277">15.3.18 Qt Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Qt format strings are described in the documentation of the QObject::tr method
	<a href="file:/usr/lib/qt-4.3.0/doc/html/qobject.html">file:/usr/lib/qt-4.3.0/doc/html/qobject.html</a>.
	In summary, the only allowed directive is ‘<samp>%n</samp>’.
	</p>

	<a name="kde_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC284"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC278">15.3.19 KDE Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>KDE 4 format strings are defined as follows:
	A directive consists of a ‘<samp>%</samp>’ followed by a non-zero decimal number.
	If a ‘<samp>%n</samp>’ occurs in a format strings, all of ‘<samp>%1</samp>’, ..., ‘<samp>%(n-1)</samp>’
	must occur as well, except possibly one of them.
	</p>

	<a name="kde_002dkuit_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC285"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC279">15.3.20 KUIT Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>KUIT (KDE User Interface Text) is compatible with KDE 4 format strings,
	while it also allows programmers to add semantic information to a format
	string, through XML markup tags. For example, if the first format
	directive in a string is a filename, programmers could indicate that
	with a ‘<samp>filename</samp>’ tag, like ‘<samp><filename>%1</filename></samp>’.
	</p>
	<p>KUIT format strings are described in
	<a href="https://api.kde.org/frameworks/ki18n/html/prg_guide.html#kuit_markup">https://api.kde.org/frameworks/ki18n/html/prg_guide.html#kuit_markup</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="boost_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC286"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC280">15.3.21 Boost Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Boost format strings are described in the documentation of the
	<code>boost::format</code> class, at
	<a href="https://www.boost.org/libs/format/doc/format.html">https://www.boost.org/libs/format/doc/format.html</a>.
	In summary, a directive has either the same syntax as in a C format string,
	such as ‘<samp>%1$+5d</samp>’, or may be surrounded by vertical bars, such as
	‘<samp>%\|1$+5d\|</samp>’ or ‘<samp>%\|1$+5\|</samp>’, or consists of just an argument number
	between percent signs, such as ‘<samp>%1%</samp>’.
	</p>

	<a name="tcl_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC287"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC281">15.3.22 Tcl Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>Tcl format strings are described in the ‘<tt>format.n</tt>’ manual page,
	<a href="http://www.scriptics.com/man/tcl8.3/TclCmd/format.htm">http://www.scriptics.com/man/tcl8.3/TclCmd/format.htm</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="perl_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC288"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC282">15.3.23 Perl Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>There are two kinds of format strings in Perl: those acceptable to the
	Perl built-in function <code>printf</code>, labelled as ‘<samp>perl-format</samp>’,
	and those acceptable to the <code>libintl-perl</code> function <code>__x</code>,
	labelled as ‘<samp>perl-brace-format</samp>’.
	</p>
	<p>Perl <code>printf</code> format strings are described in the <code>sprintf</code>
	section of ‘<samp>man perlfunc</samp>’.
	</p>
	<p>Perl brace format strings are described in the
	‘<tt>Locale::TextDomain(3pm)</tt>’ manual page of the CPAN package
	libintl-perl. In brief, Perl format uses placeholders put between
	braces (‘<samp>{</samp>’ and ‘<samp>}</samp>’). The placeholder must have the syntax
	of simple identifiers.
	</p>

	<a name="php_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC289"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC283">15.3.24 PHP Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>PHP format strings are described in the documentation of the PHP function
	<code>sprintf</code>, in ‘<tt>phpdoc/manual/function.sprintf.html</tt>’ or
	<a href="http://www.php.net/manual/en/function.sprintf.php">http://www.php.net/manual/en/function.sprintf.php</a>.
	</p>

	<a name="gcc_002dinternal_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC290"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC284">15.3.25 GCC internal Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>These format strings are used inside the GCC sources. In such a format
	string, a directive starts with ‘<samp>%</samp>’, is optionally followed by a
	size specifier ‘<samp>l</samp>’, an optional flag ‘<samp>+</samp>’, another optional flag
	‘<samp>#</samp>’, and is finished by a specifier: ‘<samp>%</samp>’ denotes a literal
	percent sign, ‘<samp>c</samp>’ denotes a character, ‘<samp>s</samp>’ denotes a string,
	‘<samp>i</samp>’ and ‘<samp>d</samp>’ denote an integer, ‘<samp>o</samp>’, ‘<samp>u</samp>’, ‘<samp>x</samp>’
	denote an unsigned integer, ‘<samp>.*s</samp>’ denotes a string preceded by a
	width specification, ‘<samp>H</samp>’ denotes a ‘<samp>location_t *</samp>’ pointer,
	‘<samp>D</samp>’ denotes a general declaration, ‘<samp>F</samp>’ denotes a function
	declaration, ‘<samp>T</samp>’ denotes a type, ‘<samp>A</samp>’ denotes a function argument,
	‘<samp>C</samp>’ denotes a tree code, ‘<samp>E</samp>’ denotes an expression, ‘<samp>L</samp>’
	denotes a programming language, ‘<samp>O</samp>’ denotes a binary operator,
	‘<samp>P</samp>’ denotes a function parameter, ‘<samp>Q</samp>’ denotes an assignment
	operator, ‘<samp>V</samp>’ denotes a const/volatile qualifier.
	</p>

	<a name="gfc_002dinternal_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC291"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC285">15.3.26 GFC internal Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>These format strings are used inside the GNU Fortran Compiler sources,
	that is, the Fortran frontend in the GCC sources. In such a format
	string, a directive starts with ‘<samp>%</samp>’ and is finished by a
	specifier: ‘<samp>%</samp>’ denotes a literal percent sign, ‘<samp>C</samp>’ denotes the
	current source location, ‘<samp>L</samp>’ denotes a source location, ‘<samp>c</samp>’
	denotes a character, ‘<samp>s</samp>’ denotes a string, ‘<samp>i</samp>’ and ‘<samp>d</samp>’
	denote an integer, ‘<samp>u</samp>’ denotes an unsigned integer. ‘<samp>i</samp>’,
	‘<samp>d</samp>’, and ‘<samp>u</samp>’ may be preceded by a size specifier ‘<samp>l</samp>’.
	</p>

	<a name="ycp_002dformat"></a>
	<a name="SEC292"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC286">15.3.27 YCP Format Strings</a> </h3>

	<p>YCP sformat strings are described in the libycp documentation
	<a href="file:/usr/share/doc/packages/libycp/YCP-builtins.html">file:/usr/share/doc/packages/libycp/YCP-builtins.html</a>.
	In summary, a directive starts with ‘<samp>%</samp>’ and is followed by ‘<samp>%</samp>’
	or a nonzero digit (‘<samp>1</samp>’ to ‘<samp>9</samp>’).
	</p>


	<a name="Maintainers-for-other-Languages"></a>
	<a name="SEC293"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC287">15.4 The Maintainer's View</a> </h2>

	<p>For the maintainer, the general procedure differs from the C language
	case:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li>
	If only a single programming language is used, the <code>XGETTEXT_OPTIONS</code>
	variable in ‘<tt>po/Makevars</tt>’ (see section <a href="gettext_13.html#SEC236">‘<tt>Makevars</tt>’ in ‘<tt>po/</tt>’</a>) should be adjusted to
	match the <code>xgettext</code> options for that particular programming language.
	If the package uses more than one programming language with <code>gettext</code>
	support, it becomes necessary to change the POT file construction rule
	in ‘<tt>po/Makefile.in.in</tt>’. It is recommended to make one <code>xgettext</code>
	invocation per programming language, each with the options appropriate for
	that language, and to combine the resulting files using <code>msgcat</code>.
	</li></ul>


	<a name="List-of-Programming-Languages"></a>
	<a name="SEC294"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC288">15.5 Individual Programming Languages</a> </h2>





	<a name="C"></a>
	<a name="SEC295"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC289">15.5.1 C, C++, Objective C</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>gcc, gpp, gobjc, glibc, gettext
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>gcc, g++, gobjc, libc6-dev, libasprintf-dev
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p>For C: <code>c</code>, <code>h</code>.
	<br>For C++: <code>C</code>, <code>c++</code>, <code>cc</code>, <code>cxx</code>, <code>cpp</code>, <code>hpp</code>.
	<br>For Objective C: <code>m</code>.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code>, <code>dcgettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code>,
	<code>dngettext</code>, <code>dcngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> and <code>wbindtextdomain</code> functions
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>Programmer must call <code>setlocale (LC_ALL, "")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>#include <libintl.h></code>
	<br><code>#include <locale.h></code>
	<br><code>#define _(string) gettext (string)</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>Use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -k_</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>fprintf "%2$d %1$d"</code>
	<br>In C++: <code>autosprintf "%2$d %1$d"</code>
	(see <a href="../autosprintf/index.html#Top">(autosprintf)Top</a> section `Introduction' in <cite>GNU autosprintf</cite>)
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>autoconf (gettext.m4) and #if ENABLE_NLS
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>yes
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>The following examples are available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory:
	<code>hello-c</code>, <code>hello-c-gnome</code>, <code>hello-c++</code>, <code>hello-c++-qt</code>,
	<code>hello-c++-kde</code>, <code>hello-c++-gnome</code>, <code>hello-c++-wxwidgets</code>,
	<code>hello-objc</code>, <code>hello-objc-gnustep</code>, <code>hello-objc-gnome</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="Python"></a>
	<a name="SEC296"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC290">15.5.2 Python</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>python
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>python
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>py</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>'abc'</code>, <code>u'abc'</code>, <code>r'abc'</code>, <code>ur'abc'</code>,
	<br><code>"abc"</code>, <code>u"abc"</code>, <code>r"abc"</code>, <code>ur"abc"</code>,
	<br><code>'''abc'''</code>, <code>u'''abc'''</code>, <code>r'''abc'''</code>, <code>ur'''abc'''</code>,
	<br><code>"""abc"""</code>, <code>u"""abc"""</code>, <code>r"""abc"""</code>, <code>ur"""abc"""</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_('abc')</code> etc.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext.gettext</code>, <code>gettext.dgettext</code>,
	<code>gettext.ngettext</code>, <code>gettext.dngettext</code>,
	also <code>ugettext</code>, <code>ungettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext.textdomain</code> function, or
	<code>gettext.install(<var>domain</var>)</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext.bindtextdomain</code> function, or
	<code>gettext.install(<var>domain</var>,<var>localedir</var>)</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>not used by the gettext emulation
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>import gettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>emulate
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>'...%(ident)d...' % { 'ident': value }</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-python</code>.
	</p>
	<p>A note about format strings: Python supports format strings with unnamed
	arguments, such as <code>'...%d...'</code>, and format strings with named arguments,
	such as <code>'...%(ident)d...'</code>. The latter are preferable for
	internationalized programs, for two reasons:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li>
	When a format string takes more than one argument, the translator can provide
	a translation that uses the arguments in a different order, if the format
	string uses named arguments. For example, the translator can reformulate
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">"'%(volume)s' has only %(freespace)d bytes free."
	</pre></td></tr></table>
	<p>to
	</p><table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">"Only %(freespace)d bytes free on '%(volume)s'."
	</pre></td></tr></table>
	<p>Additionally, the identifiers also provide some context to the translator.
	</p>
	</li><li>
	In the context of plural forms, the format string used for the singular form
	does not use the numeric argument in many languages. Even in English, one
	prefers to write <code>"one hour"</code> instead of <code>"1 hour"</code>. Omitting
	individual arguments from format strings like this is only possible with
	the named argument syntax. (With unnamed arguments, Python – unlike C –
	verifies that the format string uses all supplied arguments.)
	</li></ul>


	<a name="Java"></a>
	<a name="SEC297"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC291">15.5.3 Java</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>java, java2
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>default-jdk
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>java</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p>"abc", """text block"""
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p>i18n("abc")
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>GettextResource.gettext</code>, <code>GettextResource.ngettext</code>,
	<code>GettextResource.pgettext</code>, <code>GettextResource.npgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—, use <code>ResourceBundle.getResource</code> instead
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—, use CLASSPATH instead
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>—, uses a Java specific message catalog format
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -ki18n</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>MessageFormat.format "{1,number} {0,number}"</code>
	or <code>String.format "%2$d %1$d"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>Before marking strings as internationalizable, uses of the string
	concatenation operator need to be converted to <code>MessageFormat</code>
	applications. For example, <code>"file "+filename+" not found"</code> becomes
	<code>MessageFormat.format("file {0} not found", new Object[] { filename })</code>.
	Only after this is done, can the strings be marked and extracted.
	</p>
	<p>GNU gettext uses the native Java internationalization mechanism, namely
	<code>ResourceBundle</code>s. There are two formats of <code>ResourceBundle</code>s:
	<code>.properties</code> files and <code>.class</code> files. The <code>.properties</code>
	format is a text file which the translators can directly edit, like PO
	files, but which doesn't support plural forms. Whereas the <code>.class</code>
	format is compiled from <code>.java</code> source code and can support plural
	forms (provided it is accessed through an appropriate API, see below).
	</p>
	<p>To convert a PO file to a <code>.properties</code> file, the <code>msgcat</code>
	program can be used with the option <code>--properties-output</code>. To convert
	a <code>.properties</code> file back to a PO file, the <code>msgcat</code> program
	can be used with the option <code>--properties-input</code>. All the tools
	that manipulate PO files can work with <code>.properties</code> files as well,
	if given the <code>--properties-input</code> and/or <code>--properties-output</code>
	option.
	</p>
	<p>To convert a PO file to a ResourceBundle class, the <code>msgfmt</code> program
	can be used with the option <code>--java</code> or <code>--java2</code>. To convert a
	ResourceBundle back to a PO file, the <code>msgunfmt</code> program can be used
	with the option <code>--java</code>.
	</p>
	<p>Two different programmatic APIs can be used to access ResourceBundles.
	Note that both APIs work with all kinds of ResourceBundles, whether
	GNU gettext generated classes, or other <code>.class</code> or <code>.properties</code>
	files.
	</p>
	<ol>
	<li>
	The <code>java.util.ResourceBundle</code> API.

	<p>In particular, its <code>getString</code> function returns a string translation.
	Note that a missing translation yields a <code>MissingResourceException</code>.
	</p>
	<p>This has the advantage of being the standard API. And it does not require
	any additional libraries, only the <code>msgcat</code> generated <code>.properties</code>
	files or the <code>msgfmt</code> generated <code>.class</code> files. But it cannot do
	plural handling, even if the resource was generated by <code>msgfmt</code> from
	a PO file with plural handling.
	</p>
	</li><li>
	The <code>gnu.gettext.GettextResource</code> API.

	<p>Reference documentation in Javadoc 1.1 style format is in the
	<a href="javadoc2/index.html">javadoc2 directory</a>.
	</p>
	<p>Its <code>gettext</code> function returns a string translation. Note that when
	a translation is missing, the <var>msgid</var> argument is returned unchanged.
	</p>
	<p>This has the advantage of having the <code>ngettext</code> function for plural
	handling and the <code>pgettext</code> and <code>npgettext</code> for strings constraint
	to a particular context.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX1111"></a>
	<p>To use this API, one needs the <code>libintl.jar</code> file which is part of
	the GNU gettext package and distributed under the LGPL.
	</p></li></ol>

	<p>Four examples, using the second API, are available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’
	directory: <code>hello-java</code>, <code>hello-java-awt</code>, <code>hello-java-swing</code>,
	<code>hello-java-qtjambi</code>.
	</p>
	<p>Now, to make use of the API and define a shorthand for ‘<samp>getString</samp>’,
	there are three idioms that you can choose from:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li>
	(This one assumes Java 1.5 or newer.)
	In a unique class of your project, say ‘<samp>Util</samp>’, define a static variable
	holding the <code>ResourceBundle</code> instance and the shorthand:

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">private static ResourceBundle myResources =
	ResourceBundle.getBundle("domain-name");
	public static String i18n(String s) {
	return myResources.getString(s);
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>All classes containing internationalized strings then contain
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">import static Util.i18n;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>and the shorthand is used like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">System.out.println(i18n("Operation completed."));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li>
	In a unique class of your project, say ‘<samp>Util</samp>’, define a static variable
	holding the <code>ResourceBundle</code> instance:

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">public static ResourceBundle myResources =
	ResourceBundle.getBundle("domain-name");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>All classes containing internationalized strings then contain
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">private static ResourceBundle res = Util.myResources;
	private static String i18n(String s) { return res.getString(s); }
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>and the shorthand is used like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">System.out.println(i18n("Operation completed."));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li>
	You add a class with a very short name, say ‘<samp>S</samp>’, containing just the
	definition of the resource bundle and of the shorthand:

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">public class S {
	public static ResourceBundle myResources =
	ResourceBundle.getBundle("domain-name");
	public static String i18n(String s) {
	return myResources.getString(s);
	}
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>and the shorthand is used like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">System.out.println(S.i18n("Operation completed."));
	</pre></td></tr></table>
	</li></ul>

	<p>Which of the three idioms you choose, will depend on whether your project
	requires portability to Java versions prior to Java 1.5 and, if so, whether
	copying two lines of codes into every class is more acceptable in your project
	than a class with a single-letter name.
	</p>

	<a name="C_0023"></a>
	<a name="SEC298"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC292">15.5.4 C#</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>mono
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>mono-mcs
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>cs</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>, <code>@"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p>_("abc")
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>GettextResourceManager.GetString</code>,
	<code>GettextResourceManager.GetPluralString</code>
	<code>GettextResourceManager.GetParticularString</code>
	<code>GettextResourceManager.GetParticularPluralString</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>new GettextResourceManager(domain)</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—, compiled message catalogs are located in subdirectories of the directory
	containing the executable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>—, uses a C# specific message catalog format
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -k_</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>String.Format "{1} {0}"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>Before marking strings as internationalizable, uses of the string
	concatenation operator need to be converted to <code>String.Format</code>
	invocations. For example, <code>"file "+filename+" not found"</code> becomes
	<code>String.Format("file {0} not found", filename)</code>.
	Only after this is done, can the strings be marked and extracted.
	</p>
	<p>GNU gettext uses the native C#/.NET internationalization mechanism, namely
	the classes <code>ResourceManager</code> and <code>ResourceSet</code>. Applications
	use the <code>ResourceManager</code> methods to retrieve the native language
	translation of strings. An instance of <code>ResourceSet</code> is the in-memory
	representation of a message catalog file. The <code>ResourceManager</code> loads
	and accesses <code>ResourceSet</code> instances as needed to look up the
	translations.
	</p>
	<p>There are two formats of <code>ResourceSet</code>s that can be directly loaded by
	the C# runtime: <code>.resources</code> files and <code>.dll</code> files.
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li>
	The <code>.resources</code> format is a binary file usually generated through the
	<code>resgen</code> or <code>monoresgen</code> utility, but which doesn't support plural
	forms. <code>.resources</code> files can also be embedded in .NET <code>.exe</code> files.
	This only affects whether a file system access is performed to load the message
	catalog; it doesn't affect the contents of the message catalog.

	</li><li>
	On the other hand, the <code>.dll</code> format is a binary file that is compiled
	from <code>.cs</code> source code and can support plural forms (provided it is
	accessed through the GNU gettext API, see below).
	</li></ul>

	<p>Note that these .NET <code>.dll</code> and <code>.exe</code> files are not tied to a
	particular platform; their file format and GNU gettext for C# can be used
	on any platform.
	</p>
	<p>To convert a PO file to a <code>.resources</code> file, the <code>msgfmt</code> program
	can be used with the option ‘<samp>--csharp-resources</samp>’. To convert a
	<code>.resources</code> file back to a PO file, the <code>msgunfmt</code> program can be
	used with the option ‘<samp>--csharp-resources</samp>’. You can also, in some cases,
	use the <code>monoresgen</code> program (from the <code>mono</code>/<code>mcs</code> package).
	This program can also convert a <code>.resources</code> file back to a PO file. But
	beware: as of this writing (January 2004), the <code>monoresgen</code> converter is
	quite buggy.
	</p>
	<p>To convert a PO file to a <code>.dll</code> file, the <code>msgfmt</code> program can be
	used with the option <code>--csharp</code>. The result will be a <code>.dll</code> file
	containing a subclass of <code>GettextResourceSet</code>, which itself is a subclass
	of <code>ResourceSet</code>. To convert a <code>.dll</code> file containing a
	<code>GettextResourceSet</code> subclass back to a PO file, the <code>msgunfmt</code>
	program can be used with the option <code>--csharp</code>.
	</p>
	<p>The advantages of the <code>.dll</code> format over the <code>.resources</code> format
	are:
	</p>
	<ol>
	<li>
	Freedom to localize: Users can add their own translations to an application
	after it has been built and distributed. Whereas when the programmer uses
	a <code>ResourceManager</code> constructor provided by the system, the set of
	<code>.resources</code> files for an application must be specified when the
	application is built and cannot be extended afterwards.

	</li><li>
	Plural handling: A message catalog in <code>.dll</code> format supports the plural
	handling function <code>GetPluralString</code>. Whereas <code>.resources</code> files can
	only contain data and only support lookups that depend on a single string.

	</li><li>
	Context handling: A message catalog in <code>.dll</code> format supports the
	query-with-context functions <code>GetParticularString</code> and
	<code>GetParticularPluralString</code>. Whereas <code>.resources</code> files can
	only contain data and only support lookups that depend on a single string.

	</li><li>
	The <code>GettextResourceManager</code> that loads the message catalogs in
	<code>.dll</code> format also provides for inheritance on a per-message basis.
	For example, in Austrian (<code>de_AT</code>) locale, translations from the German
	(<code>de</code>) message catalog will be used for messages not found in the
	Austrian message catalog. This has the consequence that the Austrian
	translators need only translate those few messages for which the translation
	into Austrian differs from the German one. Whereas when working with
	<code>.resources</code> files, each message catalog must provide the translations
	of all messages by itself.

	</li><li>
	The <code>GettextResourceManager</code> that loads the message catalogs in
	<code>.dll</code> format also provides for a fallback: The English <var>msgid</var> is
	returned when no translation can be found. Whereas when working with
	<code>.resources</code> files, a language-neutral <code>.resources</code> file must
	explicitly be provided as a fallback.
	</li></ol>

	<p>On the side of the programmatic APIs, the programmer can use either the
	standard <code>ResourceManager</code> API and the GNU <code>GettextResourceManager</code>
	API. The latter is an extension of the former, because
	<code>GettextResourceManager</code> is a subclass of <code>ResourceManager</code>.
	</p>
	<ol>
	<li>
	The <code>System.Resources.ResourceManager</code> API.

	<p>This API works with resources in <code>.resources</code> format.
	</p>
	<p>The creation of the <code>ResourceManager</code> is done through
	</p><table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample"> new ResourceManager(domainname, Assembly.GetExecutingAssembly())
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The <code>GetString</code> function returns a string's translation. Note that this
	function returns null when a translation is missing (i.e. not even found in
	the fallback resource file).
	</p>
	</li><li>
	The <code>GNU.Gettext.GettextResourceManager</code> API.

	<p>This API works with resources in <code>.dll</code> format.
	</p>
	<p>Reference documentation is in the
	<a href="csharpdoc/index.html">csharpdoc directory</a>.
	</p>
	<p>The creation of the <code>ResourceManager</code> is done through
	</p><table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample"> new GettextResourceManager(domainname)
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The <code>GetString</code> function returns a string's translation. Note that when
	a translation is missing, the <var>msgid</var> argument is returned unchanged.
	</p>
	<p>The <code>GetPluralString</code> function returns a string translation with plural
	handling, like the <code>ngettext</code> function in C.
	</p>
	<p>The <code>GetParticularString</code> function returns a string's translation,
	specific to a particular context, like the <code>pgettext</code> function in C.
	Note that when a translation is missing, the <var>msgid</var> argument is returned
	unchanged.
	</p>
	<p>The <code>GetParticularPluralString</code> function returns a string translation,
	specific to a particular context, with plural handling, like the
	<code>npgettext</code> function in C.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX1112"></a>
	<p>To use this API, one needs the <code>GNU.Gettext.dll</code> file which is part of
	the GNU gettext package and distributed under the LGPL.
	</p></li></ol>

	<p>You can also mix both approaches: use the
	<code>GNU.Gettext.GettextResourceManager</code> constructor, but otherwise use
	only the <code>ResourceManager</code> type and only the <code>GetString</code> method.
	This is appropriate when you want to profit from the tools for PO files,
	but don't want to change an existing source code that uses
	<code>ResourceManager</code> and don't (yet) need the <code>GetPluralString</code> method.
	</p>
	<p>Two examples, using the second API, are available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’
	directory: <code>hello-csharp</code>, <code>hello-csharp-forms</code>.
	</p>
	<p>Now, to make use of the API and define a shorthand for ‘<samp>GetString</samp>’,
	there are two idioms that you can choose from:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li>
	In a unique class of your project, say ‘<samp>Util</samp>’, define a static variable
	holding the <code>ResourceManager</code> instance:

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">public static GettextResourceManager MyResourceManager =
	new GettextResourceManager("domain-name");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>All classes containing internationalized strings then contain
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">private static GettextResourceManager Res = Util.MyResourceManager;
	private static String _(String s) { return Res.GetString(s); }
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>and the shorthand is used like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">Console.WriteLine(_("Operation completed."));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li>
	You add a class with a very short name, say ‘<samp>S</samp>’, containing just the
	definition of the resource manager and of the shorthand:

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">public class S {
	public static GettextResourceManager MyResourceManager =
	new GettextResourceManager("domain-name");
	public static String _(String s) {
	return MyResourceManager.GetString(s);
	}
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>and the shorthand is used like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">Console.WriteLine(S._("Operation completed."));
	</pre></td></tr></table>
	</li></ul>

	<p>Which of the two idioms you choose, will depend on whether copying two lines
	of codes into every class is more acceptable in your project than a class
	with a single-letter name.
	</p>

	<a name="JavaScript"></a>
	<a name="SEC299"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC293">15.5.5 JavaScript</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>js
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>gjs
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>js</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><ul>
	<li> <code>"abc"</code>

	</li><li> <code>'abc'</code>

	</li><li> <code>`abc`</code>

	</li></ul>

	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code>, <code>dcgettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code>,
	<code>dngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use, or emulate
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, the functions are not available.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="Scheme"></a>
	<a name="SEC300"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC294">15.5.6 GNU guile - Scheme</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>guile
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>guile-2.0
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>scm</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>(_ "abc")</code>, <code>_"abc"</code> (GIMP script-fu extension)
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p><code>(catch #t (lambda () (setlocale LC_ALL "")) (lambda args #f))</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>(use-modules (ice-9 format))</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -k_</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, no translation.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-guile</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="Common-Lisp"></a>
	<a name="SEC301"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC295">15.5.7 GNU clisp - Common Lisp</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>clisp 2.28 or newer
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>clisp
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>lisp</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>(_ "abc")</code>, <code>(ENGLISH "abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>i18n:gettext</code>, <code>i18n:ngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>i18n:textdomain</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>i18n:textdomaindir</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -k_ -kENGLISH</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>format "~1@~D ~0@~D"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, no translation.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-clisp</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="clisp-C"></a>
	<a name="SEC302"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC296">15.5.8 GNU clisp C sources</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>clisp
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>clisp
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>d</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>ENGLISH ? "abc" : ""</code>
	<br><code>GETTEXT("abc")</code>
	<br><code>GETTEXTL("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>clgettext</code>, <code>clgettextl</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>#include "lispbibl.c"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>clisp-xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>fprintf "%2$d %1$d"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, no translation.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="Emacs-Lisp"></a>
	<a name="SEC303"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC297">15.5.9 Emacs Lisp</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>emacs, xemacs
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>emacs, xemacs21
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>el</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>(_"abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code> (xemacs only)
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>domain</code> special form (xemacs only)
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bind-text-domain</code> function (xemacs only)
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>format "%2$d %1$d"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>Only XEmacs. Without <code>I18N3</code> defined at build time, no translation.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="librep"></a>
	<a name="SEC304"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC298">15.5.10 librep</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>librep 0.15.3 or newer
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>librep16
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>jl</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>(_"abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>(require 'rep.i18n.gettext)</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>format "%2$d %1$d"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, no translation.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-librep</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="Ruby"></a>
	<a name="SEC305"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC299">15.5.11 Ruby</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>ruby, ruby-gettext
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>ruby, ruby-gettext
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>rb</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>, <code>'abc'</code>, <code>%q/abc/</code> etc.,
	<code>%q(abc)</code>, <code>%q[abc]</code>, <code>%q{abc}</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>require 'gettext'</code>
	<code>include GetText</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>emulate
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>sprintf("%2$d %1$d", x, y)</code>
	<br><code>"%{new} replaces %{old}" % {:old => oldvalue, :new => newvalue}</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>



	<a name="sh"></a>
	<a name="SEC306"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC300">15.5.12 sh - Shell Script</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>bash, gettext
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>bash, gettext-base
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>sh</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>, <code>'abc'</code>, <code>abc</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"`gettext \"abc\"`"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1113"></a>
	<a name="IDX1114"></a>
	<p><code>gettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code> programs
	<br><code>eval_gettext</code>, <code>eval_ngettext</code>, <code>eval_pgettext</code>,
	<code>eval_npgettext</code> shell functions
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1115"></a>
	<p>environment variable <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1116"></a>
	<p>environment variable <code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>. gettext.sh</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-sh</code>.
	</p>


	<a name="Preparing-Shell-Scripts"></a>
	<a name="SEC307"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC301">15.5.12.1 Preparing Shell Scripts for Internationalization</a> </h4>

	<p>Preparing a shell script for internationalization is conceptually similar
	to the steps described in <a href="gettext_4.html#SEC17">Preparing Program Sources</a>. The concrete steps for shell
	scripts are as follows.
	</p>
	<ol>
	<li>
	Insert the line

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">. gettext.sh
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>near the top of the script. <code>gettext.sh</code> is a shell function library
	that provides the functions
	<code>eval_gettext</code> (see <a href="#SEC312">Invoking the <code>eval_gettext</code> function</a>),
	<code>eval_ngettext</code> (see <a href="#SEC313">Invoking the <code>eval_ngettext</code> function</a>),
	<code>eval_pgettext</code> (see <a href="#SEC314">Invoking the <code>eval_pgettext</code> function</a>), and
	<code>eval_npgettext</code> (see <a href="#SEC315">Invoking the <code>eval_npgettext</code> function</a>).
	You have to ensure that <code>gettext.sh</code> can be found in the <code>PATH</code>.
	</p>
	</li><li>
	Set and export the <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code> and <code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code> environment
	variables. Usually <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code> is the package or program name, and
	<code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code> is the absolute pathname corresponding to
	<code>$prefix/share/locale</code>, where <code>$prefix</code> is the installation location.

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">TEXTDOMAIN=@PACKAGE@
	export TEXTDOMAIN
	TEXTDOMAINDIR=@LOCALEDIR@
	export TEXTDOMAINDIR
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li>
	Prepare the strings for translation, as described in <a href="gettext_4.html#SEC20">Preparing Translatable Strings</a>.

	</li><li>
	Simplify translatable strings so that they don't contain command substitution
	(<code>"`...`"</code> or <code>"$(...)"</code>), variable access with defaulting (like
	<code>${<var>variable</var>-<var>default</var>}</code>), access to positional arguments
	(like <code>$0</code>, <code>$1</code>, ...) or highly volatile shell variables (like
	<code>$?</code>). This can always be done through simple local code restructuring.
	For example,

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">echo "Usage: $0 [OPTION] FILE..."
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>becomes
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">program_name=$0
	echo "Usage: $program_name [OPTION] FILE..."
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Similarly,
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">echo "Remaining files: `ls \| wc -l`"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>becomes
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">filecount="`ls \| wc -l`"
	echo "Remaining files: $filecount"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li>
	For each translatable string, change the output command ‘<samp>echo</samp>’ or
	‘<samp>$echo</samp>’ to ‘<samp>gettext</samp>’ (if the string contains no references to
	shell variables) or to ‘<samp>eval_gettext</samp>’ (if it refers to shell variables),
	followed by a no-argument ‘<samp>echo</samp>’ command (to account for the terminating
	newline). Similarly, for cases with plural handling, replace a conditional
	‘<samp>echo</samp>’ command with an invocation of ‘<samp>ngettext</samp>’ or
	‘<samp>eval_ngettext</samp>’, followed by a no-argument ‘<samp>echo</samp>’ command.

	<p>When doing this, you also need to add an extra backslash before the dollar
	sign in references to shell variables, so that the ‘<samp>eval_gettext</samp>’
	function receives the translatable string before the variable values are
	substituted into it. For example,
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">echo "Remaining files: $filecount"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>becomes
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">eval_gettext "Remaining files: \$filecount"; echo
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>If the output command is not ‘<samp>echo</samp>’, you can make it use ‘<samp>echo</samp>’
	nevertheless, through the use of backquotes. However, note that inside
	backquotes, backslashes must be doubled to be effective (because the
	backquoting eats one level of backslashes). For example, assuming that
	‘<samp>error</samp>’ is a shell function that signals an error,
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">error "file not found: $filename"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>is first transformed into
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">error "`echo \"file not found: \$filename\"`"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>which then becomes
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">error "`eval_gettext \"file not found: \\\$filename\"`"
	</pre></td></tr></table>
	</li></ol>


	<a name="gettext_002esh"></a>
	<a name="SEC308"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC302">15.5.12.2 Contents of <code>gettext.sh</code></a> </h4>

	<p><code>gettext.sh</code>, contained in the run-time package of GNU gettext, provides
	the following:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li> $echo
	The variable <code>echo</code> is set to a command that outputs its first argument
	and a newline, without interpreting backslashes in the argument string.

	</li><li> eval_gettext
	See <a href="#SEC312">Invoking the <code>eval_gettext</code> function</a>.

	</li><li> eval_ngettext
	See <a href="#SEC313">Invoking the <code>eval_ngettext</code> function</a>.

	</li><li> eval_pgettext
	See <a href="#SEC314">Invoking the <code>eval_pgettext</code> function</a>.

	</li><li> eval_npgettext
	See <a href="#SEC315">Invoking the <code>eval_npgettext</code> function</a>.
	</li></ul>


	<a name="gettext-Invocation"></a>
	<a name="SEC309"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC303">15.5.12.3 Invoking the <code>gettext</code> program</a> </h4>


	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">gettext [<var>option</var>] [[<var>textdomain</var>] <var>msgid</var>]
	gettext [<var>option</var>] -s [<var>msgid</var>]...
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX1117"></a>
	<p>The <code>gettext</code> program displays the native language translation of a
	textual message.
	</p>
	<p><strong>Arguments</strong>
	</p>
	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> ‘<samp>-c <var>context</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--context=<var>context</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1118"></a>
	<a name="IDX1119"></a>
	<p>Specify the context for the messages to be translated.
	See <a href="gettext_11.html#SEC205">Using contexts for solving ambiguities</a> for details.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-d <var>textdomain</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--domain=<var>textdomain</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1120"></a>
	<a name="IDX1121"></a>
	<p>Retrieve translated messages from <var>textdomain</var>. Usually a <var>textdomain</var>
	corresponds to a package, a program, or a module of a program.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-e</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1122"></a>
	<p>Enable expansion of some escape sequences. This option is for compatibility
	with the ‘<samp>echo</samp>’ program or shell built-in. The escape sequences
	‘<samp>\a</samp>’, ‘<samp>\b</samp>’, ‘<samp>\c</samp>’, ‘<samp>\f</samp>’, ‘<samp>\n</samp>’, ‘<samp>\r</samp>’, ‘<samp>\t</samp>’,
	‘<samp>\v</samp>’, ‘<samp>\\</samp>’, and ‘<samp>\</samp>’ followed by one to three octal digits, are
	interpreted like the System V ‘<samp>echo</samp>’ program did.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-E</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1123"></a>
	<p>This option is only for compatibility with the ‘<samp>echo</samp>’ program or shell
	built-in. It has no effect.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-h</samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--help</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1124"></a>
	<a name="IDX1125"></a>
	<p>Display this help and exit.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-n</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1126"></a>
	<p>This option has only an effect if the <code>-s</code> option is given. It
	suppresses the additional newline at the end.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-V</samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--version</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1127"></a>
	<a name="IDX1128"></a>
	<p>Output version information and exit.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>[<var>textdomain</var>] <var>msgid</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><p>Retrieve translated message corresponding to <var>msgid</var> from <var>textdomain</var>.
	</p>
	</dd>
	</dl>

	<p>If the <var>textdomain</var> parameter is not given, the domain is determined from
	the environment variable <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code>. If the message catalog is not
	found in the regular directory, another location can be specified with the
	environment variable <code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code>.
	</p>
	<p>When used with the <code>-s</code> option the program behaves like the ‘<samp>echo</samp>’
	command. But it does not simply copy its arguments to stdout. Instead those
	messages found in the selected catalog are translated. Also, a newline is
	added at the end, unless either the option <code>-n</code> is specified or the
	option <code>-e</code> is specified and some of the argument strings contains a
	‘<samp>\c</samp>’ escape sequence.
	</p>
	<p>Note: <code>xgettext</code> supports only the one-argument form of the
	<code>gettext</code> invocation, where no options are present and the
	<var>textdomain</var> is implicit, from the environment.
	</p>

	<a name="ngettext-Invocation"></a>
	<a name="SEC310"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC304">15.5.12.4 Invoking the <code>ngettext</code> program</a> </h4>


	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">ngettext [<var>option</var>] [<var>textdomain</var>] <var>msgid</var> <var>msgid-plural</var> <var>count</var>
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX1129"></a>
	<p>The <code>ngettext</code> program displays the native language translation of a
	textual message whose grammatical form depends on a number.
	</p>
	<p><strong>Arguments</strong>
	</p>
	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> ‘<samp>-c <var>context</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--context=<var>context</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1130"></a>
	<a name="IDX1131"></a>
	<p>Specify the context for the messages to be translated.
	See <a href="gettext_11.html#SEC205">Using contexts for solving ambiguities</a> for details.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-d <var>textdomain</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--domain=<var>textdomain</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1132"></a>
	<a name="IDX1133"></a>
	<p>Retrieve translated messages from <var>textdomain</var>. Usually a <var>textdomain</var>
	corresponds to a package, a program, or a module of a program.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-e</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1134"></a>
	<p>Enable expansion of some escape sequences. This option is for compatibility
	with the ‘<samp>gettext</samp>’ program. The escape sequences
	‘<samp>\a</samp>’, ‘<samp>\b</samp>’, ‘<samp>\f</samp>’, ‘<samp>\n</samp>’, ‘<samp>\r</samp>’, ‘<samp>\t</samp>’,
	‘<samp>\v</samp>’, ‘<samp>\\</samp>’, and ‘<samp>\</samp>’ followed by one to three octal digits, are
	interpreted like the System V ‘<samp>echo</samp>’ program did.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-E</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1135"></a>
	<p>This option is only for compatibility with the ‘<samp>gettext</samp>’ program. It has
	no effect.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-h</samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--help</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1136"></a>
	<a name="IDX1137"></a>
	<p>Display this help and exit.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-V</samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--version</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1138"></a>
	<a name="IDX1139"></a>
	<p>Output version information and exit.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp><var>textdomain</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><p>Retrieve translated message from <var>textdomain</var>.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp><var>msgid</var> <var>msgid-plural</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><p>Translate <var>msgid</var> (English singular) / <var>msgid-plural</var> (English plural).
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp><var>count</var></samp>’</dt>
	<dd><p>Choose singular/plural form based on this value.
	</p>
	</dd>
	</dl>

	<p>If the <var>textdomain</var> parameter is not given, the domain is determined from
	the environment variable <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code>. If the message catalog is not
	found in the regular directory, another location can be specified with the
	environment variable <code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code>.
	</p>
	<p>Note: <code>xgettext</code> supports only the three-arguments form of the
	<code>ngettext</code> invocation, where no options are present and the
	<var>textdomain</var> is implicit, from the environment.
	</p>

	<a name="envsubst-Invocation"></a>
	<a name="SEC311"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC305">15.5.12.5 Invoking the <code>envsubst</code> program</a> </h4>


	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">envsubst [<var>option</var>] [<var>shell-format</var>]
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX1140"></a>
	<a name="IDX1141"></a>
	<a name="IDX1142"></a>
	<p>The <code>envsubst</code> program substitutes the values of environment variables.
	</p>
	<p><strong>Operation mode</strong>
	</p>
	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> ‘<samp>-v</samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--variables</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1143"></a>
	<a name="IDX1144"></a>
	<p>Output the variables occurring in <var>shell-format</var>.
	</p>
	</dd>
	</dl>

	<p><strong>Informative output</strong>
	</p>
	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> ‘<samp>-h</samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--help</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1145"></a>
	<a name="IDX1146"></a>
	<p>Display this help and exit.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> ‘<samp>-V</samp>’</dt>
	<dt> ‘<samp>--version</samp>’</dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX1147"></a>
	<a name="IDX1148"></a>
	<p>Output version information and exit.
	</p>
	</dd>
	</dl>

	<p>In normal operation mode, standard input is copied to standard output,
	with references to environment variables of the form <code>$VARIABLE</code> or
	<code>${VARIABLE}</code> being replaced with the corresponding values. If a
	<var>shell-format</var> is given, only those environment variables that are
	referenced in <var>shell-format</var> are substituted; otherwise all environment
	variables references occurring in standard input are substituted.
	</p>
	<p>These substitutions are a subset of the substitutions that a shell performs
	on unquoted and double-quoted strings. Other kinds of substitutions done
	by a shell, such as <code>${<var>variable</var>-<var>default</var>}</code> or
	<code>$(<var>command-list</var>)</code> or <code>`<var>command-list</var>`</code>, are not performed
	by the <code>envsubst</code> program, due to security reasons.
	</p>
	<p>When <code>--variables</code> is used, standard input is ignored, and the output
	consists of the environment variables that are referenced in
	<var>shell-format</var>, one per line.
	</p>

	<a name="eval_005fgettext-Invocation"></a>
	<a name="SEC312"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC306">15.5.12.6 Invoking the <code>eval_gettext</code> function</a> </h4>

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">eval_gettext <var>msgid</var>
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX1149"></a>
	<p>This function outputs the native language translation of a textual message,
	performing dollar-substitution on the result. Note that only shell variables
	mentioned in <var>msgid</var> will be dollar-substituted in the result.
	</p>

	<a name="eval_005fngettext-Invocation"></a>
	<a name="SEC313"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC307">15.5.12.7 Invoking the <code>eval_ngettext</code> function</a> </h4>

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">eval_ngettext <var>msgid</var> <var>msgid-plural</var> <var>count</var>
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX1150"></a>
	<p>This function outputs the native language translation of a textual message
	whose grammatical form depends on a number, performing dollar-substitution
	on the result. Note that only shell variables mentioned in <var>msgid</var> or
	<var>msgid-plural</var> will be dollar-substituted in the result.
	</p>

	<a name="eval_005fpgettext-Invocation"></a>
	<a name="SEC314"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC308">15.5.12.8 Invoking the <code>eval_pgettext</code> function</a> </h4>

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">eval_pgettext <var>msgctxt</var> <var>msgid</var>
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX1151"></a>
	<p>This function outputs the native language translation of a textual message
	in the given context <var>msgctxt</var> (see <a href="gettext_11.html#SEC205">Using contexts for solving ambiguities</a>), performing
	dollar-substitution on the result. Note that only shell variables mentioned
	in <var>msgid</var> will be dollar-substituted in the result.
	</p>

	<a name="eval_005fnpgettext-Invocation"></a>
	<a name="SEC315"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC309">15.5.12.9 Invoking the <code>eval_npgettext</code> function</a> </h4>

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">eval_npgettext <var>msgctxt</var> <var>msgid</var> <var>msgid-plural</var> <var>count</var>
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX1152"></a>
	<p>This function outputs the native language translation of a textual message
	whose grammatical form depends on a number in the given context <var>msgctxt</var>
	(see <a href="gettext_11.html#SEC205">Using contexts for solving ambiguities</a>), performing dollar-substitution on the result. Note
	that only shell variables mentioned in <var>msgid</var> or <var>msgid-plural</var>
	will be dollar-substituted in the result.
	</p>

	<a name="bash"></a>
	<a name="SEC316"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC310">15.5.13 bash - Bourne-Again Shell Script</a> </h3>

	<p>GNU <code>bash</code> 2.0 or newer has a special shorthand for translating a
	string and substituting variable values in it: <code>$"msgid"</code>. But
	the use of this construct is <strong>discouraged</strong>, due to the security
	holes it opens and due to its portability problems.
	</p>
	<p>The security holes of <code>$"..."</code> come from the fact that after looking up
	the translation of the string, <code>bash</code> processes it like it processes
	any double-quoted string: dollar and backquote processing, like ‘<samp>eval</samp>’
	does.
	</p>
	<ol>
	<li>
	In a locale whose encoding is one of BIG5, BIG5-HKSCS, GBK, GB18030, SHIFT_JIS,
	JOHAB, some double-byte characters have a second byte whose value is
	<code>0x60</code>. For example, the byte sequence <code>\xe0\x60</code> is a single
	character in these locales. Many versions of <code>bash</code> (all versions
	up to bash-2.05, and newer versions on platforms without <code>mbsrtowcs()</code>
	function) don't know about character boundaries and see a backquote character
	where there is only a particular Chinese character. Thus it can start
	executing part of the translation as a command list. This situation can occur
	even without the translator being aware of it: if the translator provides
	translations in the UTF-8 encoding, it is the <code>gettext()</code> function which
	will, during its conversion from the translator's encoding to the user's
	locale's encoding, produce the dangerous <code>\x60</code> bytes.

	</li><li>
	A translator could - voluntarily or inadvertently - use backquotes
	<code>"`...`"</code> or dollar-parentheses <code>"$(...)"</code> in her translations.
	The enclosed strings would be executed as command lists by the shell.
	</li></ol>

	<p>The portability problem is that <code>bash</code> must be built with
	internationalization support; this is normally not the case on systems
	that don't have the <code>gettext()</code> function in libc.
	</p>

	<a name="gawk"></a>
	<a name="SEC317"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC311">15.5.14 GNU awk</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>gawk 3.1 or newer
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>gawk
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>awk</code>, <code>gawk</code>, <code>twjr</code>.
	The file extension <code>twjr</code> is used by TexiWeb Jr
	(<a href="https://github.com/arnoldrobbins/texiwebjr">https://github.com/arnoldrobbins/texiwebjr</a>).
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>dcgettext</code>, missing <code>dcngettext</code> in gawk-3.1.0
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>TEXTDOMAIN</code> variable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic, but missing <code>setlocale (LC_MESSAGES, "")</code> in gawk-3.1.0
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>printf "%2$d %1$d"</code> (GNU awk only)
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, no translation. On non-GNU awks, you must
	define <code>dcgettext</code>, <code>dcngettext</code> and <code>bindtextdomain</code>
	yourself.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-gawk</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="Lua"></a>
	<a name="SEC318"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC312">15.5.15 Lua</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>lua
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>lua, lua-gettext
	<br>
	You need to install the <code>lua-gettext</code> package from
	<a href="https://gitlab.com/sukhichev/lua-gettext/blob/master/README.us.md">https://gitlab.com/sukhichev/lua-gettext/blob/master/README.us.md</a>.
	Debian and Ubuntu packages of it are available. Download the
	appropriate one, and install it through
	‘<samp>sudo dpkg -i lua-gettext_0.0_amd64.deb</samp>’.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>lua</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><ul>
	<li> <code>"abc"</code>

	</li><li> <code>'abc'</code>

	</li><li> <code>[[abc]]</code>

	</li><li> <code>[=[abc]=]</code>

	</li><li> <code>[==[abc]==]</code>

	</li><li> ...

	</li></ul>

	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext.gettext</code>, <code>gettext.dgettext</code>, <code>gettext.dcgettext</code>,
	<code>gettext.ngettext</code>, <code>gettext.dngettext</code>, <code>gettext.dcngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>require 'gettext'</code> or running lua interpreter with <code>-l gettext</code> option
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, the functions are not available.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="Pascal"></a>
	<a name="SEC319"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC313">15.5.16 Pascal - Free Pascal Compiler</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>fpk
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>fp-compiler, fp-units-fcl
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>pp</code>, <code>pas</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>'abc'</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p>—, use <code>ResourceString</code> data type instead
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—, use <code>TranslateResourceStrings</code> function instead
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—, use <code>TranslateResourceStrings</code> function instead
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic, but uses only LANG, not LC_MESSAGES or LC_ALL
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>{$mode delphi}</code> or <code>{$mode objfpc}</code><br><code>uses gettext;</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>emulate partially
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>ppc386</code> followed by <code>xgettext</code> or <code>rstconv</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>uses sysutils;</code><br><code>format "%1:d %0:d"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>?
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>The Pascal compiler has special support for the <code>ResourceString</code> data
	type. It generates a <code>.rst</code> file. This is then converted to a
	<code>.pot</code> file by use of <code>xgettext</code> or <code>rstconv</code>. At runtime,
	a <code>.mo</code> file corresponding to translations of this <code>.pot</code> file
	can be loaded using the <code>TranslateResourceStrings</code> function in the
	<code>gettext</code> unit.
	</p>
	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-pascal</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="Smalltalk"></a>
	<a name="SEC320"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC314">15.5.17 GNU Smalltalk</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>smalltalk
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>gnu-smalltalk
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>st</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>'abc'</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>NLS ? 'abc'</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>LcMessagesDomain>>#at:</code>, <code>LcMessagesDomain>>#at:plural:with:</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>LcMessages>>#domain:localeDirectory:</code> (returns a <code>LcMessagesDomain</code>
	object).<br>
	Example: <code>I18N Locale default messages domain: 'gettext' localeDirectory: /usr/local/share/locale'</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>LcMessages>>#domain:localeDirectory:</code>, see above.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>Automatic if you use <code>I18N Locale default</code>.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>PackageLoader fileInPackage: 'I18N'!</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>emulate
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>'%1 %2' bindWith: 'Hello' with: 'world'</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory:
	<code>hello-smalltalk</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="Vala"></a>
	<a name="SEC321"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC315">15.5.18 Vala</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>vala
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>valac
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>vala</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><ul>
	<li> <code>"abc"</code>

	</li><li> <code>"""abc"""</code>

	</li></ul>

	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code>, <code>dcgettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code>,
	<code>dngettext</code>, <code>dpgettext</code>, <code>dpgettext2</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function, defined under the <code>Intl</code> namespace
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function, defined under the <code>Intl</code> namespace
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>Programmer must call <code>Intl.setlocale (LocaleCategory.ALL, "")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>Use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>Same as for the C language.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>autoconf (gettext.m4) and #if ENABLE_NLS
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>yes
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="wxWidgets"></a>
	<a name="SEC322"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC316">15.5.19 wxWidgets library</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>wxGTK, gettext
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>libwxgtk3.0-dev
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>cpp</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>wxLocale::GetString</code>, <code>wxGetTranslation</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>wxLocale::AddCatalog</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>wxLocale::AddCatalogLookupPathPrefix</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p><code>wxLocale::Init</code>, <code>wxSetLocale</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>#include <wx/intl.h></code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>emulate, see <code>include/wx/intl.h</code> and <code>src/common/intl.cpp</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>wxString::Format supports positions if and only if the system has
	<code>wprintf()</code>, <code>vswprintf()</code> functions and they support positions
	according to POSIX.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>yes
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="Tcl"></a>
	<a name="SEC323"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC317">15.5.20 Tcl - Tk's scripting language</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>tcl
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>tcl
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>tcl</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>[_ "abc"]</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>::msgcat::mc</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—, use <code>::msgcat::mcload</code> instead
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>automatic, uses LANG, but ignores LC_MESSAGES and LC_ALL
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>package require msgcat</code>
	<br><code>proc _ {s} {return [::msgcat::mc $s]}</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>—, uses a Tcl specific message catalog format
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -k_</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>format "%2\$d %1\$d"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>Two examples are available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory:
	<code>hello-tcl</code>, <code>hello-tcl-tk</code>.
	</p>
	<p>Before marking strings as internationalizable, substitutions of variables
	into the string need to be converted to <code>format</code> applications. For
	example, <code>"file $filename not found"</code> becomes
	<code>[format "file %s not found" $filename]</code>.
	Only after this is done, can the strings be marked and extracted.
	After marking, this example becomes
	<code>[format [_ "file %s not found"] $filename]</code> or
	<code>[msgcat::mc "file %s not found" $filename]</code>. Note that the
	<code>msgcat::mc</code> function implicitly calls <code>format</code> when more than one
	argument is given.
	</p>

	<a name="Perl"></a>
	<a name="SEC324"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC318">15.5.21 Perl</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>perl
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>perl, libintl-perl
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>pl</code>, <code>PL</code>, <code>pm</code>, <code>perl</code>, <code>cgi</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><ul>
	<li> <code>"abc"</code>

	</li><li> <code>'abc'</code>

	</li><li> <code>qq (abc)</code>

	</li><li> <code>q (abc)</code>

	</li><li> <code>qr /abc/</code>

	</li><li> <code>qx (/bin/date)</code>

	</li><li> <code>/pattern match/</code>

	</li><li> <code>?pattern match?</code>

	</li><li> <code>s/substitution/operators/</code>

	</li><li> <code>$tied_hash{"message"}</code>

	</li><li> <code>$tied_hash_reference->{"message"}</code>

	</li><li> etc., issue the command ‘<samp>man perlsyn</samp>’ for details

	</li></ul>

	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>__</code> (double underscore)
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code>, <code>dcgettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code>,
	<code>dngettext</code>, <code>dcngettext</code>, <code>pgettext</code>, <code>dpgettext</code>,
	<code>dcpgettext</code>, <code>npgettext</code>, <code>dnpgettext</code>,
	<code>dcnpgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bind_textdomain_codeset </dt>
	<dd><p><code>bind_textdomain_codeset</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>Use <code>setlocale (LC_ALL, "");</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>use POSIX;</code>
	<br><code>use Locale::TextDomain;</code> (included in the package libintl-perl
	which is available on the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network CPAN,
	https://www.cpan.org/).
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>platform dependent: gettext_pp emulates, gettext_xs uses GNU gettext
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -k__ -k\$__ -k%__ -k__x -k__n:1,2 -k__nx:1,2 -k__xn:1,2
	-kN__ -kN__n:1,2 -k__p:1c,2 -k__np:1c,2,3 -kN__p:1c,2 -kN__np:1c,2,3</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>Both kinds of format strings support formatting with positions.
	<br><code>printf "%2\$d %1\$d", ...</code> (requires Perl 5.8.0 or newer)
	<br><code>__expand("[new] replaces [old]", old => $oldvalue, new => $newvalue)</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>The <code>libintl-perl</code> package is platform independent but is not
	part of the Perl core. The programmer is responsible for
	providing a dummy implementation of the required functions if the
	package is not installed on the target system.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Documentation</dt>
	<dd><p>Included in <code>libintl-perl</code>, available on CPAN
	(https://www.cpan.org/).
	</p>
	</dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-perl</code>.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX1153"></a>

	<p>The <code>xgettext</code> parser backend for Perl differs significantly from
	the parser backends for other programming languages, just as Perl
	itself differs significantly from other programming languages. The
	Perl parser backend offers many more string marking facilities than
	the other backends but it also has some Perl specific limitations, the
	worst probably being its imperfectness.
	</p>


	<a name="General-Problems"></a>
	<a name="SEC325"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC319">15.5.21.1 General Problems Parsing Perl Code</a> </h4>

	<p>It is often heard that only Perl can parse Perl. This is not true.
	Perl cannot be <em>parsed</em> at all, it can only be <em>executed</em>.
	Perl has various built-in ambiguities that can only be resolved at runtime.
	</p>
	<p>The following example may illustrate one common problem:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext "Hello World!";
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Although this example looks like a bullet-proof case of a function
	invocation, it is not:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">open gettext, ">testfile" or die;
	print gettext "Hello world!"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>In this context, the string <code>gettext</code> looks more like a
	file handle. But not necessarily:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">use Locale::Messages qw (:libintl_h);
	open gettext ">testfile" or die;
	print gettext "Hello world!";
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Now, the file is probably syntactically incorrect, provided that the module
	<code>Locale::Messages</code> found first in the Perl include path exports a
	function <code>gettext</code>. But what if the module
	<code>Locale::Messages</code> really looks like this?
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">use vars qw (*gettext);

	1;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>In this case, the string <code>gettext</code> will be interpreted as a file
	handle again, and the above example will create a file ‘<tt>testfile</tt>’
	and write the string “Hello world!” into it. Even advanced
	control flow analysis will not really help:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">if (0.5 < rand) {
	eval "use Sane";
	} else {
	eval "use InSane";
	}
	print gettext "Hello world!";
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>If the module <code>Sane</code> exports a function <code>gettext</code> that does
	what we expect, and the module <code>InSane</code> opens a file for writing
	and associates the <em>handle</em> <code>gettext</code> with this output
	stream, we are clueless again about what will happen at runtime. It is
	completely unpredictable. The truth is that Perl has so many ways to
	fill its symbol table at runtime that it is impossible to interpret a
	particular piece of code without executing it.
	</p>
	<p>Of course, <code>xgettext</code> will not execute your Perl sources while
	scanning for translatable strings, but rather use heuristics in order
	to guess what you meant.
	</p>
	<p>Another problem is the ambiguity of the slash and the question mark.
	Their interpretation depends on the context:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example"># A pattern match.
	print "OK\n" if /foobar/;

	# A division.
	print 1 / 2;

	# Another pattern match.
	print "OK\n" if ?foobar?;

	# Conditional.
	print $x ? "foo" : "bar";
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The slash may either act as the division operator or introduce a
	pattern match, whereas the question mark may act as the ternary
	conditional operator or as a pattern match, too. Other programming
	languages like <code>awk</code> present similar problems, but the consequences of a
	misinterpretation are particularly nasty with Perl sources. In <code>awk</code>
	for instance, a statement can never exceed one line and the parser
	can recover from a parsing error at the next newline and interpret
	the rest of the input stream correctly. Perl is different, as a
	pattern match is terminated by the next appearance of the delimiter
	(the slash or the question mark) in the input stream, regardless of
	the semantic context. If a slash is really a division sign but
	mis-interpreted as a pattern match, the rest of the input file is most
	probably parsed incorrectly.
	</p>
	<p>There are certain cases, where the ambiguity cannot be resolved at all:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">$x = wantarray ? 1 : 0;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The Perl built-in function <code>wantarray</code> does not accept any arguments.
	The Perl parser therefore knows that the question mark does not start
	a regular expression but is the ternary conditional operator.
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">sub wantarrays {}
	$x = wantarrays ? 1 : 0;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Now the situation is different. The function <code>wantarrays</code> takes
	a variable number of arguments (like any non-prototyped Perl function).
	The question mark is now the delimiter of a pattern match, and hence
	the piece of code does not compile.
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">sub wantarrays() {}
	$x = wantarrays ? 1 : 0;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Now the function is prototyped, Perl knows that it does not accept any
	arguments, and the question mark is therefore interpreted as the
	ternaray operator again. But that unfortunately outsmarts <code>xgettext</code>.
	</p>
	<p>The Perl parser in <code>xgettext</code> cannot know whether a function has
	a prototype and what that prototype would look like. It therefore makes
	an educated guess. If a function is known to be a Perl built-in and
	this function does not accept any arguments, a following question mark
	or slash is treated as an operator, otherwise as the delimiter of a
	following regular expression. The Perl built-ins that do not accept
	arguments are <code>wantarray</code>, <code>fork</code>, <code>time</code>, <code>times</code>,
	<code>getlogin</code>, <code>getppid</code>, <code>getpwent</code>, <code>getgrent</code>,
	<code>gethostent</code>, <code>getnetent</code>, <code>getprotoent</code>, <code>getservent</code>,
	<code>setpwent</code>, <code>setgrent</code>, <code>endpwent</code>, <code>endgrent</code>,
	<code>endhostent</code>, <code>endnetent</code>, <code>endprotoent</code>, and
	<code>endservent</code>.
	</p>
	<p>If you find that <code>xgettext</code> fails to extract strings from
	portions of your sources, you should therefore look out for slashes
	and/or question marks preceding these sections. You may have come
	across a bug in <code>xgettext</code>'s Perl parser (and of course you
	should report that bug). In the meantime you should consider to
	reformulate your code in a manner less challenging to <code>xgettext</code>.
	</p>
	<p>In particular, if the parser is too dumb to see that a function
	does not accept arguments, use parentheses:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">$x = somefunc() ? 1 : 0;
	$y = (somefunc) ? 1 : 0;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>In fact the Perl parser itself has similar problems and warns you
	about such constructs.
	</p>

	<a name="Default-Keywords"></a>
	<a name="SEC326"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC320">15.5.21.2 Which keywords will xgettext look for?</a> </h4>

	<p>Unless you instruct <code>xgettext</code> otherwise by invoking it with one
	of the options <code>--keyword</code> or <code>-k</code>, it will recognize the
	following keywords in your Perl sources:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li> <code>gettext</code>

	</li><li> <code>dgettext:2</code>

	<p>The second argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>dcgettext:2</code>

	<p>The second argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>ngettext:1,2</code>

	<p>The first (singular) and the second (plural) argument will be
	extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>dngettext:2,3</code>

	<p>The second (singular) and the third (plural) argument will be
	extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>dcngettext:2,3</code>

	<p>The second (singular) and the third (plural) argument will be
	extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>pgettext:1c,2</code>

	<p>The first (message context) and the second argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>dpgettext:2c,3</code>

	<p>The second (message context) and the third argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>dcpgettext:2c,3</code>

	<p>The second (message context) and the third argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>npgettext:1c,2,3</code>

	<p>The first (message context), second (singular), and third (plural)
	argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>dnpgettext:2c,3,4</code>

	<p>The second (message context), third (singular), and fourth (plural)
	argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>dcnpgettext:2c,3,4</code>

	<p>The second (message context), third (singular), and fourth (plural)
	argument will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>gettext_noop</code>

	</li><li> <code>%gettext</code>

	<p>The keys of lookups into the hash <code>%gettext</code> will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li><li> <code>$gettext</code>

	<p>The keys of lookups into the hash reference <code>$gettext</code> will be extracted.
	</p>
	</li></ul>


	<a name="Special-Keywords"></a>
	<a name="SEC327"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC321">15.5.21.3 How to Extract Hash Keys</a> </h4>

	<p>Translating messages at runtime is normally performed by looking up the
	original string in the translation database and returning the
	translated version. The “natural” Perl implementation is a hash
	lookup, and, of course, <code>xgettext</code> supports such practice.
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print __"Hello world!";
	print $__{"Hello world!"};
	print $__->{"Hello world!"};
	print $$__{"Hello world!"};
	</pre></td></tr></table>


	<p>The above four lines all do the same thing. The Perl module
	<code>Locale::TextDomain</code> exports by default a hash <code>%__</code> that
	is tied to the function <code>__()</code>. It also exports a reference
	<code>$__</code> to <code>%__</code>.
	</p>
	<p>If an argument to the <code>xgettext</code> option <code>--keyword</code>,
	resp. <code>-k</code> starts with a percent sign, the rest of the keyword is
	interpreted as the name of a hash. If it starts with a dollar
	sign, the rest of the keyword is interpreted as a reference to a
	hash.
	</p>
	<p>Note that you can omit the quotation marks (single or double) around
	the hash key (almost) whenever Perl itself allows it:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print $gettext{Error};
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The exact rule is: You can omit the surrounding quotes, when the hash
	key is a valid C (!) identifier, i.e. when it starts with an
	underscore or an ASCII letter and is followed by an arbitrary number
	of underscores, ASCII letters or digits. Other Unicode characters
	are <em>not</em> allowed, regardless of the <code>use utf8</code> pragma.
	</p>

	<a name="Quote_002dlike-Expressions"></a>
	<a name="SEC328"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC322">15.5.21.4 What are Strings And Quote-like Expressions?</a> </h4>

	<p>Perl offers a plethora of different string constructs. Those that can
	be used either as arguments to functions or inside braces for hash
	lookups are generally supported by <code>xgettext</code>.
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li> <strong>double-quoted strings</strong>
	<br>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext "Hello World!";
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li> <strong>single-quoted strings</strong>
	<br>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext 'Hello World!';
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li> <strong>the operator qq</strong>
	<br>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext qq \|Hello World!\|;
	print gettext qq <E-mail: <guido\@imperia.net>>;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The operator <code>qq</code> is fully supported. You can use arbitrary
	delimiters, including the four bracketing delimiters (round, angle,
	square, curly) that nest.
	</p>
	</li><li> <strong>the operator q</strong>
	<br>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext q \|Hello World!\|;
	print gettext q <E-mail: <[email protected]>>;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The operator <code>q</code> is fully supported. You can use arbitrary
	delimiters, including the four bracketing delimiters (round, angle,
	square, curly) that nest.
	</p>
	</li><li> <strong>the operator qx</strong>
	<br>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext qx ;LANGUAGE=C /bin/date;
	print gettext qx [/usr/bin/ls \| grep '^[A-Z]*'];
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The operator <code>qx</code> is fully supported. You can use arbitrary
	delimiters, including the four bracketing delimiters (round, angle,
	square, curly) that nest.
	</p>
	<p>The example is actually a useless use of <code>gettext</code>. It will
	invoke the <code>gettext</code> function on the output of the command
	specified with the <code>qx</code> operator. The feature was included
	in order to make the interface consistent (the parser will extract
	all strings and quote-like expressions).
	</p>
	</li><li> <strong>here documents</strong>
	<br>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext <<'EOF';
	program not found in $PATH
	EOF

	print ngettext <<EOF, <<"EOF";
	one file deleted
	EOF
	several files deleted
	EOF
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Here-documents are recognized. If the delimiter is enclosed in single
	quotes, the string is not interpolated. If it is enclosed in double
	quotes or has no quotes at all, the string is interpolated.
	</p>
	<p>Delimiters that start with a digit are not supported!
	</p>
	</li></ul>


	<a name="Interpolation-I"></a>
	<a name="SEC329"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC323">15.5.21.5 Invalid Uses Of String Interpolation</a> </h4>

	<p>Perl is capable of interpolating variables into strings. This offers
	some nice features in localized programs but can also lead to
	problems.
	</p>
	<p>A common error is a construct like the following:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext "This is the program $0!\n";
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Perl will interpolate at runtime the value of the variable <code>$0</code>
	into the argument of the <code>gettext()</code> function. Hence, this
	argument is not a string constant but a variable argument (<code>$0</code>
	is a global variable that holds the name of the Perl script being
	executed). The interpolation is performed by Perl before the string
	argument is passed to <code>gettext()</code> and will therefore depend on
	the name of the script which can only be determined at runtime.
	Consequently, it is almost impossible that a translation can be looked
	up at runtime (except if, by accident, the interpolated string is found
	in the message catalog).
	</p>
	<p>The <code>xgettext</code> program will therefore terminate parsing with a fatal
	error if it encounters a variable inside of an extracted string. In
	general, this will happen for all kinds of string interpolations that
	cannot be safely performed at compile time. If you absolutely know
	what you are doing, you can always circumvent this behavior:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">my $know_what_i_am_doing = "This is program $0!\n";
	print gettext $know_what_i_am_doing;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Since the parser only recognizes strings and quote-like expressions,
	but not variables or other terms, the above construct will be
	accepted. You will have to find another way, however, to let your
	original string make it into your message catalog.
	</p>
	<p>If invoked with the option <code>--extract-all</code>, resp. <code>-a</code>,
	variable interpolation will be accepted. Rationale: You will
	generally use this option in order to prepare your sources for
	internationalization.
	</p>
	<p>Please see the manual page ‘<samp>man perlop</samp>’ for details of strings and
	quote-like expressions that are subject to interpolation and those
	that are not. Safe interpolations (that will not lead to a fatal
	error) are:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li> the escape sequences <code>\t</code> (tab, HT, TAB), <code>\n</code>
	(newline, NL), <code>\r</code> (return, CR), <code>\f</code> (form feed, FF),
	<code>\b</code> (backspace, BS), <code>\a</code> (alarm, bell, BEL), and <code>\e</code>
	(escape, ESC).

	</li><li> octal chars, like <code>\033</code>
	<br>
	Note that octal escapes in the range of 400-777 are translated into a
	UTF-8 representation, regardless of the presence of the <code>use utf8</code> pragma.

	</li><li> hex chars, like <code>\x1b</code>

	</li><li> wide hex chars, like <code>\x{263a}</code>
	<br>
	Note that this escape is translated into a UTF-8 representation,
	regardless of the presence of the <code>use utf8</code> pragma.

	</li><li> control chars, like <code>\c[</code> (CTRL-[)

	</li><li> named Unicode chars, like <code>\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA}</code>
	<br>
	Note that this escape is translated into a UTF-8 representation,
	regardless of the presence of the <code>use utf8</code> pragma.
	</li></ul>

	<p>The following escapes are considered partially safe:
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li> <code>\l</code> lowercase next char

	</li><li> <code>\u</code> uppercase next char

	</li><li> <code>\L</code> lowercase till \E

	</li><li> <code>\U</code> uppercase till \E

	</li><li> <code>\E</code> end case modification

	</li><li> <code>\Q</code> quote non-word characters till \E

	</li></ul>

	<p>These escapes are only considered safe if the string consists of
	ASCII characters only. Translation of characters outside the range
	defined by ASCII is locale-dependent and can actually only be performed
	at runtime; <code>xgettext</code> doesn't do these locale-dependent translations
	at extraction time.
	</p>
	<p>Except for the modifier <code>\Q</code>, these translations, albeit valid,
	are generally useless and only obfuscate your sources. If a
	translation can be safely performed at compile time you can just as
	well write what you mean.
	</p>

	<a name="Interpolation-II"></a>
	<a name="SEC330"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC324">15.5.21.6 Valid Uses Of String Interpolation</a> </h4>

	<p>Perl is often used to generate sources for other programming languages
	or arbitrary file formats. Web applications that output HTML code
	make a prominent example for such usage.
	</p>
	<p>You will often come across situations where you want to intersperse
	code written in the target (programming) language with translatable
	messages, like in the following HTML example:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext <<EOF;
	<h1>My Homepage</h1>
	<script language="JavaScript"><!--
	for (i = 0; i < 100; ++i) {
	alert ("Thank you so much for visiting my homepage!");
	}
	//--></script>
	EOF
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The parser will extract the entire here document, and it will appear
	entirely in the resulting PO file, including the JavaScript snippet
	embedded in the HTML code. If you exaggerate with constructs like
	the above, you will run the risk that the translators of your package
	will look out for a less challenging project. You should consider an
	alternative expression here:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print <<EOF;
	<h1>$gettext{"My Homepage"}</h1>
	<script language="JavaScript"><!--
	for (i = 0; i < 100; ++i) {
	alert ("$gettext{'Thank you so much for visiting my homepage!'}");
	}
	//--></script>
	EOF
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Only the translatable portions of the code will be extracted here, and
	the resulting PO file will begrudgingly improve in terms of readability.
	</p>
	<p>You can interpolate hash lookups in all strings or quote-like
	expressions that are subject to interpolation (see the manual page
	‘<samp>man perlop</samp>’ for details). Double interpolation is invalid, however:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example"># TRANSLATORS: Replace "the earth" with the name of your planet.
	print gettext qq{Welcome to $gettext->{"the earth"}};
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The <code>qq</code>-quoted string is recognized as an argument to <code>xgettext</code> in
	the first place, and checked for invalid variable interpolation. The
	dollar sign of hash-dereferencing will therefore terminate the parser
	with an “invalid interpolation” error.
	</p>
	<p>It is valid to interpolate hash lookups in regular expressions:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">if ($var =~ /$gettext{"the earth"}/) {
	print gettext "Match!\n";
	}
	s/$gettext{"U. S. A."}/$gettext{"U. S. A."} $gettext{"(dial +0)"}/g;
	</pre></td></tr></table>


	<a name="Parentheses"></a>
	<a name="SEC331"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC325">15.5.21.7 When To Use Parentheses</a> </h4>

	<p>In Perl, parentheses around function arguments are mostly optional.
	<code>xgettext</code> will always assume that all
	recognized keywords (except for hashes and hash references) are names
	of properly prototyped functions, and will (hopefully) only require
	parentheses where Perl itself requires them. All constructs in the
	following example are therefore ok to use:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext ("Hello World!\n");
	print gettext "Hello World!\n";
	print dgettext ($package => "Hello World!\n");
	print dgettext $package, "Hello World!\n";

	# The "fat comma" => turns the left-hand side argument into a
	# single-quoted string!
	print dgettext smellovision => "Hello World!\n";

	# The following assignment only works with prototyped functions.
	# Otherwise, the functions will act as "greedy" list operators and
	# eat up all following arguments.
	my $anonymous_hash = {
	planet => gettext "earth",
	cakes => ngettext "one cake", "several cakes", $n,
	still => $works,
	};
	# The same without fat comma:
	my $other_hash = {
	'planet', gettext "earth",
	'cakes', ngettext "one cake", "several cakes", $n,
	'still', $works,
	};

	# Parentheses are only significant for the first argument.
	print dngettext 'package', ("one cake", "several cakes", $n), $discarded;
	</pre></td></tr></table>


	<a name="Long-Lines"></a>
	<a name="SEC332"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC326">15.5.21.8 How To Grok with Long Lines</a> </h4>

	<p>The necessity of long messages can often lead to a cumbersome or
	unreadable coding style. Perl has several options that may prevent
	you from writing unreadable code, and
	<code>xgettext</code> does its best to do likewise. This is where the dot
	operator (the string concatenation operator) may come in handy:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext ("This is a very long"
	. " message that is still"
	. " readable, because"
	. " it is split into"
	. " multiple lines.\n");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Perl is smart enough to concatenate these constant string fragments
	into one long string at compile time, and so is
	<code>xgettext</code>. You will only find one long message in the resulting
	POT file.
	</p>
	<p>Note that the future Perl 6 will probably use the underscore
	(‘<samp>_</samp>’) as the string concatenation operator, and the dot
	(‘<samp>.</samp>’) for dereferencing. This new syntax is not yet supported by
	<code>xgettext</code>.
	</p>
	<p>If embedded newline characters are not an issue, or even desired, you
	may also insert newline characters inside quoted strings wherever you
	feel like it:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext ("<em>In HTML output
	embedded newlines are generally no
	problem, since adjacent whitespace
	is always rendered into a single
	space character.</em>");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>You may also consider to use here documents:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print gettext <<EOF;
	<em>In HTML output
	embedded newlines are generally no
	problem, since adjacent whitespace
	is always rendered into a single
	space character.</em>
	EOF
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Please do not forget that the line breaks are real, i.e. they
	translate into newline characters that will consequently show up in
	the resulting POT file.
	</p>

	<a name="Perl-Pitfalls"></a>
	<a name="SEC333"></a>
	<h4 class="subsubsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC327">15.5.21.9 Bugs, Pitfalls, And Things That Do Not Work</a> </h4>

	<p>The foregoing sections should have proven that
	<code>xgettext</code> is quite smart in extracting translatable strings from
	Perl sources. Yet, some more or less exotic constructs that could be
	expected to work, actually do not work.
	</p>
	<p>One of the more relevant limitations can be found in the
	implementation of variable interpolation inside quoted strings. Only
	simple hash lookups can be used there:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">print <<EOF;
	$gettext{"The dot operator"
	. " does not work"
	. "here!"}
	Likewise, you cannot @{[ gettext ("interpolate function calls") ]}
	inside quoted strings or quote-like expressions.
	EOF
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>This is valid Perl code and will actually trigger invocations of the
	<code>gettext</code> function at runtime. Yet, the Perl parser in
	<code>xgettext</code> will fail to recognize the strings. A less obvious
	example can be found in the interpolation of regular expressions:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">s/<!--START_OF_WEEK-->/gettext ("Sunday")/e;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The modifier <code>e</code> will cause the substitution to be interpreted as
	an evaluable statement. Consequently, at runtime the function
	<code>gettext()</code> is called, but again, the parser fails to extract the
	string “Sunday”. Use a temporary variable as a simple workaround if
	you really happen to need this feature:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">my $sunday = gettext "Sunday";
	s/<!--START_OF_WEEK-->/$sunday/;
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Hash slices would also be handy but are not recognized:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">my @weekdays = @gettext{'Sunday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday',
	'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday'};
	# Or even:
	@weekdays = @gettext{qw (Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday
	Friday Saturday) };
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>This is perfectly valid usage of the tied hash <code>%gettext</code> but the
	strings are not recognized and therefore will not be extracted.
	</p>
	<p>Another caveat of the current version is its rudimentary support for
	non-ASCII characters in identifiers. You may encounter serious
	problems if you use identifiers with characters outside the range of
	'A'-'Z', 'a'-'z', '0'-'9' and the underscore '_'.
	</p>
	<p>Maybe some of these missing features will be implemented in future
	versions, but since you can always make do without them at minimal effort,
	these todos have very low priority.
	</p>
	<p>A nasty problem are brace format strings that already contain braces
	as part of the normal text, for example the usage strings typically
	encountered in programs:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">die "usage: $0 {OPTIONS} FILENAME...\n";
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>If you want to internationalize this code with Perl brace format strings,
	you will run into a problem:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">die __x ("usage: {program} {OPTIONS} FILENAME...\n", program => $0);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Whereas ‘<samp>{program}</samp>’ is a placeholder, ‘<samp>{OPTIONS}</samp>’
	is not and should probably be translated. Yet, there is no way to teach
	the Perl parser in <code>xgettext</code> to recognize the first one, and leave
	the other one alone.
	</p>
	<p>There are two possible work-arounds for this problem. If you are
	sure that your program will run under Perl 5.8.0 or newer (these
	Perl versions handle positional parameters in <code>printf()</code>) or
	if you are sure that the translator will not have to reorder the arguments
	in her translation – for example if you have only one brace placeholder
	in your string, or if it describes a syntax, like in this one –, you can
	mark the string as <code>no-perl-brace-format</code> and use <code>printf()</code>:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example"># xgettext: no-perl-brace-format
	die sprintf ("usage: %s {OPTIONS} FILENAME...\n", $0);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>If you want to use the more portable Perl brace format, you will have to do
	put placeholders in place of the literal braces:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">die __x ("usage: {program} {[}OPTIONS{]} FILENAME...\n",
	program => $0, '[' => '{', ']' => '}');
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Perl brace format strings know no escaping mechanism. No matter how this
	escaping mechanism looked like, it would either give the programmer a
	hard time, make translating Perl brace format strings heavy-going, or
	result in a performance penalty at runtime, when the format directives
	get executed. Most of the time you will happily get along with
	<code>printf()</code> for this special case.
	</p>

	<a name="PHP"></a>
	<a name="SEC334"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC328">15.5.22 PHP Hypertext Preprocessor</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>mod_php4, mod_php4-core, phpdoc
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>php
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>php</code>, <code>php3</code>, <code>php4</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>, <code>'abc'</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code>, <code>dcgettext</code>; starting with PHP 4.2.0
	also <code>ngettext</code>, <code>dngettext</code>, <code>dcngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>Programmer must call <code>setlocale (LC_ALL, "")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>printf "%2\$d %1\$d"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, the functions are not available.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-php</code>.
	</p>

	<a name="Pike"></a>
	<a name="SEC335"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC329">15.5.23 Pike</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>roxen
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>pike8.0 or pike7.8
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>pike</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code>, <code>dcgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p><code>setlocale</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>import Locale.Gettext;</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>On platforms without gettext, the functions are not available.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="GCC_002dsource"></a>
	<a name="SEC336"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC330">15.5.24 GNU Compiler Collection sources</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>gcc
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>gcc
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>c</code>, <code>h</code>.
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>gettext</code>, <code>dgettext</code>, <code>dcgettext</code>, <code>ngettext</code>,
	<code>dngettext</code>, <code>dcngettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>bindtextdomain</code> function
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>Programmer must call <code>setlocale (LC_ALL, "")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p><code>#include "intl.h"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>Use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext -k_</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>Uses autoconf macros
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>yes
	</p></dd>
	</dl>


	<a name="YCP"></a>
	<a name="SEC337"></a>
	<h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC331">15.5.25 YCP - YaST2 scripting language</a> </h3>

	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> RPMs</dt>
	<dd><p>libycp, libycp-devel, yast2-core, yast2-core-devel
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Ubuntu packages</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> File extension</dt>
	<dd><p><code>ycp</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> String syntax</dt>
	<dd><p><code>"abc"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext shorthand</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_("abc")</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> gettext/ngettext functions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>_()</code> with 1 or 3 arguments
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> textdomain</dt>
	<dd><p><code>textdomain</code> statement
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> bindtextdomain</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> setlocale</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Prerequisite</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Use or emulate GNU gettext</dt>
	<dd><p>use
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Extractor</dt>
	<dd><p><code>xgettext</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Formatting with positions</dt>
	<dd><p><code>sformat "%2 %1"</code>
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> Portability</dt>
	<dd><p>fully portable
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> po-mode marking</dt>
	<dd><p>—
	</p></dd>
	</dl>

	<p>An example is available in the ‘<tt>examples</tt>’ directory: <code>hello-ycp</code>.
	</p>


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