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Native American Legends
The origin of the Hopi Snake Clan
A Hopi Legend
Long ago, on the enormous far rim of the Grand Canyon in Arizona,
lived the ancestors of the Snake Clan, who belonged to the Hopi
Chief of the Hopis had a very wise son, who liked to sit and meditate
on the edge of the canyon rim. He tried many times to imagine where
the powerful river far below finally ended.
Experienced ancient men of their nation did not know the answer
for Wise Son. Their council leaders had different ideas among themselves.
One thought the river took a secret course through enormous underground
passages. Another thought it entered the middle of the world and
there it nurtured large and dangerous reptiles.
Impatient, Wise Son said to his father, the Chief, "Is it
not time for me to seek my quest? I wish to go down the great river
and find the place where it ends."
Proud of his son's desire for accomplishment, the Chief gladly
granted him permission to follow his quest. Wise Son, overjoyed
with his coming venture, planned specifically for every need. His
family and tribal friends helped him to design and to build a waterproof
boat that could be closed entirely, like a cocoon.
He constructed a long pushing-pole to help him navigate the waters.
The maker of medicine tied prayer sticks at the top of the pole,
with special blessings for a safe journey.
Finally, the day arrived for Wise Son to launch his special canoe.
The Chief and his warriors arrived with supplies of food, good wishes,
and more prayer sticks.
Week after week, Wise Son drifted with the river. He was happy.
He learned to keep his boat in the main current, though it carried
him through several turbulent side routes, including rapids and
tunnel-like caves. He victoriously came though these experiences
with joy in his heart.
On and on Wise Son traveled, winding his way out of steep canyons
and through flat meadowlands. He caught fresh fish for his main
food supply. One day, Wise Son noticed a change in the taste of
the water. It was salty and he knew that he should not drink it.
Then to his surprise, he suddenly floated into a great body of water
that extended as far as he could see. He had discovered the place
where the mighty river ended, in the ocean where the sun sleeps!
He saw an island and guided his boat to its shore. There was a
house nearby. Upon investigation, he found only a very small entrance
door. He knocked and asked, "Please, will you let me come in
and see you?"
Spider Woman, who possessed supernatural power, lived there and
answered, "Please make the hole large enough and enter."
This, Wise Son did and sat down inside. He presented to Spider Woman
one of his prayer sticks and told her of his adventure to find the
place where the river ended.
"When I return to my nation, I wish to take with me a gift
that might be helpful to my people," he said. "There is
a neighboring house where there are many beautiful ornament-like
beads and rocks. These might be gifts that you can take to your
people," she replied. "But I must caution you to be careful
of the vicious animals on the path. I will give you some of my magic
lotion to protect you." Together they started for the treasure
house. To guide him, Spider Woman sat upon Wise Son's ear, where
she could whisper to him.
Immediately, Wise Son sprinkled some magic lotion on the marshy
path. A colorful bridge appeared instantly, guiding them across
the marsh to the treasure house. First, they encountered an enormous
lionlike animal showing its fangs. Wise Son tossed him a prayer
stick and sprinkled magic lotion, which calmed the creature.
Second, they met a bear-like animal; third, a mad catlike creature;
fourth, a ferocious wolf-like beast; fifth, a huge angry-looking
snake with rattles on its tail. Wise Son quieted all of them with
Spider Woman's magic lotion. The treasure house had steps leading
to the roof, and from there steps took them down into a large room.
Men squatted around the inside walls. The warriors wore handsome,
bright-colored beads hanging about their necks. They had painted
their faces tribal fashion.
Wise Son squatted by the fire. All remained quiet for some time.
The men gazed at Wise Son constantly. Finally, their Chief arose
and lighted his pipe. After smoking four times, he passed the pipe
to the stranger. Wise Son smoked the magic number of times that
seemed to please the Chief and the others. They then greeted him
in a friendly manner, as if he were one of their own.
In return for their warm welcome, Wise Son gave to each man a prayer
stick tipped with special feathers made by ancient Hopi nations
men. "Now it is time to put on our snake costumes," announced
the Chief. Wise Son observed that skins of enormous serpents were
suspended from the ceiling, around all four walls. He was asked
to face about, so that he would not see how the warriors got into
their snakeskin costumes.
When Wise Son was asked to turn back, he saw snakes of many sizes
and colors, hissing and writhing over the dirt floor. Spider Woman
remained on Wise Son's ear. "Be strong," she whispered
to him. "The snakes will not hurt you, only frighten you. Do
whatever I tell you." The Chief of the Snake People had made
his daughter become a yellow-snake-with-rattles. Wise Son did not
know this, and he was asked to choose the Chief's daughter. If he
could choose correctly, the Snake People would show him their ceremonial
dance. They also would give him many beads and gem-rocks to take
to his nation.
Wise Son tried very hard to guess which snake was the Chief's daughter.
Spider Woman whispered in his ear, "Choose the yellow one with
rattles." Wise Son did, and yellow-snake-with-rattles suddenly
became the loveliest and fairest of maidens. He knew immediately
that he could easily fall in love with her. That evening the Chief
and his warriors gave to Wise Son all the secrets of the Snake Ceremony.
They taught him the words of praise and thanksgiving, which they
sang for him. They showed him the ceremonial steps, which they danced
for him. They showed him how they put on their snake costumes. Finally,
they showed him their altar.
After Wise Son learned all that he should know, he and Spider Woman
re-crossed the bridge and returned to her house. He presented her
with another prayer stick, as he thanked her for her help. In return,
she gave him a beautiful bead of turquoise from her north room.
She gave him a white shell from her east room. From her south room,
she gave him a red bead, and from her west room a larger turquoise.
She then gave him a bag of special beads for his nation, but she
warned him not to open it on the way home.
Next morning, Wise Son went back to the house of the Snake People
to say farewell. Their Chief welcomed him and declared, "You
have gained our friendship and my beautiful daughter. Take her for
your wife. We wish you happiness and a pleasant journey back to
your nation." The nation gave them many presents of good clothing
and much food to send the happy couple on their way to Hopi land.
They took the overland route following the great river. Each day
Wise Son found the treasure bag heavier and heavier. He and his
wife could hardly carry it between them. One day out of extreme
curiosity, they opened the bag and looked inside. Regardless of
Spider Woman's caution, the two rolled out the beads and made strands
for each to wear around their necks. By the following morning, all
of the gift beads had vanished. Only remaining were the gems from
the four rooms in Spider Woman's house.
Many moons later, the young couple reached Hopi land on the far
rim of the Grand Canyon. Wise Son was delighted to be home again
after his great adventure. The entire Hopi nation rejoiced over
his safe return and welcomed his new young wife to their nation.
Wise Son told where the great river ended. He told them about the
Snake Clan, and that he and his wife brought them a special ceremony
from the Snake People, living where the sun sleeps. Wise Son and
his wife taught the Hopis all the songs and dances of the Snake
Ceremony. This was the beginning of the Snake Clan of the Hopi nation.
Today, visitors are welcomed by the Hopis when their Snake Clan
performs at its annual Snake Ceremony. This is their traditional
praise and thanksgiving offering for the blessings of rain to the
Native American Legends
Back to Top
Other Native American Legends | <urn:uuid:fd0663e0-e6f6-455a-9393-634ce04c7be8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Legends/The_Origin_Of_The_Hopi_Snake_Clan-Hopi.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978355 | 1,966 | 2.875 | 3 |
On-line version ISSN 1996-7489
S. Afr. j. sci. vol.108 n.7-8 Pretoria Jan. 2012
NEWS AND VIEWS
Centre for Infectious Diseases Epidemiology & Research, School of Public Health & Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
For almost two decades, scientists around the world have grappled with the question of whether women's use of hormonal contraception increases their risk of becoming infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). For the health of women across South Africa, the stakes are incredibly high. There are over 5 million HIV-infected women and men living in the country, and the vast majority are of reproductive age.1 At the same time, millions of women use hormonal contraception: injectable hormones and oral contraceptive pills are used by approximately 28% and 10% of South African women of reproductive age, respectively.2 Providing hormonal contraception is a critical part of promoting women's health in South Africa and globally; if hormonal contraceptives were to increase women's risk of acquiring HIV, it could be a tragedy of modern public health.
This question re-emerged recently with the publication by Heffron et al.3 in Lancet Infectious Diseases of an international study suggesting that HIV acquisition is more common in women who use hormonal contraception (both oral and injectable) compared to women who did not. The study was conducted in 1314 couples in which the male partner was HIV-positive and the female partner was HIV-negative. In observing these couples over 1-2 years of follow-up, the researchers found that the occurrence of new HIV infections was about twice as high in the women that used hormonal contraception than in the women who did not.
This finding has rekindled the debate on the putative association between hormonal contraception and HIV,4,5 and is certainly cause for public health concern. At the same time, this work forces to the surface a broader, ongoing discussion regarding the limits of scientific knowledge that can be generated through observational epidemiological studies.6 Several observational studies have suggested a similar association between different forms of hormonal contraception and HIV, complementing the results of Heffron et al.3 However, there are as many published studies on this question that have shown no such association.7,8,9,10 (By way of disclosure, the author has led a local study showing no association.7)
Observational epidemiological research faces several basic challenges in trying to identify the causes of specific diseases by observing patterns of 'risk factors' (any exposure, behaviour or condition that may be a cause of disease) within individuals and populations. Foremost among the concerns facing observational epidemiology is the ubiquitous phenomenon of confounding, in which the correlations of potential risk factors create a biased result, making it difficult to discern true causality. In the case of hormonal contraception and HIV, the likely sources of confounding include sexual behaviours, such as condom use, that are associated both with the use of hormonal contraception and with women's acquisition of HIV infection. For example, women who use hormonal contraception are less likely to use condoms than those who do not (since the contraceptive effect of condoms is a principle reason for their use in many settings), and thus are at a higher risk of sexually transmitted HIV infection for reasons other than their hormonal contraceptive use.
Confounding is a fundamental concern that snakes throughout epidemiological research. In observational studies, the most that scientists can hope for is to anticipate, measure and attempt to adjust for confounding effects using various statistical tools.11 (This approach is in contrast to experimental epidemiological studies, in which investigators use tools such as randomisation to help minimise confounding effects and other biases.12) When we find large associations between risk factors and disease outcomes, confounding effects are unlikely to be responsible for the entire association. But it is impossible to remove the effects of confounding definitively. This fact leads most investigators conducting epidemiological research towards highly tentative conclusions, and, occasionally, significant reversals. For example, use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in postmenopausal women was widely thought to reduce women's risk of cardiovascular disease based on observational epidemiological studies from the USA. Only more recently has the confounding effect of socio-economic status in these studies come to be fully appreciated -women who use HRT are typically wealthier and less likely to experience cardiovascular disease (at least in the USA) than women who do not use HRT.13
Epidemiologists have an arsenal of statistical tools to confront confounding and related phenomena. New analytical refinements to deal with confounding effects emerge every few years and promise new hope to the discipline, but the challenge that confounding presents to observational epidemiological research is more fundamental. As we study patterns of disease in populations, and search for smaller and smaller associations, the ability to discern spurious, confounded effects from true, causal effects is increasingly fraught with uncertainty.14 As in the case of the association between hormonal contraception and women's HIV acquisition, the results produced by any single observational study should be interpreted with tremendous caution; inferences about causality in epidemiological research emerge only over time after repeated investigations of a particular question in different populations.
In this instance, the World Health Organization convened a panel to review the body of evidence on this question, including the study by Heffron et al.3 The panel's conclusion was that the results were too mixed overall, and individual studies too flawed, to draw any conclusions.15 Yet, observational epidemiological research still faces the ubiquitous challenge of confounding.
1. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic, 2010. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2010. [ Links ]
2. United Nations Population Division. World contraceptive use, 2011. New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations; 2011. [ Links ]
3. Heffron R, Donnell D, Rees H, et al. Use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of HIV-1 transmission: A prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12(1):19-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70247-X [ Links ]
4. Daly CC, Helling-Giese GE, Mati JK, et al. Contraceptive methods and the transmission of HIV: Implications for family planning. Genitourin Med. 1994;70:110-117. [ Links ]
5. Bulterys M, Chao A, Habimana P, et al. Incident HIV-1 infection in a cohort of young women in Butare, Rwanda. AIDS. 1994;8:1585-1591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199411000-00010 [ Links ]
7. Myer L, Denny L, Wright TC, Kuhn L. Prospective study of hormonal contraception and women's risk of HIV infection in South Africa. Int J Epidemiol. 2007;36(1):166-174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyl251 [ Links ]
8. Klienschmidt I, Rees H, Delany S, et al. Injectable progestin contraceptive use and risk of HIV infection in a South African family planning cohort. Contraception. 2007;75(6):461-467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2007.02.002 [ Links ]
9. Kiddugavu M, Makumbi F, Wawer MJ, et al. Hormonal contraceptive use and HIV-1 infection in a population-based cohort in Rakai, Uganda. AIDS. 2003;17:233-240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200301240-00014 [ Links ]
10. De Vincenzi I. A longitudinal study of human immunodeficiency virus transmission by heterosexual partners. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:341-346. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199408113310601 [ Links ]
11. Shapiro S. Causation, bias and confounding: A hitchhiker's guide to the epidemiological galaxy part 2. Principles of causality in epidemiological research: Confounding, effect modification and strength of association. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care. 2008;34(3):185-190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1783/147118908784734873 [ Links ]
15. World Health Organization. Hormonal contraception and HIV: Technical statement. WHO/RHR/12.08. Geneva: WHO; 2012. [ Links ]
School of Public Health and Family Medicine,
Falmouth Building, Faculty of Health Sciences,
University of Cape Town,
Observatory 7925, South Africa
© 2012. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS OpenJournals. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License. | <urn:uuid:0acbf318-223b-4584-8338-6f80b51c4150> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532012000400003&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900819 | 1,893 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Thursday December 3 2015
Being overweight raises the risk of some pregnancy problems
"Maternal weight gain raises stillbirth risk", reports The Guardian, and other media outlets.
A large study in Sweden found women whose weight increased by more than two BMI units (about 6kg for a woman who is 1.67m tall) between their first and second pregnancy had a higher chance of having a stillbirth. Some of these women had a higher chance of a baby dying within the first year after birth.
The study showed that for women who gained a significant amount of weight – four BMI units, or approximately 11kg for a woman who is 1.67m tall – the risk of a stillbirth was more than 50% higher than for women whose weight remained stable between pregnancies.
Although this study found an association between weight gain from one pregnancy to the next, and an increased risk of stillbirth and death in the first year after birth, it cannot prove weight gain was the cause of the stillbirths or infant deaths.
The risk of stillbirth and infant death should also be put in context. Overall levels of stillbirth and infant deaths in the study were low. Even with the increased risk linked to weight gain, the absolute risk of a stillbirth or infant death remains low.
However, the study adds to previous research that shows women who are overweight tend to have more problems in pregnancy. Keeping to a healthy weight, and losing weight if you need to, is a good way to prepare for a healthy pregnancy and birth.
Where did the story come from?
The study was carried out by researchers from the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden and the University of Michigan School of Public Health in the US, and was funded by the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare and the Karolinska Institutet.
It was published in the peer-reviewed medical journal, The Lancet, and you can read an abstract or summary online.
The study was covered by The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph and the Mail Online, mostly accurately. However, the reports did not point out this study cannot prove the extra stillbirths and infant deaths were caused by women's weight gain.
The Daily Mirror went for a more inflammatory tone, saying: "Mums who gain as little as a stone after the birth of their first child put their second baby at greater risk of dying".
The study does not show this is the case, and this message could cause undue distress to women who are either pregnant or who have lost a baby in the past.
What kind of research was this?
The researchers conducted a population-based cohort study of more than 450,000 women in Sweden.
Cohort studies are a good way of comparing how certain factors are linked to certain outcomes – in this case, how weight gain between pregnancies is related to stillbirth or infant death.
However, they cannot rule out the chance the findings are the result of other factors the researchers have not taken into account.
What did the research involve?
The study was based on records of pregnancies, births and deaths in Sweden over a 20-year period. Researchers studied the records of all women in the Swedish Medical Birth Register who had their first two births between January 1 1992 and December 31 2012.
They looked at whether there was a difference between the women's weight as measured in the first three months of their first pregnancy, and their weight measured at the same point in the second pregnancy.
They then checked to see which pregnancies had resulted in a stillbirth or an infant death in the first year after birth, and whether weight gain was linked to stillbirth or deaths, after allowing for other factors.
The researchers had complete information about more than three-quarters of the women who had their first and second child during this period.
They adjusted their figures to take account of factors, such as the mother's age at second pregnancy, her level of education, the amount of time between the pregnancies, and whether she smoked during either pregnancy.
The researchers calculated the risks of having a stillbirth or infant death for women who had gained weight between pregnancies, compared with the risks for women whose weight remained more or less unchanged between pregnancies (a change of one BMI unit or less between pregnancies).
The research also looked into the effects of different amounts of weight gain, as well as the link between weight loss and stillbirth or infant deaths.
What were the basic results?
For all women, a weight gain of two BMI units (approximately 6kg for a woman who is 1.67m tall) or more between pregnancies was linked to an increase in the risk of stillbirth in the second pregnancy.
For women who gained two to four BMI units, the risk increased by 38% (relative risk [RR] 1.38, 95% confidence interval [CI]), while it rose by 55% (RR 1.55, 95% CI) for women who gained four BMI units or more.
When the researchers looked at the link between weight gain from one pregnancy to another and infant mortality (when a baby dies within the first year of life), they found a different pattern for women who were a healthy weight in their first pregnancy and those who were overweight in their first pregnancy.
Only women who were a healthy weight in their first pregnancy and then put on weight before their second pregnancy had an increased risk of infant mortality in the second pregnancy. This increased risk ranged from 27% (RR 1.27, 95% CI 1.01-1.59) to 60% (1.60, 1.16-2.22) based on how much weight they'd put on.
Women who were already overweight in their first pregnancy and then gained more weight before their second pregnancy did not have a higher risk.
Looking at the effect of weight loss, the study found those women who were overweight in their first pregnancy and lost weight by their second pregnancy had a lower chance of having a neonatal death (within the first 28 days of life) second time around.
Women who were normal weight and lost two BMI units of weight had a higher chance of an infant death, possibly because weight loss in women who are not overweight could be the result of illness.
How did the researchers interpret the results?
The researchers said their findings had "substantial public health implications".
They said there were a number of reasons why gaining weight might increase the chances of stillbirth or infant death, including an increase in inflammation and blood pressure triggered by gaining body fat.
Women who are overweight are also more likely to have problems during the birth itself, which can increase the chances of infant death.
They said reducing the numbers of overweight mothers and discouraging weight gain between pregnancies "might reduce stillbirth and infant mortality risks", but "the pathways by which overweight and obesity affect stillbirth and infant mortality are still to be established".
This study has a number of strengths. Firstly, it covers a large number of births thanks to the Swedish system of recording pregnancies, births and deaths. The researchers took account of several factors that could have skewed their results, such as the mothers' age at second birth and whether or not they smoked.
The results show risk rose in line with the amount of weight gained, which strengthens the chances this finding represents a causal relationship.
But cohort studies can never prove cause and effect. Weight gain might be a marker for something else that affected the outcomes.
For example, the women who gained most weight might be generally unhealthier, have a poorer diet, or be more likely to drink alcohol in pregnancy than those who stayed at a steady weight. These factors were not recorded, so we don't know.
However, the study adds to previous research, which shows that women who are overweight tend to have more problems in pregnancy, such as gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia and difficulties in childbirth.
Keeping to a healthy weight, and losing weight if you need to, is a good way to prepare for a healthy pregnancy and birth. Find out more about what you can do to have a healthy pregnancy. | <urn:uuid:aa4d9aa0-bb1d-4dca-8845-3e44d02504fc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nhs.uk/news/2015/12December/Pages/weight-gain-between-pregnancies-linked-to-stillbirth.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979943 | 1,650 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Morphine can be deadly when used to treat pain in some children following a tonsillectomy, according to a study published Monday.
Patients at risk are those children who had tonsils and/or adenoids removed because they suffer from sleep apnea. (The majority of the 14,000 pediatric tonsillectomies performed in Ontario each year are to treat sleep apnea.)
The study, conducted by McMaster Children's Hospital and SickKids hospital in Toronto and published Monday in the journal Pediatrics, says morphine can induce life-threatening breathing problems in some children.
Morphine has, in recent years, become a preferred treatment for post-tonsillectomy pain for children with sleep apnea, said Dr. Doron Sommer, a professor at McMaster University and a surgeon at McMaster Children's Hospital.
"The take home message … is we'd like clinicians to take a step back and re-evaluate pain management in this group of patients."
Sommer said their research suggests a safer and more effective pain relief option would be Ibuprofen — commonly known by brand names such as Advil — which is an example of a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, or NSAID.
Morphine had become the drug of choice to treat post-tonsillectomy pain in children, following a 2009 study about prescribing codeine — those results prompted warnings from Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Codeine is metabolized in the body to produce morphine, but since individuals metabolize at different rates, it could result in overdosing in some children who metabolize more efficiently.
But in the new research, a sampling of 91 patients between 12 months and 10 years old
at McMaster Children's Hospital who had tonsillectomies for sleep apnea showed a drop in the amount of oxygen in the blood, and an increased risk of respiratory problems after receiving morphine. Children treated with Ibuprofen performed much better.
One child who was given morphine suffered oxygen depletion to the extent that they faced a "life-threatening adverse reaction" and turned blue. The child recovered.
Morphine is a drug that triggers sensors in the brain reducing the perception of pain, whereas NSAIDs, including Ibuprofen, reduce inflammation at the site of the pain.
But a morphine-induced message to the brain can produce the unwanted side-effect of decreasing the body's respiratory drive.
"This population — kids with sleep apnea — are already more sensitive to low oxygen levels," said Sommer.
The study was focused on the tonsillectomy/sleep apnea pediatric group and so there is no cause for concern over-prescribing morphine as pain treatment for other patient groups. Other groups have not been studied in this manner, as far as Sommer is aware.
Health Canada has not issued warnings about morphine, and Sommer expects their research will prompt more studies before advisories are issued. | <urn:uuid:68d01cc4-97b5-476a-9b6c-ba79be37eea2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thespec.com/news-story/5275007-morphine-can-be-dangerous-for-kids-after-tonsillectomy-mac-study/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950791 | 608 | 3.3125 | 3 |
|This legislation or issue article is part of the Congresspedia
Elections and Government Policy (U.S.) Portal.
"Earmarking" is the term used to refer to a provision in legislation that directs funds to be spent on specific projects. Typically, legislators seek to insert earmarks which direct a specified amount of money to a particular organization or project in his/her home state or district. This differs from the appropriation of money to a particular government agency, for in these cases the appropriate executive department can exercise discretion as to where and how the funds are spent. The use of earmarks in the U.S. Congress has expanded significantly over the past thirty years, and is presently the focus of much controversy.
- 1 History of earmarking
- 2 The earmarking process today
- 3 Perceived unfairness
- 4 Support and opposition for earmarking
- 5 Earmark reform legislation
- 5.1 Senate legislation
- 5.2 House legislation
- 6 Executive branch changes
- 7 Articles and resources
History of earmarking
While many lawmakers, including Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid (D-Nev.), have proclaimed that earmarking has been common since the founding of America, recent research has indicated otherwise.
The idea of directing federal money to specific local projects originally came from Rep. John Calhoun (D-S.C.) when he proposed the Bonus Bill of 1817 to construct highways linking the East and South of the United States to its Western frontier. At the time, these projects were referred to as "internal improvements." Calhoun wanted to use the earnings bonus from the Second Bank of the United States specifically for this program, arguing that the General Welfare and Post Roads clauses of the US Constitution called for it. President James Madison vetoed the bill as unconstitutional. He explained his reasoning in the following message:
Such a view of the Constitution would have the effect of giving to Congress a general power of legislation instead of the defined and limited one hitherto understood to belong to them, the terms 'common defense and general welfare' embracing every object and act within the purview of a legislative trust.
Taxpayers for Common Sense, an independent watchdog organization, has argued that widespread earmarking is a relatively new phenomenon in American politics. The organization cites the evolution of earmarks since the 1970s. The 1970 Defense Appropriations Bill had a dozen earmarks; the 1980 bill had 62; and by 2005, the defense bill included 2,671. Among the earmarks in the 2005 bill was money to eradicate brown tree snakes in Guam.
Similar increases are seen in the history of the Transportation Appropriations Bill. When President Dwight Eisenhower proposed the first national highway bill in the 1950s, there were two projects singled out for specific funding. In August 2005, when Congress passed a six year, $286.4 billion Transportation Bill, there were 6,371 earmarks, ranging from $200,000 for a deer avoidance system in Weedsport, New York to $3 million for dust control mitigation on Arkansas’ rural roads.
In all, there were roughly 15,000 congressional earmarks in 2005 at a total cost of $47 billion.
The earmarking process today
On paper, earmarks are intended to go through a public process. Lawmakers recognize needs which exist in their respective states or districts, and submit a written request to the appropriate congressional subcommittee asking for the panel’s support. In reality, however, earmarks are often not judged on their merit. Rather, earmarks are typically handed out as favors in exchange for votes on key pieces of legislation by party leaders and appropriations chairmen.
In addition, earmarks are rarely considered by the entire U.S. House of Representatives or U.S. Senate during the construction of a bill. Rather, they are often added during the conference phase, which is when House and Senate leaders meet to iron-out the differences in their respective pieces of legislation on a particular issue. Following the conference, both houses must approve the legislation again, but if a member wishes to oppose a particular earmark, he/she must vote against the entire bill in order to do so. Given that most earmarks are inserted into massive pieces of legislation which fund the federal government, members of Congress are often reluctant to oppose them simply over an earmark. In addition, through the process of logrolling, members often agree to support a bill with another’s earmark in exchange for the same treatment. The result is bills with hundreds, if not thousands, of specifically-directed funding projects. Thomas A. Schatz, president of Citizens Against Government Waste, said that 98 percent of earmarks to appropriations bills in 2005 were added in the conference phase.
When passed legislation reaches the president’s desk, a similar problem arises. Not wishing to stall the budgetary process or risk a public relations backlash for rejecting a bill for transportation or defense appropriations, presidents are often forced to sign bills loaded with earmarks. Many presidents, including Bill Clinton and George W. Bush have advocated a line-item veto, whereby the president is able to veto specific spending projects in appropriations bills without vetoing the entire bill. While Congress has historically opposed this expansion of executive power, it did grant it in 1996 with the Line Item Veto Act of 1996. The line-item veto was used 11 times to strike 82 items from the federal budget by Clinton. In February 1998, however, a federal district judge ruled that the law was in violation of the US Constitution. This ruling was affirmed in June 1998 by the U.S. Supreme Court in the case Clinton v. City of New York.
Many individuals and groups consider earmarks to be inherently unfair. Rather than directing funds to the most-deserving projects, many believe the ability of an earmark to make it onto a bill depends on the seniority and power of the member advocating it. One commonly cited example is West Virginia. The state often comes out near the top of all states for earmarked higher-education funds. In 2000, Wheeling Jesuit University received $7 million for the Robert C. Byrd National Technology Transfer Center. Another $2 million was awarded to the school's Erma Ora Byrd Center for Educational Enterprises. Sen. Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) was then (and remains) the U.S. senator with the longest seniority (serving since 1959). In addition, many credited the power of Sen. Ted Stevens (R-Alaska) to an earmark which directed $223 million to the building of a bridge in Alaska from the remote town of Ketchikan (population 8,900) to the more remote island of Gravina (population 50). Critics dubbed this project the "Bridge to Nowhere."
Support and opposition for earmarking
Members of Congress have come out both for and against earmarking in the past. In 2001, Rep. Alan Mollohan (D-W.Va.) argued that politicians know better than federal agencies how to properly spend money for higher education. He stated, “Nobody knows their constituents or their academic institutions or their programs better than the members of the House or the Senate who represent these organizations...We are in a better position to evaluate the merits of these programs than any executive agency."
In addition, Rep. Mike Simpson (R-Idaho) and Sen. Larry Craig (R-Idaho) issued a joint report in 2006 supporting the continued use of earmarks. They argued that in 2005, for example, earmarks were very beneficial for Idahoans. They built a new wastewater infrastructure in Bonners Ferry, supported jobs at the Idaho National Laboratory, improved housing for families at Mountain Home Air Force Base, and expanded course offerings at Boise State University. Without earmarking, in their mind, these projects would not have been possible.
Many politicians, particularly fiscal-conservatives, have come out against the expanded use of earmarking. Sen. Tom Coburn (R-Okla.), for example, has called earmarking a “gateway drug” for a spending addiction. House Rep. Jeff Flake (R-Ariz.) has launched a similar crusade against earmarks. On June 20, 2006, he even attempted to strip an earmark inserted by House Speaker Dennis Hastert (R-Ill.) which is set to provide $2.5 million for the Illinois Technology Transistion Center. Flake also criticized an earmark of Rep. Jerry Lewis (R-Calif.) which set aside $250,000 for a public swimming pool in Benning, California. On July 8, 2006, Flake attempted to strip a $250,000 appropriation for the Science Museum of Virginia. He stated, "I would note that the museum will soon open a traveling exhibit on candy, sponsored by the Jelly Belly Candy Co...It does not sound like much research to me." Each of Flake’s attempts failed.
Earmark reform legislation
One of the most common criticisms regarding earmarking is that the process lacks transparency. As noted above, lawmakers are able to (and often do) insert earmarks during the conference phase of legislation, once debate has ceased. In addition, members of Congress may introduce earmarks anonymously, making it difficult for constituents to follow the actions of his/her legislator.
Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006
On March 29, the Senate passed the Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 by a vote of 90-8. The bill requires that:
- All Senate bills or conference reports include a list of all earmarks in the measure.
- Members of Congress who propose an earmark be identified.
- Earmark proposals be accompanied by an explanation of its essential government purpose.
- All bills or conference reports, including the list of earmarks, be available to the Senate and to the general public on the Internet for at least 24 hours before its consideration.
- Senators be given the right to try to remove earmarks from any bill that moves onto the floor. An earmark could be removed from legislation with the support of sixty senators (without striking down the entire bill).
Despite these changes, many felt as though the legislation was not strong enough. Critics cited a provision in the bill which deemed that no disclosure was necessary for money to be spent by federal agencies. Some estimates say that as many as forty-percent of earmarks are delivered through this medium.
March 29, 2006
Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act
On April 6, Sens. Tom Coburn (R-Okla.), Barack Obama (D-Ill.), Tom Carper (D-Del.), and John McCain (R-Ariz.) introduced a stricter bill, named the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act (S.2590), which would require the Office of Management and Budget to create a searchable database of all government-appropriated funds and its' recipients. Specifically, the database would include:
- The name of the entity receiving federal funds.
- The amount of any federal funds that the entity had received in each of the last 10 fiscal years.
- An itemized breakdown of each transaction, including funding agency, program source, and a description of the purpose of each funding action.
- The location of the entity and primary location of performance, including the city, state, congressional district, and country.
- A unique identifier for each such entity and parent entity, should the entity be owned by another entity.
- Any other relevant information.
On July 27, 2006, the Senate Committee on Homeland Security & Governmental Affairs unanimously approved the bill. After it was stalled by unanimous holds for over a month, the bill passed by a voice vote on September 7, 2006. Six days later, the House passed it as well. (See Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act)
Senate rules change
After it became clear that the House and Senate could not agree on broad ethics reform legislation in 2006, both chambers sought to amend their own rules to require better transparency. The House passed a rules change on September 14 (see below). The Senate, however, was unable to pass a change by this point. On September 18, a Senate leadership aide said that Senate leaders would not accept a change unless Senate Rules Committee Chairman Trent Lott (R-Miss.) and Ranking Member Christopher Dodd (D-Conn.) could come up with a measure that would easily be passed by the chamber.
Lobbying Accountability and Transparency Act
On May 3, 2006, the House passed the Lobbying Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006 by a vote of 217-213. The bill, which was largely focused at lobbying reform, was in many ways similar to the Senate version passed in March 2006 (see above). It requires that all bills advanced to the floor by the House Committee on Appropriations include a list of earmarks within the bill, as well as the name of any member who submitted a request to the committee for an earmark.
As was the case with the Senate bill, many Democrats and anti-earmark conservatives argued the bill was too weak, and actively sought a provision which would require all earmarks to face a vote on the House. Their attempts were unsuccessful.
Ultimately, the House and Senate were unable to reconcile the differences between their respective bills, largely due to limits set on independent campaign organizations known as 527 groups in the House version. Many senators opposed the measure, which the House insisted upon.
May 3, 2006
Amendment to the Federal Financial Assistance Management Improvement Act of 1999
On June 21, 2006, the House passed a bill which would amend the Federal Financial Assistance Management Improvement Act of 1999 by a voice vote. Specifically, it would establish a public database on the Internet to track federal grants. The director of the Office of Management and Budget would be directed to work with other agencies to ensure that the information was available to the public on a single web site within 30 days of the grant being awarded. The site would include the following for each grant:
- The name of the grantee and sub-grantees who have received the award
- An itemized breakdown of that assistance by agency and program source
- All awards a grantee has received for the past 10 years
- A list of dates and amounts of federal financial assistance awards to the grantee
The bill was criticized by some for failing to require disclosure of government contracts as well as grants. Ultimately, the House passed S.2590 (see above) which expanded the requirement to include both.
House rules change
After it became clear to House leadership that differences on broader ethics reform legislation could not be reconciled with the Senate, it sought to change its internal rules to reform the earmarking process. A rule change sponsored by Rep. David Dreier (R-Calif.), chairman of the House Committee on Rules, was introduced which would effectively require that all earmarks and their sponsors be disclosed in every House bill.
In March, 2010, the House Appropriations Committee implemented rules to ban earmarks to for-profit corporations. According to the New York Times, approximately 1,000 such earmarks were authorized in the previous year, worth $1.7 billion.
Before the bill was debated on September 14, 2006, Reps. Rahm Emanuel (D-Ill.) and Chris Van Hollen (D-Md.) sought to have an amendment added which would include a prohibition on earmarks to any organization employing a spouse, family member, or former employee of the sponsor. The measure was never considered on the House floor.
Alternative rules change
- Be accompanied by a written request sent to the chairman and ranking member of the committee of primary jurisdiction at least seven days before such an earmark, or bill including it, is scheduled to be voted on by the committee or by the House.
- Include in their requests the name of the member sponsoring it, the name and address of its intended recipient, its purpose, and a statement of whether the member sponsoring the earmark has a financial interest in it or in its intended recipient.
- Are made available to the public through the website of the applicable committee (at least 48 hours before a conference report is issued).
On September 14, the Dreier-sponsored rules change was approved by a vote of 245-171. The provisions in the change were effective only until the end of 2006, although future Congresses could choose to renew the change.
September 14, 2006
Many Democrats opposed the bill, arguing that it was too weak. Rep. Louise Slaughter (D-N.Y.) called it “shameful” and “a sham.” Rep. David Obey (D-Wis.) referred to the change as a “trivial pursuit,” saying it would do little to alter federal spending while preventing broader reform of federal ethics laws from being pursued. The rule change was also opposed by several Republican members of the House Appropriations Committee, including Chairman Jerry Lewis (R-Calif.), who argued that the change would have a disproportionately negative impact on them.
Executive branch changes
On February 28, 2007, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requested detailed earmark information from federal agencies. The OMB stated that it would begin posting "all earmarks identified by federal agencies in fiscal year 2005 appropriations bills" on its website.
Controversial earmarking practices in Congress
Click on the name of the following members of the U.S. Congress to read their respective earmark controversies.
- Sen. Conrad Burns (R-Mont.)
- Rep. Ken Calvert (R-Calif.)
- Rep. Dennis Hastert (R-Illinois)
- Rep. Duncan Hunter (R-Calif.)
- Rep. Jerry Lewis (R-Calif.)
- Rep. Alan Mollohan (D-W.Va.)
- Rep. Jim Moran (D-Va.)
- Rep. Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.)
- Rep. Mike Pence (R-Ind.)
- Sen. Ted Stevens (R-Alaska)
- Rep. Charles Taylor (R-N.C.)
- Rep. Don Young (R-Alaska)
Articles and resources
Related SourceWatch articles
- "OMB to post all earmarks on website," The Hill, March 9, 2007.
- Sunlight Foundation
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) policy to decline funds stemming from congressional earmarks.
- Ending Earmarks Express
- Citizens Against Government Waste
- Americans for Prosperity
- Free Republic
- Taxpayers for Common Sense
- Dan McGraw, "Playing the Game," Prism Magazine, March, 2001.
- "Q&A Concerning the University of Michigan Policy on Peer Review and Congressional Earmarking," University of Michigan, October 29, 2002.
- Sandy Streeter, "Earmarks and Limitations in Appropriation Bills," Congressional Research Service, December 7, 2004.
- "Congressional Pig Book," Citizens Against Government Waste (CAGW), 2006.
- "A History of Earmarks (or rather, the lack thereof)," Americans for Prosperity, 2006.
- Larry Craig and Mike Simpson, "Earnest Earmarks," U.S. House of Representatives, 2006.
- "The Budget System and Concepts," Office of Management and Budget (OMB), January 2006.
- "Earmarks in Appropriations Acts," Congressional Research Service (CRS), January 26, 2006.
- Carl Hulse, "Lawmakers Seeking Curbs on Special Spending Requests," New York Times, February 8, 2006.
- Matthew Weigelt, "Legislation would put grant info on Web," FCW.com, April 3, 2006.
- "Son of the Bridge to Nowhere," New York Times, April 23, 2006.
- Tim Holden, "Funding better decided by local officials," PA Patriot News, April 26, 2006.
- "Nothing secret or sinister about earmarks," Peoria Journal Star, April 26, 2006.
- Tom Finnigan, "All About Pork: The Abuse of Earmarks and the Needed Reforms," May 3, 2006.
- Charles Hurt, "House passes limited reform of earmark process," Washington Times, May 4, 2006.
- "Dr. Coburn Votes Against Pork," Tulsa Today, May 6, 2006.
- George Watson, "Banning pool aid provokes ripples," San Bernardino Sun, June 14, 2006.
- Jonathan Allen, "Flake strikes at earmark of Hastert’s," The Hill, June 21, 2006.
- Ronald D. Utt, "The Biggest Pork-Barrel Earmark in History?" Human Events Online, July 17, 2006.
- Gail Russell Chaddock, "A move to lift the veil on US spending," The Christian Science Monitor, July 20, 2006.
- "Egregious Earmark of the Week: $300,000 for Bovine Genetics in Maryland," Human Events Online, July 28, 2006.
- Henry Lamb, "Super-Corridor to oblivion," WorldNetDaily, July 29, 2006.
- "Secret Hold Put On Bill Allowing You To See Where Congress Spends Your Money," Free Republic, August 21, 2006.
- Peter Kahn, "Democrats seek to expand GOP earmark overhaul," GovExec.com, September 12, 2006.
- Paul Kiel, "Pork Database Bill Passes House," TPMMuckraker.com, September 14, 2006.
- David D. Kirkpatrick, "Despite Pledges, Congress Clings to Pet Projects," New York Times, September 13, 2006.
- Jeffrey H. Birnbaum, "House Votes To Disclose Earmarks," Washington Post, September 15, 2006.
- Tory Newmyer and Kate Ackley, "Senate Struggles on Earmarks," Roll Call, September 18, 2006. | <urn:uuid:895751cd-54cb-4e47-9cc7-17fd818d9b0f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Earmarks | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962242 | 4,540 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Place yourself back in First Grade. Given the chance to choose any of the following options for your personal schooling, select the education you would like to receive for the greatest chance of success later in life:Of course, the knee-jerk reaction that has occured with regular frequency for over 40 years is "spend more money on those districts." While that may have had an initial impact in the 1960's, the fact of the matter is that urban school districts spend far more per pupil than even the wealthiest suburbs and probably twice what is spent in rural districts. So clearly, money is not a shorthand for "social justice." So what is the solution. Ladner suggests that we need to revamp the teacher compensation structure (read merit pay) and increase choice programs. Both, in conjunction may provide some wonderful benefits, but there is one major obstacle--the unions, who have fought tooth and nail against both options.
A. Washington, District of Columbia inner city public schools
B. Los Angeles, California inner city public schools
C. Chicago, Illinois inner city public schools
D. none of the above
Was your answer D? According to John Rawls’ theory of “Justice as Fairness,” if those schools are not suitable for you in theory, then they are not suitable for low-income children in practice.
Every child in the inner city public schools has very limited opportunity. What you see is what you get. Think about this multiple choice question from your perspective. You can’t go back and change the place or the time you were born, and because of your environment and your family’s economic and social status, you had absolutely no control over the educational opportunities available to you. This is what Rawls referred to as the “lottery” – economic, social, educational opportunity is a matter of chance; a very small number of people win the lottery, and an unbelievably large number of people lose. While many contest Rawls’ philosophy, it is hugely influential in left-of-center thinking.
For a moment, put yourself behind this “veil of ignorance” in which you cannot determine the school you attend. Without knowing the odds or whether you might end up a Rockefeller or in the slums, you (and everyone else) would work a little harder to make sure that if you end up on the bottom rung, that ladder is not greased down by neglected school districts, underpaid teachers and minimalist resources.
However, the best question to ask the unions is "What, in your view, is social justice in education? How, specifically, do you think we as a nation should try to implement that vision?" Unfortunately,there is no answer from the NEA and the AFT.
Ladner poses this final proposition:
Answer one final multiple choice question.So once again, we return to my Commandment #1 for Education:
Place yourself back in Twelfth Grade. Given the chance to choose any of the following options for your personal schooling, select the education you would like to receive for the greatest chance of success later in life:
A. Ivy League
B. Any Top University
C. The Perfect Match, Post-Secondary School for Your Learning Abilities and Future Goals
D. any of the above is fine
Was your answer D?
Here is the ultimate question.
What needs to happen to reform our educational system such that any child who began with the first multiple choice question would be able to have the final multiple choice question?
Answer: by putting student interests first. Until we do so, the lottery will remained fixed against disadvantaged children.
Thou shall never forget that the most important people in schools are the students, first, last and always. Nothing trumps their importance, not your job or your cousin/uncle/aunt/mistress' job, not your favorite policy, not the school principal, not the school board, not even the teachers. Nothing!!Too much of the debate about education forgets this basic factor and we need to be reminded of that everyday. | <urn:uuid:66b4c88b-3489-4496-8e59-e9e2c2971632> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mattjohnston.blogspot.com/2007/07/education-and-social-justice.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956791 | 837 | 2.578125 | 3 |
In 1961, the psychologist Stanley Milgram performed an experiment that forever changed how people view moral action. While still fraught with criticism, Milgram’s experiment showed that people were compelled to act, more or less, by the situation they found themselves in — not by some core trait. A new version of Milgram’s experiment has just surfaced, and more than 50 years later, the findings still hold.
Consider an oft-cited thought experiment: You’re ambling along the sidewalk when a man in ripped, dirty pants and a torn shirt approaches you. He asks for a quarter, a nickel, anything to help him use the payphone nearby. Ignoring him, you glide right past. But consider what would have happened if the man were wearing a suit, and he was asking for a dollar — more money this time — to use the same payphone. Would your reaction change? Psychologists say it probably would. And the reason it would is that our brains don’t think in moral absolutes.
450 Volts of Obedience
Milgram’s experiment claimed to arrive at the same conclusion, if by darker means. He told participants that on the other side of a wall was a person taking instructions, and if the person didn’t take the instructions, they would receive an electric shock. The person giving that shock was the subject, only they didn’t know the shock was fake. Milgram wanted to see how far he could push people to harm others, for no other reason than someone told them to. Out of the 40 original participants, 65 percent (26 people) maxed out the machine, at 450 volts, delivered three times in a row.
Milgram was astounded. Here were these ordinary people, most of whom were respectable family men and housewives, who did unspeakable things to total strangers. The findings have since been criticized as inflated and flat-out false; however, they’ve also been recreated with a startling dose of accuracy. The latest reproduction, without the glaring ethical issue of leading people to believe they’re murderers, involves contestants on a fake television game show.
A team of French and American researchers recruited 66 people to participate. They were asked to perform a set of actions designed to mimic the original obedience tasks in Milgram’s experiment. When the team found similar results, they decided to ask a different question than what had been debated in the past — an easier question, it seemed. Instead of asking why people did bad things, they asked who were the people that did bad things. This, they hoped, would answer the harder question in the process.
They found personality and political affiliation weighed heavily on how people acted. Left-leaning people who tended not to be so agreeable in personality often refused to obey the researchers’ orders. People with more social grace, who we may label as “polite,” often held right-leaning political views and went along with their directions. “Our results provide empirical evidence,” the researchers wrote, “suggesting that individual differences in personality and political variables matter in the explanation of obedience to authority.”
Don’t be a Bystander
So does this mean polite people are more violent? No — at least not in some active way. You may be inclined to say polite people are violent in the same way a person who sees a mugging but doesn’t intervene is violent. They may let harm happen — either by allowing it to continue or, in the Milgram experiment, by acting out another’s wishes — but they don’t have violent tendencies at their core. Their situations compelled them not to act.
Understanding these differences could help to change behavior, especially as it relates to key social issues. It’s the contrarians, those with rebel tendencies, argues Dr. Kenneth Worthy, associate professor of environmental history and philosophy at the University of California, Santa Cruz, who are going to change the world for the better. They are the ones who will refuse to accept the world how it is. They feel compelled to change it — to stop shocking strangers because they know it is wrong.
Getting the other side on-board, those who are more open to molding, may require a bit of positive guidance. “To change these patterns, we need more contrarians willing to set examples by going against societal norms,” Worthy explains. “And we need to give them some leeway and respect.” | <urn:uuid:573f8202-b7f1-492b-b17a-254da9010992> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medicaldaily.com/polite-people-arent-more-violent-theyre-just-more-passive-finding-situational-thinker-us-all-290872 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973609 | 933 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Trauma is the most common cause of a hematoma. When people think of trauma, they generally think of car accidents, falls, head injuries, broken bones, and gunshot wounds, etc.. Trauma to tissue may also be caused by an aggressive sneeze or an unexpected twist of a limb. When a blood vessel is damaged blood leaks into the surrounding tissue; this blood tends to coagulate or clot. The greater the amount of bleeding that occurs, the larger the amount of clot formation.
Blood vessels that are fragile may contribute to hematoma formation. For example, an aneurysm or weakening in a blood vessel wall may spontaneously leak.
There are many people who take blood thinners (anti-coagulation) medications. Examples include warfarin (Coumadin), aspirin, clopidogrel (Plavix) and prasugrel (Effient). These medications increase the potential for spontaneous bleeding and for hematomas to expand because the body cannot efficiently repair blood vessels and blood continues to leak through the damaged areas.
Occasionally, diseases may occur that decrease the number of platelets in the blood stream (thrombocytopenia) or their ability to function. The platelets are the cells that help initiate blood clot and fibrin formation.
All of the above situations may exist independently to cause a hematoma or they may occur together.
This answer should not be considered medical advice...This answer should not be considered medical advice and should not take the place of a doctor’s visit. Please see the bottom of the page for more information or visit our Terms and Conditions.
Archived: March 20, 2014
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Read the Original Article: Hematoma | <urn:uuid:b5483f28-f26d-4142-90cb-f765f8748e89> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://answers.webmd.com/answers/1178511/what-causes-a-hematoma | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915963 | 370 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The freedom fighters for the African American people have not been forgotten. The Black Panthers and other black activists of the sixties left an indelible mark on the legal system of the U.S. and on the hearts of the African American family.
Assata Shakur wrote an autobiography in 1987, that is a must-read for any and all individuals who want to know the true story of her struggle as a young black woman in the 60’s trying to find herself and her freedom. She details her arrest and imprisonment for the incident that occurred 40 years ago yesterday, May 2, 1973, when she allegedly shot a New Jersey state trooper in a shoot out between police and black activist members of the Black Panther Party and Black Liberation Army of which she belonged.
Shakur was imprisoned in horrific conditions until she was assisted by a German nurse who helped her escape prison and she fled to Cuba, where she still resides to this day. But now the FBI is gunning for her again and yesterday on the 40th anniversary of the incident, they boosted the reward for her capture by doubling it to $2 million and made her the very first woman to be added to their Most Wanted List.
The godmother and aunt to Tupac Shakur, tells a story akin to many black political prisoners’ stories of fighting the U.S. government’s system of injustice during the 60’s. Read more about her life here, purchase her autobiography here, read about yesterday’s newest FBI case here, and listen to the moving tribute Common made for her in 2000, called “A Song for Assata” which is featured on his much lauded Like Water for Chocolate album. | <urn:uuid:4624cdcb-117f-4a80-a49f-f5fa31f2e68f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurthisnthat.com/2013/05/03/assata-shakur-first-woman-on-fbis-most-wanted-list-doubles-reward-to-2-million/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972871 | 346 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Combination therapy is a wide term for the use of multiple medications/therapies, to fight the complex infections. Some common conditions treated with combination therapy include tuberculosis, leprosy, cancer, malaria and HIV/AIDS. Combination therapy helps in preventing drug resistance. For some cancers, the best approach is a combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. Surgery or radiation therapy treats cancer that is confined locally, while chemotherapy also kills the cancer cells that have spread to distant sites.
Related Journals of Combination Therapy
Journal of Antivirals & Antiretrovirals, Virology & Antiviral Research, Journal of Human Papillomavirus, HIV & Retro Virus, Advances in Influenza Research, AIDS Research and Therapy, Alzheimer's Research and Therapy, Annals of Cancer Research and Therapy, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Antiviral Chemistry and Chemotherapy, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy | <urn:uuid:9541f22e-2fb4-4226-b930-eb9c0e3055c7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.omicsonline.org/scholarly/combination-therapy-journals-articles-ppts-list.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.859578 | 200 | 3.09375 | 3 |
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World's Oldest Newspaper - 1686 Gazette Over 340 Years Old...
Item # 556003
March 26, 1668
THE LONDON GAZETTE, London, England, March 26, 1668
* 17th Century Original
This single sheet issue is over 340 years old. Various news from London and other parts of Europe also with some interesting advertisements as well.
A front page report from "Plymouth" mentions that: "...Several ships intending for New-found-land, Barbados, New-England and other places, that could not...sail with the last Fleet, may tomorrow put to sea, if the wind prove favourable." From "Venice" is word that "...a Squadron of our ships ordered to cruise...the Gulph of Zant, to convoy our Ships and secure them in their passage to and fro; and to defend them from the Pyrats of Barbary..."
A complete newspaper measuring about 7 by 11 1/2 inches and is in great condition. Made of rag paper which was used back in the day (no wood pulp).
Fine and very early newspaper. Can easily be framed.
Historical Background: "When in the autumn of 1665 Charles II sought shelter in Oxford from the Great Plague, he and his courtiers wanted newspapers to read, yet feared to touch "The Intelligencer" or "The News," which, coming from London, might be infected. Therefore Leonard Litchfeld, the university printer, was authorized and ordered to bring out a local paper. On Tuesday, November 14, 1665, the first number of "The Oxford Gazette" appeared, and it continued afterwards through eleven weeks on Thursdays and Mondays. It was meagre enough, but, though comprised in only two double-columned pages of folio, each number contained nearly as much matter as one of Roger L'Estrange's papers, and it soon became a formidable rival to those papers, especially as Thomas Newcombe, the old printer of the Commonwealth organs, was allowed to reproduce its sheets in London "for the use of some members and gentlemen who desired them.
The plague was soon over and King Charles went back to Whitehall, but he was pleased with the Oxford effort and it was soon succeeded by "The London Gazette, which made its first appearance, labelled as No. 24, on February 5, 1666, and which has been kept alive, altering its size and character from time to time, down to this day. "
Category: The 1600's and 1700's | <urn:uuid:aab8cc9e-9c78-40c5-a62d-42e28382fd26> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rarenewspapers.com/view/556003?list_url=%2Flist%2Froyalty%3Fpage%3D1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971786 | 526 | 2.5625 | 3 |
John D Wilkerson
POL S 382
Focus on the structures, processes, and policy outputs of state governments in the United States.
States play important policymaking roles and differ in important ways that have important consequences for a state's citizens. However it is one thing to observe that states differ and quite another to explain those differences. Culture? History? Institutions? Economics? Politics?
I assume that students in this class know much less about state and local politics than they do about national politics. As a result, the class covers not only theoretical issues related to state politics, but also more basic facts. In addition, we consider divide our time between boarder comparisons of the 50 states, and more intensive examinations of politics and policy in Washington state. And to make the class more interesting, we will have a number of invited speakers.
Student learning goals
An appreciation of the alternative explanations offered for why states differ in terms of their politics, and the implications of those differences for citizens
An appreciation of the structure and operation of Washington State government.
The ability to write thoughtfully about a contemporary issue and its implications for state politics and policy
General method of instruction
The class is primarily lecture-based. There will also guest lecturers.
Texts: "Politics in the American States: A Comparative Analysis, 10th Edition", Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson; "Inside the Statehouse: Lessons from the Speaker", Ralph Wright
Class assignments and grading
A draft of the syllabus can be found here: | <urn:uuid:e6b30f17-035b-46ee-98a6-429a44ca4151> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.washington.edu/students/icd/S/polisci/382jwilker.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926996 | 312 | 2.609375 | 3 |
That happened in the reign of Queen Dick—i.e. never; there never was a Queen Richard.
(Richard Cromwell, 1626-1712.) (1) Dick's hatband, which was made of sand. His regal honours were “a rope of sand.” (2) As fine as Dick's hatband. The crown of England would be a very fine thing for anyone to get. (3) As queer as Dick's hatband. Few things have been more ridiculous than the exaltation and abdication of the Protector's son.
(4) As tight as Dick's hatband. The hatband of Richard Cromwell was the crown, which was too tight for him to wear with safety.
= Richard. The diminutive “Dicky” is also common.
Jockey of Norfolk [Lord Howard], be not too bold, For Dicky [or Dickon], thy master, is bought and sold.
Shakespeare: Richard III., v. 3. (Dickey or Dickon is Richard III.) | <urn:uuid:d86da290-eacd-45e5-b21b-43871d3d15a8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/dictionary/brewers/dick.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97182 | 223 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Seafood is good for your heart and brain. Seafood is low in fat, high in protein, and rich in nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3's provide protection from heart disease and are an important brain food for you, your children, and your unborn child.
Advisories and consumption guidelines are designed to help you gain these health benefits while protecting you and your family from contaminants in fish and shellfish.
For more information about fish and shellfish advisories in Oregon, or contaminants and their health effects, call the Oregon Health Authority at 1-877-290-6767. | <urn:uuid:1ade2176-42b1-4cab-89ac-eda22a4aea26> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://public.health.oregon.gov/HealthyEnvironments/Recreation/FishConsumption/Pages/index.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940947 | 125 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Teaching Tip: Mrs. Chandler's Jumpstart for Summer Reading
- Grades: 6–8
In order to encourage students to complete summer reading assignments, you must acknowledge that this needs to be a transitional effort, beginning in the current school year and concluding with the new teacher next school year.
We have a responsibility to make this learning activity relevant to students. To do this, follow these steps:
At the end of the assigning school year, design a lesson that will set the stage for the summer reading experience. Obviously, this is easier if every student is reading the same novel, but you can also use a even a simple K-W-L chart or a set of prediction questions can be used to help students make a connection to the novel.
Create a meaningful activity for students to complete while reading. Scholastic has many teaching resources that can help. One professional book I prefer is Reading Response Trifolds for 40 Favorite Novels.
Students must have an assignment to return at the beginning of the new school year. Otherwise, summer reading has no relevance and seems more like a punishment. Prepare an assessment for students to complete when they return for the next school year. This assessment does not have to be a difficult test, but rather a quick group discussion, journaling response, or role-play activity. Some websites offer interactive games and activities for specific novels so that teachers can plan such an activity before choosing the novel to be assigned. | <urn:uuid:beab1080-f561-428e-a038-059d53953cea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lesson-plan/teaching-tip-mrs-chandlers-jumpstart-summer-reading | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954249 | 296 | 3.578125 | 4 |
For their meal tonight, Olinda Novela and her children will dine on tree root soup. This is what they ate for breakfast and what they will likely eat tomorrow. The soup, made from mashed wood shavings boiled in salty water, has zero nutritional value. It is a thin, brown, evil-looking gruel. However, in remote, drought-stricken Mahache village, about five hours’ drive north from Mozambique’s capital, Maputo, there is simply no other choice.
Novela, 37, has four children still at home; another four have moved away. They are not actually starving — not yet, anyway — but they are chronically malnourished, according to visiting community health workers.
They have much in common with many other Mozambican children, with an estimated 44 percent of under-fives physically or mentally impaired — the technical term is stunted — because of severe malnutrition. Their weakened immune systems increase their susceptibility to malaria, HIV and other fatal diseases.
“I am hungry. Everyone is hungry. I am hungry all the time,” Novela said, standing outside her crumbling home of mud walls, wooden stakes and corrugated iron. “I feel desperate. I don’t know what will happen to me and the children if it does not rain.”
She says there has been no fresh food in Mahache since January. Olinda hitches her youngest, Alissi, on her hip. Alissi looks about one year old. In fact, she is 21 months. Olinda’s son, Leonardo, is seven, but looks like a four-year-old.
The problem extends far beyond Mahache and its scale is daunting. Experts predict that in the next decade, there will be 4 million chronically malnourished children in Mozambique, which despite recent, rapid economic growth and the discovery of large natural gas deposits, remains one of the world’s poorest countries.
‧ 44 percent: Proportion of Mozambique’s under-fives who are stunted.
‧ 7 percent: Annual GDP growth in Mozambique.
‧ 54 percent: Proportion of population living below poverty line.
‧ 2.6 million: Number of children who die from malnutrition worldwide each year.
‧ 450 million: Number of children who will not grow properly over the next 15 years because of malnutrition.
‧ US$1 billion: Proposed G8 funding over next 10 years to lift 50 million people out of food poverty.
‧ 22 percent: Amount of G8 money pledged three years ago that had been spent by July last year.
Globally, malnutrition is the key cause of the deaths of 2.6 million children each year. On present trends, the bodies and brains of an additional 450 million worldwide will fail to develop properly because of inadequate diet over the next 15 years, according to a report published by Save the Children in February.
G8 leaders including US President Barack Obama and British Prime Minister David Cameron have a chance to act this week. Food security — meaning, broadly, the availability of food at all times — was high on the agenda at their annual summit at Camp David, Maryland, that began on Friday. Before the meeting, Obama unveiled a “new alliance” initiative involving selected African countries and private sector companies. The plan entails a US$1 billion, 10-year effort to lift 50 million people out of food poverty through increased investment in agricultural development.
Pre-summit draft consultation documents identify six sub-Saharan African states as “vanguard countries,” including Mozambique. The leaders of another three, Ethiopia, Ghana and Tanzania, whose good governance records are deemed to be better than others, have been invited by Obama to attend the summit. If the initiative flourishes, it will be extended to other countries.
“The G8 confirms the ultimate goals of improving agricultural productivity, economic growth, food security and nutritional status and recognizes and affirms the central role of women and smallholder farmers in achieving these objectives,” the document says.
“Malnutrition is a hidden problem, a hidden killer,” said Carina Hassane Ismael of the independent Food Security and Nutrition Association in Maputo. “It’s not like a famine. It can be hard to spot because the children are not actually starving.” | <urn:uuid:62486eb8-8d89-42fb-b0e0-b9b61f1529fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2012/05/20/2003533257 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950199 | 921 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Evan J. Kern of Kutztown has a lifetime of experience as a woodworker, but five years ago he was a novice at turning out old-fashioned wooden jigsaw puzzles.
Chances are he'd never have even attempted a puzzle if he hadn't run into difficulty while constructing a wooden clock. "It just wasn't working out the way I wanted," said Kern, former dean of the College of Visual and Performing Arts at Kutztown University. "So I decided to see what I could do with a puzzle."
What he did was to become so proficient at cutting puzzles that he was able to write a book about the process. "Making Wooden Jigsaw Puzzles" (Stackpole Books, $16.95, 115 pp.) contains a step-by-step explanation of the intricacies of a craft that originated in 18th-century England.
In the book, Kern describes the first jigsaw puzzle's genesis: "The earliest known wooden jigsaw puzzle dates to 1766, when Englishman John Spilsbury made one called `Europe Divided into Its Kingdoms.' Spilsbury glued a map of Europe to a wooden panel and cut along the borders of the countries. This puzzle was an educational tool to teach geography to children and was called a `dissected puzzle.'
"Such puzzles eventually came to be known as jigsaw puzzles, probably with the transition from hand-crafted to machine-cut puzzles in the 19th century during the Industrial Revolution."
It was, in fact, the invention of the die-press in the mid-1800s and the introduction of cardboard as the puzzle base that turned the previously costly jigsaw puzzles into inexpensive playthings that reached the height of their popularity during the Depression in the 1930s when people sought out home entertainment that wouldn't break the budget.
According to Kern, "By 1975 there were no longer any major jigsaw puzzle manufacturers making wooden puzzles. If not for the efforts of a small number of craftsmen, the tradition of making wooden jigsaw puzzles would have faded into obscurity."
Many of today's craftsmen, including Kern, still copy the old methods, using a fretsaw -- a relative of the coping saw that's generally available only in specialty stores -- as their basic tool. Others use the more common scroll saw which, Kern said, "you can buy in any hardware store."
The dimensions of a puzzle are limited by the size of the saw used, Kern explained. "With an 18-inch saw, you can make about a 16-inch square puzzle which would consist of about 500 pieces." Hardwood plywood is the material he uses for the puzzle board.
He estimated it takes four to five days to complete a puzzle, "one day to glue the picture to the wood, three days to cut it, and then another day or so to finish up sanding it to remove the `fuzz.' "
The selection of a picture or subject for the puzzle is a major factor in its success, Kern said. "Typical subject matter includes copies of works of art, Alpine scenes, waterscapes, city street scenes, rural landscapes and faraway exotic places."
He advised that museum shops, with prints and posters in all sizes, are one of the best sources of pictures. Coffee-table books can be an inexpensive source if the book is bought used or on sale. Calendars are another good source of images.
Kern cautioned craftsmen who intend to sell their creations to be careful to select only pictures whose copyrights have expired. "Most of them are copyrighted," he pointed out. "This means they may not be reproduced or used for commercial purposes without the permission of the copyright owner."
Puzzles for children differ in both size and subject matter from those for adults. They have fewer and larger pieces and often depict well-known children's stories, poems and fairy tales. Some even replicate the original puzzles' educational aims.
"When the United States consisted wholly of the 48 contiguous states, other than some problems in scale, a map of the country could easily be converted into a jigsaw puzzle," Kern wrote. "With the addition of Hawaii and Alaska, it is difficult to make a dissected puzzle of the country without taking great liberty in the definition of the boundaries of those two states."
But, he said, "You can make a map of almost any individual state and cut it along county boundaries without encountering as great a problem with scale." (Cut out the pieces of the Halloween-themed puzzle on page D1 for your own start at a wooden puzzle.)
Kern, who markets his puzzles through Creations, a fine woodworking gallery in Wilmington, Del., also exhibits twice yearly at shows of the Reading-Berks Guild of Craftsmen and at the November Kutztown Historical Society show. "Prices for the puzzles generally run between $35 and $450," he said, "depending on size and complexity." | <urn:uuid:ea963f08-e61c-4396-8977-8cbc73137e30> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.mcall.com/1996-10-31/features/3120986_1_jigsaw-puzzles-wooden-jigsaw-hardware-store | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969302 | 1,010 | 2.953125 | 3 |
For sites dealing with the Islamic world at the time of the Crusades, or specifically with the contemporary response of the Muslim world.
Medieval Sourcebook: Al-Makrisi's Account of St. Louis' Crusade
Translation of an extract from Al-Makrisi's manuscript "Essulouk li Mariset il Muluk" (The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings); a history of the Ayyubids, and of the Mamluks.
Medieval Sourcebook: Usmah Ibn Munqidh (1095-1188)
A translation of excerpts from Usmah Ibn Munqidh's contemporary autobiography, where he discusses the Franks.
Last update:October 1, 2015 at 8:45:05 UTC | <urn:uuid:3317e5dd-c0a6-4a54-8338-7bb6114c066b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Time_Period/Middle_Ages/War_and_Weapons/The_Crusades/Contemporary_Islam/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.760917 | 159 | 2.515625 | 3 |
By Dominic Hughes
BBC News, Europe reporter
With its rows of white Portland Stone headstones and beautifully tended graves, Tyne Cot Cemetery is a place of peace and tranquillity.
The largest of the many Commonwealth War Graves cemeteries that lie dotted around this part of Belgium, it is the final resting place of nearly 12,000 soldiers.
Tyne Cot is the Commonwealth's largest war cemetery
The names of another 35,000 soldiers whose remains were never found or identified line the memorial wall at the back of the cemetery - from the Lancashire Fusiliers, the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, even the Postal Office Rifles.
They came from throughout the United Kingdom and what was then the British Empire - the Anzacs of Australia and New Zealand, Canadians and South Africans.
But whether from Britain or further afield, their journey ended here, in the mud of Flanders.
'Slimy water and dead bodies''
Ninety years ago, the battle of Passchendaele claimed the lives of around half a million soldiers on both sides, and came to symbolise the full horror of warfare on an industrial scale.
The battle of Passchendaele was in fact a series of battles, fought across fields that had become a potentially deadly quagmire of liquid mud.
A massive bombardment of German lines combined with heavy rain created appalling conditions.
The journalist Philip Gibbs, writing in 1923, described the battles fought here as "the most awful, the most bloody... the most hellish heavy rains fell, and made one great bog in which every crater was a deep pool...they were like lakes in some places, filled with slimy water and dead bodies."
It's hard to imagine those scenes now. The fields below Tyne Cot cemetery are now planted with potatoes and sweetcorn in this quiet, rural corner of Belgium.
But the reminders of the Great War are everywhere, from the memorials and cemeteries to odd features in the landscape - the faded lines of the long-gone trenches or the remains of a massive crater where the fighting left its mark.
Today Tyne Cot was busier than normal. Members of veterans associations, young cadets and relatives of long dead soldiers gathered to join the Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh and Queen Paola, Queen of the Belgians, to commemorate the 90th anniversary of Passchendaele.
Mr Mason, Mr Atkinson and Mr Armstrong were among the veterans at the commemoration
Among the crowd were Alfred Mason, 83, Dick Atkinson, 87, and Colin Armstrong, 73, all of the Durham Light Infantry Association.
They travel once or twice a year to remember fallen comrades.
Mr Atkinson marched near here in 1944 after D-Day.
Despite being injured when he landed on the Normandy beaches he was back fighting within weeks.
The ceremony itself was a mix of prayer and hymns, as well as testimony from young relatives of two British soldiers who died at Passchendaele.
Father and son died
Rupert Forrester, 18, spoke of Harry Moorhouse, his great great grandfather, and his great uncle Ronald.
Father and son served together in the same regiment, both being decorated for bravery.
But both died within an hour of each other.
"In a way I'm glad of the time they were able to spend together here," said Rupert.
The Queen and Belgium's Queen Paola paid tribute to the war dead
Also in attendance were UK Defence Secretary Des Browne, Scotland's First Minister Alec Salmond and the new Deputy First Minister for Wales Ieuan Wyn Jones.
Also there were the High Commissioners for New Zealand and Australia as well as Ministers from Canada, and ambassadors from France, Germany and Ireland. And there was an international flavour too as a New Zealand Choir sang the traditional song for soldiers leaving for war.
"Now is the hour, when we must say goodbye. Soon you'll be sailing far across the sea. While you're away, please remember me. When you return you'll find me waiting here."
The number of soldiers whose names are inscribed on the Portland stone of Tyne Cot cemetery are a reminder of how many never made that journey home. | <urn:uuid:14330e09-bc5d-4456-9cb4-61e32a391e25> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6896533.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963483 | 872 | 2.625 | 3 |
Already in 1994, Project Runeberg published an e-text of the New Testament in the translation of 1938, described below. In October 2012 electronic facsimile editions of both the Old (translation of 1933) and New Testament (1938) were added, based on a copy printed in 1969. It contains cross references and footnotes. Even though the 1938 translation of the New Testament is the same, the 1994 e-text is kept separate and unchanged, because it carries 18 years of early Internet history. The e-text (without footnotes) of both Old and New Testaments is also available from the website of the Evangelical Lutheran church of Finland.
Project Runeberg's electronic edition of the Finnish Bible is based on the file uusi-T.gz, found at ftp.funet..fi on May 26, 1994. It has been transformed to the same format we use for Project Runeberg's electronic edition of the Swedish Bible (bibeln.txt). The source text used the ISO 8859-1 character set, which was converted to UTF-8 in October 2012. The electronic text has no character attributes (boldface, italics, font sizes, fonts, superscript numbers, small capitals); it is as written on a typewriter.
The e-text uses one text column with long lines, up to 70 letters wide, rather than the common double columns with short lines. In the text, character position 1 through 6 is a margin used only for verse numbers. The period after the verse number is in position 4. Where the text is prose, it fills positions 7 through 70. Hyphenation is not used, but long words are moved to the next line. Only single spaces are used. The text is not justified to make a straight right margin. Tab characters are not used.
Some parts are poetry (e.g. Jes 9:2--21). There, we have indented the left margin two more positions. Jes 9:4 is poetry with pairs of lines. There, we have indented the even lines four more positions from the odd lines, thus 12 positions in all from the start of the line. Printed Bibles use continuation lines with even more indentation, but we have not needed to do that, because we fit more text in a line.
All printed Bibles have references beneath each verse, but these are not included in the e-text. Footnotes are (sometimes) included, but since the e-text does not have pages, they appear at the end of each chapter. In the text and at the end of the chapter, the footnote is indicated by a digit in square brackets.
Paragraphs (where printed Bibles have a bold face capital) are
separeated by an empty line, but verses are not otherwise separated.
Large capitals at the start of chapters are not used in the electronic
edition. The first verse of a chapter is formatted just like the
other verses. Chapter summaries are centered. Their lines are about
40 characters wide. Before and after the summaries is one empty line.
The chapter name is also centered on its line, and contains the name
of the book. | <urn:uuid:969c500f-301b-42c9-ace7-b248bc768abb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://runeberg.org/raamattu/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922677 | 654 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Prior to 1866, Holgate and the surrounding area was nothing but wilderness, swamp and wild animals,
better known as the Black Swamp.
Ground was surveyed and platted in 1873 and then consolidated with properties to the west to be
named Holgate. At that time it was surrounded by a hardwood forest.
Today, the Village of Holgate, with a population of 1,200, is surrounded by productive and
well-maintained farms. It boasts a beautiful, new K-12 school, many churches and successful businesses. | <urn:uuid:c102a8e0-e05e-44f5-8cf8-dcdf1c3eda86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.villageofholgate.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982295 | 113 | 2.546875 | 3 |
In an ideal world, puppies would spend the first weeks of their lives nursing happily from their mothers. However, this is not always possible and the puppies may need to be bottle-fed in order to survive. Store-bought milk replacements can be purchased from your local pet store or veterinarian, but homemade milk replacements are an acceptable substitute for hungry puppies.
Why is Bottle Feeding Necessary?
Illness is one of the most common reasons your litter may need to be bottle-fed. If the mother is unhealthy, her body will not have the resources to produce enough milk to feed her puppies. Absence of the mother is another reason to hand-feed your puppies. The dam is the sole source of nutrients for the litter, and they will eventually starve without assistance. Very large litters may also require supplemental feeding if their mother is unable to produce enough milk.
Evaporated Milk Recipe
Evaporated milk is a staple in many homemade milk replacement recipes. It’s thick consistency and high calorie content is similar to that of mother’s milk, making it a suitable base for this recipe. Pour 10 ounces of evaporated milk into a blender, and add 3 ounces of distilled water. Drizzle 1/2 teaspoon of light corn syrup into the milk, and add 1 cup of full fat yogurt. Blend the ingredients until combined. Don’t over-mix the milk, or it will be too thick for the puppies to drink.
Goat's Milk Recipe
Cow’s milk is not recommended for puppies, but goat’s milk is an acceptable choice for your hungry litter. Goat’s milk is easier to digest than cow’s milk, and allows puppies to absorb vital nutrients without digestive upset. Pour 12 ounces of fresh goat’s milk into a large plastic bottle, and add in 1 raw egg yolk and 1 tablespoon mayonnaise. Shake to mix the egg into the milk, and add 1 cup whole yogurt and 1 teaspoon corn syrup to the bottle. Put the lid on the bottle and shake vigorously to blend.
Before feeding your puppies, ask your veterinarian how much, and how often, to feed your litter. 1 cc of food for every ounce of body weight is a good estimate, but your vet will give you the most accurate amount for each puppy. Pour the milk replacement of your choice into a small animal nursing bottle, and warm it to body temperature in a pan of hot water. Test the milk on your wrist; if it feels warm but not hot, it’s ready to feed. Hold the puppy on her belly on a table or across your legs, and let her nurse at her own pace. Wipe her face clean with a towel, and rub her lower belly with a damp cotton ball to stimulate her to potty after every meal.
- Comstock/Comstock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:090aca00-cdf0-4465-924a-969eb88d1b79> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dogcare.dailypuppy.com/homemade-milk-replacements-puppies-2663.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938864 | 587 | 2.625 | 3 |
MATERIALS: When PoroGen Corp., a leader in the development of high-temperature porous polymeric materials, was developing its proprietary PEEK-SEP membrane technology for the separation of liquids and gases, it chose Victrex plc’s VICTREX® PEEKTM high-performance polymer because of its combination of high temperature and chemical resistance. The innovative PEEK-SEP line of hollow fiber membranes and devices are designed for use in the most demanding separation applications. PoroGen’s technology is based on melt extruded porous polyetheretherketone membranes. Membranes made with VICTREX® PEEKTM can operate at temperatures as high as 200C (392F) and are not affected by aggressive chemicals present in “real-life” process streams.
DIY candy, journeys to Mars, coding for road trips, and more. These STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) activity options will keep kids engaged this summer, from 10-minute activities to more advanced undertakings.
Focus on Fundamentals consists of 45-minute on-line classes that cover a host of technologies.
You learn without leaving the comfort of your desk. All classes are taught by subject-matter experts and all are archived.
So if you can't attend live, attend at your convenience. | <urn:uuid:db32e7dd-ec56-472d-8181-e701aba67d88> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.designnews.com/author.asp?section_id=1386&doc_id=210166 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940956 | 279 | 2.875 | 3 |
Scientists have shown that gold nanotubes have many applications in fighting cancer: internal nanoprobes for high-resolution imaging; drug delivery vehicles; and agents for destroying cancer cells.
The study, published today in the journal Advanced Functional Materials, details the first successful demonstration of the biomedical use of gold nanotubes in a mouse model of human cancer.
Study lead author Dr Sunjie Ye, who is based in both the School of Physics and Astronomy and the Leeds Institute for Biomedical and Clinical Sciences at the University of Leeds, said: "High recurrence rates of tumours after surgical removal remain a formidable challenge in cancer therapy. Chemo- or radiotherapy is often given following surgery to prevent this, but these treatments cause serious side effects.
Gold nanotubes - that is, gold nanoparticles with tubular structures that resemble tiny drinking straws - have the potential to enhance the efficacy of these conventional treatments by integrating diagnosis and therapy in one single system."
The researchers say that a new technique to control the length of nanotubes underpins the research. By controlling the length, the researchers were able to produce gold nanotubes with the right dimensions to absorb a type of light called 'near infrared'.
The study's corresponding author Professor Steve Evans, from the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Leeds, said: "Human tissue is transparent for certain frequencies of light - in the red/infrared region. This is why parts of your hand appear red when a torch is shone through it.
"When the gold nanotubes travel through the body, if light of the right frequency is shone on them they absorb the light. This light energy is converted to heat, rather like the warmth generated by the Sun on skin. Using a pulsed laser beam, we were able to rapidly raise the temperature in the vicinity of the nanotubes so that it was high enough to destroy cancer cells."
In cell-based studies, by adjusting the brightness of the laser pulse, the researchers say they were able to control whether the gold nanotubes were in cancer-destruction mode, or ready to image tumours.
In order to see the gold nanotubes in the body, the researchers used a new type of imaging technique called 'multispectral optoacoustic tomography' (MSOT) to detect the gold nanotubes in mice, in which gold nanotubes had been injected intravenously. It is the first biomedical application of gold nanotubes within a living organism. It was also shown that gold nanotubes were excreted from the body and therefore are unlikely to cause problems in terms of toxicity, an important consideration when developing nanoparticles for clinical use.
Study co-author Dr James McLaughlan, from the School of Electronic & Electrical Engineering at the University of Leeds, said: "This is the first demonstration of the production, and use for imaging and cancer therapy, of gold nanotubes that strongly absorb light within the 'optical window' of biological tissue.
"The nanotubes can be tumour-targeted and have a central 'hollow' core that can be loaded with a therapeutic payload. This combination of targeting and localised release of a therapeutic agent could, in this age of personalised medicine, be used to identify and treat cancer with minimal toxicity to patients."
The use of gold nanotubes in imaging and other biomedical applications is currently progressing through trial stages towards early clinical studies.
This work was supported by the Wellcome Trust, with additional funding provided by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), the Leverhulme Trust and the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL).
The research paper, 'Engineering Gold Nanotubes with Controlled Length and Near-Infrared Absorption for Theranostic Applications', is published in the journal Advanced Functional Materials on 13 February 2015.
Dr Sunjie Ye, Professor Steve Evans and Dr James McLaughlan are available for interview. Please contact [email protected] or call +44 (0)113 343 4031. For enquiries after 17:00 GMT, please call our out-of-hours mobile on +44 (0)7712 389448.
Image download: http://goo.
Image caption: Pulsed near infrared light (shown in red) is shone onto a tumour (shown in white) that is encased in blood vessels. The tumour is imaged by multispectral optoacoustic tomography via the ultrasound emission (shown in blue) from the gold nanotubes.
Image credit: Jing Claussen (Ithera Medical, Germany) | <urn:uuid:8a279f49-ac19-497c-b325-215f546014cd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-02/uol-gnl021215.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929048 | 962 | 3.515625 | 4 |
1948 Zenith - USA
(CBS Mechanical Field-Sequential Color)
Peter Goldmark was a young Hungarian television engineer who worked for CBS beginning in 1936. He had a Ph.D. in physics and pursued the concept of mechanical field-sequential color television in the CBS labs. This system used a spinning tri-color (red-blue-green) filter wheel in front of a cathode ray tube -- to reproduce the colors seen by the camera lens.
On January 31, 1946, a prototype of this system was demonstrated to the FCC (Federal Communications Commission). The FCC was impressed with the quality of the images, but were hesitant to go ahead with the commercialization of color.
RCA waged a public battle against CBS, pointing out that the mechanical system of spinning color wheels was incompatible with existing black & white sets, and that a compatible all-electronic color system would be best for the public (which they were researching).
On January 30, 1947, the FCC proclaimed that the CBS system was premature, and would require further testing before it could be approved. RCA proceeded to flood the market with black & white sets, knowing that each set they sold would make it more difficult for CBS to bring their system to market. Owners of B&W sets would have to purchase bulky and expensive ($100+) adapters to receive the CBS color pictures.
In 1948, Goldmark was approached by the pharmaceutical house of Smith, Kline & French, with a proposal to use color television as a teaching tool for surgery. Goldmark accepted, and on May 31, 1949, the first live operation in front of color television cameras took place at the University of Pennsylvania. In December 1949, the Goldmark team took this system to the American Medical Association's annual meeting in Atlantic City.
Operations taking place in Atlantic City Hospital were televised to 15,000 viewers (1,000 at a time) in the convention hall. The response from viewers was tremendous, and some people were fainting, when they witnessed the realism of surgery delivered through the power of color images.
The 1948-built Zenith color television set you see above, was one of the 20 specially-built receivers for this medical demonstration. The screen size is a mere 16 inches diagonally. This unit is marked serial number 16, and is part of the television-set collection in Dunedin, Scotland. [Click photo above to see chassis view]
1949 Magazine Article "Surgery In Color Television"
In 1955, Mr. John Mackenzie was appointed to the position of television director for the Smith Kline & French (now Glaxo Smith Kline) closed-circuit medical color-TV unit #2. He held this position until 1958.
John contacted me, to let me know about his web pages on the SK&F Medical Color Television Unit. He provides an insider's view of the history, equipment, and operation of this pioneering group. John has also posted more than a dozen photographs, taken from 1954-1956, of the early mobile color television system, which gives you a pretty good idea of what it was like back then.
John also provided the following comments in a January 2003 e-mail:
I believe Peter Goldmark gave the
surgical boom camera to SK&F in 1948 or 49. The studio cameras were added during
the next several years.
My sincere 'thanks' to John for sharing his knowledge and information. If anyone has further details on this subject, please contact me.
See another Hospital Color System of 1953
= external website
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How do clinical trials work? continued...
After you are accepted by the clinical trial and you give your consent to take part:
- You will be given a structured program to follow.
- You will have a schedule of tests, doctor appointments, and treatments.
- You may be asked to keep a diary of your experience during this time.
Doctors, nurses, social workers, and other health professionals may be part of your treatment team.
Be sure to carefully follow instructions. If you don't know what you are supposed to do next, call your doctor. Or call the person responsible for your trial.
A medicine or treatment must go through three phases before it is approved for use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
What happens when the clinical trial is finished?
After a clinical trial is completed and the results are studied, the FDA decides whether to approve continued development of the medicine. If the medicine that you received remains in development, you may be able to get more doses as an extension of the study.
If the results of the clinical trial show that the new medicine or combination of medicines works much better than standard treatment, the new medicine may become available to the general public.
Your treatment team may continue to check on you after your trial is over.
What are the risks?
You should be fully informed about the possible risks of the trial before you agree to participate.
- Although the purpose of trials is to find new and better treatments, the new treatment may not work as well as standard treatments.
- You may have unpleasant, serious, or even life-threatening side effects from the treatment.
- The treatment may not work for you.
- The trial may require more of your time than standard treatment. You may have to:
- Make more trips to the study site.
- Have more treatments.
- Receive your treatment in a hospital.
- Take more medicine more often or at very specific times.
- Keep a written diary of your experience.
How is your safety protected?
Every clinical trial in the United States must be approved and monitored by an institutional review board (IRB) to make sure that the risks are as low as possible and are worth any potential benefits.
The ethical and legal rules for medical practice also apply to clinical trials. Most clinical research is regulated by the U.S. government, with specific rules to protect the participants. Clinical trials follow a carefully controlled study plan (protocol) that explains what everyone will do in the study. During the clinical trial, researchers report the results of the trial at scientific meetings, to medical journals, and to government agencies. Your name will remain secret and will not be mentioned in these reports. | <urn:uuid:e17d81b9-8214-4fc2-b320-6c35ca06a9b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/clinical-trials-topic-overview?page=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957323 | 560 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Japan To Shut Nuclear Plant On Quake Fears
Author: Chikako Mogi and Risa Maeda
Japanese power firm Chubu Electric on Monday agreed to shut a nuclear plant until it can be better defended against the type of massive tsunami that in March triggered the worst atomic crisis in 25 years.
The temporary shutdown of Hamaoka, which supplies power to central Japan -- home to many manufacturers including Toyota Motor Corp -- has added to concerns about power shortages following the crisis at another plant in northeast Japan that was crippled by the March 11 quake and tsunami.
Chubu's decision was in response to an unprecedented request by Prime Minister Naoto Kan last week to halt all reactors still operating at Hamaoka, citing the high risk that a powerful earthquake would hit the region in coming years.
In an announcement that could add to public concern in the quake-prone country, another operator -- Japan Atomic Power -- said it had plugged a tiny radiation leak at its Tsuruga plant on the west coast, the first since it started operations in 1987. It said the leak had no impact on the environment.
Japan's trade and industry minister Banri Kaieda said the shutdown of Hamaoka, 200 km (120 miles) from Tokyo, was a special case because of its location, and reiterated that other plants would not be singled out for closure.
A close aide to Prime Minister Naoto Kan -- who pushed for the shutdown -- said further action would be taken if other plants were judged to pose immediate risk, but added the government had yet to review its long-term energy policy.
"We stood on the safe side and decided to seek a halt at Hamaoka," Goshi Hosono, told reporters. "Long-term debate on nuclear power and energy policy will take place after this."
Officials have acknowledged that the nuclear crisis at Tokyo Electric Power Co's (TEPCO) Fukushima Daiichi plant requires a review of a target to increase nuclear power's share of electricity to 50 percent by 2030 from about 30 percent now.
The reactors at the Hamaoka plant, including the new reactor under construction, were designed by U.S. multinational conglomerate General Electric, just like those at the Fukushima Daiichi plant.
Chubu Electric said the shutdown, which could last about two years until safety steps are completed, would cause short-term trouble for both customers and shareholders. It canceled its annual profit forecast and warned that it could fall the red due to the cost of procuring alternative fuels.
"But firmly implementing measures to strengthen safety would become the cornerstone to continue safe and stable nuclear power in the long-term and in the end lead to the benefit of our customers," Chubu President Akihisa Mizuno told a news conference in Nagoya, where Japan's third-biggest utility is based.
Chubu Electric said it would look to buy more liquefied natural gas and oil to make up for lost capacity, and would make efforts, including procuring energy from another utility in western Japan, to avoid disruptions to its power supply.
While any power shortfalls may not be large enough to delay Japan's expected economic recovery later this year, the failure of the government to articulate a clear plan for energy policy could exacerbate a hollowing out of the manufacturing sector, analysts said.
The Hamaoka plant provides power to half of the 18 plants that make Toyota vehicles in Japan and all four of Suzuki Motor Corp's domestic car and motorcycle factories.
The coverage area also includes auto plants of Honda Motor Co and Mitsubishi Motors Corp as well as Sharp Corp's Kameyama LCD factory and Toshiba Corp's Yokkaichi semiconductor plant.
The power issues could give exporters another reason -- in addition to a strong yen and cheaper labor abroad-- to shrink production volumes in Japan.
"We can rely on thermal power in the short term, but this raises costs and emissions," said Yasuo Yamamoto, senior economist at Mizuho Research Institute.
"In the future, we're not sure what the government wants to do. The longer that uncertainty about the power supply continues, the more companies will start thinking about manufacturing overseas."
Experts questioned whether the Hamaoka closure marked a turning point in Japan's nuclear power policy following the March 11 disasters, which left nearly 26,000 people dead or unaccounted for and triggered the world's biggest nuclear crisis since Chernobyl in 1986. The plant is still leaking radiation.
The nuclear power industry has considerable political clout with most political parties, including Kan's Democratic Party and its biggest rival, the Liberal Democrats.
"The decision to halt the Hamaoka plant is not based on a clear or legal standard and thus raises concerns about the risk of other plants being asked to halt operations," said Tomomichi Akuta, senior economist at Mitsubishi UFJ Research and Consulting Co in Tokyo.
"The central Japan area has long been said to be prone to big earthquakes but will the government do the same if it finds another location as equally quake-prone? That is not clear. Kan's decision lacked a decision-making process to call it a policy turning point," he added.
Government experts put the chance of a magnitude 8.0 quake hitting the Hamaoka area in the next 30 years at 87 percent, which has raised questions over why it was built there in the first place.
(Editing by Jonathan Thatcher and Nathan Layne) | <urn:uuid:f906ad0c-2d98-40aa-9c78-d89a8d9ffa97> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://planetark.org/enviro-news/item/61963 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960635 | 1,112 | 2.546875 | 3 |
President Barack Obama has signed into law the largest expansion in federal entitlement spending in half a century. At more than 2,500 pages and 500,000 words long, this year's health care legislation will fundamentally change the nation's health care industry.1 It also will result in large increases in federal spending and taxation.
The health legislation was passed as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and the Health Care and Education Affordability Reconciliation Act, which together are referred to here as the 2010 Health Act. Using complex parliamentary maneuvers, Democrats narrowly passed the two bills, even though polls showed that the legislation was very unpopular with the public.
The 2010 Health Act mandates that every American purchase a government-designed insurance package, and it vastly increases federal micromanagement of health care markets. Insurance coverage will be extended to millions more Americans as government subsidies are expanded. The costs of the health system will be shifted between groups, but not reduced. Rising government spending and taxes will move this country closer to a European-style welfare state.
This report provides a detailed review of the 2010 Health Act. It discusses how the Act:
- Represents an assault on individual liberty by mandating that individuals obtain health insurance;
- Imposes costly insurance regulations that will likely have negative unintended consequences;
- Creates a range of new and expanded subsidies;
- Creates state health "exchanges" despite serious problems with Massachusetts' exchange;
- Reverses some of the recent progress toward consumer-directed health care;
- Interferes with how doctors practice medicine;
- Sets the stage for government rationing of health care;
- Increases a range of taxes on millions of individuals and businesses;
- Increases federal spending more than $2.7 trillion over the first full 10 years;
- Expands federal government debt over the long term;
- Increases health insurance premiums for some groups of people; and
- Creates many distortions in health care markets and the economy.
The 2010 health care legislation should be repealed as an unaffordable expansion in an already bankrupt federal system of health care subsidies. Medicare and Medicaid already have vast unfunded obligations. The 2010 Health Act takes a large leap toward socialized medicine that will be permanently damaging to citizens and the economy unless repealed.
The 2010 Health Act includes a legal requirement that every American obtain health insurance coverage that meets the government's definition of "minimum essential coverage." Those who don't receive such coverage through government programs, their employer, or some other group are required to purchase individual coverage on their own.
This individual mandate is an unprecedented assault on individual liberty. In 1993, when the Clinton administration health plan was under consideration, the Congressional Budget Office noted, "a mandate requiring all individuals to purchase health insurance would be an unprecedented federal action. The government has never required people to buy any good or service as a condition of lawful residence in the United States."2 The individual mandate is being challenged as unconstitutional. Even before the Act passed, the Congressional Research Service could not reach a conclusion as to a mandate's constitutionality.3
Under the bill, those who fail to obtain insurance would be subject to a tax penalty. That penalty would be quite mild at first, but ramps up quickly after that. The minimum penalty on an uninsured family of four will be $2,085. Individuals will be exempt from the penalties under certain circumstances. According to CBO, roughly 4 million Americans will be hit by penalties in 2016, with the penalties averaging slightly more than $1,000.4
Simply having insurance is not necessarily enough to satisfy the mandate. To qualify, insurance has to meet government-defined standards. For example, in order to qualify, plans would be required to cover: ambulatory patient services, emergency services, hospitalization, maternity and newborn care, mental health and substance abuse treatment, prescription drugs, rehabilitative services, laboratory services, preventative services, wellness services, chronic disease management, pediatric services, and dental and vision care for children.
Individuals who currently have insurance are grandfathered, meaning they will not have to change their current insurance to meet the new standards. But making changes to one's current plan would require that individuals bring their plan into compliance with the full range of federal mandates. The changes needed to meet the threshold to end grandfathered status will be determined by the secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services. The grandfathering of current plans may be short-lived. Insurers will not be able to continue enrolling new customers in the noncomplying plans. Over time, noncomplying plans will simply fade away.
The mandate is costly and violates individual liberty, but it may be weak enough that it is cheaper for many individuals to pay the penalty than to purchase insurance. As a result, it may fall far short of its proponents' goal of bringing young and healthy individuals, who frequently forego insurance, into the insurance pool. The CBO estimates that the penalties from individuals failing to comply with the mandate will generate $17 billion between 2014 and 2019.5 And those remaining uninsured after implementation are likely to be younger and healthier as a group than today's uninsured.6
The experience of the Massachusetts individual mandate illustrated this result.7 Evidence suggests that Massachusetts residents are "gaming" the system—purchasing insurance when they know they need health care, then dropping it when they no longer need it.8 The penalties under the Massachusetts mandate are stronger than those under the 2010 Health Act, suggesting that similar behavior will occur under the federal law.9
The 2010 Health Act also contains an employer mandate. Beginning in 2014, if a company with 50 or more full-time employees does not provide health insurance, the company must pay a tax penalty of $2,000 for every person they employ full time (minus 30 workers). Thus, a company employing 100 full-time workers would be assessed a penalty of $2,000 x 70 workers. CBO estimates that those penalties will cost businesses $52 billion between 2014 and 2019.10
Even offering benefits will not necessarily exempt companies from penalties. Companies that offer coverage, but have employees that still qualify for a subsidy because the employee's contribution is deemed unaffordable (that is, it exceeds eight percent of an employee's income), will still have to pay a penalty of the lesser of $3,000 for every employee receiving a subsidy or $2,000 for every full-time worker. As many as one-third of employers could face penalties for failing to meet the affordable insurance requirement.11
Such a mandate is simply a disguised tax on employment. The amount of compensation that a worker receives is a function of his or her productivity. Mandating an increase in the cost of a worker by adding a payroll tax does not increase that worker's productivity. Employers will therefore offset the added cost by raising prices, reducing wages, reducing benefits, cutting hiring, shifting workers from full-time to part-time, or outsourcing.
Since the McCarran-Fergusson Act of 1945, health insurance has been primarily regulated at the state level. But the 2010 Health Act imposes a host of regulations that will change the way health insurance operates. Some of these changes may be initially popular, but many will have unintended consequences.
The 2010 Health Act bans insurers from denying coverage because of preexisting conditions. Insurers will be prohibited from making any underwriting decisions based on health status, mental or physical medical conditions, claims experience, medical history, genetic information, disability, other evidence of insurability, or other factors to be determined later by the secretary of HHS. The bill requires insurers to "accept every employer and individual … that applies for such coverage."12 Insurers are also forbidden from canceling insurance if a policyholder becomes sick.
There will be limits on the ability of insurers to vary premiums on the basis of an individual's health. That is, insurers must charge the same premium for someone who is sick as for someone who is in perfect health. Insurers may consider age in setting premiums, but premiums cannot be more than three times higher for their oldest customers than their youngest. Smokers may also be charged up to 50 percent more than nonsmokers. The only other factors that insurers may consider in setting premiums are geographic location and whether the policy is for an individual or family.
While these changes may make health insurance more available for some people, they will increase premiums for younger and healthier individuals. A RAND Corporation study found that premiums for the young would rise about 17 percent as a result of the bill. Other studies suggest that the increase could be much higher.13 For example, a study by the actuarial firm Millman, Inc., concluded that premiums for young men could increase by 10 to 30 percent.14 The Council for Affordable Health Insurance suggests that premiums for some individuals could increase by 75 to 95 percent in certain states.15
Note that the ban on discriminating against people with preexisting conditions may not be as effective as proponents believe. Insurance companies have a variety of mechanisms for evading such restrictions. They could focus their advertising on young, healthy people; they could locate their offices on the top floors of buildings with no elevators; they could provide free health club memberships; or they could fail to include any oncologists in their networks.
The health bill also bans "rescissions," which occur when insurers drop coverage for individuals who become sick. Under existing practices, insurers sometimes retroactively review an individual's initial insurance application and cancel the policy if the application was found to be inaccurate. Because insurers would undertake such a review only when individuals submitted large claims, and the grounds for rescission often appeared to be for very minor discrepancies, the practice has been widely condemned. Under the legislation, insurers can only cancel coverage in cases of fraud or intentional misrepresentation of material fact. This provision may have little practical impact because there are fewer than 5,000 rescissions per year.16
Another new regulation would prohibit insurers from imposing lifetime limits on benefit payouts. This provision may also have less impact than most people believe. Roughly 40 percent of insured Americans already have policies with no lifetime caps. For those policies that do have lifetime caps, the cap is usually between $2.5 million and $5 million, with some running as high as $8 million, which are amounts that few people ever reach.17 Removing lifetime caps will most likely increase the cost of reinsuring policies, leading ultimately to higher premiums, although the increase may be modest.18
There are also limits placed on deductibles. Employer plans may not have an annual deductible higher than $2,000. Family policies are limited to deductibles of $4,000 or less. There is an exception, however, for individuals under the age of 30, who will be allowed to purchase a catastrophic policy with a deductible of $4,000 for an individual and $8,000 for a family.
Finally, the bill allows parents to keep their dependent children on their policies until the age of 27. While this is a popular provision, it comes with a price tag. HHS estimates that every dependent child added to a policy will increase annual premiums by $3,380.19
The 2010 Health Act creates a range of new and expanded subsidies to help people buy private insurance and to cover more people under existing programs.
Starting in 2011, states are required to expand their Medicaid programs to cover all U.S. citizens with incomes below 133 percent of the poverty level. Previously, only pregnant women and children under age 6 were covered to 133 percent of the poverty level. Children aged 6–18 were required to be covered up to 100 percent of the poverty level, although 18 states covered children from families with higher incomes. Most other moderate-income children are covered through the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP).
The bill will thus extend Medicaid coverage to parents in low-income families and to childless adults. One concern with this is that low-income, childless, adult men are a high-risk, high-cost health care population. That means that costs for the expansion may run higher than expected, a problem that may be exacerbated by adverse selection within that population.
Tennessee's experience shows how expensive such an expansion can be. In 1994, the state expanded Medicaid to uninsured citizens who weren't able to get health insurance through their employers or existing government programs and to citizens who were uninsurable because of pre-existing conditions. Over the next 10 years, Medicaid costs in the other 49 states rose by 71 percent, but in Tennessee they increased by 149 percent. Despite this massive increase in spending, health outcomes did not improve. The state's Democratic governor Phil Bredesen called the program "a disaster."20 The 2010 Health Act will likely lead to similar problems of exploding costs.
2. Subsidies for Private Insurance
Individuals with incomes too high to qualify for Medicaid, but with incomes below 400 percent of the poverty level, will be eligible for subsidies to purchase private health insurance. These subsidies, which will be provided in the form of two refundable tax credits, are expected to total more than $449 billion between 2014—when individuals are first eligible for the payments—and 2020.21
The first credit is a "premium tax credit," which is calculated on a sliding scale according to income.22 Individuals with incomes between 133 and 200 percent of the poverty level will receive a credit covering the cost of premiums up to four percent of their income, while those earning 300 to 400 percent of the poverty level will receive a credit for costs in excess of 9.5 percent of their income.
The second credit is a "cost-sharing credit," which provides a subsidy for a portion of out-of-pocket costs, such as deductibles and co-payments. Those subsidies are also provided on a sliding income-based scale. Those with incomes below 150 percent of the poverty level will receive a credit that effectively reduces their maximum out-of-pocket costs to six percent of a plan's actuarial value. Those with incomes between 250 and 400 percent of the poverty level would, after receiving the credit, have maximum out-of-pocket costs of no more than 30 percent of a plan's actuarial value.
As with other low-income tax credits, the phase-out of these credits creates a penalty equivalent to a high marginal tax rate as wages increase. Some workers who increase their wages could actually see their after-tax income decline as the subsidies are reduced. This effect can create a "poverty trap" for some low-wage workers.23
3. Small-Business Subsidies
Beginning next year, businesses with fewer than 25 employees and average wages below $50,000 will be eligible for a tax credit to help offset the cost of providing insurance. To be eligible, employers must provide health insurance to all full-time workers and pay at least 50 percent of the cost of that coverage. The actual amount of the credit depends on the size of the employer and the average worker salary. Between 2011 and 2014, when the exchanges begin operation, employers with 10 or fewer workers and an average wage below $25,000 per year would be eligible for a credit equal to 35 percent of the employer's contribution. For a typical family policy, the credit would be around $2,000. The credit gradually phases out as the size of the company and average wages increase.
After 2014, businesses with 10 or fewer employees and average wages below $25,000 that purchase their insurance through an exchange will be eligible for a credit of up to 50 percent of the employer's contribution toward a worker's insurance. Again, the credit is phased out as the size of the company and average wages increase. The credit can only be claimed for two years.
4. Prescription Drug Subsidies
The 2010 Health Act increases Medicare prescription drug subsidies. A Medicare recipient enrolled in the standard drug plan currently pays a deductible of $250. Above the deductible, Medicare pays 75 percent of costs between $250 and $2,250 in drug spending, with the patient paying the other 25 percent. The patient then encounters a "doughnut hole." For drug costs above $2,250 but below $3,600 in out-of-pocket spending, the patient must pay 100 percent of the costs. After that, the prescription drug plan kicks in again and pays 95 percent of costs above $3,600.
The Act closes the donut hole. Later this year, seniors enrolled in the program who have drug costs in excess of $2,250 will receive a $250 check as a rebate of their drug costs. Starting in 2011, a gradual reduction in the amount that seniors pay out-of-pocket within the donut hole begins, reducing the amount from 100 percent to 25 percent by 2020. Part of the cost of filling the donut hole will be paid by pharmaceutical companies, which will be required to provide a 50 percent discount on brand name drugs. The cost to drug companies of this provision has been estimated at about $43 billion.24 The remaining 25 percent reduction in out-of-pocket costs will come from federal subsidies. For generic drugs, the entire out-of-pocket cost reduction will be through subsidies.
5. Long-Term Care Subsidies
The 2010 Health Act creates a new long-term care program, the Community Living Assistance and Support Act (CLASS Act). The program is supposed to help seniors and the disabled pay for long-term care services such as in-home caretakers and adult day services.
The CLASS Act is supposed to be self-financed. Workers are automatically enrolled in the program, but have the right to opt-out. Participants will pay a monthly premium that has not yet been determined, but the CBO estimates that it will be roughly $123 per month for the average worker.25 Other estimates suggest that the premiums could be $180 to $240 per month.26 Workers must contribute to the program for at least five years before they become eligible for benefits.
The benefits to be provided under the program remain to be determined, but will not be "less than an average of $50 daily adjusted for inflation."27 Some estimates suggest that benefits will average $75 per day, or slightly more than $27,000 per year.28 Benefits will be paid directly to individuals, not to service providers, based on the degree of an individual's impairment.
During the bill's first five years it will collect premiums, but not pay benefits. As a result, over the first 10 years, the CLASS Act will collect more in premiums than it pays out in benefits, which was convenient for proponents because congressional budget estimates only cover the first 10 years. The premiums will accrue in a Trust Fund, similar to the on-paper Social Security and Medicare Trust Funds. The premium payments going into the Trust Fund will reduce the federal deficit over the first 10 years by roughly $70 billion, but after that, the CLASS Act will begin to pay out more benefits than it raises in revenue.29
The CBO warned, "We have grave concerns that the real effect [of the CLASS Act] would be to create a new federal entitlement program with large, long-term spending increases that far exceed revenues."30 Senate Budget committee chairman Kent Conrad (D-ND), who eventually voted for the bill, called it "a Ponzi scheme of the first order, the kind of thing that Bernie Madoff would have been proud of."31 He's right. This new entitlement program should be repealed along with the rest of the 2010 Health Act.
The 2010 Health Act will fundamentally reorder insurance markets with the creation of "exchanges" in each state. Exchanges will be portals through which consumers shop for insurance. Insurance will still be provided by private insurance companies. The exchanges would function as a clearinghouse, a sort of wholesaler or middleman, matching customers with providers and products. Exchanges will also allow individuals and workers in small companies to take advantage of economies of scale in administration and risk pooling, which are currently enjoyed by large employers. Larger risk pools should theoretically reduce premiums, as should the ability of exchanges to "use market share to bargain down the prices of services."32
However, one should be skeptical of claims that exchanges reduce premiums. In Massachusetts, supporters of the "connector" claimed that it would reduce premiums for individual insurance policies by 25 to 40 percent.33 Instead, premiums for these policies have been rising.34
Beginning in 2014, one or more exchanges in each state are to be set up and largely operated according to rules developed by each state. States have the option of joining other states in regional exchanges. If a state refuses to create an exchange, the federal government is empowered to set up an exchange within that state. States are given discretion over how the exchanges would operate, but some of the federal requirements are significant.
Exchanges may be either a governmental agency or a private nonprofit entity. States have the option of either maintaining separate insurance pools for individual and small group markets or combining them into a single pool. The pools would also include individual or small group policies sold outside the exchange. Existing plans could not be included in those pools, however.
Initially, only businesses with fewer than 50 employees, uninsured individuals, and the self-employed may purchase insurance through the exchanges. Members of Congress and senior congressional staff are required to purchase their insurance through the exchanges. Beginning in 2017, states have the option of opening the exchanges to large employers.
Insurance plans offered for sale in the exchanges will be grouped into four categories based on actuarial value: Bronze, the lowest-cost plans, will provide 60 percent of the actuarial value of a standard plan, as defined by the secretary of HHS; Silver will provide 70 percent of the actuarial value; Gold will provide 80 percent of the actuarial value; and Platinum will provide 90 percent of the actuarial value. In addition, exchanges may offer a special catastrophic plan to individuals who are under age 30 or who have incomes low enough to exempt them from the individual mandate. Plans offered through the exchanges must meet the federal requirements for minimum benefits. The states may continue to impose additional mandates.
The CBO estimates that premiums for Bronze plans would probably average between $4,500 and $5,000 for an individual and between $12,000 and $12,500 for a family.35 The more inclusive policies would have correspondingly higher premiums. For all categories of plans, out-of-pocket expenses will be limited according to the incomes of the purchasers. Those with lower incomes will have lower limits for out-of-pocket expenses in the plans.
In addition to these state insurance plans, the legislation authorizes the federal Office of Personnel Management to contract with private insurers to ensure that each state exchange offers at least two multistate insurance plans. These plans are supposed to resemble the Federal Employee Health Benefit Plan, but will operate separately from the FEHBP and will have a separate risk pool. The multistate plans must meet the licensing and regulatory requirements of each state in which they are offered. At least one plan must not include abortion coverage, and one must be offered by a nonprofit insurer. The legislation also provides start-up funds for states to establish health insurance cooperatives that may participate in the state's exchange.
Health Savings Accounts
The 2010 Health Act reverses some of the recent progress toward consumer-directed health care through high-deductible insurance and Health Savings Accounts (HSAs). These innovations help consumers control health costs while improving quality by creating incentives for people to make informed purchasing decisions.
Unfortunately, President Obama and most Democrats are hostile to consumer-directed health care, and they put restrictions on it in the 2010 Health Act. Currently, about 10 million Americans have an HSA.36 Nothing in the bill directly prohibits them, but the bill adds several new restrictions. The tax penalty for HSA withdrawals that are not used for qualified medical expenses will be doubled from 10 percent to 20 percent. Also, the definition of "qualified medical expense" has been made more restrictive. Among other things, over-the-counter medications will no longer be considered a "qualified medical expense."37
Of greater concern is the potential impact of the law on high-deductible insurance plans. Current law requires than an HSA be accompanied by such a policy. However, many of the insurance regulations discussed above may make high-deductible plans nonviable. For example, the lowest permissible actuarial value for an insurance plan (the Bronze plan) would be 60 percent. It is unclear whether a plan's actuarial value would include employer or individual contributions made to the individual's HSA. That decision is left to the discretion of the secretary of HHS. Whether or not HSA contributions are included can make as much as a 10–20 percent difference. If the contributions are not included, many, if not most, high-deductible plans will not qualify. The fate of HSAs is therefore dependent on a regulatory ruling by the secretary of HHS in an administration hostile to HSAs.
The 80 percent minimum medical loss ratio required of insurance plans could also prove problematic for HSAs. Again, how this provision will work in practice will depend on rules to be developed by the secretary of HHS. But, the legislation makes no distinction between traditional and high-deductible insurance plans. Few, if any, current high-deductible policies meet this requirement.
In addition, it is unclear whether high deductible plans will be able to meet the law's requirement that insurance plans provide first dollar coverage for all "preventive services."38 Currently, most high-deductible plans do cover preventive services as defined by the IRS. However, under the 2010 Health Act, preventive services will be defined by the U.S. Preventative Services Task Force and, once again, the secretary of HHS. If the new definition of preventive services is more expansive than the IRS definition, as seems likely, most current high-deductible plans will once again be out of compliance.
Finally, insurers must make certain that their high-deductible plans are designed to comply with the bill's limits on out-of-pocket expenses. In theory, a high-deductible plan designed to work with HSAs could meet all the new requirements. But a plan designed to those specifications would offer few, if any, advantages over traditional insurance and may not be competitive in today's markets. As a result, insurers may stop offering high-deductible policies.39And since the rules for HSAs require that they be accompanied by a high-deductible plan, the result would be to end HSAs.
The bill also includes new limits on Flexible Spending Accounts (FSAs), which are used by as many as 30 million Americans.40 The maximum tax-exempt contribution to an FSA will be cut from $5,000 annually to $2,500. The new definition of "qualified medical expense" will also be applied to FSAs, meaning that FSAs could not be used to pay for over-the-counter medications.
The health care bill anticipates a net reduction in Medicare spending of $416 billion over 10 years.41 Total cuts would be about $459 billion, but the bill increases spending under the Medicare Part D prescription drug program by about $43 billion, so the net savings are lower.42
The key word here is "anticipates" because several of the cuts are speculative at best. For example, the bill anticipates a 23 percent reduction in Medicare fee-for-service reimbursements to providers, yielding $196 billion in savings.43 But Medicare has been supposed to make reductions to those payments since 2003, and each year Congress has voted to defer the cuts.
Medicare spending should be cut, but the 2010 Health Act cuts it in an inefficient way. Most of the cuts come from Medicare Advantage, which covers about one-fifth of Medicare recipients.44 Currently, Medicare Advantage programs receive payments that average 14 percent more than traditional fee-for-service Medicare, but the program also offers greater benefits.45 The 2010 Health Act imposes a new competitive bidding model on Medicare Advantage that will effectively end the 14 percent overpayment. In response, many insurers are expected to stop participating in the program, while others will increase premiums. Analysis of similar proposals in the past has suggested that 1.5 million to 3 million seniors could be forced out of their current insurance plan and back into traditional Medicare.46
The CBO predicts that such cuts "could lead many plans to limit the benefits they offer, raise their premiums, or withdraw from the program."47 Particularly hard hit would be minorities and seniors living in underserved areas. For example, nearly 40 percent of African-American and 54 percent of Latino seniors participate in Medicare Advantage, in part because lower-income seniors see it as a low-cost alternative to Medigap insurance for benefits not included under traditional Medicare.48
The 2010 Health Act would apply a new "productivity adjustment" to reimbursements to hospitals, ambulatory service centers, skilled nursing facilities, hospice centers, clinical laboratories, and other providers, resulting in an estimated savings of $156 billion over 10 years.49 There would also be $3 billion in cutbacks in reimbursement for services that the government believes are overused, such as diagnostic screening and imaging services. And the "utilization assumption" used to determine Medicare reimbursement rates for high-cost imaging equipment will be increased from 50 to 75 percent. This change is expected to reduce total imaging expenditures by as much as $2.3 billion over 10 years.50 Other Medicare cuts include freezing reimbursement rates for home health care and inpatient rehabilitative services, and $1 billion in cuts to physician-owned hospitals.
For the first time, the secretary of HHS will be permitted to use comparative-effectiveness research in making reimbursement decisions. The use of this research has been extremely controversial. On the one hand, many health care experts believe that much of U.S. health care spending is wasteful or unnecessary.51 Medicare spending varies wildly from region to region, without any evidence that the variation is reflected in the health of patients or procedural outcomes.52 A case could certainly be made that taxpayers should not have to subsidize health care that has not proven effective, nor can Medicare and Medicaid pay for every possible treatment regardless of its cost-effectiveness.
On the other hand, the use of such research in determining what procedures would be reimbursed could fundamentally alter the way medicine is practiced and could interpose government bureaucracies in determining how patients are treated. Moreover, it is unclear whether this research can provide a truly effective basis for determining reimbursement policy. It could be argued that Medicare is particularly unsuited for such a policy.53
The use of comparative-effectiveness research for Medicare could set the stage for its extension to private medical practice. National health care systems in other countries use comparative-effectiveness research as the basis for rationing.54 Some of President Obama's health care advisers, such as former Sen. Tom Daschle, have recommended that it be used here.55 And, the president has named as the new director of the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services Dr. Donald Berwick, who is an outspoken admirer of the British National Health Service and its National Institute for Clinical Effectiveness, which makes such cost-effectiveness decisions.56
However, Medicare is facing unfunded liabilities of $50 to $100 trillion depending on the accounting measure used, making future benefit cuts inevitable. But Medicare cuts can be made in ways that improve program efficiency, such as by increasing patient deductibles. The 2010 Health Act cuts Medicare in politically expedient ways, not ways that allow for greater consumer-directed health care.
One possibly good way the 2010 Health Act may cut Medicare is by establishing an Independent Medical Advisory Committee (IMAC), which could recommend changes to the procedures that Medicare will cover, and the criteria to determine when those services would be covered, provided its recommendations "improve the quality of care" or "improve the efficiency of the Medicare program's operation."57 Starting in 2013, if Medicare spending is projected to grow faster than the combined average rate of general inflation and medical inflation (averaged over five years), IMAC must submit recommendations bringing spending back in line with that target. Beginning in 2018, the annual spending target becomes the rate of GDP growth plus one percent. Once IMAC makes its recommendations, Congress would have 30 days to vote to overrule them. If Congress does not act, the secretary of HHS would have the authority to implement the recommendations.
Unfortunately, IMAC is prohibited from making any recommendations that would "ration care," increase revenues, or change benefits, eligibility, or Medicare beneficiary cost-sharing (including Medicare premiums).58 This leaves IMAC with few options beyond reductions in provider payments. Hospitals and hospices would be exempt from any cuts until 2020. Clinical laboratories would be exempt until 2015. Thus, most of the cuts would fall on physicians. With Medicare already under-reimbursing providers, further cuts would drive physicians from the program and increase cost-shifting to private insurance. As a consequence, IMAC may end up as neutered as previous attempts to impose fiscal discipline on government health programs.59
In considering any of the cuts discussed above, there are three things to keep in mind. First, cuts in Medicare are both necessary and inevitable, but the 2010 Act makes cuts in the wrong ways. Particular cuts have differing effects on the quality and availability of care. Under the cuts in the 2010 Health Act, Medicare's chief actuary estimated that as many as 15 percent of U.S. hospitals could close.60
Second, savings from the legislation's cuts will not be used to deal with Medicare's massive budget shortfalls, but rather to finance the new spending under the bill.
Third, many cuts may never actually occur. Medicare's actuary warned that the proposed cuts "may be unrealistic."61 And, the CBO cautions that, "it is unclear whether such a reduction in the growth rate of spending could be achieved, and if so, whether it would be accomplished through greater efficiencies in the delivery of health care or through reductions in access to care or the quality of care."62
Congress has voted to cut Medicare spending at least 11 times since 1980.63 Most cuts were modest reductions in payments to certain types of providers, reductions in "disproportionate share" payments to hospitals, or small increases in cost-sharing by seniors. In some circumstances, Congress has been able to actually trim the program.
On the other hand, Medicare is still facing an enormous long-term funding gap, and Congress hasn't taken substantial steps to deal with it. Some of the most significant cuts that have been proposed have later been reduced or repealed. For instance, as part of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997, Congress established the "sustainable growth rate" (SGR), designed to hold annual increases in Medicare reimbursements to a manageable growth rate. But in recent years, Congress has suspended these provider cuts that have been required by the SGR.
Since the 2010 Health Act does nothing to reform Medicare's unsustainable basic structure, Congress will be caught between two unpalatable choices. If it makes the cuts called for in the bill, it risks, according to the CBO, "reductions in access to care or the quality of care."64 But if it fails to make those cuts, then the legislation will have added a huge new cost to an already exploding debt. That is a recipe for legislative paralysis.
The 2010 Health Act imposes $669 billion in new or increased taxes over the first 10 years, with the annual cost rising to $134 billion by 2019.65 These taxes include:
- Health Insurance Taxes. A 40 percent excise tax will be imposed on employer-provided insurance plans with an actuarial value in excess of $10,200 for an individual or $27,500 for families. Since the tax is indexed to general inflation, not faster rising medical inflation, the tax will hit more and more workers over time.
- Payroll Taxes. The Medicare payroll tax will be increased from 2.9 percent to 3.8 percent for individuals with incomes over $200,000 and couples with income over $250,000. In some states, the tax hike would mean that some households will face marginal tax rates in excess of 50 percent when including state taxes.
- Investment Taxes. The 3.8 percent Medicare tax will be applied to capital gains, interest income, and dividend income if an individual's gross income exceeds $200,000 or a couple's income exceeds $250,000. The tax would include capital gains from the sale of real estate, including homes.
- Income Taxes. The threshold at which taxpayers can deduct medical expenses on their individual income taxes will be raised from the current 7.5 percent of adjusted gross income to 10 percent.
- Prescription Drug Taxes. The Act will levy a new tax on brand-name prescription drugs. Rather than imposing a specific tax rate, the bill identifies a specific amount of revenue to be raised, ranging from $2.5 billion in 2011 to $4.2 billion in 2018, before leveling off at $2.8 billion thereafter, and assigns a portion of that amount to drug manufacturers according to a formula based on the company's aggregate revenue from branded prescription drugs. The tax will likely be passed along to consumers through higher prices.
- Medical Device Taxes. A 2.9 percent federal sales tax is imposed on medical devices, which includes everything from CT scanners to surgical scissors. The secretary of HHS has the authority to waive this tax for items that are "sold at retail for use by the general public."66 However, almost everything used by doctors, hospitals, or clinics would be taxed. The tax would also fall on laboratory tests. The government's chief actuary has concluded that this tax "would generally be passed through to health consumers."67 One study estimates that the pass-through could cost the typical family of four with job-based coverage an additional $1,000 a year in higher premiums.68
- Insurance Market Share Taxes. The Act imposes a tax on health insurers based on their market share. The total assessment will begin at $8 billion and rise to $14.3 billion by 2018. Thereafter the total assessment will increase by the same percentage as premium growth the previous year. The tax will be allocated to companies based on both the total premiums collected by an insurer and the insurer's administrative costs. However, some insurers in Michigan and Nebraska received a special exemption. This tax is also expected to be passed through to consumers in higher premiums.
- Tanning Bed Taxes. The Act imposes a five percent tax on tanning salons. While tanning may be seen as a luxury or frivolous expenditure, it is actually a recommended treatment for Psoriasis and certain other medical conditions. The bill makes no distinction between tanning for medical or cosmetic reasons.
- Compliance Costs. The Act requires that businesses must provide a 1099 tax form to every vendor with whom they do more than $600 worth of business in a year. Businesses already have to file 1099s for outlays on certain items like consultants. But the new rule will mean that the nation's small and large businesses will have to issue hundreds of millions, perhaps billions, of additional 1099s ever year. At the same time, businesses will have to collect 1099s from all their customers and integrate them in their financial systems. Businesses will be required to collect all the requisite information from everyone they do business with to file the form. This is an enormous new recordkeeping burden for millions of American businesses and poses a range of privacy threats.
Throughout the health care debate, President Obama emphasized the need to control rising health care spending:
We've got to control costs, both for families and businesses, but also for our government. Everybody out there who talks about deficits has to acknowledge that the single biggest driver of our deficits is health care spending. We cannot deal with our deficits and debt long term unless we get a handle on that. So that has to be part of a package.69
The president is right, but the 2010 Health Act does little if anything to restrain the growth in costs. According to Richard Foster, the government's chief health care actuary, the bill will actually increase U.S. health care spending by $311 billion over the first 10 years.70
The primary focus of the bill was to expand insurance coverage. It's obvious that giving more people access to more insurance and mandating that insurance cover more services will result in more spending, not less. If utilization increases substantially as result of the coverage expansions in the Act, spending could skyrocket.
The failure to restrain costs will mean that the burden of the 2010 Health Act will be higher than promised. The CBO scored the Act as costing $928 billion over the first 10 years.71 However, that number does not tell the whole story, since the CBO does not provide a formal budget analysis beyond the first 10 years. Since program costs will be on an upward trajectory, the CBO expects the costs of the program to continue to grow rapidly after 2019 as well.
Most of the spending under this bill doesn't take effect until 2014. So the "10-year" cost projection includes only six years of the bill. CBO says that the annual cost will be $206 billion by 2019 and will continue to rise. Thus, if we look at the bill over the first 10 years that the programs are actually in existence, 2014 to 2024, it will actually cost about $2 trillion.
CBO officially scored the bill as reducing the budget deficit by $138 billion over 10 years. That's a small promised saving, representing only a fraction of the federal budget deficit for the single year 2010. Even that promised saving is achieved through the use of yet another budget gimmick.
The bill anticipates a 23 percent reduction in Medicare fee-for-service reimbursement payments to providers, yielding $196 billion in savings.72 Those cuts were part of a Medicare reimbursement reduction first called for in 2003 as part of changes to the sustainable growth rate required by the Balanced Budget Act of 1997. However, the cuts have never actually been implemented. Current law would reduce payment rates by 21 percent beginning in January 2011, and by an average of two percent each year thereafter through the end of the decade. This is the baseline that the CBO used to project the bill's future costs. However, few experts believe that those cuts will actually occur. And Democrats have introduced a separate bill, the Medicare Physicians Payment Reform Act of 2009 (H.R. 3961) that would effectively repeal the cuts. According to the CBO, the 10-year budget effect of repealing those cuts would be $259 billion.73 However, other sources, including the Obama administration, have suggested the budget effect could be as high as $371 billion.74
In a letter to Congressman Paul Ryan (R-WI), the CBO confirms that if the costs of repealing the payment reductions, known as the "doc-fix," as reflected in H.R. 3961, were to be included in the cost of health care reform, the bill would increase budget deficits by $59 billion over the first 10 years.75
Another problem with claims that the 2010 Health Act will reduce the deficits is that the initial estimates didn't include discretionary costs associated with the program's implementation. These costs will be subject to annual appropriations and the actions of future congresses. More recently, the CBO suggested that these costs could add as much as $105 billion to the 10-year cost of the bill.76
All in all, adding the cost of the doc-fix and discretionary costs to the bill brings the total cost over 10 years of actual operation to over $2.7 trillion, and adds $352 billion to the national debt.77
Finally, much of the bill's cost is shifted off the federal books onto businesses, individuals, and state governments through mandates and regulations. These costs are the equivalent of tax increases, but aren't included in the bill's official estimates. When the CBO scored President Bill Clinton's health care plan in 1994, these sorts of costs were included, and they accounted for as much as 60 percent of the bill's total cost.78 Despite repeated requests, the CBO did not produce a similar analysis for the 2010 Health Act. However, if a similar ratio of mandate and regulation costs to official budget costs were applied to the 2010 Health Act, the real cost would be around $7 trillion.79
It is also important to note that initial cost estimates for new programs are often wildly optimistic. When Medicare was instituted in 1965, it was estimated that Part A would cost $9 billion by 1990. It ended up costing $67 billion that year.80 In 1987, Medicaid's special hospitals subsidy was projected to cost $100 million annually by 1992; it actually cost $11 billion that year, or more than 100 times as much. In 1988, when Medicare's home-care benefit was established, the projected cost was $4 billion in 1993, but the actual cost that year was $10 billion. The upshot is that the actual costs of health care legislation are often much higher than promised when originally passed.
With the 2010 Health Act, increased insurance coverage could lead to increased utilization and higher subsidy costs. If companies choose to drop their current insurance and dump employees onto subsidized coverage or Medicaid, it could substantially increase the program's costs. One estimate cited by Fortune notes that "if 50 percent of people covered by company plans get dumped, federal health care costs will rise by $160 billion in 2016, in addition to the $93 billion in subsidies already forecast by the CBO."81
This is all taking place at a time when the government is facing an unprecedented budgetary crisis. The U.S. budget deficit hit $1.4 trillion in 2009, and the government is expected to add $9 trillion to the national debt over the next 10 years.82 Without major budget reforms, government spending is expected to rise from its traditional 20 percent or so of our economy to more than 40 percent by 2050.83 That would be catastrophic for the economy and for American living standards.
The 2010 Health Act makes already dire projections even worse. If not repealed, the health care bill will push total government spending toward 50 percent of GDP by 2050. Americans simply can't afford the 2010 Health Act, let alone all the federal health costs that were already on the books. Federal health programs need to be dramatically scaled back, not expanded.
Higher Insurance Premiums
During the 2008 presidential campaign, then-candidate Obama promised that his health care plan would reduce premiums by up to $2,500 per year.84 That promise has long since been abandoned. However, without putting a dollar amount to it, the president continues to promise that his health care reform will reduce insurance costs.85 While that may be true for those people receiving subsidies or who are currently in poor health, millions of others will likely end up paying higher premiums.
Today, the average insurance plan in the individual market costs $2,985 for individuals and $6,328 for families.86 In the employer-based market, premiums average $4,825 for individuals and $13,375 for families. The CBO estimates that if reform had not passed, premiums in the individual market would have risen to $5,200 for individuals and $13,100 for families by 2016. The cost of employer-provided insurance would rise to $7,800 for individuals and $20,300 for families.88
The 2010 Health Act will do little, if anything, to change these increases. Businesses with more than 100 employees may see the largest benefit, but the benefit will be minimal. The CBO estimates that larger businesses will see a premium increase between just zero and three percent less than would otherwise occur, while smaller businesses will see a premium increase between just zero and one percent less than would otherwise occur.89
But the millions of Americans who purchase insurance on their own through the nongroup market will actually be worse off as a result of the Act. According to the CBO, their premiums will increase 10–13 percent faster than if it had not passed. That is, an individual premium would increase from $2,985 today to $5,800, compared to $5,500 if the bill had not passed. A family policy will increase from today's $6,328 to $15,200. If the bill hadn't passed, it would only have increased to $13,100.90 Thus, this bill will cost a family buying its own health insurance an additional $2,100 per year in higher premiums.
For low- and some middle-income Americans, any increase in premiums will be offset by government subsidies. But for many other Americans, premiums will likely rise, which is not at all what the president promised.
Proponents of the 2010 Health Act have made many grand promises about improving the nation's health care system while cutting costs and reducing the budget deficit. But the legislation is a grand failure on nearly every front.
The legislation comes closest to success on the issue of expanding the number of Americans with insurance. Millions more Americans will receive coverage under the bill. This mostly results from an expansion of government subsidies, with nearly half of the newly insured in Medicaid. Despite the bill's huge new subsidy costs, at least 21 million Americans will still be uninsured by 2019. The bill therefore represents an improvement over the status quo on this measure, but a modest one.
The Act makes some insurance changes that will prohibit some of the industry's more unpopular practices. However, those changes will come at the price of increased insurance costs, especially for younger and healthier individuals, and reduced consumer choice.
The Act represents a major failure when it comes to controlling costs. While we were promised that health care reform will "bend the cost curve down," this bill will increase U.S. health care spending.91 The failure to cut costs means that the bill will add to the already crushing burden of government spending, taxes, and debt. Accurately measured, the 2010 Act will cost more than $2.7 trillion over its first 10 years of full operation, while adding more than $352 billion to the national debt. In addition, the legislation adds more than $4.3 trillion in costs on businesses, individuals, and state governments.
Millions of families will face higher taxes under the Act, and many will face rising insurance premiums. Most American workers and businesses will see little or no change in their rising insurance costs, but millions of others, including younger and healthier workers, and those who buy insurance on their own through the nongroup market, will actually see their premiums go up faster as a result of this legislation.
The trajectory of U.S. health care spending even before this bill was passed was unsustainable. The bill makes it worse, while also raising the chance of federal health care rationing down the road. With a few minor exceptions governing Medicare reimbursements, the bill would not directly ration care or allow the government to dictate how doctors practice medicine. However, by setting in place a structure of increased utilization and rising costs, the bill makes government rationing far more likely in the future. That seems to be how the similar universal health care bill passed in Massachusetts is playing out.
The 2010 Health Act will increase tax and regulatory burdens on businesses, thus likely reducing economic growth and job creation. While some businesses may respond to the bill's employer mandate by choosing to pay the penalty and dumping their workers into public programs, many others will be forced to offset increased costs by reducing wages, benefits, or employment.
The legislation imposes $669 billion in new or increased taxes over the first decade, the vast majority of which will fall on businesses.92 Many of those taxes, such as those on hospitals, insurers, and medical devices, will ultimately be passed along to consumers. Other taxes, in particular new taxes on investment income, are likely to reduce economic and job growth. Businesses will also face huge new administrative and recordkeeping requirements under this legislation that will also reduce their ability to hire, expand, or increase worker wages.
The public was repeatedly promised: "If you like your health care plan, you'll be able to keep your health care plan, period. No one will take it away, no matter what."93 But millions of Americans will not be able to keep their current coverage. Seniors with Medicare Advantage and workers with health savings accounts are the most likely to be forced out of their current plans. Also, many businesses may choose to drop their current coverage and put their workers on either Medicaid or the new government-run exchanges. The CBO's estimate of 10–12 million workers being dropped from their current employer coverage is probably conservative.
The Act's individual mandate also poses a threat to people being able to keep their current coverage. While the final bill grandfathered current plans, individuals will be forced to change coverage to a plan that meets government requirements if they make any changes to their current coverage. And, by forbidding noncompliant plans from enrolling any new customers, the bill makes those plans unviable over the long term. As a result, Americans whose current insurance does not meet government requirements may ultimately not have the choice to keep that plan.
The debate over the 2010 Health Act is far from over. Numerous lawsuits have been filed challenging provisions of the bill, especially the individual mandate.94 Elections this fall are likely to see candidates campaigning in favor of repealing all or parts of the legislation.95 And while such institutional barriers as the filibuster and presidential veto will make full repeal difficult, there will also likely be efforts by future congresses to delay, defund, or alter many aspects of the bill.
1 The legislation is 2,562 pages and 511,520 words when both the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and the Health Care and Education Affordability Reconciliation Act are combined.
2 Robert Hartman and Paul van de Water, "The Budgetary Treatment of an Individual Mandate to Buy Health Insurance," Congressional Budget Office, August 1994.
3Jennifer Staman and Cynthia Brougher, "Requiring Individuals to Obtain Health Insurance: A Constitutional Analysis," Congressional Research Service, July 24, 2009.
4 Congressional Budget Office, "Payments of Penalties for Being Uninsured Under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act," April 22, 2010.
5 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
6 Jeanne S. Ringel et al., "Analysis of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (HR 3590)," Rand Corporation, March 2010.
7 See Sharon Long, "On the Road to Universal Coverage: Impacts of Reform in Massachusetts," Health Affairs (July/August 2008): w270–w284.
8 Kay Lazar, "Short-Term Customers Boosting Health Care Costs," Boston Globe, April 4, 2010.
9 The penalty in Massachusetts is equal to 50 percent of the cost of a standard insurance policy.
10 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
11 Robert Pear, "Study Points to Health Law Penalties," New York Times, May 23, 2010.
12 The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Title I, Sec. 2702(a).
13 Carla Johnson, "Health Premiums Could Rise 17 Percent for Young Adults," Associated Press, March 29, 2010.
14 Carla Johnson, "Health Premiums Could Rise 17 Percent for Young Adults," Associated Press, March 29, 2010.
15 Brian McManus, "Universal Coverage + Guaranteed Issue + Modified Community Rating = 95% Rate Increase," Council for Affordable Health Insurance, August 2009.
16 Henry Waxman and Joe Barton, "Supplemental Information Regarding the Individual Health Insurance Market," House Committee on Energy and Commerce, June 16, 2009.
17 Brie Zeltner, "How Will Removing Lifetime Caps on Insurance Affect You?" Cleveland Plain Dealer, March 23, 2010.
18 Emily Bregel, "Lifting the Cap on Coverage," McClatchy, April 12, 2010.
19 Ricardo Alonso-Zaldivar, "New Coverage for Young Adults Will Raise Premiums," Associated Press, May 10, 2010.
20 Quoted in Marsha Blackburn and Phil Roe, "TennCare Lessons for Healthcare Reform," RealClear Politics.com, July 22, 2009.
21 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010. A refundable tax credit is paid regardless of an individual's actual tax liability. Thus, even an individual who pays no federal income tax would still receive the payment.
22 Based on the lowest cost Silver Plan available.
23 For a discussion of the marginal tax problem in this legislation, see Michael Cannon, "Obama's Prescription for Low-Wage Workers: High Implicit Taxes, Higher Premiums," Cato Institute Policy Analysis no. 656, January 13, 2010.
24 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
25 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
26 Richard Foster, "Estimated Financial Effects of the 'Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act,' as Amended," Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, April 22, 2010.
27 Public Health Service Act , sec. 3203(a)(1)(D)(i), as amended by Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, sec. 8002(a).
28 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to Senator Kay Hagan, July 6, 2009.
29 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
30 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
31 Lori Montgomery, "Proposed Long-Term Insurance Program Raises Questions," Washington Post, October 27, 2009.
32 Ezra Klein, "Health Care Reform for Beginners: The Many Flavors of the Public Option," Washington Post, June 8, 2009.
33 Office of the Governor, "Massachusetts Healthcare Reform," PowerPoint presentation, April 10, 2006.
35 Estimates are for 2016. Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to Sen. Olympia Snowe, January 11, 2010.
36 "Health Savings Account Enrollment Reaches Eight Million," America's Health Insurance Plans, press release, May 13, 2009.
37 The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, sec. 9003.
38 The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, sec. 10406.
39 John Fund, "Health Reform's Hidden Victims," Wall Street Journal, July 24, 2009.
40 Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Pretax Benefits: Access, Private Industry Workers," National Compensation Survey, March 2007, Table 24.
41 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
42 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
43 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
44 "Medicare Advantage Fact Sheet," Kaiser Family Foundation, April 2009.
46 Ken Thorpe and Adam Atherly, "The Impact of Reductions in Medicare Advantage Funding on Beneficiaries," Blue Cross Blue Shield Association, April 2007.
47 Congressional Budget Office, "Budget Options, Volume I: Health Care," December 2008, p. 119.
48 Congressional Budget Office, letter to Rep. Charles B. Rangel, July 17, 2009.
49 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
50 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
51 See Gerard Anderson and Kalipso Chalkidou, "Spending on Medical Care: More is Better?" Journal of American Medical Association 299, no. 20 (2008): 2444–45. And see Elliott Fisher, "Expert Voices: More Care is Not Better Care," National Institute for Health Care Management," January 2005.
52 See, for example, "Elliott Fisher, Julie Bynum, and Jonathan Skinner, "Slowing the Growth of Health Care Costs—Lessons from Regional Variation," New England Journal of Medicine 360, no. 9 (2009): 849–52.
53 Michael Cannon, "A Better Way to Generate and Use Comparative-Effectiveness Research," Cato Institute Policy Analysis no. 632, February 6, 2009.
54 For example, in Great Britain, the National Institute on Clinical Effectiveness makes such decisions.
55 Tom Daschle, Scott Greenberger, and Jeanne Lambrew Critical: What We Can Do about the Health-Care Crisis (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2008), p. 179.
56 Jennifer Haberkorn, "GOP: Medicare Pick Favors 'Rationing'," Politico, May 12, 2010.
57 The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Title III, Subtitle E, sec 3403.
58 The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Title III, Subtitle E, sec 3403(c)(2)(a)(ii).
59 See Michael Cannon, "A Better Way to Generate and Use Comparative-Effectiveness Research," Cato Institute Policy Analysis no 632, February 6, 2009.
60 Richard Foster, "Estimated Financial Effects of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act," Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, April 22, 2010.
61 Richard Foster, "Estimated Financial Effects of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act," Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, April 22, 2010.
62 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
63 The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981; the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982; the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984: the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985; the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Acts of 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, and 1993; the Balanced Budget Act of 1997; and the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005.
64 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
65 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010. This is the gross tax increase. The net tax increase the first decade is $525 billion.
66 The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Title IX, Subtitle E, sec 9008, as amended by the Health Care and Education Affordability Reconciliation Act, sec 1404(b)(2)(E).
67 Richard Foster, "Estimated Financial Effects of the 'Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act,' as Amended," Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, April 22, 2010.
68 "New Tax Could Boost Small Business Premiums by $1,000 per Year," Joint Economic Committee, Republican staff, April 22, 2010.
70 Richard Foster, "Estimated Financial Effects of the 'Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act,' as Amended," Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, April 22, 2010.
71 Douglas Elmendorf, director, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010. This is the gross cost.
72 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010.
73 Congressional Budget Office, "Summary of Medicare Physician Payment Reform Act of 2009," November 4, 2009.
74 Cited in Shawn Tully, "Health Care: Going from Broken to Broke," CNNmoney.com, March 12, 2010.
75 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to Rep. Paul Ryan, March 19, 2010.
76 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to Rep. Jerry Lewis, May 11, 2010.
77 Author's calculations, assuming a 6 percent growth rate in both revenues and expenditures after 2019.
78 Robert Reischauer, "An Analysis of the Administration's Health Proposal," Congressional Budget Office, February 1994.
79 Michael Cannon, "ObamaCare's Cost Could Top $6 Trillion," Cato@Liberty, November 27, 2009.
80 For historical cost estimates, see Joint Economic Committee, Republican staff, "Are Health Care Reform Cost Estimates Reliable?" July 31, 2009.
82 Congressional Budget Office, "Budget and Economic Outlook: Fiscal Years 2010 to 2020," January 2010.
83 Congressional Budget Office, "The Long-Term Budget Outlook," June 2009. This is the alternative fiscal scenario.
84 Kevin Sack, "Health Plan from Obama Spurs Debate," New York Times, July 23, 2008.
85 "Will Health Care Bill Lower Premiums?" Associated Press, March 17, 2010.
86 "A Comprehensive Survey of Premiums, Availability, and Benefits," American Health Insurance Plans, October 2009. Premiums differ significantly from state to state.
87 John Fritze, "Average Family Health Insurance Policy $13,375, Up 5%," USA Today, September 16, 2009.
88 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to Sen. Evan Bayh, November 30, 2009. Although this was a November estimate, and CBO and has not updated it to reflect the final bill language, CBO noted in May of 2010 that "the effects of the enacted legislation are expected to be quite similar." Premiums for employer policies usually have lower deductibles and more comprehensive benefits, accounting for the higher employer-based premiums. Premiums for identical policies are generally higher in the nongroup market.
89 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to Sen. Evan Bayh, November 30, 2009.
90 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to Sen. Evan Bayh, November 30, 2009.
91 The White House, "Remarks by the President in Town Hall Meeting on Health Care," press release, June 11, 2009.
92 Douglas Elmendorf, Congressional Budget Office, letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, March 20, 2010. This is the amount of gross new taxes. Net new taxes will be $525 billion over the first decade.
93 The White House, "Remarks by the President at the Annual Conference of the American Medical Association," press release, June 15, 2009.
94 "14 States Sue to Block Health Care Law," CNN.com, March 23, 2010.
95 Penny Bacon, "GOP Lawmakers, Candidates Pledge to Repeal Health Care Legislation," Washington Post, March 18, 2010. | <urn:uuid:a5d3e70c-a985-4a4d-9cd5-ea00e76d6484> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/hhs/legislation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955212 | 13,697 | 2.546875 | 3 |
How psychological research makes a difference in everyday lives Research Methods: A Tool for Life introduces readers to the importance of scientific research in every day life. Updated in the third edition, this text presents current research that engages students with familiar issues. Discussions of controversies in psychology stimulate student interest while explaining important methodological concepts, which helps students understand how new research emerges. Learning Goals Upon completing this book, readers should be able to: Generate a research question and select an appropriate methodology Deal appropriately with ethical issues related to research Conduct meaningful research using a wide array of methodologies Consider social and cultural factors when consuming or conducting research Write a Research Report
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Rent Research Methods 3rd edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Bernard C. Beins. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Pearson.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:746de957-f8ce-477b-8b2b-36f01d874268> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/research-methods-3rd-edition-9780205899531-0205899536?ii=3&trackid=9f5fafeb&omre_ir=1&omre_sp= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902506 | 199 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Lawrence checked the air pressure in one of his tires before driving to school on a cold winter day. The tire pressure gauge registered 2.18 atmospheres (220.6 kPa). After making the 10 km trip to school, Lawrence checked the air pressure again. This time the gauge registered 2.31 atmospheres (234.4 kPa). Lawrence didn’t add any air to the tire in between the two measurements, so why did air pressure in the tire increase?
Keep on Rolling
There was no additional air in the tire the second time Lawrence checked the air pressure, but something did change between the two measurements. The tires had rolled over 10 km of road on the trip to school. Any time one surface moves over another, it causes friction. Friction is a force that opposes the motion of two surfaces that are touching, and friction between two surfaces always generates heat. Quickly rub your hands together and you’ll feel the heat generated by the friction between them. As the tires moved over the road, friction between the tires and road generated heat. In short, the tires got warmer and so did the air inside them.
It’s the Law!
The space inside a car tire is more-or-less fixed, so it has a constant volume. What happens when the volume of air is constant and its temperature increases? Lawrence found out the answer to that question when he measured the air pressure in his tire. Increasing the temperature of a gas such as air, while holding its volume constant, increases the pressure of the gas. This relationship between temperature and pressure of a gas is called Amontons' law. It was first proposed by a French scientist named Guillaume Amontons between 1700 and 1702. Because Amontons discovered the law beforehand, Gay-Lussac's name is now generally associated with the law of combining volumes of equal pressure and temperature. Amontons’ gas law is just one of three commonly known gas laws. The other two are Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.
Q: How does Amontons' gas law explain the difference in air pressure in Lawrence’s tire?
A: The tire—and the air inside it—got warmer because of friction with the road. The volume of air inside the tire was more-or-less constant, so the pressure of the air increased when it got warmer.
Why does the pressure of a gas increase as it gets warmer? Particles of a gas are constantly moving and bumping into things. The force of the collisions is measured by pressure. Pressure is the amount of force exerted on a given area, such as Newtons of force per square centimeter. When gas particles heat up and gain energy, they move faster. This causes more collisions and greater pressure. Therefore, heating particles of gas in a closed space causes the pressure of the gas to increase. Explore the behavior of gas particles at different temperatures in the model below. Change the temperature of the gas and watch what happens to its particles - and to the pressure.
Q: What happens to the pressure of the gas as its temperature increases?
A: The pressure of the gas increases as its temperature increases.
- According to Amontons’ law, increasing the temperature of a gas while holding its volume constant increases the pressure of the gas.
- When gas particles heat up and gain energy, they move faster. This increases their collisions with each other and their container, causing greater pressure.
- Amontons’ law: Gas law stating that, if the volume of a gas is held constant, increasing the temperature of the gas increases its pressure.
At normal air pressure, cans don't collapse. However, with some heat and some ice water, you can get a soda can to collapse at normal air pressure.
Watch the following simple demonstration, and then answer the questions below.
Now, use the model below to explore the molecular reason for why the can collapses.
The purple molecules (left side of the model) are in the can. The yellow molecules (right side of the model) are outside the can. The barrier between the molecules represents the wall of the can.
- Heating the Can: Simulate heating by pressing the "Heat" button for the purple molecules. The molecules in the can cannot evaporate out of the model, so you'll have to remove purple molecules from the inside of the can.
- Collapsing the Can: Simulate plunging the can into ice water by pressing the "Cool" button for the purple molecules several times.
- Try other combinations of heating, cooling and "Evaporation."
Q: In this model, when is the pressure of air inside the can greatest? Why?
Q: How is the volume of air inside the can kept constant after the can is heated and some molecules escape?
Q: What happens to the can wall when you rapidly cool the can in the model? Why?
- State Amontons’ law.
- Assume you have a sealed jug that contains only air. If you heat the air in the jug, it will have a higher temperature. What other property of the air will also change?
- A father does a classic experiment for his son, which is pictured in the Figure below. First, he put a small piece of paper in a glass bottle and lit the paper with a match. He immediately placed a shelled, hard-boiled egg over the bottle opening. The paper soon burned out, and after a few seconds, the egg slipped inside the bottle. Apply Amontons’ law to explain why. | <urn:uuid:88c73390-206e-4227-a4dc-6d55776c11af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ck12.org/chemistry/Amontons-Law/lesson/user:RiffleWalker/Level-1---Amontons'-(Gay-Lussac's)-Law/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946262 | 1,158 | 3.6875 | 4 |
General Electric unveiled a fuel-cell subsidiary called GE Fuel Cells and said it was building a new fuel-cell manufacturing plant in upstate New York. Fuel cells use natural gas or biogas to generate electricity and have seen some adoption in the data center space.
GE Fuel Cells is essentially a corporate-backed startup tasked with commercializing a new fuel-cell technology the company says may bring the cost down substantially. GE said its scientists have reached a breakthrough in solid oxide fuel-cell technology, which led to the formation of the new subsidiary and construction of the manufacturing plant.
Fuel cells generate energy by triggering a chemical reaction, and the designs used to date require costly materials to generate that reaction, according to the vendor. GE’s new fuel cells use stainless steel in place of platinum and rare metals, which should bring the cost down.
Fuel cells are a cleaner alternative to coal-fired power plants and have been used in tandem with wind and solar farms. Apple has taken this approach to powering its data center in Maiden, North Carolina, and eBay’s latest data center in Utah relies entirely on fuel cells for power.
The two projects are exceptions, however. The majority of fuel cell deployments at data center sites have been experimental and supplementary to grid power.
“The cost challenges associated with the technology have stumped a lot of people for a long time,” said Johanna Wellington, advanced technology leader at GE Global Research and the head of GE’s fuel cell business. “But we made it work, and we made it work economically. It’s a game-changer.”
The announcement brings a heavyweight player to the fuel cell market. Of companies selling fuel cells into the data center space, the most successful has been Bloom Energy, whose products power the Apple and eBay facilities, and have been deployed at CenturyLink’s California data center.
Other companies with fuel-cell products for data centers include Hydrogenics, whose hydrogen-powered fuel cells are sold by CommScope as an alternative to diesel generators, and ClearEdge Power. | <urn:uuid:fbdce8cd-674f-47c8-92a4-af3d892771c0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2014/07/22/ge-claims-breakthrough-fuel-cell-tech-launches-fuel-cell-subsidiary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947414 | 427 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Is aSSL secure as SSL?
No. SSL is secure because it is a technology implemented at browser level so that when an HTTPS connection has been established, the browser checks the SSL Certificate before continuing.
Suppose that a hacker were to attack you with a man-in-the-middle (MiTM) attack. With an SSL connection, the attack would be successful only should the user click Ok when the browser alerts him saying that the certificate doesn't correspond to the connected server (the alert may also appear if some file is transferred over HTTP instead of HTTPS because in this file a hacker could inject malicious code).
Uhm... is aSSL secure?
If a hacker were to attack you with a MiTM attack during an aSSL connection, he could be successful. But MiTM attacks require great skill and a lot of organization. They are rare and a hacker would only be worth while to the hacker if he has a lot to gain for is efforts.
aSSL is designed for non-critical sites as chats, blogs, etc. where the potential payoff for hackers would be low, and therefore they would not be targeted by such attacks.
Password sniffing is much more diffuse because it is much easier. In fact, there are specific softwares that sniff the traffic, recognizes userid and passwords, and register them.
aSSL protects against these sniffers. When a server exchanges account information in clear HTTP, a sniffer can simply intercept all the data, but if the server exchanges the data via aSSL it is not possible to decode the passed data and so the level of security of the site is notably better.
(c) 2006+ Francesco Sullo - Rome, Italy | <urn:uuid:0f6dc1e1-f990-4a2d-bea2-632b9607d82a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://assl.sullof.com/assl/securityfaq.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966271 | 348 | 2.546875 | 3 |
NASA’s Kepler mission was able to find an exoplanet late last month. Now, astronomy has reached new heights, as a ground-based telescope was able to detect and find an exoplanet six months later.
In July, an exoplanet called Kepler-452b has been discovered by a NASA’s Kepler transit mission, and was referred to as a possible “Earth 2.0.” Jon Jenkins, data analysis leader at NASA’s Ames Research Center, describes the exoplanet as an “older, bigger cousin to Earth.”
Before, building billion-dollar spacecrafts was the preferred method to discover these heavenly bodies. Now, ground-based telescope are becoming more and more advanced, being equipped with the technology that can detect stars right from the Earth’s surface. In December 2014, the Nordic Optical Telescope on La Palma broke ground when it became the first ground-based telescope to observe an exoplanet called 55 Cancri e.
Six months later, the exoplanet 51 Eridani b has been discovered by the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI). The GPI is a new instrument on the 9-meter Gemini South Telescope situated in Chile. Chile is known for astronomers all over the world for having the clearest skies on the planet, and some of the world’s most advanced observatories are situated in the South American country.
Unlike spacecrafts that use the lengthy transit method, ground-based telescopes such as the Gemini South Telescope use direct imaging to detect exoplanets. These telescopes have adaptive optics, which are used to sharpen the images of the target star. The starlight is then blocked, and the incoming light that is left is analyzed with the brightest spots, which indicate the existence of an exoplanet.
James Graham, professor and project scientist for GPI, stated in a press release that the discovery of the 51 Eridani b perfectly hit the mission’s target.
“This is exactly the kind of planet we envisioned discovering when we designed GPI,” said Graham in the press release published by NASA.
51 Eridani b holds the record for the lowest mass exoplanet captured via direct imaging. According to Newsledge.com, its mass is twice that of Jupiter, and is the coldest, 400 degrees colder, among all the exoplanets spotted using direct imaging. Astronomers have noted that 51 Eridani b’s methane signature is similar to Jupiter’s in its early years. Mark Marley, an astrophysicist at NASA’s Ames Research Center, confirms this theory.
“Since the atmosphere of 51 Eri b is also methane rich, it signifies that this planet is well on its way to becoming a cousin of our own familiar Jupiter,” said Marley in a report by Newsledge.
After these series of astral discoveries through direct imaging, astrophysicists are referring to ground-based telescopes as the tool for deep space research projects. These telescopes could open the door to more revolutionary space detections, signaling the future of astronomy.
The Santilli Telescope by Florida-based Thunder Energies (OTCQB: TNRG) has concave lenses that could be used for the detection of antimatter galaxies. Antimatter galaxies, if found, are expected to have the same composition, chemistry, absorption, and emission spectra as normal-matter galaxies. Before the manufacturing of the Santilli Telescope, antimatter galaxies were difficult to distinguish since they have the same astronomical objects. | <urn:uuid:3fa6034d-0610-441f-b8d1-c5f96304f4f4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.broowaha.com/articles/23673/telescope-discovers-exoplanet-from-earth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944915 | 735 | 3.734375 | 4 |
During the course of treatment, you will probably hear many orthodontic terms used by the orthodontist and staff. It is helpful to know what common parts of your braces are called so that you can tell your orthodontist if something is bothering you or if you have questions about your treatment.
Archwire – The engine that moves your teeth. This metal wire fits into your bands and brackets and guides your teeth to their new and straighter positions.
Band – A metal ring to which brackets or other orthodontic attachments can be connected to. Compared to brackets, bands are better able to withstand the forces of chewing so they are typically used on the back teeth.
Bracket – A metal, ceramic, or plastic piece that is bonded to a tooth. The bracket contains a slot which the archwire fits into.
Coil Spring – A spiral piece that fits over the archwire, in between two teeth. A coil spring opens space between the two teeth it pushes against.
Elastic (Rubber Band) – A removable rubber band that attaches to hooks of the braces. Elastics are used in many different ways and can move teeth in ways that braces alone cannot.
Elastic Tie (O-tie) – A small rubber tie that fits around the bracket and secures the archwire. Elastic ties come in many colors.
Headgear Tube – A hollow tube to which the inner bow of the headgear fits into. Headgear tubes, when present, are typically found on the upper molar bands.
Hook – An attachment for elastics. Hooks can be found connected to brackets and bands or attached to archwires.
Power chain – An elastic chain used to close spaces or keep spaces from opening
Separator (Spacer) – A rubber ring slightly larger than an O-tie that is placed in between two teeth. The purpose of separators is to create space for bands.
Tube – A hollow attachment that the archwire passes through
Wire tie – A thin wire used to secure the archwire to the bracket.
Dr. Yang is a Board Certified Orthodontist practicing in Antioch, California. Read more about Dr. Yang. | <urn:uuid:398400a4-ec4e-4949-b224-7262624139ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bracesquestions.com/braces-ipedia/braces-parts.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929483 | 450 | 3.140625 | 3 |
The Central American countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras have missed out on the economic growth that many other developing countries have experienced over the past decades. Despite confronting some of the same challenges faced in neighboring countries, Costa Rica’s democracy has strengthened and its economy has flourished. This disparity largely results from the pervasive violence and crime that have stifled other Central American economies, undermining growth and interfering with social development. In particular, youth gangs (maras) have wreaked havoc in the region.
Central American gangs tend to be involved in a range of criminal activities, including arms, drug, and human trafficking; kidnapping and extortion; and migrant smuggling. The toll taken by such crime is evident in the stories told by local children and adolescents. They report that their options are to join a gang, die, or emigrate.
Such entrenched, wide-spread criminality is not only a human rights issue, but one that directly impacts the United States and all countries facing a surge of migrant children from Central America. What can be done?
On September 10th, Hudson Institute’s Center for Latin American Studies hosted a discussion with noted regional experts. Moderated by Ambassador Jaime Daremblum, the panel examined the underlying social, economic, and political environment fueling gang activity, with particular focus on whether policymakers in the region have adopted the right responses to counter this crisis, or instead paid too little attention to its structural causes.
Hudson Institute is grateful to the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation for their generous support of this conference series. | <urn:uuid:0d94bdf2-b3df-4910-be2f-26366011ca7c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.hudson.org/events/1182-children-of-misery-guns-and-gangs-in-central-america92014 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940629 | 316 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Scientists have found a potential link between increased neurogenesis and aerobic exercise such as running, Neuroscience News reported.
Researchers from the Department of Psychology and from the Department of Biology of Physical Activity at the University of Jyväskylä studied the effects of sustained running exercise and high-intensity and resistance training on hippocampal neurogenesis in adult male rats.
They found that it may be possible to increase the neuron reserve of the hippocampus through exercise.
The result is important, according to Neuroscience News, because previous research found that the new hippocampal neurons produced as a result of neurogenesis are needed for learning temporally, and spatially-complex tasks.
It is possible that the preconditions for learning may be improved by promoting neurogenesis via sustained aerobic exercise – not only in rats, but in humans too. | <urn:uuid:127104ec-4aa0-4aa2-9f28-b7dc7cf954f2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mybroadband.co.za/news/science/154740-exercise-could-make-you-smarter.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945551 | 170 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Data structure for storing hierarchical clusters
Single linkage agglomerative clustering. Cluster elements by slurping a sorted list of pairs with score (i.e. triples :-) Keeps a set of contained elements at each branch's root, so O(n log n), and requires elements to be in Ord. For this to work, the triples must be sorted on score. Earlier scores in the list will make up the lower nodes, so sort descending for similarity, ascending for distance. | <urn:uuid:262cdba5-7214-40b1-8691-2b7f93b9f3dc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://hackage.haskell.org/package/bio-0.5.3/docs/Bio-Clustering.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.740477 | 100 | 3.328125 | 3 |
By Jeff Bryant, director of the Education Opportunity Network, a partnership effort of the Institute for America’s Future and the Opportunity to Learn Campaign. He has written extensively about public education policy. Originally published at Alternet
Walmart’s recent decision to close 269 stores was a blip on the national media radar, but it was big news in small towns and suburban neighborhoods across America.
“Now we have to figure out how to do our shopping,” a Walmart customer in Baldwin Hills, in Southern California lamented.
“Before Walmart’s arrival, Winnsboro had two grocery stores,” a local reporter in that South Carolina town noted. Now that Walmart is gone, so is convenient access to groceries and other retail goods.
“It’s the traditional story of a big corporation driving local competition out of town,” an article in Texas Monthly stated, “and then leaving.”
A Walmart spokesperson told a reporter covering a store closure in a small Mississippi community that closing stores is “strictly a business decision… It made fiscal sense.”
That rationale is nothing new. Stories about local communities being devastated by business decisions made in distant headquarters have become a staple of this era. Time and time again, the nation has witnessed whole towns being hollowed out when big companies uproot local manufacturing plants to move to cheaper labor markets in Mexico or China.
The cause of the trauma and grief is always the same: “strictly business.” “Fiscal sense.”
But what if that story isn’t just about businesses anymore? What if instead of a closed factory or shuttered store, the story is about a closed public school? What if the consequence of these types of “business decisions” isn’t a grown man having to look for another job or an elderly woman having to figure out a new way to pick up her prescriptions, but a child having his or her education significantly disrupted or a whole community left without convenient access to schools?
That question is becoming increasingly urgent as more and more government officials turn to publicly funded but privately run charter schools to compete with and upend local public schools—an education option, it is worth noting, that the family behind the Walmart empire has played a huge role in promoting and funding nationwide.
The Walmart Way For Education
At the same time news of Walmart store closings spread through local media outlets, the Walton Family Foundation (WFF), the private foundation created with the retail giant’s wealth, announced that it would be “doubling down on its investments in school choice with a $1 billion plan to help expand the charter school sector and other choice initiatives over the next five years,” according to a report in Education Week.
This immense treasure trove for expanding the number of charter schools in the country comes in addition to the millions the Waltons have already spent on charter schools. In fact, the foundation’s “strategic plan,” published in 2015, claims, “1 in 4 charters nationally have received WFF startup funds.”
In her book The Death and Life of the Great American School System: How Testing and Choice Are Undermining Education, education historian Diane Ravitch explores whether there is any “commonality between the Walmart business philosophy and the Walton funding of school choice.” She likens the competition that charters pose to public schools to the competition that Walmart stores present to locally owned stores, and suggests parallel consequences: just as Walmart forces stores that can’t match their prices to shut their doors, so charters — which bleed students, and their funding, from traditional schools — cause local schools to close down.
Is the analogy Ravitch poses fair and accurate? Or is this new model for school options being promoted by the Waltons and other self-ascribed education “reformers” something more nuanced? Is there any evidence that their plans for distributing “quality” education are more efficient than democratic governance?
The Waltons Go To School
The Walton Family Foundation—the family’s main philanthropic endeavor—was established in 1987 by Walmart founder Sam Walton and his wife Helen. In Sam Walton’s autobiography Made in America, he voices a concern for America’s public school system and links education and national economic prosperity, particularly in the context of being able to “compete” with other nations.
Since its founding, WFF has given more than $1.3 billion to K-12 education, according to its own recent calculations, an amount that is surpassed only by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The foundation’s most recent annual report shows well over 50 percent of its 2014 grantee investments went to education ($202.4 million out of $373 million).
Sam Walton’s concerns about America’s public education system were no doubt fed by the animosity toward public schools that spread during the 1980s and, in particular, the presidential administration of Ronal Reagan.
Reagan had campaigned in 1980 on abolishing the department of education, according to Valerie Strauss of the Washington Post, and declared in a speech in 1984, “America’s schools don’t need new spending programs; they need tougher standards, more homework, merit pay for teachers, discipline, and parents back in charge.”
The landmark report from Reagan’s presidency, “A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform,” published in 1983, set the tone for those years and the years following, warning of a “rising tide of mediocrity” in public education “that threatens our very future as a nation and a people.”
That report proved to be “a golden treasury of selected, spun, and distorted statistics,” noted the late education policy scholar, and Reagan critic Gerald Bracey, 25 years after the report’s publication. Nevertheless, it was hugely influential.
According to the Philanthropy Roundtable, Sam Walton’s second-eldest son, John, who would take control of the Walton Family Foundation after his father’s death in 1992, read “A Nation at Risk” the year it was published and “circulated it among family members,” prompting “a number of discussions” in the family about ways to improve education and influencing his father to announce, “I’d like to see an all-out revolution in education.”
At first, the Walton’s education philanthropy “followed the usual course of education giving,” the Philanthropy Roundtable quotes John Walton recollecting of those early years, doling out money to “programs you hope will address the problems.” But at some point during the 1990s, John Walton’s patience with this approach wore thin, as he found “the improvements [to be] transitory, lasting only as long as the heroes making them work are on the job.”
To create more immediate and lasting change, John Walton came to believe, his foundation’s approach to public education would have to change. The agent of change would be “school choice.”
The Friedman Effect
The whole idea of school choice, most policy experts believe, is credited to the extreme libertarian Friedman Foundation, founded in 1996 by the economist Milton Friedman and his wife Rose to advance his ideas for how to improve K–12 education systems.
“Our elementary and secondary educational system needs to be radically restructured,” Friedman argued in 1995. “Such a reconstruction can be achieved only by privatizing a major segment of the educational system—i.e., by enabling a private, for-profit industry to develop … a wide variety of learning opportunities and offer effective competition to public schools.”
It’s not hard to see why John Walton’s conception of how to improve American schools would be heavily influenced by Friedman’s preference for school choice; both individuals viewed the world through the lens of rational markets. And year after year, the Friedman Foundation has been a consistent recipient of grant money from WFF.
Central to Friedman’s ideology was that schools should be thought of as businesses, with students being, essentially, customers. “In order to have satisfactory performance, you have to have a customer who needs to be served,” Friedman explained in an interview with the conservative Heartland Magazine in 1998.
Where public education had gone wrong in America, according to Friedman, was that the students’ role as the customer in the system had been displaced by the “professionalization and unionization” of teachers. Teachers unions had made education a “monopoly,” Friedman believed, and he falsely correlated the National Education Association’s conversion to trade union status in 1965 to a drop in scores on the SAT. (The scores changed because more students were taking the test.)
As Friedman saw it, “the only solution” to fixing the nation’s education monopoly was “through a system of vouchers.” As long as public schools were essentially free, and private schools charged tuition, most parents would keep sending their kids to the local public school. But introducing a voucher that could be “redeemed” by parents at a private school would break that dynamic, and in turn, break up the public education monopoly.
Friedman’s theory is, of course, grounded in what the Walton family practiced in retail: provide customers with the products they want (in this case, a “good” education for their children), at lower prices, and eventually drive merchants that are unable to compete out of business. Enterprises that are able to endure this churn in the marketplace, the theory holds, will be strengthened by their abilities to hold their customers.
Friedman’s animosity toward teachers unions also meshed with the Walton’s anti-union business practices. As freelance writer T. A. Frank writes for Washington Monthly, Sam Walton was obsessed with lowering business costs, especially payroll, and he believed loyal employees were created by giving them a stake in the business—through profit-sharing, stock options, and other means—rather than by giving them higher wages.
After the founder’s death in 1992, his progeny eliminated many of the employee retention policies Sam Walton created, Frank recalls, but the vigilant opposition to unions remained. While Sam Walton countered the first pro-union outbreak in his stores in 1989 with a series of management seminars exhorting his managers to “care” about frontline employees, his children, in 2000, responded to union activity among the company’s meat cutters by shutting down operations, finding alternative contractors, and summarily firing the instigators of the union organizing.
Fully inculcated with Friedman’s philosophies, and motivated by the myth of school failure spread by the Reagan administration, the Waltons were ready for their education revolution to begin.
A Preference For School Vouchers
John Walton launched the foundation’s battle for school choice by throwing both money and influence into a succession of voucher referendums throughout the 1990s and beyond — only to see the cause defeated at the ballot box time after time, as numerous studies have chronicled. The public, it would seem, was nowhere near as keen on the idea of vouchers as the Waltons and their ilk.
Then in 1998, came the Walton family’s earliest ventures into direct funding of school choice, according to Education Week, when John Walton joined with New York City financier Theodore J. Forstmann to pledge $100 million “to launch a national privately financed voucher program that would offer scholarships to as many as 50,000 poor students.”
A voucher of $1,000 would be given to each qualifying family to cover most of the cost of attending a Catholic private school, which, at the time, typically cost $1,500 in tuition annually. The idea was a scaling up of an effort the previous year by both Walton and Forstmann to give $6 million to the Washington Scholarship Fund, an organization that offered scholarships to students who wanted to transfer from public schools to private Catholic schools in the nation’s capital. Neither Walton nor Forstmann appear to be followers of the Catholic faith.
In a rare interview for Bloomberg Business Week in 2000, John Walton explained his preference for school vouchers over traditional giving to public education institutions.
“I’ve also invested in public schools,” he explained, and the interviewer makes note of “investments in New American Schools, scholarships, teacher and principal training, and other programs that work inside traditional public schools.”
But then Walton adds, “I will say that we have had a much more difficult time evaluating the benefits of those investments than we have our [private voucher] investments, where the benefits are so clear and convincing.
At some point amidst repeated defeats at the ballot box and his frustrations with direct funding vouchers, John Walton decided “choice” needed another option.
The Waltons Choose Charters
That other option was charter schools.
“The Walton foundation itself was one of the early organizations to transition from vouchers to charters,” explains Jeffrey R. Henig in an interview for Education Week. Henig is a political science and education professor at Teachers College, Columbia University and a co-editor of the book The New Education Philanthropy.
In a phone interview with AlterNet, Henig explained that the succession of ballot box losses, as well as numerous opinion polls conducted by conservative groups, influenced John Walton and other voucher advocates to conclude charter schools were the “more politically feasible” option, in Henig’s words.
Henig believes many conservatives view charter schools as a way to “soften the ground” for potentially more private options, though he isn’t entirely sure “the Waltons view charters as a Trojan Horse for eventually providing vouchers universally.”
Nevertheless, he has little doubt the current intention of the foundation is to “rapidly expand the number of charter schools to create a constituency of parents and others who will have a direct stake in the continued funding and expansion of these schools.”
“The Walton Family Foundation has been the strongest and most consistent force in the nation advancing charter schools,” as Ravitch notes. And that has remained true, even after John Walton’s untimely death in a plane crash, in June of 2005.
A Controversial Charter Legacy
Since John Walton’s death, a number of other family members have taken up his passion for promoting school choice, particularly in the form of charter schools.
According to a pro-union website, another member of the Walton family, Carrie Walton Penner, sits on the board of the foundation connected to the prominent KIPP charter school chain—on which the Walton Family Foundation has lavished many millions in donations—and is also a member of the California Charter Schools Association. Carrie’s husband, Greg Penner, “is a director of the Charter Growth Fund, a ‘non-profit venture capital fund’ investing in charter schools.” And Annie Walton Proietti, the daughter of Sam Walton’s youngest son Jim, works for a KIPP school in Denver.
Certainly there are beneficiaries beyond charter schools of WFF education money, most notably Teach for America, which has raked in tens of millions of dollars over the years. But year in and year out, top recipients of the Walton Foundation’s largesse are charter schools themselves and the many national, state, and local organizations and political groups that serve and promote school choice and the charter industry. Even TFA is closely associated with charter schools, with a third of the program’s recruits working in those schools.
Yet this unquestioning commitment to charter schools seems grossly detached from the controversy that charters have become in the American education landscape.
The charter school sector has been rife with financial scandal. Local news reports of charter school malfeasance and corruption have become commonplace in states where these schools have proliferated, such as in Florida, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Michigan.
A series of reports from the Center for Popular Democracy in 2014 and 2015 uncovered many hundreds of millions in “alleged and confirmed financial fraud, waste, abuse, and mismanagement” committed by charter schools around the country. Authors of the 2015 report called their discovery the “tip of the iceberg.”
The financial problems caused by charter schools stem from the particular blend of public and private players involved. As a recent policy brief from the National Education Policy Center explains, the very structure of the charter school business introduces new actors into public education who can skim money from the system without returning any benefit to students and taxpayers.
The brief’s authors Bruce Baker and Gary Miron – university professors from Rutgers and Eastern Michigan, respectively – note that charters generally aren’t subject to the same disclosure laws that apply to state operated entities and public officials, especially when the governance bodies for these schools outsource management services to for-profit management firms, as is increasingly the case.
The very nature of charters, the authors state, results in a “substantial share of public expenditure intended for the delivery of direct educational services to children…being extracted inadvertently or intentionally for personal or business financial gain.”
Furthering the financial controversy related to charters is the model of how these schools are financed.
As currently conceived, charter schools are funded based on the idea that “money should follow the child.” That is, when students transfer from a public school to a new charter, the per-pupil funding to educate that child transfers as well.
But research studies have shown that this financial model harms the education of public school students. As a public school loses a percentage of its students to charters, the school can’t simply cut fixed costs for things like transportation and physical plant proportionally. It also can’t cut the costs of grade-level teaching staff proportionally. That would increase class sizes and leave the remaining students underserved. So instead, the school cuts a program or support service – a reading specialist, a special education teacher, a librarian, an art or music teacher – to offset the loss of funding.
For these reasons, and others, the introduction of charter schools into communities now invariably sparks division and resentment from parents who stay committed to public schools.
Yet, none of the controversy surrounding charters seems to have altered the Walton Family Foundation’s determination to expand the numbers of these schools on the American landscape.
Answering the Critics
WFF’s apparently unwavering course for charter expansion has drawn prominent critics.
A recent report by Philamplify, an initiative of the National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy, looks closely at the Foundation’s education reform efforts, especially in New Orleans post-Hurricane Katrina, and concludes that the “preformulated, specific approach” WFF employs, “fixated on very particular market reform vehicles: publicly funded charter schools and vouchers to attend private schools,” is in fact a hinderance to the “transformative potential of the foundation’s education program.”
As an apparent response, WFF recently issued a paper titled, “Investing in Change: The Walton Family Foundation Charts a New Course,” wherein the Foundation admits that its devotion to “expanding community-wide school choice” may not be “sufficient to improve educational outcomes.” But the paper’s author, Michelle Wisdom, reasons that that insufficiency stems from something other than WFF’s guiding philosophy.
Calling school choice a “theory of change,” Wisdom asserts, “School choice works.” What’s needed now, she argues, is “a favorable policy environment for choice to be truly effective.”
Responding to Wisdom’s paper, Strauss writes on her Washington Post blog, “Choice isn’t enough? So what is?” Most likely, Strauss deduces, nothing short of a total “dismantling [of] traditional public school systems.”
“We’re at the early stage of the beginning of the end of public schools,” former classroom teacher and prominent public school advocate Anthony Cody tells Alternet in a phone conversation. “You can already see this in big cities such as New Orleans, Detroit, and Chicago.”
Cody is a harsh critic of education philanthropists. For years he engaged in a public debate with leaders of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which provided material for his book The Educator and the Oligarch: A Teacher Challenges the Gates Foundation. Cody is also cofounder, along with Ravitch and other education reform critics, of the Network for Public Education.
Cody sees Gates, another major funder of the charter school industry, and Walton as “operating with the same playbook;” although he acknowledges there are differences (notably around vouchers). What the two foundations share, Cody believes, is a devotion to operating schools according to “their belief in business systems.”
He argues that having charter schools compete with local public schools around student test scores will “corrupt education,” as schools chase after ever higher scores at the expense of educating all children equitably. In Cody’s mind, this will inevitably lead to expansions of charter schools, which have more leeway to game the system, and the closure of more public schools.
“There’s no way to compromise with this formula,” he contends, and “no end point at which applying the formula would stop because it impinges on human dignity.”
Cody isn’t the only critic who sees a fundamental problem with choice. When the late Rick Cohen of the Nonprofit Quarterly reflected on the Philamplify study of the Walton Foundation, he argued that “choice” makes education, ultimately, “a zero-sum [game], focused on the individual and the family and increasingly saying to hell with community… What’s lost is what the nation was trying to achieve in the first place with public education.”
Choice For Who?
Is the Walmart Foundation really intent on dismantling public education through its expansions of charter schools?
Henig argues no, saying the debate of charters versus public schools is not what really what matters “at the parent level.”
In his view, the debate about choice needs to shift from being about charter versus public schools to focusing on the role of democracy in school governance and how to “calibrate” democratic input in decision-making about schools.
That’s an important subject for sure, but when Henig says the debate about charters is not relevant at “the parent level,” it’s not clear what parents he is referring to. He’s clearly not talking about parents in Southside Chicago, where in 2013, families reeled from a rash of school closings coupled with charter school expansions.
As Sarah Karp reported for Catalyst Chicago, Walton had made Chicago its largest recipient of charter school grants, then gave the district additional financial support for a series of community meetings to “educate parents” about the school closures and obscure the role of charter schools. The WFF money paid for “robo-calls to tell parents about the meetings, mailings to parents and ‘other engagement and communication platforms.’”
This churning of public school closings with charter school openings left some stretches of the community without any schools at all, according to an article by Trymaine Lee for MSNBC. Calling these neighborhoods “school deserts,” much like the food deserts many low-income communities know about all too well, Lee quotes community activist Jitu Brown: “This is not about school choice. If it was really about providing us with choices, we’d have the choice to improve our neighborhood schools.”
That the spread of school choice can actually leave some communities with fewer educational options is not a matter constrained to Chicago alone.
In cities such as New Orleans, which now has an all charter system, whole neighborhoods are bereft of schools, and it is now quite common for students to spend hours a day in transit as they trek from their homes to available schools across town. Conditions are similar in some areas of Houston, TX, where parents have coined the term “education desert” to describe “areas where a significant number or share of residents is far from schools.”
“This crisis has reached critical mass,” the Houston parents contend.
Choice Hurts America’s Heartland
Around the same time Walmart was closing stores in rural North Carolina, parents in an Appalachian community in that state gathered at a hearing to fight for their local public school to keep it from being closed down. “Many in the audience sobbed as students talked about losing what to them has been the center of their world as long as they can remember,” a local newspaper reported.
The local reporter noted a “trifecta” of factors leading to the imminent closure. Two in the trifecta—declining student enrollment and state budget cuts—are factors school officials and communities across America have faced many times before. But the third factor was new: “charter school competition.”
We’ll never know if this is an outcome John Walton considered when he committed his family’s billions to the expansion of charters and choice.
What we do know for sure, though, is that when he made his decision to pull back from direct investments in public schools, he did so because he did not see the kind of results he wanted to see.
But what if John Walton’s disappointment in public schools stems from the possibility that Americans, as a whole, want other kinds of “results” from their public schools? What if what they want, as Jitu Brown says of his own community, is the opportunity to “improve our neighborhood schools” instead of having them replaced by the charters preferred by the Waltons?
Meanwhile, as WFF contemplates how to best “soften the ground” for increased school choice, and policy makers ponder the growing impact of philanthropists in education, more communities may have to contend with the reality of schools, public or charter, coming and going based on forces not in their control. Completely lost in the discussion, though, is whether it’s right for the American populace to have its access to education determined by the values and philosophy of a few rich people. | <urn:uuid:02663183-9328-4a3e-b58c-af0a0fce4af8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nakedcapitalism.com/2016/03/how-the-cutthroat-walmart-business-model-is-reshaping-american-public-education.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964099 | 5,589 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Gus Grissom was the second American in space. Ed White was the first American to walk in space. Roger Chaffee was a cold war hero, flying reconnaissance missions over Cuba during the 1962 missile crisis. All of them were to have been the prime crew of the first Apollo spacecraft—and none of them made it. Like Komarov, they lost their lives to a lousy spacecraft. The so-called block 1 Apollo craft—the initial model—was fraught with problems from the moment NASA began to cut metal on it. The communications were awful, the environmental hardware was fritzy, the power system was unreliable—especially the wiring. In a NASA publicity photo, the astronauts were seen posing and smiling with a model of the spacecraft in front of them on a desk. In a version not released, they were seen praying over it—playfully looking for divine protection. It never came. On January 27, 1967, during a full dress launch rehearsal, a bit of frayed insulation on a wire next to Grissom’s seat sparked, causing a fire to roar through the highly pressurized, 100%-oxygen environment. The astronauts were killed almost instantly, not only because of the fire but because of another, unforgivably shoddy piece of engineering: the hatch. It took more than 90 seconds to open the thing—or about 80 more than the crew could afford. | <urn:uuid:d893c608-9022-4355-8749-44a249872e3a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://science.time.com/2013/02/01/nasas-astronaut-day-of-remembrance/slide/apollo-1-gus-grissom/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982303 | 282 | 3.109375 | 3 |
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It rises up off one of the highest of the Seven Hills of St. Paul, making it seem even taller and matched, if not surpassed, only by St. Paul’s Cathedral, built between 20 and 30 years later. And it was originally designed to be the geographical focal point of the entire city – literally. All roads were to lead to the Minnesota State Capitol (our 3rd). This was master Architect Cass Gilbert’s vision for the city and the Capitol, which was only made flesh about halfway. Other municipal fathers and developers had different ideas for platting the city.
And, yet, there it sits. A work of art as well as the seat of Minnesota State Government. The Capitol is the one unifying edifice in the life of our highly divided body politic. As one of our guests, labor media specialist employee and documentarian, Randy Croce, put it to me:
The Capitol is essentially a hand-built work of art. Every stone had to be moved by horse-drawn, teamster-guided wagon from railroad cars 90 vertical feet through downtown up to the Capitol site. Every single stone was worked by hand…every external marble piece subtly sloped to shed water, so to keep the relatively weather-prone stone lasting as long as it has (though time- and weather-inflicted damage to much of it requires repair and restoration.) (Editor: this critical renovation will be discussed as well.)
Any state resident who has not visited this amazing place has all but a legal obligation to visit the place where their business, the people’s business, is conducted daily near a cathedral-like dome, topped by the gold-leafQuadriga – a quartet of horses pulling a chariot, described here by the MN Historical Society:
This gold-leafed copper and steel statuary group, "Progress of the State," was sculpted by Daniel Chester French and Edward Potter and placed on the Capitol in 1906. The four horses represent the power of nature: earth, wind, fire and water. The women symbolize civilization and the man standing on the chariot represents prosperity. From 1994 -1995 the group, also known as the Quadriga, was removed from the capitol building for complete restoration and gilding.
So many stories of the building’s design, the company (Butler-Ryan-cum-Butler Brothers Construction) it’s construction helped make wealthy, the anecdotes of conflict among architect, cutters and setter, the role of women, of African-Americans and Europeans imported to cut stone and perform other artisan miracles, and so on.
It’s truly a fascinating history and it’s a history entirely separate from the governance issues and legislation passed inside its walls over the decades. But its maintenance, renovation and survival is the work of the Capitol Area Architectural and Planning Board – a little known state agency once tucked away in the lower level of the Capitol itself until removed to the State Administration Building on Sherburne several years ago, probably to make room for additional legislative offices coming into the 21st Century.
TTT’s ANDY DRISCOLL talks with a descendant of a key worker, a Capitol steward and labor historians to talk about the amazing history of Minnesota’s Capitol Building. (MORE PHOTOS)
Labor Media Specialist/Video, Labor Information Services (UofM) and Video Documentarian on Capitol History
Principal Planner and Zoning Administrator, Capitol Area Architectural and Planning Board (CAAPB) office
Retired Labor Leader, Star Tribune; Researcher, Women’s Role in Capitol Labor History
Great granddaughter of Zebulon Olson, Crane Operator in Capitol construction | <urn:uuid:2506bd82-c4e7-4e3f-9271-d46477d8d082> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.kfai.org/node/29326 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943201 | 790 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Friday, April 13, 2012
the peacock problem
Popular commentators on evolution, such as Richard Dawkins, have become overly enamoured with the idea of the gene. Genetics is certainly the most powerful mechanism of evolution and was unknown in Charles Darwin's time but although we have learned much from sequencing DNA, the idea of the gene does not explain everything about the living world and certainly not about the human world. However, just as Herbert Spencer used the notion of the "survival of the fittest" to explain why some people are rich and others are poor, so Dawkins argues that culture has genes, too - self-replicating particles of information that he calls "memes" (think of the dumb jokes and "viral" videos that proliferate on the internet). If all evolution happens for the sake of proliferating selfish genes, then everything we see in living creatures has to be useful and practical. But that's not at all how Darwin saw it. He envisioned as at least two distinct processes: natural selection and sexual selection. The former concerns the survival of the fittest. The latter, however, is an aspect of evolution that is too often overlooked today.more from David Rothenberg at The New Statesman here.
Posted by Morgan Meis at 06:55 AM | Permalink | <urn:uuid:e646409c-2abf-42bd-9112-981661d71504> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2012/04/the-peacock-problem.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965124 | 265 | 3.09375 | 3 |
By Sikivu Hutchinson
Who fits the stereotype of scientific or mathematical genius? Traditionally, racial and gender stereotypes influence who "conforms" to mainstream society's image of scientific proficiency and intellectualism. Although one of the most well known contemporary scientists in the world is African American physicist Neil DeGrasse Tyson, the dominant culture still portrays science and math as disciplines that only white and Asian males can master.
At 12% of the U.S. population, African Americans are severely under-represented in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, "The percentage of African-Americans earning STEM degrees has fallen during the last decade. In 2009, they received just 7 percent of all STEM bachelor's degrees, 4 percent of master's degrees, and 2 percent of PhDs." Indeed, "in a typical year, 13 African-Americans and 20 Latinos of either sex receive Ph.D.’s in physics." This disparity is informed by the egregiously low number of black students taking college preparation, honors and Advanced Placement classes and tests. For African American students, the absence of quality college prep instruction at the middle and high school levels is often one of the most significant roadblocks to college access. For example, at Gardena High School in South Los Angeles African American students are 27% of the population but only 4% are enrolled in AP classes.
In a recent New York Times article entitled "Why are There Still So Few Women in Science?" Author Eileen Pollack reflected on attending a Yale University event where five female physics majors talked about their academic challenges. She noted that one "young black woman told me she did her undergraduate work at a historically black college, then entered a master’s program designed to help minority students develop the research skills and one-on-one mentoring relationships that would help them make the transition to a Ph.D. program. Her first year at Yale was rough, but her mentors helped her through."
Finding mentors, navigating the complexities of subject requirements and keeping afloat academically are a natural part of being in college. But these challenges are often even more daunting for African American students in STEM departments where there are few African American faculty and administrators. For many black students, the absence of tenured black STEM professors exacerbates the racist and sexist low expectations that they confront in the classroom and on campus.
On Thursday, November 14th at Gardena High at 11:00, Black Skeptics Los Angeles and the Women's Leadership Project will sponsor a seminar that examines these issues with a panel of talented young Black STEM professionals from South Los Angeles. Seminar participants will discuss college preparation, admission, mentoring, retention, confronting discrimination and their path to graduation.
Brandon Bell is a 2007 graduate of King-Drew Medical Magnet and a 2011 graduate of Princeton University where he majored in molecular biology. He's the founder of an activist organization called Wisdom From The Field and has dedicated himself to the empowerment of his community
Garaudy Etienne graduated from King-Drew Medical Magnet in 2011. He is currently an aerospace engineer at Northrop Grumman. He received his B.S. in Aerospace Engineering from Princeton University in 2011
Dr. Paul Robinson is an associate professor of Geographic Information Systems at Drew University and the Geffen School of Medicine. He received a Ph.D. in geography from the University of Southern California (2001), a Masters in geography from the University of South Florida (1993) and Bachelors in geography from Virginia Tech (1989).
Devin Waller is Exhibit Project Manager at the California Science Center. She received her B.S. in astrophysics from UCLA and her M.S. in Geological Sciences from Arizona State University. | <urn:uuid:f0055eaa-8bd0-4850-94f2-fb7953a24757> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blackfemlens.blogspot.com/2013/10/blacks-in-stem-stereotype-busting.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952412 | 767 | 3.34375 | 3 |
The following happy press release appeared in my email recently:
WASHINGTON (Feb. 14, 2012) The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency today announced that Presque Isle Bay, on the Pennsylvania shore of Lake Erie, has been removed from the list of heavily contaminated Great Lakes sites targeted for cleanup by the U.S.-Canada Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. Environmental conditions in Presque Isle Bay have significantly improved due to actions taken by federal, state and local government. Studies have shown that revitalized waterways, like Presque Isle Bay, can benefit the local economy and better protect people's health. Presque Isle Bay is now the second site in the nation to be taken off the list of Great Lakes "Areas of Concern" (AOCs).
This good news from our Erie, PA, neighbors on Lake Erie got me thinking about our Cuyahoga River Area of Concern. Local officials have been planning the cleanup of the river and nearby Lake Erie shore for more than 20 years. When will that job be done? When can we be declared safe and be officially “de-listed”?
The answer seems to be that, despite a great deal of progress, we are still many years away from declaring victory. Below is a quick summary of the remaining challenges (the water quality “impairments”) from Jane Goodman, executive director of the Cuyahoga River Community Planning Organization, the group in charge of coordinating cleanup efforts.
The Cuyahoga can be de-listed:
- When we have viable fish habitat throughout the ship channel in the Flats (the last big issue for the “fish habitat” impairment). Several habitat-enhancing projects are underway – the Scranton Peninsula Towpath Trail and riverbank restoration project, which will be planted in the fall, the County Planning Commission's biomimicry project (just about to start their planning process), and a project that Cleveland Metroparks is planning at Rivergate Park. But we need to fill in the gaps so that habitat sites are close enough for larval fish to survive on their way to the lake and juveniles to use on their way upriver. We also need the right types of habitat to support a wider variety of species than are there now. Currently, we are working on grant applications to develop a comprehensive plan for the whole channel. Instead of adding habitat just where it’s easiest to install and without regard to what the fish actually need, we're finally defining what fish would be using the channel, how far they can travel on their own, and where the hotspots and anoxic zones are--and then we are designing an end-to-end plan.
- When we remove the Gorge Dam and Route 82 Dam and open the river to fish passage for normal spawning (the "fish population" impairment). We've got the assessment of the sediment in the Gorge Dam pool, and there's more than 800,000 cubic yards of polluted sediment that will need to be removed before the dam comes down. So we need to decide how to do that. As for the Route 82 Dam (crossing the river below the Route 82 Bridge in Brecksville), the Cuyahoga Valley National Park, Ohio EPA, and other partners are working on how best to take it down while still diverting water to the Ohio &Erie Canal.
- When the combined sewer overflow (CSO) work of the Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District and the City of Akron is done, and we can see if it will reduce bacteria levels enough to permit recreational contact with the water in the river and Lake Erie beaches (the "beach closing/public access" impairment). It's possible (though unlikely) that the levels could drop before they finish the whole project -- unlikely because that's probably only half the problem. Aging sanitary sewer lines all over the watershed, as well as animal poop, contribute a large portion of the bacteria, and the CSO projects won't help with those. In the meantime, we're pushing green infrastructure to lessen the loads on the CSO systems.
- When people can get to the river and use it (the "public access" impairment). This will probably be covered when the Scranton Road Towpath project is done and Rivergate is offering on-the-water paddling ventures, so this one might get de-listed pretty soon. The Cuyahoga Valley National Park’s trails plan has water access, too, although it’s not certain when that will be implemented.
- When the sediment to be dredged in the ship channel is clean enough for open-lake placement (the "restrictions on dredging" impairment). This might actually come fairly soon, perhaps in a year. It would be de-listed when the dredgings do not have to go to a confined disposal facility.
- When we have healthy benthic populations (organisms that live at the bottom of a water body) in the mainstem of the river and most of the streams (the "benthos" impairment). This will happen in the river when the dams are down. We don't think we’ll be required to have benthos in the ship channel except for organisms grow on the new habitat installations.
- When the fish are consumable at least as often as the guidelines for fish in the rest of the nearshore lake area. We think that Ohio EPA is going to clarify this impairment, which should make it more attainable.
- When we clear out or lock in the Old River Channel's remaining sediment, and they test a generation of bullhead catfish without finding deformities, eroded fins, lesions, or tumors. And we take care of a couple of questionable sites along Tinker's Creek.
- When nutrient loads are down to target levels, and excessive algae isn't showing up (the "eutrophication" impairment). This is another reason to work on green infrastructure that reduces polluted stormwater from flowing into the river. We have to do some more monitoring on this, but it might be one of the next impairments to go.
- When we clean up aesthetic restrictions to use of the river. We might actually be able to de-list this one right away, since the Port's new debris harvesters are removing the debris in the ship channel and harbor. We'll be asking about delisting this impairment and hoping the authorities don't require us to prevent all littering by people at beaches. | <urn:uuid:78ee4287-9156-4959-8f05-557b239fb5d2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gcbl.org/blog/2013/02/when-will-the-cuyahoga-be-okay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946823 | 1,325 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Pete Seeger, the folk musician, political activist and key figure in the American folk revival, has died in a New York hospital aged 94.
Seeger's six-decade career began shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War, when he found employment playing the banjo and worked on the Archive of American Folk Song at the Library of Congress.
By 1940, Seeger was on the road alongside Woodie Guthrie performing political songs and recording his first album alongside The Almanac Singers.
He was enlisted in the US Army in 1942 and served until 1945, whereupon he returned to performing. In 1948 he formed a new folk group, The Weavers, which had hits throughout the early '50s.
The group's politics saw them targeted by the McCarthy-era witch-hunts, and Seeger was called to testify by the Committee on Un-American Activities in 1955. After refusing to answer the committee's questions, Seeger was cited with ten counts of Contempt of Congress.
By 1960, Seeger had become a key player in the burgeoning folk revival. In 1961 he was found guilty of contempt of Congress and sentenced to a ten year jail term, although this was quickly overturned on appeal.
A mentor to key figures of the folk revival – including a young Bob Dylan – Seeger's songs, storytelling and dedication to political action meant his influence was felt far outside of the folk scene. He was an outspoken activist who was vocal on controversial issues from Vietnam to the environment, and whose political beliefs and music were intrinsically linked.
An accomplished six- and twelve-string guitarist, banjo player and singer, Seeger was also a curator of traditional folk song, prolific recording artist and formidable songwriter, who penned several songs that became huge hits including If I Had A Hammer (The Hammer Song), Where Have All The Flowers Gone and Turn! Turn! Turn! (To Everything There Is A Season).
His passion and musicianship went on to influence generations of artists, establishing Seeger's reputation as the father of American folk. Bruce Springsteen's 2006 album We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions was a collection of songs often performed by Seeger, and in 2009, Seeger and Springsteen sang Woody Guthrie's This Land Is Your Land at President Obama's inauguration. | <urn:uuid:265eda86-f52e-4fc5-998c-798424fe43dd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/pete-seeger-dies-aged-94-593248 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.983514 | 470 | 2.703125 | 3 |
David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 73 (footnotes omitted):
The provinces of Connecticut and Plymouth also forbade any single person to "live of himself."
These laws were enforced. In 1668 the court of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, systematically searched its towns for single persons and placed them in families. In 1672 the Essex County Court noted:
Being informed that John Littleale of Haverill lay in a house by himself contrary to the law of the country, whereby he is subject to much sin and iniquity, which ordinarily are the companions and consequences of a solitary life, it was ordered...he remove and settle himself in some orderly family in the town, and be subject to the orderly rules of family government.One stubborn loner, John Littleale, was given six weeks to comply, on pain of being sent to "settle himself" in the House of Correction.
This custom was not invented in New England. It had long been practiced in East Anglia. From as early as 1562 to the mid-seventeenth century, The High Constables' Sessions and Quarter Courts of Essex County in England had taken similar action against "single men," "bachelors," and "masterless men." | <urn:uuid:132158dd-1a14-4a90-a10c-9a0accebc8eb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://laudatortemporisacti.blogspot.com/2010/03/loners.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967066 | 272 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Above all else, guard your heart, for everything you do flows from it. (Proverbs 4:23 NIV)
(For the complete story of Solomon, see 2 Samuel 12:24 through 1 Kings 11:43).
Nearly 3,000 years have passed since King Solomon wrote the Book of Proverbs, yet this timeless treasure of practical wisdom is still applicable today. Considered the wisest man who ever lived, King Solomon failed to take his own advice and fell into idolatry. Let us take a look at his life, for there is much we can learn.
King Solomonís life had great beginnings. The young King of Israel was humble, and his heart was devoted and surrendered to God. One night he had a dream and God said, ďAsk for whatever you want me to give you.Ē (1 Kings 3:5). Solomon replied, ďGive me wisdom and discernment to govern the people.Ē (1 Kings 3:9). Pleased with Solomonís request, God gave him not only wisdom and discernment but wealth and honor. (1 Kings 3:10-13).
King Solomon was greater in wisdom and wealth than all the kings of the earth. (1 Kings 10:23). During his 40 year reign, Israel was the most powerful and prosperous nation in the region. His reputation as a man of great wisdom spread far and wide, and people came to hear him speak from all nations. (1 Kings 4:34).
King Solomon built the first Temple in Jerusalem and adorned it with the finest gold and polished stones. (1 Kings 6:1-38). He engaged in massive construction projects and built cities and ships and a magnificent royal palace. He was a superb statesman who expanded commercial trade with surrounding nations, thus increasing the wealth and riches of the nation of Israel.
Beneath the gold and glitter of Solomonís reign, serious problems were surfacing. Solomon loved many foreign women. (1 Kings 11:1). He had 700 royal wives and 300 concubines. (1 Kings 11:3). God had given warning not to take multiple wives (Deuteronomy 17:17) and intermarry with pagan nations (1 Kings 11:2), but Solomon disobeyed. In his later years, Solomonís wives lured him into worshiping other gods. (1 Kings 11:4). King Solomonís divided heart resulted in a divided kingdom. The Kingdom of Israel was split during the reign of Solomonís son, Rehoboam. (1 Kings 11:9-13).
Most theologians agree that, near the end of his life, Solomon wrote the Book of Ecclesiastes, reflecting on his life. Solomonís achievements and earthly pursuits left him unfulfilled. Here was a man who had everything Ė power, wealth, intellect, and fame Ė yet he declared it all meaningless. (Ecclesiastes 1:1-10). He discovered that life apart from God was empty and without purpose.
King Solomonís life reminds us that the problems associated with power, lust and greed in our modern world have existed for thousands of years. He teaches us that life without God is meaningless and only in Him can we find true fulfillment. Above all, Solomon exhorts us to guard our hearts against anything that can cause us to stray or jeopardize our relationship with God.
Father, thank you for teaching us valuable truths from the life of King Solomon. Let these truths lead us to a deeper commitment to Christ. In Jesusí name I pray. Amen.
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The opinions expressed by authors do not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com. | <urn:uuid:5ac834f5-7a73-4479-85a3-1ae836e72ffe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.faithwriters.com/article-details.php?id=163641 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952604 | 918 | 2.78125 | 3 |
versão On-line ISSN 2071-0771
MASUBELELE, Mmoto L.; FOXCROFT, Llewellyn C. e MILTON, Suzanne J.. Alien plant species list and distribution for Camdeboo National Park, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Koedoe [online]. 2009, vol.51, n.1, pp. 1-10. ISSN 2071-0771.
Protected areas globally are threatened by the potential negative impacts that invasive alien plants pose, and Camdeboo National Park (CNP), South Africa, is no exception. Alien plants have been recorded in the CNP since 1981, before it was proclaimed a national park by South African National Parks in 2005. This is the first publication of a list of alien plants in and around the CNP. Distribution maps of some of the first recorded alien plant species are also presented and discussed. To date, 39 species of alien plants have been recorded, of which 13 are invasive and one is a transformer weed. The majority of alien plant species in the park are herbaceous (39%) and succulent (24%) species. The most widespread alien plant species in the CNP are Atriplex inflata (= A. lindleyi subsp. inflata), Salsola tragus (= S. australis) and cacti species, especially Opuntia ficus-indica. Eradication and control measures that have been used for specific problematic alien plant species are described. Conservation implications: This article represents the first step in managing invasive alien plants and includes the collation of a species list and basic information on their distribution in and around the protected area. This is important for enabling effective monitoring of both new introductions and the distribution of species already present. We present the first species list and distribution information for Camdeboo National Park.
Palavras-chave : alien plants; biological invasion; habitat; threats; weeds. | <urn:uuid:1f8a6b0c-45ce-4679-8b9a-a197b9fde932> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0075-64582009000100010&lng=pt&nrm=iso&tlng=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904115 | 404 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Did you know that sometimes quadratics can be used to make a more complicated polynomial easier to work with? This tutorial introduces you to quadratic form and shows you what a polynomial needs to have in order to be written in that form.
You can't go through algebra without seeing quadratic functions. The graphs of quadratic functions are parabolas; they tend to look like a smile or a frown. In this tutorial, get introduced to quadratic functions, look at their graphs, and see some examples of quadratic functions!
You can't go through algebra without seeing quadratic equations. The graphs of quadratic equations are parabolas; they tend to look like a smile or a frown. There's also a bunch of ways to solve these equations! Watch this tutorial and get introduced to quadratic equations! | <urn:uuid:938713d5-ae2d-4266-8dcc-a504f8f0a7e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.virtualnerd.com/algebra-2/polynomials/equations/solve-equations/quadratic-form-definition | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953474 | 178 | 3.546875 | 4 |
[Audio Intro] - Sean McDowell introduces this chapter.
[Chapter 03 Study Questions] (with kindle locations) - PDF study guide.
[Podcast Feed RSS | Podcast in iTunes] - Click to subscribe to the audio.
Chapter Three: Are Miracles Possible?
Chapter three looks at the objections to miracles. The authors start by discussing how presuppositions shape acceptable or rejection of miracles. For instance, if naturalism is true, miracles are not possible. But if God exists, miracles are possible. They look at the definition of miracles used by Richard Dawkins, and show that probabilities must be considered in light of all the evidence. David Hume's "in principle" and "in fact" objections are explained and answered and a case is then made for the resurrection of Jesus based on agreed-upon historical facts.
Apologist Gary Habermas contributes with an essay showing that the resurrection of Jesus is a precursor to heaven. He lists ten biblical facts that point to our future hope in light of the nature of Jesus' resurrection.
The New Atheists are especially unwilling to consider evidence for a miracle because such an event does not fit their preconceived view of the world. Because of their commitment to naturalism, they discard miracles from the outset, regardless of the strength of the evidence. (p. 45)
If God exists, miracles are possible. If it's even possible that God exists, then we can't rule out his intervention in the natural world before we consider the evidence. (p. 46)
Only one conclusion takes into account all the accepted historical facts and does not adjust them to preconceived notions. It is the conclusion that Jesus rose from the dead—a miraculous event in history. (p. 54)Discuss
- Which argument from David Hume have you heard most often?
- How do you answer someone who says that miracles are, by definition, impossible?
- How are we rational in believing an immensely improbable event has occurred?
- Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles by Norman Geisler
- In Defense of Miracles: A Comprehensive Case for God's Action in History by Geivett & Habermas
Next Week: Chapter 4—Is Darwinian Evolution the Only Game in Town? | <urn:uuid:9d1951b6-dbab-4f0d-bfd4-923414a3c1b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.apologetics315.com/2013/04/read-along-chapter-3are-miracles.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916798 | 464 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Numerous towns and places have developed in all the states of India. In the state of Uttar Pradesh also, there has been no dearth of places or towns. Kadipur is quite important amongst them. Kadipur is a nagar panchayat . It is located in the district of Sultanpur district of the same state of India.
(Last Updated on : 02/02/2009)
The strategic location of Kadipur is no less significant. In fact, Kadipur is located approximately at 26.17° N 82.38° E. It has an average height of 90 metres or 295 feet.
Furthermore, the demography of any place is also inevitable in emphasizing the status of that place. The Census report of India that has been brought out in the year 2001 quite evidently throws some light about Kadipur like its population , literacy rate etc. The total population of Kadipur has been counted to be 6795. Both the condition of males, females and also children can be known from it. Males comprise of 53 percent and population of female is 47 percent . In Kadipur, 16 percent of the population is below six years of age.
Literacy rate too is quite relevant. What is interesting to note that Kadipur has an average literacy rate of 62% which is higher than that of the entire nation. 59.5 is the percentage of average literacy rate of India. Out of it, rate of male literacy is 69 percent and rate of female literacy is 55 percent.
From the perspective of the entire district of Sultanpur, it can be said that people here practice cultivation in order to sustain their livelihood. Fertile soils and irrigational facilities are suitable for the growth of major crops like pulses, rice, wheat, barley, sugarcane etc. Few industries also have grown in the district. It becomes obvious that the same trend is followed in Kadipur also. | <urn:uuid:a8029cc2-74e0-43dd-9a53-b0af988a3b32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.indianetzone.com/12/kadipur_uttar_pradesh.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969521 | 392 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Acupuncture and Knee Pain
What is knee pain?
Knee pain is a fairly common complaint among both children and adults.
According to the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, more than 11
million visits are made to physicians' offices each year because
of a knee or knee-related problem. It is the most often treated anatomical
site by orthopedists, and one of the most oft-examined sites among general
The knee is the largest joint in the body. It is made up of the lower
end of the thighbone (or femur), which rotates on the upper end of the
shinbone (tibia), and the kneecap, which slides in a grove on the end
of the femur. The knee joint also contains several muscles, which straighten
the leg and bend the leg at the knee; tendons, which attach the muscles
to the bones; ligaments, which help control motion by connecting bones;
and cartilage, which serves to cushion the knee or help it absorb shock
Because of its size, and because it is such a complex structure, it is
also one of the most frequently injured joints. Knee injuries can be caused
by several factors. Most complaints of knee pain result from some form
of trauma, such as a torn or ruptured ligament; a broken or fractured
kneecap; torn cartilage; or an accident that causes damage to the area
or strains the knee beyond its normal range of motion. Other conditions
that can lead to knee pain are infections; arthritis; hemarthrosis (blood
in the knee joint); cysts; and bone tumors. Being overweight can also
contribute to knee problems by causing excess strain on ligaments and
Who suffers from knee pain?
Many athletes experience knee injuries, particularly to the knee ligaments.
Nearly everyone has become familiar with the acronym ACL, which stands
for anterior cruciate ligament. ACL tears can be caused by rapidly twisting
or changing directions; slowing down when running; or landing from a jump.
Injuries to the medial collateral ligament (MCL) are usually caused by
contact on the outside of the knee.
Knee pain isn't restricted to professional athletes, however. As
people get older, the amount of cartilage in the knee decreases, and many
ligaments begin to lose some of their elasticity, making them more susceptible
to pain and/or injury.
What can acupuncture do?
Studies have shown acupuncture to be effective in relieving certain types
of knee pain, especially arthritic conditions of the knee and knee joint.
A 1999 study comparing electroacupuncture to ice massage and transcutaneous
nerve stimulation (TENS) for subjects with osteoarthritis found that acupuncture
decreased pain and stiffness levels and increased muscle strength and
flexion in the knee. Another study published that same year suggested
that patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome might benefit from weekly
acupuncture treatments. Smaller studies have confirmed that acupuncture
is beneficial in reducing knee pain, stiffness and physical disability
in patients with knee and knee-related problems. It can ease the discomfort
some subjects feel while waiting for knee surgery, and in some cases,
it may even be considered an alternative to surgery.
As with any other form of care, however, remember that not all patients
will respond to acupuncture. Make sure to discuss the situation thoroughly
with your acupuncturist before undergoing treatment for knee/leg pain
(or any other condition).
- Ernst E, Lee MH. Sympathetic effects of manual and electrical acupuncture
of the tsusanli knee point: comparison with the hoku hand
point sympathetic effects. Exp Neurol Oct 1986;94(1):1-10.
- Fang Z. Arthralgia treated by acupuncture within "chifu" area.
J Tradit Chin Med Sep 1999;19(3):207-9.
- Jensen R, Gothesen O, Liseth K, Baerheim A. Acupuncture treatment
of patellofemoral pain syndrome. J Altern Complement Med Dec
- Myhal D, Lebel E, Leung CY, Camerlain M. Radioisotope study of the
effect of acupuncture on the articular vascularization of the knee.
Union Med Can Dec 1981;110(12):1046-8. French.
- Shafshak TS. Electroacupuncture and exercise in body weight reduction
and their application in rehabilitating patients with knee osteoarthritis.
Am J Chin Med 1995;23(1):15-25.
- Wu ZM, Chen CG. Treatment of hydrarthrosis of the knee with manual
manipulation and herbs. J Tradit Chin Med Dec 1998;8(4):251-3.
- Yurtkuran M, Kocagil T. TENS, electroacupuncture and ice massage:
comparison of treatment for osteoarthritis of the knee. Am J Acupunct
- Zhang WB, Aukland K, Lund T, Wiig H. Distribution of interstitial
fluid pressure and fluid volumes in hind-limb skin of rats: relation
to meridians? Clin Physiol May 2000;20(3):242-9.
here to read more articles on Acupuncture and Knee Pain
Ask an Acupunctureist about Acupuncture and Back Pain
Find an Acupuncturist Near You | <urn:uuid:8baf9e3b-9692-45af-ac57-7e2e3d5f2fdf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://acupuncturetoday.com/abc/kneepain.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.8643 | 1,157 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Household law is the branch of law which deals with all maters associated with family and other domestic relations such as surrogacy and adoption, domestic collaborations, civil unions, marriage, divorce, kid abduction, child abuse matters, child disregard, youngster maintenance, child adoption, paternity cases, child visitation rights, child custody, alimony, division of family home, etc
. All courts worldwide have reported boost in family law as parties divorce
, embrace children, contest paternal fits, etc
. According to household law legal representatives, this branch of law is different from the other branches since it discuss delicate private matters. Sometimes, the household attorneys function as therapists, mediators, conciliators, negotiators, etc. The courts that adjudicate on household law matters often likewise act mediators as they try to fix up members of the very same household to fix their concerns is agreeably so about protect their relationship.
The drug of this kind of law varies from one jurisdiction to the other because the principles that underpin it are mostly borrowed from the society. For example, in societies where same sex relationships are not accepted, this kind of law requires that such union can not be acknowledged as marital relationship in courts of law.
Like all the other branches of law, household law has actually gone through many improvements in an effort to deal with the moderate issues in families. For example, a lot of societies have actually attempted to legalize 'come we stay' relationships if the parties included cohabit for particular period of time.
One if the most popular modern patterns in household law is the collective law which refers to structured process which offers celebrations looking for divorces or parties associated with other issues an alternative names of fixing their legal conflict instead of a going through the pricey, prolonged lawsuits process in courts. Collective law permits the parties to marital relationship or suggested civil union to take the control of their destiny by hiring family lawyers committed to the process of solving conflicts in household and relationships within household setting amicably through conversations and negotiations without the courts being included. | <urn:uuid:17cf4172-cd44-452c-87de-47392f732bf2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.muco29.fr/index.php/component/k2/itemlist/user/14410 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963743 | 407 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Ever wished you could press Pause during one of your mates' endless stories? Or wanted to Eject yourself from a painful relationship?
Wish no longer, scientists (mad, presumably) at Arizona State University have developed an ultrasound remote control for the human brain.
"We were able to unravel how ultrasound can stimulate the electrical activity of neurons by optically monitoring the activity of neuronal circuits," says lead investigator William Tyler, presumably while cackling insanely.
Tyler's research group discovered that remotely delivered low intensity, low frequency ultrasound could trigger the release of neurotransmitters from synapses, changing the behaviour of neural circuits.
Stuttering? You need your brain zapped
Other neuroscientists have been attempting to control neural activity with implanted electrodes, in order to treat conditions ranging from depression and drug addiction, to Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, Tourette's Syndrome, epilepsy and even stuttering.
By using pulsed ultrasound waveforms to penetrate the skull, Tyler's team has shown similar effects to electrodes without the trauma understandably associated with sticking needles into a patient's brain.
When asked about the potential of using his methods to remotely control brain activity, Tyler replied: "One might be able to envision potential applications ranging from medical interventions to use in video gaming or the creation of artificial memories along the lines of Arnold Schwarzenegger's character in Total Recall."
"Obviously, we need to conduct further research and development," he continued, probably envisaging a portable brain zapper and a nightclub full of young ladies.
Article continues below | <urn:uuid:c74c71d9-cfe9-43ff-ae8c-72d57049e98c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.techradar.com/news/world-of-tech/scientists-create-remote-control-for-the-brain-480595 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936432 | 311 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Congress, Mother Nature, and Foodborne Illness: Food Banks Struggling to Fight Unusual Challenges
While emergency food supplies have finally started making their way into communities hard hit by superstorm Sandy, those who depend on local food banks, food pantries and soup kitchens for assistance may be left hungry. From Vermont to Tennessee to Arizona, officials with emergency food programs around the nation say cuts and uncertainty in federal nutrition programs, combined with nationwide food recalls, are leaving shelves barren as we move into the holiday season.
For St. Mary’s Food Bank Alliance in Arizona—one of the largest food banks in the nation, distributing 5.5 million pounds of food a month—it was the peanut butter recall that hurt.
“The peanut butter recall killed us,” Beverly Damore, president and CEO of St. Mary’s Food Bank Alliance, tells TakePart. “It was so massive and kept expanding, and it hit to the core of one of the items we want the most. It really just cut a swath through the middle of our warehouse.”
Stimulus funds distributed in 2009 and 2010 under the Obama Administration’s American Recovery and Reinvestment Act have dried up. At the same time, the USDA’s Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP)—which supplied $565 million in total food resources to states in 2012, also saw a decline in what they call “bonus buys”—a program that many food banks rely on to supply quality food like eggs, milk, produce and more.
Agriculture demand was so high this year, a USDA spokesperson tells us, that the agency simply didn’t need to step in with “bonus buys,” with the exception of this summer’s devastating drought. The drought caused the price of feed to skyrocket, forcing farmers and ranchers to slaughter livestock. In August, USDA Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsak announced the agency would purchase $170 million of pork, lamb, chicken, and catfish to help stabilize the market, and direct the purchase towards food nutrition assistance programs, including food banks. While the “bonus buy” program directly helps American growers and those who rely on food assistance, when farm surplus goes down, as it did this year, the amount of food that ends up on food pantry shelves dips as well.
And then, there’s the still-languishing Farm Bill.
Funding for the TEFAP program falls under the 2012 Farm Bill. While the Senate voted to increase spending on the program, the bill was blocked by House Republicans.
“It puts a big cloud of uncertainty over the program because we don’t know the outcome of the Farm Bill,” says Damore. “About 15 percent of our total poundage goes through USDA programs like TEFAP.” | <urn:uuid:9007e085-a5a4-4b8f-bc0a-136f89a1d6b1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.takepart.com/article/2012/11/06/food-banks-struggle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941524 | 595 | 2.546875 | 3 |
A carburetor is a device which mixes air and fuel for an internal-combustion engine. Carburetors are still found in small engines and in older or specialized automobiles such as those designed for stock car racing. However, most cars built since the early 1980s use computerized electronic fuel injection instead of carburetion. The majority of motorcycles still are carburated due to lower weight and cost, however as of 2005 many new models are now being introduced with fuel injection.
Most carbureted (as opposed to fuel-injected) engines have a single carburetor, though some, primarily with greater than 4 cylinders or higher performance engines, use multiple carburetors or multi-choke carburetors . Older engines used updraft carburetors, where the air enters from below the carburetor and exits through the top. This had the advantage of never "flooding" the engine, as any liquid fuel droplets would fall out of the carburetor instead of into the intake manifold; it also lent itself to use of an oil bath air cleaner, where a pool of oil below a mesh element below the carburetor is sucked up into the mesh and the air is drawn through the oil covered mesh; this was an effective system in a time when paper air filters did not exist. Today, most automotive carburetors are either downdraft (flow of air is downwards) or side-draft (flow of air is sideways). In the United States, downdraft carburetors were almost ubiquitous, partly because a downdraft unit is ideal for V engines. In Europe, the side-draft replaced downdraft as underbonnet (US - "under hood") space decreased and the use of the SU-type carburetor increased. Small propeller-driven flat airplane engines still have the updraft carburetor, as do many small engines, as on lawnmowers and so on.
The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the fact that moving air has lower pressure than still air, and that the faster the movement of the air, the lower the pressure. Generally speaking, the throttle or accelerator does not control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it controls the amount of air that enters the carburetor. Faster flows of air and more air entering the carburetor draws more fuel into the carburetor due to the partial vacuum that is created. | <urn:uuid:0a4d1684-47d1-4d89-b2ec-9597393443ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dragtimes.com/carburetor.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955545 | 501 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The crossword puzzle clue today is "Uru. neighbor". To solve this puzzle clue, we look for the similarity crossword puzzle definitions for our clue. Below are the possibilities crossword solution and answer for "Uru. neighbor".
Argentina is the second largest country in South America (after Brazil), and geographically is the world’s largest Spanish-speaking nation. The name “Argentina” of course comes from the Latin “argentum”, the word for “silver”. It is thought that the name was given by the early Spanish and Portuguese conquerors who also named the Rio de la Plata (the “Silver River”). Those early explorers got hold of lots of silver objects that they found among the native population.
The official name of Uruguay is the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, reflecting the countries location on the eastern coast of South America. It is a relatively small country, the second smallest on the continent, after Suriname. In 2009, Uruguay became the first country in the world to provide a free laptop and Internet access to every child. Now there’s a thought
If there is another crossword solution for Uru. neighbor , feel free to leave a comment below and we will rate as the right answer for this crossword puzzle clue. | <urn:uuid:8af3285b-ac0f-4af5-83b4-482a5c2e9497> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thecrosswordsolver.net/uru-neighbor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928625 | 272 | 2.75 | 3 |
Very Small and Very Large Results on the TI-Nspire
If you’re familiar with the TI-84 graphing calculator, very large and very small results are often automatically put into scientific notation; that’s not necessarily true, however, when using TI-Nspire.
Take, for example, the calculation
(five-halves raised to the 74th power). The first screen shows the exact result as a stacked fraction in excruciating detail! This result is roughly equivalent to 2.8 x 1029.
Now try evaluating two-fifths raised to the 74th power. Press
This extremely small result, approximately equal to 3.57 x 10–30, also displays as a stacked fraction in all its glory. See the second screen.
Very large or very small results often don’t fit on a single screen. To view an entire result, press
once to highlight the answer. Press [ENTER] and then use the
keys to scroll through and view the entire answer.
So just how large an exponent can you raise five-halves? Try raising this number to the 1419th power. TI-Nspire displays the answer as a stacked fraction.
Now try an exponent of 1420. This time, the result displays in scientific notation. Now try raising five-halves to the 2513th power. TI-Nspire can’t handle this calculation and displays an Error Overflow message. (See the third screen.) | <urn:uuid:79236717-24af-4101-b3f1-f5871624e064> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/very-small-and-very-large-results-on-the-tinspire.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.894342 | 309 | 3.546875 | 4 |
In its editorial of Nov. 21, the Mercury News proclaimed that San Jose City Councilman Xavier Campos had been "caught" in a lie when, after relying on his constitutional right not to testify before a grand jury investigating an illegal campaign mailer, he publicly asserted that he was innocent of any involvement in the mailer's production or distribution.
Campos' public statements came after it was insinuated in the media that because he exercised his rights he must be guilty of the crime under investigation. This presumption of guilt, however, shows a profound misunderstanding of the nature of the constitutional privilege.
There is nothing inconsistent between asserting the Fifth Amendment in a judicial proceeding and publicly declaring one's innocence. As the U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly stated, "one of the Fifth Amendment's basic functions is to protect innocent men who otherwise might be ensnared by ambiguous circumstances." In a criminal case, the burden remains exclusively on the prosecution to prove a defendant's guilt, and every citizen enjoys the right to refuse to provide any information that may assist the prosecution in its efforts to accuse, charge or convict him or her of a crime.
Justice Felix Frankfurter described the Fifth Amendment as "one of the greatest landmarks in man's struggle to make himself civilized." Although the privilege against self-incrimination is sometimes considered to be a shelter to the guilty, it is also highly regarded as a protection to the innocent. Both the guilty and the innocent may avail themselves of the privilege, and a witness who declares himself or herself to be innocent in an informal public setting does not "lie" when he or she refuses to answer questions when forced to appear before an accusatorial body.
Unlike a trial jury, which hears cases in open court, a grand jury conducts its activities in secret, with only a prosecutor admitted to assist in its investigations. It is the prosecutor who conducts the examination of witnesses, and witnesses are not allowed to have an attorney present to object to ambiguous questions, to seek clarification or to ask questions designed to show someone's innocence, rather than his or her guilt. Only the prosecutor has the right to make a closing argument. As a general rule, the only prudent course for a witness who may be the subject of a grand jury investigation is to refuse to testify.
This is especially true when the investigation involves political issues and there may be factors other than the pursuit of justice that will affect the jurors and their advisers. In the Campos case, the assistant district attorney conducting the grand jury investigation and her husband, presently a judge, were financial contributors to the campaign of the alleged victim. (Editor's note: This is prosecutor Karyn Sinunu Towery and Judge James Towery.) Under the circumstances, an innocent person would prudently and properly refuse to testify.
In the words of Justice Frankfurter, the view that persons who invoke their rights under the Fifth Amendment are guilty of a crime, "does scant honor to the patriots who sponsored the Bill of Rights." It is the law that no inference whatsoever may be drawn from a witness' reliance on the Fifth Amendment. The invocation of one's rights says nothing about a witness' guilt, and the conclusion that a witness who exercises his or her right not to testify is guilty is unfounded and unworthy of those who honor the Constitution.
James McManis and Hon. Gregory Ward (Ret.) are attorneys for Xavier Campos. They wrote this for this newspaper. | <urn:uuid:d2d838d7-9dcf-4586-ae86-32d9f775066c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mercurynews.com/opinion/ci_24597501/xavier-campos-testimony-taking-fifth-amendment-no-way?source=pkg | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963762 | 696 | 2.53125 | 3 |
For more information:
"If an animal has Mad Cow Disease, or bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)," said David Schardt, associate nutritionist with the Center for Science in the Public Interest, "its brain is the tissue most likely to be infected. While BSE has never been detected in U.S. cattle, it is critical that industry institute every safeguard possible."
Schardt co-authored an article in the current issue of Nutrition Action Healthletter detailing the potential BSE problem. CSPI, which publishes the newsletter, has asked the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the meat industry to work together to plug this newly discovered gap in the "firewall" against Mad Cow Disease.
Tam Garland, a research veterinarian at Texas A&M University, told Nutrition Action, "Our research shows that it's possible that microscopic particles of brain matter can be circulated to the lungs, liver, and maybe other sites. Brain tissue could, in theory, circulate anywhere. The implications are frightening."
Graham Clarke, chief of red-meat inspection for the Canadian government's Food Inspection Agency, agreed, telling Nutrition Action: "The force (of pneumatic stunning) is so explosive that it splatters brain tissue into the cow's blood vessels."
Joining CSPI at a Washington press conference, the American Meat Institute (AMI) and the National Cattlemen's Beef Association (NCBA) announced that they will sponsor a study to further identify and eliminate the potential risks related to stunning cattle. They will ask USDA to approve the study's design.
Scientists suspect that at least 18 cases of a new form of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease -- a rare incurable brain disease -- developed after victims in Great Britain and France ate contaminated meat from cattle with BSE.
"Now, before Mad Cow Disease is found in U.S. cattle, is the time to prevent the human food supply from becoming contaminated," said CSPI food safety director Caroline Smith DeWaal. "To protect the American public from this frightful disease, the government must ensure that brain and spinal tissues are kept out of our food completely."
"We advised the industry of the discovery that slaughtering practices could result in the brain tissue being incorporated into meat. Both the American Meat Institute and the National Cattlemen's Beef Association have reacted quickly and responsibly. They are sponsoring a study that will identify humane, alternative slaughter methods that will eliminate this potential risk of exposing consumers to BSE."
DeWaal said CSPI has asked Agriculture Secretary Dan Glickman to help ensure that the studies are of the highest quality by "fully reviewing the protocols and implementation of the studies." She noted that the U.S. government has already erected other firewalls to keep BSE out of the human food supply. The Food and Drug Administration has forbidden the addition of mammalian remains to cattle feed, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture directed the meat industry to eliminate spinal cord in mechanically deboned meat, which is often added to ground beef.
Janet Collins, AMI Vice President for Science and Technology, said: "The Humane Slaughter Act requires that cattle are stunned prior to slaughter in order to make them instantly insensitive to pain. Thus stunning is not only a humane practice, it is also mandated by law -- except for Kosher slaughter, which makes up a small percentage of U.S. beef. It is critical that this required process be completely safe."
Collins said the AMI Foundation "will soon launch a new research project with the National Cattlemen's Beef Association to determine whether U.S. humane stunning practices could present any unintentional safety hazard. Our study protocol will be reviewed by government officials in the U.S. and Canada."
"If a problem is found," she said, "either with stunning in general or with particular methods or machinery, we will move swiftly to address it. Our project is expected to begin in September and to conclude by late November or early December."
"No one wants the U.S. to remain BSE-free more than the nation's one million beef producers," said Gary Weber, NCBA executive director of regulatory affairs. "A top priority for the National Cattlemen's Beef Association is to develop science-based methods to ensure that beef remains safe and wholesome and that animals remain healthy.
"America's beef producers are committed to working with the government and with industry partners to develop and fund research to determine if processing methods and technologies need to be improved to provide additional assurance of beef safety," he said. "If scientific research indicates that changes are needed in processing, we are committed to making those changes."
"Mad Cow Disease has left a trail of fear, death, and enormous economic losses in Great Britain and other European countries," Schardt said. "We are here today to help prevent a similar catastrophe from occurring in the U.S."
The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), based in Washington, D.C., is a nonprofit health-advocacy organization. It is supported largely by the 900,000 subscribers to its Nutrition Action Healthletter and does not accept government or industry funding. CSPI was a major proponent of last year's improvements in meat and poultry inspection. The organization is well-known for obtaining nutrition labeling on packaged foods and for its nutritional studies of restaurant foods.
[ NAH Article on BSE ] [ What's New Index ] [ CSPI Home Page ] | <urn:uuid:1f2bb2d6-52e1-4f10-86b8-34cb994cabdc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.cspinet.org/new/madcowpr.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957255 | 1,132 | 3.140625 | 3 |
This unique volume clearly analyzes the complex field of semiconductor microwave engineering. Constants, formulas, derivations, and practical applications using diode control circuits are covered in an easy-to-follow format. This handbook even offers coverage of computer language related specifically to microwave device engineering. Microwave circuit engineers say this ready-to-use insight into FORTRAN IV programming is reason alone to have the book. Vital attention is given to microwave semiconductor diodes, and an extensive table of fundamental diode characteristics - not found even in diode handbooks - is provided for your convenience.
You'll discover unique treatments, such as a thermal time constant analysis that quantifies the pulses heating effect of semiconductors, along with a method of estimating their reliability (long life expectancy) based on operating junction temperature. Practical examples of microwave network analysis and field analysis with actual device designs are demonstrated and examined.
1. The PN Junction
2. PIN Diodes and the Theory of Microwave Operation
3. Practical PIN Diodes
4. Binary State Transistor Drivers
5. Fundamental Limits of Control Networks
6. Mathematical Techniques and Computer Aided Design (CAD)
7. Limiters and Duplexers
8. Switches and Attenuators
Joseph F. White received the Ph.D. from Rennsselaer Polytechnic Institute and is currently the publisher of APPLIED MICROWAVE & WIRELESS magazine, which he founded in 1989. He has been active in solid state microwave engineering for over 30 years. Dr. White is a frequent speaker at professional and technical meetings.
A Fellow in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), he received the annual Application Award given by the Microwave Theory and Techniques Society of the IEEE and is a member of the Technical Paper Review Committee for its annual international symposium. He holds several patents and has designed phase shifter control circuits for the largest phased array systems in the free world. | <urn:uuid:65604fdb-550b-40bd-81ae-dccff5f1ca8c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theiet.org/resources/books/electro/microwave_semi.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922407 | 414 | 2.5625 | 3 |
This arresting book on Oscar Wilde as reader has much to commend it, even if, finally, its ambitions are not quite achieved. Thomas Wright aims at an "entirely new kind of literary biography": an author's life told "exclusively through the books that he had read". His subject was not only an avid reader, but one who professed to find in books something more real than reality. Wilde was, moreover, a serial plagiarist. His own works unashamedly bore the traces of his voracious consumption of literary predecessors.
Wilde may seem an ideal candidate for the "inner life" Wright envisages. What wrong-foots the project is the "pull" not of the tales the Irishman read, but of Wilde's inventive, improvised life story. The tragic push of his bewitchment by Alfred Douglas; his entrapment by Douglas's father; the senseless force of British law: all altered forever the careful relationship Wilde had constructed in which literature outflanked life. Heartbroken, after his arrest, that his library had been sold to pay creditors, Wilde mourned a way of living and thinking he knew to have expired.
Prescience in his own writings has made people suggest that Wilde cast Douglas to live out the excesses of his fictional creation, Dorian Gray. Gray, likewise of unfathomable beauty, first destroys the life of an artist, then surrenders his own. Wright reminds us that, on being presented with an inscribed copy of The Picture of Dorian Gray by its author in 1891, Douglas read it 14 times.
But the awful denouement Wilde experienced resembled nothing so conscious. Rather, as Wilde the classical scholar understood, he became a captive in the unfolding of a Greek tragic nemesis. In Reading Gaol, he made sense of the pitiless surroundings by referring to Dante's Inferno. Scholars have much to thank Wright for, in tracking down so many extant copies of Wilde's library, and conveying much of his scribbled marginalia. The chief progenitors all feature: from Aristotle to Huysmans, Plato to Flaubert, Aeschylus to Pater. The Irishman famously cautioned André Gide "never to write 'I' anymore. In art, don't you see, there is no first person".
Richard Canning's 'Brief Lives: Oscar Wilde' is published by Hesperus PressReuse content | <urn:uuid:cedbd85c-1096-4ce2-a469-2b35f87d6ece> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/oscars-books-by-thomas-wright-941310.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971183 | 496 | 2.53125 | 3 |
25 July, 2013
Iowa Lakeside Lab hosted the High School Diatom Camp for the second time from July 15th to the 19th this year, with financial support from the Friends of Lakeside Lab. The students went on field collection trips to West and East Lake Okoboji, Silver Lake Fen, Freda Haffner Kettlehole, and the Little Sioux River. Students learned about the morphological diversity of diatoms, their biology and life history, and their applications in water quality assessment and forensic science. Students worked together to compile a graphic novel style booklet on these subject areas, in addition to pages describing their favorite diatom genera: Cymatopleura, Gyrosigma, Epithemia, Pinnularia, and Hydrosera.
The students also conducted a morphological comparison of Cymatopleura solea in plankton samples from the Lazy Lagoon (Triboji Beach, IA) taken in 1983 and 30 years later, in 2013. Specimens from the Reimer Diatom Herbarium (and identified by Dr. Charles Reimer) as C. solea were compared with specimens collected in 2013. The students found a positive relationship between C. solea valve length and width, a constant costa density, and that the two populations were likely in different stages of life history: the population from May 2013 had much larger valves resulting from recent size regeneration, while the population from July 1983 had much smaller valves resulting from asexual divisions without size-regenerating sexual reproduction.
The students presented these findings and their graphic novel to their families and guests at the end of the camp. Instructors Sylvia Lee (Florida International University) and Kerry Howard (University of Nevada-Reno) were thoroughly impressed by the students’ creativity and enthusiasm for diatoms. The finale of the students’ presentations was a rendition of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, about the forbidden love between a pennate and a centric diatom, affecting a rousing response from the audience.
Image Credit: Dana Norton
Taking a page from a graphic novel on the process of asexual cell division in diatoms.
Image Credit: Jane Shuttleworth
Taking a dip and sampling diatoms on West Lake Okoboji.
Image Credit: Neve Heimer-Lang
Taking a page from a graphic novel on the features of the genus Cymatopleura.
Image Credit: Sylvia Lee
Showing off hand made t-shirts outside Macbride Lab | <urn:uuid:f193c53d-5fa2-4161-9a90-8abf0a1a58dd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://westerndiatoms.colorado.edu/about/news_story/2314/high_school_diatom_camp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939146 | 518 | 2.625 | 3 |
So we will take it as given, or at least observed in some cases and reasonably likely in general, that AI can, at the current state of the programming art, handle any particular well-specified task, given enough (human) programming effort aimed at that one task.
We can be a bit more specific about what “well-specified” means. In general, if the task has a static ontology that can be laid out by the programmers, it’s within the scope of current practice. A huge part of the progress of early AI was in fact simply building up (hand-made) ontologies. An ontology includes, BTW, not just a list of concept names, but the semantics: code to recognize, predict, simulate, and perform whatever things we’d expect a person to be able to do who we would describe as “understanding” the concept.
The difference between this “static AI” and real human-level intelligence is that people learn new concepts constantly. We will learn several words a day our entire lives (estimates range from 1 to 10 and of course this depends on individual intelligence and environment). Concepts are constantly changing and growing, splitting and merging, being half-forgotten and rediscovered.
Not only the ability to create new concepts, but the fluidity and adaptability of the ones we already have, enable the robustness of human intelligence.
There’s been a lot less research on how to build concepts than there has been involving the formalization of existing ones in static form. There’s a bias toward the latter since you get a machine that can do something useful much quicker that way.
However, there has been research in creating new concepts and we can say something about it. It seems to be the area where the high computational resources make a difference. The most general approach we have is search, in various forms. Deep Blue invented startling new chess strategies on the fly. These robots evolved a number of concepts through simulated evolution.
(ps — if you want your research paper to be picked up by the pop-sci news and blogosphere, simply include the words “robot” and “predator” in it )
Going back to Lenat’s AM, it’s been understood that search, in various forms, is capable of the kind of learning we need, but also that it tends to run out of steam sooner rather than later. In other words, it seems likely that a properly set-up search is capable of inventing a fairly sophisticated concept, but you need another setup for the next one. It’s generally accepted that some sort of evolutionary search is going on in the brain, but the system that controls it, sets up the search spaces, defines the fitness functions, and so forth, is definitely not well understood.
Thus the key to understanding when and whether general AI can happen lies in the high-level organization that can guide the application of focused search to produce a growing set of concepts that work coherently together. | <urn:uuid:cce6e3c4-1a69-4a52-a6d0-857d8bbecd8b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foresight.org/nanodot/?p=3721 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956193 | 630 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Posted on April 12, 2012
The liberal arts portion of a journalism education
Model Curricula for Journalism Education is a 150-page document produced by UNESCO and published in 2007. Its contents are based on work done in 2005 by an international group of journalism educators.
While many details in the document (particularly the recommended books) are now quite out of date, the general principles and recommendations are still solid and useful.
Although my main concern usually centers on digital skills (visual, audio, code) for reporting and storytelling, I was intrigued by these two lists in the UNESCO document (pages 33–34):
Journalism and Society
- A knowledge of the role of journalism in society, including its role in developing and securing democracy.
- An ability to reflect on developments within journalism.
- An understanding of how information is collected and managed by political, commercial and other organizations.
- An awareness of the international flow of information and its effects on one’s own country.
- A knowledge of the history of journalism and the news media in one’s own country and the world.
- A knowledge of news media ownership, organization and competition.
- A knowledge of the laws affecting the news media in one’s own country and the world.
- A basic understanding of one’s own country’s system of government, its constitution, system of justice, political process, economy, social and cultural organization, and its relations with other countries.
- A basic knowledge of the geography and history of one’s own country and the world.
- A basic knowledge of science.
- A specialized knowledge of at least one subject area important to journalism in one’s own country.
These are listed under “Journalism Competencies” (page 30) and follow a much longer list labeled “Professional Standards,” which includes research skills, writing skills, and a list with this unwieldy heading:
Skilled use of the tools of journalism in editing, designing, and producing material, for print, broadcast and online media, with an understanding of and ability to adapt to convergence and technological developments in journalism.
I noticed the absence of math skills, statistics, knowledge of economics, and computer programming skills from the lists.
Lacking skills and knowledge in those areas, a journalist is ill-prepared for reporting in today’s world.
Related post: 6 Proposals for Journalism Education Today (July 2011). | <urn:uuid:0eb903b9-08d8-406a-b191-7f9706b9c77a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mindymcadams.com/tojou/2012/the-liberal-arts-portion-of-a-journalism-education/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927049 | 510 | 3.125 | 3 |
Oyster Mushroom Production
What is it?
A model scheme for cultivation of Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) with commercial viability and bankability has been prepared keeping in view the agro-climatic conditions and other related aspects for successful cultivation of the mushroom and its subsequent marketing. Cultivation of mushroom can be taken up on a large scale by individual entrepreneurs. The agro-climatic conditions as well as local availability of raw material makes mushroom cultivation an economically viable proposition.
Mushrooms, also called ‘white vegetables’ or ‘boneless vegetarian meat’ contain ample amounts of proteins, vitamins and fibre apart from having certain medicinal properties. Mushroom contains 20-35% protein (dry weight) which is higher than those of vegetables and fruits and is of superior quality. Mushrooms are now getting significant importance due to their nutritional and medicinal value and today their cultivation is being done in about 100 countries. At present world production is estimated to be around 5 million tonnes and is ever increasing. Though 20 mushroom varieties are domesticated about half a dozen varieties viz; button, shitake, oyster, wood ear and paddy straw mushrooms contribute 99% of the total world production.
Mushroom offers prospects for converting lignocellulosic residues from agricultural fields, forests into protein rich biomass. Such processing of agro waste not only reduces environmental pollution but the by product of mushroom cultivation is also a good source of manure, animal feed and soil conditioner.
Cultivation of Oyster Mushroom
The cultivation of Oyster mushroom or Dhingri mushroom or Pleurotus spp is relatively simple and can be a homestead project. The agro- climatic conditions in our country especially in the North Indian States are conducive for mushroom cultivation when the temperature is 15-30°C and relative humidity is 70-80%. The production decreases during peak periods of winter.
Climate & other conditions
Pleurotus spp. is one of the choice edible mushrooms which can be cultivated in the tropics. It has gained importance only in the last decade and is now being cultivated in many countries in the subtropical and temperate zones. Different species of Pleurotus are suited for growing within a temperature range of 15 to 30°C. P.sajor-caju can tolerate temperatures upto 28-30°C, although it fruits faster and produces larger mushrooms at 25°C during the cooler months of the year or in the highlands of the tropics. This is the species now popularly grown in the tropical Southeast Asian countries, including India. P.abalonus prefers lower temperatures of 22-24°C and is most popular among the Chinese. P.ostreatus is the so-called low-temperature Pleurotus, fruiting mostly at 12-20°C. This species is more suited to the temperate climates of Europe and the United States, although many growers in the USA are also producing P.sajor-caju.
In Europe it is known as the oyster mushroom (P.ostreatus) while in China it is called the balone mushroom (P.abalonus or P. cystidiosus). Several other species are now available for cultivation. These are P.sajor-caju, P.florida (probably a variant of P.ostreatus), P.sapidus, P.eryngii, P. columbinus, P.cornucopiae, and P.abellatus.
Inoculation / Spawning
Spawning is carried out aseptically, preferably using the same transfer chamber or the same inoculation room as is used in spawn preparation. Grain or sawdust spawn is commonly used to inoculate the substrate in bags. With grain spawn, the bottle is shaken to separate the seeds colonized with the white mycelium. After lifting the plug and flaming the mouth of the bottle, a few spawn grains (about 1 to 2 tsp.) are poured into the substrate bag. Both the plug of the spawn and the plug of the compost bag are replaced and the next bags are then inoculated. The newly inoculated bags are slightly tilted to distribute the grains evenly in the shoulder area of the bag around the neck.
For sawdust spawn, the spawn is broken up with an aseptic needle. A piece of the spawn may then be transferred, using a long flat-spooned needle especially designed to scoop the spawn. One bottle of grain or sawdust spawn in a 500 ml dextrose bottle is sufficient to inoculate 40 to 50 bags.
The highly industrialized method involves bulk-pasteurisation and bulk-spawning before the substrates are distributed in beds similar to those used for Agaricus. The system is labour-saving but requires more complex equipment. Bulk material processing and handling are highly risky for tropical mushroom cultivation due to the risk of contamination.
SEASON AND VARIETIES
- Throughout the year
- Cultivation is indoor and it requires mushroom house
- White oyster (Co-1) and Grey Oyster (M-2) are suitable for Tamil Nadu
- A thatched Shed of 16 sq.m. is required. Divide the shed into spawn running and cropping rooms
- Spawn running room: maintain 25-300C, provide ventilation, no light is required
- Cropping room: Maintain 23-250C, RH above 75-80% with moderate light and aeration.
(Digital Thermometers and Humidity meters are available in the market)
SPAWN (MUSHROOM SEEDING)
- Suitable substrate: Jowar/Cholam/Sorghum, Maize, Wheat grains
- Preparation of spawn: half cook the grains, air dry, mix with Calcium carbonate powder at 2% level, fill the grains in empty glucose drip bottles, plug with cotton and sterilize in cooker for 2 hours.
- Put the pure culture of the fungus (Procured from agriculture departments/agrl. Universities) and incubate at room temperature for 15 days. Use 15-18 days old spawn for spawning.
PREPARATION OF MUSHROOM BED
- Suitable substrate: Paddy/wheat straw, sugarcane baggasse, hulled maize cobs
- Cooking of substrate: Cut into 5cm bits, soak in potable water for 5 hrs, boil water for one hour, drain the water, air dry to 65% moisture (no water drips when squeezed between hands)
- Preparation of bags:
- Use 60x30 cm polythene bags (both side open).
- Tie one end of bag, put two holes of 1 cm dia in the middle.
- Put handful of cooked straw in the bag to a height of 5 cm; sprinkle about 25 g of spawn.
- Layer the straw to 25 cm height. Repeat the process to get four layers of spawn and 5 layers of straw.
- Tie the mouth and arrange beds in tiers in the spawn running room.
- After 15-20 days, cut and remove the polythene bag and transfer the beds to cropping room.
- Keep the beds moist by periodical spraying with water.
- Mushroom pin heads appear on 3rd day of opening of beds and mature in 3 days.
- Harvest matured mushrooms daily or alternate days, before spraying water.
- Second and third harvest can be obtained after scraping the surface of beds after first or second harvest.
|Preparation of Vermi Composting||Medicinal & Aromatic Plants - Aloevera| | <urn:uuid:3e6a915a-184c-49a6-8511-e22feb46c574> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://agri.puducherry.gov.in/mushroom.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90745 | 1,592 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The country is expected to finish 2009 with the fewest death sentences since the U.S. Supreme Court reinstated the death penalty in 1976, according to a report released Dec. 18 by the Death Penalty Information Center.
Eleven states considered abolishing the death penalty this year, a significant increase in legislative activity from previous years, as the high costs and lack of measurable benefits associated with this punishment troubled lawmakers.
“The annual number of death sentences in the U.S. has dropped for seven straight years and is 60 percent less than in the 1990s,” said Richard Dieter, the report’s author and center's executive director. “In the last two years, three states have abolished capital punishment and a growing number of states are asking whether it's worth keeping. This entire decade has been marked by a declining use of the death penalty." There were 106 death sentences in 2009 compared with a high of 328 in 1994.
The decline in death sentences was particularly noticeable in Texas and Virginia, the two leading states in carrying out executions. During the 1990s, Texas averaged 34 death sentences per year and Virginia averaged 6. This year, Texas had 9 death sentences and Virginia had 1.
New Mexico became the 15th state to abolish the death penalty as Governor Richardson called the alternative of life in prison without parole “a strong punishment” and observed that the cost of the death penalty was “a valid reason [for repeal] in this era of austerity and tight budgets.”
The Connecticut legislature voted to end the death penalty before the governor vetoed the bill. Legislation to abolish capital punishment passed in one house of the legislature in Colorado and Montana and came close to passage in Maryland. This trend is expected to continue as the economic crisis persists.
Nine men who were sentenced to death were exonerated in 2009, the second highest number of exonerations since the death penalty was reinstated. The total number of exonerations since 1973 is now 139. The public has become skeptical about the government’s ability to avoid mistakes and get the death penalty right. Those sentiments translate into an increasing reluctance to hand down death sentences on the part of courts and juries.
Executions rose in 2009 compared to 2008, attributed largely to the lifting of the de facto moratorium on executions during 2008 while the Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of lethal injection. There were 52 executions this year, with no more scheduled, and 37 in 2008. The number of executions this year was 47 percent less than ten years ago. Eighty-seven percent of executions this year were carried out in the south and over half of those were in Texas.
“The rise in executions in 2009 was expected as states were backlogged with cases from the nationwide moratorium. The country continues to move away from the death penalty, as evidenced by the declining rate of death sentences and the movement in several states to repeal it,” said Dieter.
The Death Penalty Information Center is a non-profit organization serving the media and the public with analysis and information on issues concerning capital punishment.
Read the center's 2009 Death Penalty report here. | <urn:uuid:50a03ee1-abc5-4419-9030-1cb84d5d0b39> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/us-death-sentences-fall-executions-2009 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97298 | 633 | 2.625 | 3 |
For the understanding of functions of proteins in biological and pathological processes, reporter molecules such as fluorescent proteins have become indispensable tools for visualizing the location of these proteins in intact animals, tissues, and cells. For enzymes, imaging their activity also provides information on their function or functions, which does not necessarily correlate with their location. Metabolic mapping enables imaging of activity of enzymes. The enzyme under study forms a reaction product that is fluorescent or colored by conversion of either a fluorogenic or chromogenic substrate or a fluorescent substrate with different spectral characteristics. Most chromogenic staining methods were developed in the latter half of the twentieth century but still find new applications in modern cell biology and pathology. Fluorescence methods have rapidly evolved during the last decade. This review critically evaluates the methods that are available at present for metabolic mapping in living animals, unfixed cryostat sections of tissues, and living cells, and refers to protocols of the methods of choice. | <urn:uuid:97b860ed-22bf-461c-a7a6-3b861342b4ae> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.leica-microsystems.com/science-lab/imaging-enzymes-at-work/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943047 | 187 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The Importation, Adaptation, and Creolization of Slave Leisure Forms in the Americas: 1600 to 1865
Leisure, the escape from the tedium of everyday existence, is found in all cultures including those in which slavery exists. At first glance the terms "slavery" and "leisure" may seem to be contradictory, mutually exclusive terms. However, the need to mentally and physically break the bonds of one's circumstances, albeit temporarily, applied equally if not more so to Caribbean and North American slaves of African descent. The creolization of slave leisure activity forms began almost immediately upon their arrival in the Americas, some of which represented a continuation of African traditions while others were adopted from white society. A few forms of leisure even afforded slaves an opportunity to elevate their status relative to that of fellow slaves, compete on an equal footing with whites, and in some instances win their freedom. This paper will examine the creolization of some forms of slave leisure activities from the most easily cross-culturally transportable, to forms that required special apparatuses or venues. It is not intended to be an exhaustive inquiry into all forms of slave leisure. The time period covered will be from the earliest days of the transatlantic slave trade to Emancipation. Finally, there will be some discussion of the impact of slave leisure on North American and Caribbean culture that continues to this day. | <urn:uuid:0b0c3384-ef71-4967-94f1-8f4edc504f5f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://discoverarchive.vanderbilt.edu/handle/1803/3101 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946335 | 282 | 3.3125 | 3 |
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Label Me! Printout
Skin is made up of two layers that cover a third fatty layer. The outer layer is called the epidermis; it is a tough protective layer that contains melanin (which protects against the rays of the sun and gives the skin its color). The second layer (located under the epidermis) is called the dermis; it contains nerve endings, sweat glands, oil glands, and hair follicles. Under these two skin layers is a fatty layer of subcutaneous tissue (the word subcutaneous means "under the skin").
On average, an adult has from 18-20 square feet (about 2 square meters) of skin, which weighs about 6 pounds (2.7 kg).
|blood vessels - Tubes that carry blood as it circulates. Arteries bring oxygenated blood from the heart and lungs; veins return oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart and lungs.
dermis - (also called the cutis) the layer of the skin just beneath the epidermis.
epidermis - the outer layer of the skin.
hair follicle - a tube-shaped sheath that surrounds the part of the hair that is under the skin. It is located in the epidermis and the dermis. The hair is nourished by the follicle at its base (this is also where the hair grows).
hair shaft - The part of the hair that is above the skin.
hair erector muscle - a muscle is connected to each hair follicle and the skin - it contracts (in response to cold, fear, etc.), resulting in an erect hair and a "goosebump" on the skin.
melanocyte - a cell in the epidermis that produces melanin (a dark-colored pigment that protects the skin from sunlight).
Pacinian corpuscle - nerve receptors that respond to pressure and vibration; they are oval capsules of sensory nerve fibers located in the subcutaneous fatty tissue
sebaceous gland - a small, sack-shaped gland that releases oily (fatty) liquids onto the hair follicle (the oil lubricated and softens the skin). These glands are located in the dermis, usually next to hair follicles.
sweat gland - (also called sudoriferous gland) a tube-shaped gland that produces perspiration (sweat). The gland is located in the epidermis; it releases sweat onto the skin.
subcutaneous tissue - fatty tissue located under the dermis.
Worksheet to Print
Senses: Write Eight Touch-Related Words
Think of and write eight touch-related adjectives, describing how things feel. Sample answers: hard, soft, hot, cold, rough, smooth, grainy, sharp.
Skin Anatomy Diagram to Label
Label the skin anatomy diagram.
Or go to the answers.
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|Search the Enchanted Learning website for:| | <urn:uuid:8678e71a-2a9c-45fa-a983-c8950cab3842> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/skin/index.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.840003 | 807 | 3.578125 | 4 |
A Brief History
Quaker Memorial Presbyterian Church is named in honor of Lynchburg’s early
pioneer Quakers, members of the Religious Society of Friends, whose restored
eighteenth-century meeting house is located on church property. Sarah Clark Lynch
and her son John, founder of the city of Lynchburg, donated land for the South River
Meeting House, and the Quaker meeting’s membership grew and flourished.
However, financial hardship, accompanied by unpopular Quaker positions on social
issues including slavery and their anti-war sentiments, convinced many of the
Friends to join the widespread western migration, and the number of Quakers in
Lynchburg and the surrounding area dwindled. In 1839, the last meeting was held at
The abandoned stone meeting house soon displayed signs of neglect and began to
fall into ruins. In 1856, the roof collapsed under heavy snow and little remained
except the walls. Nearby, a stout stone wall protected the cemetery of the Quaker
dead. This symbol of peace also became a symbol of war when Union army soldiers encamped on the grounds of the
abandoned meeting house during the 1864 Battle of Lynchburg.
1897 - 1927
In 1897, a one-room schoolhouse, located within the fortifications of Fort Early, was moved to the property and placed
behind the cemetery as a site for the education of neighborhood children. It was quickly utilized for another important
purpose when Mrs. Emily Logan obtained permission to use the structure on Sundays for religious instruction of children.
With the help of Rev. Joseph McMurray, pastor of Floyd Street Presbyterian Church, the children’s Sunday School soon grew
into preaching services held on rough pine benches under the trees. Forty people attended the first service, and the number
grew steadily until it became apparent that a larger building was needed to accommodate the number of worshippers. Plans
were begun for a church on the site, and the ten-acre property was purchased in 1899 by Floyd Street Presbyterian from the
Richmond Society of Friends for $25 and held in trust by Floyd Street until the new Presbyterian church could be organized.
Work soon began to rebuild the abandoned meeting house for use by the Presbyterians who held their first service in the
rebuilt building in May 1901, with 100 present for Sunday School and 200 for the preaching service.The completed church
was dedicated in October 1904. On May 15, 1910, Montgomery Presbytery organized Quaker Memorial Presbyterian Church
with 48 charter members. During the church’s early years, it was served by part-time pastors and sustained through many
crises by Dr. Arthur Rowbotham, chairman of the presbytery’s Home Mission Board. In 1924 a major crisis involving an
unqualified supply minister resulted in a split in the church and the loss of many members. However, with Dr. Rowbotham’s
help, the church survived.
In 1928 Montgomery Presbytery created a three-member field of small churches consisting of Quaker Memorial, Pisgah, and
Academy and called the Rev. Henry D. Brown Jr. to serve the field. His pastorate saw a period of slow, steady growth at
Quaker Memorial during the height of the Great Depression as well as a number of new programs, including Women of the
Church, Youth, and Vacation Church School. In 1935, Quaker Memorial was recognized as a Church of Distinction among
Southern Presbyterians. Dr. Brown’s wife Douglas Summers Brown researched, wrote, and published Lynchburg’s Pioneer
Quakers and Their Meeting House, the most accurate and definitive history of Lynchburg’s Quaker origins. Dr. Brown
resigned in 1936 to accept a pastorate in Richmond.
Dr. Bernard E. Bain was called as pastor in November 1936. A farsighted administrator, he immediately recognized that an
ambitious building program was necessary for Quaker Memorial to realize its potential. Ground was broken in 1941 for a
new building containing a fellowship hall (now Bain Narthex), kitchen, pastor’s office, and six Sunday School classrooms.
English parish-style architecture was chosen to complement that of the meeting house. Completed in 1943, the building was
constructed with primarily volunteer labor of the congregation at a cost of $40,000. Returning WWII veterans and their
families and new residential areas in the Fort Hill section of the city resulted in rapid growth in membership (248 members
by 1946). Construction of the sanctuary and additional Sunday School classrooms began in 1947. Dr. Bain resigned to
become president of the Presbyterian Home in Lynchburg.
1949 - 1952
The Rev. Carl G. Howie became pastor in 1949, and church membership doubled during his tenure. The sanctuary and
Sunday School classroom addition was completed in 1950 at a cost of only $30,000 due to volunteer labor from the
congregation. Other notable achievements during Dr. Howie’s pastorate included a church organizational plan, a record-
keeping system, rotation of terms for Session members, and employment of a secretary. In 1951, the congregation voted to
restore the meeting house to its original state, but the restoration was incomplete due to lack of funds. Dr. Howie resigned in
1952 to accept a pastorate in Washington, D.C.
The Rev. James G. Thompson became pastor in June 1953, and his thirty-year tenure was marked by continued growth in
membership (783 by 1982) as well as additional staff, facilities, and programs to meet the growing congregation’s needs. An
associate pastor and a director of Christian Education were hired, and Rev. Thompson spearheaded the construction of an
education wing featuring a large fellowship hall and kitchen, pastor’s office, and Sunday School classrooms. Completed in
1958, the building was named the Thompson Education Building in honor of Rev. Thompson upon his retirement in 1983. At
presbytery’s request, members of
Quaker Memorial helped establish
two new congregations in growing
areas: St. Andrew Presbyterian in
the Timberlake area (1957) and
Covenant Presbyterian in Vista
Acres (1961). South River Meeting
House and the Quaker cemetery
were placed on the National
Register of Historic Places and
named a Virginia Historic
Landmark in 1975. A committee to
complete the restoration of the meeting house was organized in 1983. Dr. Robert Wilson served as interim pastor following
Rev. Thompson’s retirement.
In 1984, the Rev. Bernard K. Bangley assumed the pastorate of a church in transition. He led the conversion from a
bicameral governing body of a Diaconate and a Session to a unicameral system of church governance by a Session.
Reorganization of committees was undertaken to make better use of the talents of the membership. Significant expansion of
community outreach included Meals on Wheels, Churches for Urban Ministry, Daily Bread, and many others.The South River
Meeting House interior was restored as closely as possible to its Quaker origins, and the restored meeting house was
dedicated in 1989. In 1992, the Foundations for the Future Campaign raised $865,000 for major renovations and
improvements, including chancel renovations and a new Holtkamp pipe organ, large multi-purpose meeting room/library,
remodeled front entrance, steeple and carillon bells, additional parking and exterior lighting, and air conditioning for the first
and second floors. In 2001, a columbarium was built near the cemetery. Following Rev. Bangley’s retirement in 2000, Rev.
Frank Avery served as interim pastor.
Dr. Corey D. Ingold was installed as pastor in 2002. A new strategic plan for the church was implemented, calling for more
focused leadership in the Session and within the congregation. An elevator granting access to all three floors of the church
was added in 2004. Community outreach expanded through volunteer involvement and financial support of Habitat for
Humanity, Great Readers tutoring program, Backpack for Kids’ Sake, area food pantries, and many other organizations. In
2010 Quaker Memorial held a yearlong celebration of its centennial, highlighting a different mission focus each month and
culminating in a Centennial lunch in May which attracted hundreds of current and former members and special guests. Dr.
Ingold resigned in 2010 to accept a pastorate in Georgia. Following Dr. Ingold’s resignation, Rev. David Gellert and Dr. Burt
Newman served as interim pastors.
The Rev. Bart W. Edwards became the seventh pastor of Quaker Memorial in July 2012. As a second-career minister, Rev.
Edwards brings considerable depth to life in ministry. His business experience and administrative skills complement his
pastoral leadership and preaching styles. Rev. Edwards has begun to expand the church's involvement in local and
worldwide missions. Local mission outreach includes a community garden on church property to help feed those in need,
and world missions efforts are beginning with a focus on Haiti. Under Rev. Edwards' leadership, a partnership has been
established with Haiti Outreach Ministry, and a mission trip to Haiti is among the highlights of this new partnership
© Quaker Memorial Presbyterian Church 2014 | <urn:uuid:7da29621-cd7b-499d-8dc3-c137e11c500d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.qmpc.org/church.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962387 | 1,945 | 3.140625 | 3 |
[SOLVED] Natural Numbers/ Integers Closure of Addition/Multiplication
1. Let m and n be natural number. Prove that the sum and product of natural numbers are natural numbers.
2. Prove that the sum, difference, and product of integers are also integers.
1. I plan to do this by induction. Let
Base step: Fix m, let n = 1
The problem I have is that isn't this begging the question? I'm trying to prove that the sum of two natural numbers is a natural number, but since m is a natural number how can I just assume that m+1 is a natural number?
2. My attempt: Suppose that m, n,r,s are natural numbers and m > n. Then there exists an integer k such that n+k=m. Thus, k = m-n. Likewise, let l be an integer l = r - s. Again, isn't this begging the question?
Thank you for your time. | <urn:uuid:09e98871-1ea2-48d2-b01e-7bed3f26f798> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/advanced-algebra/45350-solved-natural-numbers-integers-closure-addition-multiplication-print.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930572 | 213 | 3.296875 | 3 |
1. A graphical recording of the cardiac cycle produced by an electrocardiograph.
4. A girl or young woman who is unmarried.
8. A rotating disk shaped to convert circular into linear motion.
11. Canadian hockey player (born 1948).
12. Title for a civil or military leader (especially in Turkey).
13. An overwhelming feeling of wonder or admiration.
14. Flower arrangement consisting of a circular band of foliage or flowers for ornamental purposes.
15. English monk and scholar (672-735).
17. The syllable naming the fourth (subdominant) note of the diatonic scale in solmization.
18. Conforming to an ultimate standard of perfection or excellence.
20. (Welsh) A warrior god.
22. High quality grape brandy distilled in the Cognac district of France.
25. A loose sleeveless outer garment made from aba cloth.
26. A local computer network for communication between computers.
27. A software system that facilitates the creation and maintenance and use of an electronic database.
29. The cry made by sheep.
31. 10 grams.
32. A soft silvery metallic element of the alkali earth group.
33. Type genus of the Gavidae.
34. Extinct flightless bird of New Zealand.
37. Fiddler crabs.
40. The sciences concerned with gathering and manipulating and storing and retrieving and classifying recorded information.
44. A state in northwestern North America.
45. Stalk of a moss capsule.
47. That is to say.
48. An informal term for a father.
50. Any of a number of fishes of the family Carangidae.
51. An associate degree in nursing.
52. Any place of complete bliss and delight and peace.
1. The dialect of Ancient Greek spoken in Thessaly and Boeotia and Aeolis.
2. Any system of principles or beliefs.
3. Norwegian composer whose work was often inspired by Norwegian folk music (1843-1907).
4. 1 species.
5. Title for a civil or military leader (especially in Turkey).
6. Establish the validity of something.
7. Experiencing or showing sorrow or unhappiness.
8. A white metallic element that burns with a brilliant light.
9. Exceptionally bad or displeasing.
10. English economist noted for his studies of international trade and finance (born in 1907).
16. Type genus of the Alcidae comprising solely the razorbill.
19. Squash bugs.
21. Soviet physicist who worked on low temperature physics (1908-1968).
23. Open-heart surgery in which the rib cage is opened and a section of a blood vessel is grafted from the aorta to the coronary artery to bypass the blocked section of the coronary artery and improve the blood supply to the heart.
24. Speaking a Slavic language.
28. A master's degree in business.
30. A city in western Germany near the Dutch and Belgian borders.
35. An organization of countries formed in 1961 to agree on a common policy for the sale of petroleum.
36. An expression of greeting.
38. (of a young animal) Abandoned by its mother and raised by hand.
39. A Kwa language spoken in Ghana and the Ivory Coast.
41. A unit of absorbed ionizing radiation equal to 100 ergs per gram of irradiated material.
42. An independent agency of the United States government responsible for collecting and coordinating intelligence and counterintelligence activities abroad in the national interest.
43. A sweetened beverage of diluted fruit juice.
46. A hard gray lustrous metallic element that is highly corrosion-resistant.
49. A public promotion of some product or service. | <urn:uuid:ef461d8e-6fef-48f4-aae4-b0951638c6f1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.crosswordpuzzlegames.com/puzzles/gt_247.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893043 | 800 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Belonging to the order of St. Francis of the franciscans. Franciscan brothers, pious laymen who devote themselves to useful works, such as manual labour schools, and other educational institutions; called also brothers of the third order of St. Francis. Franciscan nuns, nuns who follow the rule of t. Francis, especially. Those of the second order of St. Francis, called also poor Clares or Minoresses. Franciscan tertiaries, the third order of St. Francis.
a monk or friar of the order of St. Francis, a large and zealous order of mendicant monks founded in 1209 by St. Francis of Assisi. They are called also friars Minor; and in England, gray friars, because they wear a gray habit. | <urn:uuid:2ce5bced-17a6-4267-80c9-5371e74273df> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Franciscans | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928483 | 166 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
A power clutch is a special type of clutch. A clutch, in general, is a device for transferring the rotating power from the engine’s flywheel to the transmission, which can convert that rotational energy into the motion necessary to turn the vehicle’s drive wheels. A power clutch is designed to withhold higher strength and heat in the high performance applications used by racing and street vehicles, as well as to allow a driver to shift with less engagement of the clutch pedal. It also allows for better transfer power from the engine to the transmission in order to transmit more of the vehicle’s horsepower to the drive wheels, resulting in higher speeds.
Power clutches are popular in any vehicle that has a manual, as opposed to an automatic, transmission. In an automatic transmission, there is a fluid coupling known as a torque converter that transmits the engine’s rotational power to a pump that pushes fluid through a variety of valves to compress plates together to produce higher gears. In a manual transmission, power from the engine’s rotations is only transmitted when the clutch is engaged to couple or decouple the engine’s flywheel from the transmission. In this way, when the engine is in the desired gear, and the revolutions of the engine are maintained at the proper speed, the clutch is in use coupling the engine to the transmission.
Power clutches are those clutches made out of heavier duty material or that have modified bearings or surfaces to allow for a shorter shifter throw. Many power clutches are used in racing, because they have a higher tolerance for heat and wear that come from shifting frequently and operating at higher than average revolutions per minute than would be found in a normal driving situation. In addition, a power clutch is often made of different material than a traditional clutch, to cut down on friction losses in horsepower that can cause the engine to work harder with less of that power being transmitted to the rear wheels.
Power clutches are not limited to automobiles. A power clutch may be found in motorcycles, farm equipment, and any other equipment that may need to have a clutch to assist in the operation of a manual transmission. Determining whether or not a power clutch is needed is part of the process of modifying a vehicle for a specific purpose, such as racing or off-road use.
Although I prefer to drive a car that has an automatic transmission, I know how to drive a vehicle that has a power clutch.
I learned how to use a clutch on an old pickup my dad had around the house. I have even owned a few cars with a manual transmission, but always find myself going back to one that is automatic.
I also made sure that all of my kids knew how to drive a car with a clutch in it. I think this is something that may come in handy some day, and would be better to learn when you are younger.
This proved true when both of my sons bought motorcycles. A motorcycle
clutch is needed in order to run it properly, and this was easy for them to learn because they already knew how to use one.
When they took the class to get their motorcycle license, they commented that you could really tell those people who never had any experience using a clutch before.
It was not nearly as easy for them to learn how to drive the motorcycle as those who were used to using a clutch. | <urn:uuid:9c8a643b-ce9c-4db8-a934-a12b25ef61e2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-power-clutch.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973334 | 699 | 3 | 3 |
- Rig Rundowns
- Premier Blogs
Click here to download a printable PDF of this lesson's notation.
As a young guitarist, I noticed that a progression that I kept coming across was I–I7–IV. When I would solo over the I-IV chord change I’d emphasize the b7, giving my lead work some Mixolydian characteristics. The b7 of the one-chord (I), is the 4th degree of the four-chord (IV), and when I move to the (IV), it resolves the tension by creating the 4-3 suspension, as the (IV) chord contains the 3rd. It leads the melodic line smoothly from the I to IV.
This concept is simple enough but there are other elements to this mode that are certainly noteworthy. The diatonic chords in the Mixolydian mode are a bit different than the chords in a typical Ionian. One of my favorite differences is the minor dominant chord or minor five. Playing in major keys, and even in minor keys (harmonic or melodic minor) you get a major dominant chord. The minor dominant chord is one of the defining characteristics of the mixolydian mode.
By studying and applying the Mixolydian mode, I made use of this minor dominant when moving from the I chord to the IV chord. Instead of I–I7–IV I would use I–v–IV or G–Dm–C, if we were in the key of G. In my soloing, it gives an almost outside sound and allows me to break out of typical blues based lead guitar work.
In the following examples I’ll first illustrate a basic Mixolydian scale, a 7th arpeggio or two and finally, examples of the minor five chord in melodic ideas.
Example 1 is a Mixolydian scale encompassing all six strings. Remember the Mixolydian scale is based on the 5th degree of the major scale. You could say this is a D major parent scale making the 5th (A) the new root. Download example audio...
Example 2 is a Mixolydian arpeggio also in A, mapping out an A7 chord encompassing all six strings. Download example audio...
In Example 3 the arpeggio is an octave above the arpeggio in example 2, also mapping out an A7 chord. Download example audio...
In Example 4 the lick starts with a basic pentatonic scale then moves into a minor five chord arpeggio and resolves to the four (IV) of A (D) utilizing the Mixolydian scale. Download example audio...
Finally, in Example 5 chromatics and string skipping really add color to this Mixolydian lick again incorporating the minor five chord arpeggio mixed with the pentatonic minor scale. Download example audio... | <urn:uuid:99a6a83e-abe1-4911-963d-477a7afbdd95> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.premierguitar.com/articles/13877 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923259 | 604 | 2.921875 | 3 |
|Crop Knowledge Master|
Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes)
|Red and Black Flat Mite|
Jayma L. Martin Kessing, Educational Specialist
Ronald F.L. Mau, Extension Entomologist
Department of Entomology
This mite has an extensive host range and may cause economic damage, depending on the host. Pritchard and Baker (1958) list over 65 hosts. In Hawaii, the red and black flat mite has been reported on anthurium, banana, Hemigraphis, lemon, macadamia, orchid, papaya and passion fruit. In other parts of the world it is common on tea and Citrus.
This is a tropical-subtropical species that has been accidentally transported by man to many areas of North America where it survives in greenhouses. This mite was first found in Hawaii on Oahu in 1955 and has subsequently been reported on Kauai, the Big Island and Maui.
In Hawaii, the red and black flat mite is abundant in areas between sea level and 1,000 feet, scarce between 1,000 and 2,500 feet and has not been recorded in areas above 2,500 feet in elevation (Haramoto, 1969). It is usually not considered to be a pest of economic importance above 1,000 feet (Haramoto, 1969).
Feeding by this mite devitalizes the plant and causes the collapse of the inner leaf tissue. Old damage is characterized by browning of the damaged leaf surface. In addition, some hosts exhibit deformed leaves.
On papaya plants, this mite usually feeds on the trunk six to ten inches below the attachment of the bottom whorl of leaves (Haramoto, 1969). The mites move upward on the trunk and outward onto the leaves and fruit as the population density increases. Many feeding punctures occur close together, and the affected areas coalesce to form large continuous callus-like, light brown, scaly and/or scabby areas (Haramoto, 1969). Feeding damage is pronounced on young papayas and injured areas become sunken because they grow at a different rate than the unaffected tissues. In heavy infestations, the papaya stem becomes tan colored and suberized prematurely and makes a spindly growth (Haramoto, 1969).
On citrus, this mite has mean associated as the cause of swellings on citrus stems ("Brevipalpus gall"). Also leaves abscise prematurely or exhibit foliar chlorosis ("phoenicis blotch") (Knorr, et. al., 1960).
Populations are primarily composed of females; males compose less than 1% of the population in Hawaii (Haramoto, 1969). Reproduction primarily occurs through unfertilized parthenogenesis. Eggs produce only females. Because of the size of these insects it is very difficult to see the different stages without the use of a microscope. Refer to Haramoto (1969) and Nagesha et al. (1974) for detailed descriptions.
The duration of different life stages varies with temperature and humidity. The duration from newly laid egg to adult requires minimum of 18.6 days at 86û F and a maximum of 48.8 days at 68û F under laboratory conditions (Haramoto, 1969). The mite cannot complete its life cycle at humidities below 30%, nor at average temperatures above 86û F and below 68û F (Haramoto, 1969).
Generations are continuous in Hawaii, often overlapping. Based on laboratory studies there are at least 10 generations per year (Haramoto, 1969).
On Oroxylum indicum the life cycle was completed in 20.02 days at 70û F and 29.66 days at 79û F (Lal, 1979). In the same study by Lal (1979), the life cycle duration on Clerodendron siphonanthus took 28.34 and 20.20 days at 70û F and 79û F, respectively.
Eggs are deposited in cracks, crevices and other protected areas on the plant surface. Although each egg is laid singly, they often occur clustered together because females will use an egg laying site several times (Haramoto, 1969). These clusters of bright reddish orange eggs are more easily seen with the naked eye than any other life stage (Haramoto, 1969).
Eggs are elliptical and about 1/250 inch long by 7/2500 inch wide (Haramoto, 1969) and slightly broadened at one end. When first laid they are light orange, soft and very sticky. At this time they readily adhere to any surface. Eggs have a stipe, a tail-like projection, that extends from the slightly pointed end that came out of the female mite last. This stipe often breaks off if the egg is handled. A day before hatching, the eggs become opaque white and the red eyes of the larvae are visible within (Haramoto, 1969).
Hatching occurs in minimum of 8 days at 86û F with 65 to 70 percent humidity and a maximum of 24.8 days at 68û F with 85 to 90 percent humidity under laboratory conditions (Haramoto, 1969). Eggs do not hatch in constant temperatures below 68û F and above 86û F regardless of humidity (Haramoto, 1969).
Larvae are 6 legged, bright orange-red when newly emerged and average about 14/2500 inch long by 9/2500 inch wide (Haramoto, 1969). When fully grown they are opaque orange and 17/2500 inch long by 11/2500 inch wide (Haramoto, 1969).
There are two nymphal stages, the protonymph and the deutonymph. The protonymph is larger than the larva (about 23/2500 inch long by 14/2500 inch wide) and has 8 legs. The outer shell is transparent, light green, orange, black and yellow patches may be seen within the body. The deutonymph is similar in appearance to the protonymph except for having an extra pair of legs, two additional setae (hairs) and being slightly larger (averaging 29/2500 inch long by 16/2500 inch wide) (Haramoto, 1969).
Duration from egg hatch to adult required a minimum of 10.6 days at 86û F and a maximum of 27.3 days at 68û F under laboratory conditions (Haramoto, 1969). The optimum development duration of 19.8 days occurred at 77û F with 70 percent humidity (Haramoto, 1969). Temperatures above 86û F and below 68û F for prolonged periods are fatal to immature stages.
The adult female is very small, approximately 3/250 inch long by 16/2500 inch wide (Haramoto, 1969). The body is elliptical, flat, light to dark green or reddish orange. There are four legs extending forward and 4 legs extending behind. A black mark in the shape of an "H" becomes visible when these mites are reared in temperatures between 68û F and 77û F, while this black spot is not present at 86û F (Haramoto, 1969).
The adult male is flat, reddish and more wedge shaped than the female. Males do not have black markings (Haramoto, 1969).
On average, adults lived for a maximum of 47 days at 68û F and a minimum of 7.5 days at 86û with a relative humidity of 85 to 90 percent (Haramoto, 1969).
During the pre-oviposition period, females feed for 4 to 12 days (average 7.74 days) on guava (Nagesha Chandra and Channabasavanna, 1974) and 2.3 to 6.5 days on papaya (Haramoto, 1969). At 77û F each female laid from one to four eggs per day (Haramoto, 1969) for 9 to 35 days (Nagesha Chandra and Channabasavanna, 1974). The number of eggs laid by each female varies with temperature if the relative humidity is held constant (Haramoto, 1969). The oviposition process itself takes 12 to 30 minutes (Zaher, et. al., 1971). Females live for 2 to 22 days (average 10.4 days) after she has stopped laying eggs on guava (Nagesha Chandra and Channabasavanna, 1974).
Larval, protonymph and deutonymph stages have active periods during which they feed, grow and disperse followed by an inactive stage in which they transform into the next stage of development. Feeding, growth and dispersal activity are similar in all stages becoming more pronounced with the passing of each stage (Haramoto, 1969). During the inactive stage this mite assumes a characteristic position with its feeding stylets penetrating the plant tissue and legs straightened outward. There is no feeding during this period and the stylets anchor the mite to the plant (Haramoto, 1969).
The red and black flat mite feeds throughout the day and night. Feeding is especially intense in temperatures between 77û and 86û F and high relative humidity (Haramoto, 1969). They generally feed on the stems of plants, but will feed on fruits when population densities are high (Haramoto, 1969). Females start feeding soon after emergence and must do so before laying eggs. Females usually remain near the area in which they hatched if food is ample and suitable.
The abundance of host plants, warm and humid climate and few natural enemies are favorable conditions for high population densities of this mite (Haramoto, 1969). Conditions contrary to these do not support high population densities and favor control by natural enemies (Haramoto, 1969).
Biological Control -- Predators
At least four predators of the red and black flat mite are known in Hawaii: three mites: Phytoseiulus macropilis (Banks), Amblyseius largoensis (Muma), Mexecheles hawaiiensis (Baker); and the beetle, Sticholotis punctata Crotch (Haramoto, 1969). The predatory mites, P. macropilis and A. largoensis feed on the eggs the red and black mite, but are not suspected to live and reproduce exclusively on them (Haramoto, 1969). The larvae, nymphs and adults of M. hawaiiensis attack all active stages of the red and black flat mite and may survive solely on them. Accounting for 87%, M. hawaiiensis is the most abundant predator of this pest in Hawaii. S. punctata was introduced from China and Japan to control scales, it can noticeably control the red and black mite and feeds on all stages (Haramoto, 1969).
The above mentioned predators generally do not provide economic control because their predatory activity becomes apparent when the prey population density is very high and severe plant damage has already occurred. Therefore, other agents must be introduced for economic control (Haramoto, 1969).
Because this mite reproduces parthenogenically, as do most other false spider mites, they do not have the genetic variability and mixing of most mite species that reproduce sexually. Therefore, resistance to pesticides is less likely to be selected out from a population (Haramoto, 1969) and is less of a problem. Although the red and black flat mite is resistant to certain organophosphates, it is susceptible to most acaricides. However, resistance may develop if selection pressure is high due to frequent pesticide applications.
Chemical sprays should be applied to affected plants at 2-3 week intervals if the infestation is severe (Hill, 1983). Any of the registered miticides are usually effective. Wettable sulfur should not be used in localities where relative humidity is abnormally low.
Denmark, H. A. 1975. A False Spider Mite, Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes), Damage to Aphelandra. Fla. Dept. Agr. & Consumer Serv., Division of Plant Industry, Entomology Circular No. 54.
Haramoto, F. H. 1968. Biology and Control of Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) (Acarina: Tenuipalpidae). Hawaii Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 68: 1-63.
Hill, D. S. 1983. Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes). pp. 503. In Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and Their Control, 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. 746 pages.
Knorr, L. C. and H. A. Denmark. 1970. Injury to Citrus by the Mite Brevipalpus phoenicis. J. Econ. Entomol. 63(6): 1996-1998.
Knorr, L. C., B. N. Webster and G. Malaguti. 1960. Injuries to Citrus Attributed to Brevipalpus Mites, including Brevipalpus Gall, a Newly Reported Disorder in Sour-Orange Seedlings. FAO (Food Agr. Organ. U.N.) Plant Prot. Bull. 8:141-148.
Lal, L. 1979. Biology of Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) (Tenuipalpidae: Acarina). Acarologia. 20(1): 97-101.
Nagesha Chandra, B. K. and G. P. Channabasavanna. 1974. Biology of Guava Scarlet Mite, Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) (Acarina: Tenuipalpidae). Proc. of the 4th International Congress of Acarology. 167-176.
Pritchard, A. E. and E. W. Baker. 1958. The False Spider Mites (Acarina: Tenuipalpidae). Univ. Calif. Publ. Ent. 14(3): 175-274, 51 fig.
Zaher, M. A., A. K. Wafa and A. A. Yousef. 1971. Biology of Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes), in Egypt. Soc. Entomol. Egypte Bull. 5: 177-183. | <urn:uuid:749914e7-9150-4f97-bc9b-7593642b9305> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/Kbase/crop/Type/b_phoeni.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.875738 | 2,982 | 3.25 | 3 |
The problem may not be with his feet but with his nose! That is because the most common reason for dogs to chew their feet is due to allergy to things they inhale. The same pollens, dusts, and molds that give us “hay fever” symptoms will give dogs itchy skin – typically chewing or biting of the feet, rubbing of the face and ears, and scratching in the armpits. Ear infections are another common manifestation of inhalant allergy. The scratching and itching can lead to skin infections with bacteria and/or yeast, which can make the itching worse.
The first step is to see your regular veterinarian. She will do a thorough exam to check for fleas, other parasites, and infections, which may cause or result from the itching and chewing. Treatment of the allergy usually starts with antihistamines. These generally give good relief from the itching with minimal side effects (sometimes drowsiness). There are many antihistamines and your veterinarian may suggest a trial of more than one to find out which works best for your dog. Symptomatic treatment of medicated baths, topical sprays or ointments, and oral fatty acid supplements will also help. If the allergy is severe and not relieved by antihistamines, corticosteroids may be used. They are usually very effective but may cause side effects, some of which can be serious.
If the allergies are ongoing, severe, and/or not relieved by antihistamine, your veterinarian will refer you to a veterinary dermatologist for allergy testing. Based on the results of this skin testing, “allergy shots” will be formulated for your dog to help reduce his sensitivity to the allergens that make him itchy. Most dogs get improvement from these “allergy shots” and can use fewer and milder medications to control their allergy symptoms but, like us, cure is rare.
With good communication between owner and veterinarian, we can help our pets get through their allergy season with less discomfort.
Presented by Kathleen Dougherty, DVM, Kenwood Animal Hospital, 301-654-3000. | <urn:uuid:f1e86a19-40d9-4aea-9c48-55bfcda1deb5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.petloverscompanion.com/my-dog-constantly-chews-on-his-feet-and-hind-legs-what-can-i-do/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959484 | 433 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Dust devils race across Mars
By Tariq Malik
Spirit caught several dust devils moving across a plain inside Mars' Gusev Crater.
YOUR E-MAIL ALERTS
(SPACE.com) -- NASA's Mars rover Spirit has caught a bevy of dust devils racing across the surface of Mars, which researchers compiled into a stunning new movie.
While scaling Husband Hill at its Gusev Crater landing site, cameras aboard Spirit recorded several dust devils blowing across the Martian surface. Researchers condensed the windy devils' 12-minute, 17-second passing into a short black and white movie clip.
"Wind processes are the only active processes that we know are happening on Mars," said rover science team member Patrick Whelley, who has been studying the dust devil images, in a telephone interview. "They're short term geologically and occur...[but] they have shaped the landscape."
Although NASA released the dust devil movie on August 19, Spirit actually photographed them during its 543rd day (July 13, 2005) exploring Mars.
The images have not been processed to enhance the contrast of the dust devils.
Spirit first observed dust devils on Mars near the beginning of the region's spring season. While they increased in frequency as the season wore on, they dropped off for about two weeks during a dust storm only to return in force once it had passed, NASA researchers said.
Whelley said images from Spirit and its robotic twin Opportunity show that dust devils perform an important role in contributing to the overall dust content in Mars' atmosphere, and provide an additional tool for atmospheric modelers.
During early spring on Mars, dust devils typically wind their way from southwest to northeast across streaks that can be seen from orbit. As the season moves forward, the windy objects move from northwest to southeast in the same direction of the streaks, Mars researchers said, adding that scientists are still looking for the big dust devils that etched those streaks into the surface.
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|© 2007 Cable News Network.
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Read our privacy guidelines. Contact us. Site Map. | <urn:uuid:de08f24f-3e8e-4c09-9e3c-80f4ce7a8a09> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/space/08/24/mars.dust.devils/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938745 | 460 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Scientists find what makes the solar wind howl
By Will Dunham
WASHINGTON (Reuters) - The solar wind, which whips off the sun and blows past Earth and through the solar system, is unleashed by powerful magnetic waves in electrically charged gas around the sun, scientists said on Thursday.
The mechanisms that cause the solar wind had baffled scientists for decades, but were revealed in observations by a Japanese satellite called Hinode orbiting Earth, the scientists said in research published in the journal Science.
"The magnificent thing about the success of Hinode is its unprecedented view of the dynamics of the sun," Jonathan Cirtain, a solar physicist at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, who helped in the research, said in a telephone interview.
The research was conducted by Japanese, European and U.S. scientists.
The solar wind is a stream of electrically charged gas -- mostly hydrogen -- blown outward from the sun in all directions at a speed of about a million mph (1.6 million kph).
It buffets planetary atmospheres. On Earth, it can disrupt satellites, power grids and communications, under certain circumstances. Earth's magnetic field protects against the solar wind, creating a bubble around which the wind must flow.
Driving the solar wind are so-called Alfven waves -- strong magnetic waves -- that ripple through the plasma of the sun's atmosphere, or corona, transferring energy from the star's surface and into the solar wind, the researchers said.
The waves are named after Swedish physicist Hannes Alfven, whose prediction of their existence helped earn him a Nobel prize in physics 1970. He died in 1995.
Hinode (pronounced hin-OH-day and named for the Japanese word for "sunrise") showed that two mechanisms appear to power the solar wind, Cirtain said.
The first involves the way the sun's magnetic field undergoes rapid changes in its shape, the researchers said. As the magnetic field changes shape, it generates these Alfven waves along its length that accelerate the charged gas and blow it into space, they said.
'IMPOSSIBLE TO OBSERVE'
Another mechanism powering the solar wind involves the sun's chromosphere, the region sandwiched between the solar surface and its corona. Images from Hinode's Solar Optical Telescope found that the chromosphere is filled with Alfven waves, which when they leak into the corona are strong enough to trigger the solar wind.
"Until now, Alfven waves have been impossible to observe because of limited resolution of available instruments," Alexei Pevtsov, Hinode program scientist for NASA, said in a statement.
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency leads the mission, with cooperation from NASA and the European Space Agency.
Hinode has three key pieces of equipment -- the largest optical telescope to observe the sun from orbit, an X-ray telescope and an ultraviolet imaging spectrograph, making continuous observations of the sun.
The existence of the solar wind was first theorized about a half century ago. It existence was confirmed in the 1970s.
(Editing by Julie Steenhuysen and David Wiessler) | <urn:uuid:c7640f39-1c27-471a-a3be-c446432093b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/26722/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939435 | 651 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Published on July 1st, 2012 | by Joshua S Hill0
The Curvy Mountain Range Debate Rages On
July 1st, 2012 by Joshua S Hill
For me, as someone who covers environmental science daily, I have found that at times there are stories that don’t actually reveal anything monumental about our planet, but are nonetheless utterly fascinating. One such story is the debate revolving around the formation of curvy mountain ranges like the Appalachian range in Pennsylvania in the US or the Cantabrian Arc in Spain and northern Africa.
How did they form?
Scientists have been debating this question for decades now: were they uplifted in their current curvy formation or were they originally straight and later curved.
An international group of researchers from Spain, Canada, and the United States, led by Dr. Gabriel Gutiérrez-Alonso, have presented a compelling study of one of the best examples of curved mountain ranges: the Cantabrian Arc in Spain and northern Africa.
Their research saw them collect an extensive collection of fault and joint orientation data and directions of the ancient geomagnetic field as recorded by rocks from the Paleozoic era in modern day Spain.
The Cantabrian Arc was formed during the collision of Gondwanaland and Laurentia, a collision that created the supercontinent known as Pangea.
What they found, in short, was that the curved pattern of the Cantabrian Arc was caused by the bending of an originally straight mountain range.
The main line of evidence supporting this view is the patterns of rotation that are obtained from the directions of the ancient geomagnetic field recorded by the rocks of these mountain ranges. Combined with an analysis of the faults and joints in the rocks, and the ages of rocks that have variations in the amount of rotation indicated by the magnetic directions, the age of the bending of the Cantabrian Arc is confined to a relatively narrow window of geological time between 315 and 300 million years ago.
For anyone interested enough, the full article which was published in the journal GSA Today is available to read for free (PDF), and definitely well worth your time.
Keep up to date with all the most interesting green news on the planet by subscribing to our (free) Planetsave newsletter. | <urn:uuid:3a633bb7-4b89-4b11-8e00-bcc546e57576> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://planetsave.com/2012/07/01/the-curvy-mountain-range-debate-rages-on/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968425 | 464 | 3.34375 | 3 |
|LCT5 River Valley Floor||
LCA5G River Dever Valley Floor
The River Dever Valley Floor is a relatively narrow valley with a small-scale landscape pattern, with steeply sloping sides of the adjacent Open Arable LCA10D and LCA10E, creating a confined valley floor with a strong sense of enclosure and intimacy. The River Dever meanders over the valley floor where drainage ditches and pools are features on either side. The valley floor is well wooded with a limited area of small-scale pasture.
A relatively unspoilt landscape, with few human influences, except for the intrusion of the A34 corridor to the north.
River Dever Valley Floor follows the River Dever from the eastern boundary of the Borough at Lower Bullington, to where it joins the River Test at Bransbury.
Local Physical Influences
Geology and soils: Alluvium and Valley Gravels.
Landform: A small shallow valley flanked by the broad slopes of the chalk downlands.
Drainage: Meandering small watercourse upstream from Bransbury.
Local Biodiversity and Vegetation Pattern
The dominant pattern in this area is permanent pasture with patches of woodland. There is a diverse flora and fauna particularly in those habitats associated with seasonal or permanent waterlogging. Many of the wet meadows are typical traditional grazed hay meadows that are becoming increasingly rare due to agricultural pressures. They are dominated by fine-leaved grasses such as Red Fescue, Crested Dogs-tail and Velvet Bent, with a variety of flowering plants including White Clover, Red Clover, Birds-foot Trefoil, Knapweed, Bulbous Buttercup, Yarrow, Yellow Rattle, Selfheal and Oxeye Daisy, and can include frequent orchids such as Bee Orchid, Common Spotted Orchid, Pyramidal Orchid, Southern Marsh Orchid, and Early Purple Orchid. Wetter areas include Yellow Flag, Water avens, King cup, and Milkmaids. Other notable habitats include areas of wet carr woodland, which with hedgerows, link to patches of ancient and semi-natural woodland and provide an important resource.
Local Historical Influences
The valley floor of the River Dever contains extensive areas of valley floor woodland and evidence for small areas of surviving bedwork water meadow systems (Type 4) along the length of the river. Flanking the valley floor and within the confines of this character area the valley sides are occupied by expanses of generally 19th century parliamentary field systems.
A now dismantled railway line once extended across the valley floor immediately to the west of Bullington and the earthen bank which carried the line across the valley floor survives within an area of woodland. Just to the east of this crossing point the A34 also spans the river valley.
River Dever Valley Floor contains a single, dispersed settlement (Bullington) which spans the river and retains an early historic focus around the church and Church Farm in Lower Bullington and at Bullington Manor just across the river from the church. Other settlements appear to be very dispersed and relate to later post-medieval development of the valley floor.
Very few farms occupy the valley floor of this character area and are instead generally located upon the first river terrace.
The road network is confined to the valley sides, except where it crosses the River at four points. However these roads are well hedged which reduces their impact on the river valley.
Local Settlements and Features of Built Form
Bransbury: Chalk River Valley Settlement Type
Upper Bullington: Chalk River Valley Settlement Type
Traditional building style includes brick or brick and flint walls with clay tile and slate roofs.
Few comments were made for this area but loss of tranquillity in the east of the area was raised as an issue.Remoteness and Tranquillity
An intimate and enclosed landscape, although the A34 and the minor road which runs along the southern edge of the area, affect the levels of tranquillity.
Small scale valley floor dominated by pasture creating a strong sense of intimacy and enclosure, contrasting with the open arable valley sides
Mosaic of carr woodland and pasture with dense hedgerow structure
Valley floor woodland with only minimal surviving evidence of water meadow activity
Little settlement except at Barton Stacey on the valley side. Prominence of new development at Barton Stacey
Intrusion from the A34.
Local Natural and Cultural Landscape Issues
Visual and acoustic impact of A34
Pollution of the river and its tributaries through fertiliser run off and aqua culture ventures (fish farms, water cress beds).
River Test (<10% of SSSI) - Running water, marginal vegetation and adjacent habitats including unimproved grassland and broadleaved woodland | <urn:uuid:6548bda6-791c-4c7b-a7ab-2102b63e32d8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.testvalley.gov.uk/tvlcp/vol1_lca5g.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926376 | 1,004 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Our rich and varied Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from early European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events.
The Pictures collection includes material in a wide variety of formats which document significant people, places and events in Australian history and society and to some extent, the activities of Australians overseas, especially in Antarctica and Papua New Guinea.
Comprising photographs, prints, drawings, watercolours, cartoons, miniatures, paintings, architectural plans, objects and sculpture, the collection documents the lives of past and present Australians, and the communities and landscapes they inhabit.
People seeking historical images of Australian towns and landscapes, portraits of public figures, images of colonial life, early illustrations of Australian flora and fauna, political cartoons or contemporary photographs of popular culture and current events, will find the collection invaluable.
Pictures are acquired primarily for their documentary value, although the collection contains many great works of art. Our extensive photographic collections date from the invention of photography in the mid-nineteenth century until the present, ranging from early daguerreotypes to contemporary digital images. Twentieth century Australian documentary photography is particularly well represented.
Explore our Pictures collection by viewing the highlights below:
- Ducie collection of First Fleet art - Australian flora and fauna water colours by First Fleet artist George Raper (1788)
- Ellis Rowan and Australian flora and fauna - beautiful botanical watercolours painted in the late 19th and early 20th century.
- Jeff Carter collection - photographs of 20th century Australia and Australians
- Peter Dombrovskis collection - photographic collection of the Tasmanian wilderness
- Buckland collection - a collection of photographs, papers and memorabilia relating to railways | <urn:uuid:d13961df-9326-4488-a893-afe4a71d0081> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nla.gov.au/what-we-collect/pictures | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899879 | 350 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Electrostatic attractions between water and solid ions/molecules play an important role in the solubility of solids in aqueous solutions. However, there are other factors that also play an important role. One of these factors is temperature. Temperature is a direct result of the kinetic movement of the solution molecules/ions. The higher the temperature the greater the kinetic energy of the solution molecules.
The higher the kinetic energy of water molecules, the better the chance they have of dislodging solid molecules and thereby getting them into solution. This is so because the water molecules collide with the solid and higher collision energies lead to more effective dislodgment and thus solubility.
In a few instances (e.g., Li2SO4 below) the solubility of the salt will decrease with temperature. This observation does not invalidate the above explanantion but rather suggests that several competing ideas need to be taken into account to fully understand chemical processes. | <urn:uuid:c6bf7cfd-8dff-4f4f-bf14-56c4907a0599> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/aqueoussolns/solandtemp.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933682 | 196 | 3.109375 | 3 |
How our Family Connects at mealtime
Fostering family closeness requires spending time together, and mealtimes are a wonderful place to start. In our family, we give a heads-up as to which dinners of the week will indeed be spent toghether. Given everyone's schedules, we do aim for atleast three to four dinners together. We encourage any who want to join in on preparing the meal, and we encourage meaningful conversation during the meal. This means parents can ask open ended questions, and without strong judgement, offer affirming feedback so that children know they are 'heard'. Mealtime can be a connective time, children grow in feeling more cheerished during shared times. | <urn:uuid:fdcf795e-95c7-470e-a039-2362ca736467> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://forums.familyeducation.com/discuss/general-parenting-discussion/how-our-family-connects-mealtime | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963879 | 144 | 2.65625 | 3 |
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DEATH AND MOURNINGOrthodox:
Traditional Judaism does not see death itself as a tragedy, but only the natural and expected end of life. Death after a long life, full of vitality and good deeds is just part of life, according to the Talmud.
Actually the pious Jew has in mind all through his/her life in this world, the "next world." Orthodox Judaism views this life as a "corridor or bridge " that leads to the next level, to an other world. The believe in the Olam Aba, the afterlife, is part of the tradition. "All of Israel has part in the next world." (Mishna Sanhedrin 11:1)
Still, for the family and friends, the better the individual the greater the loss and the deeper the sadness. Therefore, Halakhic observances of death and mourning address themselves primarily to comforting the mourners while maintaining a dignifying memory of the deceased.
Embalming is forbidden because the blood has to be discarded in that process and Jewish Law demands the entire body to be buried together. Cremation is also forbidden because, "For dust you are and to dust you should return" (Genesis 3:19), is understood to mean that the corpse must be buried in the earth. When cremation takes place for some reason, the family is not required to observe the Shiva period (seven days of mourning, --see below).
Burial must take place as soon as possible after the death. We do not bury the dead on Shabbat or Festivals. Waiting is only allowed for the honor of the death , which means if there is someone coming to the funeral from far away. Caring for the dead is a big Mitzvah and the most pious of the community are the ones who have that task. The organized group that does that job is called the Hevra Kadisha, or Sacred Society.
Tearing a garment that one is wearing is the Orthodox way to show grief. It is an ancient way of showing mourning amongst the Jews. The torn garment is used all week long --during the shiva period. According to Halakha, cutting a small black ribbon is not a valid substitution for the torn garment or kriah. When tearing the garment one says the brakha (benediction) Barukh Dayan Emet, blessed be the true Judge.
Jewish Law provides for 3 mourning periods after the burial. The first is known as the Shiva(seven) and refers to the first week after the burial. Halakha commands that only father, mother, sister, brother, son and daughter, husband wife, observe the Shiva.
The Shiva takes place usually in the home of the deceased but it is not mandatory. The members of a family can observe shiva in any convenient place together or separately.
Mourners do not wear shoes made of leather. Walking with socks or stockings is customary, but slippers of canvas can also be used. Male mourners refrain from shaving or cutting their hair; female mourners do not use cosmetics. Mourners may not go to work. Mourners avoid having pleasures such as bathing for comfort. Only a fast shower is allowed for cleanliness. No sex, no new clothes, no Torah study, except for books and chapters dedicated to mourning or which speak of grief and anguish, such as Lamentations or Job.
A minyan – 10 male Jews 13 years or older—pray 3 times a day until the seventh day following the morning service, at which time the shiva is officially over.
On Shabat, the public mourning practices are suspended, but resume after the Shabbat is over, and Shabbat counts as one of the 7 days.
Should one of the Biblical festivals interrupt the shiva , the remainder of the shiva is not resumed after the festival. Purim or Hanuka are not Biblical, so they do not terminate the shiva. Should the funeral take place during Passover or Succot , the shiva starts after the festival.
If there is a delay in learning about the death of a family member, the mourner begins to observe shiva as soon as he/she hears the news. If the family is already in the middle of shiva in the city were the death occured, he/she may join them and finish shiva with them. If one cannot join them one sits shiva alone, and the day he/she heard the news counts as the first day of shiva.
If the news are received thirty days after the death, shiva is not observed. One sits only on the floor an hour and removes his/her shoes for a symbolic observance.
Comforting the Mourner
Following the burial, the mourners first meal should not consist of their own food. It should be prepared for them by friends and neighbors, or relatives. This practice is based on a passage of Ezekiel 24:17 . Hence, it is a Mitzvah to prepare that fist meal called "Meal of comfort". This meal usually starts with a hard boiled egg, to symbolize the roundness of the world, and the circular continuity of life –the possibility of renewal and joy after despair. The meal should not have a party-like atmosphere, it is a meal to be eaten in silence and in contemplation of the mourners, It is not a meal for visitors.
If the family returns from the cemetery on the eve of the Shabat, the meal is not served. It is served though, on the intermediary days of Succot and Pasover.
When entering a Shiva, Orthodox practice is, not to greet the ones inside. . Tradition indicates that the visitor does not start the conversation, only the mourners. It is appropriate to talk about the deceased , to reminisce, and talk about his/her qualities. The Rabbis understood very well the psychology of grief and did not want people to spend the shiva visit talking about trivialities, which is less comforting for the mourners than talking about the deceased.
Special Rules for the Kohen
Even on the open the Kohen can not approach a grave to closely (apro. 6 feet or 4 amot) . He can approach a corpse in the outdoors keeping 15 inches distance.
Although for a wife, mother, father, son, daughter, brother, and unmarried sister, it is permissible and even a duty for a Kohen to defile himself, and assist to the entire burial ritual. According to Jewish Law , these restrictions only apply to male Kohen not to wives or daughters or sisters of a Kohen.
If a female, daughter, sister or wife, wants to recite the Kadish she may rise to do so, although she is under no obligation, and some Rabbis will disagree strongly, there is no Jiyuv (obligation) nor Isur = prohibition. It used to be customary that when the deceased had no sons, the female—daughter or wife-- would pay a Jewish man to say Kadish for her.
A 10 year old can recite Kadish for a deceased parent even though he/she is not bar/bat mitzah.
Still the best way to honor ones deceased parent is by living a righteous life full of good deeds.
It is important to make a distinction between setting the stone and the unveiling. The unveiling is a special ritual with a special service, which is a contemporary innovation, not required by Halakha and may be done or not. The tombstone setting is a must, and a private visit to the cemetery afterward will do.
In Orthodoxy, the sons are obligated to say Kaddish that day and should arrange to be called to the Torah that day. It is also customary to light a memorial candle on the eve of the Yortzait to be kept burning 24 hours. This practice is based on Proverbs 20:27 "The spirit of man is the lamp of G’d."
The Yortzait day is especially suitable for performing acts of kindness and giving tzedoka (charity). Orthodox Judaism views this life as a "corridor or bridge " that leads to the next level, to an other world. The believe in the Olam Aba, the afterlife, is part of the tradition. "All of Israel has part in the next world." (Mishna Sanhedrin 11:1)
The customs and rules governing mourning are numerous. Reform Judaism, in accordance with its principle of adjusting and adapting older customs to modern needs, abolished those practices which were no longer helpful or valid, and simplified many others.
Viduy - As death approaches, it is proper to pray for forgiveness of sins. This is called Viduy, or confession.
Burial - Reform Jewish practice does not hasten burial. Usually burial takes place on the second or third day after death.
Embalming - Embalming is universally practiced among Reform Jews.
Burial Garments - The body of the deceased need not be garbed in a shroud (tachrichim). The body is usually clothed in whatever garments the family chooses.
Casket - The kind of casket or coffin to be used is entirely a matter of family choice.
Covering of Mirrors - The practice of covering mirrors and pictures is of superstitious origin and has been discontinued among Reform Jews.
Mourning - Mourning is observed for parents, husband, wife, son, daughter, brother, sister. Mourning is not observed for an infant less than thirty days old.
Shiv'ah - The first week after the death of a dear one is the period of intense mourning. It is proper to absent oneself from usual occupations during the week. The customs of "sitting low" and of not wearing shoes during Shiv'ah have been discontinued.
Light - As soon as a death occurs, it is customary for a light to be kindled in the home of the deceased. It is kept burning continuously for seven days after the burial. Thereafter a light is kindled each year on the Yahrzeit day in the home of every mourner.
Funeral Dates - Funerals are not held on the Sabbath, on Rosh Hashanah (which is observed on one day only), on Yom Kippur, on the first day of Pesach or Sukkos, and on Shovuos (observed on one day only).
Keriah, or Tearing of Garments - Keriah is the ancient practice of tearing the garments as a mark of grief. Recently Orthodox and Conservative Jews in America have substituted the cutting of a black ribbon pinned to theouter garment. These practices have been dispensed with among Reform Jews.
Autopsy-Post-Mortem Examination - Reform Judaism holds no religious objection to postmortem examinations or autopsies. It is for each family to decide whether or not an autopsy or postmortem examination should be performed. Cremation - Cremation is allowed in Reform Judaism, and the ashes are permitted burial in a Reform Jewish cemetery.
Flowers - Flowers may be placed on and about the casket, and graves may be beautified with plants, shrubs and flowers.
Watching the Body - The practice of having someone watch the body until the time of burial is not obligatory.
Kohen - Reform Judaism does not recognize the validity of claims of any modern Jews to be descended from the ancient priesthood (Kohen, Kohanim). Consequently, there is no valid reason for absenting oneself from any place where a corpse may be, or from cemeteries.
Passing the Synagogue - It is a common practice among Orthodox and Conservative Jews to have the funeral procession pass the synagogue and community institutions with which the deceased was identified, and for the whole procession to pause in front of these. This is not generally practiced among Reform Jews.
Minyan for Mourners - Many Reform Jewish families observe the old custom of having kinfolk and friends assemble at the home of the deceased or any other member of the family for evening worship during the week of Shiv'ah. These worship services are held on from one to three nights. Such services are not held on the Sabbath and festivals, when the mourners worship in the synagogue.
Marriage of the Bereaved - If the marriage of a member of the bereaved family had been planned before the death occurred, it takes place on the scheduled date, but without festivities. If it was not completely arranged, it is postponed until at least a month (Sh'loshim) has passed.
Year of Mourning - Mourning is observed for twelve months in Reform Judaism, not eleven months as in Orthodox and Conservative practice. One should not indulge in any frivolous or gay pursuit during that period. The wearing of black is not required.
Kaddish - Mourners are required to recite the Kaddish in the Temple for a period of twelve months from the day of burial. Thereafter it is recited on the recurring anniversaries of the death (Yahrzeit). Kaddish is recited by both women and men. Inasmuch as the Kaddish is always recited standing, it is proper for all members of the family of the deceased (grandchildren, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, nephew, niece) to rise during the saying of the Kaddish, for the sorrow or grief of any member of a family is the grief or sorrow of all the members. In many Reform congregations it is customary for the whole congregation to rise when Kaddish is said, the mourners because of their loss, the rest of the congregation out of sympathy with the bereaved in their midst.
Visiting the Graves - It is not customary to visit the grave of one recently deceased until thirty days have elapsed from the day of burial. It is not proper to visit the cemetery on the Sabbath and festivals. One may visit the cemetery at all other times.
Monuments - A monument or other memorial marker is placed over the grave of the deceased, usually within the year of mourning. It may be dedicated (unveiled) at any time during the year, at the convenience of the family.
Mausoleums - The erection and use of a mausoleum is permitted by Reform Judaism.
Yahrzeit - The annual anniversary of the death of a near relative is observed on the date of death (not on the date of burial). Some observe the Yahrzeit in accordance with the Jewish calendar; others do so in accordance with the civil calendar. The Yahrzeit date should be established by agreement among all the members of the family, so that all observe the Yahrzeit at the same time. On the eve preceding the day of the Yahrzeit, a light is kindled in the home of every mourner, and is kept burning for twenty-four hours. It need not be a candle or an oil lamp. Any type of light is permitted, provided it is in addition to whatever lights are used for illumination.
Where no daily services are held in Reform temples, the Yahrzeit-Kaddish is said on the Sabbath following the anniversary date. Some Reform temples do this on the Sabbath nearest the Yahrzeit (sometimes preceding, sometimes following the actual date). Some families wish to have the names of their deceased dear ones mentioned during the Kaddish at the temple service. Where this is desired, the Rabbi should be contacted in advance of the service. It is proper to make gifts to the synagogue or to a charity in observance of Yahrzeit. In most Reform synagogues, the flowers decorating the pulpit are placed there by a family in memory of a dear one. This is done on the Sabbath on which the Yahrzeit is observed. Arrangements for placing flowers in the pulpit are made through the proper channels.
Yizkor - In Reform Temples, Yizkor, or a memorial service, is held on Yom Kippur afternoon and at the morning service of the Seventh Day of Pesach. (Some Reform congregations have introduced such services also on Sh'mini Atzeres and on Shovuos, when they have no Confirmation service).
Disinterment - Reform Judaism permits the removal of a body from one grave to another, or to a mausoleum.
Humanistic Jews find most of the Orthodox procedures regarding death and burial offensive. Since the secular vision begins with the recognition that death is real, rituals that seek to deny death would compromise human dignity. And the willingness to confront unpleasant truth is part of that dignity.
The humanistic Jew starts with mortality as an unavoidable and final event. Live is valuable because it does not go on forever. Happiness is an urgent matter because it will not be available after we die. If there is "immortality," it is purely figurative. Only memory survives in the minds of others.
A humanistic Jewish memorial service is an opportunity to teach a humanistic philosophy of life. Both the meditations and the eulogies must serve to remind people that the value of personal life lies in its quality, not in its quantity. And, in the age of the Holocaust, it would be an insult to victims and martyrs to find in death the evidence of a well-ordered universe or the wages of sin.
A humanistic culture does not devote its time and resources to serving the needs of the non-existent dead. It
seeks to mobilize the living for the living. Constructive memory is a tribute to the past. It gives people identity
and a place in humanity. It does not wallow in useless nostalgia. | <urn:uuid:bb010583-58ca-456a-b581-b79354b6fc9c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://jewishwebsight.com/lifecycle/death.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948037 | 3,668 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Jan. 8, 2013
Study shows promise for East Coast broccoli industry
Chefs and home cooks in the eastern U.S. could soon have easier access to a local "super food," thanks to a Cornell-led team of researchers working to expand broccoli's availability at farms, farmer's markets and grocery stores from Maine to Florida.
Broccoli is at the center of a nearly $1 billion a year U.S. industry, due in part to growing awareness of its health benefits. Broccoli has anti-inflammatory properties, is high in fiber and has been linked with improving vitamin D deficiency and helping prevent certain cancers. Broccoli also contains phytonutrients that aid in detoxification, making it a fitting food for the New Year.
But despite increasing consumption, 90 percent of broccoli sold in the East is produced in California and Mexico, resulting in more food miles, greater greenhouse gas emissions and profits that leave the region, according to Thomas Björkman, associate professor of horticulture in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences who is based at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, N.Y.
Björkman is leading a team that includes researchers from public broccoli-breeding programs and private seed companies, production specialists and economists in building a regional food network for the vegetable. Their goal is to move production from isolated pockets to a year-round market worth $100 million a year.
Two years into the project, which is funded by a $3.2 million U.S. Department of Agriculture grant and supplemented by $1.7 million in matching funds from participating companies, the goal looks to be within reach.
"Most standard varieties developed for western climates have trouble lasting through hot and humid eastern summers," Björkman says. "But new genetics have allowed us to develop varieties that don't make misshapen heads when the weather turns consistently warm."
Over the past two summers, project staff at five field sites in western New York, Virginia, South Carolina, North Carolina and southern Maine tested dozens of recent varieties and new hybrid candidates developed by participating breeders. Several new crosses outperformed the best available commercial varieties. With the first new crosses making such a big advance, the team has high hopes for further breeding.
Summer-tolerant varieties could expand a growing season currently restricted to spring and fall, but to make the industry profitable, the team must also figure out distribution, says Miguel Gomez, assistant professor at Cornell's Charles H. Dyson School of Applied Economics and Management. Gomez has developed an economic model to identify cost-effective pathways for getting broccoli from the farm gate to the grocery store.
His model compares data from emerging eastern broccoli-producing regions with mainstream producing regions in California, Arizona and Mexico to determine the most cost-effective volumes and seasonal routes given production zones, consumption centers and production costs.
Results show the additional expense involved in producing broccoli in the eastern U.S. can be offset by savings in transportation costs. According to Gomez's model, a 30 percent increase in eastern acreage has the potential to reduce costs by $5 million a year under current diesel fuel prices.
Gomez also found that a year-round eastern broccoli industry would reduce the broccoli growing and transportation system's carbon footprint -- translating into a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions of 1.4 million pounds per year, an amount roughly equivalent to taking 125 cars off the road.
"More problem solving is needed to identify optimal locations for growing and postharvest facilities and ways of keeping large amounts of broccoli cold," says Gomez. "But initial findings show that if we can answer those questions, we can have a strong industry here. It's broccoli today, but we hope the project can be a model for other crops."
Kate Frazer is the agricultural stations communications officer for the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. | <urn:uuid:bc08aa53-9fcc-4dea-b72f-ac3729530088> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2013/01/study-shows-promise-east-coast-broccoli-industry | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944794 | 784 | 2.65625 | 3 |
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June 16, 2011
Pesticide Impact: Comparing Lab, Field-Scale Results
Researchers analyze data collection methods for examining the environmental impacts of pesticide use
Assessing the environmental risk of pesticide use is an important, complex task that requires knowledge of the equilibrium sorption parameter. This helps researchers assess the risk of pesticides leaching into groundwater. For cost-effective assessments, this is usually determined through batch experiments that find the amount of pesticide in test soils as a function of concentration at a constant temperature. These experimental conditions differ considerably from real-world conditions. Thus, the validity of the data collected using this method is widely debated.Recently, scientists from Germany and New Zealand evaluated parameters from different experiments that used the same pesticides and soils. Using this data, scientists analyzed the relationships between flow velocities of soil water, the residence time of the pesticides in the soil and the sorption parameters. Results from the study were published in the May-June 2011 issue of the Journal of Environmental Quality.
Scientists found that the range of sorption constants increased with increasing water velocity. Only for water velocity values lower than 35 mm/day, the range of sorption constants was between zero and one. Typically, these values have been obtained in field-scale experiments run under unsaturated flow conditions using undisturbed soil columns. The scientists showed that replacing equilibrium constants obtained from standard measurement protocols for pesticide registration purposes would lead to misinterpretation of the data. Experiment operation times greater than one day, with a typical duration of several days to weeks, yield the most realistic results.
According to the authors, it is also important to consider sorption and desorption kinetics. The movement of pesticides into a soil matrix was found to depend strongly on the amount of accessible sorption sites, which is determined by soil water content and soil structure. An understanding of this movement will require experimental protocols that take soil structure and soil moisture content into account when researching the impact of pesticides.
On the Net: | <urn:uuid:d9a058e6-df7a-4c7c-9228-1e564099568b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/2065609/pesticide_impact_comparing_lab_fieldscale_results/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923528 | 400 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Definitions of elf
n. - An imaginary supernatural being, commonly a little sprite, much like a fairy; a mythological diminutive spirit, supposed to haunt hills and wild places, and generally represented as delighting in mischievous tricks. 2
n. - A very diminutive person; a dwarf. 2
v. t. - To entangle mischievously, as an elf might do. 2
plural of elves 1
The word "elf" uses 3 letters: E F L.
No direct anagrams for elf found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after elf (in bold), or to efl in any order:
a - alef feal flea leaf c - clef d - delf fled e - feel flee i - file lief life l - fell o - floe p - pelf s - self t - felt left u - flue fuel w - flew x - flex y - fley
All words formed from elf by changing one letter
Browse words starting with elf by next letter | <urn:uuid:2a0f9920-5020-4540-bcde-0134fd25faa0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.morewords.com/word/elf/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.867182 | 225 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Many people in the life extension community follow some kind of diet. Historically, caloric restriction (CR) has been the most popular and most discussed option. Other popular diets include the Mediterranean diet and the Paleolithic diet. In one sense, comparing these diets is like comparing apples and pears. The emphasis of caloric restriction is on how much we eat (given adequate nutrition) and the other diets are more concerned with what we eat. People who follow certain diets may also have different aims. In the case of CR, life extension. In the case of the Mediterranean diet, preventing and delaying cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. And many who adopt a low-carb diet are (initially) motivated by securing sustainable weight loss.
Assuming that diet plays some role in longevity and disease, it is rather obvious that cryonicists should take a strong interest in choosing the right diet. As it looks to me, there are a number of important considerations.
1. The most important aim of a diet for cryonicists should be to avoid, or delay, neurodegenerative diseases. Extending your life and ending up with advanced Alzheimer’s Disease is worse than dying young and being cryopreserved under circumstances that optimize preservation of personal identity.
2. The choice to follow a particular diet should work for your genotype. Admittedly, nutrigenetics is a very young field but there is a growing recognition that human evolution has not stopped since the start of agriculture and that different populations respond differently to certain diets. And even within these populations we should expect individuals to respond differently to diet.
3. A decision to follow a certain diet should be based on empirical evidence, not on intuition, abstract theories, or thought experiments. In the case of choosing diets, this means identifying a diet that has shown a favorable ratio of good outcomes in experimental studies, and humans in particular.
Putting this all together, it seems to me that a low calorie diet remains the most defensible choice for most cryonicists because it has been studied longer, studied more extensively, and has the most robust favorable outcomes. CR also seems to stand out favorably in that there are relatively few studies that find detrimental outcomes and its benefits seem to embrace many species and populations. Another advantage of CR is that it can capture all the important goals that life extentionists seeks from a diet: longevity, weight loss and prevention (or delay) of neurodegenerative diseases.
It may be the case that many of the benefits of CR actually come from a reduction of carbohydrates. But one of the problems with a paleolithic diet is that it may be more beneficial for certain populations than others. As Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending demonstrate in their seminal book The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution, human evolution did not stop when hunter gatherers started agriculture, and some populations are more adapted to agricultural products (such as milk) than others. Another concern about the paleolithic diet is the controversy surrounding saturated fat. For life extentionists who carry one or two copies of the ApoE4 gene, a diet high in saturated fat may actually increase the probability of Alzheimer’s disease. Others dispute this and recommend a diet high in (saturated) fat to prevent dementia. In light of this uncertainty, the most prudent course of action may be to incorporate the emerging evidence against carbohydrates into a CR diet without emphasizing saturated fat.
There is an ongoing debate whether the longevity benefits of CR will be as great in humans as in lower species but the evidence so far seems to be that there are at least benefits in terms of delaying the onset of age-associated diseases. Whether these benefits are conferred through a change in gene expression or because they reduce the amount of chemicals that can participate in pathological events is not clear, but our incomplete knowledge about the mechanisms involved should not deter anyone from following CR. As I currently see it, the role of ongoing research into nutrigenetics and other diets should be to further calibrate and refine a low calorie diet to optimize it for a specific individual and to further delay the onset of neurodegenerative diseases.
CR seems to come closer to being a universal diet than other diets but it may be contra-indicated for some people, such as certain athletes and extreme ectomorphs. There are also cases in the life extension community of people who pushed it too hard (or neglected good nutrition), offsetting all the gains from the diet, or even endangering their own health. A diet that does not make a person feel good, is generally not a diet that is good, let alone one that can be sustained over time. The aim of a diet should not be to conform to an impersonal set of recommendations, but to monitor your own response and increase the chance for personal survival. | <urn:uuid:15943c4f-1629-457b-adf9-ef2323397044> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.evidencebasedcryonics.org/tag/the-10000-year-explosion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950405 | 979 | 2.65625 | 3 |
The Boeing 24 might be called the first modern airliner. It was the first all-metal airliner in America and featured many airliner firsts, including retractable landing gear, supercharged engines, de-icing boots, trim tabs, soundproofing, and cowled engines streamlined into nacelles in the wing.
And the sleek 247 was fast; on its first scheduled flight on May 22, 1933, a Boeing Air Transport 247 set a speed record by crossing the United States from San Francisco to New York in just 19½ hours, almost 8 hours faster than any previous airliner.
The main limitation to the airplane’s success was its small size; the 247 carried only ten passengers, and when the 28-passenger Douglas DC-3 became available in 1935, the 247 simply couldn’t compete. The DC-3 also had a much greater range, and could cross the United States with only three stops. Only 75 Boeing 247’s were ever built, compared to more than 10,000 DC-3’s.
- Wing span: 74 feet
- Length: 51 feet 7 inches
- Top speed: 200 mph
- Cruising speed: 189 mph
- Range: 745 miles
- Service ceiling: 25,400 feet
- Gross weight: 13,650 pounds
- Powerplants: Two 550-horsepower Pratt & Whitney Wasps (R-1340-S1H1G)
- Crew: 2 pilots, 1 steward/stewardess
- Payload: 10 passengers, 400 pounds of mail
- First flight: Feb. 8, 1933 | <urn:uuid:6b1b9238-633c-4b69-a4a4-3d8a17a04d75> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.airliner.net/boeing-247 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918766 | 333 | 3.1875 | 3 |
noun (plural summae /ˈsʌmiː/)chiefly archaic
A summary of a subject: the Wake is a summa of Joyce’s microtextual practice
More example sentences
- Even the inquisitorial bishops and curia officials granted that he had written a virtual summa.
- Work as distraction - that is the summa of Voltaire's wisdom.
- His last major paper - ‘Classicism’, published or delivered in 1960, not long before his death - was his summa or summing up of a lifetime of reflection and argument.
Early 18th century: from Latin, literally 'sum total' (a sense reflected in Middle English).
Words that rhyme with summabummer, comer, drummer, hummer, midsummer, mummer, plumber, rummer, strummer, summer
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: summa
Definition of summa in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:ced6020f-daab-44f7-802a-3fda97458df0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/summa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892538 | 233 | 2.671875 | 3 |
A is the amplitude
is the angular frequency, from which we obtain .
is called the "phase shift."
Are you sure you are looking for the "horizontal shift" in radians? It should be in seconds:
The term tells how far we translate the cosine graph to the left (or right if the term is negative), and is what I think your instructor is looking for, not the phase shift. | <urn:uuid:0f40beb0-7a03-44e4-b76e-5cf7cd7d4c01> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/pre-calculus/17797-quick-question.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939906 | 87 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Science, assuming it can still get a research grant, continues to look for the answers to some of the most difficult questions: what happened to the missing matter? can Goldbachs conjecture be proved? why do people vote Republican? The October 2009 issue of Gerontologist tries to give a partial answer to the last question. For a study titled Older voters and the 2008 election, researchers from Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine analyzed poll results for the 2008 election, and came to different conclusions based on age groups.
For voters over 65, a vote for McCain seems to have been a vote for Eisenhower. This actually may be an argument for focusing efforts on younger voters, because people who identified as Republican during the 1950s may have held onto their party identification no matter how much the party changed. Another factor was affinity voting; people in the 65-74 cohort voted for Sen. McCain because they identified with him. In contrast, once a person hit 75, Sen. McCains age was no longer a factor he may have been too young to relate to. Similarly, voters up to the age of 64 didnt seem to identify with Sen. McCain based on age. Apparently there are major changes associated with aging, one at age 50 when the invitation to join AARP arrives, and again at 65 with a Medicare card. The authors concluded, In the study of age-group voting behavior, ongoing attention is needed to cohort and period effects, as well as candidates contrasting individual characteristics-in addition to possible effects of campaign issues.
As interesting as this study was, an even more valuable study was published in the November 2008 issue of Psychological Science, under the title Mistaken identity: activating conservative political identities induces conservative financial decisions. This study, performed by researchers at the Columbia Business School of Columbia University in New York, may be remarkably important, since, among other things, it found a behavior pattern that applies to Republicans but not to Democrats. Subjects were asked to make choices between a series of investment plans, ranging from high-risk high-return, to low-risk low-return. When the choices were offered without any implied labels, the subjects would make their own choices based on their own proclivities. When the same choices were offered with the presented indicating that one of the selections was conservative, self-identified Republicans gravitated to that choice. Traditionally, conservative implies the low risk choice, but in this study, Republicans selected whichever option had been presented as conservative without regard for the level of risk. Their concern was for the label, not the contents.
In another part of the study, subject were asked to explain the label conservative before making a choice. This effort to explain conservatism had no influence on the choices made. The authors wrote ... the mechanism underlying the effect appears to be not activated identity-related values prioritizing low risk, but rather activated identity-related language (the group label conservative). This was the perfect example of W.S. Gilberts famous line in H.M.S. Pinafore, I always voted at my partys call / And I never thought of thinking for myself at all. For anybody wondering how the party of small government can pass laws prohibiting saggy pants it seems that being a Republican has less to do with philosophy than club membership, and you have to go along in the club outings.
A third study, this one from the May 2009 issue of Risk Analysis came from Stanford University, and was titled The association of knowledge with concern about global warming: trusted information sources shape public thinking. In this study, researchers asked subjects about the extent of their knowledge of global warming. Among Democrats and independents, the more a person knew, the more concerned they were about the risks associated with climate change. The researchers wrote, Among people who trust scientists to provide reliable information about the environment and among Democrats and Independents, increased knowledge has been associated with increased concern. But among people who are skeptical about scientists and among Republicans more knowledge was generally not associated with greater concern. Presumably Republicans can learn things, they have large collections of facts about not only global warming but also economics, gynecology and American history, but further research will be required to find out what sources theyll listen to. (Glenn) Beck University ... a unique academic experience bringing together experts in the fields of religion, American history and economics starts this July.
Sam Uretsky is a writer and pharmacist living on Long Island, N.Y. Email [email protected].
From The Progressive Populist, June 15, 2011
News | Current Issue | Back Issues | Essays | Links
About the Progressive Populist | How to Subscribe | How to Contact Us | <urn:uuid:24473e41-f640-453f-aca3-18971dc507a6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://populist.com/11.11.uretsky.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968864 | 951 | 2.53125 | 3 |
NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - Mothers who are mildly iodine deficient are more likely to have children who perform poorly in spelling, grammar and literacy, according to a new study from Australia.
Severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy is known to cause serious mental disabilities in children, but researchers examined the test scores of nine year olds whose mothers were only slightly iodine deficient during pregnancy and found the kids performed between 6 percent and 10 percent worse than peers born to mothers with sufficient iodine.
"This is to show in areas where there is even mild deficiency it can have long-term impacts on children," said Kristen Hynes, the study's lead author from the University of Tasmania in Sandy Bay.
Throughout life, everyone needs iodine to make thyroid hormones, but it's also crucial that pregnant women get enough of the element to support their children's brain development.
Past research has found that women who are severely iodine deficient give birth to children with motor, cognitive and auditory defects, Hynes' team writes in The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism.
Little is known, however, about what impact a mother's mild iodine deficiency might have on her child.
The U.S. Institute of Medicine recommends the average adult get 150 micrograms (mcg) of iodine every day. Pregnant women are told to get 220 mcg every day and women who are breastfeeding are told to get 290 mcg.
The main source of iodine in the American diet is milk, but it can also be found in some fish and vegetables as well as in "iodized" table salt.
One cup of reduced-fat milk contains about 56 mcg of iodine and one serving of baked cod has about 99 mcg, according to the U.S. National Institutes of Health.
For the new study, Hynes and her colleagues used data on about 228 pregnant women who were patients at The Royal Hobart Hospital in Tasmania between 1999 and 2001 and the children they delivered at the time.
The researchers compared the standardized test scores of the nine-year-old children born to women whose urinary iodine levels fell below 150 mcg (mildly deficient) during pregnancy to the children of women whose iodine levels exceeded 150 mcg (sufficient).
The children of women who were iodine deficient scored about 371 points on the national student test for spelling and about 377 points for grammar. That compared to about 412 points for spelling and 408 points for grammar among children of women who had sufficient levels of iodine while pregnant.
The average score for all of Tasmania at that time was about 390 for spelling and about 410 for grammar in that age group.
The researchers also found that children born to mothers who were mildly iodine deficient scored about 6 percent lower on English literacy scores, compared to those whose mothers had sufficient iodine levels.
Hynes told Reuters Health her group suspects that iodine deficiency may have some impact on a child's auditory pathways to the brain, which may hurt their ability to quickly process the information they hear.
"It's really only a theory at this stage," she cautioned.
The researchers can't say for certain whether the mothers' iodine deficiency led to their children's poor scores, but she said there is an association.
"I think people working in education will realize this is important, but there are a lot of other things going on as well," Hynes said.
Dr. Elizabeth Pearce, who researches iodine but was not involved in the study, said the findings support recommendations that soon-to-be pregnant, pregnant and breastfeeding women take an iodine supplement, but added that it's important to not get too much of the mineral.
"Very excessive intake in susceptible people can lead to thyroid dysfunction and goiter," said Pearce, an associate professor of medicine at Boston University.
The NIH says the upper safe limit of iodine is 1,100 mcg a day.
"People should not read this and think more iodine is better," she said.
SOURCE: http://bit.ly/zcksyh The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, online April 30, 2013. | <urn:uuid:56a16610-53fc-49fb-8216-37fe0a270e20> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lifescript.com/health/centers/pet_health/news/2013/05/03/moms_iodine_levels_tied_to_kids_poor_test_scores.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974294 | 834 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Halitosis is also known as bad breath or mouth odour, what is it and what can you do about it?
Are you wondering why your family, colleagues etc, have been giving you more personal space than you need, or are always wanting to discuss every matter over the phone???
Why you get those mysterious gifts of toothpaste even when it’s not your birthday?
Well, the best guess is you’ve got halitosis… But don’t be sad, it’s no death sentence.
Many people have bad breath. It could last for a short or long time. It is estimated that up to 50% of people have smelly mouth all the time. Even with regular brush and floss, halitosis can occur. In fact in most cases, bad breath is caused by the gums and tongue – not the teeth!
What causes bad breath?
Bad breath can have several causes:
A dirty mouth
90% of mouth odors come from mouth itself either from the food you eat or bacteria that’s already there, Mouth odor is like any other body odor i.e. the result of microbes living in the body giving off byproducts. In the mouth, this means bacteria that normally live in the mouth interact with food particles, blood, tissue, etc., to create volatile (i.e., stinky) sulfur compounds. If you don’t clean properly, bacteria build up and next thing you know that’s not toothpaste on your tongue.
Like the popular saying, ‘Garbage in, Garbage out’, If it stinks going in, chances are it’s going to stink coming out. The common culprits are onions, garlic, alcohol and tobacco.
Low carbohydrate diet
You look great after four (4) weeks of dieting and vigorous exercise, so how come you still can’t get a date? High-protein, low-carbohydrate diets cause your body to burn stored fats for fuel instead of carbohydrates and can lead to a condition called Ketosis. When fat burns, ketones build up in the body, and some are released through breath, unfortunately they don’t smell particularly good.
It can be a sign of a more serious illness such as diabetes (as ketosis can, occur here, and the resulting bad breathe is sometimes one of first symptoms that lead to its diagnosis), infections of nose, throat or lungs, diseases of the gum, liver disease, kidney disease, gastro esophageal reflux disease (GERD) which is a backflow of acid from the stomach to the esophagus.
Saliva helps flush out the mouth, keeping bacteria moving so they don’t settle down and multiply, so a dry mouth is a breeding ground for bacteria.
In rainy season, allergy medications can dry you out; and in dry season, heat tends to be the culprit.
Others causes include:
•drugs like paraldehyde
How to find out if you have bad breath:
* Ask a friend as “Only your true friend will tell you, your mouth is smelling”
* A simple test you can do yourself is to lick the inside of your wrist and wait for the saliva to dry. If the area you licked smells unpleasant, it is likely that your breath does too.
* Cover your mouth and nose with both hands, in a way that’s air tight, blow air out from your mouth, and perceive with your nose..
Remedies to restore your fresh breath:
*Gently cleaning the tongue surface twice daily is the most effective way to keep bad breath in control; using a tooth brush, tongue cleaner or tongue brush/scraper to wipe off the bacterial debris. An inverted teaspoon may also do the job.
N.B. Avoid damaging the tongue, and scraping of the V-shaped row of taste buds found at the extreme back of the tongue.
*Brushing with a small amount of antibacterial mouth rinse or tongue gel onto the tongue surface will further inhibit bacterial action.
*Eating a healthy breakfast with rough foods helps clean the very back of the tongue
*Chewing gum: Since dry-mouth can increase bacterial buildup and cause or worsen bad breath, chewing sugarless gum can help with the production of saliva which helps cleanse the mouth.. Chewing may also help when one cannot perform oral hygiene procedures after meals (especially protein-rich meals).
*Gaggling right before bedtime with an effective mouthwash. Mouthwashes may contain active ingredients that are inactivated by the soap present in most toothpaste. Thus, it is recommended not to use a mouthwash directly after tooth brushing with paste.
*Flossing which helps in removing rotting food debris and bacterial plaque from between the teeth, especially at the gum line. NOT TOOTH PICKS, as these could injure the gum
* Periodic visits to dentists ‘AT LEAST’ every 6 months. Your dentist can advise you on how to improve your oral health and can refer you for further investigation if they think there may be another cause for your bad breath, especially after ensuring that you are doing your best with your teeth care.
Bad breath is one thing that you might not notice yourself, and no one finds it easy to tell you. People will avoid you, and you can lose friends easily. It is therefore important that you look out for yourself every morning before you step out… and yes, look out for your good friends too! | <urn:uuid:8788159b-d082-4168-bc3f-1711e27ada74> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.habanaija.com/halitosis-bad-breath-and-how-to-reverse-it/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936076 | 1,142 | 3.15625 | 3 |
CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) classes range from the traditional, wherein you have to attend classes from anywhere between four to six hours or online classes that have additional hands-on skill classes. Most courses teach how to recognize an emergency, caring for conscious and unconscious choking victims, recognizing signs of a heart attack, rescue breathing and the basic techniques of adult CPR. Usually this includes an introduction on how to use an automated external defibrillator (AED). The AED is most commonly found in airports and other public areas for those trained to use the device.
The Emergency Cardiovascular Programs Department of the American Heart Association (AHA) offers several courses. The CPR Heartsaver and the AED course is intended for the general public and teaches the basic techniques of adult, child and infant CPR, how to use an AED, what barrier devices are and what to do for choking. The course teaches how to recognize the signs of four major emergencies: heart attack, stroke, cardiac arrest and foreign-body airway obstruction. It also teaches ways to prevent many childhood emergencies.
The AHA’s BLS (Basic Life Support) Healthcare Provider includes adult and pediatric CPR, mouth to mask techniques, bag valve mask use, foreign-body airway obstruction and two-rescuer CPR. The Heartsaver First Aid course teaches rescuers to effectively recognize and treat adult emergencies in the critical first minutes until emergency medical services personnel arrive. It also trains the lay rescuer or non-healthcare professional the proper techniques of emergency response and basic first aid. The management of common medical emergencies (diabetes, environmental, seizure, allergic reactions) and traumatic injuries (shock, burns, bleeding, fractures) are covered.
Several universities conduct weekend courses covering information about adult CPR and first aid. For those who have taken the courses, re-certification classes are also available. Ideally, you should check that classes are Nationally Recognized U.S. Govt. approved, and compliant with organizations like the American Red Cross and the American Heart Association ECC Guidelines.
Copied with permission from: http://plrplr.com/63994/cpr-classes/ | <urn:uuid:62e10d08-d285-4472-9c0b-725022152887> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cprtrainingschools.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917452 | 445 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Quantitative concepts: Basic graphing skills, exponential growth and decay
Why Do Geologists Use Graphs?
by Jennifer M. Wenner, Geology Department, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh
Jump down to: Functions
| Use of Graphs
| Good Ideas
| Examples and Exercises
Many students in introductory geoscience courses have a hard time with plotting and graphing. Although most faculty assume (and rightly so) that these students have had exposure to graphing and plotting data, it often becomes apparent within the first few labs or lectures that many of them struggle with the concepts. To help them with the idea of plotting data on graphs, there are five important concepts to incorporate into the review/help:
Rare-earth element patterns from granites in the Sierra Nevada. (Wenner,2001)
- remind them of the skills they may have learned in high school (or earlier),
- point out that whereas mathematicians often use functions to derive data, geologists often use data to derive functions (equations),
- give them reasons that we use graphs to help us understand data,
- teach about graphs using the good ideas from Mathematics Education to help them understand connections and tools.
Reminding students what graphs represent
In many geologic applications basic graphing involves the Cartesian coordinate system; thus, to refamiliarize them with these skills, they need to be reminded that:
- there are two axes - horizontal (often called the x-axis) and vertical (often called the y-axis),
- a point on the graph is denoted by an ordered pair (or coordinates (e.g., (3,8)) where:
- the first number refers to horizontal position on the x-axis,
- the second number refers to vertical position on the y-axis,
- the two axes intersect at point called the origin which has the coordinates (0,0),
- the reason that we plot data is so that we can more easily observe trends or behavior of the data (modified from Anderson and Swanson, 2005)
Data from functions or functions from data?
There are two ways that graphs can be used: (1) to display a known relationship (i.e., generating a graph from a function) and (2) to display an unknown relationship between variables (i.e., fitting a function to empirical data). In math classes (and even using their calculators), many students will know how to plot (and even to generate data from) a function. However, many useful graphs in the geosciences use empirical or experimental data to generate an equation (or function) that describes the relationship of physical variables. How this is done may not be immediately apparent to students and faculty may need to explicitly point this out.
Plots of basic x-y data involve functions. An example of a basic function that is often plotted is that of a line:
- y = mx + b
Tables of data that solve this equation can be generated by arbitrarily assigning a value to x or y or, alternatively, data can be used to derive an equation that describes a dataset.
plot of data from QELP comparing population to tons of solid waste
For example, in town or city planning, we might want to know how much area is (and will be) needed for waste disposal. To do this, we need to know the relationship of population to amount of solid waste generated. QELP (more info)
has a set of data for Oregon
showing how waste increases with increasing population. Generally, the increase is linear. We can fit a line to the data and describe it with the equation:
- y = 0.87x
where y = solid waste in tons and x = population (and the y-intercept (b) = 0 because zero people generate zero waste). This suggests that each additional person in a town will increase the waste generated by approximately 0.87 tons in one year! To plan for waste disposal and growth, these factors need to be taken into consideration.
Why use graphs?
As discussed above, often the relationship between physical variables is not well know (or so complicated that it varies by situation). Geologists are interested in predicting and understanding the physical way that the Earth works. For us, plotting data and sketching the relationship among variables helps us to understand and predict the behavior of the Earth in different situations. However, the Earth is a very complicated (and varied) place. Often times we need to simplify it to make it easier to understand. An example of this concept is presented in the forecasting sections of SERC's floods and flooding page
When talking about models of the physical world (because, after all, graphs are really just simplified models of data), it is important to understand the assumptions and simplifications that have gone into the model. For example, if we want to talk about the likelihood of a river flooding, what kinds of variables do we need to take into account? Thinking about rivers that you know, what affects their ability to flood the ground around them?
Flood frequency plot for Alsea River, OR (data from USGS
- drainage area
- permeability of the drainage area
- and many other things
Yet when we talk about flooding, we generally talk about how much water is flowing through the channel (at a given point) and how often that happens. We have simplified a very complex system into two variables. Why can we do this? If we had to take ALL those things into account, the system (and the graph) would be so complicated, we might not be able to understand it. However, when we simplify it, it approximates the system well enough so that we can understand it.
Geologists use graphs in a variety of ways. As mentioned above, graphs can be a visual way of predicting or forecasting geologic events. But they are also used to understand the behavior of systems, to visualize large sets of data and to help geologists understand many important systems that might not be as easy to understand just by looking at a bunch of numbers. Graphs are a way of making scores of data points manageable and, often, more understandable.
Good ideas for teaching graphing
There are a number of good ways to convey quantitative concepts to students. Two other pages deal with the "good ideas" when it comes to helping
students to quantitatively understand graphs and plots and the ways that geologists use them.
Examples and Exercises
A number of the activities posted on the Quantitative Skills in the Geosciences site are designed to help students learn about graphing in a geoscience context. Some of these activities are designed for upper level students.
There are dozens of activities that involve the use of Excel that are available as a part of SERC's Starting Point. Each of these activities is downloadable and ready to use.
There are a number of examples of ConcepTests that can be used to break up lecture in a large classroom. Each of these ConcepTests involves the interpretation of graphs appropriate to introductory level geoscience. | <urn:uuid:e42ebc23-83cc-4639-ab35-a4ce3b3138bd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://serc.carleton.edu/quantskills/methods/quantlit/geograph.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946453 | 1,462 | 3.84375 | 4 |
JOHANNESBURG, South Africa — Researchers have declared a new species of dinosaur found in northwestern China.
An international team of researchers, including participants from South Africa and the United States, said that a fossil uncovered in China's Xinjiang region in 2006 is in fact a new species.
The meat-eating theropod has been named "Auron Zhaoi," or "Dragon King," after the dragon king in famous Chinese classical literary work "Journey to the West."
The Dragon King lived about 161 million years ago during the Late Jurassic Period, and judging from its sharp teeth, is likely to have eaten meat like small mammals and lizards.
The team first discovered the leg and with more excavating discovered a partial skeleton, along with some teeth.
From the look of the skull, jaw and skeleton, the dinosaur was about 3 feet long and weighed about 3 pounds.
More from GlobalPost: Dinosaur embryos found in China reveal how dinos grew
But researchers said they believed they had found the fossils of a baby, and didn't think the whole species was that small.
"We were able to look at microscopic details of Aurun's bones and they showed that the animal was less than a year old when it died on the banks of a stream," co-researcher Jonah Choiniere said.
South Africa's University of the Witwatersrand, which participated on the research team, has become known for its expertise in the paleo-sciences thanks to major discoveries such as the "Little Foot" hominin skeleton at the Cradle of Humankind, a World Heritage site about an hour from Johannesburg.
Erin Conway-Smith contributed reporting from Johannesburg. | <urn:uuid:e3572fbf-367c-4f37-8020-3f0d44bac895> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/science/130504/dragon-king-dinosaur-fossils-found-northwest-china-declared-new-species | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972299 | 351 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Nathanael Greene and Other Heroes in the South
We have given a rapid glance at the part which Washington took in the Revolution. He, as commander-in-chief, stands first. But he would have been quick to say that much of the credit for the success in that uneven struggle was due to the able generals who carried out his plans. Standing next to Washington himself as a military leader was Nathanael Greene.
As you remember, the first fighting of the Revolution was in New England near Boston. Failing there, the British tried hard to get control of the Hudson River and the Middle States, as we have just seen. Again they were baffled by Washington.
One course remained, and that was to gain control of the southern States. Beginning in Georgia, they captured Savannah. Two years later in May (1780), they captured General Lincoln and all his force at Charleston, and in the following August badly defeated General Gates, at Camden, South Carolina, where with a new army he was now commanding in General Lincoln’s place.
The outlook for the patriot cause was discouraging. One thing was certain. A skilful general must take charge of the American forces in the south, or the British would soon have everything in their own hands. Washington had great faith in General Greene, and did not hesitate to appoint him for this hard task. Let us see what led the commander-in-chief to choose this New England man for duty in a post so far away.
Nathanael Greene was born in Warwick, Rhode Island, in 1742. His father, who on week-days was a blacksmith and miller, on Sundays was a Quaker preacher. Nathanael was trained to work at the forge and in the mill and in the fields as well. He was robust and active and, like young George Washington, a leader in outdoor sports. But with all his other activities he was also, like young Samuel Adams, a good student of books.
We like to think of these colonial boys going to school and playing at games just as boys do now, quite unaware of the great things waiting for them to do in the world. Had they known of their future, they could have prepared in no better way than by taking their faithful part in the work and honest sport of each day as it came.
Greene, being ten years younger than Washington, was about thirty-two years old when the Boston Tea Party and those other exciting events of that time occurred.
Although news did not travel so rapidly then as now, Greene was soon aware that war was likely to break out at any time, and he took an active part in preparing for it. He helped to organize a company of soldiers who should be ready to fight for the American cause, and made the trip from Rhode Island to Boston to get a musket for himself. In Boston he watched with much interest the British regulars taking their drill, and brought back with him not only a musket, hidden under some straw in his wagon, but also a runaway British soldier, who was to drill his company.
When news of the battle of Bunker Hill passed swiftly over the country, proving that the war had actually begun, Rhode Island raised three regiments of troops and placed Greene at their head as general. He marched at once to Boston, and when Washington arrived to take command of the American troops, it was General Greene who had the honor of welcoming him in the name of the army. | <urn:uuid:af58225b-7961-4460-b067-962d67aebf9e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.apples4theteacher.com/socialstudies/american-history/nathanael-greene/heroes-of-the-south.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.989835 | 708 | 3.125 | 3 |
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