text
stringlengths 199
648k
| id
stringlengths 47
47
| dump
stringclasses 1
value | url
stringlengths 14
419
| file_path
stringlengths 139
140
| language
stringclasses 1
value | language_score
float64 0.65
1
| token_count
int64 50
235k
| score
float64 2.52
5.34
| int_score
int64 3
5
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 Answer | Add Yours
Police officers need to obtain a warrant to arrest anyone (in a home or not) unless they have probable cause to arrest them on the spot. For example, if an officer sees a crime committed they do not need a warrant in order to arrest the suspect. The officer could even follow the suspect into their home in "hot pursuit" without a warrant.
In general, though, warrants are needed so as to allow people to be secure in their homes. We would not want the police to be able to enter our homes and arrest us merely because they think that we might have committed a crime. Because they have to get a warrant, they have to have probable cause to arrest us. This gives us security because it requires the police to collect enough evidence against us to convince a judge to issue a warrant.
Thus, this requirement is an important way of keeping us safe from unreasonable police intervention in our lives.
We’ve answered 328,176 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question | <urn:uuid:ef4a5f58-6033-468a-8c0a-41d18b97a0f8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-do-officers-need-obtain-warrants-arrest-358168 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971035 | 211 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The development of Roman portraiture is characterized by a stylistic cycle that alternately emphasized realistic or idealizing elements. Each stage of Roman portraiture can be described as alternately “veristic” or “classicizing,” as each imperial dynasty sought to emphasize certain aspects of representation in an effort to legitimize their authority or align themselves with revered predecessors. These stylistic stages played off of one another while pushing the medium toward future artistic innovations.
In the Republic, the most highly valued traits included a devotion to public service and military prowess, and so Republican citizens sought to project these ideals through their representation in portraiture. Public officials commissioned portrait busts that reflected every wrinkle and imperfection of the skin, and heroic, full-length statues often composed of generic bodies onto which realistic, called “veristic” (12.233), portrait heads were attached. The overall effect of this style gave Republican ideals physical form and presented an image that the sitter wanted to express.
Beginning with Augustus, the emperors of the imperial period made full use of the medium’s potential as a tool for communicating specific ideologies to the Roman populace. Augustus’ official portrait type was disseminated throughout the empire and combined the heroicizing idealization of Hellenistic art with Republican ideas of individual likeness to produce a whole new scheme for portraiture that was at once innovative and yet fundamentally based in familiar aspects of traditional Roman art. Augustan (07.286.115) and Julio-Claudian (14.37) portrait types emphasized the youth, beauty, and benevolence of the new dynastic family, and in doing so, Augustus set a stylistic precedent that had lasting impact on Roman portrait sculpture up to the reign of Constantine the Great.
Classicizing idealization in portraiture allowed emperors to emphasize their loyalties to the imperial dynasty, and even legitimize their authority by visually linking themselves to their predecessors. Tiberius (r. 14–37 A.D.) (1994.230.7) was not actually related to Augustus, but his portraits portray a remarkable, and fictionalized, resemblance that connected him to the princeps and helped substantiate his position as successor. Even Tiberius’ successor Caligula (r. 37–41 A.D.) (14.37), who had no interest in continuing Augustus’ administrative ideals and was much more concerned with promoting his own agenda, followed the Augustan and Tiberian portrait tradition of classical and idealized features that carried a strong “family” resemblance. However, during the reign of the emperor Claudius (r. 41–54 A.D.), a shift in the political atmosphere favored a return to Republican standards and so also influenced artistic styles. Portraits of Claudius reflect his increasing age and strongly resemble veristic portraits of the Republic. This trend toward realism eventually led to the characteristic styles of the second imperial dynasty: the Flavians.
The turbulence of the year 68/69 A.D., which saw the rise and fall of three different emperors, instigated drastic changes in Roman portraiture characterized by a return to a veristic representation that emphasized their military strengths. Portraits of Vespasian (r. 69–79 A.D.), the founder of the Flavian dynasty, similarly show him in an unidealized manner. During the Flavian era, sculptors also made remarkable advancements in technique that included a revolutionary use of the drill, and female portraiture (38.27) of the period is renowned for its elaborate corkscrew hairstyles.
The cycle continued with the portraits of Trajan (r. 98–117 A.D.), who wanted to emphasize symbolic connections with Augustus and so adopted an ageless and somewhat idealized portrait type quite different from that of the Flavians. His successor Hadrian (r. 117–38 A.D.) (08.170.118; 08.170.120; 99.35.177), however, went a step further and is noted as being the first emperor to adopt the Greek habit of wearing a beard. The textual interplay that was developed in the treatment of Flavian women’s hairstyles was now more fully explored in male portraiture, and busts of the Hadrianic period are identified by a full head of curly hair as well as the presence of a beard. The Antonines modeled their portraits after Hadrian, and emphasized (fictional) familial resemblances to him by having themselves portrayed as never-aging, bearded adults (33.11.3). Continued development in Roman portrait styles was spurred by the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–80 A.D.) and his son Commodus (r. 177–92 A.D.), whose portraits feature new levels of psychological expression that reflect changes not only in the emperors’ physical state but their mental condition as well. These physical embodiments of personality and emotional expression later reach their fullest realization in the portraits of the Severan emperor Caracalla (r. 211–17 A.D.).
In contrast to the full curls typical of Hadrianic and Antonine portraits, Caracalla (40.11.1a) is shown with a short, military beard and hairstyle that were stippled across the surface of the marble for a “buzz-cut” effect, also called “negative carving.” He is also shown with an intense, almost insane facial expression, which evokes his strong military background and, according to some scholars, reflects his aggressive nature. This portrait type is credited as having a profound effect on imperial portraiture in the turbulent years to follow his reign, and many of the soldier-emperors of the third century sought to legitimize their rise to power by stylistically aligning themselves with Caracalla. As time went on, these stylized aspects became increasingly prominent, and soon a pronounced attention to geometry and emotional anxiety permeated imperial portrait sculptures, as evident in the bronze statue of Trebonianus Gallus (05.30). This increasing dependency on geometric symmetry and abstraction contributed to the highly distinctive portraiture utilized by the Tetrarchy, a system of imperial rule based on a foundation of indivisibility and homogeneous authority shared by four co-emperors. The portraits of these Tetrarchs emphasized an abstract and stylized communal image; individualized features were forsaken in order to present them as the embodiment of a united empire. This message sought to quell the fears and anxieties born out of years of civil strife and short-lived emperors, and so in this extreme example, the portraiture of the Tetrarchy cannot be defined as the representation of individuals, but rather as the manufactured image of their revolutionary political system.
The portraiture of Constantine the Great (26.229), who defeated his rivals to become sole emperor in 326 A.D., is unique in its combination of third-century abstraction and a neo-Augustan, neo-Trajanic classical revival. Constantine favored dynastic succession and used the homogeneous precedents of his predecessors to present his sons as his apparent heirs. However, he also sought to imbue his reign with aspects of the “good” emperor Trajan, and is depicted clean-shaven and sporting the short, comma-shaped hairstyle typical of that emperor. He further disassociated himself from the Tetrarchs and soldier-emperors by having himself portrayed as youthful and serene, recalling the classicizing idealism of Augustan and Julio-Claudian portraits. In this way, Constantine’s portraiture encapsulated the Roman artistic tradition of emulation and innovation, and in turn had great impact on the development of Byzantine art.
Trentinella, Rosemarie. “Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo2/hd_ropo2.htm (October 2003)
Breckenridge, James D. Likeness: A Conceptual History of Ancient Portraiture. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1968.
Grant, Michael "Roman Coins as Propaganda." Archaeology 5 (Summer 1952), pp. 79–85.
Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.
Pollini, John, ed. Roman Portraiture: Images of Character and Virtue. Exhibition catalogue. Los Angeles: Fisher Gallery, University of Southern California, 1990.
Toynbee, J. M. C. Roman Historical Portraits. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978.
Varner, Eric R., ed. From Caligula to Constantine: Tyranny & Transformation in Roman Portraiture. Exhibition catalogue. Atlanta: Michael C. Carlos Museum, 2000. | <urn:uuid:36a53cfa-1248-4360-a49e-187e855cffec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo2/hd_ropo2.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949935 | 1,863 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Civic engagement can take many forms— from individual volunteerism to organizational involvement to electoral participation. It can include efforts to directly address an issue, work with others in a community to solve a problem or interact with the institutions of representative democracy.
Another way of describing this concept is the sense of personal responsibility individuals should feel to uphold their obligations as part of any community.
"Youth civic engagement" has identical aims, only with consideration for youth voice.
In a study published by CIRCLE, the Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement at Tufts divided into 3 categories: civic, electoral, and political voice.
|Measures of Civic Engagement|
|Community problem solving||Regular voting||Contacting officials|
|Regular volunteering for a non-electoral organization||Persuading others to vote||Contacting the print media|
|Active membership in a group or association||Displaying buttons, signs, stickers||Contacting the broadcast media|
|Participation in fund-raising run/walk/ride||Campaign contributions||Protesting|
|Other fund-raising for charity||Volunteering for candidate or political organizations||Email petitions|
- Community building
- Community development
- Civic courage
- Civic virtue
- Civil society
- Community involvement
- Social capital
- Youth empowerment
- ↑ "Civic engagement", American Psychological Association. Retrieved 11/26/07.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ketter, S., Zukin, C., Andolina, M., and Jenkins, K. (2002) "The Civic and Political Health of a Nation: A Generational Portrait" CIRCLE and The Pew Charitable Trusts.
- The Citizen's Handbook
- Community University Engagement
- Center for Civic Engagement at University of South Florida, St. Petersburg
- Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE) at the Jonathan M. Tisch College of Citizenship & Public Service, Tufts University
- Civic engagement through City Wikis and Civic Wikis. - PortlandWiki's City Wiki page.
- Northumberland Civic Engagement
- Civic Engagement Center at Central Washington University
- WHYY Civic Engagement Project
- Penn Project for Civic Engagement at the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education
- The Center for Future Civic Media, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Center for Civic Engagement at the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College.
- Student Voices a project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).| | <urn:uuid:de5eb8eb-ad74-4835-979c-171160ea662d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Civic_engagement | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.801717 | 570 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Do you think we need more regulations for banks and other financial institutions, as many politicians and others have recently urged?
Before you answer this question, you may wish to consider the following. There are now literally hundreds of regulators of financial institutions. The federal government has many agencies involved in regulating financial institutions, including the Federal Reserve, the Treasury Department, the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, etc. Every state has an agency that oversees the state-charted banks, and another agency that oversees the insurance companies that operate in the state.
Every country and political entity in the world has one or more financial industry regulator. International organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund, the Financial Action Task Force, and the Bank for International Settlements in Basel, Switzerland, all have some financial regulatory authority.
Financial institutions increasingly operate on a global basis, and thus a large financial company, such as Citibank, which operates in many states and countries and sells not only banking services, but insurance and securities products, is quite literally regulated in whole or part by hundreds of different public authorities.
The world’s public financial regulatory authorities collectively have well more than 1,000 full-time and part-time directors (including yours truly) and literally hundreds of thousands of employees — and yet things still go terribly wrong.
In the United States, banks have been regulated at the state level for more than 200 years and at the federal level since 1863. Still, financial panics continued to occur, and banks continued to fail, causing Congress to create the Federal Reserve System in 1913.
Before creation of the Federal Reserve, the dollar was not subject to sustained inflation (there were periods of inflation and deflation) but the wholesale price index in 1913 was roughly the same as it had been in 1793. Ninety-five years after the creation of the Fed, the dollar is worth about one-twentieth of what it was worth in 1913, despite the fact that the Fed was supposed to provide stable money.
The greatest periods of bank failures occurred during the Depression of the 1930s after the creation of the Fed, and then again in the late 1980s and early 1990s when 1,600 banks and one-third of all the savings and loans (S&Ls) failed.
The evidence clearly shows that abrupt, unanticipated and incompetent changes in monetary and regulatory policy by central bankers and other financial regulators have caused far more financial instability and financial institutions’ failures than have unsavory or illegal practices by managers of these institutions.
Neither individuals nor business people should have exaggerated faith in government financial regulators or private ratings’ organizations…
Leaders of some financial institutions have obviously been more adept at anticipating market and regulatory changes than others. Markets punish those companies whose leaders were less astute, but it is not proper to attempt to criminalize well-intentioned mistakes, particularly those caused by failures to anticipate actions of public officials.
Regulation can and often does add more systemic risk to the system because people believe the regulators will see problems and act upon them before the market does, giving an illusion of greater safety and stability than actually exists.
Those of us who exercise some regulatory functions are on average no smarter, wiser, or knowledgeable than the other participants in the financial markets. Regulators can ensure competent auditors prepare timely financial statements and that certain standards, such as reasonable capital adequacy ratios and fraud prevention policies, are adhered to. But regulators are not equipped to, nor should they attempt to, micromanage the companies they oversee. And regulators should be sure that regulations meet solid cost-benefit standards and do not discourage innovation in order to avoid killing the golden goose.
It is usually easy, after the fact, to understand why institutions fail, but it may be more useful to understand why some succeed for very long periods of time. Switzerland has a number of very old banks (a couple going back more than 250 years) being managed by successive generations of the same family.
Under Swiss law, these “private banks” are partnerships, with one or more partners having unlimited liability. Most people are much more prudent with their own money than with other peoples’ money, and because these Swiss bankers have all of their own money at risk (as well as their family reputation), they tend to be very careful and prudent. These banks have not to date had the same recent problems of many of the very large global banks, including two of Swiss origin, which are corporations whose stock is held by the public (this is not to imply all financial institutions should be unlimited liability partnerships).
There are definite limits to what financial regulators can achieve, and their mistakes are often even more damaging to the financial system than incompetence and dishonesty are by individual players.
Neither individuals nor business people should have exaggerated faith in government financial regulators or private ratings’ organizations, many of which have made major mistakes. Prudent people should diversify their financial holdings and relationships among several institutions. One should pay attention to whether the incentives for the managers of the institutions are closely allied with the long-run interests of the stockholders — with the emphasis on long run, because that also usually means the interests of the customers.
Regulation is not a panacea. It can be constructive or destructive. The goal should not be more regulation, but simplified, more cost-effective, and nonduplicative domestic and international regulation. | <urn:uuid:b04792cf-ec65-4a07-a3a3-84f3435e233f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/financial-regulatory-limitations | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967721 | 1,106 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Barge-mounted desalination plants aren’t unique – the Saudis first deployed them in 2008 – but Israel’s IDE Technologies Ltd. and Japanese shipbuilders have a plan to take offshore floating desalination to a whole new level.
Fresh water is an unbelievably rare resource across the globe – one in six people lack access to clean water and more than 3.4 million people die each year because of its scarcity.
Even in places where water is plentiful, it may be contaminated, or the existing infrastructure may be ill-equipped to deliver sufficient resources to swelling populations.
Stationary desalination plants are restricted to towns and cities within reach of their pipelines, and they come with a smorgasbord of environmental complications.
Mobile, floating desalination plants can travel from place to place to deliver water to more people on an as-needed basis, but desalination is no panacea.
If anything, it spreads the problem, disperses it, and allows us to destroy our resources more quickly.
It’s expensive to make salt water fit for drinking as it requires a great deal of energy, and at the moment, most desalination plants are not solar-powered. Eventually this will change, but for now we’re mostly stuck with fossil-fueled desalination.
IDE Technologies recently announced that it is likely to deliver a fleet of custom offshore floating desalination plants within the next three years; each ship would be able to produce up to 120,000 cubic meters of fresh water in a day.
Udi Tirosh, a business development director at IDE, told Bloomberg News “ship-based designs could supply water for a city of 850,000 people and Japan’s shipbuilders are among potential partners.”
“The idea is to develop with our partners a multi-year, multi-vessel plan that would eventually supply significant capacity in various places in the world.”
Good news – getting fresh water to more people, saving lives – but also disturbing. What will our oceans look like in 10, 20, 30 years? Enormous cesspools of briny, trashy water filled with jellyfish and oil sheen?
Image via screenshot of IDE Technologies You Tube demonstration | <urn:uuid:98967950-40dd-4e0a-b82b-8ecf75b2cdc1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.greenprophet.com/2014/04/ide-technologies-aims-for-a-fleet-of-floating-water-desalination-plants-in-three-years/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936274 | 468 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Passengers on 2001 Air Transat Flight Provide Insights About Post-Traumatic Stress Vulnerability
A study of memory and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a group of Air Transat passengers who experienced 30 minutes of terror over the Atlantic Ocean in 2001 sheds light on a potential risk factor that could help predict who is most vulnerable to PTSD
The study findings, to be published in Clinical Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, indicate that PTSD may be linked with how a person processes memory for details of events in general, rather than memory specifically related to traumatic events.
The study is novel, say the researchers at Baycrest Health Sciences in Toronto who conducted the study, because it involves detailed interviews and psychological testing in individuals exposed to the same life-threatening traumatic event. In fact, Margaret McKinnon, first author on the study, was a passenger on the plane.
In late August 2001, Air Transat flight 236 departed Toronto for Lisbon, Portugal with 306 passengers and crew on board. Midway over the Atlantic Ocean, the plane suddenly ran out of fuel. Everyone onboard was instructed to prepare for an ocean ditching, which included a countdown to impact, loss of on-board lighting, and cabin de-pressurization. About 25 minutes into the emergency, the pilot located a small island military base in the Azores and glided the aircraft to a rough landing with no loss of life and few injuries.
“Imagine your worst nightmare — that’s what it was like,” said McKinnon, who initiated the study as a postdoctoral fellow at Baycrest’s Rotman Research Institute. She is now a clinician-scientist at St. Joseph’s Healthcare Hamilton and Associate Co-Chair of Research in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences at McMaster University in Hamilton.
“This wasn’t just a close call where your life flashes before your eyes in a split second and then everything is okay,” she said. The sickening feeling of “I’m going to die” lasted an excruciating 30 minutes as the plane’s systems shut down.
Following the incident, McKinnon and her colleagues at Baycrest recruited 15 passengers to participate in the study.
Using their knowledge of the moment-to-moment unfolding of events in this disaster, the researchers were able to probe both the quality and accuracy of passengers’ memories for the flight in great detail along with their memories for two other events (September 11, 2001 and a neutral event from the same time period).
The researchers found that the Flight 236 passengers showed tremendously enhanced vivid memories of the plane emergency. However, neither the vividness nor accuracy of memory was associated with onset of PTSD. Rather, passengers with PTSD recalled a higher number of details external to the main event (i.e. details that were not specific in time, or were repetitions or editorial statements) compared to passengers who did not have PTSD and to healthy controls.
This pattern was observed across all three events tested, not just the traumatic event, suggesting that it is not just memory for the trauma itself that is related to PTSD, but rather how a person processes memory for events in general.
“What our findings show is that it is not what happened but to whom it happened that may determine subsequent onset of PTSD,” said Brian Levine, senior scientist at Baycrest’s Rotman Research Institute and the University of Toronto and senior author of the study.
This inability to shut out external or semantic details when recalling personally-experienced memories is related to mental control over memory recall, adding to a growing body of evidence that altered memory processing may be a vulnerability factor for PTSD.
This research was funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the National Institute of Mental Health. | <urn:uuid:5e7e50f2-b97f-47c0-9009-25bceb858cbe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/passengers-on-2001-air-transat-flight-provide-insights-about-post-traumatic-stress-vulnerability.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949897 | 789 | 3 | 3 |
Contents: Country By-Ways
An Illustrated Story
Harper's Magazine Text
An Autumn Holiday.
Sarah Orne Jewett
I had started early in the afternoon for a long walk; it was just the weather for walking, and I went across the fields with a delighted heart. The wind came straight in from the sea, and the sky was bright blue; there was a little tinge of red still lingering on the maples, and my dress brushed over the late golden-rods, while my old dog, who seemed to have taken a new lease of youth, jumped about wildly and raced after the little birds that flew up out of the long brown grass -- the constant little chickadees, that would soon sing before the coming of snow. But this day brought no thought of winter; it was one of the October days when to breathe the air is like drinking wine, and every touch of the wind against one's face is a caress: like a quick, sweet kiss, that wind is. You have a sense of companionship; it is a day that loves you.
I went strolling along, with this dear idle day for company; it was a pleasure to be alive, and to go through the dry grass, and to spring over the stone walls and the shaky pasture fences. I stopped by each of the stray apple-trees that came in my way, to make friends with it, or to ask after its health, if it were an old friend. These old apple-trees make very charming bits of the world in October; the leaves cling to them later than to the other trees, and the turf keeps short and green underneath; and in this grass, which was frosty in the morning, and has not quite dried yet, you can find some cold little cider apples, with one side knurly, and one shiny bright red or yellow cheek. They are wet with dew, these little apples, and a black ant runs anxiously over them when you turn them round and round to see where the best place is to bite. There will almost always be a bird's nest in the tree, and it is most likely to be a robin's nest. The prehistoric robins must have been cave-dwellers, for they still make their nests as much like cellars as they can, though they follow the new fashion and build them aloft. One always has a thought of spring at the sight of a robin's nest. It is so little while ago that it was spring, and we were so glad to have the birds come back, and the life of the new year was just showing itself; we were looking forward to so much growth and to the realization and perfection of so many things. I think the sadness of autumn, or the pathos of it, is like that of elderly people. We have seen how the flowers looked when they bloomed and have eaten the fruit when it was ripe; the questions have had their answer, the days we waited for have come and gone. Everything has stopped growing. And so the children have grown to be men and women, their lives have been lived, the autumn has come. We have seen what our lives would be like when we were older; success or disappointment, it is all over at any rate. Yet it only makes one sad to think it is autumn with the flowers or with one's own life, when one forgets that always and always there will be the spring again.
I am very fond of walking between the roads. One grows so familiar with the highways themselves. But once leap the fence and there are a hundred roads that you can take, each with its own scenery and entertainment. Every walk of this kind proves itself a tour of exploration anddiscovery, and the fields of my own town, which I think I know so well, are always new fields. I find new ways to go, new sights to see, new friends among the things that grow, and new treasures and pleasures every summer; and later, when the frosts have come and the swamps have frozen, I can go everywhere I like all over my world.
That afternoon I found something I had never seen before -- a little grave alone in a wide pasture which had once been a field. The nearest house was at least two miles away, but by hunting for it I found a very old cellar, where the child's home used to be, not very far off, along the slope. It must have been a great many years ago that the house had stood there; and the small slate head-stone was worn away by the rain and wind, so there was nothing to be read, if indeed there had ever been any letters on it. It had looked many a storm in the face, and many a red sunset. I suppose the woods near by had grown and been cut, and grown again, since it was put there. There was an old sweet-brier bush growing on the short little grave, and in the grass underneath I found a ground-sparrow's nest. It was like a little neighborhood, and I have felt ever since as if I belonged to it; and I wondered then if one of the young ground-sparrows was not always sent to take the nest when the old ones were done with it, so they came back in the spring year after year to live there, and there were always the stone and the sweet-brier bush and the birds to remember the child. It was such a lonely place in that wide field under the great sky, and yet it was so comfortable too; but the sight of the little grave at first touched me strangely, and I tried to picture to myself the procession that came out from the house the day of the funeral, and I thought of the mother in the evening after all the people had gone home, and how she missed the baby, and kept seeing the new grave out here in the twilight as she went about her work. I suppose the family moved away, and so all the rest were buried elsewhere.
I often think of this place, and I link it in my thoughts with something I saw once in the water when I was out at sea: a little boat that some child had lost, that had drifted down the river and out to sea; too long a voyage, for it was a sad little wreck, with even its white sail of a hand-breadth half under water, and its twine rigging trailing astern. It was a silly little boat, and no loss, except to its owner, to whom it had seemed as brave and proud a thing as any ship of the line to you and me. It was a shipwreck of his small hopes, I suppose, and I can see it now, the toy of the great winds and waves, as it floated on its way, while I sailed on mine, out of sight of land.
The little grave is forgotten by everybody but me, I think: the mother must have found the child again in heaven a very long time ago: but in the winter I shall wonder if the snow has covered it well, and next year I shall go to see the sweet-brier bush when it is in bloom. God knows what use that life was, the grave is such a short one, and nobody knows whose little child it was; but perhaps a thousand people in the world to-day are better because it brought a little love into the world that was not there before.
I sat so long here in the sun that the dog, after running after all the birds, and even chasing crickets, and going through a great piece of affectation in barking before an empty woodchuck's hole to kill time, came to sit patiently in front of me, as if he wished to ask when I would go on. I had never been in this part of the pasture before. It was at one side of the way I usually took, so presently I went on to find a favorite track of mine, half a mile to the right, along the bank of a brook. There had been heavy rains the week before, and I found more water than usual running, and the brook was apparently in a great hurry. It was very quiet along the shore of it; the frogs had long ago gone into winter-quarters, and there was not one to splash into the water when he saw me coming. I did not see a musk-rat either, though I knew where their holes were by the piles of fresh-water mussel shells that they had untidily thrown out at their front door. I thought it might be well to hunt for mussels myself, and crack them in search of pearls, but it was too serene and beautiful a day. I was not willing to disturb the comfort of even a shell-fish. It was one of the days when one does not think of being tired: the scent of the dry everlasting flowers, and the freshness of the wind, and the cawing of the crows, all come to me as I think of it, and I remember that I went a long way before I began to think of going home again. I knew I could not be far from a cross-road, and when I climbed a low hill I saw a house which I was glad to make the end of my walk -- for a time, at any rate. It was some time since I had seen the old woman who lived there, and I liked her dearly, and was sure of a welcome. I went down through the pasture lane, and just then I saw my father drive away up the road, just too far for me to make him hear when I called. That seemed too bad at first, until I remembered that he would come back again over the same road after a while, and in the mean time I could make my call. The house was low and long and unpainted, with a great many frost-bitten flowers about it. Some hollyhocks were bowed down despairingly, and the morning-glory vines were more miserable still. Some of the smaller plants had been covered to keep them from freezing, and were braving out a few more days, but no shelter would avail them much longer. And already nobody minded whether the gate was shut or not, and part of the great flock of hens were marching proudly about among the wilted posies, which they had stretched their necks wistfully through the fence for all summer. I heard the noise of spinning in the house, and my dog scurried off after the cat as I went in the door. I saw Miss Polly Marsh and her sister, Mrs. Snow, stepping back and forward together spinning yarn at a pair of big wheels. The wheels made such a noise with their whir and creak, and my friends were talking so fast as they twisted and turned the yarn, that they did not hear my footstep, and I stood in the doorway watching them, it was such a quaint and pretty sight. They went together like a pair of horses, and kept step with each other to and fro. They were about the same size, and were cheerful old bodies, looking a good deal alike, with their checked handkerchiefs over their smooth gray hair, their dark gowns made short in the skirts, and their broad little feet in gray stockings and low leather shoes without heels. They stood straight, and though they were quick at their work they moved stiffly; they were talking busily about some one.
"I could tell by the way the doctor looked that he didn't think there was much of anything the matter with her," said Miss Polly Marsh. "'You needn't [needn'] tell me,' says I, the other day, when I see him at Miss Martin's. 'She'd be up and about this minute if she only had a mite o' resolution;' and says he, 'Aunt Polly, you're as near right as usual;'" and the old lady stopped to laugh a little. "I told him that wa'n't saying much," said she, with an evident consciousness of the underlying compliment and the doctor's good opinion. "I never knew one of that tribe that hadn't a queer streak and wasn't shif'less; but they're tougher than ellum roots;" and she gave the wheel an emphatic turn, while Mrs. Snow reached for more rolls of wool, and happened to see me.
"Wherever did you come from?" said they, in great surprise. "Why, you wasn't anywhere in sight when I was out speaking to the doctor," said Mrs. Snow. "Oh, come over horseback, I suppose. Well, now, we're pleased to see ye."
"No," said I, "I walked across the fields. It was too pleasant to stay in the house, and I haven't had a long walk for some time before." I begged them not to stop spinning, but they insisted that they should not have turned the wheels a half-dozen times more, even if I had not come, and they pushed them back to the wall before they came to sit down to talk with me over their knitting -- for neither of them were ever known to be idle. Mrs. Snow was only there for a visit; she was a widow, and lived during most of the year with her son; and Aunt Polly was at home but seldom herself, as she was a famous nurse, and was often in demand all through that part of the country. I had known her all my days. Everybody was fond of the good soul, and she had been one of the most useful women in the world. One of my pleasantest memories is of a long but not very painful illness one winter, when she came to take care of me. There was no end either to her stories or her kindness. I was delighted to find her at home that afternoon, and Mrs. Snow also.
Aunt Polly brought me some of her gingerbread, which she knew I liked, and a stout little pitcher of milk, and we sat there together for a while, gossiping and enjoying ourselves. I told all the village news that I could think of, and I was just tired enough to know it, and to be contented to sit still for a while in the comfortable three-cornered chair by the little front window. The October sunshine lay along the clean kitchen floor, and Aunt Polly darted from her chair occasionally to catch stray little wisps of wool which the breeze through the door blew along from the wheels. There was a gay string of red peppers hanging over the very high mantel-shelf, and the wood-work in the room had never been painted, and had grown dark brown with age and smoke and scouring. The clock ticked solemnly, as if it were a judge giving the laws of time, and felt itself to be the only thing that did not waste it. There was a bouquet of asparagus and some late sprigs of larkspur and white petunias on the table underneath, and a Leavitt's Almanac lay on the county paper, which was itself lying on the big Bible, of which Aunt Polly made a point of reading two chapters every day in course. I remember her saying, despairingly, one night, half to herself, "I don' know but I may skip the Chronicles next time," but I have never to this day believed that she did. They asked me at once to come into the best room, but I liked the old kitchen best. "Who was it that you were talking about as I came in?" said I. "You said you didn't believe there was much the matter with her." And Aunt Polly clicked her knitting-needles faster, and told me that it was Mary Susan Ash, over by Little Creek.
"They're dreadful nervous, all them Ashes," said Mrs. Snow. "You know young Joe Adams's wife, over our way, is a sister to her, and she's forever a-doctorin'. Poor fellow! he's got a drag. I'm real sorry for Joe; but, land sakes alive! he might 'a known better. They said she had an old green bandbox with a gingham cover, that was stowed full o' vials, that she moved with the rest of her things when she was married, besides some she car'd in her hands. I guess she ain't in no more hurry to go than any of the rest of us. I've lost every mite of patience with her. I was over there last week one day, and she'd had a call from the new supply -- you know Adams's folks is Methodists -- and he was took in by her. She made out she'd got the consumption, and she told how many complaints she had, and what a sight o' medicine she took, and she groaned and sighed, and her voice was so weak you couldn't more than just hear it. I stepped right into the bedroom after he'd been prayin' with her, and was taking leave. You'd thought, by what he said, she was going right off then. She was coughing dreadful hard, and I knew she hadn't no more cough than I had. So says I, 'What's the matter, Adaline? I'll get ye a drink of water. Something in your throat, I s'pose. I hope you won't go and get cold, and have a cough.' She looked as if she could 'a bit me, but I was just as pleasant 's could be. Land! to see her laying there, I suppose the poor young fellow thought she was all gone. He meant well. I wish he had seen her eating apple dumplings for dinner. She felt better 'long in the first o' the afternoon before he come. I says to her, right before him, that I guessed them dumplings did her good, but she never made no answer. She will have these dyin' spells. I don't know 's she can help it, but she needn't act as if it was a credit to anybody to be sick and laid up. Poor Joe, he come over for me last week another day, and said she'd been havin' spasms, and asked me if there wa'n't something I could think of. 'Yes,' says I; 'you just take a pail o' stone-cold water, and throw it square into her face; that'll bring her out of it;' and he looked at me a minute, and then he burst out a-laughing -- he couldn't help it. He's too good to her; that's the trouble."
"You never said that to her about the dumplings?" said Aunt Polly, admiringly. "Well, I shouldn't ha' dared;" and she rocked and knitted away faster than ever, while we all laughed. "Now with Mary Susan it's different. I suppose she does have the neurology, and she's a poor broken-down creature. I do feel for her more than I do for Adaline. She was always a willing girl, and she worked herself to death, and she can't help these notions, nor being an Ash neither."
"I'm the last one to be hard on anybody that's sick, and in trouble," said Mrs. Snow.
"Bless you, she set up with Ad'line herself three nights in one week, to my knowledge. It's more 'n I would do," said Aunt Polly, as if there were danger that I should think Mrs. Snow's kind heart to be made of flint.
"It ain't what I call watching," said she, apologetically. "We both doze off, and then when the folks come in in the morning she'll tell what a sufferin' night she's had. She likes to have it said she has to have watchers."
"It's strange what a queer streak there is running through the whole of 'em," said Aunt Polly, presently. "It always was so, far back 's you can follow 'em. Did you ever hear about that great-uncle of theirs that lived over to the other side o' Denby, over to what they call the Denby Meadows? We had a cousin o' my father's that kept house for him (he was a single man), and I spent most of a summer and fall with her once when I was growing up. She seemed to want company: it was a lonesome sort of a place."
"There! I don't know when I have thought o' that," said Mrs. Snow, looking much amused. "What stories you did use to tell, after you come home, about the way he used to act! Dear sakes! she used to keep us laughing till we was tired. Do tell her about him, Polly; she'll like to hear."
"Well, I've forgot a good deal about it: you see it was much as fifty years ago. I wasn't more than seventeen or eighteen years old. He was a very respectable man, old Mr. Dan'el Gunn was, and a cap'n in the militia in his day. Cap'n Gunn, they always called him. He was well off, but he got sun-struck, and never was just right in his mind afterward. When he was getting over his sickness after the stroke he was very wandering, and at last he seemed to get it into his head that he was his own sister Patience that died some five or six years before: she was single too, and she always lived with him. They said when he got so 's to sit up in his arm-chair of an afternoon, when he was getting better, he fought 'em dreadfully because they fetched him his own clothes to put on; he said they was brother Dan'el's clothes. So, sure enough, they got out an old double gown, and let him put it on, and he was as peaceable as could be. The doctor told 'em to humor him, but they thought it was a fancy he took, and he would forget it; but the next day he made 'em get the double gown again, and a cap too, and there he used to set up alongside of his bed as prim as a dish. When he got round again so he could set up all day, they thought he wanted the dress; but no; he seemed to be himself, and had on his own clothes just as usual in the morning; but when he took his nap after dinner and waked up again, he was in a dreadful frame o' mind, and had the trousers and coat off in no time, and said he was Patience. He used to fuss with some knitting-work he got hold of somehow; he was good-natured as could be, and sometimes he would make 'em fetch him the cat, because Patience used to have a cat that set in her lap while she knit. I wasn't there then, you know, but they used to tell me about it. Folks used to call him Miss Dan'el Gunn.
"He'd been that way some time when I went over. I'd heard about his notions, and I was scared of him at first, but I found out there wasn't no need. Don't you know I was sort o' 'fraid to go, 'Lizabeth, when Cousin Statiry sent for me after she went home from that visit she made here? She'd told us about him, but sometimes, 'long at the first of it, he used to be cross. He never was after I went there. He was a clever, kind-hearted man, if ever there was one," said Aunt Polly, with decision. "He used to go down to the corner to the store sometimes in the morning, and he would see to business. And before he got feeble sometimes he would work out on the farm all the morning, stiddy as any of the men; but after he come in to dinner he would take off his coat, if he had it on, and fall asleep in his arm-chair, or on a l'unge there was in his bedroom, and when he waked up he would be sort of bewildered for a while, and then he'd step round quick 's he could, and get his dress out o' the clothes-press, and the cap, and put 'em on right over the rest of his clothes. He was always small-featured and smooth-shaved, and I don' know as, to come in sudden, you would have thought he was a man, except his hair stood up short and straight all on the top of his head, as men-folks had a fashion o' combing their hair then, and I must say he did make a dreadful ordinary-looking woman. The neighbors got used to his ways, and, land! I never thought nothing of it after the first week or two.
"His sister's clothes that he wore first was too small for him, and so my cousin Statiry, that kep' his house, she made him a linsey-woolsey dress with a considerable short skirt, and he was dreadful pleased with it, she said, because the other one never would button over good, and showed his wais'coat, and she and I used to make him caps; he used to wear the kind all the old women did then, with a big crown, and close round the face. I've got some laid away up-stairs now that was my mother's -- she wore caps very young, mother did. His nephew that lived with him carried on the farm, and managed the business, but he always treated the cap'n as if he was head of everything there. Everybody pitied the cap'n; folks respected him; but you couldn't help laughing, to save ye. We used to try to keep him in, afternoons, but we couldn't always."
"Tell her about that day he went to meeting," said Mrs. Snow.
"Why, one of us always used to stay to home with him; we took turns; and somehow or 'nother he never offered to go, though by spells he would be constant to meeting in the morning. Why, bless you, you never 'd think anything ailed him a good deal of the time, if you saw him before noon, though sometimes he would be freaky, and hide himself in the barn, or go over in the woods, but we always kept an eye on him. But this Sunday there was going to be a great occasion. Old Parson Croden was going to preach; he was thought more of than anybody in this region: you've heard tell of him a good many times, I s'pose. He was getting to be old, and didn't preach much. He had a colleague, they set so much by him in his parish, and I didn't know 's I'd ever get another chance to hear him, so I didn't want to stay to home, and neither did Cousin Statiry; and Jacob Gunn, old Mr. Gunn's nephew, he said it might be the last time ever he'd hear Parson Croden, and he set in the seats anyway; so we talked it all over, and we got a young boy to come and set 'long of the cap'n till we got back. He hadn't offered to go anywhere of an afternoon for a long time. I s'pose he thought women ought to be stayers at home according to Scripture.
"Parson Ridley -- his wife was a niece to old Dr. Croden -- and the old doctor they was up in the pulpit, and the choir was singing the first hymn -- it was a fuguing tune, and they was doing their best: seems to me it was 'Canterbury New.' Yes, it was; I remember I thought how splendid it sounded, and Jacob Gunn he was a-leading off; and I happened to look down the aisle, and who should I see but the poor old cap'n in his cap and gown parading right into meeting before all the folks! There! I wanted to go through the floor. Everybody 'most had seen him at home, but, my goodness! to have him come into meeting!"
"What did you do?" said I.
"Why, nothing," said Miss Polly; "there was nothing to do. I thought I should faint away; but I called Cousin Statiry's 'tention, and she looked dreadful put to it for a minute; and then says she, 'Open the door for him; I guess he won't make no trouble,' and, poor soul, he didn't. But to see him come up the aisle! He'd fixed himself nice as he could, poor creatur; he'd raked out Miss Patience's old Navarino bonnet with green ribbons and a willow feather, and set it on right over his cap, and he had her bead bag on his arm, and her turkey-tail fan that he'd got out of the best room; and he come with little short steps up to the pew: and I s'posed he'd set by the door; but no, he made to go by us, up into the corner where she used to set, and took her place, and spread his dress out nice, and got his handkerchief out o' his bag, just 's he'd seen her do. He took off his bonnet all of a sudden, as if he'd forgot it, and put it under the seat, like he did his hat -- that was the only thing he did that any woman wouldn't have done -- and the crown of his cap was bent some. I thought die I should. The pew was one of them up aside the pulpit, a square one, you know, right at the end of the right-hand aisle, so I could see the length of it and out of the door, and there stood that poor boy we'd left to keep the cap'n company, looking as pale as ashes. We found he'd tried every way to keep the old gentleman at home, but he said he got f'erce as could be, so he didn't dare to say no more, and Cap'n Gunn drove him back twice to the house, and that's why he got in so late. I didn't know but it was the boy that had set him on to go to meeting when I see him walk in, and I could 'a wrung his neck; but I guess I misjudged him; he was called a stiddy boy. He married a daughter of Ichabod Pinkham's over to Oak Plains, and I saw a son of his when I was taking care of Miss West last spring through that lung fever -- looked like his father. I wish I'd thought to tell him about that Sunday. I heard he was waiting on that pretty Becket girl, the orphan one that lives with Nathan Becket. Her father and mother was both lost at sea, but she's got property."
"What did they say in church when the captain came in, Aunt Polly?" said I.
"Well, a good many of them laughed -- they couldn't help it, to save them; but the cap'n he was some hard o' hearin', so he never noticed it, and he set there in the corner and fanned him, as pleased and satisfied as could be. The singers they had the worst time, but they had just come to the end of a verse, and they played on the instruments a good while in between, but I could see 'em shake, and I s'pose the tune did stray a little, though they went through it well. And after the first fun of it was over, most of the folks felt bad. You see, the cap'n had been very much looked up to, and it was his misfortune and he set there quiet, listening to the preaching. I see some tears in some o' the old folks' eyes: they hated to see him so broke in his mind, you know. There was more than usual of 'em out that day; they knew how bad he'd feel if he realized it. A good Christian man he was, and dreadful precise, I've heard 'em say."
"Did he ever go again?" said I.
"I seem to forget," said Aunt Polly. "I dare say. I wasn't there but from the last of June into November, and when I went over again it wasn't for three years, and the cap'n had been dead some time. His mind failed him more and more along at the last. But I'll tell you what he did do, and it was the week after that very Sunday, too. He heard it given out from the pulpit that the Female Missionary Society would meet with Mis' William Sands the Thursday night o' that week -- the sewing society, you know; and he looked round to us real knowing; and Cousin Statiry, says she to me, under her bonnet, 'You don't s'pose he'll want to go?' and I like to have laughed right out. But sure enough he did, and what do you suppose but he made us fix over a handsome black watered silk for him to wear, that had been his sister's best dress. He said he'd outgrown it dreadful quick. Cousin Statiry she wished to heaven she'd thought to put it away, for Jacob had given it to her, and she was meaning to make it over for herself; but it didn't do to cross the cap'n and Jacob Gunn gave Statiry another one -- the best he could get, but it wasn't near so good a piece, she thought. He set everything by Statiry, and so did the cap'n, and well they might.
"We hoped he'd forget all about it the next day; but he didn't; and I always thought well of those ladies, they treated him so handsome, and tried to make him enjoy himself. He did eat a great supper; they kep' a-piling up his plate with everything. I couldn't help wondering if some of 'em would have put themselves out much if it had been some poor flighty old woman. The cap'n he was as polite as could be, and when Jacob come to walk home with him he kissed 'em all round and asked 'em to meet at his house. But the greatest was -- land! I don't know when I've thought so much about those times -- one afternoon he was setting at home in the keeping-room, and Statiry was there, and Deacon Abel Pinkham stopped in to see Jacob Gunn about building some fence, and he found he'd gone to mill, so he waited a while, talking friendly, as they expected Jacob might be home; and the cap'n was as pleased as could be, and he urged the deacon to stop to tea. And when he went away, says he to Statiry, in a dreadful knowing way, 'Which of us do you consider the deacon come to see?' You see, the deacon was a widower. Bless you! when I first come home I used to set everybody laughing, but I forget most of the things now. There was one day, though" --
"Here comes your father," said Mrs. Snow. "Now we mustn't let him go by or you'll have to walk 'way home." And Aunt Polly hurried out to speak to him, while I took my great bunch of goldenrod, which already drooped a little, and followed her, with Mrs. Snow, who confided to me that the captain's nephew Jacob had offered to Polly that summer she was over there, and she never could see why she didn't have him: only love goes where it is sent, and Polly wasn't one to marry for what she could get if she didn't like the man. There was plenty that would have said yes, and thank you too, sir, to Jacob Gunn.
That was a pleasant afternoon. I reached home when it was growing dark and chilly, and the early autumn sunset had almost faded in the west. It was a much longer way home around by the road than by the way I had come across the fields.
"An Autumn Holiday" first appeared in Harper's Magazine, October 1880, and was collected in Country By-Ways. This text and illustration are from the ninth edition (1893) of Country By-Ways. Click here to see the illustrations that accompanied the original Harper's publication. In Sarah Orne Jewett Letters, Richard Cary indicates that Jewett submitted this story to Harper's with the title, "Miss Daniel Gunn" (p. 44).
[ Back ]
knurly: having protuberances, excrescences, or knobs.
[ Back ]
the fields of my own town: This piece opens in Jewett's own voice, and so her own town is South Berwick, Maine. For a history of her town, see Jewett's "The Old Town of Berwick."
[ Back ]
sweet-brier bush: a European rose with big, strong thorns and a single pink blossom; rose hips (the fruit) are a source of vitamin C and are used for jellies and sauces; stands for `poetry' in the nineteenth-century language of flowers. (Research: Ted Eden).
[ Back ]
ground-sparrow's nest: Any of several North American sparrows that spend a good deal of time on the ground, such as the grass-finch and savannah-sparrow.
[ Back ]
ship of the line: a warship large enough to have a place in the line of battle.
[ Back ]
everlasting flowers: The Oxford English Dictionary says "Retaining shape and colour when dried; as in everlasting flower, a name given to some species of cudweed (Gnaphalium), but more commonly to various species of Helichrysum."
[ Back ]
my father: Dr. Theodore H. Jewett, for whom Jewett is named (Theodora Sarah Orne Jewett), and to whom Country By-Ways is dedicated.
[ Back ]
Leavitt's Almanac: Dudley Leavitt (1772-1851), New Hampshire mathematician, author, and teacher, began producing almanacs in 1815, and continued under various titles until his death, his final title being Leavitt's Farmer's Almanac and Miscellaneous Year Book. After his death, "Leavitt's" almanacs continued to appear until the end of the 19th century. The Dictionary of American Biography (1933) says, "His almanacs were usually well printed and always contained both original and reprinted articles of permanent interest, as well as mathematical problems, the solutions of which appeared the following year" (81). (Research assistance: Betty Rogers).
[ Back ]
the new supply: One meaning of "supply" is "to fill temporarily; to serve as substitute for another in, as a vacant place or office; to occupy; to have possession of; as, to supply a pulpit." Source: ARTFL Webster Dictionary 1913.
[ Back ]
[ Back ]
neurology: she probably means neuralgia.
[ Back ]
Denby: the fictional town of Denby also appears in Jewett's novel, Deephaven.
[ Back ]
sun-struck: Sun stroke is a collapse caused by exposure to excessive heat.
[ Back ]
l'unge: probably a lounge in the sense of a long couch.
[ Back ]
linsey-woolsey dress: a coarse sturdy fabric of wool and linen or cotton.
[ Back ]
women ought to be stayers at home according to Scripture: See Titus 2:4-5, and also I Corinthians 14:34-5.
[ Back ]
Canterbury New: The New Grove Dictionary of American Music (1986) defines a fuguing-tune as "a piece of strophic music containing at least one section involving contrapuntal vocal entries with overlapping text." This sort of singing became popular in American Protestant churches, coming into its own in the 18th century, and dying out gradually in the 19th. Robert Stevenson in Church Music in America (1966), suggests that this form of singing became popular in Calvinist churches in which singing in harmony using chords was forbidden as a result of Calvin's strictures. This mode allowed a kind of harmony that arose from different voices beginning at different times as in a fugue (20). H. C. MacDougal in Early New England Psalmody (1969) dates the period of such singing from 1635 in Scotland to about 1873 in the United States. He quotes an extended description (pp. 98-9) of such "Puritan music" in Harriet Beecher Stowe's Poganuc People (1879): "...there was a grand, wild freedom, an energy of motion in the old 'fuguing' tunes of that day that well expressed the heart of a people courageous in combat and unshaken in endurance."
The original "Canterbury" was a well-known and popular fuguing tune. Stevenson and MacDougal trace it from its composition in 1592 with the title "Litchfield, Low Dutch" through various publications, including the ninth edition of The Bay Psalm Book (1698), where it was the proper tune for singing Psalm 23, though MacDougal says it also was used for Psalm 4. Stevenson says that when the tune was printed in Playford's Brief Introduction in 1658, it was called a "new tune," presumably because it was more recently composed than most other psalm tunes. In 1671, Playford renamed the tune, "Canterbury."
Michael Davitt Bell in the Library of America edition of Jewett Novels and Stories indicates that "Canterbury New" was composed by Henry John Gauntlett (1805-76).
Click here to see samples of both melodies.
[ Back ]
Navarino bonnet with green ribbons and a willow feather: Navarino is not in standard dictionaries except as the European name for one of the sites at modern Pylos in Greece. A willow feather may be a feather from willow-grouse, also called a willow-ptarmigan and willow-partridge.
[ Back ]
lung fever: The Oxford English Dictionary identifies lung fever as pneumonia.
[ Back ]
Female Missionary Society: The Nineteenth Century was a major period of Christian missionary activity, especially among American and British Protestant churches, though both Roman Catholics and various Protestant denominations sent Christian missionaries throughout the world. Virtually every major denomination had a missionary society, and a respectable local congregation typically would include a women's organization charged with gathering funds for the denominational society and informing the congregation about missionary activities.
[ Back ]
goldenrod: "A plant of the genus Solidago, esp. S. Virgaurea, having a rod-like stem and a spike of bright yellow flowers." (Source: Oxford English Dictionary).
Edited and annotated by Terry Heller, Coe College.
Contents: Country By-Ways
Harper's Magazine Text
If you find errors in this text or items you believe should be annotated, please contact the site manager. | <urn:uuid:c74e92dc-4e11-423a-a268-02a5ba21a9bd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.public.coe.edu/~theller/soj/cbw/autumn.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.991702 | 9,037 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The process of gaining 'root' access to your device. Before asking how to root your device, please read the full tag wiki since it contains helpful information which might already answer your questions.
What is "rooting"?
Rooting is the process of gaining root access on your device.
Rooting a phone allows a user a higher access level akin to Administrator on a Windows PC. It allows for greater access to certain core system functions that a normal end-user wouldn't use or need to use.
Most devices running Android need to be rooted for installing custom versions of the Android system known as ROMs. This is because in the stock configuration (unrooted), user-installed applications do not have write access to core parts of the file system and, thus, are not able to replace or modify the operating system itself.
Rooting is also necessary for certain applications and widgets that require additional system and hardware rights such as for rebooting the phone, certain backup utilities, and hacks for hardware LEDs. Rooting is also needed to disable or remove applications such as City ID preinstalled by vendors like Verizon Wireless. Rooting the phone typically also includes installing an application that supervises what applications are granted root rights.
It must be noted that rooting a device usually voids the warranty offered by the manufacturer.
OK, OK, that's all nice — but how can I root my device?
Starting Jan 2012 we are going to allow one "How to root?" question per device. Just search for [rooting] and your device or refer to the index in How do I root my Android device?. If the question doesn't exist yet, create one and add it to this index.
First, check our rooting index if your device is already listed. If so, follow the link to that question, which in most cases will contain instructions on how to perform the necessary tasks. If the question does not contain any answer, do not open a new question (that would immediately be closed as duplicate). Also, do not place a "me too" answer (would also be removed). If you want to push things, and you already have enough reputation, consider placing a bounty instead. Upvote the question to bring it "further to the top" of highly-voted ones also might gain some attention.
If your device is not listed in the index: To make sure a corresponding question was just "missed", search for "[rooting] Samsung Plastic Fantastic" (OK, replace the "Samsung Plastic Fantastic" with the name of your device). If you find a corresponding question, add it to the index and continue as described above.
Still not found? OK, then go on: create a new question, and link it to the index. Now wait for answers. If you don't get an answer withing 2 days, your question becomes eligible for placing a bounty -- so you again can continue as described above.
- root: questions specifically requiring root permissions (not including "rooting" itself)
- unrooting: Getting rid again of your "root account" (e.g. to turn in your device under warranty)
- z4root: a rooting method
Further Reading on Android Enthusiasts
- What does “to root a phone” mean?
- Are there any risks to rooting a device?
- What are the security disadvantages of rooting an Android phone?
- How do I perform a full pre-rooting backup of an Android phone?
- How do I root my Android device?
- How does rooting work?
- I've rooted my phone. Now what? What do I gain from rooting?
- Are there any tools to sandbox a malware application even more than the granted permissions on Android?
- How can I tell if I have root?
- Security implications of rooting your android phone (Security.SE)
- How to root any Android device running ICS or Jelly Bean (AndroidAuthority; for 4.0 & 4.1) | <urn:uuid:0e995b10-4b94-4ccf-ac47-172aaa9b6bd8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://android.stackexchange.com/tags/rooting/info | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932187 | 825 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Spinal Cord Injury Bowel Management
- Function of the Bowel
- The Reflex and Flaccid Bowel
- Methods of Bowel Management and Care
- Possible Complications Following a Spinal Cord Injury
Function of the Bowel System
When we eat or drink the food and fluids that are swallowed enter the stomach, where enzymes begin to break down the contents for digestion. The stomach can expand to hold between 2-4 litres of food. It is a temporary food storage area and in the process of digestion, the food goes into the stomach first before entering the small bowel (small intestine).
The bowel is the lower part of the digestive tract and its' role is to digest the food and fluids that we eat and drink, absorb the nutrients, and then to process and expel the waste products that the body cannot use.
The bowel is made up of two sections, the small bowel (small intestine) and the large bowel (large intestine).
The small bowel receives food from the stomach which has been broken down by acids and enzymes secreted by the stomach lining. The small bowel then removes nutrients from the broken down food, and passes the nutrients into the bloodstream to be processed by the liver.
From the small bowel the waste food is then passed into the large bowel, where fluid is absorbed for use by the body. As the waste moves around the large bowel it gradually forms into stools.
The waste products (stools or faeces), are then stored in the left hand side of the large bowel until they are emptied from the body at a convenient time by means of a bowel movement. A bowel movement happens when the rectum, which is the last section of the bowel is full.
As the rectum fills with stool it expands, and this triggers stretch receptors in the wall of the bowel to send messages to other parts of the body. One message triggers muscles to move the stool down through the bowel. Another message lets you know it is time to go to the bathroom by sending a message to your brain via the spinal cord, and controls the muscle at the opening of the rectum (anus). This muscle called the anal sphincter, and allows you to control when the waste (stool) leaves the body. This is often called a bowel movement or BM.
The digestive process starts at the mouth and is completed at the anus. | <urn:uuid:d544a22a-b081-431f-aab3-1b6a95ba4e9d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://apparelyzed.com/bowel-management.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930993 | 484 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Although 3D printers have been criticized for the potential health risks associated with their use in poorly ventilated areas, we must also acknowledge the tremendous amount of good they could potentially bring to the medical field.
According to Gizmodo, researcher and professor Xu Mingen of Huazhong University has successfully printed the first living human kidney using a 3D printer. The printed kidneys are currently too small for human use, and much like their liver counterparts from Organovo, they are miniature versions of the real deal. Impressively, 90% of the printed cells are alive, and they can perform the same type of functions as their big brother – they can break down and metabolize bodily toxins.
A few months back, scientists at Organovo, a San Diego-based company, also announced their success in using 3D printers to replicate human livers. The tiny livers measure just half a millimeter thick and four millimeters wide, consisting of only a few layers of cells. Despite their size, they are more than capable of producing the proteins required to transfer the body's necessary hormones and drugs, cholesterol, as well as the enzymes used in the detoxification of alcohol.
As you might assume, the 3D printers used in these processes are far different than the plastic-based systems that you may be familiar with. “It’s different from traditional 3D printing – to print a cup, we have to fill up the object with our material. But this method doesn’t work in cells because a cell contains blood vessels and has tissue space. We have to make sure to spare enough space for them to grow,” explained Mingen.
So in place of the conventional plastic polymer, what exactly is being used to print these artificial organs? In the kidney’s case, real human samples are harvested and subsequently combined with a water-rich hydrogel that acts as an effective nutrient source. Interestingly, the final mixture has a life expectancy of up to four months in a lab setting.
Although there is tremendous optimism surrounding such projects, it will take some time before we see printed kidneys and livers in a hospital setting. Nevertheless, this is definitely an amazing achievement and one that has the potential to change the world for the better. | <urn:uuid:f4f4b199-99d7-4abb-80be-484a9c0d1954> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.techspot.com/news/53619-3d-printers-to-revolutionize-the-medical-field-with-printable-kidneys-and-livers.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963169 | 461 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Driving along Interstate 5 it’s hard to ignore the pungent odor of cow manure! Mounds and mounds of the stuff produced by thousands of cows residing in California dairies has made headlines as an enemy of the environment — because cow manure naturally gives off methane gas.
Meet the minds behind BioEnergy Solutions a new company that’s found a way to keep some of that methane gas out of the air- and actually save our resources, by turning cow waste into renewable energy! David Albers, BioEnergy Solutions’ founder and third generation dairyman at Vintage Dairy, took the bull by the horns and created a way to turn 120 pounds of manure produced each day, into power. It was Albers’ ideas and the brainpower of Doug Williams, Chief Technology Officer of BioEnergy Solutions, that made this a reality and a business model that’s now spreading from dairy to dairy.
BioEnergy Solutions teamed up with PG&E who became the first utility company in California to use biogas. And Vintage Dairy will produce 200,000 cubic feet of methane gas per day for PG&E – which they say is enough to meet the energy needs of approximately 1,200 homes a day.
Join California Heartland’s Jennifer Harrison as she gets dirty in the dairy and finds out exactly how this Cow Power is made! | <urn:uuid:4bcdc2d2-981f-4603-84e1-c4379bf8ca68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.californiaheartland.org/this_season/episode_902/corralling_cow_power.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955531 | 279 | 2.796875 | 3 |
India is one of the most intensely religious areas in the world. This might explain why in recent weeks there have been outbursts of religious tension between Muslims and Hindus in and around the city of Bombay.
Fierce clashes have also erupted between troops of the Indian government and supporters of the Sikh religion in that part of northern India known as the Punjab. This vast country, which has the largest number of people on earth after China, has many claims to religious fame.
India, for instance, was the birthplace of Buddhism. This Oriental religion, which never really took hold in India, claims about 250 million followers in the world.
India is also the motherland of Hinduism. As a world religion it ranks third with 457 million followers after Christianity (over 1 billion) and Islam (548 million).
Although only 11 percent of India's 850 million are Muslims, that is to say followers of the Islamic religion, that still makes India the country with the third largest Muslim population in the world. Only Indonesia and Bangladesh have more Muslims.
Although there are many cases of Muslims and Hindus living peacefully together in Indian villages, their religious beliefs and social customs are quite distinct.
The Muslim religion was introduced to India early in the 16th century by the Mogul emperors. It was a grieving Mogul emperor, for instance, who built the magnificent Taj Mahal temple in memory of his wife. The Mogul empire collapsed at the end of the 18th century when the Hindus, who were of Aryan background, seized power.
Nowhere, perhaps, is the difference between the two religions more startlingly different than in their views of God.
Muslims, for instance, are much closer to Christians than Hindus in their religious outlook in the sense that Muslims are monotheists. That word comes from mono (meaning one) and theism which is taken from the Greek word theos, meaning god. The Muslims, therefore, believe in only one God, just like the Christians and the Jews. The Muslim religion does not permit idols or idolatry, so mosques, which is what Muslims call their places of worship, are completely free of statues or religious paintings.
Only abstract designs (that is, designs that show no material objects or human forms) are permitted.
A Hindu temple is just the opposite - a lively place filled with paintings and art objects depicting gods and goddesses as well as animal life. This is because to the Hindu the creator takes many forms and can be expressed in water, fire, the planets, and the stars. The Hindu religion, therefore, is polytheistic , which means believing in many gods. The religion has more than 3 million divinities or gods.
A new religion, known as the Sikh religion, tried to bring together elements of both Hinduism and the Muslim religion. Although the Sikhs are actually an offshoot of Hinduism - they were founded by a Hindu guru (spiritual leader or teacher) - they follow the Muslim practice of worshiping only one God. This guru tried to bring the two religions together by saying ''There is no Hindu. There is no Muslim. There is one God, the supreme Truth.''
Every Sikh carries the name Singh which means Lion, but not every Singh in India happens to be a Sikh. Devout Sikhs do not smoke or drink and they are required to follow the law of the five K's. They must let their beards and hair grow long (kesh), hence the reason for the turban which keeps the long hair in place; they must fix a steel comb (khanga) in their uncut hair; they must wear shorts (kucha) so they can have the mobility of a warrior; carry a steel bangle (kara) on their right wrist; and always go around with a sword (kirpan), which for practical purposes often comes in miniature form and might even be made of plastic.
Although Sikhs represent only about 2 percent of India's total population, their hardworking habits and military spirit have given them an influence in the country out of all proportion to their numbers.
They take much of the credit for making the Punjab the most prosperous area in India and the region which produces most of the country's food. Nearly half of all the medals won by the Indian Army in World Wars I and II were awarded to Sikhs.
Because of their achievements, Sikhs feel they deserve more power and recognition both in their own state of Punjab, where most of them come from, as well as in India as a whole.
In the last two years Sikhs have been protesting for a greater say in their country, but when these demands were not met more extreme Sikhs ready to commit violence took over. The result has been armed clashes between these extremists, known as Sikh militants, and the Indian Army.
Many of these more warlike Sikhs took refuge in their most famous temple - the Golden Temple at Amritsar in the Punjab. When there had been religious trouble in the past, the temple was left alone because it was viewed as a holy shrine.
The reason the Indian Army changed its mind and attacked the temple was because it had been turned into an armed fortress.
One reason the Indian government took the risk of attacking the temple was because it felt that too many weapons were being stored there. Another reason was the impression that many moderate Sikhs did not agree with the tactics of the extremists and were glad for a showdown that would put an end to the violence.
The question now remains whether moderate Sikhs are relieved that the Indian government stepped in to stop the violence, or whether in attacking the holiest of holy shrines to the Sikh religion, the government has forced moderates to side with the more extremist Sikhs in defense of their religion. | <urn:uuid:7d8b11bc-1c9d-407f-b580-d98f1f0dcad0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://m.csmonitor.com/1984/0618/061809.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979113 | 1,173 | 3.296875 | 3 |
ENCLOSURES IN CARDIGANSHIRE, 1750-1850 That agricultural activity was not entirely static in Cardiganshire between 1750 and 1850 is evident from the continued settlement of the waste and common lands and the extension of the enclosed areas. A tourist crossing the county from the south in 1805 described the Teifi valley as "full of enclosures, hedge-rows, corn and grass fields, bounded by a various outline of naked hills, which strikingly contrast with the fertility below. Heath, fern, and turf or peat, with patches of cultivation on the slopes and in the hollows of the hills, which last are dotted with sheep and catde .1 The valley itself corresponded to the coastal plain which formed the western part of the county, a plain consisting of a patchwork of cultivation, arable and grass fields intersected by hilly moorlands and small areas of woodland and bogland. The naked hill country to the east consisted of large areas of unenclosed waste heath, bogland, rough mountain pasture, common but few large woodlands. As early as the sixteenth century, John Leland had explained the timber shortage in Cardiganshire, first by the reluctance of the idle Welsh to replant, secondly, by the depredations of the Welsh goats, and thirdly, by the wilful destruction of "the great woddis that thei shuld not harborow theves".2 Even though timber was being used in large quantities in the lead-smelting industry of north Cardiganshire during the eighteenth century, there was sufficient left over to supply other parts of the country. Ash, birch and oak were being sent to ports such as Pwllheli in the north and bark was being supplied to Dublin. By the end of the century, however, the chairman of the Cardiganshire Quarter Sessions in answer to questions put to him by the Commissioners of the Woods, Forests and Land Revenues said that "the Quantity of large Oak Timber growing in Woods of the county"3 had declined. This was explained by the lack of encourage- ment to replant, secondly, by the improvement in the means of trans- port which facilitated the clearing of forests, and thirdly, by the increase in house building. More woodland was being converted to cultivation "than of Land of a fit Soil newly planted with Oak" Indeed, the forests of the county had been so neglected that in all probability they were emptier of useful trees at the end of the century than at any time in the past. Adam Murray, land agent of the Crosswood estate, wrote to his landlord, Sir John Vaughan, to say that the woodland on the estate had been "intirely neglected for want of proper training and fencing in from Cattle and Sheep. There are many Valuable Coppices of Oak in the Parishes of Lledrod, Gwnnws, Ysbyty, Llanfihangel-y-Creuddyn, Llanafan and Caron which if proper attention had been paid to them would now have constituted a very great additional yearly revenue to
This text was generated automatically from the scanned page and has not been checked. Typical character accuracy is in excess of 99%, but this leaves one error per 100 characters.
The National Library of Wales has created and published this digital version of the journal under a licence granted by the publisher. The material it contains may be used for all purposes while respecting the moral rights of the creators. | <urn:uuid:c44c4a61-2a84-424d-be6a-f27b46e7659c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://welshjournals.llgc.org.uk/browse/viewpage/llgc-id:1093205/llgc-id:1096097/llgc-id:1096211/getText | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97631 | 717 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Parts of New Orleans had been sinking much faster than previously thought before Hurricane Katrina hit last August, new research suggests.
The city's flood protection is now being upgraded
Subsidence may explain why some levees were easily breached by floodwaters, the study in the Nature journal says.
It argues some very low-lying areas of the US city should not be rebuilt, describing them as "death traps".
US engineers say the city is prepared for the start of the hurricane season, which "officially" begins on Thursday.
However, some storm experts think the work of rebuilding the levees is incomplete.
US meteorologists say there could be up to five major storms during 2006, but the season will not be as devastating as 2005.
Last August saw Hurricane Katrina sweep across five US states, killing more than 1,300 people.
The study published on Thursday in the international scientific journal was produced by a University of Miami team.
It is based on new satellite radar data taken from 2002 to 2005, which shows that New Orleans sank by an average of 0.22 inches (0.5cm) a year during that period.
But the study says some low-lying areas are subsiding by more than one inch (2.54cm) a year - raising concerns about the city's future.
The scientists name overdevelopment, drainage and natural seismic shifts as the main causes.
"My concern is the very low-lying areas," said lead author Tim Dixon, geophysicist at the University of Miami.
"I think those areas are death traps. I don't think those areas should be rebuilt," he said.
The study says the areas of the city most at risk are Lakeview, Kenner and St Bernard Parish.
According to the report, one of the city's levees has sunk by more than 3 ft (0.91m) since its construction three decades ago.
"The people in St Bernard got wiped out because the levee was too low. It's as simple as that," said co-author Roy Dokka from the Louisiana State University.
The study says the new evidence should be taken into account when rebuilding the city's defences. | <urn:uuid:b5e8a0f3-7974-4417-8e4a-2d63a3130088> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5035728.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980637 | 449 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Acute gastritis is a term covering a broad spectrum of entities that induce inflammatory changes in the gastric mucosa. The different etiologies share the same general clinical presentation. However, they differ in their unique histologic characteristics. The inflammation may involve the entire stomach (eg, pangastritis) or a region of the stomach (eg, antral gastritis). Acute gastritis can be broken down into 2 categories: erosive (eg, superficial erosions, deep erosions, hemorrhagic erosions) and nonerosive (generally caused by Helicobacter pylori).
No correlation exists between microscopic inflammation (histologic gastritis) and the presence of gastric symptoms (eg, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting). In fact, most patients with histologic evidence of acute gastritis (inflammation) are asymptomatic. The diagnosis is usually obtained during endoscopy performed for other reasons. Acute gastritis may present with an array of symptoms, the most common being nondescript epigastric discomfort.
Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, belching, and bloating. Occasionally, acute abdominal pain can be a presenting symptom. This is the case in phlegmonous gastritis (gangrene of the stomach) where severe abdominal pain accompanied by nausea and vomiting of potentially purulent gastric contents can be the presenting symptoms. Fever, chills, and hiccups also may be present.
The diagnosis of acute gastritis may be suspected from the patient's history and can be confirmed histologically by biopsy specimens taken at endoscopy.
Epidemiologic studies reflect the widespread incidence of gastritis. In the United States, it accounts for approximately 1.8-2.1 million visits to doctors' offices each year. It is especially common in people older than 60 years.
See related CME at Evaluation of Acute Abdominal Pain Reviewed.
Acute gastritis has a number of causes, including certain drugs; alcohol; bile; ischemia; bacterial, viral, and fungal infections; acute stress (shock); radiation; allergy and food poisoning; and direct trauma. The common mechanism of injury is an imbalance between the aggressive and the defensive factors that maintain the integrity of the gastric lining (mucosa).
Acute erosive gastritis can result from the exposure to a variety of agents or factors. This is referred to as reactive gastritis. These agents/factors include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs), alcohol, cocaine, stress, radiation, bile reflux, and ischemia. The gastric mucosa exhibits hemorrhages, erosions, and ulcers. NSAIDs, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen, are the most common agents associated with acute erosive gastritis. This results from oral or systemic administration of these agents either in therapeutic doses or in supratherapeutic doses.
Because of gravity, the inciting agents lie on the greater curvature of the stomach. This partly explains the development of acute gastritis distally on or near the greater curvature of the stomach in the case of orally administered NSAIDs. However, the major mechanism of injury is the reduction in prostaglandin synthesis. Prostaglandins are chemicals responsible for maintaining mechanisms that result in the protection of the mucosa from the injurious effects of the gastric acid. Long-term effects of such ingestions can include fibrosis and stricture.
Bacterial infection is another cause of acute gastritis. The corkscrew-shaped bacterium called H pylori is the most common cause of gastritis. Complications result from a chronic infection rather than from an acute infection. The prevalence of H pylori in otherwise healthy individuals varies depending on age, socioeconomic class, and country of origin. The infection is usually acquired in childhood. In the Western world, the number of people infected with H pylori increases with age. Evidence of H pylori infection can be found in 20% of individuals younger than 40 years and in 50% of individuals older than 60 years. How the bacterium is transmitted is not entirely clear. Transmission is likely from person to person through the oral-fecal route or through the ingestion of contaminated water or food. This is why the prevalence is higher in lower socioeconomic classes and in developing countries. H pylori is associated with 60% of gastric ulcersand80%ofduodenal ulcers.
H pylori gastritis typically starts as an acute gastritis in the antrum, causing intense inflammation, and over time, it may extend to involve the entire gastric mucosa resulting in chronic gastritis.
The acute gastritis encountered with H pylori is usually asymptomatic. The bacterium imbeds itself in the mucous layer, a protective layer that coats the gastric mucosa. It protects itself from the acidity of the stomach through the production of large amounts of urease, an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of urea to the alkaline ammonia and carbon dioxide. The alkaline ammonia neutralizes the gastric acid in the immediate vicinity of the bacterium conferring protection.
H pylori also has flagella that enable it to move and help it to penetrate the mucous layer so that it comes into contact with gastric epithelial cells. It also has several adhesions that help it to adhere to these cells. It produces inflammation by activating a number of toxins and enzymes that activate IL-8, which eventually attracts polymorphs and monocytes that cause acute gastritis.
Antigen-presenting cells activate lymphocytes and other mononuclear cells that lead to chronic superficial gastritis. The infection is established within a few weeks after the primary exposure to H pylori. It produces inflammation via the production of a number of toxins and enzymes. The intense inflammation can result in the loss of gastric glands responsible for the production of acid. This is referred to as atrophic gastritis. Consequently, gastric acid production drops. The virulence genotype of the microbe is an important determinant for the severity of the gastritis and the formation of intestinal metaplasia, the transformation of gastric epithelium. This transformation can lead to gastric cancer.
Reactive gastropathy is the second most common diagnosis made on gastric biopsy specimens after H pylori gastritis. This entity is believed to be secondary to bile reflux and was originally reported after partial gastrectomy (Billroth I or II). It is now considered to represent a nonspecific response to a variety of other gastric irritants.
Helicobacter heilmanii is a gram-negative, tightly spiraled, helical-shaped organism with 5-7 turns. The prevalence of H heilmanii is extremely low (0.25-1.5%). The source of H heilmanii infection is unclear, but animal contact is thought to be the means of transmission.
Tuberculosis is a rare cause of gastritis, but an increasing number of cases have developed because of patients who are immunocompromised. Gastritis caused by tuberculosis is generally associated with pulmonary or disseminated disease.
Secondary syphilis of the stomach is a rare cause of gastritis.
Phlegmonous gastritis is an uncommon form of gastritis caused by numerous bacterial agents, including streptococci, staphylococci, Proteus species, Clostridium species, and Escherichia coli. Phlegmonous gastritis usually occurs in individuals who are debilitated. It is associated with a recent large intake of alcohol, a concomitant upper respiratory tract infection, and AIDS. Phlegmonous means a diffuse spreading inflammation of or within connective tissue. In the stomach, it implies infection of the deeper layers of the stomach (submucosa and muscularis). As a result, purulent bacterial infection may lead to gangrene. Phlegmonous gastritis is rare. The clinical diagnosis is usually established in the operating room, as these patients present with an acute abdominal emergency requiring immediate surgical exploration. Without appropriate therapy, it progresses to peritonitis and death.
Viral infections can cause gastritis. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common viral cause of gastritis. It is usually encountered in individuals who are immunocompromised, including those with cancer, immunosuppression, transplants, and AIDS. Gastric involvement can be localized or diffuse.
Fungal infections that cause gastritis include Candida albicans and histoplasmosis. Gastric phycomycosis is another rare lethal fungal infection. The common predisposing factor is immunosuppression. C albicans rarely involves the gastric mucosa. When isolated in the stomach, the most common locations tend to be within a gastric ulcer or an erosion bed. It is generally of little consequence. Disseminated histoplasmosis can involve the stomach. The usual presenting clinical feature is bleeding from gastric ulcers or erosions on giant gastric folds.
Parasitic infections are rare causes of gastritis. Anisakidosis is caused by a nematode that embeds itself in the gastric mucosa along the greater curvature. Anisakidosis is acquired by eating contaminated sushi and other types of contaminated raw fish. It often causes severe abdominal pain that subsides within a few days. This nematode infection is associated with gastric fold swelling, erosions, and ulcers.
Ulcero-hemorrhagic gastritis is most commonly seen in patients who are critically ill. Ulcero-hemorrhagic gastritis is believed to be secondary to ischemia related to hypotension and shock or to the release of vasoconstrictive substances, but the etiology is often unknown. The gastric mucosa reveals multiple petechiae, mostly in the fundus and body, or exhibits a diffusely hemorrhagic pattern. The gross pathology may resemble that of NSAID- or other ingestion-induced gastritis, except that the location of injury is different. This form of gastritis can be life-threatening if the patient experiences hemorrhaging and may even require emergency gastrectomy.
Microscopic evidence of acute gastritis can be seen in patients with Crohn disease, though clinical manifestations are rare (occurring in only about 2-7% of patients with Crohn disease). Focally enhancing gastritis is now recognized as a condition seen in both Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis.
Eosinophilic gastritis is often seen in conjunction with eosinophilic gastroenteritis but can be associated with various disorders, including food allergies (eg, cow milk, soy protein), collagen vascular diseases, parasitic infections, gastric cancer, lymphoma, Crohn disease, vasculitis, drug allergies, and H pylori infections. An eosinophilic infiltrate is seen involving the gastric wall or epithelium.
The mortality/morbidity is dependent on the etiology of the gastritis. Generally, most cases of gastritis are treatable once the etiology is determined. The exception to this is phlegmonous gastritis, which has a mortality rate of 65%, even with treatment.
No sexual predilection exists.
Gastritis affects all age groups. The incidence of H pylori infection increases with age.
Gnawing or burning epigastric distress, occasionally accompanied by nausea and/or vomiting. The pain may improve or worsen with eating.
Previous mucosal injury (eg, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, endoscopic injury caused by polypectomy, injury caused by any surgery)
History of eating raw fish
Exposure to potentially noxious drugs or chemical agents. This includes corticosteroids or other prescription medications that can cause gastritis.
Routine use of aspirin or NSAIDs, especially at high doses
The physical examination findings are often normal with occasional mild epigastric tenderness. The examination tends to exhibit more abnormalities as the patient develops complications in relation to gastritis.
Acute gastritis has a number of causes, including certain drugs; alcohol; bacterial, viral, and fungal infections; acute stress (shock); radiation; allergy and food poisoning; bile; ischemia; and direct trauma.
NSAIDs, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen
Colchicine, when at toxic levels, as in patients with failing renal or hepatic function
Chemotherapeutic agents, such as mitomycin C, 5-fluoro-2-deoxyuridine, and floxuridine
Potent alcoholic beverages, such as whisky, vodka, and gin
H pylori (most frequent)
H heilmanii (rare)
Proteus species (rare)
Clostridium species (rare)
E coli (rare)
Secondary syphilis (rare)
Viral infections (eg, CMV)
Parasitic infection (eg, anisakidosis)
Acute stress (shock)
Allergy and food poisoning
Bile: The reflux of bile (an alkaline medium important for the activation of digestive enzymes in the small intestine) from the small intestine to the stomach can induce gastritis.
Ischemia: This term is used to refer to damage induced by decreased blood supply to the stomach. This rare etiology is due to the rich blood supply to the stomach.
Abu Zubair meriwayatkan dari Jabir bin Abdullah bahwa Nabi Muhammad SAW bersabda:
"Setiap penyakit ada obatnya. Jika obat yang tepat diberikan dengan izin Allah, penyakit itu akan sembuh".
(HR. Muslim, Ahmad dan Hakim).
Kamis, 31 Desember 2009
Diposkan oleh FX di 23.38
The Holy Al-Qur'an (English version)
- Surah 1 - Al Fatiha THE OPENING
- Surah 2 - Al Baqarah THE HEIFER
- Surah 3 - Ali 'Imran - THE FAMILY OF 'IMRAN
- Surah 4 - Al-Nisa' THE WOMEN
- Surah 5 - Al Ma'idah THE REPAST
- Surah 6 - Al An'am THE CATTLE
- Surah 7 - Al A'raf THE HEIGHTS
- Surah 8 - Al Anfal THE SPOILS OF WAR
- Surah 9 - Al Tawbah THE REPENTANCE
- Surah 10 - Yunus JONAH
- Surah 11 - Hud THE PROPHET HUD
- Surah 12 - Yusuf JOSEPH
- Surah 13 - Al Ra'd THE THUNDER
- Surah 14 - Ibrahim ABRAHAM
- Surah 15 - Al Hijr THE ROCKY TRACT
- Surah 16 - Al Nahl BEES
- Surah 17 - Al Isra' THE NIGHT JOURNEY
- Surah 18 - Al Kahf THE CAVE
- Surah 19 - Maryam MARY
- Surah 20 - TA HA
- Surah 21 - Al Anbiya THE PROPHETS
- Surah 22 - Al Hajj THE PILGRIMAGE
- Surah 23 - Al Mu'minun THE BELIEVERS
- Surah 24 - Al Nur THE LIGHT
- Surah 25 - Al Furqan THE CRITERION
- Surah 26 - Al Shu'ara' THE POETS
- Surah 27 - Al Naml THE ANTS
- Surah 28 - Al Qasas THE NARRATIONS
- Surah 29 - Al 'Ankabut THE SPIDER
- Surah 30 - Al Rum THE ROMANS
- Surah 31 - Luqman LUQMAN
- Surah 32 - Al Sajdah THE PROSTRATION
- Surah 33 - Al Ahzab THE CONFEDERATES
- Surah 34 - Saba' SHEBA
- Surah 35 - Fatir THE ORIGINATOR OF CREATION
- Surah 36 - Ya Sin YA SIN
- Surah 37 - Al Saffat THOSE RANGED IN RANKS
- Surah 38 - Sad SAD
- Surah 39 - Al Zumar CROWDS
- Surah 40 - Ghafir FORGIVER
- Surah 41 - Fussilat EXPOUNDED
- Surah 42 - Al Shura CONSULTATION
- Surah 43 - Al Zukhruf THE GOLD ADORNMENTS
- Surah 44 - Al Dukhan THE SMOKE
- Surah 45 - Al Jathiyah THE KNEELING DOWN
- Surah 46 - Al Ahqaf WINDING SAND-TRACTS
- Surah 47 - Muhammad MUHAMMAD
- Surah 48 - Al Fath THE VICTORY
- Surah 49 - Al Hujurat THE CHAMBERS
- Surah 50 - Qaf QAF
- Surah 51 - Al Dhariyat THE WINDS THAT SCATTER
- Surah 52 - Al Tur THE MOUNT
- Surah 53 - Al Najm THE STAR
- Surah 54 - Al Qamar THE MOON
- Surah 55 - Al Rahman THE MOST GRACIOUS
- Surah 56 - Al Waq'iah THE INEVITABLE
- Surah 57 - Al Hadid IRON
- Surah 58 - Al Mujadilah THE WOMAN WHO PLEADS
- Surah 59 - Al Hashr THE MUSTERING
- Surah 60 - Al Mumtahinah THAT WHICH EXAMINES
- Surah 61 - Al Saff THE BATTLE ARRAY
- Surah 62 - Al Jumu'ah FRIDAY
- Surah 63 - Al Munafiqun THE HYPOCRITES
- Surah 64 - Al Taghabun THE MUTUAL LOSS AND GAIN
- Surah 65 - Al Talaq DIVORCE
- Surah 66 - Al Tahrim PROHIBITION
- Surah 67 - Al Mulk THE DOMINION
- Surah 68 - Al Qalam THE PEN
- Surah 69 - Al Haqqah THE SURE REALITY
- Surah 70 - Al Ma'arij THE WAYS OF ASCENT
- Surah 71 - Nuh NOAH
- Surah 72 - Al Jinn THE SPIRITS
- Surah 73 - Al Muzzammil THE ENFOLDED ONE
- Surah 74 - Al Muddaththir THE ONE WRAPPED UP
- Surah 75 - Al Qiyamah THE RESURRECTION
- Surah 76 - Al Insan MAN
- Surah 77 - Al Mursalat THOSE SENT FORTH
- Surah 78 - Al Naba' THE GREAT NEWS
- Surah 79 - Al Nazi'at THOSE WHO TEAR OUT
- Surah 80 - 'Abasa HE FROWNED
- Surah 81 - Al Takwir THE FOLDING UP
- Surah 82 - Al Infitar THE CLEAVING ASUNDER
- Surah 83 - Al Mutaffifin THE DEALERS IN FRAUD
- Surah 84 - Al Inshiqaq THE RENDING ASUNDER
- Surah 85 - Al Buruj THE CONSTELLATIONS
- Surah 86 - Al Tariq THE NIGHT STAR
- Surah 87 - Al A'la THE MOST HIGH
- Surah 88 - Al Ghashiyah THE OVERWHELMING EVENT
- Surah 89 - Al Fajr THE DAWN
- Surah 90 - Al Balad THE CITY
- Surah 91 - Al Shams THE SUN
- Surah 92 - Al Layl THE NIGHT
- Surah 93 - Al Duha THE GLORIOUS MORNING LIGHT
- Surah 94 - Al Sharh THE EXPANSION OF THE BREAST
- Surah 95 - Al Tin THE FIG
- Surah 96 - Al Alaq THE CLINGING CLOT
- Surah 97 - Al Qadr THE NIGHT OF POWER
- Surah 98 - Al Bayyinah THE CLEAR EVIDENCE
- Surah 99 - Al Zalzalah THE EARTHQUAKE
- Surah 100 - Al 'Adiyat THOSE THAT RUN
- Surah 101 - Al Qari'ah THE GREAT CALAMITY
- Surah 102 - Al Takathur THE PILING UP
- Surah 103 - Al 'Asr TIME THROUGH THE AGES
- Surah 104 - Al Humazah THE SCANDALMONGER
- Surah 105 - Al Fil THE ELEPHANT
- Surah 106 - Quraysh THE TRIBE OF QURAYSH
- Surah 107 - Al Ma'un THE NEIGHBOURLY ASSISTANCE
- Surah 108 - Al Kawthar THE ABUNDANCE
- Surah 109 - Al Kafirun THOSE WHO REJECT FAITH
- Surah 110 - Al Nasr THE HELP
- Surah 111 - Al Masad THE PLAITED ROPE
- Surah 112 - Al Ikhlas THE PURITY OF FAITH
- Surah 113 - Al Falaq THE DAYBREAK
- Surah 114 - Al Nas MANKIND
- Acute Coronary Syndromes
- Angina Pectoris
- Anomalous Left Coronary Artery From the Pulmonary Artery
- Aortic Coarctation
- Aortic Dissection
- Aortic Regurgitation
- Aortic Stenosis
- Aortic Stenosis, Subaortic
- Aortic Stenosis, Supravalvar
- Ashman Phenomenon
- Atrial Fibrillation
- Atrial Flutter
- Atrial Myxoma
- Atrial Septal Defect
- Atrial Tachycardia
- Atrioventricular Block
- Atrioventricular Dissociation
- Atrioventricular Nodal Reentry Tachycardia (AVNRT)
- Benign Cardiac Tumors
- Brugada Syndrome
- Complications of Myocardial Infarction
- Coronary Artery Atherosclerosis
- Coronary Artery Vasospasm
- Digitalis Toxicity
- Dissection, Aortic
- Ebstein Anomaly
- Eisenmenger Syndrome
- First-Degree Atrioventricular Block
- HACEK Group Infections (Infective Endocarditis)
- Heart Failure - Decompensatio Cordis
- Holiday Heart Syndrome
- Hypertensive Heart Disease
- Junctional Rhythm
- Loeffler Endocarditis
- Long QT Syndrome
- Lutembacher Syndrome
- Mitral Regurgitation
- Mitral Stenosis
- Mitral Valve Prolapse
- Myocardial Infarction
- Myocardial Rupture
- Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia
- Patent Ductus Arteriosus
- Patent Foramen Ovale
- Pericardial Effusion
- Pericarditis Acute
- Pericarditis, Constrictive
- Pericarditis, Constrictive-Effusive
- Pulmonic Regurgitation
- Pulmonic Stenosis
- Right Ventricular Infarction
- Saphenous Vein Graft Aneurysms
- Second-Degree Atrioventricular Block
- Sinus of Valsalva Aneurysm
- Sudden Cardiac Death
- Tetralogy of Fallot
- Third-Degree Atrioventricular Block
- Torsade de Pointes
- Tricuspid Regurgitation
- Tricuspid Stenosis
- Unstable Angina
- Ventricular Fibrillation
- Ventricular Septal Defect
- Ventricular Tachycardia
- Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome | <urn:uuid:439ebf26-b1e4-4559-bb29-2c3a29ae6b98> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://panji1102.blogspot.com/2009/12/gastritis-acute_31.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.792645 | 5,158 | 3.546875 | 4 |
This week, we released a detailed economic analysis of the Natural Resource Defense Council’s (NRDC) carbon regulation proposal, first put forth by NRDC in December 2012 and updated last week.
The newest version of NRDC’s proposal ludicrously asserts that its plan to reduce CO2 emissions from existing power plants would carry no costs at all and would actually spur numerous benefits. Worse yet, the NRDC proposal recommends a system-based approach (also known as “outside-the-fence”) that is essentially a cap-and-trade program. Our analysis, performed by leading research firm the National Economic Research Associates (NERA), clearly demonstrates that NRDC left out some critical facts including the $13 to $17 billion-per-year price tag for consumers and the millions of jobs America stands to lose under its proposed policy.
Our economic analysis further projects the NRDC proposal would cost consumers a total of $116 to $151 billion during the period of 2018-2033. And, retail electricity prices would increase by double digit percentages in as many as 29 states.
Over this same time period, net job losses could total as many as 2.85 million. NRDC projects net job gains in the thousands, but only in the years 2016 and 2020.
NRDC also asserts that gas-fired generation would increase by 2 percent. Our economic analysis found that natural gas-fired generation would increase by 8-16 percent to keep up with demand, while rates would simultaneously increase by as much as 16 percent.
The results of our economic analysis reveal that the NRDC proposal is, in fact, all pain with very little gain. And the proposal’s failure to mention the many potential consequences, like cost increases and job losses, suggests that the group is ignoring reality in order to drum up support for its impractical plan. A more reasonable approach to greenhouse gas regulations would offer more flexibility and would focus on measures that can be taken at power plants to reduce their impact, while maintaining dependable, low-cost, coal-based electricity.
Here at America’s Power, we support an “inside-the-fence,” source-based approach that bases emissions reductions on measures taken at existing power plants. This would include many improvements power plants can make to their facilities that improve efficiency, remove emissions and more. Being able to implement measures at individual generating units is a common sense approach to working with utilities and achieving significant emissions reductions and environmental improvements. Let’s work together to craft a solution that works for our consumers and for America’s energy future.
Join us in asking the EPA to set common sense policies and to protect American jobs today. | <urn:uuid:cee281a3-d933-4fe9-aae8-6c47ff9f96c6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://behindtheplug.americaspower.org/2014/03/new-study-reveals-billions-in-costs-lost-jobs-under-nrdcs-carbon-regulation-proposal.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967614 | 551 | 2.65625 | 3 |
This is an unofficial website created by a special education teacher with experience using The ABLLS who wants to share her resources with others.
The Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills, or The ABLLS, is divided into four skills assessment areas: basic learner skills, academic skills, self-help skills, and motor skills. These areas are further divided into 25 smaller skills areas. Each of the 25 skills areas include a variety of tasks that are scored out of 1, 2, or 4 with criteria for each level. Basic learner skills include the skill areas A to P, with O not used. These are Cooperation and Reinforcer Effectiveness, Visual Performance, Receptive Language, Imitation, Vocal Imitation, Requests, Labeling, Intraverbals, Spontaneous Vocalizations, Syntax and Grammar, Play and Leisure, Social Interaction, Group Instruction, Follow Classroom Routines, and Generalized Responding. Academic skills include the skill areas Q to T, which are reading, math, writing, and spelling. The Self-help skills including dressing, eating, grooming, toileting are the skill areas U to X, and the fine and gross motor skills are areas Y and Z.
Once The ABLLS has been done with a student as a pre-assessment, the Skills Tracking System chart is filled in with the results. The Skills Tracking System can be used to make IEP goals for the student. As the goals are reached, they can be check off on The ABLLS and in the Skills Tracking System. The updated Skills Tracking System can then be used to assist in reporting.
The main problem with The ABLLS is that it is long and time consuming. Not only is it 90 pages long, but the number of specific resources required are enormous. Not only are tangible items required, such as puzzles with specific numbers of pieces, but many of the tasks require the student to answer a large number of questions without giving tracking sheets or a list of questions. For example, one task is to answer 50 "where" questions, but only one "where" question is provided as a sample. The ABLLS does come with an appendix, but it is greatly lacking in substance. Some of the few tracking sheets in the appendix are even left blank for the assessor to fill in.
There is also an ABLLS kit that can be purchased for nearly $1500, but although it contains many of the tangible items, it does not contain tracking sheets. Also, the ABLLS kit does not contain ideal items, such as small wooden stacking hoops instead of the usual large plastic style. The main problem with the ABLLS kit is that there is only one of each resource, so that if picture cards are being used with one student, they cannot be used with another. Also, if these resources are used for teaching, other resources may be required for testing or generalization.
This website includes both filled in tracking sheets and resources for The ABLLS. They are both free and reproducible, so a set can be made for each student if desired. Tracking sheets and many of the resources also come in the original format in case the assessor would like to make changes to the pages. Next to each tracking sheet link is a list of the resources used in that area. Next to each resource is a list of areas the resource is used in. I have also included pre-made tracking boards for some areas of the ABLLS, teaching ideas for some areas of the ABLLS, and a list of all the websites I have used as resources. Before you start using these tracking sheets, you must first buy the ABLLS. You will need The ABLLS to pre-assess the student, level each task, and fill in the Skills Tracking System.
In 2007, the Ministry of Education Policy/Program Memorandum No. 140, Incorporating Methods of Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) into Programs for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), came out. It requires school boards to offer students with ASD special education programs using ABA methods where appropriate. It specifically lists under Principles of ABA Programming that the program has to be individualized and that data must be collected and analysed. The ABLLS can assist in these principles. Also in 2007, Effective Educational Practices for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Resource Guide was published in Ontario. In the Foundations section on page 26, the new documents states that "An effective assessment process is continuous and includes ongoing, systematic data collection that is necessary to: monitor student progress, evaluate instructional effectiveness, and update goals as a student learns and masters a skill." The ABLLS can also assist in this assessment process.
The ABLLS in now available in the revised edition, The ABLLS-R. I will be working on making and uploading tracking sheets and resources for the ABLLS-R, but until this is complete, you can use this cross reference to find the resources you need if you are using the ABLLS-R and I have not updated the area you are working on yet.
NEW! I am also including two new documents, a prompt level sheet to include with tracking sheets so that all staff use the same notation for prompt levels, and some additional tasks that we put under the title "Pre-Reading Skills" because many students I work with are lower than the Reading Skills area, but we still want to include them on our school-wide reading tracking board.
Click on the name of the tracking sheet for the pdf version, or click on the word "EDIT" for a version you can edit.
Tracking sheets revised for the ABLLS-R.
Print the resources you require. For flash cards from ESL Flashcards, click on "Download Small Flashcards" and print the pdf file. For "nouns" and "picture sort", download and unzip the zip file. There are over 100 nouns, so a zip file is the only easy way to download them for your own use. Some of the resources require the cutting out of words, letters, or pictures, including "Letter to Word", "Missing Letter", "Money", "Picture to Word", "Word to Word", "Count Out", "Label Class", "Picture to Picture", "Picture to Object", "Block Design", "Copy Sequence", "Replicate", and "Pattern". Cut these out and put them in a zipper style baggie. To edit, click on the word EDIT for a copy you may be able to edit, depending on the program used to create the original file. The first task codes are for The ABLLS, the ones after "ABLLS-R" are for the revised ABLLS.
Here are some additional resources that can be used for generalization.
Click on the name of the tracking board for the pdf version, or click on the word "EDIT" for a version you can edit.
Although I created many of the resources on this site, some of them came from other websites. Where is was practical, I linked to these sites, but at times it was easier to include the resources within my own resources, such as for pictures or fonts. This is where I give credit where credit is due. These are all great sites, and have much more than I used here on my site. Check them out!
Here are some links to some useful autism websites. | <urn:uuid:5bab5ea7-13cf-4bdc-9b92-e1bf3986d382> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.trackingsheets.net/tracking.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947817 | 1,526 | 3.34375 | 3 |
31 Mar 2015:
The PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases Staff
Correction: Epidemiology and Molecular Characterization of
Cryptosporidium is an important zoonotic parasite globally. Few studies have examined the ecology and epidemiology of this pathogen in rural tropical systems characterized by high rates of overlap among humans, domesticated animals, and wildlife. We investigated risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection and assessed cross-species transmission potential among people, non-human primates, and domestic animals in the Gombe Ecosystem, Kigoma District, Tanzania. A cross-sectional survey was designed to determine the occurrence and risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection in humans, domestic animals and wildlife living in and around Gombe National Park. Diagnostic PCR revealed Cryptosporidium infection rates of 4.3% in humans, 16.0% in non-human primates, and 9.6% in livestock. Local streams sampled were negative. DNA sequencing uncovered a complex epidemiology for Cryptosporidium in this system, with humans, baboons and a subset of chimpanzees infected with C. hominis subtype IfA12G2; another subset of chimpanzees infected with C. suis; and all positive goats and sheep infected with C. xiaoi. For humans, residence location was associated with increased risk of infection in Mwamgongo village compared to one camp (Kasekela), and there was an increased odds for infection when living in a household with another positive person. Fecal consistency and other gastrointestinal signs did not predict Cryptosporidium infection. Despite a high degree of habitat overlap between village people and livestock, our results suggest that there are distinct Cryptosporidium transmission dynamics for humans and livestock in this system. The dominance of C. hominis subtype IfA12G2 among humans and non-human primates suggest cross-species transmission. Interestingly, a subset of chimpanzees was infected with C. suis. We hypothesize that there is cross-species transmission from bush pigs (Potaochoerus larvatus) to chimpanzees in Gombe forest, since domesticated pigs are regionally absent. Our findings demonstrate a complex nature of Cryptosporidium in sympatric primates, including humans, and stress the need for further studies.
Cryptosporidium is a common zoonotic gastrointestinal parasite. In a cross-sectional survey of humans, non-human primates (chimpanzees and baboons) and livestock in the Greater Gombe Ecosystem, Tanzania, Cryptosporidium infection rate was 4.3%, 16.0% and 9.6% respectively. Infection was not associated with clinical disease in people; however, living in a household with an infected person increased one’s risk of infection. Phylogenetic analyses identified clusters of Cryptosporidium with a mixed host background. Surprisingly, the Mitumba chimpanzee community, which shares a natural boundary with a human community, had a lower occurrence of C. hominis compared to the Kasakela chimpanzee community, which resides in the forest interior (less human exposure). However, Kasakela chimpanzees were also infected with C. suis, suggesting a transmission cycle linked to sympatric bush pigs. Our findings highlight the complex nature of zoonotic parasite transmission and stress the need for further studies in similar systems.
Citation: Parsons MB, Travis D, Lonsdorf EV, Lipende I, Roellig DMA, Kamenya S, et al. (2015) Epidemiology and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in Humans, Wild Primates, and Domesticated Animals in the Greater Gombe Ecosystem, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9(2): e0003529. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003529
Editor: Stephen Baker, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, VIETNAM
Received: October 31, 2014; Accepted: January 9, 2015; Published: February 20, 2015
This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper.
Funding: Funding for this study comes from the Morris Animal Foundation (MAF D09ZO-041 and MAF D09ZO-634), the Emory University Global Health Institute, the Arcus Foundation, the Leo S. Guthman Foundation and the National Institutes of Health (R01 AI58715). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Cryptosporidium is one of the most important parasitic diarrheal agents in humans in the world, is among the top four causes of moderate-to-severe diarrheal disease in young children in developing nations, and is problematic as an opportunistic co-infection with HIV due to increased morbidity and mortality [1,2]. Cryptosporidium is well adapted to zoonotic, waterborne, and foodborne transmission, with a life cycle occurring in suitable hosts and transmission by the fecal-oral route . Zoonoses represent the majority of diseases emerging globally with potential to expand to new host systems, yet despite these health threats, few studies have examined the ecology and epidemiology of this pathogen in rural tropical forest systems characterized by high rates of overlap among humans, domesticated animals, and wildlife [5,6].
In Tanzania, agriculture represents over a quarter of the national income and 80 percent of its labor force , but natural resources are declining, affected by desertification and soil degradation from recent droughts. This process has resulted in a high rate of loss of forest and woodland habitat . The resulting fragmented landscape increases human-wildlife contact in these areas, elevating the risk for disease transmission. The Greater Gombe Ecosystem (GGE), Tanzania, in particular, is vulnerable to habitat disturbance, and this has both ecological and financial implications since it is home to diverse wildlife, including endangered chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii), that are important contributors to the national economy through tourism .
Gombe National Park, established in 1968, is a small 35-km2 forest reserve located 16-km north of Kigoma in Western Tanzania (4°40′S 29°38′E). The park is 1500-m above sea-level with hills sloping westward from a rift escarpment to Lake Tanganyika . It is home to a number of non-human primate species, including baboons (Pabio anubis), and a well-known wild chimpanzee population studied continuously for over 50 years [10,11]. There are three chimpanzee communities (Kasekela, Mitumba and Kalande); two of which, (Kasekela, and Mitumba) are habituated . The habitat ranges of these two communities overlap slightly permitting opportunity for member contact. Their habitats have differing degrees of human encroachment . Kasekela, the larger community (∼ 65 individuals), is situated at the center of the park in less disturbed forest, whereas Mitumba, the smaller Northern community (∼ 25 individuals), is in close proximity to Mwamgongo (4°40′S, 29°34’60′ E), a village home to ∼5000 inhabitants and their livestock. Another village borders the park to the South, but not along the Eastern ridge, due to high elevation and historic soil depletion. Human presence in the park is limited to researchers, tourists, park management staff, local field assistants and members of their families. The park border is not fenced and therefore villagers and their untethered animals (goats, sheep and dogs) are able to enter the park ). Mitumba chimpanzees are frequently reported raiding agricultural fields to the east in the Northern village, Mwamgongo, especially during the dry season (I. Lipende, personal communication). There is little evidence that the chimpanzee population has emigrated outside its established habitat for over 20 years, and immigration events are rare.
Death from infectious diseases is the leading cause of mortality for Gombe chimpanzees [15,16]. The chimpanzees have experienced SIVcpz-associated mortality and morbidity, with SIVcpz prevalence ranging between 9–18% and a 10–16-fold higher age-corrected death hazard for infected individuals . Cryptosporidium is of special concern in this chimpanzee population, as SIVcpz illness may be complicated by Cryptosporidium co-infection, and mirror clinical features observed in human HIV/Cryptosporidium co-infections , that report Cryptosporidium infection rates from 8–30% [18,19]. To improve our understanding of this relationship, and highlight potential management options, we investigated risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection and assessed cross-species transmission potential among people, non-human primates, and domestic animals in the GGE, Kigoma District, Tanzania.
Materials and Methods
This project was reviewed and approved by the Emory University Institutional Review Board (approval #: IRB00018856) under the Expedited review process per 45 CFR 46.110(3), Title 45 CFR Subpart D section 46.404, one parent consent, and 21 CFR 56.110 and the Tanzanian National Institute for Medical Research Institute, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, which approved oral consent due to low literacy rates. All adult subjects provided informed consent, and a parent or guardian of any child participant provided informed consent on their behalf. Oral informed consent was obtained by trained local field assistants and documented by witnessed notation on IRB-approved enrollment forms. All animal use followed the guidelines of the Weatherall Report and the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals on the use of non-human primates in research, and was approved by the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute and Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (permit number 2009-279-NA-2009-184), and the Emory University Animal Care and Use Committee (protocol ID 087-2009). Approval was also obtained from Tanzania National Parks (Permit number TNP/HQ/C10/13) to collect samples from wild chimpanzees. The researchers did not have any interactions with the chimpanzees in the park. All domesticated animals were sampled from households in Mwamgongo village. The owners of the domesticated animals provide verbal consent for the collection of fecal specimens for this study, and the verbal consent was documented. We have included the GPS coordinates for Mwamgongo village at the first mention of the village in the Introduction.
The study period occurred between March 2010 and February 2011. Paired fecal samples from humans and domestic animals were collected during the dry (July 1-August 15) and wet (November 1-December 15) seasons. Human subjects were either residents of Mwamgongo village (estimated population size (n) ∼5000) or Gombe National Park (n ∼100). A baseline demographic survey was performed in June 2010 to identify households within Mwamgongo village with at least one domestic animal species: dog (Canis lupus) n ∼ 8, goat (Capra hircus), n ∼ 150 or sheep (Ovis aries), n ∼ 10. Twenty-five village households with domestic animals were randomly selected for study enrollment. Baboons (n ∼ 198) were opportunistically sampled in Mitumba and Kasekela during these two collection periods. Chimpanzees (n ∼ 90) were sampled in both Mitumba and Kasekela at quarterly intervals during the course of routine observational health monitoring .
Specimen collection and transport
Specimen cups were provided to enrolled village and park residents. Livestock specimens were aseptically collected by a village veterinary officer. Chimpanzee and baboon specimens were non-invasively collected from identified individuals as part of observational health monitoring. All fecal specimens were freshly voided and aseptically transferred to a screw cap plastic vial containing a 2.5% potassium dichromate solution (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA). For baboon and non-human primate samples, care was taken to avoid the collection of soil, foliage or water contaminants, by transferring the interior and top most portion of stool to a collection cup using a sterile wooden spatula or swab and avoiding the collection of fecal material in contact with the ground. Each vial was labeled with a unique identification number, and date of collection. Wildlife samples were additionally labeled with the name of the observer, location and animal name. Samples were sealed with Parafilm (Pechiney Plastic Packaging, Chicago, IL) and stored at 4°C, and shipped in ice to Atlanta, GA United States.
Approximately 1-liter of water was collected in 55-oz sterile Whirl-pak bags (Nasco, Fort Atkinson, WI) and filtered for protozoa using a 0.45-μm Millipore MF-Millipore cellulose ester filter mounted on the Millipore (Billerica, MA) filtration system (diameter 47-mm). When possible, filtration was done on one filter, but in extreme cases where turbidity was high, sequential filtration was performed using two filters. Using sterilized forceps, filters were aseptically transferred to 2-ml cryovials containing a 2.5% potassium dichromate solution. Due to the logistics of field sampling, opportunistic water samples were collected from low, middle and high points of 6 continual streams (dry and wet) and two seasonal streams (wet only). GPS coordinates were obtained using a GPSmap 60CSx from Garmin (Garmin International Inc. Olathe, KS) for each collection point to assist in identifying locations for repeat sampling and if necessary, to assign sampled streams to watersheds associated with specific human or chimpanzee groups.
DNA extraction, molecular detection and subtyping
Nucleic acid was extracted from all fecal specimens and water filters using the FastDNA® SPIN Kit for Soil (MP Biomedicals, LLC, Solon, OH) following the methods described . DNA extracts were subsequently tested using a polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) approach where a segment (∼833 bp) of the Cryptosporidium SSU rRNA gene is amplified by nested PCR and then species and genotype diagnosis is made by restriction digestion of the secondary PCR product with SspI (New England BioLabs, Beverly, MA), and either VspI (Promega, Madison, WI) or MboII (New England BioLabs) [21,22]. Each sample was run in duplicate by PCR-RFLP analyses with appropriate controls. Specimens that were positive for Cryptosporidium by the SSU rRNA PCR were confirmed by DNA sequencing of the 18S PCR products (C. suis, C. xiaoi and C. hominis). A subset of specimens positive for C. hominis were also subtyped by sequencing the 60-kilodalton glycoprotein (GP60; ∼900 bp) in both directions on an ABI 3130 Genetic Analyzer (Foster City, CA) . All sequences obtained were aligned with reference sequences using MEGA 6.0 or ClustalX software (http://www.clustal.org/) to identify Cryptosporidium species and C. hominis genotypes.
Human risk factor survey
A survey was administered to each human subject focusing on demography, gastrointestinal symptoms (presence or absence within the previous 4 weeks), medication usage, and water usage. To minimize response bias, surveys were administered by trained local field assistants in the national language (Swahili). Data were manually recorded on paper forms, entered into spreadsheets in the computer program Microsoft Excel, and subsequently reviewed for accuracy.
Statistical analyses and control for sample bias
Results were tabulated and compared in Microsoft Excel (Redmond, WA). To control for sample bias we calculated infection rate as the proportion of individuals in each group positive for Cryptosporidium divided by the total number of individuals in each group examined . If a single individual sample was positive for Cryptosporidium, the subject was considered positive for the collection period (the season for most analyses). Statistical analyses were performed in SPSS version 20.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago IL). Associations between human survey responses and infection status were compared using logistic regression for categorical binary data. Work history (agricultural fields or forest) were combined as a single factor in the final analysis. Odds ratios (OR) with 95% CI were calculated with significance set at 0.05 for all comparisons. Associations between chimpanzee demographic and observational health data and infection status were evaluated using a generalized estimating equation (GEE) method with exchangeable working correlation structure to account for repeat sampling of individuals. The Huber–White sandwich variance estimation technique was used to calculate confidence intervals (CI). In instances where cells contained less than 5 values, Fisher’s exact tests were used to calculate p-values.
Six hundred and eighty-four fecal specimens were screened for Cryptosporidium including 254 human, 99 domestic animal (n = 76 goat, n = 14 sheep, n = 9 dog) and 331 wildlife (n = 251 chimpanzee, n = 80 baboon) specimens. Cryptosporidium spp, were detected by PCR from 40 (5.8%) fecal samples but was not detected in any water samples (n = 42). The infection rate of Cryptosporidium was highest among 21/131 (16.0%) nonhuman primates tested, compared to 7/73 (9.6%) livestock and 8/185 (4.3%) humans. No significant differences in frequency were observed between chimpanzees and baboons (Table 1, Fisher’s exact test p = 0.457) or between the two chimpanzee communities (Table 1, Fisher’s exact test p = 0.7655). Of the 8 cases of Cryptosporidium detected in humans, 7 (87.5%) resided in Mwamgongo village and one (12.5%) in Mitumba camp. No human cases were detected in the Kasekela camp. Sheep had the highest occurrence of Cryptosporidium (22%) compared to goat (9%) and dogs (0%) but small sample size prevented evaluation of significance.
We identified three species of Cryptosporidium (C. hominis, C. suis and C. xiaoi) in this population (Table 1) based on RFLP and sequence analyses of the SSU rRNA gene. C. hominis was detected in all human cases and all 7 cases from sheep and goats were C. xiaoi. Six of the 12 positive chimpanzees from Kasekela were genotyped as C. suis (a Cryptosporidium species predominantly associated with pigs but has been found in a few human cases). This species was not detected in the Mitumba chimpanzee community (Fisher’s two-tailed exact test; p-value = 0.0537). The porcine species was also not found in the specimens from baboons, humans or domestic animals in the village. The remaining Kasekela chimpanzees (n = 6) and the 4 Mitumba chimpanzees had C. hominis. All baboons (n = 5 individuals) also had C. hominis. GP60 subtyping of a subset (n = 16) of the C. hominis positive samples identified a common subtype IfA12G2 in humans and nonhuman primates. The subtype sequence was identical to two sequences in GenBank; a human C. hominis IfA12G2 sequence from South Africa (GenBank accession number JN867334) and a sequence recovered from an olive baboon in Kenya (GenBank accession number JF681172).
We used data from the survey to identify potential risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection (Table 2). Among 95 respondents (100%), villagers in Mwamgongo were at greater risk for infection when living with a person who was positive for Cryptosporidium (OR = 9.722; 95% CI 1.741–54.279; p = 0.011). Persons living with Cryptosporidium-positive livestock tended to have a greater odds of infection (OR = 4.750; 95% CI 0.944–23.908; p = 0.059). Other factors related to behaviors, including location, occupation (either agricultural or forestry), and not boiling water for consumption were not statistically significant. Although presence of clinical signs was not statistically significant, when reviewing survey data for the Cryptosporidium positive patients, 4/8 reported having diarrhea; 2 sought treatment at the village clinic (Flagyl and Paracetemol). Four of 8 households (50%) reported at least one additional member of the household experiencing gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhea and cramping. Interestingly, affected individuals did not report consuming water from an open source (100%), which appeared protective (OR = 0.156; 95% CI 0.085–2.875) but not statistically significant (p = 0.162). 4% of study respondents reported boiling their water before use. No infected individuals reported boiling their drinking water. An association between season and Cryptosporidium infection was not observed in humans or non-human primates (Tables 2 and 3). Chimpanzee demographic factors such as age and sex were not risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection and evidence of diarrhea was not a reliable predictor of Cryptosporidium illness. Kasekela chimpanzees tended to have a higher likelihood (OR = 7.062; 95% CI 0.398–125.251, p = 0.07) of infection with C. suis as compared to the Mitumba community (Table 3).
Of 90 humans residing in camps within Gombe National Park, only one Cryptosporidium infection was observed (1%). In contrast, Cryptosporidium infection in residents of Mwamgongo village reached 10% during the drier months. These frequencies are comparable to those reported in some studies from children and adults without HIV, ranging from 0–18% [25–27], though frequencies as high as 32% have been reported elsewhere . Site and HIV prevalence would seem to be important factors in human occurrence rates. Although HIV testing was beyond the scope of this study, a recent country report indicates a low HIV prevalence (< 1%) from the Kigoma region where the study occurred. Infection was not statistically associated with gastrointestinal illness or stool consistency for humans or wildlife, findings consistent with earlier studies [28–32]. Surprisingly, unsafe drinking water (i.e. untreated/unboiled water, open water source) was not found to increase risk of Cryptosporidium infection, which could be the result of degradation or improper tapping of the water line, exposing water to environmental contamination . This warrants further study as consumption of contaminated ground water has been repeatedly associated with Cryptosporidium infection [34,35].
Cryptosporidium was detected in baboons (11%) and the two chimpanzee communities (15–21%) at moderate frequencies. Similar frequencies of Cryptosporidium have been detected previously in other African primates. Habituated mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda had Cryptosporidium in (11%) of specimens sampled; 73% of positive specimens were detected from human-habituated gorillas . Genetic characterization of this population determined that the gorillas and the local human community both carry C. parvum . Eleven percent of red colobus and black-and-white colobus in Kibale National Park (KNP), Uganda were infected with Cryptosporidium; genetic sequences from some humans and colobus from KNP were identical, while two strains from red colobus in the forest interior were infected with a divergent subclade, suggesting the possibility of separate zoonotic and sylvatic cycles . These findings support the zoonotic spillover potential of Cryptosporidium among humans, wildlife and livestock.
Similar patterns have been observed with other directly or environmentally transmitted enteric pathogens. At KNP, Giardia was detected in red colobus in forest fragments (5.7%), but not detected in undisturbed forest (0%) . Genetic analyses of recovered strains determined that red colobus were infected with Giardia duodenalis assemblages associated with humans and livestock, suggesting complex cross-species transmission . Escherichia coli strains from gorillas in BINP and chimpanzees in KNP that overlapped with humans were more similar to strains collected from resident humans and livestock compared to strains collected from gorillas and chimpanzees living in undisturbed forest [40,41]. Additionally, in KNP, genetic similarity between human/livestock and primate bacteria increased three-fold with a moderate to high increase in anthropogenic disturbance of forest fragment. Bacteria harbored by humans and livestock were more similar to those of monkeys that entered human settlements to raid crops, than to bacteria of other primate species . These findings reinforce the notion that habitat overlap and anthropogenic disturbance increase the risk of interspecies transmission between wildlife, humans and livestock and that transmission can occur both via direct physical contact with or ingestion of contaminated feces and by indirect exposure via a shared (potentially contaminated) watershed. Although water samples screened in this study were negative for the parasite, waterborne outbreaks of Cryptosporidium as a result of human and animal fecal contamination are common [43–45]. Watershed sampling for Cryptosporidium in this study was opportunistic using smaller volumes of water than advocated by standard screening protocols and provided only limited inter-seasonal sampling [47–49]. Therefore, our negative results do not assure that waterborne transmission is not important in this system. Future studies using more comprehensive watershed sampling would help to resolve this aspect of Cryptosporidium transmission.
The results of our RFLP and sequence analyses of the SSU rRNA gene suggest multiple potential zoonotic pathways for Cryptosporidium transmission in this study system. The village data reinforces our understanding that species of Cryptosporidium vary in their zoonotic potential . Our data suggest that there is less likelihood that the C. xiaoi affecting the livestock is capable of causing illness in humans, considering the close proximity of livestock to humans in this community [i.e., animals often residing in homes], where animal-human contact is quite high though it has been documented in other studies . Cryptosporidium hominis was also not detected among the domesticated animals in this study, but C. hominis has been found in other studies to be a zoonotic species, affecting both humans and domesticated animals [52,53]. Homes with positive livestock had a tendency for increased risk of human infection suggesting contribution of environmental factors or behaviors that may place the household at increased risk.
We anticipated that the Kasekela chimpanzee community would have a lower occurrence of Cryptosporidium compared to Mitumba, which shares a natural border with Mwamgongo village. Although not statistically significant, there was a higher frequency of Cryptosporidium recovered in Kasekela. The occurrence of C. hominis was not statistically higher for Mitumba compared to Kasekela. However, the results demonstrated that 50% (6/12) of the Cryptosporidium recovered from the Kasekela community are C. suis, a species associated with pigs. Domestic pigs are not found in the park or village due to religious preference (predominantly Muslim communities). However, bush pigs (Potaochoerus larvatus), native to the Gombe forest habitat, are common in Kasekela but have not been observed frequently in Mitumba forest. Thus bush pigs may serve as the reservoir host for C. suis in this system. Chimpanzees may be infected through contact with this animal (i.e., chimpanzees occasionally consume bush pigs) or by indirect contact with infective feces on the forest floor or the contamination of shared water sources. This putative pathway of transmission is supported by the fact that C. suis was not recovered in the Mitumba chimpanzee community, the baboons, domesticated livestock or village inhabitants. C. suis has zoonotic potential having been previously identified in an HIV+ patient in Lima, Peru, and from patients in Henan, China and England [55,56]. Similarly, Salyer et al found that while Cryptosporidium may be transmitted frequently among domesticated animals, humans and wildlife in areas of overlap, there may be host-parasite specific dynamics that occur in the absence of these regular interactions creating separate transmission cycles.
The appearance of the C. hominis species and its subtype IfA12G2C among the humans, baboons and chimpanzee communities demonstrates the zoonotic transmission potential of this parasite species among these closely related host species and points to a dominance of anthropozonotic transmission in this system. This subtype has been previously reported among captive olive baboons in Kenya , and is prevalent in humans in Africa . Additionally, common primate behaviors may increase the likelihood for animal to human transmission. For example, baboons raid camp food reserves and homes, potentially transmitting etiologic agents via infected feces to humans. The Mitumba chimpanzees are reported to raid agricultural fields just outside the park boundaries, which can transmit diseases from the potentially contaminated feces of livestock or exposed human sewage.
Our results are based on small sample sizes, that if increased could alter the frequency and predictions of Cryptosporidium subtypes, infection and illness. The finding of C. suis in the Kasekela chimpanzee community is novel. We presume these chimpanzees experienced cross-species transmission from bush pigs in Gombe forest, because domesticated pigs are absent from the area. Unfortunately, we do not have access to fecal specimens from the local bush pig population to compare to specimens recovered from Kasekela chimpanzees. Despite the high overlap observed between people and livestock in villages in this region, our results suggest that the transmission dynamics of Cryptosporidium for humans and livestock are distinct but the dominance of C. hominis in humans and non-human primates suggest the potential for cross-species transmission. Our findings highlight the complex nature of zoonotic parasite transmission and stress the need for further studies in similar systems.
S1 Checklist. STROBE Checklist.
We are grateful to J. Baranyikwa and the field assistants of Gombe Stream Research Centre for assisting in the collection of chimpanzee health data and fecal specimens. We thank the Mwangongo Village Animal Health Officer, E. Mchalo for assisting in the collection of domestic animal specimens. We also thank the Kigoma district health officers and D. Mjungu for discussion and the Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology, Tanzania National Parks, and Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute for permission to conduct the research.
The authors would like to warmly acknowledge T. Dearen for technical expertise, A. Blackstock for statistical guidance, and J. Bodager and K. Cross for laboratory assistance.
Conceived and designed the experiments: TRG MBP. Performed the experiments: TRG MBP DT EVL IL LX DMR HZ SK AC. Analyzed the data: TRG MBP EVL DMR LX. Wrote the paper: TRG MBP.
- 1. Kotloff KL, Nataro JP, Blackwelder WC, Nasrin D, Farag TH, et al. (2013) Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study. Lancet 382: 209–222. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60844-2. pmid:23680352
- 2. Tzipori S (1988) CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS IN PERSPECTIVE. Advances in Parasitology 27: 63–129. pmid:3289331 doi: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60353-x
- 3. Smith HV, Caccio SM, Cook N, Nichols RAB, Tait A (2007) Cryptosporidium and Giardia as foodborne zoonoses. Veterinary Parasitology 149: 29–40. pmid:17728067 doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.07.015
- 4. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, Storeygard A, Balk D, et al. (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451: 990–993. doi: 10.1038/nature06536. pmid:18288193
- 5. Leav BA, Mackay M, Ward HD (2003) Cryptosporidium species: New insights and old challenges. Clinical Infectious Diseases 36: 903–908. pmid:12652391 doi: 10.1086/368194
- 6. Appelbee AJ, Thompson RCA, Olson ME (2005) Giardia and Cryptosporidium in mammalian wildlife—current status and future needs. Trends in Parasitology 21: 370–376. pmid:15982929 doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2005.06.004
- 7. US Counter Intelligence Agency (2013) "Tanzania". The World Factbook.
- 8. Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives. The United Republic of Tanzania (2008) http://kilimo.go.tz/agricultural%20maps/Tanzania%20Soil%20Maps/Soil%20maps.htm.
- 9. Wallis J, Lee DR (1999) Primate conservation: The prevention of disease transmission. International Journal of Primatology 20: 803–826. doi: 10.1023/a:1020879700286
- 10. Goodall J (1986) The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior Boston: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press pmid:25101439
- 11. Earnhardt JM, Rossi SR, Lonsdorf EV, Pusey AE (2003) A demographic comparison of wild chimpanzees from Gombe and a managed population from North American zoos. American Journal of Primatology Suppl. 60:62–63.
- 12. Pusey AE, Pintea L, Wilson ML, Kamenya S, Goodall J (2007) The contribution of long-term research at Gombe National Park to chimpanzee conservation. Conservation Biology 21: 623–634. pmid:17531041 doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00704.x
- 13. Pusey AE, Wilson ML, Collins DA (2008) Human impacts, disease risk, and population dynamics in the chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania. American Journal of Primatology 70: 738–744. doi: 10.1002/ajp.20567. pmid:18521891
- 14. Parsons MB, Gillespie TR, Travis D, Lipende I, Gilagiza B, Kamenya S, Pintea L, Vazquez-Prokopec GM (2014) Global Positioning System Data-Loggers: A Tool to Quantify Fine-Scale Movement of Domestic Animals to Evaluate Potential for Zoonotic Transmission to an Endangered Wildlife Population. PLoS ONE 9(11): e110984. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110984. pmid:25365070
- 15. Williams JM, Lonsdorf EV, Wilson ML, Schumacher-Stankey J, Goodall J, et al. (2008) Causes of death in the Kasekela chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania. American Journal of Primatology 70: 766–777. doi: 10.1002/ajp.20573. pmid:18506732
- 16. Lonsdorf EV, Travis D, Pusey AE, Goodall J (2006) Using retrospective health data from the Gombe chimpanzee study to inform future monitoring efforts. American Journal of Primatology 68: 897–908. pmid:16900499 doi: 10.1002/ajp.20296
- 17. Keele BF, Jones JH, Terio KA, Estes JD, Rudicell RS, et al. (2009) Increased mortality and AIDS-like immunopathology in wild chimpanzees infected with SIVcpz. Nature 460: 515–519. doi: 10.1038/nature08200. pmid:19626114
- 18. Tarimo DS, Killewo JZ, Minjas JN, Msamanga GI (1996) Prevalence of intestinal parasites in adult patients with enteropathic AIDS in north-eastern Tanzania. East African medical journal 73: 397–399. pmid:8840602
- 19. Colebunders R, Lusakumuni K, Nelson AM, Gigase P, Lebughe I, et al. (1988) Persistent diarrhoea in Zairian AIDS patients: an endoscopic and histological study. Gut 29: 1687–1691. pmid:3220308 doi: 10.1136/gut.29.12.1687
- 20. da Silva AJ, Bornay-Llinares FJ, Moura INS, Slemenda SB, Tuttle JL, et al. (1999) Fast and reliable extraction of protozoan parasite DNA from fecal specimens. Molecular Diagnosis 4: 57–64. pmid:10229775 doi: 10.1016/s1084-8592(99)80050-2
- 21. Xiao LH, Bern C, Limor J, Sulaiman I, Roberts J, et al. (2001) Identification of 5 types of Cryptosporidium parasites in children in Lima, Peru. Journal of Infectious Diseases 183: 492–497. pmid:11133382 doi: 10.1086/318090
- 22. Xiao L, Ryan U (2008) Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis; Fayer R, Xiao L, editor. New York, USA: CRC Press. pmid:25506952
- 23. Alves M, Xiao LH, Sulaiman I, Lal AA, Matos O, et al. (2003) Subgenotype analysis of Cryptosporidium isolates from humans, cattle, and zoo ruminants in Portugal. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41: 2744–2747. pmid:12791920 doi: 10.1128/jcm.41.6.2744-2747.2003
- 24. Gillespie TR, Lonsdorf EV, Canfield EP, Meyer DJ, Nadler Y, et al. (2010) Demographic and Ecological Effects on Patterns of Parasitism in Eastern Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 143: 534–544. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.21348. pmid:20623606
- 25. Cegielski JP, Ortega YR, McKee S, Madden JF, Gaido L, et al. (1999) Cryptosporidium, Enterocytozoon, and Cyclospora Infections in Pediatric and Adult Patients with Diarrhea in Tanzania. Clinical Infectious Diseases 28: 314–321. pmid:10064250 doi: 10.1086/515131
- 26. Tumwine JK, Kekitiinwa A, Bakeera-Kitaka S, Ndeezi G, Downing R, et al. (2005) Cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis in Ugandan children with persistent diarrhea with and without concurrent infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73: 921–925. pmid:16282304
- 27. Gomez Morales MA, Atzori C, Ludovisi A, Rossi P, Scaglia M, et al. (1995) Opportunistic and non-opportunistic parasites in HIV-positive and negative patients with diarrhoea in Tanzania. Tropical medicine and parasitology: official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 46: 109–114.
- 28. Salyer SJ, Gillespie TR, Rwego IB, Chapman CA, Goldberg TL (2012) Epidemiology and Molecular Relationships of Cryptosporidium spp. in People, Primates, and Livestock from Western Uganda. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases 6.(4):e1597. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001597. pmid:22506085
- 29. Cama VA, Ross JM, Crawford S, Kawai V, Chavez-Valdez R, et al. (2007) Differences in clinical manifestations among Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in HIV-infected persons. J Infect Dis 196: 684–691. pmid:17674309 doi: 10.1086/519842
- 30. Checkley W, Gilman RH, Epstein LD, Suarez M, Diaz JF, et al. (1997) Asymptomatic and Symptomatic Cryptosporidiosis: Their Acute Effect on Weight Gain in Peruvian Children. American Journal of Epidemiology 145: 156–163. pmid:9006312 doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009086
- 31. Houpt ER, Bushen OY, Sam NE, Kohli A, Asgharpour A, et al. (2005) Short report: Asymptomatic Cryptosporidium hominis infection among human immundeficiency virus-infected patients in Tanzania. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73: 520–522. pmid:16172475
- 32. Gracenea M, Gómez MS, Torres J, Carné E, Fernández-Morán J (2002) Transmission dynamics of Cryptosporidium in primates and herbivores at the Barcelona zoo: a long-term study. Veterinary Parasitology 104: 19–26. pmid:11779652 doi: 10.1016/s0304-4017(01)00611-2
- 33. Onda K, LoBuglio J, Bartram J (2012) Global Access to Safe Water: Accounting for Water Quality and the Resulting Impact on MDG Progress. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9: 880–894. doi: 10.3390/ijerph9030880. pmid:22690170
- 34. Akinbo FO, Okaka CE, Omoregie R, Dearen T, Leon ET, et al. (2010) Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in HIV-infected Persons in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. Fooyin Journal of Health Sciences 2: 85–89. doi: 10.1016/s1877-8607(11)60003-9
- 35. Bridgman SA, Robertson RM, Syed Q, Speed N, Andrews N, et al. (1995) Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a disinfected groundwater supply. Epidemiology and Infection 115: 555–566. pmid:8557088 doi: 10.1017/s0950268800058726
- 36. Nizeyi JB, Mwebe R, Nanteza A, Cranfield MR, Kalema G, et al. (1999) Cryptosporidium sp and Giardia sp infections in mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) of the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Journal of Parasitology 85: 1084–1088. pmid:10647041 doi: 10.2307/3285672
- 37. Graczyk TK, DaSilva AJ, Cranfield MR, Nizeyi JB, Kalema G, et al. (2001) Cryptosporidium parvum Genotype 2 infections in free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) of the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Parasitology Research 87: 368–370. pmid:11403378 doi: 10.1007/s004360000337
- 38. Salzer JS, Rwego IB, Goldberg TL, Kuhlenschmidt MS, Gillespie TR (2007) Giardia sp and Cryptosporidium sp infections in primates in fragmented and undisturbed forest in western Uganda. Journal of Parasitology 93: 439–440. pmid:17539436 doi: 10.1645/ge-970r1.1
- 39. Johnston AR, Gillespie TR, Rwego IB, McLachlan TLT, Kent AD, et al. (2010) Molecular Epidemiology of Cross-Species Giardia duodenalis Transmission in Western Uganda. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases 4(5): e683. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000683. pmid:20485494
- 40. Rwego IB, Gillespie TR, Isabirye-Basuta G, Goldberg TL (2008) High rates of Escherichia coli transmission between livestock and humans in rural Uganda. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 46: 3187–3191. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00285-08. pmid:18685012
- 41. Rwego IB, Isabirye-Basuta G, Gillespie TR, Goldberg TL (2008) Gastrointestinal Bacterial Transmission among Humans, Mountain Gorillas, and Livestock in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Conservation Biology 22: 1600–1607. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01018.x. pmid:18717695
- 42. Goldberg TL, Gillespie TR, Rwego IB, Estoff EL, Chapman CA (2008) In Forest Fragmentation as Cause of Bacterial Transmission among Primates, Humans, and Livestock, Uganda. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14(9): 1375–1382. doi: 10.3201/eid1409.071196. pmid:18760003
- 43. Baldursson S, Karanis P (2011) Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: Review of worldwide outbreaks—An update 2004–2010. Water Research 45: 6603–6614. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.10.013. pmid:22048017
- 44. Aksoy U AC, Sahin S, Usluca S, Yalcin G, Kuralay F, Oral A (2007) First reported waterborne outbreak of cryptospirodosis with Cyclospora co-infection in Turkey. Euro Surveillance 12 (7):pii = 3142. pmid:17370959
- 45. Persson K SB, de Jong B (2007) An outbreak of cryptospirodosis at a day-care centre in Sweden. European Surveillance 12 (34):pii = 3255.
- 46. Graczyk TK, Cranfield MR, Fayer R (1997) Recovery of waterborne oocysts of Cryptosporidium from water samples by the membrane-filter dissolution method. Parasitology Research 83: 121–125. pmid:9039693 doi: 10.1007/s004360050221
- 47. Jiang J, Alderisio KA, Xiao L (2005) Distribution of Cryptosporidium Genotypes in Storm Event Water Samples from Three Watersheds in New York. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71: 4446–4454. pmid:16085835 doi: 10.1128/aem.71.8.4446-4454.2005
- 48. Hansen JS, Ongerth JE (1991) Effects of time and watershed characteristics on the concentration of Cryptosporidium oocysts in river water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57: 2790–2795. pmid:1746940
- 49. Davies CM, Ferguson CM, Kaucner C, Krogh M, Altavilla N, et al. (2004) Dispersion and transport of Cryptosporidium oocysts from fecal pats under simulated rainfall events. Applied and environmental microbiology 70: 1151–1159. pmid:14766600 doi: 10.1128/aem.70.2.1151-1159.2004
- 50. Xiao LH, Feng YY (2008) Zoonotic cryptosporidiosis. Fems Immunology and Medical Microbiology 52: 309–323. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2008.00377.x. pmid:18205803
- 51. Adamu H, Petros B, Zhang G, Kassa H, Amer S, et al. (2014) Distribution and Clinical Manifestations of Cryptosporidium Species and Subtypes in HIV/AIDS Patients in Ethiopia. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases 8(4): e2831. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002831. pmid:24743521
- 52. Rajendran P, Ajjampur SSR, Chidambaram D, Kattula D, Rajan DP, et al. (2011) Short Report: Investigation of Potential Zoonotic Transmission of Cryptosporidiosis in Southern India. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 85: 657–659. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.10-0673. pmid:21976568
- 53. Abeywardena H, Jex AR, Nolan MJ, Haydon SR, Stevens MA, et al. (2012) Genetic characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from dairy calves: Discovery of species/genotypes consistent with those found in humans. Infection Genetics and Evolution 12: 1984–1993. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.08.004. pmid:22981927
- 54. Xiao LH, Bern C, Arrowood M, Sulaiman I, Zhou L, et al. (2002) Identification of the Cryptosporidium pig genotype in a human patient. Journal of Infectious Diseases 185: 1846–1848. pmid:12085341 doi: 10.1086/340841
- 55. Wang L, Zhang H, Zhao X, Zhang L, Zhang G, et al. (2013) Zoonotic Cryptosporidium Species and Enterocytozoon bieneusi Genotypes in HIV-Positive Patients on Antiretroviral Therapy. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51: 557–563. doi: 10.1128/JCM.02758-12. pmid:23224097
- 56. Leoni F, Amar C, Nichols G, Pedraza-Diaz S, McLauchlin J (2006) Genetic analysis of Cryptosponidium from 2414 humans with diarrhoea in England between 1985 and 2000. Journal of Medical Microbiology 55: 703–707. pmid:16687587 doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.46251-0
- 57. Li W, Kiulia NM, Mwenda JM, Nyachieo A, Taylor MB, et al. (2011) Cyclospora papionis, Cryptosporidium hominis, and Human-Pathogenic Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Captive Baboons in Kenya. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 49: 4326–4329. doi: 10.1128/JCM.05051-11. pmid:21956988
- 58. Leav BA, Mackay MR, Anyanwu A, O'Connor RM, Cevallos AM, et al. (2002) Analysis of sequence diversity at the highly polymorphic Cpgp40/15 locus among Cryptosporidium isolates from human immunodeficiency virus-infected children in South Africa. Infection and Immunity 70: 3881–3890. pmid:12065532 doi: 10.1128/iai.70.7.3881-3890.2002 | <urn:uuid:46b49ec1-3992-4269-88e8-d36c6835b0ad> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003529 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.875707 | 11,203 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Low levels of vitamin D levels are common, particularly in older adults and in African Americans and Hispanics. Unfortunately, low vitamin D is associated with decline in two types of cognitive functioning: episodic memory (memories of autobiographical events) and executive function (reasoning, problem-solving, planning, etc.).
A recent study with a particularly diverse group of participants, over half of whom were African American or Hispanic, found that over a period of about 5 years, episodic memory and executive function declined faster in older adults with low levels of vitamin D.
Average vitamin D levels for the entire group of 382 adults were below national standards. Levels of 25-hydroxy vitamin D should be between 20 and 50 nanograms per milliliter of blood. The average fell just below this, at 19.2 ng/mL. Over a quarter of participants had vitamin D deficiency, with levels below 12 ng/mL, and another 35.1% had vitamin D insufficiency, with levels between 12 and 20 ng/mL.
African Americans and Hispanics had lower levels of vitamin D (17.9 ng/mL and 17.2 ng/mL, respectively) than whites (21.7 ng/mL). Average vitamin D levels were lower in participants with dementia compared with those who had mild cognitive impairment or normal cognitive function.
Vitamin D levels can depend on factors such as dairy intake, sun exposure, and exercise. It has not been determined whether taking vitamin D supplements could slow down cognitive decline, but vitamin D supplementation has several benefits. Compared to placebo, supplementation with vitamin D increases response to antidepressants. A high percentage of children with major psychiatric disorders are vitamin D deficient, and it is also estimated that about 40% of adults in the US have a vitamin D deficiency.
The study by researcher Joshua W. Miller and colleagues was published in the journal JAMA Neurology in September.
Many patients with bipolar disorder experience cognitive deficits that impede their recovery and that persist during times of wellness. In a double-blind placebo-controlled study by K. N. Roy Chengappa et al. published in the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry in 2013, the herb Withania somnifera (WSE, commonly called ashwagandha and sold under the name Sensoril) was significantly better than placebo at improving patients’ performance on three different cognitive tasks.
In the eight-week study, 53 patients took either 500 mg of WSE or placebo in addition to their regular medications.
The herb, which has traditionally been used in Ayurvedic medicine in India as an aid to resisting stress and disease, improved performance on digit span backwards (a test of short-term memory in which the subject must repeat a sequence of numbers backwards), Flanker neutral (a test of response time in which a subject must repress their instinct to give an incorrect response), and the Penn Emotional Acuity Test (which requires subjects to correctly identify facial emotions depicted in photographs).
Mood and anxiety levels were not different for the group taking WSE and the group taking placebo.
The researchers hope to continue their investigation of WSE with larger and longer-term studies that will explore the effects of different doses of WSE.
Severe malnutrition in the first year of life even when corrected for the rest of a person’s life leaves a legacy of permanent cognitive deficits, marked deficits in attention, and increases in depression, conduct disorders, and medical disorders compared to carefully matched controls. Jamina Galler, a researcher at Harvard Medical School, gave a plenary talk at the 2013 meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry on the long-term effects of even short-term childhood malnutrition, including marasmus (calorie deficiency) and kwashiorkor (protein deficiency).
Galler’s studies followed three generations of people born in Barbados and observed the consequences of prior malnutrition, which was completely eliminated in Barbados by 1980. The consequences of malnutrition in the first year of life not only affected the first (G1) generation, but subsequently their offspring in the G2 generation who also suffered an excess of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, low IQ, and low annual income into adulthood. That is, the early malnutrition had transgenerational effects.
Malnutrition is a huge problem worldwide and is especially bad in sub-Saharan Africa and some parts of Asia. Globally, malnutrition accounts for 50% of the deaths of children under age five. However, even in the US hunger is a problem for one in four children, or about 16 million individuals, and the long-term consequences of hunger remain to be further studied.
Studies in animals indicate that early malnutrition has epigenetic effects that can be passed on to four future generations before they are reversed. Epigenetic effects refer to environmental factors that cannot change the sequence of DNA, but change how easily it is transcribed by adding or taking away acetyl and methyl groups on DNA and histones, the structures around which DNA is wound. Malnutrition (defined as 6–8% casein, a type of protein, in the diet instead of the normal 25%) in rodents affects cognitive abilities and blood pressure and can lead to diabetes, obesity, and other metabolic abnormalities. The next generation is also affected because a previously malnourished mother huddles too much with her offspring, and they become obese as a result of these poor parenting skills. The second generation also exhibits epigenetic changes in the prefrontal cortex (such as too few glucocorticoid receptors due to methylation of the glucocorticoid promoter) and fewer neurons in the hippocampus.
Editor’s Note: Other data indicate similar long-lasting epigenetic and transgenerational effects of other types of childhood adversity, such as verbal, physical, or sexual abuse. These findings in humans are also paralleled by findings in animals, and give strong credence to the idea that the environment can have long-lasting effects on neurobiology and behavior via epigenetic effects that can be superimposed on whatever genetic effects are inherited.
Data from this editor (Robert Post) and colleagues on verbal abuse in childhood is striking; this supposedly less severe form of abuse is still associated with a more difficult course of bipolar disorder and an increase in medical comorbidities. Thus, the experience of early abuse, even just verbal abuse, appears to have long-lasting consequences for psychiatric and medical health into adulthood.
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) may improve working memory in patients with schizophrenia, according to a small study published by Zafiris J. Daskalakis and colleagues in Biological Psychiatry in 2013. Patients with schizophrenia received either 20 Hz rTMS over the left and right prefrontal cortex or a sham treatment, and the rTMS improved working memory on a particular task, the n-back task, wherein patients are asked to recall whether a stimulus they’re currently viewing is the same as the previous one they viewed, or one they viewed several times back. Twenty sessions of rTMS over a period of 4 weeks brought memory back to the levels seen in normal controls.
Editor’s Note: Since many patients with bipolar disorder also have deficits in prefrontal-based memory and performance even when euthymic, it will be important to see if rTMS would also be helpful in these patients. RTMS at 20 Hz increases neuronal activity as measured by PET scan of the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain, and this lasts for at least 48 hours after each treatment.
Since many patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder show deficits in prefrontal activity at baseline, the normalization of these alterations could relate to the memory improvement. This proposition could be tested relatively easily.
At the 2012 meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP), Carrie E. Bearden presented data from a study that predicted conversion to psychosis in at-risk youth (those who have prodromal symptoms or a particular genetic mutation that leads to psychosis) by observing white matter abnormalities.
Bearden found that the degree of white matter abnormality seen during magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was proportional to the degree of cognitive deficit in patients who subsequently developed a first episode of psychosis. The white matter abnormalities were seen particularly in the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) and were associated with increased severity of symptomatology. The overall degree of white matter alteration was also significantly related to clinical outcome 15 months later.
Editor’s Note: The SLF is a major neuronal conduit between prefrontal cortical systems, which are responsible for cognition and planning, and the parietal cortex, which is responsible for spatial abilities. Disruption of this fiber track has been related to difficulties in social cognition and “theory of mind” concepts, like inferring what others might be thinking.
At a symposium on new research on juvenile bipolar disorder at the meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) in 2010, Ronna Fried from Massachusetts General Hospital reviewed executive function deficits that occur in children with bipolar disorder. These include difficulties in planning, working memory, response inhibition, emotional control, initiative, self-regulation, and the ability to shift focus when required.
Fried and her research group found that comorbid ADHD occurred in 69% of bipolar I children compared with 16% of controls. (ADHD involves many of the same executive function difficulties that occur in bipolar disorder—poor attention and difficulties with learning and memory.) Executive function deficits were observed in 45% of bipolar I patients compared with 17% of controls. Children with bipolar disorder who had executive function deficits had lower IQs, more difficulty reading, lower social functioning, decreased occupational functioning on long-term followup, and overall poor outcome of their illness.
Editor’s Note: These data emphasize the importance of cognitive remediation techniques in those who have major executive function deficits. Dr. Fried emphasized that rehabilitation works, and indicated its use is important for these children in order to moderate the otherwise more severe course of illness they may experience compared with those without executive function deficits. | <urn:uuid:4d8ee826-f1f3-4a2b-902f-616fcb9d7771> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bipolarnews.org/?tag=cognitive-deficits | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950466 | 2,061 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Amounts of warming previously thought to be safe may instead trigger widespread melting of the world’s ice sheets and other catastrophic impacts, scientists said….
“There’s evidence that climate sensitivity may be quite a bit higher than what the models are suggesting,” said Ken Caldeira, a senior scientist at Stanford University’s Carnegie Institution for Science.
That’s from a Daily Climate piece on this panel discussion at last weeks AGU meeting:
The sensitivity issue is a complicated one, as I’ve discussed. The AGU discussion certainly helps clarify key issues and suggests that some effort is being put into a reconciliation of the different ways of calculating.
Don’t miss the back and forth on whether we are headed toward 25 meters of sea level rise or 70 meters at the end. For some of the science, see Science: CO2 levels haven’t been this high for 15 million years, when it was 5° to 10°F warmer and seas were 75 to 120 feet higher — “We have shown that this dramatic rise in sea level is associated with an increase in CO2 levels of about 100 ppm”.
If you’re interested on Caldeira’s work on a very high sensitivity — 5.5°C to 8°C (10 to 14 F) — click here. It is based on the PETM 55 million years ago and “having strong functioning methane feedbacks.” Thankfully we’ve got nothing to worry about in the Anthropocene (see”NSIDC : Thawing permafrost feedback will turn Arctic from carbon sink to source in the 2020s, releasing 100 billion tons of carbon by 2100).
Here’s more of the Daily Climate piece:
Accelerating melting on the world’s ice sheets and other new observations have scientists concluding that even a two-degree Celsius rise in temperatures – a benchmark long seen as safe in global climate talks and other emissions reductions scenarios – could lead to an 80-foot rise in sea levels.
“The dangerous level of global warming is less than what we thought a few years ago,” said James Hansen, director of NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. “It was natural to think that a few degrees wasn’t so bad…. (But) a target of two degrees is actually a prescription for long-term disaster.”
Antarctica and Greenland are losing ice at a surprising clip, Hansen said, and methane hydrates – a potent source of greenhouse gas frozen beneath the seas – are starting to bubble up.
The key question for climatologists: How sensitive is the climate to increasing amounts of fossil fuel emissions. Last year humanity pumped almost 10 billion tons of carbon
dioxideinto the atmosphere, a half-billion tons more than 2009 and the largest jump in any year since the Industrial Revolution, according to the Global Carbon Project.
The problem, those researchers said, is the “hang time” for carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Even if greenhouse gas emissions stopped tomorrow, “climatically important” amounts of carbon dioxide and other compounds emitted today would continue to influence the atmosphere for thousands of years, Caldeira said.
That kind of pressure, or “forcing,” on the atmosphere could be devastating, he cautioned.
About 55 million years ago a tremendous amount of methane was released into the atmosphere over a period of about 1 million years, and the planet heated by five degrees to eight degrees Celsius, or 10 degrees to 14 degrees Fahrenheit. The result was an ice-free planet with sea levels 230 feet higher than they are today.
In the eons since, carbon dioxide levels dropped and the ice reformed. But humanity’s emissions have the potential to send the globe back to those conditions, Caldeira and Hansen said.
“If you doubled CO2, which practically all governments assume we’re going to do, that would eventually get us to the ice-free state,” Hansen said.
Scientists don’t expect that ice to melt quickly. Assuming the current accelerated melting continues on the world’s ice sheets and glaciers, various climate models predict the ocean would rise between 1.5 feet and 2.3 feet by century’s end, said Tad Pfeffer, a glaciologist with the University of Colorado.
But the ice melted with atmospheric carbon dioxide levels at about 1,000 parts per million, Caldeira said. And he suspects that even 750 ppm, or about double today’s levels, could send the globe spiraling toward an ice-free state. Current emissions trends suggest the globe could reach that by the end of the century.
“We can’t double CO2,” Hansen added. “We would be sending our climate back to a state we haven’t adjusted to as a species.”
The time to act was a while ago, but now is much, much better than later.
- A detailed look at climate sensitivity
- Climate Experts Warn Thawing Permafrost Could Cause 2.5 Times the Warming of Deforestation | <urn:uuid:c95b04f0-ddf2-474d-9b87-172b02ce607d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thinkprogress.org/romm/2011/12/14/386806/hansen-and-caldeira-on-sensitivity-paleoclimate-record-rapid-climate-changes/?mobile=nc | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932975 | 1,069 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Anyone wondering why more than 23 million U.S. children and adolescents are overweight or obese can find the answer in a study published this month in the Journal of the American Dietetic Association.
Researchers from the National Cancer Institute can sum it up in two words: empty calories.
Here are the basic findings:
- The top sources of energy for 2- to 18-year-olds were grain desserts, pizza and soda.
- Nearly 40% of total calories consumed by this age group came from solid fat and added sugars—half of which were associated with six foods: soda, fruit drinks, dairy desserts, grain desserts, pizza and whole milk.
- Sugar-sweetened beverages (soda and fruit drinks combined) provided almost 10% of total calories consumed.
Sugar-sweetened beverages are associated with “a constellation of cardiovascular risk factors, both independently and through the development of obesity,” according to an accompanying commentary by Rae-Ellen W. Kavey, MD, MPH, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Rochester Medical Center in New York.
Photo: Michael Lehet | <urn:uuid:2e582f73-7e66-4ca7-9d8f-479731668e69> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.organicauthority.com/blog/health/kids-consume-40-of-calories-from-solid-fat-sugar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938524 | 229 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Debate and discussion of any biological questions not pertaining to a particular topic.
2 posts • Page 1 of 1
I'm needing some help understanding where to go on sample problems. I haven't had any success finding tutorials or anything online to explain how to complete problems such as:
**A virus has a genome of 1.184 MB (1184 kb) of double stranded DNA. 90.5% is coded into 1262 ORFs. What would be the average size of a coded protein in kiloDaltons?
-1184 kb is 1184000 bases times the 660 Da per base pair gives 7.8144x10^8Daltons... Not sure where to go to further this. Somehow, I think a codon of 3 nucleotides (990 Da) factors in to this??
**What is the molecular weight of single-stranded RNA needed to code for a capsid protein of 60 kilodaltons and how many nucleotide bases does this represent?
-I believe I'd take the 60kd and turn it into 60,000daltons and then multiply the 60000 by 330Da/nucleotide to get 1.98x10^7 bases or 1.98x10^4 kilobases. How do I calculate the molecular weight?
**How many kilobase pairs in a single double-stranded DNA 9345 nucleotide base pairs long?
-9345 base pairs /660(Da/base pr) = 14.16 Daltons... Where else do I take this??
**A double-stranded viral genome is 240 kilobases. What is a reasonable estimate of how many genes could be present and what are three variables that effect the exact number of genes present?
For these problems, I'm using an average of 330 as the weight of one nucleotide. Any tips on how to solve these problems or a tutorial I can find to solve them? My book and google searches have been unsuccessful in helping me. Thanks in advance.
So, the size of genome is 1184 kbp (whether you express it in kbp, Mbp or bp really doesn't matter, just the result will be shifted).
90.5% of the genome, that is 1071.52 kbp, are ORF. And you know that there are 1262 ORFs, so you just calculate the average length of one ORF as 1071.52 kbp/1262 ORFs = 849 bp per ORF. Of course this is only average length and there will be longer and shorter ORFs.
I notice they ask also about the protein size. So 849 bp produce 283 AAs long protein, which weight about 31.13 kDa.
those 60 kDa or weight of the protein, so you must take the average amino acid weight, which should be 110 Da ( http://www.nordicbiosite.com/ViewPage.aspx?PageID=33 ), those it will be composed of 60 000 Da/110 Da = 545.4 AAs (i.e. 545 AAs).
For each amino acids you need three bases in RNA (codon is triplet, right?), thus you'll need 1635 bp long RNA. And the weight is 1635 bp × 340 Da = 555.9 kDa
What about if you tried the rest and showed us how you're doing?
Cis or trans? That's what matters.
2 posts • Page 1 of 1
Who is online
Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest | <urn:uuid:7d921199-9408-4503-8ace-033692534b2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biology-online.org/biology-forum/about33969.html?p=156329&hilit=DNA+virus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.890297 | 747 | 2.578125 | 3 |
FAQs on Elder Abuse
What is elder abuse?
Elder abuse includes physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, exploitation, neglect, and abandonment. Perpetrators include children, other family members, and spouses—as well as staff at nursing homes, assisted living, and other facilities.
Physical abuse means inflicting physical pain or injury upon an older adult.
Sexual abuse means touching, fondling, intercourse, or any other sexual activity with an older adult, when the older adult is unable to understand, unwilling to consent, threatened, or physically forced.
Emotional abuse means verbal assaults, threats of abuse, harassment, or intimidation.
Confinement means restraining or isolating an older adult, other than for medical reasons.
Passive neglect is a caregiver’s failure to provide an older adult with life’s necessities, including, but not limited to, food, clothing, shelter, or medical care.
Willful deprivation means denying an older adult medication, medical care, shelter, food, a therapeutic device, or other physical assistance, and exposing that person to the risk of physical, mental, or emotional harm—except when the older, competent adult has expressed a desire to go without such care.
- Financial exploitation means the misuse or withholding of an older adult’s resources by another.
How many older Americans are abused?
Approximately 1 in 10 Americans aged 60+ have experienced some form of elder abuse. Some estimates range as high as 5 million elders who are abused each year. One study estimated that only 1 in 14 cases of abuse are reported to authorities.
Who are the abusers of older adults?
Abusers are both women and men. In almost 90% of elder abuse and neglect incidents, the perpetrator is a family member. Two thirds of perpetrators are adult children or spouses.
What makes an older adult vulnerable to abuse?
Social isolation and mental impairment (such as dementia or Alzheimer’s disease) are two factors. Recent studies show that nearly half of those with dementia experienced abuse or neglect. Interpersonal violence also occurs at disproportionately higher rates among adults with disabilities.
What are the warning signs of elder abuse?
Physical abuse, neglect, or mistreatment: Bruises, pressure marks, broken bones, abrasions, burns
Emotional abuse: Unexplained withdrawal from normal activities, a sudden change in alertness, or unusual depression; strained or tense relationships; frequent arguments between the caregiver and older adult
Financial abuse: Sudden changes in financial situations
Neglect: Bedsores, unattended medical needs, poor hygiene, unusual weight loss
- Verbal or emotional abuse: Belittling, threats, or other uses of power and control by individuals
What are the effects of elder abuse?
Elders who have been abused have a 300% higher risk of death when compared to those who have not been mistreated. While likely underreported, elder financial abuse costs older Americans $2.9 billion per year. Yet, financial exploitation is self-reported at rates higher than emotional, physical, and sexual abuse or neglect.
Are there criminal penalties for the abusers?
Most states have penalties for those who victimize older adults. Increasingly, across the country, law enforcement officers and prosecutors are trained on elder abuse and ways to use criminal and civil laws to bring abusers to justice.
How does a person make an elder abuse report?
How can elder abuse be prevented?
Educating seniors, professionals, caregivers, and the public on abuse is critical to prevention.
If you’re an older adult, you can stay safe by:
- Taking care of your health.
- Seeking professional help for drug, alcohol, and depression concerns and urging family members to get help for these problems.
- Attending support groups for spouses and learning about domestic violence services.
- Planning for your own future. With a power of attorney or a living will, you can address health care decisions now to avoid confusion and family problems later. Seek independent advice from someone you trust before signing any documents.
- Staying active in the community and connected with friends and family. This will decrease social isolation, which has been connected to elder abuse.
- Posting and opening your own mail.
- Not giving personal information over the phone.
- Using direct deposit for all checks.
- Having your own phone.
- Reviewing your will periodically.
- Knowing your rights. If you engage the services of a paid or family caregiver, you have the right to voice your preferences and concerns. If you live in a nursing home, call your Long Term Care Ombudsman. The ombudsman is your advocate and has the power to intervene.
Get more elder abuse data from the U.S. Administration on Aging. | <urn:uuid:fc4e6366-fd0a-4e5d-9897-c011f6d19790> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aaa24.org/resources/faqs-on-elder-abuse/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926726 | 982 | 3 | 3 |
Recognition of Recent Meander Cutoff in the Arkansas River Alluvial Plain in West Central Arkansas and Implications for Land UseCathy Baker
Arkansas Tech University
Continent: North America
Country: United States
UTM coordinates and datum: 15H VB 94812 11442
Climate Setting: Humid
Tectonic setting: Passive Margin
Click the images for a full-sized view.
River floodplains have traditionally served many purposes. Settlements have built up worldwide along rivers because avenues of transportation and abundant water were available and because rich fertile lands could be cultivated. Large population centers today are concentrated on many floodplain areas of the United States, and land use issues in addition the threat of flooding exist.
Floodplains are comprised of materials deposited by both channel and "overbank" processes. The deposits range from highly porous and permeable sands and gravels to low permeability muds and clays. Highly permeable zones within floodplains can provide vast groundwater reserves in addition to the surface water resources; however, the very permeability of those materials can aid in the spread of contaminants. Very slowly permeable zones act to restrict the migration of pollutants and can serve in the limiting of contamination. The distribution of gravels, sands, silts, and clays in floodplain deposits is a consequence of river processes. Predicting the nature and distribution of materials ina floodplain, therefore, involves recognition of the landforms created by the action of the river.
Rivers which create well-developed floodplains (also known as "alluvial plains") most commonly possess a sinuous meandering pattern. The winding pattern develops in response to the interplay of erosion, transportation, and deposition by the river. Lateral erosion by swift currents on stream "outside" banks results in steep cut-banks while deposition by corresponding slower currents on "inside" banks results in the formation of sandbars known as "point bars". The thickest and aerially most extensive deposits of sands on floodplains are in the areas of most recently migrating point bars. Lateral erosion can eventually cut through meanders creating cutoffs. Cutoff meanders are eventually abandoned completely forming oxbow lakes and depressions. During flood stage rivers surge onto floodplains leaving deposits of muds comprised primarily of silt and clay. Thick overbank muds can accumulate on the most distant sections of floodplains. Areas of most recently migrating point bars, therefore, are typically the most vulnerable areas for groundwater contamination, whereas, more distant areas from the active channel usually are less vulnerable to groundwater contamination.
The Arkansas River is a generally southeasterly trending waterway that originates in the Rocky Mountains of western Colorado and joins the Mississippi River in southeastern Arkansas. The Arkansas River in the area of the Holla Bend National Wildlife Refuge exhibits well developed landforms commonly created by a meandering river (Figure 1). Landforms are clearly discernable using a number of sources: surface reconnaissance, aerial and satellite imagery, and topographic quadrangle maps; therefore, the Holla Bend area serves as an excellent model for recognition of meandering river landforms used in prediction of floodplain porosity and permeability characteristics. Landforms present within the area of Holla Bend National Wildlife Refuge include: floodplain, cutbanks, point bars, meanders, cutoffs, oxbow lakes (Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Because recent point bar deposits are most likely to expose permeable materials at the surface of the floodplain, recognition of the most recent meanders, point bars, , shallow, long, water-filled troughs, wetlands, or depressions (Figure 2). In field-scale reconnaissance, ridges and swells appear as a gently rolling landscape (Figure 3). Swales in field-scale view are commonly water-filled after flood events or during wet cycles (Figure 4). Ridges at the Holla Bend National Wildlife Refuge have been utilized to plant windbreaks for soil erosion reduction. Curved lines of southern pine trees mark the crests of many ridges throughout the refuge (Figure 4). and cutoffs is imperative when evaluating floodplains for land use practices that subject the area to potentially harmful contaminants. Although most states regulate the location of landfills, sewage waste treatment facilities, and environmentally harmful manufacturing facilities on floodplains, many potentially environmentally harmful facilities including animal confinement operations may still be sited on vulnerable materials.
Point bars of the Arkansas alluvial plain at Holla Bend are readily discernable in satellite and aerial views due to differences in coloration patterns related to different forage crops and woodlands in the area (Figure 1). As point bars migrate, slight depressions develop between sand bar crests creating alternating crests and troughs known as "ridges and swales" or a "ridge-and-swale topography". In topographic maps, the ridges are discernable as long low narrow ridges and swales are distinguishable as narrow
- Easterbrook, D. J. 1999Development Center, Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory. ERDC/GSL TR-04-XX. 33p. . Surface Processes and Landforms. Prentice-Hall Inc. p. 128.
- Kline, S. W., Horn, N. R., Baker, C., and Horn, J. D. 2003. A model for groundwater flow in the alluvial aquifer of the Arkansas River at Dardanelle, Arkansas. Arkansas Geological Commission. Water Resources Circular #18. 35 p.
- Leigh, D. S. (2006). Terminal Pleistocene braided to meandering transition in rivers of the Southeastern USA. Catena, 66 (1-2), pp. 155-160.
- Smith, L. M. and Breland, P. L. 2004. Geomorphic reconnaissance of the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System Dardanelle, Lock and Dam to the Mississippi River. United States Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering Research and | <urn:uuid:0632b24f-c5b2-4bc1-86f5-c5353902bd71> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://serc.carleton.edu/vignettes/collection/25482.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900464 | 1,240 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Definition of recognizer
n. - One who recognizes; a recognizor. 2
The word "recognizer" uses 10 letters: C E E G I N O R R Z.
No direct anagrams for recognizer found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after recognizer (in bold), or to ceeginorrz in any order:
s - recognizers
All words formed from recognizer by changing one letter
Browse words starting with recognizer by next letter | <urn:uuid:477b6e6e-3d1b-4b3e-b21a-a8f9d99ee541> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.morewords.com/word/recognizer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892928 | 109 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Here is a summary of Keng-Soon Soo’s article “Theory and Research: Learning Styles, Motivation, and the CALL Classroom”, published in Call Environments: Research, Practice and Critical Issues (1999) edited by Egbert & Hanson-Smith (There is a newer 2007 edition of this text available)
Learning style refers to how students approach learning, not to how well they learn. (p. 290)
This is most interesting. I wonder whether consciously changing your learning style – nothing is impossible for a willing heart – might result in better learning outcomes. There is a lot of attitude and belief in what we do or do not do when we are to learn something, and that means that we are in a position to both facilitate and jeopardize our learning experience at will.
The concept of learning style has its origins in the beginning of modern education. Johann Pestalozzi, who pioneered the progressive instructional method in the XIXth century, and Maria Montessori, who initiated the Montessori school system in 1907, both believed that education should take learners’ differences into account. (p. 290)
Learning styles can be discussed at two levels. There are cultural learning styles, which are the common preferences of an entire people, and individual learning styles, which are generally discussed in 4 domains: cognitive, affective, perceptual, and physiological.
CULTURAL LEARNING STYLES
… from the day of birth, individuals are socialized into doing things in the normal (acceptable) ways through the silent example and overt teaching of family and friends. (p. 292)
… Confucian societies tend to value rote learning … (p. 292)
Collaborative learning is predicated on a learning culture that values collectivism. In more individualistic societies, where education may contain strong elements of competition, collaborative learning can be problematic. (p. 293)
The bottom line is that there are unstated assumptions about how people should learn in every society, and people usually acquire their cultural learning styles before they start school. Since values tend to differ from society to society, so do cultural learning styles. The way I see it, it also means that challenging your students’ cultural learning style is like asking them to reconsider their values, and may yield unexpected results. If the teaching methods and techniques you use promote values that are fundamentally different from those of your students, the latter are likely to suffer from “learning style shock” and perform worse than they would otherwise, whilst you may run into all sorts of problems to do with classroom management or have difficulty working up a rapport with the students. The worst possible scenario could be for you to fail as a teacher in such a classroom despite the learners being bright and your knowing the subject matter well. Imposing values is highly unlikely to work unless you have established your credibility beyond reasonable doubt.
INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES
The Cognitive Dimension
- field dependent vs field independent
- analytic vs global
- impulsive vs reflective
Soo concludes that the analytic learner does relatively better if learning is individualized and rule based, whereas the global learner is likely to shine in the communicative classroom. (p.295)
This is useful information. I guess I will design a placement quiz (NB! Table 18-1 p. 294) for my students that will determine the ratio of analytic to global learners in the classroom. This way I will know whether they need more rules or more communicative practice:)
December update: I have finally designed and piloted the global vs analytic placement test. Four people have tried it, including myself. The results are puzzling in the sense that I seem to be the “most global” learner of all, my own score is 70:30. It came as a surprise because I have always considered myself to be a bookworm and a rule-freak. On second thought, there is nothing surprising about that for it is necessary to distinguish between language learning styles and learning styles in general. All the statements pertain to how you approach learning languages, and in my case there is a clear difference between what I do when I study English, German or Italian, for instance, and, say, ELT methodology:). The other people are my students or acquintances, and their results are 60:40, 50:50(2) and 45:55 respectively. Now it is really interesting how I should interpret those scores. My initial hypothesis or supposition is that the higher the score, the more likely you are to benefit from the so-called communicative approach. Another possible way to interpret the scores is to say that the higher the global to analytic ratio, the better your chances of success in acquiring a foreign language by actually using it in authentic contexts other than classroom tasks. To put it differently, the tasks that the learner is most likely to benefit from do not have to be the ones that are found in conventional coursebooks, but should rather be more project-based and have “natural or real” purposes as opposed to linguistic ones, i.e. accuracy and fluency should come as side effects of doing such tasks. In other words, the lower the score, the more scaffolding the learner needs on the road to fluency. Last but not least, unless you score is 100:0, it is not possible to say that you do not need any rules at all, which implies that explicit instruction – it may take different forms ranging from reading some rules or talking to an expert, e.g. a teacher – is a must in certain amounts however reluctant the learner might be, and the exact amount of scaffolding and support in percentage points is equal to the absolute value of the denominator in the ratio . Anyone wants to do the test? Feel free to contact me.
The Affective Dimension | <urn:uuid:315134db-fd2f-472a-8fa9-6046ea509a13> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.englishlab.net/teflblog/2008/11/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947875 | 1,209 | 3.109375 | 3 |
I’m sorry sir, but would you mind turning your music down? I’m trying to ride transit here.
By definition, public transit is a common space, a place where people of all backgrounds come together to travel. It’s such a cross-section of ages and backgrounds brought together, sharing a space without directly interacting, that psychology researchers routinely use public transit to observe human behavior patterns. Transit riders travel together, but they usually aren’t directly interacting with other. Of course, that changes when people are rude, disruptive or lack courtesy. We share a common rider experience, and a few bad apples can seriously ruin someone’s trip.
Following in the example of New Jersey Transit and NYC’s MTA, Metro has launched an ad campaign, “Respect Your Ride”, on our MetroBuses and MetroLink station platforms and elevators to help remind people to be mindful of other riders and to curb undesirable behavior. The posters also include the phone number for Passenger Assistance in case riders want to report a problem.
It’s difficult to govern other people’s behavior, especially if they don’t realize that they are being bad fellow riders. But we can bring it to their attention.
“Loud Music is Loud”
Sometimes its difficult to gauge this, but the rule of thumb for me is if other people can clearly hear what you are listening to, it is too loud. Even if you are listening with headphones. Not everyone is going to share your taste in music, and some people like to read and relax while riding. Or sleep. Or just not listen to your music. The same goes for loud and obnoxious speaking aloud and on a cell phone.
“Foul Language is Offensive”
We all know foul language can be offensive. But curses words or choice phrases can seem aggressive and confrontational as well. No one wants to experience that from fellow riders. If it would make Grandma blush, its not appropriate to share on public transit. And if you are saying it aloud on transit, you are sharing it with everyone.
“Undercover Officers on Board”
This sign is to remind riders that Metro partners with St. Louis City and County to have undercover police presence on the system to deter illegal or disruptive activity.
“Public Urination is Illegal”
Saved the best for last. These signs will only hang in MetroLink elevators, where public urination has been a particular problem. The elevator not a private place to relieve onself; they are actually heavily monitored. In addition to the signs, every elevator has a camera linking back to our communications dispatch center, and have a speaker that security can engage to talk to the perpetrator. Public urination in elevators is a significant issue since individuals who cannot take the stairs must use the elevators to reach street level.
Another reason to focus on quality-of-life issues for riders is that it help make public transit more efficient. Problems like these direct resources for customer service, security, and maintenance away from other issues. Courteous behavior encourages more discretionary riders to take transit. It’s a win-win for Metro and our riders.
As a transit user, I find my trips in St. Louis are mostly calm. During the peak times of the day, both MetroLink and MetroBus are fairly quiet. But we all have stories too. Jennifer mentioned that feet on her seat was a real pet peeve. @u2acro on Twitter said she hates it when people take up two seats with their bag/person when people are looking to sit down. Whatever your pet peeve, the ads will hopefully remind people that when you keep other riders in mind and act with respect and courtesy, you are a better public transit rider. Will everyone listen? No. But we hope that many will. | <urn:uuid:51332523-8ba7-445f-b7f4-29634e7eeeb6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nextstopstl.org/1744/would-you-mind-turning-that-down-im-trying-to-ride-public-transit/?%E2%81 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945496 | 797 | 2.640625 | 3 |
James of Voragine, by Suzanne Hevelone
Among the many Dominican scholars and authors of sermons and sermon material, James of Voragine (ca. 1228-1298), archbishop of Genoa, is chiefly remembered for his compilation of the lives of the saints, the Legenda aurea (Golden Legend), the most influential hagiographical resource from the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. In addition, James was a prolific preacher who prepared several collections of model sermons that were used widely by medieval preachers.
Houghton Library’s MS Lat 9 is a copy of James’ Sermones de tempore, which was beautifully written and illuminated in 1452. The 160 sermons contained in it follow the liturgical calendar. As a leader within the Dominican Order, James would naturally have been concerned with providing theologically sound and easily available content for fellow preachers. His Latin model sermons were disseminated to Dominicans and other preachers across Europe, who preached from them in numerous vernacular languages.
James’ sermons bear witness to the changes in the type of preaching that occurred during the thirteenth century. His model sermons typically fall into the category of sermo modernus, a text with highly structured arguments, although he also provided models in a simpler homiletic form. James’ hagiography and sermons have sometimes been viewed as two distinct categories with little overlap, but upon closer study the two genres appear complementary. The great Dominican intended both his hagiography and his sermons on the saints to reach the same audience and for the same purpose – the imitation of the virtue of the saint in the Christian life. This is, according to James, the basis of a spiritual ascent to union with God. Stories from the saints’ lives would have served to punctuate the presentation of his sermons when used by other preachers; they encouraged audience awareness and participation with the material in the same way as a twenty-first century pastor does when sharing anecdotes. | <urn:uuid:537caee8-0960-4105-a18b-0a0512e2e826> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/houghton/collections/early_manuscripts/preaching/hevelone_voragine.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961074 | 412 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Take a sneak peek at the new NIST.gov and let us know what you think!
(Please note: some content may not be complete on the beta site.).
Electronics & Telecommunications Portal - Overview
In the realm of electrons and light, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) provides the standards, develops the instruments, and performs the calibrations necessary to keep both the smallest electronic components and the largest power grids running smoothly and safely.
Programs and Projects
Theory of the optical properties of materials
The overarching objective of this project is reliably calculating the bulk optical properties of materials, such as complex index of refraction, … more
CMOS Device and Reliability
The CMOS Device and Reliability Project aims to develop new metrology tools for characterizing high-performance complementary … more
Metrology and Synthesis of 3D Nanostructures
We synthesize semiconductor nanostructures to serve both as test structures for measurement techniques and as building blocks for novel metrology … more
Electromagnetic Compatibility of Smart Grid Devices and Systems
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) ensures that all electrical and electronic devices function reliably in their intended environments. This … more
Smart Grid Interoperability Testbed Facility
NIST is charged by the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) with facilitation of interoperability standards to enable successful … more
Smart Grid Communication Networks
While there is a clear need for communication networks supporting reliable information transfer between the various entities in the electric grid, … more
Seamless and Secure Mobility - Tools
A simulation platform based on NS-2 as been developed in order to leverage publicly available modules for several wireless and wired technologies. more
100 Bureau Drive, Stop 1070 | <urn:uuid:19a5e08e-7428-4a60-a686-24c47798bd67> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nist.gov/electronics-and-telecommunications-portal.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.864851 | 357 | 2.625 | 3 |
Babies born before the 37th week of gestation are considered premature and are sometimes referred to as “preemies”. Mothers whose babies are born prematurely are often scared and nervous. Premature newborns have an increased risk of complications.
The risks increase the earlier the child is born. Any complications of a premature newborn will be addressed in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The following is a brief description of what to expect in caring for a newborn preemie.
Why do premature newborns need special care?
Premature babies are not fully equipped to deal with life in our world. Their little bodies still have underdeveloped parts that include the lungs, digestive system, immune system and skin. Thankfully, medical technology has made it possible for preemies to survive the first few days, weeks or months of life until they are strong enough to make it on their own.
A first glance at the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU)
The NICU is your newborn’s protective environment and home for a limited period. Therefore, it is wise to become as familiar with it as possible. The NICU is equipped with caring staff, monitoring and alarm systems, respiratory and resuscitation equipment, access to physicians in every pediatric specialty, 24 hour laboratory service and YOU!
The amount of sophisticated equipment in the NICU can be overwhelming and sometimes scary. Understanding how the various machines and equipment function can help you relax and prevent you from losing your focus.
Monitoring and alarm systems
Monitoring machines differ depending on the hospital and NICU. However, monitors are similar in that they all record heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and temperature. A pulse oximeter may be used to measure the amount of oxygen in the blood.
You might notice that your newborn has various sticky pads or cuffs on the chest, legs, arms or other parts of the body. These pads and cuffs have wires connecting to a monitor that resembles a television screen and displays various numbers.
*Alarms are triggered periodically in the NICU. When this happens it does not necessarily point to an emergency. More often than not it is a routine matter and nothing to be concerned about.
Methods of respiratory assistance (depends on the premature newborn’s individual needs)
Endotracheal tube – This is a tube that is placed down the newborn’s windpipe in order to deliver warm, humidified air and oxygen.
Ventilator – This machine is sometimes referred to as a respirator. It is the breathing machine connected to the endotracheal tube that can monitor the amount of oxygen, air pressure and number of breaths.
Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (C-PAP) – This method is used for babies who can breathe on their own but need help getting air to their lungs.
Oxygen hood – This a clear plastic box that is placed over the baby’s head and is attached to a tube that pumps oxygen to the baby.
Methods of feeding (depends on the premature newborn’s individual needs)
Intravenous lines – These lines carry nutrition directly into the baby’s blood stream. They are used for premature babies who have immature digestive systems and are unable to suck, swallow and breathe normally. This method is sometimes used when treatment for other health complications is being implemented. This approach utilizes an IV that may be placed in the scalp, arm or leg.
Umbilical catheter – This painless method involves a tube that is surgically placed into a vessel of the umbilical cord. However, there are risks associated with this method that include infection and blood clots. Therefore, the method is normally used only in the most critical cases and only when the baby might need this type of feeding for several weeks. For these babies, it is the safest and most effective way to receive nutrients.
Oral and nasal feeding – This method utilizes a narrow flexible tube that is threaded through their nose (nasogastric tube) or mouth (orogastric tube). It is a solution for babies who are ready to digest breast milk or formula but are not yet able to suck, swallow and breathe in a coordinated manner.
Central line (sometimes referred to as a PICC line) – This is an intravenous line that is inserted into a vein, often in the arm, that allows the use of a larger vein. This is a method of delivering nutrients and medicines that might otherwise irritate smaller veins.
Incubator – Incubators are clear plastic cribs that keep babies warm and help protect them from germs and noise.
Bili lights – A bright blue fluorescent light located over the baby’s incubator used to treat jaundice (yellowing of skin and eyes).
The staff usually consists of respiratory therapists, occupational therapists, dietitians, lactation consultants, pharmacists, social workers, hospital chaplains and a neonatologist. A neonatologist is a pediatrician with additional training in the care of sick and premature babies.
It is important to familiarize yourself with the staff. You will find that they can be very informative and helpful.
Knowing that your newborn is receiving the best possible care will provide you with comfort and reassurance.
What is Kangaroo Care?
Kangaroo care is a technique where the premature baby is placed in an upright position on its mother’s bare chest allowing tummy to tummy contact that positions the baby between the mother’s breasts. The baby’s head is turned so that its ear is positioned above the mother’s heart.
Many studies have shown that Kangaroo Care offers significant benefits.
According to Krisanne Larimer, author of “Kangarooing Our Little Miracles”, Kangaroo care has been shown to help premature newborns with:
- Body temperature – Studies have shown that a mother has thermal synchrony with her baby and that if her baby was cold, her body temperature would increase to warm up the baby and visa versa.
- Breastfeeding – Kangaroo care allows easy access to the breast, and skin-to-skin contact increasing milk let-down.
- Increase weight gain – Kangaroo care allows the baby to fall into a deeper sleep allowing it to direct more energy to other bodily functions. Increased weight gain also means a shorter hospital stay.
- Increased intimacy and bonding.
We have all heard how breastfeeding strengthens a baby’s immune defenses and increases emotional connections between a mother and her baby. However, in cases where a baby is born prematurely, a mother might not be allowed to breastfeed her baby.
Most premature newborns, between 25-29 weeks gestational age, are fed intravenously or through a tube.
So if you are planning to breastfeed, you should tell your doctor and nurses immediately after the birth. You can then begin expressing and storing your breast milk for the time when your baby is ready for it. The baby’s digestive system and control of electrolytes will determine when he/she will be able to ingest breast milk through a tube and when you can use the milk you have stored.
Once the baby’s respiratory system is stabilized, it can begin breastfeeding. Most babies born 35-37 weeks can go straight to breastfeeding.
How YOU can participate in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU)
There are additional ways to provide care for a baby in the NICU. Both the mother and father are encouraged by the NICU staff to interact with their baby. As a mother or father, you might not be aware of all the ways that you can interact with your baby.
Here are some suggestions:
- Touch your baby as much as possible. You can do this by using a gentle touch and stroking motions.
- Talk to your baby. Your baby can recognize your voice(s) and be comforted by hearing you. In addition to talking, you can read or sing to your baby.
- Change your baby’s diaper.
- Participate in your baby’s first bath. Depending on your baby’s progress, you may choose washcloths or sponges.
- Take your baby’s temperature.
For more information on premature newborns you can visit: www.marchofdimes.com/prematurity
Compiled using information from the following sources: | <urn:uuid:e1aaacc7-c6c7-4c61-a8f0-90d19c3d5c12> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://americanpregnancy.org/labor-and-birth/premature-care/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942032 | 1,740 | 3.1875 | 3 |
What Is Aquaponics And How Do I Grow Vegetables With The System?
It is possible to produce a fresh, rotating supply of organic vegetables when using an aquaponics system. Home systems are an economical space saving practical way to produce food to feed your family and yourself indefinitely.
Everyone has a basic understanding of how gardening works. Basically, you take your seeds and plant them, water when needed, fertilize, and keep out bugs and weeds so the plant can flourish.
Using aquaponics means most of this process is taken care of automatically.
A standard system creates a nitrogen cycle. In the system the water is shared between grow beds and a fish tank. The fish in the fish tank produce waste that has a high ammonia content. Pumps then carry the waste to the beds, where rich fertilizer is created when the bacteria is processed. The fertilizer has a high nitrogen content.
Vegetables pull the nitrogen out of the water, which in turn makes the water safe to be reintroduced into the fish tank. This cycle is repeated over and over. The fish provide the nutrition for the bacteria, bacteria provides the nutrition for the plants, and the plants are a filter for the fish. You just have to decide what plants you want to grow, and be sure to feed the fish.
It is important to decide what type of bed you want to use to grow your plants, as different plants will grow differently in vary conditions. The structure of the roots is what helps determine this.
If the plant does not have a big root structure, you would use a floating bed. Root vegetables that have a substantial root structure would do better in the wicking beds. All other plants seem to do well in media beds. Plants like herbs, leafy greens, or lettuce do well with the “raft” style floating beds. Peppers, tomatoes, beans and most multiple yield plants do better when using media beds.
The right environment has a big role in your choice of where to place your farm. Rainfall, the amount of available sunlight, ambient temperature and the how strong the winds are all factors in helping produce a healthy plant. If you are choosing to grow outdoors, you need to pick the best variety of vegetables that will grow in your climate. Most areas typically use a green house, and some people actually grow indoors.
If you are looking for the quickest yielding vegetable while using an aquaponics system, grow lettuce. Lettuce takes less than thirty days to mature, and grows best in floating beds. Lettuce can tolerate varying water temperatures and can survive in a wide range from 25-85 degrees.
Having an aquaponics system allows you to grow your own organic vegetables year round if you choose. Most of the work is done for you by the system, instead of the intense labor of traditional gardening. When working correctly, you will be able to constantly maintain a rotating supply of pesticide-free, organic, vegetables that continue on as long as you keep the system maintained.
Learn more about aquaponincs and building aquaponics systems at aquaponicsideasonline.com. | <urn:uuid:a432028e-003f-4aeb-b4fc-aee7b5cf906e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sunprariegardens.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929322 | 637 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Why do exams?
Exams are one way of assessing whether or not you have learnt the ideas, facts and issues involved on your course, and that you are able to apply these to particular questions or tasks. Evidence of manipulation of this information is more important than simple repetition of facts and figures.
Not many people like doing exams, but they have been around for a long time, so they must be, at least to some extent, a good way of carrying out student assessment. They test how well you can think and whether you can work quickly and under pressure, which are both important skills to develop.
The best preparation for exams is to attend all your lectures and seminars, do all your coursework conscientiously and read widely. If you do this, and try to really understand the ideas and issues involved in your course, then exams should not cause too many problems. Difficulties arise when you have not worked hard enough during the year and then try to “revise” (i.e. learn) your course materials in a few days or weeks at the end of the course. Make sure that you do any revision effectively; you can’t afford to waste time.
Your tutors want you to do well; they’re not trying to trick you or to make exams as difficult as they can. Bad results may reflect badly on them, on the department, and on the university as a whole. So listen carefully to what tutors say in lectures and seminars leading up to exams – they may drop hints as to what the exam may consist of. Try to find out which tutors are responsible for which exams or parts of an exam.
Make sure you’re clear which courses or modules are actually examined and what percentage of the course assessment is represented by the exam.
Find out as much as you can about the format of the exam, either by checking with your tutors or by looking at old exam papers. How long is it? How many questions have to be answered? What type of questions are asked? How much choice do you have? Do some questions carry more marks than others? What are the regulations on taking materials into the exam? The more informed you are, the less pressure you should feel on the actual day.
By using old exam papers as well as what you are told by tutors, try to predict likely topics and questions. Remember though that you are unlikely to be asked exactly the same question used in a previous exam; you must always read your actual exam questions carefully and make sure you answer that particular question (see Writing the Exam).
Practise analysing the questions and writing essay plans by looking at old exam questions. It is probably not a good idea, however, to actually write answers or even to look at model answers which may be available. Doing this may restrict your thinking and flexibility; as noted above, you must be responsive to the particular questions being asked on the exam paper. You must know your stuff, but have an open and flexible mind as to how this material should be used in the exam.
Get together with colleagues to discuss possible topics, questions and answers.
Don’t stay up late revising the night before the exam: if you don’t know it by then you probably never will. Much better to have an early night so you are fresh in the morning. On actual exam day, you should obviously make sure you arrive in plenty of time and have a good supply of pens, pencils, rubbers etc. Check about taking in refreshments, and make sure that mobile phone is switched off!
Writing the exam
Don’t start writing straight away! If you are given time before the exam to read through the paper, make sure you use this effectively. If you are not allowed this extra time, you still need to spend a few minutes carefully checking:
Analyse the questions carefully. You must answer the actual question set. It’s a very common mistake to zoom in on the general topic and start writing everything you know about it or to start answering another related question which may have been included in a past paper. Spend time looking very closely at the question:
See Guide 1.11: Understanding questions
Work out the structure of your answer. Spend time working on a fairly detailed plan. Don’t panic if you see everyone around you writing away: a good plan will make writing your answer much easier; a well structured answer will usually get higher marks, and if you are unable to finish an answer, but your plan indicates clearly what you were intending to write, you may in some circumstances get credit for this. Remember the basic structure: introduction; clear paragraphs or sections, each devoted to one new idea; conclusion or summary. And when you’re writing your answer, keep referring back to your plan, and keep asking yourself if you’re answering the question. Your answer must be 100% relevant to the question – exam answers are short, and there is absolutely no room for waffle or inconsequential information.
See our other guides on writing essays and essay structure.
If English is not your first language don’t worry. Your tutors realise this and will make concessions, although they do of course need to understand what you’ve written, and some courses do also have higher standards of the English they expect. It’s the ideas that are the most important thing.
Don’t worry about making references. A exam answer is different to a coursework answer, and you are usually not expected to try and learn lots of reference details, especially dates and page numbers. Some references to authors may be necessary however. Similarly, it may not be necessary to try and learn lots of detailed information such as exact dates and figures. A university level exam is not simply a memory test.
Timing is important. If you have three questions to answer in three hours, don’t spend an hour and a half on the first question. Divide up your time equally, allowing for question analysis and planning, and also for checking what you’ve written when you’ve finished for relevance, structure, cohesion, accuracy etc. You may want to answer the question you’re most comfortable with first, partly maybe to help settle your nerves, but don’t get carried away with it – keep your eye on the clock.
What will please the examiner:
After the exam
No post-mortems. You’re more likely to depress yourself than anything else. There’s nothing you can do about it now. Go and relax and then prepare for your next exam if you have one.
If you have to resit try to find out as much as possible from your tutors
why you did badly, and concentrate on improving that area. Was it because
of misunderstanding of the questions? Irrelevant or short answers? Problems
with English? Most tutors will be happy to help you (remember, they
want you to do well!
To book a tutorial
at City North: moodle.bcu.ac.uk/course/category.php?id=27
Site maintained by Steve Gould | <urn:uuid:379fa3e5-9c1a-4f35-bc65-01f43d10590e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://library.bcu.ac.uk/learner/Study%20Skills%20Guides/13%20Exam%20techniques.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959018 | 1,473 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Electro-acupuncture, the application of a pulsating electrical current to acupuncture needles as a means of stimulating the acupoints, was developed in China as an extension of hand manipulation of acupuncture needles around 1934. It is described, though only briefly, in most comprehensive texts of acupuncture (1-4). The procedure for electro-acupuncture is to insert the acupuncture needle as would normally be done, attain the qi reaction by hand manipulation, and then attach an electrode to the needle to provide continued stimulation. The benefits of using electrical stimulation are:
The main disadvantage of electrical stimulation of acupuncture needles is the lack of direct practitioner participation in this aspect of acupuncture therapy and the associated limited opportunity for the practitioner to respond to changes that are taking place during treatment. However, for practitioners who, after inserting and initially stimulating the needles, normally leave the patient to rest undisturbed without performing prolonged needle manipulation, electro-acupuncture can provide a significant benefit: replacing the missing stimulus that is recommended by most experienced acupuncturists in China.
Although electro-acupuncture may be used as a component of nearly all acupuncture treatments that require manipulation of the needles, according to the Chinese literature, especially good results are expected from electro-acupuncture treatment of neurological diseases, including chronic pain, spasm, and paralysis. In patients with serious cardiac diseases, however, the method should be used with caution. It is generally recommended to avoid placing electrodes near the heart, as the heart can respond adversely to electrical impulses, and the path between any two electrodes should not cross the heart area, despite the low current that is used. Some have suggested avoiding placing electrodes to needles on both sides of the spinal cord (e.g., for Hua Tuo or bladder meridian points), because of the possible effect of the electrical stimulus on the nervous system. Points are generally selected in pairs for electrical pulse stimulation, with 1-3 pairs at one time, and the pairs are usually on the same side of the body.
The electro-acupuncture device is not intended to provide a significant current between the acupuncture needles. Rather, it delivers about 10-80 milliamps depending upon the selected setting. But, it will provide a significant voltage: 40-80 volts, which is the basis for the patient response. In the commonly-used portable battery devices, this is accomplished by boosting the voltage output of the battery, such as raising the voltage from 9 volts to 45 volts. Many of the devices have an AC adapter to avoid frequent replacement of batteries, and this involves a substantial step-down of both voltage and amperage. There is virtually no current transmitted through the body, but there is enough voltage stimulus for the patient to feel it; often this will be a pulsating sensation because of the intention of using a waveform that is perceptible.
Duration of standard treatment with electro-acupuncture is usually 10-20 minutes and rarely exceeds 30 minutes. The electrical pulsing stimulus is used in a few cases for an hour or more, especially for difficult to treat neurological disorders. During the stimulation period, the patient may become adapted to the stimulus (this will typically happen after the first minute or two), with a gradual decline in response. The electrical output should then be adjusted in frequency and/or intensity to resume the sensation. Variable frequency output of the electro-acupuncture device is sometimes utilized in an attempt to circumvent this adaptation.
Electro-acupuncture is normally administered with alternating current. Therefore, the two electrodes in any pair are equivalent, even if they are color coded to distinguish them. Some devices allow a direct current (non-alternating) setting, but the use of this has been discouraged, as mild adverse effects might occur if the pulsing of the current ceases for any reason (i.e., device defect). Further, it has been suggested, though it remains to be proven, that the adaptation to the direct current may be more rapid than to the alternating current. When it is said in electro-acupuncture literature that "the negative electrode is attached to what is considered the main point, while the positive electrode is attached to a secondary point," the statement has no relevance when using an alternating current.
The device to be used for electro-acupuncture (see Figure 1 for modern example) must have good control over its voltage output to avoid excessive electrical stimulation, namely an unexpected higher voltage pulse that causes pain or muscular contraction, and to assure that the frequency and intensity is maintained as set by the practitioner. Informal testing of devices has showed that some are erratic in their output, so older devices, and those not produced with adequate quality control measures, are to be avoided. A device commonly used in China is the G6805 or G6805-2 electric stimulator.
The device should not be turned on until after the acupuncture needles are in place and the electrodes connected. All changes in the electrical stimulus should be carried out gradually. It is normal for the patient to experience responses such as rhythmic spasm or weak twitching of the muscle (frequently visible to the practitioner), as well as the usual "deqi" reactions of acupuncture therapy: sensation of numbness, distention, and/or heaviness. The stimulus intensity, set by a voltage-adjusting knob on the device, should be in the range between the minimum amount needed for the patient to sense its effect and the minimum amount that produces an uncomfortable reaction; care should be taken to limit the muscle twitching to a mild response. Areas that are particularly sensitive to electrical stimulation are the face and regions below the elbow and knee. These areas should be treated initially with a very low intensity voltage. Patients who have not had acupuncture previously should receive standard acupuncture first to assure that they tolerate the treatment well, before moving on to electro-acupuncture, which may yield a stronger sensation.
The wave form (squared off or sharp; dense, sparse, mixed dense and sparse, or interrupted; see Figure 2 for sample outputs) can provide slightly different responses and must be tried for each patient to evaluate their suitability. Claims that one form is tonifying and another is dispersing may not be justified due to lack of adequate testing to support such differentiation of effects. A continuous wave (frequency doesn't change over time) is most similar to what acupuncturists in China attempt to administer by the manual method. The overall frequency of stimulus (either by continuous wave or pulses of dense waves) should be set similar to the frequency that would be used in manual stimulation by twirling or lifting/thrusting. Frequencies as high as 200 pulses per minute have been recommended for scalp acupuncture, with low frequencies being more commonly mentioned for body acupuncture (e.g., 50 or less). Different authors writing about electro-acupuncture present differing opinions on the ideal frequency for various desired effects. All the wave forms and frequencies are claimed to be of value in promoting circulation of qi and blood and alleviating various symptoms, particularly pain.
Although some theories have been developed regarding the mechanism of action of electro-acupuncture, there are no conclusive tests. The main function of electro-acupuncture, as evidenced by the discussions in several clinical reports in the Chinese medical literature, appears to be no more than pulsation by voltage spikes serving as stimulus replacing a rhythmic physical movement as stimulus at the site.
The majority of journal articles from China on electro-acupuncture are devoted to laboratory animal studies, mainly with mice or rabbits. Those studies have limited relevance to humans because of difficulties matching points on these animals with those on humans, and the possible unique effects of electricity in small animals because of the close proximity of points, which can make the effect of the electric voltage, current, and associated electromagnetic fields more evident than would be the case in humans. It is rarely indicated by these animal studies that the effects are different from standard acupuncture manipulation, though it would be difficult to carry out prolonged manual manipulation on small animals. Thus, electro-acupuncture animal studies mainly provide a means of using an animal model to study acupuncture therapy in general.
An extensive review of the Chinese acupuncture literature shows that most clinical work with acupuncture is carried out with manual stimulus despite the ready availability of electro-acupuncture devices. In clinical trials where electro-acupuncture is used, there are few details, if any, reported about the technique, other than the duration of stimulus and the frequency of the electrical output. In one study of treatment of depression in which some explanation was given (5), the authors stated that "The intensity of stimulation was optimal when slight muscle twitching was visible, yet the patient was comfortable and the stimulus tolerable. The frequency of stimulus chosen was about 80-90 beats per minute. The duration of treatment was 1 hour each time, once a day (except Sundays) for 5 weeks, altogether 30 needlings." The authors expressed the belief, based on animal studies of electro-acupuncture, that the treatment would promote production of neurotransmitters that would alleviate the brain dysfunction. The same kind of biochemical response has been suggested as the mechanism for standard (non-electric stimulated) acupuncture.
Zheng Qiwei, an acupuncturist at the China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine wrote an article on point selection for electro-acupuncture (6). He first mentioned that electro-acupuncture is used the same as standard acupuncture but that electro-acupuncture therapy "has certain peculiarities and limitations because electro-acupuncture apparatus cannot be connected with all the acupoints...." Also, he mentioned that electro-acupuncture is particularly relied upon for treatment of pain, flaccidity syndromes, paralysis due to stroke, and facial paralysis of various causes. These disorders often require extensive manipulation of the needles, for which electro-acupuncture serves as a useful substitute.
As to the treatment of pain, Zheng suggests that the following points can be chosen (included, in some cases, is the "ashi" point, or point that is tender to the touch, and not necessarily a meridian point location as listed below):
For flaccidity (wei) syndromes, he mentions the following points (note: when large numbers of points are offered, he recommends to select either 2 or 4 of the points to needle with electrical stimulus; the sets of points needled can vary from day to day, alternating from one set to the other and back again):
In addition to treatment of local points for pain or paralysis or other disorders, distal points may also be selected along the course of the meridians that flow through the area to be treated. In cases of one-sided ailments, such as arthritis in one shoulder, tennis elbow, or trigeminal neuralgia, Zheng considers it acceptable to select points on the opposite side of the body for treatment in cases where the patient may not tolerate local treatment or where local treatment might cause spasms.
Gu Yuehua, at the Nanjing College of Traditional Chinese Medicine described the use of electro-acupuncture for treatment of acute abdomen (7). This is a severe abdominal pain that can be due to several causes including renal or gallbladder colic associated with stones, acute appendicitis, dysmenorrhea (especially that due to endometriosis), and gastric spasms. Gu reported on several recommended sets of points for electroacupuncture, as follows:
He noted that most points were punctured perpendicularly, but that riyue (GB-24) and burong (ST-19) were punctured obliquely. The initial stimulus by hand was with the reducing method, with swift lifting, slow thrusting, and large amplitude rotation. After the needle sensation was felt and radiated to the affected area, electro-stimulation was added. He used a dense-disperse wave (alternating high frequency with low frequency output), with a frequency of 18 per minute (this is the frequency of dense wave outputs). The electrical stimulation was given for 30-60 minutes, with an intensity that depended on the patient's tolerance. The time required to get pain relief varied from an average of 11 minutes for "functional pain" (as, for example, with gastric spasms), to an average of 32 minutes for "organic pain" (as, for example, with renal stones). Up to 60 minutes treatment might be needed in cases where pain relief at the original site was attained, but there was still tenderness and radiating pain with pressure.
A report of using electro-acupuncture plus moxibustion for sports injury was made by Yang Jun of the Department of Acupuncture at the Anhui College of Traditional Chinese Medicine (8). Femoral adductor syndrome (pain in the pubic and medial femoral regions, exacerbated by walking or squatting) was treated with the main points yinlingquan (SP-9), qugu (CV-2), yinlian (LV-11), and an ashi point. Auxiliary points for the treatment included chengfu (BL-36), ciliao (BL-32), fengshi (GB-31), and wuli (LV-10); all of the main points and one or two auxiliary points were used for each treatment. After the needling sensation was attained, electric stimulation was applied for 15 minutes. After removing the needles, moxibustion was applied using cones on the main points for 10-15 minutes. This treatment was given once every other day, with 10 sessions one course of treatment (hence, three weeks treatment time). Yang differentiated the role of electro-acupuncture, which he said treated the subjective symptoms by promoting the flow of qi and blood and relieving pain, from that of moxibustion, which he said treated the root cause, by additionally warming the channels and removing blood stasis.
For treatment of chronic shoulder-arm pain and numbness of various causes, Liu Hongyan and Zhang Caihong claimed use of electro-acupuncture at bingfeng (SI-12) was a useful treatment (9). As auxiliary points, hegu (LI-4) would be added if the pain and numbness extended to the thumb and index fingers; zhongzhu (TB-3) was used if it extended to the ring and small fingers; and sanyinjiao (SP-6) was used when there had been a prolonged pain syndrome and muscular atrophy as a result. After getting the needle sensation, the electro-stimulation with dense wave was administered for 20 minutes once per day, with 10 days treatment constituting a course of therapy. Although improvements could be noted after just one or four treatments for many patients, some had to undergo one to two course of therapy or more to get adequate relief.
In a report of acupuncture therapy for post-herpetic neuralgia (10), two groups of points were selected: the Hua Tuo jiaji that corresponded to the painful area to be treated by electric stimulation, and limb points selected on the basis of syndrome differentiation to be treated by manual stimulation. Thus, patients with diagnosis of qi stagnation and blood stasis were manually treated at zhigou (TB-6), yanglingquan (GB-34), xuehai (SP-10), and sanyinjiao (SP-6); patients with deficiency of yin were treated at laogong (PC-8), taixi (KI-3), and fuliu (KI-7); while patents with stagnation of damp-heat were treated at quchi (LI-11), yinlingquan (SP-9), and sanyinjiao (SP-6). For the Hua Tuo points, needling was first performed unilaterally on the painful side, using 3-5 needles with about 1 cun space between needles, using slight oblique insertion towards the spine. After arrival of qi attained with lifting and thrusting, the needles were connected to the electric stimulator device with continuous wave, with 40-50 minutes stimulus. The limb points were then needled and stimulated every few minutes over the same time period. Ten daily treatments constituted a course of therapy, which could be repeated after a three day interval.
In a study of electro-acupuncture therapy given to cancer patients after chemotherapy (11), needles were applied to zusanli (ST-36), sanyinjiao (SP-6), zhongwan (CV-12), and neiguan (PC-6). The method of therapy was described as follows:
The patient was asked to take the supine position. After needling sensation was attained, the needles were connected to the G-6805 electro-acupuncture apparatus with disperse-tense wave at an intensity tolerable to the patient. The treatment was given for 30 minutes once daily, five daily sessions constituting one course of treatment, with an interval of 2 days between courses.
Four courses of therapy (four weeks, with 5 days therapy followed by 2 days off each week) were administered to evaluate the effects, which were claimed to be beneficial and involved an average 5-10% increase in subsets of T-cells and a 15% increase in natural killer cell activity (however, there was not control group for comparison). It was also claimed to improve appetite and sleep, relieve tumor pain, and alleviate the gastro-intestinal reactions to chemotherapy.
Electro-acupuncture is a convenient stimulation technique to be utilized with the same acupuncture points and the same number of treatments as with manual acupuncture. For busy practitioners and those who do not normally provide prolonged manual needle stimulation, even when it is normally called for according to Chinese literature, electro-acupuncture may improve the clinical situation. In cases where intensive, high frequency, and prolonged treatments might be deemed essential, as with certain stubborn neurological disorders, electro-acupuncture may be the only means to provide effective daily treatments. Practitioners should consult literature accompanying the device they purchase regarding contraindications for electro-acupuncture and recommendations for using different pulse forms and frequencies, but should also be aware that there may be very limited basis for some of the statements that are made.
NOTE: In this article, the term electro-acupuncture refers solely to stimulation of acupuncture needles by a pulsed electric voltage for the purpose of providing a stimulus similar to that obtained by manual needle manipulation. This is the definition and application of electro-acupuncture as described in literature from China. Unfortunately, the term electro-acupuncture has been used by Vohl and others who apply it to describe diagnostic methods that are not permitted in the acupuncturist scope of practice, and for which there is no viable evidence that either the diagnostic or the associated treatment methods accomplish what is claimed. In addition, the term electro-acupuncture has been used to describe the TENS device and its use in treatment with microcurrent applied (usually without acupuncture needles) to a segment of the skin or muscles, which is not addressed in this article. Many of the electro-acupuncture devices made in the U.S. are designed for use in both electro-acupuncture and TENS treatment.
Figure 2: Samples of wave forms produced by electro-acupuncture devices. | <urn:uuid:cc765b52-ffc6-4542-bd51-05e896feb73e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.itmonline.org/arts/electro.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946832 | 3,930 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Struggling Moose Now Face a Toxic New Threat
Habitat at Risk
Now, moose in the Northeast and Upper Midwest are facing a deadly new threat: toxic tar sands oil spills in the waters where they feed.
Big Oil is proposing to pump up to 300,000 barrels of tar sands oil per day through pristine moose habitat in New England. The proposed route would run across or near vital waterways such as the restored Androscoggin River, Sebago Lake and the Connecticut River. Moose are also in jeopardy in Minnesota where an oil pipeline is slated to increase transport to up to 850,000 barrels per day of this dirty oil through the forests they inhabit.
Protecting Moose from a Tar Sands Pipeline Spill
When a pipeline carrying tar sands oil ruptures, the poisonous sludge spewing into the water spreads quickly and is almost impossible to clean up—a heartbreaking lesson learned in Michigan’s Kalamazoo River, where toxic oil lingers and wildlife is still suffering from a pipeline spill three years ago.
But, we can help prevent a similar tragedy from destroying thousands of acres of sensitive wildlife habitat and taking a toll on moose and other wildlife by stopping tar sands pipelines.
Wildlife advocates like you have stood strong over the past year with communities like South Portland, Maine who are saying “no to tar sands” and “yes to wildlife”. With your help, we can press federal officials to deny Big Oil’s plans and keep tar sands from polluting the rivers, streams and ponds that moose and other wildlife depend on. | <urn:uuid:3de21150-534c-4eb5-9bbb-14efc9cc32b8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.nwf.org/2014/01/struggling-moose-now-face-a-toxic-new-threat/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92915 | 325 | 2.78125 | 3 |
BAIKONUR, Kazakhstan, July 1 (UPI) -- The oldest manned spaceport in the world is also still the busiest and, as it has so often in the past, the Baikonur Cosmodrome is once again beating the odds.
The odds were against it when the remote, super-secret site in Central Asia was chosen as the space nerve center for the Soviet Union back in June 1955 by legendary Soviet Chief Rocket Designer Sergei Korolëv. Even then, the American space program looked to be vastly superior in resources and access to the most up-to-date technology.
Physically, not that much has changed since Korolëv's death in 1966. The tiny shack where he lived modestly, amid the sand-swept, barren steppe, remains lovingly preserved. But Korolëv would be amazed to see the American, European and even Saudi Arabian scientists and business executives who now flood his cosmodrome eager to watch its fabled old hardware lift their high-tech wonders into Earth orbit with a greater frequency and a greater reliability record than any other space center in the world.
After founding Baikonur, Korolëv beat the United States into space with one spectacular achievement after another over the following decade: the first orbiting Earth satellite, Sputnik One, in October 1957; the first live animal in space; the first human being to orbit, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin in April 1961; Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, and Alexei Leonov, the first human being to walk in space. All blasted off from Baikonur.
Korolëv might even have beaten U.S. astronauts around the moon with his Luna rocket program. But he died in 1966, at the early age of 59, of heart disease brought on by overwork and the frustrations of dealing with Soviet President Leonid Brezhnev, who lacked the visionary commitment to the space program of his predecessor, Nikita Khrushchev.
The next decade was difficult for Baikonur. The Soviet space program languished as the U.S. space program forged ahead with its Gemini and Apollo missions. Six teams of American astronauts eventually walked on the moon -- beginning with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin 35 years ago this month, on July 20, 1969 -- and every one of them came safely home again. The United States also pioneered the age of long-duration space stations with its Skylab project.
In the 1980s, however, even as America warmed to the regular space spectaculars of its shuttle program, the Soviet scientists and engineers at Baikonur quietly took the lead in manned space exploration again. No shuttle flight ever lasted longer than a couple of weeks, and for all the hoopla, the scientific yield from their experiments was usually negligible.
Using small and rickety, yet over the long term amazingly safe and reliable space stations, Soviet and later Russian cosmonauts from Baikonur spent a year or more at a time in space supported by only a fraction of the U.S. space program's resources. They logged a still-incomparable mass of biological data on how the human body responds to long periods of weightlessness and exposure to the other extreme conditions of space travel. All of this provided essential preparation for any future, long-duration human missions to other worlds in the solar system or even beyond.
At the very time America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration was dominated by late astronomer Carl Sagan's fierce opposition to ambitious manned space flight, the scientists of Baikonur remained true to Korolëv's vision that manned exploration of space was the destiny of the human race.
Then, the collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991 seemed to deal another deathblow to Baikonur.
"Baikonur, you must understand, was a creation of the Soviet Union," Nurgalev Meirgalyevich Ergazi, special envoy of Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev, told UPI. "It couldn't have existed without it. It wasn't expected to survive after it."
In December 1994, then-Russian President Boris Yeltsin and Nazarbayev signed a visionary -- though later highly controversial -- agreement to ensure the survival of Baikonur. Under it, Kazakhstan agreed to lease the vast complex of almost 1,700 square kilometers (about 660 square miles), whose capitalization has recently been estimated at $23 billion to Russia for a rent of $115 million a year.
That rent is now the subject of intense debate between Russia and Kazakhstan, its fellow former Soviet republic. The Russian government of President Vladimir Putin insists the rent is far too high. The government of Kazakhstan insists it is far too low.
They argue because, against all expectations, Baikonur has thrived anew. Russia's Federal Space Agency is now in hot demand to provide its booster rockets, the largest and most reliable fleet of such missiles in the world, to deliver communications and other satellites into orbit.
The FSA is now adding its new Dnepr booster -- adapted from the terrifying RS-20 intercontinental ballistic missile, known to NATO planners as the SS-18 Satan -- to its old, well-tested stable of Proton and Soyuz rockets.
The huge payload volume capacity of the Dnepr, inherited from the need for the old SS-18 to carry up to 10 Multiple-Targeted Reentry Vehicles with thermonuclear warheads to obliterate Western cities, is now a Godsend to Western businessmen because it can carry so many satellites into orbit at the same time. Tuesday's launch successfully sent up eight of them: three American, three Saudi Arabian, one French and one Italian.
It is a supreme irony, and one the idealistic Korolëv would have relished, that the cosmodrome he was forced to establish amid a suffocating blanket of total Cold War secrecy should now flourish by selling its expertise to the whole world.
It also provides an eerie fulfillment of a prophecy made more than a millennium ago by the renowned 7th century Central Asian philosopher-poet, Korkyt-Ata, who is buried only 40 miles away on the endlessly rolling steppe. He proclaimed, "Remember, the navel of the human race is here in Baikonur."
To which Ergazi commented: "Thirteen centuries later, Korolev chose this place, and made these words come true." | <urn:uuid:df0625df-4d51-4220-a7aa-42947e4d277c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2004/07/01/Future-bright-for-Baikonur-Cosmodrome/UPI-18471088710470/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955175 | 1,338 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Eating disorders was once labeled as the “white woman’s illness”. Due to the lack of diversity within research, the stereotype was developed towards white women to be prone to this disorder, such as anorexia nervosa. But now, research shows that eating disorder is no longer an illness that only white women encounter.
Eating disorders among African American women
In the African American culture, it was always taught to women, at an early age, to embrace the fullness of their bodies. Unlike Caucasian women with being thin, having a curvaceous figure is the standard of beauty within the culture. But what about maintaining the fullness and not falling into mainstream category of fatness? A growing number of African American women are adapting to unhealthy eating habits which may turn into eating disorders. Research has been conducted on African Americans that showed that they are more prone to the eating disorder, bulimia nervosa. Bulimia is not easily detected at a glance because those who are bulimic are able to maintain their weight, but they do not maintain their food. Bulimics participate in regurgitating their food and the misusage of laxatives.
Eating disorders among men
Eating disorders are not only crossing racial and cultural lines, but also crossing the gender lines. The American Journal of Psychiatry has estimated that one million of American men suffer from a male version of anorexia, in which is called manorexia. It appears that women are not the only one who has a fixation of having “the perfect body” Manorxia consists of excessive exercise, over usage of dietary supplements, and less of food intake.
Eating disorders fall up under the categories of medical and mental health illness. At times, eating disorders can be the effect of some traumatic experience, such as sexual abuse. This is due to feeling that food intake is the only thing that they may have control of. Other causes are due to pressure of society’s standards of beauty. It is very essential for someone who has an eating disorder to participate in an intensive outpatient program, where the person will receive counseling services, along with classes dealing with nutrition, exercise, and body image. | <urn:uuid:956c7974-23e3-4c4a-bcc9-58aa86b0741c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.examiner.com/article/eating-disorders-is-no-longer-white-woman-s-illness | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974384 | 445 | 3.25 | 3 |
Soil for gardeners, gardeners for the soil
Only 10 percent of the Earth’s surface is soil. It feeds all of us who grow and move around on the land and air. No soil, no food.
Good soil for plant life — including gardening — is about 45 percent minerals (broken down rock) and 4 percent organic material (decomposed plant and animal matter). The other half consists of water and air clinging to the surfaces of these particles and moving through the spaces in between them.
Within the soil lives a vast network of bacteria, fungi and the many creatures that eat them. They digest fallen plant and animal material and return essential nutrients to the soil. They also absorb and give off key elements from the air, such as carbon and nitrogen. In other words, the soil eats and breathes — it is alive.
Carbon is the basic building block of life and half of the organic material in the soil is some form of carbon. Through photosynthesis, green plants (and cyanobacteria) take in carbon dioxide from the air and combine it with water to make sugars. They exhale the leftover oxygen gas (O2), and use the sugars for their own energy needs. As plants are eaten, these sugars feed the rest of the biosphere. During the night, green plants exhale carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere (like us) and use sugar for energy.
Rising amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is a central issue in global warming. One way to reduce it is to protect the forests and plant more trees and other green plants.
Nitrogen is the key ingredient in forming the “working parts” of plant and animal cells, such as proteins and enzymes. Often it is the availability of nitrogen that controls how fast and large plants can grow. It is very abundant in the atmosphere (as nitrogen gas, N2), but most living things can only use it after it is converted to nitrate (NO3) or ammonia (NH3). This critical step depends on nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil; these bacteria live symbiotically with legume plants (peas, beans, and clover) which contain specialized nodules for them on the roots.
Nitrates and ammonia are taken up by plant roots and eventually recycled as microbes that decompose dead plants and animals. Finally, they are exhaled back into the atmosphere in the original form (nitrogen gas, N2) by “denitrifying” bacteria.
Nitrogen can be added directly to the soil by chemical fertilizers. But it is not recommended, as unfortunately they make the soil too acidic for the normal soil microbes. Eventually, the soil is made lifeless and the gardener dependent on continued use of the chemicals.
The decomposer microbes — mainly the bacteria and fungi — consume the plant and animal material that falls to the ground and take nitrogen, carbon and other nutrients into their bodies. Next, these creatures at the bottom of the food chain are consumed by ever-larger members, such as protozoans, nematodes, mites, springtails, earthworms, ants, termites, snails, pill bugs, centipedes, spiders, wasps, toads, gophers and moles, ground squirrels and badgers. This process finally releases the nutrients into the soil.
These underground creatures also aerate the soil, giving it the right texture for roots. Root-related fungi (mycorrhizae) branch out beyond the reach of their home base roots and collect nutrients, which they channel back to the roots and plant in exchange for sugars.
The end result of these processes is soil that is rich with nutrients and well-aerated. Well-fed soil returns the favor by feeding the plants, us, and the rest of the biosphere.
To be a successful gardener, be a good partner to your soil.
- Before adding manure and other organic materials to your garden soil, give the decomposers time (at least three months) to do their composting, so that nutrients are fully available for plant use.
- Avoid using chemical fertilizers because they harm the microbial community that makes your soil healthy.
- Minimize digging because it disrupts the fungal network that supports the roots.
- Whenever you touch the ground, remember that it is alive.
Master Gardeners are available to answer home gardening questions at local Farmers Markets and at their office Tuesday through Friday, 9 a.m. to noon. Call (530) 621-5512, or walk-ins are welcome, at 311 Fair Lane in Placerville. For more information about our public education classes and activities, go to our Master Gardener website at ucanr.edu/sites/EDC_Master_Gardeners/. Sign up to receive our online notices and e-newsletter at ucanr.edu/mgenews/. You can also find us on Facebook.
Short URL: http://www.villagelife.com/?p=33546This story falls on page "2" | <urn:uuid:82637422-2963-4372-bd2c-0be61edf4479> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.villagelife.com/entertainment/spotlight/soil-for-gardeners-gardeners-for-the-soil/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932588 | 1,044 | 3.890625 | 4 |
A variety of the Common Bulbul, Dodson’s Bulbul (Pycnonotus dodsoni) is a friendly fellow more interested in hunting down any tidbits of food than bothering about nearby humans. This makes for good photo-ops and I was able to get close to this one as he checked us out at a watering hole in Buffalo Springs, Samburu, Kenya.
Kenyabirds.org.uk has this to say about the species: This is a locally common species of dry acacia scrub, dry woodland and along dry river courses. Their diet consists of fruit, insects and vegetable matter. They are fearless when it comes to man and have adapted readily to the range of goodies on offer in open dining areas. They generally occur in pairs or small family groups. Dodson’s Bulbul is similar in look and habit to the Dark-capped Bulbul but it has white neck patches (which give it its alternate name of White-eared Bulbul) and a distinctively scaled breast. Some authorities classify both birds as being races of the species Pycnonotus barbatus.
Canon 40D with Canon 70-200mm EF IS lens at 189mm. ISO 200 f10 at 1/250
Best viewed large | <urn:uuid:2a3d9c57-b177-4f01-985a-3313ee147e1a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redbubble.com/people/dgcphoto/works/9103523-dodsons-bulbul?c=41325-most-recently-added&ref=work_carousel_work_collection_1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949534 | 260 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Bee Prepared: May 31st Pollination Event at Ayer’s Creek
On May 31st, the Slow Food Portland Convivium will hold the next event in its ongoing “Foundations of Agriculture” series. Presenters will share their knowledge about native bee populations, pollination, and integrating bees into working farms.
Despite its hard work, the bee has never garnered much attention from the general public. We all think of bees as honey suppliers and mild summertime nuisances, but until lately few people have truly considered the scope of their impact on our agricultural system. Insect pollination, including that of bees, is vital to the growth of one-third of the world’s food crop. This fact alone should long ago have earned the bee its due respect, but it wasn’t until large populations of bees began to vanish in late 2006 that the insect gained international recognition.
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), the little understood phenomenon causing hives of bees to die, has captured media coverage, spurred numerous action campaigns and worked its way into conversations around the globe. In 2007, both Haagen Dazs and Burt’s Bees launched campaigns to fund research into the causes behind hive collapse. A Google search returned a whopping 221,000 references to the phenomenon. Between the press and public concern, Colony Collapse Disorder became such a powerful buzzword that it earned an honorable mention nod from the Oxford American Dictionary’s 2007 Word of the Year contest.
And yet, for all of the focus on Colony Collapse Disorder, scientists and beekeepers have yet to reach any consensus on the source of the problem. While this presents a substantial obstacle for researchers, the myriad possible causes of colony collapse (and our shortage of knowledge about bees in general) can seem practically insurmountable to the average citizen. In some ways, the issue can feel like a real departure for members of Slow Food. We thrive on action – preserving native foods; connecting small farmers, chefs, educators and activists; and encouraging lawmakers to prioritize food security issues and agricultural reform. Coming off of the most recent Slow Food Portland event on land-use policy, many of us now feel empowered to use our voices and our energy to influence the future of the urban-rural interface. In contrast, an issue without a clear solution, like CCD, can feel paralyzing.
In the midst of this problem, perhaps our best course of action is to educate ourselves as to what bees actually do. As with anything else in the world of good, clean and fair, the path to a better appreciation for and understanding of bees and pollination begins with hearing from those who are closest to the issue. On May 31st, we have the chance to hear about bees and pollination from three different expert perspectives: a farmer, a pollinator conservationist, and a beekeeper.
Anthony and Carol Boutard, the farmers of Ayers Creek Farm, are passionate about the food that they grow and eager to share stories, traditions and recipes. Equally eager are the crowds that flock to the heirloom beans and grains, organic jams, and flavorful berries at their Hillsdale Market Stand. The Boutard’s will host the event at their 100-acre farm in Gaston, Oregon.
The Xerces Society works with landowners of all types – everyone from golf course managers to farmers – to build on efforts of habitat conservation. The Society maps and charts the status of native bees across the country and helps farmers to identify and protect beneficial habitat for pollinators. Matthew Shepard, Senior Conservation Associate, has been with the Xerces Society since 1999 and works to protect pollinator insects, especially native bees.
Dan Hiscoe, of Springhill Honeyworks, is the secretary of the Tualatin Valley Beekeeper’s Association, a branch of the Oregon State Beekeeper’s Association. The Association offers support and advice to a community of hobbyist beekeepers and professional apiarists. If you’re a fan of puns, make a beeline for their newsletter.
If you’d like to learn more about bees, pollination, or the presenters for the May 31st event, follow the links below. If you’d like to learn the honeybee waggle dance and wow everyone with your knowledge of bee culture and practices, look no further than this video for your instruction.
- Culinate.com interview with Anthony Boutard of Ayers Creek Farm.
- Xerces Society Website
- Oregon State Beekeepers Association Website
- PBS NOVA episode on bees
Whether or not you can make the event, be sure to check back after May 31st. We’ll post a recap of the event and discuss further resources for getting involved and learning more.
Thanks for sharing | <urn:uuid:fb397000-cd65-4c70-84d5-a51667d70293> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://slowfoodportland.com/2008/05/hello-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935218 | 987 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Lecturers: R. Islambouli, S. Khoury
The program in Arabic is offered by the Department of Classical and Modern Languages and Cultures. For general information about the department, see page 163.
The reasons for studying Arabic are many. The United Nations adopted Arabic as one of its six official languages in 1974. Today Arabic is the native language of over 200 million people as well as the liturgical language for over a billion Muslims throughout the world. While an important tongue in many parts of the world, Arabic is the official language of countries from North Africa to the Arabian Gulf (Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen). Events in the Middle East affect our daily lives, and, with the study of Arabic, students can gain unique insights into the cultural, religious, and political forces of this region. The Middle East is also the birthplace of civilization and the cradle of the three major monotheistic religions, home to some of the world’s greatest archeological and religious sites, and the locus of two-thirds of the world’s known oil reserves. Moreover, it is rich in culture and folkways. A knowledge of Arabic will greatly enhance the enjoyment of travel to that part of the world and the ability to work and interact effectively with its inhabitants. In addition, the study of Arabic can lead to careers in fields such as journalism, international finance, business, foreign service, political intelligence, law, and academe. The U.S. government considers Arabic a critical language, and many scholarships are available.
101. BEGINNING ARABIC I 3 cr. Introduction to the sound and writing system of the Arabic language. Provides students with basic structural and lexical knowledge which will enable them to communicate orally and in writing in Arabic at the beginning level. Emphasis on real-life situations through structured activities and grammatical exercises, with an overview of Arabic customs and culture. Individual, pair, and group work, and computer-assisted instruction. (Fall)
102. BEGINNING ARABIC II 3 cr. Prerequisite: AB 101 or equivalent. Continuation of AB 101. (Spring)
201. INTERMEDIATE ARABIC I 3 cr. Prerequisite: AB 102 or equivalent. Builds on the structural and lexical base provided in AB 101-102 to move students to an intermediate level in listening, speaking, and writing. Individual, pair, and group work, and computer-assisted instruction. (Fall)
202. INTERMEDIATE ARABIC II 3 cr. Prerequisite: AB 201 or equivalent. Continuation of AB 201. (Spring) | <urn:uuid:94e18f46-da2e-430b-9d1c-f35dbd1eba8c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sites.jcu.edu/bulletin11-13/home-page-2/ub-10-txt-2/ub-20-txt-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913126 | 574 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Data is infrastructure. It underpins transparency, accountability, public services, business innovation and civil society.
Data such as statistics, maps and real-time sensor readings help us to make decisions, build services and gain insight. Data infrastructure will only become more vital as our populations grow and our economies and societies become ever more reliant on getting value from data.
A data infrastructure consists of data assets, the organisations that operate and maintain them and guides describing how to use and manage the data. Trustworthy data infrastructure is sustainably funded and has oversight that provides direction to maximise data use and value by meeting the needs of society. Data infrastructure includes technology, processes and organisation.
The data assets in our data infrastructure may be in the shared or open parts of the data spectrum. The more open the data infrastructure, the more value it will create. It is crucial that we protect data that needs to be kept private, just as it is crucial that we openly publish data that should be open for everyone to use. Because both privacy and openness help create trust.
It is important to understand who owns our data infrastructure. The data assets in a data infrastructure may be maintained by organisations in the private, public or third sector. They may be maintained by new types of organisations and alliances such as OpenStreetMap. They may be maintained by individuals. A number of maintenance models exist. New forms of technology such as blockchains are emerging that might support new ways to store or maintain parts of our data infrastructure.
A strong data infrastructure will open up new possibilities. Authoritative registers of data will increase trust and lead to better questions. Checking for compliance with tax and regulatory requirements - by any party in a sharing economy transaction - could be as simple as making an API call to check the driving licence of a taxi driver or whether a hotel has access for wheelchairs. Supporting data infrastructure with legislation will help strengthen it.
Data connects multiple sectors. Open weather data will be used by everyone from farmers to the transport industry to individual citizens. Mapping data is published by the public sector and then built on by organisations as diverse as Google, construction companies, and the home insurance industry. Data is infrastructure for our cities and our nation across each and every sector.
Data infrastructure can exist at city, national or global levels. The cities, countries and even continents that build the best and most open data infrastructure will have an enormous advantage in the 21st century economy. We make choices in how we build data infrastructure and how we use data.
Data is infrastructure. Just like roads. Roads help us navigate to a location. Data helps us make a decision. | <urn:uuid:8945cabd-7b30-4849-8c08-c3e35f513aa8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://theodi.org/what-is-data-infrastructure | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939669 | 530 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Search word: Retrieve verses, illustrations, etc
FOLLOW PRECEPTAUSTIN ON...
Facebook - Preceptaustin
Twitter - all updates on Preceptaustin
Blog - Preceptaustin
Word Studies, Devotionals, Sermons, Illustrations
Old and New Testament
Judges 21:1 Now the men of Israel had sworn in Mizpah,
saying, "None of us shall give his daughter to Benjamin in marriage."
A C Gaebelein's
CHAPTER 21 The Repentance About
1. Sorrow of the people and Jabesh-Gilead
smitten (Jdg 21:1-15)
2. The restoration of Benjamin (Jdg 21:16-25)
A tribe of the nation was almost
entirely exterminated. Then the oath they had made not to give their
daughters to wife to the Benjamites left assured the complete extinction of
the tribe. The dreadful work they had done dawned suddenly upon them and
weeping before Jehovah they said, "Why is this come to pass in Israel that
there should be today one tribe lacking in Israel ?" The answer surely was,
it came to pass on account of their departure from God and their sins. Thus
people ask when they behold the scenes of bloodshed and war, as we see in
our times, why is this? and are even ready to blame God, instead of thinking
of sin and its curse. Then once more they acted themselves and committed
another deed of violence. Jabesh-Gilead is destroyed; only four hundred
virgins are saved. These were given to the Benjamites. But what hypocrisy
they showed in having a feast of Jehovah and commanding the Benjamites to
steal the daughters of Shiloh ! Failure and decline is written in this book.
God's faithfulness towards His people whom He loves is not less prominent.
"This is Israel , the people of God:
infirm and wavering where good is to be accomplished; quick and decisive
where patience and forbearance would become them; tolerant of what is only
of themselves; scrupulously keeping an insane oath, yet managing to evade it
by a jesuitry that deceives no one. Such is the people of God, and such is
Christendom today; and such it has been. Let us search our hearts as we read
the record,--not given as a record without purpose in it. How solemn is the
repetition at the end of what has been the text of these closing chapters:
'In those days there was no king in Israel : every man did what was right in
his own eyes'" (Numerical Bible).
NOW THE MEN OF
ISRAEL HAD SWORN IN MIZPAH SAYING, "NONE OF US SHALL GIVE HIS
DAUGHTER TO BENJAMIN IN MARRIAGE: (had sworn -Jdg 20:1,8,10; Je
4:2) (None of us - Jdg 21:5; 11:30,31; 1Sa 14:24,28,29; Eccl 5:2; Mk 6:23; Acts 23:12;
Ro 10:2) (daughter - Ex 34:12, 13, 14, 15, 16; Dt 7:2,3)
THREE THEOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL LESSONS
1. The God of History uses whoever and
whatever He needs to test or correct his errant people. God's ultimate goal,
however, is to save, bless and aid His people as they live in close personal
relationship to Him.
2. The God of History is able to chose
whoever He wants as His instrument: weak, strong, man, woman, highborn,
lowborn, righteous, or unrighteous.
3. The God of History often ordains
government to punish sinners and protect the righteous. (Judges
- Valley Bible Church)
Sworn (saba') , to make to
swear an oath. This vow (Click
for ISBE article on
vow), probably taken in the name
of the Lord, was not an ordinary vow but invoked a curse on oneself if the
vow was broken.
Once again a hasty vow leads to trouble. In his zeal to
assure victory, Jephthah vowed to offer a human sacrifice to the Lord
(Jdg. 11:30). In the same way, the Israelites' hasty vow here leads to
atrocities being committed against Israelite women on a mass scale. Just as
Jephthah's daughter's dance of celebration was turned into tragedy and
mourning (Jdg 11:34), so the Shilonite girls' dancing (in Jdg 11:20) was interrupted
as they were abducted from their families (Jdg 11:23). This theme of the hasty,
foolish oath reappears in 1Samuel 14:24-45, where Saul's vow jeopardizes
the life of his heroic son Jonathan.
The Bible emphasizes
the importance of keeping one's vow. A vow unfulfilled is worse than a vow
never made. While vows do not appear often in the New Testament, Paul made
one that involved shaving his head (Acts 18:18).
The apostle Paul came from the tribe of Benjamin. No doubt he was grateful
for those four hundred women from Jabesh Gilead (Jdg 21:12) and the two hundred
women who were kidnapped at Shiloh, for they kept the tribe alive.
Considering their anger against Benjamin,
this probably seemed like the right thing to do. But this foolish oath had
unforeseen consequences. Justice not only brings punishment to evildoers,
but it also guards against punishment that is too harsh. (Enduring Word
Preacher's Commentary writes
The society of the end of Judges is
uncomfortably akin to that of this twilight era of our Western world. The
advertising media tempt us to even greater and easier credit facilities
until couples end up hopelessly in debt and under strain. The interest rates
suddenly rise and whole family units break up under the pressure. The
successful young professional is assumed to belong to the company, body and
soul, to ditch his private morality in the interests of corporate success,
to work all hours to the neglect of his wife and children, with the result
that the marriage breaks up, the family disintegrates, and he burns out.
Illustrations abound throughout our increasingly godless society, and we do
our young people no service if we do not expose the roots of the problem and
nerve them to live lives that are distinctively different in an increasingly
alien society. Pietistic withdrawal and superspiritual platitudes will not
do! If ever things are going to change it will be through those who know
that there is a King, the Lord Jesus Christ. Like salt and light, they need
to penetrate the godless, hopeless world, as they get stuck into its
problems, at every level of society. We can see it in the classic issues
such as abortion and euthanasia; but we are often like Israel, failing to
see how compromised we are in the ordinary, everyday issues. And that is
where it matters most! Perhaps more than any others we Western Christians
need to learn the meaning of Christ’s warning: “No servant can serve two
masters … You cannot serve God and mammon” (Luke 16:13, emphasis added).
(Jackman, D., & Ogilvie, L. J. Vol. 7: The Preacher's Commentary
Series, : Judges, Ruth. Page 295. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson)
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21. Through the extraordinary
severity with which the tribes of Israel had carried on the war against
Benjamin, this tribe had been reduced to 600 men, and thus brought very
near to extermination. Such a conclusion to the sanguinary conflict went to
the heart of the congregation. For although, when forming the resolution to
punish the unparalleled wickedness of the inhabitants of Gibeah with all the
severity of the law, they had been urged on by nothing else than the sacred
duty that was binding upon them to root out the evil from their midst, and
although the war against the whole tribe of Benjamin was justified by the
fact that they had taken the side of the culprits, and had even received the
approval of the Lord; there is no doubt that in the performance of this
resolution, and the war that was actually carried on, feelings of personal
revenge had disturbed the righteous cause in consequence of the defeat which
they had twice sustained at the hands of the Benjaminites, and had carried
away the warriors into a war of extermination which was neither commanded by
the law nor justified by the circumstances, and had brought about the
destruction of a whole tribe from the twelve tribes of the covenant nation
with the exception of a small vanishing remnant. When the rash deed was
done, the congregation began most bitterly to repent. And with repentance
there was awakened the feeling of brotherly love, and also a sense of duty
to provide for the continuance of the tribe, which had been brought so near
to destruction, by finding wives for those who remained, in order that the
small remnant might grow into a vigorous tribe again.
Judg. 21:1-14. The proposal to find wives for the six hundred
Benjaminites who remained was exposed to this difficulty, that the
congregation had sworn at Mizpeh (as is supplemented in v. 1 to the account
in Judg. 20:1–9) that no one should give his daughter to a Benjaminite as a
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:2 So the people came to Bethel and sat there
before God until evening, and lifted up their voices and wept bitterly.
SO THE PEOPLE CAME
TO BETHEL: (Bethel - the house - Jdg 21:12; 20:18,23,26; Joshua 18:1)
The two oaths sworn at Mizpah (Jdg 21:1, 5,
cp Jdg 20:8) were intended to stop the evil committed by the Benjamites from
contaminating the whole nation and to ensure full participation by the other
tribes in the punitive action that was required. But the excessive slaughter
of Jdg 20:48 had now produced an unexpected result: the entire tribe of Benjamin
was threatened with extinction.
AND SAT THERE BEFORE GOD UNTIL EVENING, AND LIFTED UP THEIR VOICES
AND WEPT BITTERLY (lifted - Jdg 2:4; Ge 27:38; 1Sa 30:4)(Jdg 20:26):
Once more they find themselves
weeping as a result of hasty action carried out apart from seeking God's
will (Jdg 20:23, 26) Earlier the Israelites wept because they were defeated
by the Benjamites (Jdg 20:23, 26). Now they weep because the disciplinary action
against the Benjamites has nearly annihilated one of the tribes. But their
weeping was more from remorse than repentance.
Israel grieved because it appeared that their oath would result in
Benjamin's being destroyed. Therefore, they sought to procure wives for the
Benjamites from Jabesh Gilead, which had not assisted in the judgment
against Benjamin, and so had not sworn to withhold their daughters from
them. This only secured 400 virgins for Benjamin, however. Therefore,
although no one could "give" their daughters to Benjamin, the Benjamites
were allowed to "take" an additional 200 wives at the yearly feast of the
Lord at Shiloh.
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:2, 3. After the termination
of the war, the people, i.e., the people who had assembled together for
the war (see v. 9), went again to Bethel (see at Judg. 20:18, 26), to weep
there for a day before God at the serious loss which the war had brought
upon the congregation. Then they uttered this lamentation: “Why, O Lord God
of Israel, is this come to pass in Israel, that a tribe is missing to-day
from Israel?” This lamentation involved the wish that God might show them
the way to avert the threatened destruction of the missing tribe, and build
up the six hundred who remained. To give a practical expression to this
wish, they built an altar the next morning, and offered burnt-offerings and
supplicatory offerings upon it (see at Judg. 20:26), knowing as they did
that their proposal would not succeed without reconciliation to the Lord,
and a return to the fellowship of His grace. There is something apparently
strange in the erection of an altar at Bethel, since sacrifices had already
been offered there during the war itself (Judg. 20:26), and this could not
have taken place without an altar. Why it was erected again, or another one
built, is a question which cannot be answered with any certainty. It is
possible, however, that the first was not large enough for the number of
sacrifices that had to be offered now. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:3 And they said, "Why, O LORD, God of Israel,
has this come about in Israel, so that one tribe should be missing today in
AND THEY SAID,
"WHY, O LORD, GOD OF ISRAEL, HAS THIS COME ABOUT IN ISRAEL:
(Deuteronomy 29:24; Joshua 7:7, 8, 9; Psalms 74:1; 80:12; Proverbs 19:3;
Isaiah 63:17; Jeremiah 12:1)
Gideon (Jdg 6:13), no answer was given. Yet the book’s larger context gives the
clear answer that Israel had sinned and continued to sin in horrible ways.
They cried out to God, almost as if it
was His responsibility that the tribe of Benjamin was on the edge of
extinction. The question, "Why has this come to pass?" was easily answered:
Because of the excessive vengeance of the tribes of Israel against the tribe
of Benjamin. (Ibid)
SO THAT ONE TRIBE SHOULD BE MISSING TODAY IN ISRAEL (cp Joshua's
Josh 7:7, 8, 9):
There is here no mourning for sin, no humbling because of
national transgression, no return to the LORD. Accordingly no word from the
LORD comes to them. They act wholly in self-will (v10). Cp. Da 9:3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.
This is an amazing
irony - the abominable pagan enemy that Israel was supposed to utterly
destroy they failed miserably to eradicate to their subsequent duress and
discipline (Jdg 1:1-36). But their own offspring they have almost utterly
destroyed because of the godless vow they had made in (Jdg 20:8). And this
would also explain how in their perverted thinking they vowed not to have a
daughter marry a Benjaminite, thus treating him like a Canaanite with which
they were forbidden to intermarry. This is fruit basket turnover. Wrong is
now right & right is wrong. How could they have regressed so far so fast
after Joshua & the elders died? Remember these events although placed in
Judges at the "end" of the book, in fact probably occurred at the very
beginning of the 300-350 years of apostasy!
Morgan commenting on Jdg 21.3
This is a very sad chapter, and gives us the last of the illustrations of
the conditions obtaining when there was no king in Israel. As we have seen,
more than once the writer drew attention to the fact, and so traced the
lawlessness to the lack of authority. The truth is that Israel had lost its
living relation to its one and only King. Uninstructed zeal, even in the
cause of righteousness, often goes beyond its proper limits, and does harm
rather than good. The terrible slaughter of the men of Benjamin continued
until not more than six hundred of the tribe were left. Then another of
those sudden revulsions which characterize the action of inflamed peoples
occurred. Israel is seen suddenly filled with pity for the tribe so nearly
exterminated. They realized that the unity and completeness of the family of
Jacob was threatened by their action. The sad part of the story is that, to
remedy the threatened evil, they resorted to means which were utterly
unrighteous. Wives were provided for the men of Benjamin by further unholy
slaughter at Jabesh-Gilead, and by the vilest iniquity at Shiloh. It is
impossible to read these last five chapters without realizing how perilous
is the condition of any people who act without some clearly defined
principle. Passion moves to high purpose only as it is governed by
principle. If it lacks that, at one moment it will march in heroic
determination to establish high ideals, and purity of life; and almost
immediately, by some change of mood, will act in brutality and all manner of
evil. Humanity without its one King, is cursed by lawlessness. (Morgan, G.
C. Life Applications from Every Chapter of the Bible).
Judges 21:4 And it came about the next day that the
people arose early and built an altar there, and offered burnt offerings and
AND IT CAME ABOUT
THE NEXT DAY THAT THE PEOPLE AROSE EARLY AND BUILT AN ALTAR THERE: (rose
early -Psalms 78:34,35; Hosea 5:15; built there - Jdg 6:26; Ex 20:24,25;
2Samuel 24:18,25; 1Kings 8:64; Hebrews 13:10)
altar was built, not at Bethel, where an altar already stood (Jdg 20:26), but
the next day, back at Mizpah, their base camp (Jdg 20:1). This vignette
affords some evidence that this was not a regular place of worship, else an
altar would have been found in the place; and their act was not according to
the law, as may be seen in several places of the Pentateuch. But there was
neither king nor law among them, and they did whatever appeared right in
their own eyes.
Ad hoc altars of
this kind were sometimes built in times of national peril or rejoicing, especially
before or after a battle (cf. Ex 20:24,25; 1Sa14:35).
Judges 21:5 Then the sons of Israel said, "Who is there
among all the tribes of Israel who did not come up in the assembly to the
LORD?" For they had taken a great oath concerning him who did not come up to
the LORD at Mizpah, saying, "He shall surely be put to death."
FOR THEY HAD TAKEN A GREAT OATH: (Jdg 21:1,18; 5:23; Leviticus
27:28,29; 1Sa 11:7; Jer 48:10)
Oath (shebuah) (07621) is a
solemn usually formal calling upon God or a god to witness to the truth of
what one says or to witness that one sincerely intends to do what one says
Shebuah - 29v in the OT - Gen
24:8; 26:3; Exod 22:11; Lev 5:4; Num 5:21; 30:2, 10, 13; Deut 7:8; Josh
2:17, 20; 9:20; Judg 21:5; 1 Sam 14:26; 2 Sam 21:7; 1 Kgs 2:43; 1 Chr 16:16;
2 Chr 15:15; Neh 6:18; 10:29; Ps 105:9; Eccl 8:2; 9:2; Isa 65:15; Jer 11:5;
Ezek 21:23; Dan 9:11; Hab 3:9; Zech 8:17. NAS = curse(1), oath(25),
oaths(1), perjury*(1), swear(1), sworn(1).
To swear in the Old Testament was to give
one’s sacred unbreakable word in testimony that the one swearing would
faithfully perform some promised deed, or that he would faithfully refrain
from some evil act (Gen 21:23, “swear … that thou will not deal falsely with
me”). Occasionally one swore that he freely acknowledged a truth and would
continue to acknowledge it in the future. This was the case when Abraham in
Gen 21:30,31 caused Abimelech in swear to the truth that he, Abraham, had
dug, and hence owned, the well called Beer-sheba.
adjective modifying oath is literally the "great" or "big" one. This is the only time in the OT
that gadol modifies "oath."
The first attempt to deal with the problem (it
was only partly successful) is a clear case of using one oath to circumvent
another (Jdg 21:6-13). It was a maneuver that was legally justifiable, but morally
dubious to say the least, and a terrible price was paid by the people of Jabesh Gilead (Jdg
21:11). The second (Jdg 21:15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23) has exactly the same character. The
justification given in [Jdg 21:22] was a clever piece of casuistry which entirely
avoided the moral issues involved. The same men who had been so outraged at
the rape of the Levite’s concubine now asked the men of Shiloh meekly to
accept the rape of their daughters as a fait accompli.!
In spite of this
"bankruptcy" the story finally moves to a point of fragile equilibrium, with
the Benjamites rehabilitated and calm restored (Jdg 21:23,24). Amazingly, Israel survives, but this was due to God’s
overruling more than to the performance of its leaders and its institutions.
Israel’s survival in the chaotic period of the judges was a miracle of God’s
grace, as salvation always is (Ep 2:8)!
CONCERNING HIM WHO DID NOT COME UP TO THE LORD AT MIZPAH, SAYING, "HE
SHALL SURELY BE PUT TO DEATH (cp Jdg 5:23):
The tribes had a
mutual responsibility in times of military action (Jdg 5:13, 14, 15, 16, 17,
18). Those who failed to participate were often singled out and sometimes
punished (Jdg 5:15, 16, 17, 23). Complicating the situation for Israel was
the fact that they had taken a second oath, calling for the death of those
who did not participate in the battle.
Israel here also again clearly shows in
its history, what every man may observe in his own experience: that
repentance and vows, with reference to past precipitate sin, have scarcely
been expressed, before the same thing is done again, and frequently with the
same blind zeal which was just before lamented. At that time, when
indignation at the outrage in Gibeah filled all hearts, an oath was also
taken that every city in Israel that did not send its messengers to the
national assembly, consequently took no part in the general proceeding
against Benjamin, which was the cause of God, should be devoted to
destruction. Such a city was considered to make itself, to a certain extent,
an ally of Benjamin, and to be not sufficiently disturbed by the outrageous
misdeed, to give assurance that it did not half approve of it. Amid the
terrible events of the war, it had been neglected to ascertain whether all
cities had sent messengers; it is only now, when the question how to
help Benjamin up again without violating the oath, is considered, that the
absence of messengers from Jabesh-Gilead is brought to light. And what
is it proposed to do? To deal with that city as they have just lamented to
have dealt with Benjamin. In order to restore broken Benjamin, another and
in any view far less guilty city is now to be crushed.
The reconciliation of breaches made by
wrath is to be made by means of wrath.
The people lament that they have sworn an
untimely oath, and instead of penitently seeking to be absolved from it
before God, undertake to make it good by executing another, equally hard and
severe, and that after “Jehovah” has smitten the rebellious (Jdg 20:35), and
peace has been restored.
Jabesh-Gilead was a valiant city, full of
men of courage, as all Gileadites were...Israel sends 12,000 valiant
warriors against Jabesh-Gilead—a duly proportioned number, if 40,000
proceeded against Benjamin. The commander of these troops is instructed to
destroy everything in Jabesh, except the virgin women, who are to be brought
away, in order to be given to Benjamin.
INTERESTING COMMENT) It may be
assumed, however, that these instructions are to be so taken as that the
army was to compel Jabesh to deliver up its virgin daughters as an expiation
for its guilt, under threat of being proceeded with, in case of refusal,
according to its proper deserts. For it is not stated that the destruction
was carried out; and, on the other hand, under Saul, Jabesh is again, to all
appearances, the chief city of Gilead.
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:5. The congregation then
resolved upon a plan, through the execution of which a number of virgins
were secured for the Benjaminites. They determined that they would carry out
the great oath, which had been uttered when the national assembly was called
against such as did not appear, upon that one of the tribes of Israel which
had not come to the meeting of the congregation at Mizpeh. The deliberations
upon this point were opened (Jdg 21: 5) with the question, “Who is he who
did not come up to the meeting of all the tribes of Israel, to Jehovah?” In
explanation of this question, it is observed at Jdg 21:5, “For the great
oath was uttered upon him that came not up to Jehovah to Mizpeh: he shall be
put to death.” We learn from this supplementary remark, that when important
meetings of the congregation were called, all the members were bound by an
oath to appear. The meeting at Mizpeh is the one mentioned in Judg. 20:1ff.
The “great oath” consisted in the threat of death in the case of any that
were disobedient. To this explanation of the question in v. 5a, the further
explanation is added in Jdg 21:6, 7, that the Israelites felt compassion for
Benjamin, and wished to avert its entire destruction by procuring wives for
such as remained. The word וַיִּנָּחֲמוּ in Jdg 21:6 is attached to the
explanatory clause in Jdg 21:5b, and is to be rendered as a pluperfect: “And
the children of Israel had shown themselves compassionate towards their
brother Benjamin, and said, A tribe is cut off from Israel to-day; what
shall we do to them, to those that remain with regard to wives, as we have
sworn?” etc. (compare Jdg 21:1). The two thoughts—(1) the oath that those
who had not come to Mizpeh should be punished with death (Jdg 21:5b), and
(2) anxiety for the preservation of this tribe which sprang from compassion
towards Benjamin, and was shown in their endeavour to provide such as
remained with wives, without violating the oath that none of them would give
them their own daughters as wives—formed the two factors which determined
the course to be adopted by the congregation. After the statement of these
two circumstances, the question of v. 5a, “Who is the one (only one) of the
tribes of Israel which,” etc., is resumed and answered: “Behold, there came
no one into the camp from Jabesh in Gilead, into the assembly.” שִׁבְטֵי is
used in Jdg 21:8, 5, in a more general sense, as denoting not merely the
tribes as such, but the several subdivisions of the tribes.(Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:6 And the sons of Israel were sorry for their
brother Benjamin and said, "One tribe is cut off from Israel today.
AND THE SONS OF
ISRAEL WERE SORRY FOR THEIR BROTHER BENJAMIN AND SAID,
"ONE TRIBE IS CUT OFF FROM ISRAEL TODAY: (Jdg 21:15; 11:35; 20:23;
2Sa 2:26; Hos 11:8; Lk 19:41,42)
42:38] the very prospect
of losing Benjamin had brought deep grief to Jacob. It is interesting that
the same verb for "cut off" (gada') is in God's command to "hew down" the Asherim (Dt 7:5,
2Chr 14:3) and "cut down the engraved images" (Dt12:3)
Judges 21:7 "What shall we do for wives for those who are
left, since we have sworn by the LORD not to give them any of our daughters
WHAT SHALL WE DO:
Here is the fruit (of
doing what is right in your own eyes) of a heart that has wandered from the
LORD, in Whom alone (at least for NT believers) are "hidden ALL the
treasures of wisdom & knowledge" (Col 2:3).
"What shall WE
do"...since the results of our wisdom has been so wonderful! Men are truly
deceived when even in their extremis, they refuse to go humbly & in
brokenness & repentance to the Fountain of Living Waters & choose to hew for
themselves broken cisterns that can hold no water (Jer 2:13). Let us all be
warned. Run to His Word. Seek His face in prayer. Confess sin. Repent. Walk
humbly before your God (Micah 6:8)
FOR WIVES FOR THOSE WHO ARE LEFT, SINCE WE HAVE SWORN BY THE
LORD NOT TO GIVE THEM ANY OF OUR DAUGHTERS IN MARRIAGE: (Jdg 21:1,18;
Of course it was
contrary to the Mosaic Law for the remaining 600 Benjamites to marry
non-Israelites (cf. Ex34:16; Dt 7:3).
F B Meyer
We have sworn by the Lord.
Amid the gross evils of this time, the
people of Israel were very tenacious of their vows, which had been ratified
in the presence of God, and under the solemn sanctions of the Tabernacle.
Because they had sworn not to give their daughters in marriage to Benjamin,
they had to devise an expedient to obtain wives for the six hundred who had
escaped massacre, that the tribe should not become extinct.
The same spirit was manifested by
Jephthah, when he said, “I have opened my mouth to the Lord; I cannot go
back.” No doubt there was the implied conviction that God would avenge the
violation of an oath solemnly taken in his name.
What new emphasis is added by this
conception to the words of the Epistle to the Hebrews: “God, willing to show
unto the heirs of promise the immutability of his counsel, confirmed it by
an oath.” Since He could swear by no greater, He swore by Himself, that He
would bless and multiply Abraham and his seed. If then you are of the faith
of faithful Abraham, you have the right to claim the fulfillment of God’s
promise in this double aspect: He will bless and multiply. And it is
impossible for Him to alter or fail in the word He hath spoken.
The Psalmist said that God’s statutes,
i.e., the things which He established, were his songs. Surely we have every
reason to sing, who know that the covenant of God’s love is as steadfast as
his throne. Let us turn his statutes into songs. He has given us exceeding
great and precious promises; and we can rejoice that “All the promises of
God in Him are yea, and in Him Amen, unto the glory of God by us.” “The word
of the Lord endureth for ever.” (Judges 21:7, Our Daily Homily)
Judges 21:8 And they said, "What one is there of the
tribes of Israel who did not come up to the LORD at Mizpah?" And behold, no
one had come to the camp from Jabesh-gilead to the assembly.
(1 Samuel 11:1-3; 31:11-13; 2 Samuel 2:5,6) was located about 22 miles S of the Sea of Galilee, 9
miles SE from Beth Shan and 2 miles E of the Jordan. The absence of
representatives from Jabesh Gilead was conspicuous, since men had come from
other parts of Gilead (20:1) They had sent no troops (cf. Jdg 20:1) and thus all
its inhabitants were destroyed except 400 virgins, who were given to the Benjamite men who remained (Jdg
Later on Saul of
Benjamin rescued Jabesh Gilead from invaders (1Sa11), and they in turn
risked their lives to save his body from disgrace (1Sa 31:11, 12, 13). These close
ties probably came as a result of the intermarriage in [Jdg 21].
The tragedy of their reasoning right in their own eyes is that they were
more zealous and faithful to their manmade vows then they were to their
covenant keeping God! How much we all are like them. Men are commonly more
zealous to support their own authority than God’s.
Jabesh-Gilead - 21x in the OT -
Judg 21:8ff, 12, 14; 1 Sam 11:1, 3, 5, 9f; 31:11ff; 2 Sam 2:4f; 21:12; 2 Kgs
15:10, 13f; 1 Chr 10:11f
Judges 21:9 For when the people were numbered, behold,
not one of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead was there.
numbered - As when one musters the troops.
Jabesh was the only town in Israel which
had not taken part in the exterminating warfare against the tribe of
So now the question for the Israelites
became, Did any tribe or clan (Jdg 21:5) fail to attend the gathering at
Mizpah? When they review the roll of those who had appeared “before the
Lord” and placed themselves under obligation to the great oath, by a
perverse stroke of luck they are relieved to discover one such clan. For
whatever reason, the people of Jabesh-Gilead were not represented at
the assembly. Consequently they are not bound by the oath to give their
daughters to the Benjamites.
This is the first mention of Jabesh-Gilead in the Old Testament.
Although the name, which means “well-drained soil of Gilead,” is preserved
in modern Wadi el-Yabis, one of the main east-west tributaries of the Jordan
cutting through the hills of Gilead, the precise location of the town along
this wadi is uncertain. The most likely candidate is Tell Maqlub seven miles
east of the Jordan and thirteen miles southeast of Beth-Shan. According to
1Sam 11:1–11, some time later Saul is said to have rescued the town from the
oppression of the Ammonites, for which they remained grateful until Saul's
death. Being a descendant of one of the six hundred Benjamites, Saul's
interest in Jabesh-Gilead was based upon his sense of kinship with the
people of this region. When Saul died, David recognized their kindness to
him and tried to persuade them to switch allegiance to him (2Sa 2:4, 5, 6,
7). The narrator does not disclose the reason the men of Jabesh-Gilead did
not appear in Mizpah (whether ignorance, neglect, or defiance), but the
account elicits sympathy for this city. Suddenly, from out of nowhere, their
own fellow Israelites will storm the town, slaughtering men, women, and
children. Unlike the Benjamites in 21:12, 13, they appear not to have been
afforded an opportunity to give an account for their absence.
The Gileadites were the descendants of
Manasseh who was the grandson of Rachel. The Benjamites had a blood tie with
them because Benjamin was the son of Rachel. The closeness between them is
seen later in the Scriptures. In 1Samuel 11:1, the Ammorites threaten
Jabesh-Gilead. They in turn appeal to Saul, a Benjamite, for aid and
deliverance. We also find in 1 Samuel 31 that the men of Jabesh-Gilead
recovered the bodies of Saul and his sons from the walls of Beth-shan and
buried their bodies at Jabesh-Gilead. The closeness of these two groups may
have been one reason why they wouldn't join the army at Mizpeh that was
opposing the Benjamites. If they knew about the oath of death, then
Jabesh-Gilead knew what was at stake when they remained at home. Their
destruction would be their own fault. Desertion had serious consequences....
death. Refusal to come to battle was looked upon as having no concern or
anger toward the crimes committed and no concern for protecting the nation
from God's judgment. Another possible reason why Jabesh-Gilead did not come
to arms is they may have never heard the summons to war because they are on
the fringe of the territory.
There was a piece of necessary justice to
be done upon the city of Jabesh-Gilead, which belonged to the tribe of Gad,
on the other side Jordan. It was found upon looking over the muster-roll
(which was taken, Jdg 20:2) that none appeared from that city upon the
general summons (Jdg 21:8,9), and it was then resolved, before it appeared
who were absent, that whatever city of Israel should be guilty of such a
contempt of the public authority and interest that city should be an
anathema; Jabesh-Gilead lies under that severe sentence, which might by no
means be dispensed with. Those that had spared the Canaanites in many
places, who were devoted to destruction by the divine command, could not
find in their hearts to spare their brethren that were devoted by their own
curse. Why did they not now send men to root the Jebusites out of Jerusalem,
to avoid whom the poor Levite had been forced to go to Gibeah? Jdg 19:11,12.
Men are commonly more zealous to support their own authority than God's. A
detachment is therefore sent of 12,000 men, to execute the sentence upon
Jabesh-Gilead. Having found that when the whole body of the army went
against Gibeah the people were thought too many for God to deliver them into
their hands, on this expedition they sent but a few, v. 10. Their commission
is to put all to the sword, men, women, and children (Jdg 21:11), according
to that law (Leviticus 27:29), Whatsoever is devoted of men, by those that
have power to do it, shall surely be put to death.
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:9. In order, however, to
confirm the correctness of this answer, which might possibly have been
founded upon a superficial and erroneous observation, the whole of the
(assembled) people were mustered, and not one of the inhabitants of Jabesh
was found there (in the national assembly at Bethel). The situation of
Jabesh in Gilead has not yet been ascertained. This town was closely
besieged by the Ammonite Nahash, and was relieved by Saul (1 Sam. 11:1ff.),
on which account the inhabitants afterwards showed themselves grateful to
Saul (1 Sam. 31:8ff.). Josephus calls Jabesh the metropolis of Gilead (Ant.
vi. 5, 1). According to the Onom. (s. v. Jabis), it was six Roman miles from
Pella, upon the top of a mountain towards Gerasa. Robinson (Bibl. Res. p.
320) supposes it to be the ruins of ed Deir in the Wady Jabes. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:10 And the congregation sent 12,000 of the
valiant warriors there, and commanded them, saying, "Go and strike the
inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead with the edge of the sword, with the women and
the little ones.
(Jdg 21:5; 5:23;
Deuteronomy 13:15; Joshua 7:24; 1Samuel 11:7; 15:3)
treatment of Jabesh Gilead is excessively severe. This whole episode is full
of rashness and confusion, as one would expect when people do what is right
in their own eyes! (Jdg 21:25).
Here again Israel did something that
seemed right at the time, but was actually a horror. They decided to
slaughter a whole city of Israel, a city that refused to join with Israel in
the fight against Benjamin. This is doing one bad thing to make up for
another. Israel instead should have repented of their foolish oath made at
Mizpah, and they should have agreed to give their daughters as wives to the
men of the tribe of Benjamin, renouncing the foolish vow of Judges 21:1.
Treasury of Scripture Knowledge...
As they had sworn to destroy those who
would not assist in the war (Jdg 21:5) they determined to destroy the men of
Jabesh, and to leave none except the virgins; and to give these to the 600
Benjamites who had escaped to the rock of Rimmon. The whole account is
dreadful. The crime of the men of Gibeah was of the deepest dye; the
punishment involving both the guilty and innocent, was extended to the most
criminal excess, and their mode of remedying the evil they had occasioned
was equally abominable.
Here is another comment from Cundall
The action [against Jabesh-gilead]
appears cruel in the extreme to the modern reader, but the virtual
sacredness of the bond linking the several tribes into the amphictyony must
be appreciated, and the sin of Jabesh-gilead seen in its light."
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:10ff. To punish this unlawful
conduct, the congregation sent 12,000 brave fighting men against Jabesh,
with orders to smite the inhabitants of the town with the edge of the sword,
together with their wives, and children, but also with the more precise
instructions (v. 11), “to ban all the men, and women who had known the lying
with man” (i.e., to slay them as exposed to death, which implied, on the
other hand, that virgins who had not lain with any man should be spared).
The fighting men found 400 such virgins in Jabesh, and brought them to the
camp at Shiloh in the land of Canaan. אֹותָם (Jdg 21: 12) refers to the
virgins, the masculine being used as the more common genus in the place of
the feminine. Shiloh, with the additional clause “in the land of Canaan,”
which was occasioned by the antithesis Jabesh in Gilead, as in Josh. 21:2;
22:9, was the usual meeting-place of the congregation, on account of its
being the seat of the tabernacle. The representatives of the congregation
had moved thither, after the deliberations concerning Jabesh, which were
still connected with the war against Benjamin, were concluded.(Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:11 "And this is the thing that you shall do:
you shall utterly destroy every man and every woman who has lain with a
AND THIS IS THE
THING THAT YOU SHALL DO: YOU SHALL UTTERLY DESTROY (same word Dt 7:2,
The phrase utterly destroy is found numerous times in the Book of
Joshua in regard to the conquest of the Canaanites & signifies something
"under the ban" or totally given to destruction as a sign that it is totally
devoted to God. However, there is no hint that God supported this bloodbath
at Jabesh Gilead. But they were doing what was right in their own eyes.
Utterly destroy (02763) (charam)
- 47x in the OT - Ex 22:20; Lev 27:28f; Num 21:2f; Deut 2:34; 3:6; 7:2;
13:15; 20:17; Josh 2:10; 6:18, 21; 8:26; 10:1, 28, 35, 37, 39f; 11:11f, 20f;
Judg 1:17; 21:11; 1 Sam 15:3, 8f, 15, 18, 20; 1 Kgs 9:21; 2 Kgs 19:11; 1 Chr
4:41; 2 Chr 20:23; 32:14; Ezra 10:8; Isa 11:15; 34:2; 37:11; Jer 25:9;
50:21, 26; 51:3; Dan 11:44; Mic 4:13. NAS = annihilate(1), covet(1), destroy
them utterly(1), destroy utterly(1), destroyed them utterly(1),
destroying(1), destroying them completely(2), destruction(2), devote(2),
forfeited(1), set apart(1), sets apart(1), utterly destroy(11), utterly
destroyed(22), utterly destroying(3).
EVERY MAN AND EVERY WOMAN WHO HAS LAIN WITH A MAN (Numbers 31:17,18;
punishment of Jabesh Gilead seems brutal, but the covenant bond between the
tribes was extremely important. Even though delinquency on some occasions
was not punished (Jdg 5:15, 16, 17), the nature of the crime in this case, coupled
with Benjamin's refusal to turn over the criminals, caused Israel to take
this oath (Jdg 21:5) and do what was right in their own eyes. After all they
needed wives for Benjamin.
Judges 21:12 And they found among the inhabitants of
Jabesh-gilead 400 young virgins who had not known a man by lying with him;
and they brought them to the camp at Shiloh, which is in the land of Canaan.
AND THEY FOUND
AMONG THE INHABITANTS OF JABESH-GILEAD 400 YOUNG VIRGINS: (Jdg 20:18,23;
Joshua 18:1; Psalms 78:60; Jeremiah 7:12)
("virgin") occurs only in Jdg 21:12, while Jdg 21:11,12 both have the idiom "young women
who had never slept with a man" (NIV renders it "virgin in v11; cf.
Nu 31:17,18). Codex Vaticanus inserts "But spare the virgins" at the end of
Jdg 21:11, probably copying the style of Nu 31:18.
WHO HAD NOT KNOWN A MAN BY LYING WITH HIM; AND THEY BROUGHT THEM TO THE
CAMP AT SHILOH WHICH IS IN THE LAND OF CANAAN:
is hence formed for providing the Benjamites with wives. When Moses sent the
same number of men to avenge the Lord on Midian, the same orders were given
as here, that all married women should be slain with their husbands, as one
with them, but that the virgins should be saved alive, [Nu 31:17, 18]. That
precedent was sufficient to support the distinction here made between a wife
and a virgin. Their fathers were not present when the vow was made not to
marry with Benjamites, so that they were not under any colour of obligation
by it: and besides, being a prey taken in war, they were at the disposal of
the conquerors. Perhaps the alliance now contracted between Benjamin and
Jabesh-Gilead made Saul, who was a Benjamite, the more concerned for that
place (1Sa 11:1, 2, 3, 4), though then inhabited by new families.
Shiloh, which figures prominently in this chapter (cf. Jdg 21:19, 20, 21), was the
place where the tabernacle was located (cf. Jdg 18:31). Situated about 9 miles
north of Bethel and the rock of Rimmon, Shiloh afforded a temporary refuge
where the captive girls could mourn the loss of their loved ones.
Judges 21:13 Then the whole congregation sent word and
spoke to the sons of Benjamin who were at the rock of Rimmon, and proclaimed
peace to them.
PEACE TO THEM: (spoke - Jdg 20:47; Joshua 15:32) (Deuteronomy
20:10; Isaiah 57:19; Luke 10:5; Ephesians 2:17)
Literally = "called peace to them." [Dt20:10] uses same idiom.
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:13. The congregation then
sent to call the Benjaminites, who had taken refuge upon the rock Rimmon,
and gave them as wives, when they returned (sc., into their own
possessions), the 400 virgins of Jabesh who had been preserved alive. “But
so they sufficed them not” (כֵּן, so, i.e., in their existing number, 400:
Bertheau). In this remark there is an allusion to what follows. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:14 And Benjamin returned at that time, and
they gave them the women whom they had kept alive from the women of
Jabesh-gilead; yet they were not enough for them.
Yet they were not
enough for them (Jdg 21:12; 20:47; 1Corinthians 7:2)
Judges 21:15 And the people were sorry for Benjamin
because the LORD had made a breach in the tribes of Israel.
AND THE PEOPLE WERE
SORRY (had a change of heart) FOR BENJAMIN: (Jdg 21:6,17)
As in [v6], the grief
of the nation is mentioned.
(naham) refers in the present context to the emotional pain caused by the
Lord's judgment. In Genesis 6 God was sorry that he had
created man. In 1 Samuel 15 He regrets that he had made Saul king. In both
cases this regret prompts God to seek to reverse His prior actions by
eliminating the source of his regret. Jdg. 21:15 differs in that the
Israelites are pained over a prior action, but it is God's, not their own.
Nevertheless, this passage is similar to the others in that the Israelites
seek to ameliorate the situation by undoing the effect of this prior action.
BECAUSE THE LORD HAD MADE A BREACH (gap as in a wall): (breach -
1Chronicles 13:11; 15:13; Isaiah 30:13; 58:12)
or Gap (perets) was usually associated with an outburst of the
Lord's anger ("And David became angry because of the LORD'S outburst
[root word parats] against Uzzah, and that place is called Perez-uzzah to
this day." 2Sa 6:8). "Breach" also refers to a break in a wall,
and figuratively in this context and would refer to God's judgment upon the
Benjaminites accomplished through battle (Judg. 20:35). Benjamin's near
extinction left a gaping hole in the Israelite tribal structure, much like a
breach in a wall. See the use of perets in ...
Now this was the reason why he rebelled
against the king: Solomon built the Millo, and closed up the breach of the
city of his father David. (1Kings 11:27, cf Neh. 6:1; Job 30:14; Ps.
144:14; Isa. 58:12; Ezek. 13:5; 22:30; Amos 4:3)
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:15–25. Of the six hundred
Benjaminites who had escaped, there still remained two hundred to be
provided with wives. To these the congregation gave permission to take wives
by force at a festival at Shiloh. The account of this is once more
introduced, with a description of the anxiety felt by the congregation for
the continuance of the tribe of Benjamin. Jdg 21:15, 16, and 18 are only a
repetition of Jdg 21:6 and Jdg 21:7, with a slight change of expression. The
“breach (perez) in the tribes of Israel” had arisen from the almost complete
extermination of Benjamin. “For out of Benjamin is (every) woman destroyed,”
viz., by the ruthless slaughter of the whole of the people of that tribe (Judg.
20:48). Consequently the Benjaminites who were still unmarried could not
find any wives in their own tribe. The fact that four hundred of the
Benjaminites who remained were already provided with wives is not noticed
here, because it has been stated just before, and of course none of them
could give up their own wives to others.. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:16 Then the elders of the congregation said,
"What shall we do for wives for those who are left, since the women are
destroyed out of Benjamin?"
Judges 21:17 And they said, "There must be an
inheritance for the survivors of Benjamin, that a tribe may not be blotted
out from Israel.
(Numbers 26:55; 36:7)
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:17. Still Benjamin must be
preserved as a tribe. The elders therefore said, “Possession of the
saved shall be for Benjamin,” i.e., the tribe-land of Benjamin shall remain
an independent possession for the Benjaminites who have escaped the
massacre, so that a tribe may not be destroyed out of Israel. It was
necessary therefore, that they should take steps to help the remaining
Benjaminites to wives. The other tribes could not give them their daughters,
on account of the oath which has already been mentioned in Jdg 21:1 and Jdg
21:7b and is repeated here (Jdg 21:18). Consequently there was hardly any
other course open, than to let the Benjaminites seize upon wives for
themselves. And the elders lent them a helping hand by offering them this
advice, that at the next yearly festival at Shiloh, at which the daughters
of Shiloh carried on dances in the open air (outside the town), they should
seize upon wives for themselves from among these daughters, and promising
them that when the thing was accomplished they would adjust it peaceably
(Jdg 21:19–22). The “feast of Jehovah,” which the Israelites kept from year
to year, was one of the three great annual festivals, probably one which
lasted seven days, either the passover or the feast of tabernacles,—most
likely the former, as the dances of the daughters of Shiloh were apparently
an imitation of the dances of the Israelitish women at the Red Sea under the
superintendence of Miriam (Ex. 15:20). The minute description of the
situation of Shiloh (v. 19), viz., “to the north of Bethel, on the east of
the road which rises from Bethel to Shechem, and on the south of Lebonah”
(the present village of Lubban, on the north-west of Seilun: see Rob. Pal.
iii. p. 89), serves to throw light upon the scene which follows, i.e., to
show how the situation of Shiloh was peculiarly fitted for the carrying out
of the advice given to the Benjaminites; since, as soon as they had issued
from their hiding-places in the vineyards at Shiloh, and seized upon the
dancing virgins, they could easily escape into their own land by the
neighbouring high-road which led from Bethel to Shechem, without being
arrested by the citizens of Shiloh. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:18 "But we cannot give them wives of our
daughters." For the sons of Israel had sworn, saying, "Cursed is he who
gives a wife to Benjamin."
BUT WE CANNOT GIVE
THEM WIVES OF OUR DAUGHTERS." FOR THE SONS OF ISRAEL HAD SWORN (Jdg 21:1,
For the 3rd time reference is made to the oath that forbade the
giving of daughters to Benjamin (v18; cf. v1, v7). In the absence of wives,
the breach (v15) seemed irreparable.
SAYING CURSED IS HE WHO GIVES A WIFE TO BENJAMIN:
The less consideration
is used before the making of a vow, the more, commonly, there is need of
afterwards for the keeping of it.
Rather than go through the "charade" in the next few verses, it would have
been better for Israel to have confessed their sin of making a foolish oath,
and done what was right instead of trying to make two wrongs equal a right.
Judges 21:19 So they said, "Behold, there is a feast of
the LORD from year to year in Shiloh, which is on the north side of Bethel,
on the east side of the highway that goes up from Bethel to Shechem, and on
the south side of Lebonah."
A FEAST OF THE LORD FROM YEAR TO YEAR IN SHILOH
(Dt12:5; Jos18:1; 1Sa1:3): (Ex 23:14-16; Leviticus 23:2,4,6,10,34; Numbers
10:10; 28:16,26; 29:12; Deuteronomy 16:1,10,13; Psalms 81:3; John 5:1; 7:2)
Not sure which
feast but likely Tabernacles as
vineyards (Jdg 21:20) are mentioned and the grape harvest comes in August and
September. One of the purposes of the fall Tabernacles Feast was to rejoice
over the summer fruit that had been gathered. Samuel's parents traveled
annually to Shiloh to worship the Lord (1Sa1:3). Others believe the Passover
is intended, for the dancing could imitate the celebrating of Miriam and the
women of Israel after the Exodus (cf. Ex15:20, 21). One cannot be dogmatic.
Three times a year every Israelite male was required to appear before the
Lord at the central sanctuary (Ex23:14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19; 34:23)
Three times in a year all your
males shall appear before the LORD your God in the place which He chooses,
at the Feast of Unleavened Bread and at the Feast of Weeks and
at the Feast of Booths (Tabernacles) and they shall not appear before
the LORD empty-handed. Every man shall give as he is able, according to the
blessing of the LORD your God which He has given you. (Dt 16:16,.17).
Judges 21:20 And they commanded the sons of Benjamin,
saying, "Go and lie in wait in the vineyards,
Ironically, the men of
Benjamin were told to set an ambush for the girls, the same technique used
by the Israelites against the Benjamites at Gibeah (Jdg 20:37). The strategy
worked flawlessly, and each man obtained his wife.
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:20. The Kethibh וַיְצַו in
the singular may be explained on the ground that one of the elders spoke
and gave the advice in the name of the others. חָטַף in v. 21 and Ps. 10:9,
to seize hold of, or carry off as prey = חָתַף. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:21 and watch; and behold, if the daughters of
Shiloh come out to take part in the dances, then you shall come out of the
vineyards and each of you shall catch his wife from the daughters of Shiloh,
and go to the land of Benjamin.
Take part in the
dances (see Jdg 11:34; Exodus 15:20; 1Samuel 18:6; 2Samuel 6:14,21;
Psalms 149:3; 150:4; Ecclesiastes 3:4; Jeremiah 31:13; Matthew 10:17; Luke
Judges 21:22 "And it shall come about, when their
fathers or their brothers come to complain to us, that we shall say to them,
'Give them to us voluntarily, because we did not take for each man of
Benjamin a wife in battle, nor did you give them to them, else you would now
WHEN THEIR FATHERS OR THEIR BROTHERS COME TO COMPLAIN TO US:
(Give them to us voluntarily - Philemon 1:9, 10, 11, 12) (each man - Jdg
21:14; Genesis 1:27; 7:13; Mark 10:6, 7, 8; 1Corinthians 7:2) (Give them to
them - Jdg 21:1,7,18; Pr 20:25)
was customary for the brothers of a girl who had been abducted to demand
satisfaction (see Ge 34:7-31; 2Sa 13:20-38). It was therefore important that
the elders anticipate this response and be prepared to get cooperation from
the girls' families. The Israelites promised to intercede for Benjamin on
the grounds that there was no other way to save the devastated tribe. The
action against Jabesh Gilead had brought forth only 400 wives, and more were
needed. Besides, the fact that the Benjamites stole the maidens absolved the
parents from the curse against giving their daughters to Benjamin! These
arguments may have been less than convincing, but the leaders of Israel
prevented the relatives from retaliating against the Benjamites (cf. Jdg 18:22-26).
Preacher's Commentary notes that...
The casuistry of the argument in verse 22
is truly appalling. When the people of Shiloh complained of the abduction of
their daughters, they were to be informed that this kept their oath intact.
Nothing could have been further from the truth. In fact, it was a backdoor
way of giving their daughters to the Benjamites, by setting up the whole
charade and assuring the men of Benjamin that no action would be taken
against them. This was to answer injustice with injustice. The point being
made, that must be applied to our contemporary situation, is that once God,
whose righteous character is the only source and guarantee of truth and
justice, is neglected, then such fine-sounding moral concepts are inevitably
reduced to hollow verbiage. In the words of Jean-Paul Sartre, “Finite man is
meaningless without an infinite reference point.” The existentialist
philosophy and the history of nations in the twenty-first century surely
confirms this age-old message of the Book of Judges. Even the most advanced
technological societies are covered with only the thinnest veneer of
civilization when once the Christian foundations are eroded away. As the
Duke of Wellington once remarked, the problem is that if you educate devils
all you get is clever devils. (Jackman, D., & Ogilvie, L. J. Vol. 7: The
Preacher's Commentary Series, Judges, Ruth. Page 294. Nashville, Tennessee:
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:22. “And when the fathers or
brethren of the virgins carried off, come to us to chide with us, we
(the elders) will say to them (in your name), Present them to us (אֹותָם as
in Jdg 21:12); for we did not receive every one his wife through the war
(with Jabesh); for ye have not given them to them; how would ye be guilty.”
The words “Present them to us,” etc., are to be understood as spoken in the
name of the Benjaminites, who were accused of the raid, to the relatives of
the virgins who brought the complaint. This explains the use of the pronoun
in the first person in חָנּוּנוּ and לָקַחְנוּ, which must not be altered
therefore into the third person. The two clauses commencing with כִּי are
co-ordinate, and contain two points serving to enforce the request, “Present
them,” etc. The first is pleaded in the name of the Benjaminites; the second
is adduced, as a general ground on the part of the elders of the
congregation, to pacify the fathers and brothers making the complaint, on
account of the oath which the Israelites had taken, that none of them would
give their daughters as wives to the Benjaminites. The meaning is the
following: Ye may have your daughters with the Benjaminites who have taken
them by force, for ye have not given them voluntarily, so as to have broken
your oath by so doing. In the last clause כָּעֵת has an unusual meaning: “at
the time” (or now), i.e., in that case, ye would have been guilty, viz., if
ye had given them voluntarily. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:23 And the sons of Benjamin did so, and took
wives according to their number from those who danced, whom they carried
away. And they went and returned to their inheritance, and rebuilt the
cities and lived in them.
AND THE SONS OF
BENJAMIN DID SO, AND TOOK WIVES:
How different is this act [which the
sons of Israel gave approval to] from the men of Gibeah taking the concubine
and raping her? To be sure they are not identical but there is a touch of
bitter irony in this unusual ending to this horrid saga in Israel.
ACCORDING TO THEIR NUMBER FROM THOSE WHO DANCED, WHOM THEY CARRIED AWAY.
AND THEY WENT AND RETURNED TO THEIR INHERITANCE AND
REBUILT THE CITIES AND LIVED IN THEM: (Rebuilt Jdg 20:48)
The virgins of Jabesh-Gilead were
taken out of the midst of blood and slaughter, but these of Shiloh out of
the midst of mirth and joy; the former had reason to be thankful that they
had their lives for a prey, and the latter, it is to be hoped, had no cause
to complain, after a while, when they found themselves matched, not to men
of broken and desperate fortunes, as they seemed to be, who were lately
fetched out of a cave, but to men of the best and largest estates in the
nation, as they must needs be when the lot of the whole tribe of Benjamin,
which consisted of 45,600 men (Nu 26:41), came to be divided again among 600,
who had all by survivorship. And soon after from among them sprang Ehud, who
was famous in his generation, the second judge of Israel, [Jdg 3:15].
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:23. The Benjaminites adopted
this advice. They took to themselves wives according to their number,
i.e., two hundred (according to Jdg 21:12, compared with Judg. 20:47), whom
they caught from the dancing daughters of Shiloh, and returned with them
into their inheritance, where they rebuilt the towns that had been reduced
to ashes, and dwelt therein. (Keil
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
Judges 21:24 And the sons of Israel departed from there
at that time, every man to his tribe and family, and each one of them went
out from there to his inheritance.
AND THE SONS OF
ISRAEL DEPARTED FROM THERE AT THAT TIME, EVERY MAN TO HIS TRIBE AND FAMILY,
AND EACH ONE OF THEM WENT OUT FROM THERE TO HIS INHERITANCE:
The Hebrew words here
are the same as those found at the end of the Book of Joshua (Josh 24:28).
However, the book’s final comment (Jdg 21:25) indicates that times were far
worse than they had been in Joshua’s day.
makes the cogent point that...
the Book of Judges ends with a miracle.
How after chapters 19–21, indeed, after chapters 1–21, can you account for
the fact that there is still an Israel? It can only be because Yahweh wished
to dwell in the midst of his people in spite of its sin. It can only be
because Yahweh’s grace is far more tenacious than his people’s depravity and
insists on still holding them fast even in their sinfulness and their
stupidity. Nor is he finished raising up saviors for them (Acts 13:23)!
(Such a Great Salvation. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990)
|Keil and Delitzsch
Judg. 21:24, 25. In Jdg 21:24 and Jdg
21:25, the account of this event is brought to a close with a twofold
remark: (1) that the children of Israel, i.e., the representatives of
the congregation who were assembled at Shiloh, separated and returned every
man into his inheritance to his tribe and family; (2) that at that time
there was no king in Israel, and every man was accustomed to do what was
right in his own eyes. Whether the fathers or brothers of the virgins who
had been carried off brought any complaint before the congregation
concerning the raid that had been committed, the writer does not state,
simply because this was of no moment so far as the history was concerned,
inasmuch as, according to Jdg 21:22, the complaint made no difference in the
facts themselves. With the closing remark in Jdg 21:25, however, with
which the account returns to its commencement in Judg. 19:1, the prophetic
historian sums up his judgment upon the history in the words, “At that time
every man did what was right in his own eyes, because there was no king in
Israel,” in which the idea is implied, that under the government of a king,
who administered right and justice in the kingdom, such things could not
possibly have happened. This not only refers to the conduct of the
Israelites towards Benjamin in the war, the severity of which was not to be
justified (see p. 331), but also to their conduct towards the inhabitants of
Jabesh, as described in Judg. 21:5ff. The congregation had no doubt a
perfect right, when all the people were summoned to deliberate upon
important matters affecting the welfare of the whole nation, to utter the
“great oath” against such as failed to appear, i.e., to threaten them with
death and carry out this threat upon such as were obstinate; but such a
punishment as this could only be justly inflicted upon persons who were
really guilty, and had rebelled against the congregation as the supreme
power, and could not be extended to women and children unless they had also
committed a crime deserving of death. But even if there were peculiar
circumstances in the case before us, which have been passed over by our
author, who restricts himself simply to points bearing upon the main purpose
of the history, but which rendered it necessary that the ban should be
inflicted upon all the inhabitants of Jabesh, it was at any rate an
arbitrary exemption to spare all the marriageable virgins, and one which
could not be justified by the object contemplated, however laudable that
object might be. This also applies to the oath taken by the people, that
they would not give any of their daughters as wives to the Benjaminites, as
well as to the advice given by the elders to the remaining two hundred, to
carry off virgins from the festival at Shiloh. However just and laudable the
moral indignation may have been, which was expressed in that oath by the
nation generally at the scandalous crime of the Gibeites, a crime
unparalleled in Israel, and at the favour shown to the culprits by the tribe
of Benjamin, the oath itself was an act of rashness, in which there was not
only an utter denial of brotherly love, but the bounds of justice were
broken through. When the elders of the nation came to a better state of
mind, they ought to have acknowledge their rashness openly, and freed
themselves and the nation from an oath that had been taken in such sinful
haste. “Wherefore they would have acted far more uprightly, if they had
seriously confessed their fault and asked forgiveness of God, and given
permission to the Benjaminites to marry freely. In this way there would have
been no necessity to cut off the inhabitants of Jabesh from their midst by
cruelty of another kind” (Buddeus). But if they felt themselves bound in
their consciences to keep the oath inviolably, they ought to have commended
the matter to the Lord in prayer, and left it to His decision; whereas, by
the advice given to the Benjaminites, they had indeed kept the oath in the
letter, but had treated it in deed and truth as having no validity whatever.
and Delitzsch Commentary - Judges 21 - p458)
right in his own
en tais hemerais ekeinais ouk (absolute negation - absolutely no king of any
king, divine or human) en basileus en Israel aner hekastos (each one
individually) to euthes (Not found in NT = righteous) en ophthalmois
(another translation = enopion = in the face of, in front of) autou epoiei
occurring over and over!)
IN THOSE DAYS THERE WAS NO KING IN ISRAEL: (No king Jdg 17:6; 18:1;
"they have rejected Me from being King" (cp 1Sa 8:22)
If these last chapters
teach us anything, they teach that there is no sin committed which affects
only one person alone. There is no such thing as victimless sin. Any sin
sends ripples into all of society. Do we not see this principle rippling
across (and ripping apart) the moral fabric of America! Revival in the Body
of Christ is the last bastion of hope for our country. Pray for revival
in the true Church.
cp Pr 29:18
Proverbs 29:18 sounds a sobering message similar to Jdg 21:25
Where there is no vision (no prophetic word from God to His people),
the people are unrestrained, but happy (blessed - Lxx =
= fully satisfied independent of the circumstances) is he who keeps (Lxx =
phulasso = guards) the law (the
Torah, Divine teaching, the Word of God) (Pr
29:18, cp Pr 11:14, Ezek 7:26)
Where there is no revelation, the
people cast off restraint; but blessed is he who keeps the law. (Pr
Vision (revelation in NIV) (02377)
(chazon) describes a divine revelation by means of an oracle, a
vision or a word from God (as to His prophets). The meaning is not so much
the means (vision, oracle) but the end achieved (the message). This word
speaks of God's direct revelation to people via His prophets, His "mouth
pieces" as it were. Notice that in this passage "vision" is
paralleled with the law, which further supports that the writer
intends "vision" to mean a divine word or a word from God and,
not someone's personal vision or dream.
Chazon - 34x in OT - 1Sa 3:1; 1Chr
17:15; 2Chr 32:32; Ps 89:19; Pr 29:18; Is 1:1; 29:7; Je 14:14; 23:16; La
2:9; Ezek 7:13, 26; 12:22, 23, 24, 27; 13:16; Da 1:17; 8:1, 2, 13, 15, 17,
26; 9:21, 24; 10:14; 11:14; Hos 12:10; Ob 1:1; Mic 3:6; Nah 1:1; Hab 2:2, 3.
Note the first use of chazon
in Scripture is found in 1Sa 3:1. Could this have anything to do with the
fact that 1Samuel historically immediately follows the book of Judges (Jdg
The Net Bible notes that chazon...
refers to divine communication to
prophets (as in 1Sa 3:1) and not to individual goals or plans...The
law here refers to scripture, the concrete form of revelation. So the
two halves of the verse provide the contrast: When there is no prophetic
revelation there is chaos, but those who keep the revelation
contained in scripture find blessing...The Hebrew word (with a somewhat
misleading translation of "happy") refers to a heavenly bliss, an
inner joy, that comes from knowing one is right with God and experiencing
His blessing. “Happiness,” on the other hand, depends on what
happens. (Bolding added)
It should be emphasized that Proverbs 29:18 is often
misinterpreted as indicating that when one does not have a "clear vision"
(or a dream), then one has nothing to live for and will perish for lack of a
goal. This is clearly not the intended meaning of this passage and to
use it from the pulpit for that purpose is to "wrongly" divide the Word of
Truth! (2Ti 2:15-note).
I have personally heard of Pr 29:18
being preached this way (to support a personal "vision" and agenda), and I
warned the brother who related this incident to me, encouraging him to speak
to his pastor about the mishandling of the passage (cp Acts 20:30NLT).
Long story short, shortly after preaching this message (see 2Co 4:2-note
- adulterating the Word of God) this pastor's "vision" ended with him being
asked to leave the church, with the subsequent catastrophic result that
there was a major "church split". This pastor survived about 3 years at the
next stop but was finally openly confronted by the same brother I had
admonished almost 3 years earlier, and this confrontation was again over
mishandling of the Word of Truth! Old dogs don't usually learn new tricks!
They practice the maxim that their personal "ends justify the means"!
The elders subsequently asked him to leave the church.
One very well known pastor (whom I shall
not mention) writes that Pr 29:18 teaches "We are to be...men and women of
vision." Wrong! God gives the "vision". We are to hear
and heed His "vision"
and then we will be blessed.
Here's another example of an inaccurate
interpretation of Pr 29:18 by John Phillips a commentator that I
greatly admire. This quote emphasizes the point that every believer must
continually be a Berean no matter how respected the source! Notice who the
Bereans "checked out" and what "plumbline" with which they examined his
teachings! (Read Acts 17:10, 11-note)
Eli had no spiritual vision (Ed: I
agree with that statement in principle). The Bible says, "Where there is no
vision, the people perish" (Pr 29:18). That proverb was true then, and it is
true today. It is a serious situation when Christians have no spiritual
vision (Ed: While this may be true to a certain degree, that is not
what Pr 29:18 is teaching!). Things are happening in our world that would make the angels weep,
but some of us are so shortsighted or so preoccupied with personal matters
that we cannot see other people's needs, even when they are brought to our
attention. (The John Phillips Bible Character Series – Exploring People of
the Old Testament, Volume Two)
John Wesley wrote that "no
No vision-No prophecy; no publick
preaching of God’s word.
Henry Morris rightly explains that
"the word vision does not refer to
far-sighted imagination, as this verse is commonly applied, but rather to
actual divine revelation."
W A Criswell says that
"The word "revelation" (chazon, Heb. for
"prophetic vision"- cf. 1Sa 9:9) refers to the experience of the prophets in
receiving a word from God (see Dan. 4:5, note). The "law" (torah, Heb., may
also mean "instruction") is not only the Mosaic Law but also the messages to
the people from God via His messengers, the prophets. Happiness comes in
obeying the word of God however it comes (cf. Isa. 8:16; Amos 8:11, 12).
This word, "perish," means "open" or "exposed." When people today reject or
ignore the revealed Word of God, they are open and helpless to resist the
humanistic and occultic doctrines of men and devils. (Happy speaks of) True
happiness, or blessing found only through "keeping"--that is, "guarding"
God's Word, then obeying and proclaiming it.
Walter Kaiser, et al writes
For many years this proverb (Pr 29:18)
has been misinterpreted, probably because the KJV translates it "Where
there is no vision, the people perish." One can infer from that
translation that wise groups must have a five-, ten- or twenty-year plan for
the future if they do not wish to become defunct as an organization. And
many have taken just that meaning from this text. However, the word
vision does not refer to one's ability to formulate future goals and
plans. Instead, it is a synonym for the prophetic word itself. It is what a
prophet does. It refers to the prophetic vision, revelation
which comes as the word of God...
Besides vision, a second key word
has been misunderstood in this verse: the word perish. This does not
refer to the perishing of churches with inactive planning committees (a fact
which may be true on grounds other than those presented here in this text).
Nor does it mean the perishing of the unevangelized heathen who will die in
their sin if someone does not reach them quickly (a fact which is also true
on other grounds). The word translated in the KJV as "perish" has a
very impressive background to it. It means "to cast off all restraint."
It clearly warns that where the word of God is silenced so that it no longer
comments on the local situation, the results are terrifying. The populace
becomes ungovernable as they cast aside all that is decent and civil for
whatever their own baser appetites wish to indulge in.
On the other hand, this proverb
continues, "Blessed is he who keeps the law." Thus, on the one hand, people
are in an untenable position when the voice of the preacher ceases, because
they let loose and nothing is left to restrain them; but, on the other hand,
they are only truly happy when they have the good fortune of possessing the
word of God and then place themselves under the hearing and doing of that
word. (Hard Sayings of the Bible)
Pulpit Commentary on Pr 29:18...
The fatal effect of the absence of such
revelation of God’s will is stated to be confusion, disorder, and rebellion;
the people, uncontrolled, fall into grievous excesses, which nothing but
high principles can restrain. We note the license of Eli’s time, when there
was no open vision (1Sa 3:1,2); in Asa’s days, when Israel had long been
without a teaching priest (2Chr 15:3); and when the impious Ahaz “made Judah
naked” (2Chr 28:19); or when the people were destroyed by reason of lack of
knowledge of Divine things (Hos 4:6, cp Is 1:3, 5:13, Je 8:7).
Charles Bridges on Pr 29:18...
“Thus we may learn the necessity of
preaching, and what inconvenience follows when it is not used. ‘Where
preaching falls,’ says Solomon, ‘there people perish.’ Therefore, let
everyone keep himself in God’s schoolhouse and learn his lesson diligently.
For as the body is nourished with meat, so is the soul with the Word of God”
(Bishop Pilkington). “The meanest village,” Luther was apt to say, “with a
Christian pastor and flock is a palace of ebony.”
Wilmington comments on Pr 29:18...
Needed: Leaders from the Lord. Without
good spiritual leadership, people tend to fall deeply into sin (see Ex
32:25; Jdg. 21:25; 1Sa 3:1; Amos 8:11, 12; Mark 6:34; Heb 13:17).
(Willmington's Bible Handbook)
Matthew Henry commenting on Pr
29:18 calls us to observe
How bare does a place look without Bibles
and ministers! and what an easy prey is it to the enemy of souls!
The misery of the people that want a
settled ministry: Where there is no vision, no prophet to expound the law,
no priest or Levite to teach the good knowledge of the Lord, no means of
grace, the word of the Lord is scarce, there is no open vision (1Sa. 3:1),
where it is so the people perish (contrasted with)...
The felicity of a people that have not
only a settled, but a successful ministry among them, the people that hear
and keep the law, among whom religion is uppermost; happy are such a people
and every particular person among them. It is not having the law, but
obeying it, and living up to it, that will entitle us to blessedness.
Harry Ironside on Pr 29:18...
When ministry of this nature is lacking
among the people of God and the assemblies of His saints, they soon become
lawless, substituting for the Spirit’s energy the mere busy meddling of
nature, and opening the door to what is simply of man in the flesh. But we
would not forget the second part of the couplet. Even let ministry of an
edifying character be rarely known, yet where the word of God controls there
will be blessing. He who keeps it will be happy amidst the existing
confusion, enjoying fellowship with Him who inspired it...
Lack of vision will be manifested
in a cold, dry, theological, or philosophical, treatment of the Scriptures,
as though given to exercise the intellect, rather than the heart and the
conscience. Paul’s prayer for the Ephesians is one applicable for all
Christians while in this scene of trial and testing (Eph. 1:15-23). (Notes
on the Book of Proverbs).
Unrestrained (Pr 29:18KJV =
perish, Berkley = run wild; "fall into anarchy", "cast off restraint") (06544)
(para') means to let go, to let loose (literally was used to describe
hair that was "loose" or unkempt - Lev 10:6NIV, cp Lev 13:45, "unbind the
hair" = Nu 5:18), to unbind, to let run wild, to become ungovernable,
to become unable to be reined in. Para' is
used in Ex 32:25 where it is translated out of control. Note that
they were out of control when Moses (who received the "vision") was out of
vision (pun intended)! The KJV rendering of Pr 29:18 that the people
perish is somewhat misleading as it suggests that the writer is
referring to eternal loss in the lake of fire, but that is not the actual
meaning of the Hebrew word as we have explained above. Thus to interpret
this proverb as a call to evangelize the lost (as a number of
commentaries and sermons suggest) so that they do not perish eternally is
incorrect. If the KJV had been rendered "the people run wild", this
evangelistic interpretation most likely would have been much less frequent.
this scene to what happens when God is out of the picture in the life of
individuals or nations (Jdg 21:25 = "No King"!) The picture of Para'
is of a people who are open and exposed to the subtle errors of deceptive
doctrine (cp persuasive arguments Col 2:4-note,
which produces corrupt conduct ("out of control"). Belief always effects behavior
and this case it births behavior without restraints which in essence equates with
our English equivalent anarchy (derived from Greek
anarchos = having no ruler <> an- negative = "no" +
= ruler) and describes a state of lawlessness, an absence or denial of
any authority and as a result an absence of order!
So what is the point? Sound doctrine ("vision") that exalts God as
Supreme (cp "King" in Jdg 21:25) must not seek to tickle ears (2Ti
but must be boldly and uncompromisingly proclaimed by God's appointed and
anointed prophets from the pulpits! Could
this principle have anything to do with the fact that the modern church in America
seems to be having so little "salt" and "light" effect on
a decaying, devolving culture which has in effect "cast off all restraints"?
Adam Clarke phrases Pr 29:18 this
Where Divine revelation, and the faithful
preaching of the sacred testimonies, are neither reverenced nor attended,
the ruin of that land is at no great distance.
Para' - 14 uses in OT - Ex 5:4;
32:25; Lev 10:6; 13:45; 21:10; Nu 5:18; 2 Chr 28:19; Pr1:25; 4:15; 8:33;
13:18; 15:32; 29:18; Ezek 24:14
Here is an illustration of
October 7, 1969 the Montreal, Canada
police force went on strike. Because of what resulted, the day has been
called Black Tuesday.
A burglar and a policeman were slain. Forty-nine persons were wounded or
injured in rioting. Nine bank holdups were committed (almost a tenth of the
total number of holdups that occurred the previous year) along with 17
robberies at gunpoint. Usually disciplined, peaceful citizens joined the
riffraff and went wild, smashing some 1,000 plate glass windows in a stretch
of 21 business blocks in the heart of the city, hauling away stereo units,
radios, TVs and wearing apparel. While looters stripped windows of valuable
merchandise, professional burglars entered stores by doors and made off with
truckloads of goods. A smartly dressed man scampered down a street with a
fur coat over each arm. With no police around to reign in crime, anarchy
reigned! (A modern day picture of the book of Judges!)
translation of Proverbs
29:18 is interesting for it reads (my loose paraphrase of the Greek)...
Where there is existing absolutely no
revelation from God, the people are undisciplined, out of control (Ex 32:25)
and run wild, but in striking contrast are those who will be fully satisfied
regardless of the circumstances (meaning of Greek word
because they continually (present
tense) guard the
= like a watchman standing guard to keep something valuable from being lost
or snatched away [cp Mt 13:19]) of God's Word.
It is notable that vision is
translated with the Greek exegetes the verb form (exegeomai
in Lk 24:35) of which means literally to lead out, to unfold, to declare, to
tell, to provide detailed information in a systematic manner) Exegetes
obviously gives us our English word “exegesis” which can be defined
as the unfolding of the interpretation through teaching of Scripture.
America's pulpits need modern day prophets who rightly dividing the Word of
Truth so that they might proclaim sound doctrine which in turn produces
The upshot is that when those who have
been called as prophets fail to speak thus saith the LORD regardless
of whether it is "politically incorrect" or "seeker unfriendly" (Jer
1:17,18,19), the result will be a people that "run wild"
(spiritually, morally, ethically) so that it becomes very difficult to
discern the difference between the church and the world (see
To reiterate, vision in Pr 29:18 does not refer to far-sighted
imagination, as is commonly interpreted by some preachers! No wonder the
Church is in such ill health. No bread, no growth! (Dt 8:3, 1Pe 2:2,3-note).
Proverbs 29:18 teaches that when there is
not correct exegesis of the Scripture, the people are in one sense
(emphasized by the Hebrew word para') uncovered and open to deception
and on the other side (as emphasized by the Greek word paranomos used to
translate the Hebrew para' - paranomos is from para = side
+ nomos = law and means literally beside the law) act contrary to the Law.
It does not mean they did not know the Law but that they act as if it had
been placed at their side (para = side + nomos = law) (cp Lk
11:28). We need
men and women who will rightly divide Scripture, not just teaching the Law,
but teaching how to live the Christ life in His grace and power, because He
was the Only One Who was able to truly live the "Christian" life.
Lord, give us men who are controlled by
the Holy Ghost and therefore will speak "Thus saith the Lord..." not
shrinking back from declaration of the whole counsel of God's Word, so that
then Your people will be adequate for every good work and able to glorify
(to give a proper opinion of) Your Name. Amen.
Charles Wood has an excellent
sermon outline on Pr 29:18KJV entitled "No Vision". Here are the opening
points of his outline...
Introduction: Sometimes the
Scriptures are misused, especially by ignorance. Sometimes those who know
the Bible well misuse it in certain places. Usually it is not serious, but
rather a right truth from the wrong passage. This often makes us miss some
good teaching. This verse is a case in point.
I. Corrected Interpretation
1. “No vision” — failure to see
2. “People perish” — people are lost and go to hell
1. “Vision” — word which has
reference to revelation (word refers to revelation of God’s will through any
2. “Perish” — cast off restraint, become ungovernable
1. The second part of verse 18 gives the
clue to interpreting the first
2. Meaning — “Where there is no
proclamation of God’s revelation, people cast off restraint and become
(For the complete outline see
Wood, C. R. 1984. Sermon Outlines on the Book of
Proverbs.: Kregel Publications - well done)
Sermon Outlines on the Book of Proverbs on the Google
Henry Blackaby commenting on Pr
29:18 writes that...
The world operates on vision.
God's people live by revelation. The world seeks grand and noble
purposes and goals to achieve. People dream up the greatest and most
satisfying things in which they can invest their lives. Institutions
establish goals and objectives and then organize themselves to achieve them.
God's people function in a radically different way. Christians arrange their
lives based on the revelation of God, regardless of whether it makes sense
to them. God does not ask for our opinion about what is best for our future,
our family, our church, or our country. He already knows! What God wants is
to get the attention of His people and reveal to us what is on His heart and
what is His will, for God's ways are not our ways! (Isa. 55:8, 9).Whenever
people do not base their lives on God's revelation, they “cast off
restraint.” That is, they do what is right in their own eyes. They set their
goals, arrange their agendas, and then pray for God's blessings.
(Experiencing God Day by Day)
sees the book of Judges from an interesting prophetic perspective...
Judges is the book of “no king,” 1
Samuel is the book of “man’s king” (Saul), and 2 Samuel is the book
of “God’s king” (David). The world today is living in the Book of
Judges because there is no king in Israel. When presented with their
rightful King, the Jews said, “We have no king but Caesar.” (Jn
19:15) Next on the agenda is the appearance of “man’s king”
(Antichrist) who will usher in world control and chaos. Then “God’s King”
will appear, defeat His enemies, and establish His righteous kingdom. Note
that the Book of Ruth takes place during the period of the Judges (Ruth 1:1-note)
and that it is a love story and a harvest story. God’s people are
living in the Book of Ruth, sharing in the harvest and waiting for
the wedding (Ed: And for the day when all the kingdoms of earth will
be given over to the King of kings - Rev 11:15-note)....
Moses warned that Israel would one day
want a king like the other nations and forget that they were a unique
nation, unlike the Gentiles (Deut. 4:5, 6, 7, 8; 14:2; 17:14, 15, 16, 17,
18, 19, 20; Ex 19:4, 5). What other nation had the Creator, the Lord of
heaven and earth, as their King? (Wiersbe, W. W. Be Available. Wheaton, IL:
Victor Books) (Bolding added)
Spiritually speaking, we are living today
in the Book of Judges; for there is no king in Israel, and there will not be
until Jesus returns. Like Israel in the past, many of God’s people today are
living in unbelief and disobedience and are not enjoying the blessings of
God. (Wiersbe, W. W.. Be Committed)
A C Gaebelein...
A king was needed to remedy these sad
internal conditions, this departure from God and strife of one against the
other. This is an evident link with and preparation for the history which
follows. Even so in this age of evil, darkness and cunning lawlessness; what
the world needs is a king, the King of righteousness and peace. When He
comes, order will be brought out of chaos, all strife and war, all bloodshed
and lawlessness will cease. (Judges 21 Commentary -
A C Gaebelein)
A W Pink...
Following the deaths of Moses and Joshua,
Israel grievously departed from the Lord: cast off His law, worshipped the
idols of the heathen, and “every man did that which was right in his own
eyes” (Jdg 21:25); darkness covered the earth, and gross darkness the
people. Yet even in those days God left not Himself without witness:
inexpressibly blessed is it to behold the faith of individuals shining in
the midst of a failed testimony; that here and there was a lamp maintained,
illuminating the surrounding darkness (See He 11:32-note).
(An Exposition of Hebrews)
Block writes that...
No book in the Old Testament offers the
modern church as telling a mirror as this book. From the jealousies of the
Ephraimites to the religious pragmatism of the Danites, from the paganism of
Gideon to the self-centeredness of Samson, and from the unmanliness of Barak
to the violence against women by the men of Gibeah, all of the marks of
Canaanite degeneracy are evident in the church and its leaders today. This
book is a wake-up call for a church moribund in its own selfish pursuits.
Instead of heeding the call of truly godly leaders and letting Jesus Christ
be Lord of the church, everywhere congregations and their leaders do what is
right in their own eyes.” (Judges, Ruth. The New American Commentary Series)
EVERYONE DID WHAT WAS RIGHT IN HIS OWN EYE: (Pr 29:18) (right -
Jdg 18:7; Deut 12:8; Ps 12:4; Pr 3:5; 14:12; Eccl 11:9; Micah 2:1,2)
Moses warned the people before
they entered the Promised Land...
You shall not do at all what we are doing
here today, every man doing whatever is right in his own eyes (Dt 12:8)
Solomon addressed this same problem
Behold, I have found only this, that
God made men upright, but they have sought out many devices. (Ec 7:29).
Every man's way (journey, path,
direction, course of life, moral character) is right (upright, just,
correct, pleasing, fitting, proper, righteous) in his own eyes, BUT
(Beloved, our flesh coerces, cajoles, constrains and compels us to "forget"
this vital, important "BUT" [contrast].
Oh, how we need to continually maintain a healthy "fear of the LORD" in our
mind's eye, cp 1Pe 1:17-note,
Pr 8:13, 16:6, 28:14, 2Co 7:1-note,)
the LORD weighs the hearts. (Pr 21:2)
SELF DECEPTION of SELF RIGHTEOUSNESS
... AN AMAZING UNIVERSAL
("every man") HUMAN TRAIT
that rationalizes our sins and
overt transgressions against the Holy One. There is an amazing ability
within us all to explain away that in ourselves which we would severely
censure in others (Pr 16:2,22:6, cp Mt 7:1, 2, 3, 4-note).
A man will never believe his real character until the divine mirror is held
before him (Ro 7:9-note).
Pilate considered himself "innocent" of the guilt of putting Jesus to death
merely by washing his hands (!!!) (Mt 27:24), and the Jews considered
themselves absolved from their part by refusing to enter the judgment hall
and by eating the Passover (Jn 18:28). However, one's righteousness is
determined by how he stands in the sight of God, who weighs the "heart" and
not actions (cf. 1Sa 16:7).
Even imprisoned criminals are commonly
found still to be justifying and blaming others for the sinful deeds which
caused their problems because of the human heart which "is more deceitful
than all else and is desperately sick" (Je 17:9). It takes God Himself, the
Holy Spirit, to bring true conviction and repentance to the heart of a
sinner (Jn 16:7, 8, 9, 10, 11). Self righteousness is a sin common to man.
There is an amazing ability within all of us to explain away that in
ourselves which we would severely censure in others (Pr 16:2, 22:6, Ro 2:1,
They thought that what they were doing was "right" (cp Isa 5:20,21-note)
cp What was "righteous" in his own eyes...sounds like "values clarification"
or "situation ethics" of the late 20th Century...taking prayer
and Bible out
of the schools left a void..."no King" (in a manner of speaking).
Result? Everyone began to do his own thing.
Nike's commercial sadly sums up this pathetic plight of America..."Just do it"
(And in late 2009 we see the leading sports face for Nike, Tiger Woods,
sadly lived up to this slogan! This would be funny if it were not so tragic
and true!) or the beer
commercial "You just go around once so grab for all the gusto you can!"
When the individual’s conscience has
authority over law, then government by law is jeopardized. At that point a
nation is logically only one step removed from the condition of Israel when
“every man did that which was right in his own eyes” (Jdg. 17:6; 25:25).
Sooner or later anarchy rules. (The
Man with Two Countries - Bib Sac 133:532 Oct 1976)
Ryken writes that..
the people, living in a pluralistic
society, turn to their own ways and in turn lose a vision of God. The book
of Judges describes what happens to a society that loses sight of God and
finds meaning solely within the individual. The image of the cycle in the
end collapses tragically into a downward spiral. The narrative of Judges
becomes an image of decline through its use of plot, characterization and
imagery. All the other major images in Judges underscore the reason and
result of a leaderless society that loses its sight of God. ( Dictionary of
biblical imagery )
This tragic indictment, first made in Jdg
is repeated in this final verse of the book. In between these accusations
(Judges 17-21) is found the most appalling description of moral and
spiritual chaos that one can encounter anywhere. Yet these people were the
chosen people of God, and were no more than one generation away from Joshua
and "the elders that outlived Joshua, who had seen all the great works of
the LORD, that He did for Israel" (Jdg 2:7-note).
Their fathers had served the Lord during that period, but then "there arose
another generation after them" who "did evil in the sight of the LORD, and
served Baalim" (Jdg 2:10,11-note).
It is highly probable that it was during this generation that the tragic
events of Judges 17--21 took place (see notes on Judg 18:1-note
and Jdg 20:28-note).
When the younger generation forsakes the faith of their fathers and begins
to compromise with the pantheistic cultures of their ungodly neighbors, it
may not be long before they descend into utter wickedness (Ro 1:21-32-note).
Almost the same thing is happening to the current generation in America and
other Christian nations today.
Henry: Defenders Study Bible. World Publishing)
indictment, first made in Jdg 17:6-note,
is repeated in this final verse of the book...so Judges does not seem to end
like a fairy tale where "they all lived happily ever after." But in God's
wonderful merciful providence there is a "Now" in Ru1:1-note
which shines forth as a bright flame of hope in the midst of a crooked &
perverse generation who did not know God nor know His power (Jdg 2:10-note
contrast w the previous generation Jdg 2:7-note).
A POIGNANT PASSAGE
The book of Judges is vitally important for our post-Christian culture and
the relatively somnolent American Church to consider and comprehend for it
stands as a vivid, albeit tragic testimony to the fact that most of the
nation of Israel continually went astray in their hearts (not all Israel for
God always had a
In other words their general "direction" (their walk, their conduct)
was toward disobedience, not obedience to God's will and way! Centuries
later the writer of Hebrews documented Israel's rebellious heart even from
the very beginning. In Hebrews 3:10 (note)
we see that the first generation of Israel, despite experiencing the
miraculous Divine deliverances through the Passover Lamb (a foreshadowing of
Christ, cp Ex 12:3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Jn 1:29, 1Co 5:7,
8, 1Pe 1:18, 19-note,
Lk 22:20, Re 5:6-note)
and the Red Sea, nevertheless continually went astray in their hearts and
did not know God's ways. While the Passover and the Red Sea are clearly
beautiful OT pictures of salvation, they were still but
shadows of genuine salvation. Salvation then as now is critically
dependent upon one exercising his or her personal faith in the Good News
(Gospel) of the Messiah (Study the following passages - Jn 1:11, 12,
13, 6:29, 9:35, 36, 37, 38, 12:36, 44, 14:1, Acts 4:12, 16:31, Ro 10:9, 10-note,
1Ti 1:16, 1Pe 1:8,9-note,
1Jn 3:23, 24, 5:13, Jesus' own testimony Mk 1:15). This belief or
faith (See studies of
pistis = faith
pisteuo = believe)
is not merely intellectual assent, but is "directional", in
that it puts a new desire in one's heart (2Co 5:17, Ezek 36:26, 27, Php
to walk generally (not perfectly) in the direction of God's will and
way (holiness, godliness, righteousness, etc). In other words while
salvation was then and is now and forever entered into ONLY by personal
faith, that faith is demonstrated to be real, genuine,
saving faith by one's subsequent walk of obedience. To reiterate, obedience
does not save a person, but it does show that one's faith is genuine.
(See studies on
Relationship of faith and obedience;
Obedience of faith - Ro 1:5, 16:25);
Jas 2:14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 - see notes
Jas 2:14 ;
This kind of moral, political, social,
and spiritual chaos could only reign were there was no recognized king over
Israel - and where people had forgotten about God as their King. The only
standard left was the standard of "if it feels good, do it" - much like
America at the close of the twentieth century
Gary Inrig gives us an
illustration of the danger of a "Judges 21:25 approach" to life writing
about a terrible airline accident that occurred in the Canary Islands in
April of 1977.
At the small airport at
Wikipedia description including a simulated picture of the two airliners
just before collision) two 747's collided killing
hundreds: The airport was crowded because the main airport at Las Palmas had
been closed due to a bombing. As a result, the 747's had to taxi on the
runway rather than on the taxiway. It was a foggy day, and the two pilots
could not see one another, but, for some inexplicable reason, the Dutch
pilot began his takeoff without clearance from the control tower.
Obviously, he thought he was doing the right thing (cp Jdg 21:25),
but he was not. The other plane was in the way, and he was unable to avoid
it. As a result, 575 people died (Ed: 583 in the Wikipedia article).
Every pilot is taught one very basic lesson at the beginning of his
training. In an air traffic control zone you do not do what seems best in
your eyes. You do what the control tower tells you to do. That is always
true, but it is especially true when the visibility is bad. The reason is of
course very simple. The controller knows things that you do not know. He has
better information and a better perspective to guide a pilot safely to his
destination. To act on your own causes disasters. This principle of aviation
is also an important principle of life. We live at a time when a thick moral
fog has settled upon our society. The old moral landmarks have been
obliterated, and no one seems to know the difference between right and
wrong. Ethically and morally, the visibility is nil, and people are groping
for anything that will help them find their directions. It is very tempting
at such a time to fly by the seat of your pants, living by your own
standards, doing whatever is right in your own eyes. This epitomizes the
book of Judges and especially the last 2 chapters. The other alternative is
to be guided by Someone Who can see what we cannot see and who knows what we
do not know. The great promise of God's Word is that if we commit ourselves
to doing what is right in God's eyes, we will be directed safely through the
moral fog. The Lord is not a controller Who makes mistakes. He is the
omniscient, loving Father Who wants only the best for His children. (Hearts
of Iron, Feet of Clay by Gary Inrig. Moody, 1979. pp281,282 - Recommended
Commentary for Judges - Very Practical!)
Judges closes with the reflection by the author on the absence of strong
leadership and the lack of spiritual discernment (Heb5:14) that had led to
the near total disintegration of Israel’s uniqueness as a nation. The tragic
comment of the inspired historian who wrote the book of Judges notes that a
nation unified under Moses, and miraculously victorious under Joshua, had
now fallen into sin, defeat, and disunity. Thus, the book of Judges gives us
a picture of the tragic results of sinful compromise with an ungodly world.
Fortunately, the appendix of the book of Ruth indicates that God was still
at work among His people, even during this dark hour. A ray of hope was
about to dawn through which God’s Man, the Son of Man, would come to rule
THE BIBLE contains the mind of God, the state of man, the way of salvation,
the doom of sinners, and the happiness of believers. Its doctrines are holy,
its precepts are binding, its stories are true, and its decisions are
immutable. Read it to be wise, believe it to be safe, and practice it to be
holy. It contains light to direct you, food to support you, and comfort to
It is the traveler's
map, the pilgrim's staff, the pilot's compass, the soldier's sword, and the
Christian's charter. Here Paradise is restored, Heaven opened, and the gates
of hell disclosed.
CHRIST is its grand
subject, our good the design, and the glory of God its end.
It should fill the
memory, rule the heart, and guide the feet. Read it slowly, frequently, and
prayerfully. It is a mine of wealth, a paradise of glory, and a river of
pleasure. It involves the highest responsibility, will reward the greatest
labor, and will condemn all who trifle with its sacred contents.
Here in this 21ST century the heads of state would do well to study the Book
of Judges. Back in 1928, when the depression first began, a brief editorial
appeared in the staid Wall Street Journal, which went something like this:
What America needs today is not Government controls, industrial expansion,
or a bumper corn crop; America needs to return to the day when grandpa took
the team out of the field in the early afternoon on Wednesday in order to
hitch them to the old spring wagon into which grandma put all of the
children after she washed their faces shining clean; and they drove off to
prayer meeting in the little white church at the crossroads underneath the
oak trees, where everyone believed the Bible, trusted Christ, and loved one
Thomas Brooks writes that...
There are four times wherein a hypocrite
may express a great readiness and forwardness to religious duties:
(1.) First, When he is under terrors
and distress of conscience. Oh, now for a little ease, a little rest, a
little quiet, a little comfort—what won't the hypocrite do! etc.
(2.) Secondly, When he is under sore and heavy afflictions. Hosea
5:15, "In their affliction they will seek me early." Isaiah 26:16, "Lord,
they came to you in their distress; when you disciplined them." Psalm 78:34,
"When he slew them—then they sought him." It is a reproach to some: No
plague—no prayer; no punishment—no prayer, etc. So Pharaoh and Ahab, etc.
(3.) Thirdly, When religion is in fashion, when it is a credit to be
a professor, and when profession is the highway to profit and preferment. In
the warm summer of prosperity, when there is no hazard, no danger, no loss
to be a Christian, who then so forward in religious duties as the hypocrite?
But when the sun of persecution is up—then he falls away, Mat. 13:5-6.
(4.) Fourthly, When others' presence, counsel, and examples have an
influence upon them. Oh, now they keep religious duties! Joash did that
which was right in the sight of the Lord—all the days of Jehoiada the
priest. But when Jehoiada was dead, Joash serves groves and idols, and turns
a deaf ear to those prophets who testified against him, and gives Zechariah
his passport out of the world for speaking against his evil manners, and the
wicked courses of his princes and people, 2Chr. 24:2, 17-23.
While the good judges lived, the Israelites kept close to the service of
God: Judges 2:7, "And the people served the Lord throughout the lifetime of
Joshua and the leaders who outlived him—those who had seen all the great
things the Lord had done for Israel." But when the good judges were dead,
the Israelites did what was right in their own eyes: every man's lust was
his law, Judges 17:6, and Judges 21:25.
While Moses was present, there was no talking of a golden calf—but no sooner
was his back turned, that the Israelites make a golden calf, and worship it
when it was finished! Ex 32:1-9, etc. (A
Cabinet of Choice Jewels)
Fruits of recovery
The restoration of
Israel had as a result the absolute refusal of any connection with the evil.
"Now the men of Israel had sworn in Mizpeh, saying there shall not any of us
give his daughter unto Benjamin to wife" (Jdg 21:1). Let us remember that,
in a day of ruin, when souls, under the action of grace, recover their first
love for the Lord, they never become more tolerant of evil.
The closer our communion is with God the more does it separate us from evil,
but the affections of the saints' hearts towards their brethren are not
blunted by this separation, as we see here. For the third time the people
went up to the house of God, for this place having been found again, became
indispensable to them. Defeat first drove them on that road, victory led
them on to it again. "And they abode there till even before God."
On the previous visit, "they wept and sat there before Jehovah;" on this
occasion, the first thing was to abide there. "When thou saidst, seek ye my
face; my heart said unto thee, Thy face Jehovah will I seek" (Ps. 27:8). It
is our happiness, amid the evil and the sorrow of the present day, to seek
the face of the Lord and abide till even before Him. Tears then flowed and
such tears!" They lifted up their voices and wept sore." For the first time
feeling all the bitterness they said: "O Jehovah, God of Israel, why is it
come to pass in Israel, that there should be to‑day one tribe lacking in
Israel?" They did not say: The evil is put away, we are at length in
quietness and tranquillity. The bitterness was in proportion to their
recovery of their affections for Jehovah and for their brethren. The breach
had been made, one tribe was wanting; it was like the body suffering from
the loss of a limb. Israel's God had been dishonoured, the God before whose
eyes, in His tabernacle, was the golden table with the twelve loaves of shew
bread thereon. Israel no longer thought of their own dishonour as they had
before their humiliation, for the tears of bitterness were shed before
Jehovah; and it was when the unity seemed hopelessly lost, that its
realization was made good in the hearts of the people, which, in the eyes of
Jehovah was more true unity than the semblance of it by the people in a
state of declension in the beginningof Judges 20.
The earliest rays of the morning found Israel at work building an altar. The
people might say, with the Psalmist: "Early will I seek Thee." Humiliation
and ruin did not hinder worship. What grace that there remained an altar to
Jehovah amid such a state of things! Three things preceded this worship and
led up to it - resolute separation from all evil, getting back into the
presence of God, the ruin deeply felt and acknowledged. It was there that
they offered burnt offerings and peace offerings; then that the heart
entered into what the sacrifice of Christ was for God, and the portion God
has given us with Him in it.
All these blessings recovered in the path of humiliation, were the starting
point for the judgment of Jabesh‑Gilead. The inhabitants of that place had
not come up to Jehovah to Mizpeh. That was indifference to the judgment of
the evil by which God had been dishonoured in Israel's midst, and it was at
the same time contempt for the unity of the people established by God, and
which had been confirmed in such a striking way by the attitude of the
eleven humbled tribes. The people of Jabesh‑Gilead had doubtless said, that
it was no concern of theirs. How frequently do we hear such expressions in
our days! Their state was even worse than that of the evil‑doer. For such a
refusal, there was no mercy; but before, the execution of the judgment,
Israel delighted to contemplate mercy. "And the children of Israel repented
them for Benjamin their brother, and said, there is one tribe cut off from
Israel this day.
How shall we do for wives for them that remain, seeing that we have sworn by
Jehovah that we will not give them of our daughters to wives?" (Jdg 21:6, 7)
Moreover, the judgment was but the exercise of this mercy, for the cutting
off of Jabesh‑Gilead was with a view to the restoration of Benjamin. Such
was the way that Israel came out of that long and painful conflict. Happy
indeed are they who learn from such circumstances, and know how to combine
perfect hatred of evil, with unmingled love for their brethren. The four
hundred young virgins of Jabesh‑Gilead were given for wives to the poor
remnant of Benjamin.
But that did not suffice; the wound must be completely bound up. Love was
ingenious in finding the remedy and suggested to Israel a way of helping
their brethren without disowning their obligations toward God, or lowering
the standard of separation from evil. Israel allowed themselves to be
plundered at Shiloh (Jdg 21:17, 18, 19, 20, 21), as it were under the eyes
of Jehovah. Exchanging the victor's place for that of the vanquished, they
permitted their brother, so sorely tried by the discipline, to have the last
"And it shall be," they said, "when their fathers or their brethren come
unto us to complain, that we will say unto them, Be favourable unto them for
our sakes, because we reserved not to each man his wife in the war" (Jdg
21:22). Israel did not say: They reserved not, but "we reserved not." What
delicacy and tenderness did those words evince, and how different from those
recorded in Jdg 20:12. "What wickedness is this that is done among you?"
Israel no longer separated their cause from that of their brethren and the
unity of the people, formed by God Himself, recovered its due place of
importance in the eyes of the faithful in those sorrowful days of
God grant that such may be the case with us, my brethren! If men, if
Christians even, lightly esteem the divine unity of the church, or, when
forced to avow that it is outwardly gone, seek to substitute for it a
miserable daubing with untempered mortar and content themselves with an
appearance of unity which does not deceive even those upholding it; if, in a
word, men form alliances between their various sects, proving the very ruin
they seek to justify; - let us turn away from such things, humbling
ourselves on account of the ruin of the church (looked at on the side of
human responsibility) without conforming to it; boldly proclaiming that
"there is one body and one Spirit," "endeavouring to keep the unity of the
Spirit in the bond of peace" (Ep 4:3, 4-note),
refusing all fellowship with the moral and religious evil of the day, "and
above all these things putting on love, which is the bond of perfectness"
Such is the instruction contained in the book of Judges, which closes with
the solemn repetition of that which characterized the evil days. "In those
days there was no king in Israel, every man did that which was right in his
own eyes" (Jdg 21:25). God did not change that deplorable state of things;
He simply states the fact; but He led His own away from the confused light
of conscience, which while it judged never guided them; and brought them
back to the pure light of His own infallible word which was able to conduct
them, to build them up, and to give them an inheritance among all them which
are sanctified (cf. Acts 20:32).
"To the law
and to the testimony,"
this is our safeguard in a day
of ruin! (Isaiah 8:20).
L M Grant...
AND FOOLISH ACTIONS
God had not told Israel to totally
destroy Benjamin, including women and children, but Israel had done this
except for the 600 men hiding in the Rock Rimmon. Now they realize that a
tribe of Israel is on the verge of extinction. Why did they not think of
this before? But they had virtually decreed that Benjamin should be extinct
by the fact that they swore an oath to the effect that no woman of Israel
must be given as a wife to a Benjamite (Jdg 21:1).
Now Israel comes together at Mizpah in bitter weeping to inquire of God why
a thing like this had occurred that there should be one tribe missing In
Israel (Jdg 21:1, 2). But God was not to be blamed for this. They were to
blame. They were to blame for their cruelty in exceeding the punishment of
Benjamin beyond what was right, and now also to blame for the oath that they
would not allow a woman of Israel to marry a Benjamite. It was they who put
themselves in this sad predicament.
The next morning the people built an altar and offered burnt offerings and
peace offerings, perhaps remembering that when they offered these two kinds
of offerings before, that this had resulted in their victory over Benjamin.
But they did not enquire of God as to what to do. Instead they relied on
their own religious reasoning. For they had made another unscriptural vow
that any Israelites who did not come to help in the judgment of Benjamin
were to be put to death. Deuteronomy 20:8 tells us that when Israel went to
battle, those who were fearful and faint hearted were to be excused from
warfare. If so, how could Israel demand death for those who did not come out
to fight? But they evidently thought this a very religious thing to do.
Israel inquired as to others of the nation who did not come to the battle,
and found that no one from Jabesh Gilead had responded (Jdg 21:5, 6, 7, 8).
And again the people were guilty of heartless cruelty against their own
brethren. 12,000 men were sent to Jabesh Gilead with instructions to utterly
destroy every male and all women and children except those women who were
virgins (Jdg 21:10, 11). Did they consider the women and children as wicked
people because the men did not go out to fight?
They brought back as captives 400 virgins from Jabesh Gilead (Jdg 21:12).
Then they became guilty of breaking the oath they had made to the effect
that no Israelite women could be given to the Benjamites. For they sent to
the 600 men of Benjamin at the Rock Rimmon, announcing peace to them (v. Jdg
21:13), and gave them the 400 virgins of Israel they had captured from
Jabesh Gilead! (Jdg 21:14). Thus, though they had made a very religious,
binding oath, they found means of rationalizing their way around the oath to
ease their consciences. They added to this heartless cruelty against Jabesh
Gilead the dishonesty of hypocritical deceit in breaking their oath.
But 400 women were not enough for the 600 men. The people felt sorry for
Benjamin's predicament and rightly wanted to see Benjamin restored as a
tribe (Jdg 21:15). But instead of seeking God's guidance as to this, they
again resorted to their own reasoning. The elders consulted together,
reminding themselves that they had sworn an oath against giving any woman of
Israel to the Benjamites. But they had just given 400 of Israel's women to
Benjamin!-- though they had killed their parents to do so.
Could they not have done anything different than they did? Yes, they could,
and ought to have confessed before God and the people that their oath was
totally wrong. Only their own pride stood in the way, just as was true in
King Herod's oath to the daughter of Herodias, whom he promised to give her
whatever she asked and she asked for the head of John the Baptist (Mt.14:7,
8, 9). Herod's pride concerning his oath did not permit him to confess the
oath was wrong. So the elders of Israel, to save face, resorted again to a
hypocritical action. How sad it is that we may easily resort to subterfuge
to save our outward reputation!
There was only one way in which the elders of Israel could honorably escape
from the snare into which their own folly had brought them. This was simply
to acknowledge before God that the vow they had made to not allow any woman
of Israel to marry a Benjamite was foolish and wrong, and therefore to seek
the Lord's gracious release from the vow. But to them this was out of the
question. They said very piously that they could not break their vow (though
they had already hypocritically broken it); but it occurred to them that
they might be able to furnish the Benjamites with wives in another way than
by actually presenting the wives to Benjamin. Since there a yearly feast to
the Lord in Shiloh (v. 19), they told the men of Benjamin to hide in the
vineyards near the place of the feast; then when the young virgins of Shiloh
came out to perform their dances, to run out and catch wives for themselves
and return quickly to their own land (Jdg 21:21).
Of course, even suggesting such a thing was breaking the oath they had made
Israel to swear. Why had they made such an oath? Was it not because they
considered the young virgins would be contaminated if they were given to
Benjamites? But by having the Benjamites hide and then catch wives for
themselves, they were outwardly putting the blame on the Benjamites for
stealing the women, while the blame was plainly theirs for suggesting it.
Their oath forbad the Benjamites from having wives from Israel, but they
themselves encouraged the Benjamites to come and steal women as wives.
But more than this, the elders told the men of Benjamin that if the fathers
or brothers of these young virgins came to complain to the elders, the
elders would persuade them to be lenient toward Benjamin because Israel had
not left wives for them in the war, and that it was not as though they were
breaking their oath since the Benjamites had captured the women (Jdg 21:22).
The elders did not even consider that it was they themselves who had
deceitfully broken the oath!
Certainly God does not approve of such hypocrisy, yet by this means Benjamin
was able to revive as a tribe and rebuild their cities (Jdg 21:23). However,
the population of the tribe was greatly reduced, due to both their own
foolish defense of men guilty of gross evil and to the heartless excess of
judgment against them on the part of Israel. How solemn a warning to us is
all this. On the one hand it warns us against daring protect evil when it is
present, and on the other hand going to unnecessary lengths to punish evil.
It appears that after a man had been put away from the Corinthian assembly
for morally sinful practice (1Co 5:1ff), the Corinthians were not properly
concerned as to his restoration, so that Paul had to tell them, "This
punishment which was inflicted by the majority, is sufficient for such a
man, so that, on the contrary, you ought rather to forgive and comfort him,
lest perhaps such a one be swallowed up with too much sorrow" (2Co 2:6).
Thus we see that in the Church of God too there is danger of such things,
just as in Israel.
The Book of Judges ends with the same words given in Chapter 17:6, where the
introduction of idolatry is reported in the case of Micah. Because there was
no king in Israel, Micah considered he could do what was right in his own
eyes. There was no authority to challenge him for insulting God by idolatry.
Worse than this, the worship of idols was introduced into the whole tribe of
Dan (Jdg. 18:30, 31), with no challenge whatever from the other tribes.
Similarly, in the case of moral wickedness and the unscriptural way in which
it was handled, Jdg 21:25 makes the significant comment, "In those day there
was no king in Israel; everyone did what was right in his own eyes."
Would Israel's problems be solved if they had a king? Israel thought so when
they demanded of Samuel that they should have a king, like all the nations
(1Sa 8:4, 5). Samuel protested since he told them God was their king, but
they were insistent, so God allowed them to have a king -- a man who was
head and shoulders taller than other men in Israel, but he failed miserably
and the whole history of Israel in the time of the kings proved this hope to
be futile. Some kings were relatively good, others were very bad and
involved Israel in sin and idolatry. Some were strong enough to rescue the
two tribes (Judah and Benjamin) from excesses of idolatry and restore some
worship of God, but eventually all collapsed, both among the ten tribes and
the two tribes, and Israel has been without a king since then. Only when the
Lord Jesus, the King of kings and Lord of lords, takes His place in
sovereign authority will Israel find a settled, lasting peace.
For believers today, though having no earthly king, we are infinitely
blessed by having the Spirit of God dwelling in the Church, the body of
Christ, providing guidance, strength and blessing for all His own. Our true
authority comes from heaven, where the Lord Jesus is seated at the right
hand of God, and those who are willingly submissive to the authority of the
Lord Jesus do not need any authority of men on earth by which to be guided.
Not that we are to do what is right in our own eyes, but by grace we are
enabled to do what is right in the eyes of the Lord.
Sermon on Judges 21:25...
THE BENJAMITES’ WICKEDNESS
Jdg. 21:25. In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that
which was right in his own eyes.
SUCH is the depravity of human nature, that man is always prone to depart
from God; and departures once begun, extend rapidly through individuals,
communities, and kingdoms: the departure of a few righteous persons, like
the removal of a dam, soon opens a way for iniquity to inundate a whole
country. During the life of Joshua and his co-adjutors in the government,
the Israelites retained a good measure of piety: but no sooner were they
called to their eternal rest, than impiety began to deluge the land. The
transactions recorded respecting the Danites in the 17th and 18th chapters,
and of the Benjamites in the three last chapters, though placed after the
history of the Judges, all took place whilst Phinehas, the son of Eleazar,
was high-priest; and consequently, very soon after the death of Joshua, and
before any Judge in Israel had been raised up: and it is repeatedly
noticed in all those chapters, that these overflowings of ungodliness were
occasioned by the want of those salutary restraints, which a wise and
righteous governor would have imposed upon the people. This is particularly
specified in our text; from whence we are very forcibly led to shew,
I. The obligations we owe to Civil Government—
Where there is no government, all manner of iniquities will prevail—
[This is most remarkably illustrated in the history before us. The idolatry
of the Danites is ascribed to that. The ease with which the inhabitants of
Laish fell a prey to a small handful of invaders, was owing to the
dissoluteness of its inhabitants, and a total want of magistrates to enforce
some salutary laws. The whole account also of the Levite and his
concubine, as connected with the horrid wickedness of the Benjamites, and
the extensive miseries consequent upon it, are all referred to the same
cause, a want of a civil governor, who should exercise a watchful care over
the people, and impose such restraints as should keep them within the bounds
of decency and order. To appreciate these evils aright, the three last
chapters should be attentively perused: the unheard-of wickedness of the
Benjamites; the determination of the whole tribe of Benjamin to protect the
offenders; the civil war arising from it; the repeated defeats of the tribe
of Judah; the ultimate destruction of the whole tribe of Benjamin, men,
women, and children, with the exception of six hundred men who had fled from
the field of battle; the demolition of all their cities; the destruction
also of the whole population of Jabesh Gilead, except four hundred virgins,
who were preserved in order to prevent the utter extinction of the tribe of
Benjamin; these and other miseries all arose out of this single
circumstance, a want of a regular government sufficiently strong to prevent
or punish the violations of the laws.
There is one circumstance in this history which seems unaccountable; namely,
That when the eleven tribes were united against Benjamin solely for the
purpose of demanding justice against the perpetrators of that enormous
wickedness, and when Judah led the battle by divine appointment, no less
than forty thousand of that tribe should be slain by Benjamin in two
battles, whilst the impious Benjamites suffered no loss at all. But God
intended by this to punish the supineness of all the tribes, who had
neglected to espouse his cause against the idolatrous Danites. They had
united as one man, when the interests of society demanded their
interposition; but they had taken no steps to vindicate God’s honour against
the introduction of idolatry, though God had expressly required in his law
their most determined interference in his behalf. On this account God
first made use of the Benjamites to punish them, and then delivered the
Benjamites into their hands, that justice should be executed on them also.
But whatever was God’s design in these desolating judgments, they must still
be all referred to that cause which we have already noticed.
If any further illustration of the point be wanted, we need only behold the
evils which are perpetrated even in the best regulated governments, in
defiance of the laws; and then we shall see what evils would obtain, if all
the restraints of law and justice were withdrawn — — —]
But a vigilant and energetic magistracy stems the torrent of iniquity—
[Where a good government is, there are known and established laws, to which
the highest, as well as the lowest in the state, are amenable. Our persons,
our property, yea even our reputation, are secured from injury; or, if any
injure them, the law affords us suitable redress. If any sons of Belial will
break through the restraints which the law has imposed upon them, no sooner
are they convicted of the crime, than they pay the penalty with the loss of
their liberties or lives. Hence every man feels himself secure: the weak
fears not the invasion of his rights any more than the strong; but all sit
under their own vine and fig-tree, none making them afraid.
This security we are apt to overlook: but we can never in reality be too
thankful for it. If we were to estimate our state according to truth, we
should all consider ourselves like Daniel in the lions’ den: the lions have
not lost their nature; but they feel a restraint, which, though invisible,
operates for our preservation: if that were once withdrawn, we should then,
like Daniel’s persecutors, soon become a prey to the violent and
But the subject may justly lead us also to consider,
II. The obligations we owe to the Gospel of Christ—
The restraints of Civil Government are external only, and have respect
chiefly to the welfare of society: they cannot reach to the thoughts or
dispositions of the heart. Hence
Ungodly men do precisely what they please—
[They keep within the regulations of human laws, so far at least as to avoid
a criminal prosecution; but they will indulge their lusts in ways which come
not within the cognizance of the civil magistrate, and will live altogether
“without God in the world.” All indeed do not run to the same excess of
riot; but all will equally “do what is right in their own eyes.” All mark
out a line for themselves: some give themselves a greater latitude; and some
are circumscribed within narrower bounds; but all lay down to themselves
certain rules, to which they annex the idea of propriety: and if a minister
of the Most High God stand forth to testify against their ways as evil, they
will find an host to vindicate their cause, and to inflict the deadliest
wounds also on those who dare to assault them in the name of God. The
language of their hearts is, “Who is Lord over us?” In vain do we endeavour
to convince them of their errors; they are determined to think themselves
right: to be “right in their own eyes” is with them a perfect vindication of
their conduct: they will not come “to the word and the testimony” of
Scripture; that is a test to which they will not submit: and, if only they
are free from gross and open sin, they despise the sword of the Spirit, and
defy the sharpest arrows that are taken from his quiver.
What we here speak is as applicable to the most righteous among them, as to
the most unrighteous. Solomon tells us that “there is a generation that is
pure in their own eyes, who are not washed from their filthiness.” Their
standard of duty, be it what it may, is of their own making: and they follow
the laws of God no further than will consist with the regulations which they
have formed for themselves — — —]
But the Gospel produces in them a most blessed change—
[This establishes a King in Israel: it represents the Lord Jesus Christ as
the Redeemer and the Lord of all; and erects his throne in the hearts of men
— — — The Gospel rectifies the views also, of all that receive it. His law,
and not our own vain conceits, becomes now the rule of judgment: the
smallest deviation from that, whether by excess or defect, is regarded as
evil, and nothing is approved any further than it agrees with that perfect
standard — — — We may also add, It regulates the conduct. Those who receive
the Gospel aright, instantly give themselves up to the Lord Jesus Christ,
accounting his service to be perfect freedom, and desiring to live no longer
to themselves, but “unto Him that died for them and rose again.” — — — Of
course, we must not be understood to say that these effects are produced
equally in all, or in any to their full extent. Men are still corrupt
creatures, even the best of men; and consequently they will, like brands out
of a fire, still bear the mark of the fire, though the flame be
extinguished: but still they differ as widely from the unconverted world, as
those who live under a well-regulated government do from the most licentious
savages: they are thankful for the restraints under which they live; and are
ready to die in defence of that King whom they venerate, and that law which
they account it their highest privilege to obey. In civilized society, men
are happy in being secured from external violence; but, under the Gospel,
they are happy in being secured from the assaults of Satan, and from the
corruptions of their own hearts.]
From this subject we would take occasion to recommend,
1. A self-diffident spirit—
[By nothing are the delusions of men more strengthened than by a confidence
in their own wisdom and judgment. No reasons will weigh in opposition to the
conceits of self-opinionated men; nor will an appeal to the Scriptures
themselves be allowed to be of any force. Hence men perish in their errors,
till it becomes too late to rectify them. How happy would it be if men would
distrust their own judgment; and if, when they see how thousands of their
neighbours err, they would admit the possibility of error in themselves I
God has given us an unerring standard of truth: to that let us refer all our
pre-conceived opinions; and remember, that, “if we walk not according to
that rule, there is no light in us.”]
2. A cautious judgment—
[Persons are apt to form their judgment on very inadequate grounds. Any one
who should have seen the two defeats of Judah, would be ready to conclude,
that the cause for which victory had decided, was the right: but we are not
to judge from events: righteousness is not always triumphant in this world:
it may be oppressed; and the supporters of it may be trodden under foot: but
there is a time when God will vindicate his own cause, and evince the equity
of all his dispensations. The unalterable word of God must be our only rule
of judgment in every thing: if we suffer in following that, let us not doubt
the goodness of our cause, but betake ourselves to fasting and prayer, and,
above all, to that great Sacrifice which was once offered for sin. Then,
though suffering, we shall reap good to our souls; and, though vanquished
now, we shall surely triumph at last.]
3. An unreserved submission to the King of Israel—
[This is true happiness: this once attained, no enemy can hurt us, no
occurrence can disturb our peace. “I will keep him in perfect peace whose
mind is stayed on me, because he trusteth in me.” O that we were all brought
to surrender up ourselves unfeignedly to him! Whether we will submit to him
or not, “God has set him as his King upon his holy hill of Zion;” and “He
will reign, till all his enemies be put under his feet.” “Kiss the Son then,
lest he be angry, and ye perish from the way:” and “let every imagination
that is contrary to his will be cast down, and every thought be brought into
captivity to the obedience of Christ.”]
It is gratifying to
find that after the stormy outburst of the previous chapter, there came a
return of tender feeling, like rain after claps of thunder. Human tears, as
they well forth for others, evidence underlying fountains in the strongest
natures, and the existence of those tender feelings of compassion without
which the race could not exist.
Israel's lamentation for Benjamin. -- Those that act in haste repent at
leisure. Already there were symptoms that a sweeter and purer spirit was
about to rise up in Israel. This yearning after a lost tribe (Judges 21:6)
indicated that a flame of love was beginning to burn amid the steam and
smoke of the newly-kindled fire; and if only there be love there is a point
of contact at which God can reveal Himself to men, for he who loves his
brother will presently come on to know God who is Love, and the tears shed
over Benjamin are similar in nature to those shed on the Mount of Olives,
when He beheld the city and wept over it.
Judges 21:9-14 The
sack of Jabesh-Gilead. -- It would have been better to turn their
attention to the Canaanites still in the land (Judges 19:11-12). But we are
all more disposed to criticize our brethren, than to join forces with them
against a common foe.
Judges 21:15-23 The
scheme at the dances at Shiloh. -- What an indescribable admixture there
is here of a recognized religious worship, and its desecration, keeping avow
in outward form, while violating its tenor and spirit.
We cannot admire the
method adopted by Israel to preserve Benjamin from extinction. As in so many
other cases, a vow made rashly in a moment of excitement would have been
better honored in the breach than in the observance. One star at least shone
in the black night; truth began to be revered, and they would not go back
from their solemn pledge and vow. The morals of the people were evidently
lamentably low, but the whole of their course of action is probably to be
explained by the fact that they looked upon this war as having been an act
There was an air of
satisfaction in the return of the people to their homes (Judges 21:24). But
we need to correct our self-estimate by the balances of eternity. As, in
those days there could not be settled prosperity or peace till the true King
came, so it is now in the kingdom of our hearts. (F. B. Meyer. CHOICE NOTES
ON JOSHUA THROUGH 2 KINGS) | <urn:uuid:f6736add-f87f-4c9d-ac7d-deba764d725c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.preceptaustin.org/judges_21_commentary.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957668 | 34,157 | 2.578125 | 3 |
As children, many of us have played the game "Which one of these things does not belong?" For the benefit of those who do not know the game, it is straight forward - you simply pick the item from a list that is different from the rest.
If you were provided the following list, Multiple Sclerosis, Type-1 Diabetes, Narcolepsy, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Lupus, which one would you choose? If you are thinking that all of these except Narcolepsy are related diseases, you would be wrong. It's a trick question because all of the conditions are immune system disorders. It is just that for Narcolepsy, scientists have only recently confirmed the relationship.Narcolepsy is a sleep/wake disorder
in which those with the condition experience abnormally high levels of daytime fatigue and a tendency to fall asleep with little or no warning during the day. Sometimes those with the condition may even dream while awake. At night, those with the condition will suffer from disturbed sleep patterns though they will often fall asleep very quickly. In some cases, people with the condition can also suffer from sudden muscle weakness that ranges from mild severity to levels that can cause a person to collapse.
Often a source of parody in comedy where the symptoms are almost always exaggerated, the condition is certainly deserving of more understanding than it receives. The lives of people with even moderate forms of the disease are dramatically affected by it. Imagine not being able to drive, not being able to hold a job where alertness is required and needing to be escorted when outside the home in the more extreme cases. These are the not-so-amusing aspects of this condition.
In the population, as many as one in 2000 people suffer from Narcolepsy and there are more than 3 million afflicted by the condition worldwide. In the US, the number of people with the condition is 200,000. Unfortunately, less than 1 in 4 of those with the condition has been diagnosed as having it. The symptoms often lead to misdiagnosis of depression or insomnia and with misdiagnosis comes incorrect, insufficient or ineffective treatment.
Given that the condition has not been well understood, the recent confirmations that Narcolepsy is an immune system disease means that the development of better tests and treatments can now begin. Though the theory for Narcolepsy being an immune disorder has been around and building for some time, assembling the argument has been a long, involved task.
Researchers at the University of Washington began analyzing previous research prior to 2007 to identify whether environmental factors could contribute to development of the condition. Environmental factors are thought to be a contributor to many immune system diseases so investigating this approach was based on a theory involving immune disruption.
Sometime later, in behavioral research at Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center in the Netherlands, scientists found that 23% of people with Narcolepsy also suffered from eating disorders. This compares to less that 1% of the general population. Given the current understanding of brain hormones, this information makes sense because the same hormones that control our ability to be awake also control appetite and food cravings. Thus, a lack of these specific hormones or cells to respond to these hormones would result in both of the symptoms seen in Narcolepsy and eating disorders.
Subsequently, based on similar sleep disorders being observed in both Narcolepsy and Parkinson's patients, research at the University of California at Los Angeles determined that these diseases were related. Patients with Parkinson's were observed to have levels of sleep disturbance that increased as the number of brain cells of a specific type decreased. In some cases, patients were observed to lose as many as 60% of these specific brain cells.
Later research from Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine in Korea confirmed this with the discovery that the density of gray matter in the brains of Narcolepsy patients is less than for the general population. In particular, the reduction in brain cells was observed in areas of the brain related to attention, memory and consciousness. These findings support the theory that people with the condition have suffered a loss of very specific brain cells.
A key culprit in the death of cells is often the immune system so researchers at the University of Stanford explored this theory. The study involved analyzing the genes of 1800 people with a known genetic abnormality that affects how the immune system determines the difference between cells of the body and foreign materials. Of the people whose genes were used in the study, 800 had Narcolepsy and in these individuals, scientists isolated a common gene. Subsequently, based on knowledge of previous research, the scientists correlated that gene to involvement with the immune system.
With this, scientists had determined that the loss of brain cells that causes Narcolepsy is the result of the immune system selectively attacking the brain. This makes the condition similar to Multiple Sclerosis in terms of the immune system attacking brain cells.
With the mystery cause of the disease now identified, the next phase in research can now proceed. As with other immune disorders, scientists can try to determine ways to block the immune system from attacking these cells. They can also attempt to use gene therapy to deactivate the specific genes before external factors turn on the disease. They can also explore the use of stem cells to replace the brain cells that have been destroyed. In short, the future for those suffering from the disease certainly seems a little less foggy.Related Links | <urn:uuid:a60a77bb-b3b0-4095-9572-bf64186c893d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wellescent.com/health_forum/thread-690-clearing_the_sleepy_dreamy_fog_that_shrouds_narcolepsy-background_information_on_narcolepsy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958731 | 1,111 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Jetpacks, once thought to be the future of travel, seemed to go the way of the flying car, but if Glenn Martin, founding director and inventor of Martin Jetpack, has his way, anyone will be able to purchase one for about $100,000 within the next 18 months.
Martin Aircraft Co., located in New Zealand, passed a crucial milestone this month when it tested its Jetpack at 5,000 feet, before it deployed an emergency parachute, allowing the flying machine and its dummy pilot to drift down to the ground.
"This successful test brings the future another step closer," said Martin in a statment. "This test also validated our flight model, proved thrust to weight ratio and proved our ability to fly a Jetpack as an unmanned aerial vehicle, which will be key to some of the Jetpack's future emergency/search and rescue and military applications."
The Jetpack was controlled remotely from a helicopter hovering nearby and could reach a top speed of 63 miles per hour. The flight was not only intended to test the Jetpack at a high altitude but also the deployment of the emergency parachute. Despite a relatively hard impact, the company believes a pilot could have walked away from the landing.
Previously, the highest the jetpack had flown was 50 feet for a little more than seven minutes.
"In the past two years, we've gone from unveiling a world leading invention to a company on the verge of international commercialization of both the manned and unmanned versions of the Jetpack," said CEO Richard Lauder in a statement.
The company said the Jetpack was easy to fly and took about 20 hours to learn to operate.
Test Flight Measurements:
Climb Rate: 800 ft/min
Altitude: 5,000 ft
Flight Duration: 9:46 min
Impact Under Parachute 15.7 mph | <urn:uuid:20509566-058f-44a2-9e17-9cd0a17ccead> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/jetpack-soar-5000-feet-reach-63-mph/story?id=13733459 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963497 | 377 | 2.859375 | 3 |
The Value of Powdery Mildew Resistance in Grapes: Evidence from California
Powdery mildew (PM) is a fungal disease that can damage many crops. On most plants, PM appears as white, powdery spots on leaves, shoots, flowers or fruit, which if untreated, can spread over large areas of the leaves and stems and cause reduced yields and lower fruit quality. Grape PM, Erisiphe necator, is the most prevalent leaf-infecting disease for California grapes. Across the state, it accounts for 74% of grape pesticide use, more than any other grape disease. A range of fungicides can help vineyard managers keep the disease in check in most years, but these are costly and may have negative environmental and human health effects. For many affected crops, such as melons, squash and peas, PM-resistant varieties have been successfully developed. PM-resistant grape varieties are currently being developed (e.g., the VitisGen project). We have developed detailed estimates of the differences in costs of production between conventional and PM-resistant varieties of table, raisin and wine grapes, using budgets for hypothetical “representative” individual vineyards. We use these differences in costs to estimate the potential benefits from PM resistance in grapes over several regions of California. The potential benefits are large but depend critically on the lag until the resistant varieties become available, as well as the subsequent rate of adoption by growers.
This article was originally published by Kate B. Fuller, Julian M. Alston, and Olena S. Sambucci in ARE Update, Vol.17, No. 5, May/June, 2014. The issue can be accessed by clicking HERE. The ARE Update is a bimonthly magazine published by the University of California Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics for the purpose of providing wide dissemination of research results and expert opinion from faculty and graduate students in agricultural and resource economics at UC Davis and UC Berkeley.
Powdery Mildew-Resistant Varieties
Powdery mildew resistance characteristics can be introduced using either conventional or transgenic approaches. Some potential barriers to market acceptance arise when introducing new varieties, developed using either type of technology, especially for wine grapes where the use of traditional Vitis vinifera varieties predominates. For table and raisin grapes, these aspects are not as important—many currently popular varieties are relatively new.
Conventional breeding entails crossing vinifera varieties, all of which are at least somewhat susceptible to PM, with non-vinifera grapes, and then back-crossing to obtain a vine with very high vinifera content—perhaps greater than 99%. However, wines made with these hybrid grapes cannot be labeled with the vinifera varietal name and could only be sold either without varietal labels, or blended with wine made from a 100% vinifera varietal. Even if wines made using grapes from transgenic PM-resistant plants could bear the traditional vinifera varietal name, they would probably face significant market resistance because of popular views on genetically modified foods, and would need to go through a substantial regulatory approval process.
For more information about management of powdery mildew, visit the UC IPM website by clicking HERE.
In the table grape and raisin markets, traditional varietal names are not as important, but the potential for market acceptance of transgenic varieties remains uncertain. As with conventionally bred PM-resistant vines, transgenic PM-resistant vines might attract a premium from some buyers because they will require much less pesticide.
Measures of Costs and Benefits
The introduction and adoption of PM-resistant grapevines will reduce the use of chemical treatments to mitigate PM impacts. To better understand how the reduction in chemical use would translate into potential cost savings, we constructed budgets for hypothetical “representative” vineyards using updated and revised versions of University of California Cooperative Extension (UCCE) Cost Studies. Our budgets show costs of grape production using conventional and PM-resistant vines for each of the three different types of grapes (table, raisin, and wine).
To validate the budgets we created, we discussed them with experts on each type of grape production system in the regions of interest. This group included extension advisors, pest control advisors, academics, and other researchers. This budget validation process was necessitated by the age of some of the UCCE budgets and our specific interest in PM management costs.
Grapes produced in California fall into three main categories: wine grapes, table grapes, and raisin grapes. These three categories make up an industry that contributed over $3.8 billion to the value of California’s farm production in 2011, and much more in terms of total value. Because resources available for the project were limited, we created budgets only for certain varieties and regions within each grape type, chosen to represent the parts of each industry most affected by PM.
Table Grapes. Of the available table grape varieties, we chose to profile Crimson Seedless grapes—the most widely planted in terms of acreage.
Raisin Grapes. We created budgets for the four predominant types of raisin grape production systems: continuous tray-dried, in which grapes are mechanically harvested and dried on a continuous paper tray between rows; traditional tray-dried, in which bunches of ripe grapes are hand-cut and placed to dry in the sun on rows of individual paper trays; and two types of dried-on-the-vine raisin production systems, in which specially designed trellis systems allow machines to harvest already dried raisins.
Wine Grapes. Because of the great diversity in wine grape growing practices and market characteristics, we opted to focus on the variety that is most affected by PM, chardonnay, which is also the most economically important white wine variety. We also opted to focus on a single region, the Central Coast (crush districts 7 and 8) where PM pressures are most severe.
In most cases, grape yield is typically not affected by the disease since PM can be preventively controlled with a variety of fungicides. However, the fungicides and the costs of applying them entail significant outlays for growers. The combined cost of fungicide materials and their application amounts to between 8.7% of cultural costs for both continuous tray-dried raisin grapes and crimson seedless table grapes, and 19.6% for Central Coast chardonnay wine grapes. As a share of total cost of grape production, PM treatments account for about 2% for Crimson Seedless table grapes, and 8% for Central Coast chardonnay wine grapes (Table 1).
Table 2 shows differences in specific costs of production—labor, materials, and other costs—between various wine grape production systems using conventional and resistant grapes. The difference in cost between the conventional and the resistant system does not simply equal the current cost of PM treatments. Ending sulfur treatments may result in an erineum mite infestation, so we assume a wettable sulfur treatment would be retained to treat the mites. Additionally, some non-PM treatments are typically applied along with PM treatments, so the labor and fuel, lube and tractor repair costs must be attributed to the non-PM treatments in full and can not be eliminated by adopting the resistant varieties.
Cost savings from growing resistant vines versus conventional vary widely over types of grapes being produced. Total annual cost savings range from $177 per acre in the case of traditional tray-dried raisin production, up to $287 per acre for Crimson Seedless table grapes.
We now scale up from the per-acre effects for “representative vineyards” to area-wide effects for the regions we have selected: the Central Coast for chardonnay wine grapes, and the San Joaquin Valley for Crimson Seedless table grapes and all types of raisin grapes. Table 2 presents regional acreage and the total cost savings, by production system, if all growers in the region were to adopt a new, resistant variety immediately.
The largest total potential impact is in raisin grapes, which would save $36.4 million per year if all growers converted all the acreage—195,899 acres in the San Joaquin Valley in 2011—to PM-resistant varieties immediately. The corresponding annual cost savings for Central Coast chardonnay is $7.5 million (on 26,804 acres—less than one-fifth that of raisins) and for Crimson Seedless it is $3.7 million (a high per-acre cost reduction, of $287 per acre per year applied to a comparatively small total acreage of 12,950 acres in 2011).
However, a scenario in which resistant varieties become available immediately and all growers immediately adopt them is extremely unlikely. In reality, these new varieties will not become available for some time, and if growers do adopt them, they are likely to do so when the vines they currently have in the ground come to the end of their productive lifespans and have to be replaced anyway. Hence, we allow for various lags until vines become available, as well as various adoption rates.
We also assume that once the vines become available, adoption will increase slowly until it reaches its maximum, 20 years later. Additionally, growers typically do not begin to apply PM controls until the third year after planting, so benefits will not be felt until three years after the R&D lag is over and adoption begins.
Table 3 shows benefits from the resistant varieties over an infinite time horizon, for different adoption rates (denoted A, percent) and different lags (denoted L, years) until the new varieties become available to growers. Raisin grapes are likely to have the shortest lag as those resistant varieties are nearly fully developed; a ten year R&D lag is possible for that category, whereas resistant varieties of wine and table grapes could take significantly longer to be developed and become available to growers.
The range of estimated benefits is substantial. The present value of the benefit from PM-resistant vines for raisins ranges from as low as $15.6 million, if the resistant vines become available in 40 years and are adopted by 20% of growers, up to $189 million if they become available in 10 years and are adopted by 100% of growers. The present value of the total benefits from PM-resistant vines ranges from $3.2 to $38.9 million for Central Coast chardonnay wine grapes, and from $1.6 to $19.3 million for Crimson Seedless table grapes.
The availability and adoption of PM-resistant varieties would entail environmental benefits as well. Fuel, lube, and repair costs are a measure of tractor use. Since tractors emit carbon dioxide, fine particulate matter (PM 2.5), and a host of other pollutants, curbing their use has been a topic of increasing conversation in the San Joaquin Valley, where table and raisin grapes are grown, and where air quality has become an issue of concern in recent years.
Table 2 shows differences in fuel, lube, and repair costs that range from $16 per acre for traditional tray-dried raisin grape production to $51 per acre for Crimson Seedless table grapes. The implication is that PM-resistant varieties would allow some reduction in vineyard operations with an attendant decrease in ambient pollution.
The reduction in applications of chemical fungicides may also yield benefits to the environment and human health, although much is unknown about these effects. Sulfur, the most heavily used agricultural chemical in California, may cause respiratory illnesses and other adverse health effects. However, the kinds of respiratory effects induced and what types of exposure cause them are unknown. In soil, bacteria slowly convert sulfur to sulfate, which generally does not cause harm. Other (relatively new) synthetic compounds used for PM treatment and prevention, such as sterol inhibitors and strobilurns, have not been reported as having negative environmental or human health effects.
Because of the large volume and frequency of applications, controlling for PM results in the bulk of the environmental impact from grape production, even though the fungicides used for PM control are less toxic to both humans and the environment than many other pesticides. The reduction of these environmental and human health costs is one of the benefits from growing PM-resistant varieties.
Several measures of pesticide risk are available to examine the environmental impact of PM management. These measures include the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ), which combines pesticide hazards to farm workers, consumers and the environment, and the Pesticide Use Risk Evaluation (PURE), which is a California-specific index that quantifies the environmental risk to soil, surface water, ground water, air, and bees. Using either measure, sulfur accounts for a large share of environmental risk. Environmental benefits from eliminating PM-related fungicide applications would accrue primarily to workers (reduced potential health risks), and through reduced harm to bees and soil.
Powdery mildew is a common disease that imposes large economic costs on California grape growers. PM-resistant varieties of grapes could yield large economic benefits to grape producers in California—potentially as high as $48 million per year in the subset of the industry covered by our analysis— across wine, table, and raisin grape-producing sectors. Our estimates of the cost savings attributable to PM-resistant varieties range widely across the different grape production systems, with the greatest potential in the raisin grape industry. Within a system, the benefits are quite sensitive both to the R&D lag until the resistant varieties become available for adoption, and to the maximum adoption rate.
The measures of potential cost savings we present here represent only part of the economic picture for two reasons. First, they count only part of the potential cost savings. We estimate only private cost savings for certain regions, and do not include benefits from reduced pesticide use or benefits for wine grapes other than chardonnay produced in the Central Coast region.
On the other hand, we have implicitly assumed prices of grapes grown using PM-resistant varieties would be the same as prices for grapes from the conventional varieties they would replace. Grapes produced using non-vinifera or transgenic vines might well suffer a price discount compared with conventional alternatives, and if the price discount is greater than the cost savings from resistance, then it will not make economic sense for growers to adopt them. Even if it is not prohibitive, any price discount will offset the benefits from cost savings to some extent.
The Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics was founded in 1930 from a grant made by the Bancitaly Corporation to the University of California in tribute to its organizer and past president, Amadeo Peter Giannini of San Francisco. Members of the Giannini Foundation are University of California faculty and Cooperative Extension specialists in agricultural and resource economics on the Berkeley, Davis and Riverside campuses. The broad mission of the Foundation is to promote and support research and outreach activities in agricultural economics and rural development relevant to California. For more information and additional resources provided by the Giannini Foundation click HERE. | <urn:uuid:ab821ec6-06eb-444c-8575-8841aab42f12> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lodigrowers.com/the-value-of-powdery-mildew-resistance-in-grapes-evidence-from-california/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934943 | 3,088 | 3.25 | 3 |
Successful modern states developed a monopoly over the lawmaking process, the armed forces, and the bureaucracy to meet the needs of the state. In order to have a successful modern state they first needed a powerful ruler. Fredrick the Great of Prussia used his power and wisdom to improve the lives of his people. He used the method of enlightenment for improvement and he also encouraged the use of new methods of planting to make their agriculture more strong. France's Louis XIV insisted on convening a council daily. He reorganized his kingdom financially and administratively. He encouraged cultural activities such as music, art, and painting. Peter the Great focused on the growth of trade and wanted to gain control of the Baltic Sea. He introduced Russia to the West and insisted on the best of everything to be brought there. These leaders would stop at nothing to ensure that their modern state got what they wanted. Unlike the kings of Poland, the monarchs of France, Russia, and Prussia developed these features of the modern state.
The enormously diverse Kingdom of Poland remained an anachronism in the modern world. Because of this Poland experienced declining economic conditions. Instead of moving ahead with the other countries Poland stayed unadvanced which put them behind agriculturally and economically. Their country remained unchanged while the other countries were moving ahead with new technological advances. Their non-participation in the furthering of their country led to a depression in Poland.
Peter the Great's Russian empire rested on the marriage of autocracy and the nobility. Peter inherited almost absolute power. He created a Senate and he was the first emperor to give his unlimited power a moral and political definition. However, Peter did nothing to change the organization of society. Peter made education compulsory for the nobility; he divided the civil ser | <urn:uuid:f58cdd7c-ce9d-44df-a555-da82c17c7c82> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/74936.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970699 | 358 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Mammograms are great, but they are not perfect. We still don't see about 20 percent of breast cancers with standard screening mammograms, and they still sometimes lead to well-intentioned but unnecessary operations (removing or biopsying things that end up being benign). Also, more broadly, in light of disputes as to how many lives mammograms actually save, we're always looking to improve.
The FDA recently approved breast tomosynthesis, known more coolly as "3-D mammography." It involves having an X-ray source move around one's breast, and multiple planes being reconstructed to create a digital 3-D image. Doctors can then look at it from every angle, as opposed to the two planar X-rays obtained in standard "2-D" mammograms. As in the above image, 3-D also lets doctors isolate thin planes of tissue in the breast, to see exactly where a concerning area is -- and if it might just be the result of overlapping areas of normal tissue. That can be tough to tell on 2-D.
It sounds good, but the most convincing evidence in favor of its widespread use didn't come into play until this week. In a study of 1192 patients at Masschusetts General Hospital -- published this week in the journal Radiology -- 3-D mammograms, when used in addition to 2-D, improved diagnostic accuracy by about 7 percent. That's big. They also led to 26 percent fewer false positives (where we detect something, but it turns out to be nothing). That means less undue worry and fewer unnecessary further testing.
Prior studies had compared 2-D to 3-D and found that the latter was only better in the hands of less experienced radiologists. But in this new study, all 27 of the interpretting radiologists benefited from the additional images.
Getting a 3-D mammogram is no more invasive (and involves only a little more radiation exposure) than a standard mammogram. Each takes about 10 seconds to acquire. It does take more time for radiologists to interpret them -- and, so will cost more up front -- but if the use of 3-D leads to fewer unnecessary invasive diagnostic procedures, and less money spent on chemotherapy and mastectomies, many expect it would decrease the overall cost of screening for and treating breast cancer.
With this study and more in its vein, expect guidelines -- especially for patients at high risk for cancer and with dense breasts that are harder to see through with 2-D -- for potentially rapid assimilation of 3-D. | <urn:uuid:2b0ae74b-2a4a-496c-873d-ca3902ec1022> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/11/here-they-come-3-d-mammograms/265566/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962636 | 525 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Hooliganism: Rioting; bullying; rough horseplay; “the characteristic behavior of hooligans” (OED). (For an alternate meaning, keep reading.) Hooliganism first appeared in print in 1898, in a police report in the Daily Telegraph (UK); hooligan also first appeared in print in 1898 in the UK, in the Daily News. When Arthur Conan Doyle used “hooliganism” in his 1904 Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Six Napoleons, he capitalized it.
Officially, the origins of hooligan and hooliganism are “uncertain.” There are theories, though, the most plausible being the one summarized in the Online Etymology Dictionary: “almost certainly from the variant form of the Irish surname Houlihan, which figured as a characteristic comic Irish name in music hall songs and newspapers of the 1880s and ’90s.”
In the English-speaking world, hooliganism is mostly seen in the UK and Commonwealth countries, where it’s frequently modified by football (i.e., soccer). “Football hooliganism” is associated with unruly, brawling, destructive behavior. But in the early 20th century hooligan and hooliganism found an adopted home—and a different interpretation—in czarist Russia and, later, the Soviet Union. The words had pointedly political meanings: In the Soviet justice system “khuliganism” was a catch-all description for offensive behavior. The words stayed in the Russian lexicon and penal code after the fall of the Soviet regime, and remain there today.
Which explains news reports like this one from CNN, published on Saturday:
Three members of Russian female punk rock band Pussy Riot were sentenced to two years in prison Friday after they were found guilty of hooliganism for performing a song critical of President Vladimir Putin in a church.
Malynne Stevenson, an associate professor of Slavic Studies at the University of Chicago, provided some context for this “hooliganism” in an interview published August 17 in Global Post:
In the Soviet Union and Russia today, hooliganism is legally defined this way: “In the Soviet Union ‘hooliganism’ (хулиганство, khuliganstvo) was made a criminal offence under the penal codes of the Soviet republics. In the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), article 216 of the penal code defined ‘hooliganism’ as ‘any deliberate behavior that violates public order and expresses explicit disrespect toward society.’ This article was used to cover a wide range of behaviors such as vagrancy, stalking, foul language, etc.” …
Lenin once declared that “hooligans” should be shot on the spot, along with murderers and tsarists.
“Hooliganism” is also used as a criminal charge in China and Iran, Stevenson said.
According to reporter Ben Johnson, who wrote about Pussy Riot earlier this month for Slate, most Russian antigovernment protestors aren’t charged with hooliganism but rather with “administrative violations.” The Pussy Riot case was different, Johnson says:
Members of Pussy Riot opened themselves up to the more severe accusation of hooliganism by choosing a church as their venue, and performing in front of the iconostasis (part of the church’s sanctuary, where women and other regular parishioners are not permitted), a choice that many members of the country’s largest religious group, Russian Orthodox Christians, have found offensive. Hooliganism charges can also be more serious if committed in a group, which in Russia’s court system is defined as two people or more.
“There’s only one punishment for hooliganism,” Johnson writes, “and that is ‘deprivation of freedom,’ which usually means imprisonment.”
Details about the Pussy Riot sentence, plus video and international reactions, here. For more about the Pussy Riot name and how it’s rendered in Russian, see Ben Zimmer’s post on Language Log. For more about the English-language media have handled Pussy—e.g., “a feminist punk group with a profane name”—see Arnold Zwicky’s “The Pussy Patrol.” | <urn:uuid:9c99e076-8f26-4d18-bd23-16197fa3dbaf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nancyfriedman.typepad.com/away_with_words/2012/08/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946701 | 950 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The Situation of Perceptions
Posted by The Situationist Staff on March 1, 2008
In the most recent Sunday Boston Globe (Ideas section), Jonah Lehrer wrote a nice article — “Grape expectations: What wine can tell us about the nature of reality” — summarizing recent cognitive neuroscience research illustrating the power of expectations in shaping perceptions and experiences.
* * *
Scientists at CalTech and Stanford recently published the results of a peculiar wine tasting. They provided people with cabernet sauvignons at various price points, with bottles ranging from $5 to $90. Although the tasters were told that all the wines were different, the scientists were in fact presenting the same wines at different prices.The subjects consistently reported that the more expensive wines tasted better, even when they were actually identical to cheaper wines.
The experiment was even more unusual because it was conducted inside a scanner–the drinks were sipped via a network of plastic tubes–that allowed the scientists to see how the subjects’ brains responded to each wine. When subjects were told they were getting a more expensive wine, they observed more activity in a part of the brain known to be involved in our experience of pleasure.
What they saw was the power of expectations. People expect expensive wines to taste better, and then their brains literally make it so. Wine lovers shouldn’t feel singled out: Antonio Rangel, the Caltech neuroeconomist who led the study, insists that he could have used a variety of items to get similar results, from bottled water to modern art.
Expectations have long been a topic of psychological research, and it’s well known that they affect how we react to events, or how we respond to medication. But in recent years, scientists have been intensively studying how expectations shape our direct experience of the world, what we taste, feel, and hear. The findings have been surprising– did you know that generic drugs can be less effective merely because they cost less?–and it’s now becoming clear just how pervasive the effects of expectation are.
The human brain, research suggests, isn’t built for objectivity. The brain doesn’t passively take in perceptions. Rather, brain regions involved in developing expectations can systematically alter the activity of areas involved in sensation. The cortex is “cooking the books,” adjusting its own inputs depending on what it expects.
Although much of this research has been done by scientists interested in marketing and consumer decisions, the work has broad implications. People assume that they perceive reality as it is, that our senses accurately record the outside world. Yet the science suggests that, in important ways, people experience reality not as it is, but as they expect it to be.
* * *
Even our most primal bodily sensations, like pain, are vulnerable to the influence of expectation. Tor Wager, a neuroscientist at Columbia University, gave college students electrical shocks while they were stuck in a brain-scanning machine. Half of the people were then supplied with a placebo, . . . [and they] said the shocks were significantly less painful.
Wager then imaged the specific parts of the brain that controlled this psychological process. When people were told that they’d just received a pain-relieving cream, their prefrontal cortex, a brain area normally associated with rational thought, responded by inhibiting the activity of brain areas (like the insula) that normally respond to pain. However, when the same people were informed that the cream was “ineffective,” their prefrontal cortex went silent. Because people expected to experience less pain, they ended up experiencing less pain. Their predictions became self-fulfilling prophecies.
A similar mental process helps explain a wide variety of seemingly bizarre consumer behaviors.
* * *
[The article then describes experiments by Baba Shiv, a neuroeconomist at Stanford, involving differently priced “energy” drinks.] [T]he people who paid discounted prices consistently solved fewer puzzles than the people who paid full price for the drinks, even though the drinks were identical.
* * *
Why did the cheaper energy drink prove less effective? According to Shiv, a kind of placebo effect is at work. Since we expect cheaper goods to be less effective, they generally are less effective, even if they are identical to more expensive products. This is why brand-name aspirin works better than generic aspirin and why Coke tastes better than cheaper colas, even if most consumers can’t tell the difference in blind taste tests.
* * *
One of the implications of Shiv’s experiment is that it’s possible to make a product more “effective” by increasing its price. A good marketing campaign can have a similar effect, as it instills consumers with lofty expectations about the quality of the product. . . .
* * *According to [Frederic] Brochet, [a cognitive psychologist at the University of Bordeaux,] the lesson . . . is that our experience is the end result of an elaborate interpretive process, in which the brain parses our sensations based upon our expectations. If we think a wine is red, or that a certain brand is better, then we will interpret our senses to preserve that belief. Such distortions are a fundamental feature of the brain.
Nevertheless, scientists insist that consumers can take steps to protect themselves from their expectations. . . .
* * * | <urn:uuid:b95b719b-da7b-4ccd-a638-115801d49e7d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://thesituationist.wordpress.com/2008/03/01/the-situation-of-perceptions/?like=1&source=post_flair&_wpnonce=a34a077b61 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968721 | 1,120 | 2.609375 | 3 |
In The Real World
The ideal amplifier is a constant voltage source.
This means that the output voltage (which is of course an audio waveform) is not affected by the load impedance.
Let’s fix the output voltage to 30 VRMS (about 100 watts continuous into 8 ohms) and consider what happens as the load impedance changes. Please see Figure 3, below.
Our ideal amplifier is an unlimited source of current. Think “Hoover Dam with Speakons” and you have the right idea. As the load impedance drops, the current increases. As the load impedance increases the current decreases.
Each halving of the load impedance doubles the output current and therefore the output power of the amplifier, so long as the voltage remains constant.
So, the more paralleled loudspeakers, the more watts.
Real-world amplifiers behave as ideal voltage sources into typical sound reinforcement loudspeakers. You can load them with one or maybe two 8 ohm loudspeakers, and the output voltage is not affected.
click to enlarge
Like the ideal amplifier, the power doubles as the load impedance is halved.
At some point, this relationship no longer holds and the voltage drops as you daisy-chain more loudspeakers onto the amplifier, even though the output power increases (The yellow region of Figure 3). Below about 3 ohms, this amplifier is no longer a constant voltage source.
Note that since the current is impedance-dependent, a box that can handle a large RMS voltage may not draw much power, if its impedance is high. This can bea useful attribute if I need to parallel line array boxes onto a single which is a very common practice. I’measured units as high as 60 ohms.
A “power” mindset says “load it down because you get more watts.” But note that even though the output power is increasing in the “yellow zone,” the output voltage is decreasing. If your loudspeakers are covering different zones of the audience, adding additional loads beyond 4 ohms may cause a level drop in the already-playing loudspeakers (Figure 4).
click to enlarge
You get the most SPL from Box A if you disconnect the other boxes. In short, the amplifier’s best performance is achieved when it is not overloaded. The impedance of a real-world loudspeaker is higher than its “rated” impedance over most of its bandwidth.
While some amplifiers can handle “2 ohm loads” it would be rare to ever encounter a true 2 ohm load in practice other than with a bank of test resistors.
Besides the voltage drop, there are other reasons why very low impedance loads (i.e. 2 ohms) are problematic. The lower the load impedance, the heavier the required wire gauge. Heavy gauge speaker wire minimizes line loss and preserves the amplifier’s damping factor (significant for subwoofers). Cables for 2 ohm loads must be kept short or they may get ridiculously heavy.
We wouldn’t dream of putting weights in the trunk of our car to make it produce more power. It is equally silly to load down an amplifier to get more watts. | <urn:uuid:c695264b-562f-42a3-9d20-3c76e24b00fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.prosoundweb.com/article/clearing_up_the_mystery_confusion_with_amplifier_power_ratings/power/P2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900498 | 666 | 3.203125 | 3 |
is a key to the almost universally used crochet stitch symbols.
Japanese patterns almost never have text instructions; their designers know that few non-Japanese people read the language. So they've developed crochet charting to a level most Western designers haven't (although Interweave publications are giving it a good run for its money).
Just as a starter, find "Row 1" of the body of the Wrap
near the bottom of page 2 on the charted pattern. (There's another Row 1, but it belongs to the decorative border. More about that later.)
Each little oval beneath the "body" Row 1 represents one chain stitch, the 136 cast-on chain stitches. Note that, as in knitting charts, the odd
rows are worked and read from right to left, and the even
rows are worked and read from left to right.
"Row 2" is immediately above Row 1. Your eyes are not deceiving you: not all of the Row 1 chain stitches will be worked into. Now proceed with
dc in 5th ch st from hook, (ch 1, dc into same ch st) twice, ch 1, sc into 4th ch st from base of 1st dc. (You have made half of a fan.) Then ch 3.
Now make a full fan: sc into next foundation ch st, (ch 1 dc into 4th ch st from sc) 6 times, ch 1, sc into 4th chain st from base of dc sts. Make 15 full fans (the number of repeats is from the page 1 schematic).
Finish Row 1 with another half-fan. This one is slightly different from the half-fan that began Row 1; this one has 4 dc sts rather than 3 dc sts.
ch 2, sc in first ch-1 sp (ch 2, 2 dc in 3-sc picot sp) twice, ch 2, sc in center ch-1 sp of first Row 1 full fan. Repeat across the row, ending with a sc in the "loop" that was created when you made the first dc in Row 1, and then make 1 hdc.
These two rows together make the Pattern Stitch.
When the body of the Wrap is finished, you'll make sc sts into either each ch st all the way around or into each ch sp all the way around, then make two more rows of sts. The first decorative border row consists of dc and ch sts; the second contains dc sts and ch-3 picots.
HTH; it will look beautiful when it's done! | <urn:uuid:42b239d1-e4a9-4fdd-a81e-b9c8ee1807d9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.knittinghelp.com/forum/showthread.php?mode=hybrid&t=115488 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939894 | 525 | 2.703125 | 3 |
In the 1730s, Handel went from being the leading voice of Italian opera in London to being a composer of immensely popular English-language oratorios. This transition, however, was not all smooth. Although “Israel in Egypt” wasn’t Handel’s first oratorio, it was the first to be set entirely to a biblical text, taken from the book of Exodus by future “Messiah” collaborator Charles Jennens. It was also Handel’s first oratorio to feature an important role for the chorus. The audience wasn’t sure what to make of it at first, and Handel put the work through countless revisions throughout his remaining years. “Israel in Egypt” features some of Handel’s most colorful writing—particularly when God rains various plagues upon the Egyptians and the music cleverly depicts buzzing locusts and leaping frogs. | <urn:uuid:6c4fcfb5-3c31-43eb-9042-677200a4397b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://indianapublicmedia.org/ethergame/ground-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964815 | 190 | 3.265625 | 3 |
About the Book
Table of Contents
Time and Eternity:Creation and the
Theory of Relativity
IT WILL BE convenient
in this study to consider the matter under two headings, one
of which is strictly in the realm of physics and the other in
the realm of philosophy. The first is the relativity of
time, and the second is its co-existence with the created
order. Or to put it a little more elaborately, the first consideration
is how fast time really goes and whether it has a fixed speed
independently of experience. And the second consideration is
what happens to experience in the total absence of time. The
first question involves us in a brief historical review which
will prepare the way for a survey of some important passages
of Scripture that involve the second.
1 of 6
In spite of what has been said
above about the dangers of using analogies, even a historical
sketch of this subject has to depend to a large extent upon analogy.
It used to be thought that light was, as it were, instantaneous.
No sooner did a man switch on his flashlight than the beam hit
the wall. But in the seventeenth century, an astronomer named
Ole Roemer (1644-1710) found that eclipses to the moons of Jupiter
occurred sixteen minutes earlier when Jupiter and the earth were
on the same side of the sun than when on opposite sides. He rightly
concluded that light was not instantaneous. The difference in
distance between the earth and Jupiter in the two situations
made the light late in arriving, for it was actually taking time
for it to travel over the intervening gap. He calculated that
the moons circling the planet took so many hours to travel round
once, thus establishing a regular time cycle for eclipses. These
eclipses could then be clocked, and by projecting the time interval,
could thenceforth be guaranteed to occur regularly over any number
of years providing it did not slow down.
However, it was found that when
the planet Jupiter was on the other side of the sun from the
earth, the time sequence was thrown out and the eclipses were
sixteen minutes late. Sixteen minutes is 960
seconds. The orbit of
the planet gave the difference in the distance when on the same
and on the opposite side of the sun. This distance divided by
960 revealed that the speed of light must be approximately 186,000
miles per second. His discoveries were published posthumously
in 1735. Subsequent experiments gave a more accurate figure of
186,319 miles per second
This discovery was very quickly
seen to be the possible answer to another question which had
been troubling astronomers for some time. This question had to
do with the speed of the earth through the supposed ether. And
this second question took a form something like this: because
light and heat reached the earth from the sun, it was assumed
that some kind of medium existed to convey the waves. However,
if this medium had any kind of "substance," it seemed
obvious that the earth would burn up as it raced through it in
its circuit around the sun. The problem was to find a medium
real enough to convey waves, but thin enough to offer no resistance
to the passage of a body through it.
But this contingency led to a further
question: Was this medium stationary with respect to the universe,
pervading it uniformly in every part of it, like a sea in which
the stars plowed their way? In which case the actual speed of
the earth relative to the universe and to all other moving bodies
in it ought to be discoverable. To determine this was very desirable.
Our sun with all the other stars appears to be rushing madly
outward as the universe expands. This assumption is based on
certain observations which we do not need to enter into here;
it is sufficient to say that the distance between other galaxies
and our own seems to be increasing as the periphery of the universe
is enlarged. However, this increase in distance could mean that
we might be chasing these remote galaxies but losing in the race,
like a dog chasing a car. Or they may really be chasing us while
we make our escape. All that we know about it is that the distance
between these systems appears to be growing gradually greater.
But if the ether is stationary, it would be possible to discover
who was chasing whom, and absolute motions could be calculated
A man who strolls the deck of a
modern liner may be travelling relative to the vessel at two
miles per hour. If the boat is at rest on the St. Lawrence, this
is his absolute motion and direction with reference to the river.
If the boat begins to move at 15 knots, the whole problem changes.
His speed relative to the boat is still 2 m.p.h., but to the
river may be 13 or 17 knots depending on the direction of his
walk. If he happens to be crossing the boat from side to side,
his motion relative to the river is 15 knots one way and 2 m.p.h.
When the current of the river is taken into account, all these
speeds are affected and altered relative to the shore and unless
he is in sight of some object on the shore which he knows to
be stationary, he can never determine his actual speed with respect
to the earth itself. But when the motion of the earth around
the sun and the sun among the stars has also to be considered,
his absolute motion becomes exceedingly difficult to determine,
because there is no fixed point on the "shoreline"
of space by which it can be gauged. It had been hoped that the
ether might provide this gauge.
If we know that a wind is passing
us at 60 m.p.h. and we have a wind gauge in our hands, we can
from this knowledge discover our own speed. If the wind gauge
indicates a higher figure, it is because we are travelling toward
it. If the reverse, the opposite is the case. If there is no
difference, we are probably stationary. We need to know only
that the wind is passing us at a uniform speed, and the measurement
of all subsequent movement is possible, given enough instruments.
Every effort to demonstrate the
reality of the ether had failed, and we therefore had no "sea"
through which the earth was passing with all the other stars
which could serve as a basis for establishing absolute movement.
But suddenly it appeared that a new yardstick had been provided
by Roemer's discovery. Without going into too many details, it
seemed obvious that light passing through a current of ether
would be either accelerated or slowed up if such a fluid medium
did in fact exist to create a current, depending on which way
the light was travelling.
The history of the experiments
which were at once undertaken to test this hypothesis is now
probably quite familiar. The most famous investigation has since
been known as the Michelson-Morley Experiment, and it was the
findings of these two scientists which led Einstein in 1905 to
formulate the first two principles of his Special Theory of Relativity.
The historical background has been given clearly and accurately
by R. S. Shankland in the British Journal Nature. (3)
A. A. Michelson was born December
19, 1852, in Strelno, Germany. When he was two years old, the
family moved to California. In 1869 he entered the U.S. Naval
Academy at Annapolis. Here, in 1877, he made his first measurements
of the speed of light and subsequently in 1880, while at the
College de France, invented the Michelson Interferometer as a
means for measuring the earth's motion through the ether. His
interest in this problem had been
3. Shankland. R. S., "Michelson, A. A.,
1852-1931," in Nature, vol.171, 17 Jan., 1953,
aroused by a letter from
James Clark Maxwell, who emphasized that all experiments to observe
the earth's motion through the ether, which depended on measuring
the first power of the ratio of the earth's speed to that of
light, were doomed to failure. He said, in effect, that no terrestrial
experiment for measuring the velocity of light could ever detect
the earth's motion in space. This was a challenge to Michelson.
His first experiment was made in Helmholtz's laboratory in the
University of Berlin. Both this and a second trial in 1881 gave
a null result, although Michelson himself never considered it
In 1882 Michelson returned to Cleveland
and made further measurements on the speed of light, obtaining
a value of 299,853 plus or minus 60 kilometers per second, the
most reliable measure until 1927. He subsequently met Edward
W. Morley while attending a series of lectures by Lord Kelvin,
and the two men collaborated in further experiments, using more
In 1886 Michelson and Morley together
undertook the investigation which has since been known as the
Michelson-Morley Experiment. All kinds of precautions were taken
to render any results obtained absolutely conclusive. As Shankland
put it: (4)
The work with this apparatus
continued from 1886 until July 1887 and was conducted in buildings
on the adjacent Case and Western campuses. The definitive null
result obtained in these experiments led to profound changes
in the development of Physics. . . . It is needless
to say that the most direct and now universally accepted explanation
for the Michelson-Morley Experiment . . . is provided by the
Special Theory of Relativity given by Albert Einstein in 1905.
J. W. N. Sullivan
has summarized the significance of these events. (5)
Since then the Michelson-Morley
Experiment has been repeated many times. In principle it is very
simple, and consists in comparing the velocity of light in different
directions. If the earth is moving through a stationary ether,
it can be shown that two rays of light, the one moving in the
direction of the earth's motion, and the other at right angles
to it, should take unequal times to cover the same distance.
But although the experiment has often been repeated, no difference
has ever been found, although in some of these experiments the
apparatus has been so delicate that a difference one hundred
times less than the difference expected could have been measured.
. . .
The dilemma thus created is a very
real one and the way out, which was shown by Einstein in 1907,
is an effort of genius of the highest order. . . . Einstein
asserted that the velocity of light is always the same whether
we measure this velocity from a system which is in motion or
a system which is at rest.
4. Ibid., p.102.
5. Sullivan, J. W. N., Limitations of Science, Pelican,
London, 1938, p.69.
often happens in the history of science that an effort to prove
a theory fails in its immediate objective but leads by accident
to a much more important truth. This was so in the case of the
Michelson-Morley Experiment: it led ultimately to the discovery
that light impacts an object at a uniform velocity regardless
of whether the object is moving toward or away from the source
of light at any speed less than the speed of light. Einstein's
principle of constancy means that light rays if unobstructed
have an observed constant velocity irrespective of the relative
velocity between the observer and the source of light. Or to
put it slightly more dramatically in the words of William Hudgings:
Einstein's declaration is that
if two observers are on the opposite sides of the rotating earth,
one revolving away from the sun and the other toward it, the
instruments of each observer will indicate that the rays from
the flash are travelling past him at exactly the same speed of
186,000 miles per second regardless of whether he is travelling
towards or away from the sun.
As it stands,
this seems like an impossibility.
With profound insight, Einstein
had pointed out in so many words that while the speed of impact
of the light must logically be different, it could not be measured
because the rate of flux of time was changing in such a way as
to conceal any difference in the two velocities being measured,
and time is a basic function of velocity. It is as though two
watches keeping different time, one faster than the other, were
being employed in this one experiment, the one watch for the
speed of light in one direction and another watch for the speed
of light in the other direction, so that by taking into account
the difference in the time intervals shown by the two watches
which were not synchronized together, the logical contradiction
could be explained. The question then arises which of the two
watches was keeping "correct" time. Einstein's answer
is "both" and "neither": there is no such
thing as correct time in the sense of Absolute Time. The passage
of time is entirely relative, and its rate of flow is established
by each observer in each situation for himself -- quite unconsciously.
In some way, Nature has contrived ‹ sometimes the word conspired
is used ‹ to make it impossible to discover any absolute
passage of time.
However, in any given situation
there is a measurable flow of time which makes possible
the measurement of distance or volume or speed for that particular
situation. Time therefore becomes the
6. Hudgings, W. F., An Introduction to
Einstein's Theory of Relativity, Haldiman-Julius, Girard,
Kansas, 1923, p.23.
fourth dimension of all
measurements taken within the framework of the physical universe.
Without time no thing exists, and without things time has absolutely
no meaning. This brings us in a circle, back once again to the
observation made by Einstein which we have already quoted: (7)
If you don't take my words too
seriously, I would say this. If we assume that all matter would
disappear from the world, then, before relativity, one believed
that space and time would continue existing in an empty world.
But according to the theory of relativity, if matter and its
motion disappeared there would no longer be any space or time.
One is reminded
of the profound insight of Augustine, that time began with Creation.
Or, to use his own words, "Beyond doubt, the world was made
not in Time, but together with Time." (8)
As Sullivan says, Nature knows
nothing of the distinction we make between space and time. The
distinction we make is due to a psychological peculiarity of
our own minds. This brings us to one consideration which is a
little difficult to deal with because it is very easy to confuse
the physical aspects of the Theory of Relativity with the psychological
aspects. And these in turn have to be distinguished from what,
for want of a better term, we can only refer to as the spiritual
aspects. So we turn, first, to psychology and the realm of experience.
7. Einstein: quoted by Philipp Frank, Einstein:
His Life and Times, Knopf, New York, 1947, p.178
Copyright © 1988 Evelyn White. All rights
Previous Chapter Next Chapter
8. Augustine: De Civitate Deo, Book 11, chapter 6 | <urn:uuid:118eb09d-2290-414d-b3de-65b1ca294a7a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.custance.org/Library/Volume6/Part_I/chapter1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954387 | 3,308 | 3.34375 | 3 |
As Beach Erosion Accelerates, Remedies Are Costly and Few
Published: August 1, 1989
(Page 3 of 3)
Dr. Pilkey pointed out some of the island's problems: protective dunes have been leveled for easy development; roads run straight back from the beach, providing overwash channels for floodwaters; marshes that could have absorbed storm water have been filled and built on. Even two low places on the island, where inlets formed in Hurricane Hazel in 1954, have houses on them now.
And there has been no big storm to test what Dr. Pilkey calls ''stack-a-shack'' condominums that line the beach in the island towns of Atlantic Beach and Emerald Isle.
The boom in coastal development over the past 20 years has occurred in a time of low storm activity. Max Mayfield, a hurricane specialist at the National Hurricane Center in Coral Gables, Fla., said only about half as many major hurricanes have struck the United States mainland since 1970 as in the 30 years previous.
To be covered by Federal flood insurance, buildings must conform with codes requiring, among other things, that they be elevated and that all ground-level walls be ''break-away'' to allow a storm surge to pass through. But many older houses do not meet such codes and many new buildings have been modified with solidly constructed living areas on the ground level.
''They're like rotten apples in a barrel,'' Dr. Pilkey said. When these buildings are estroyed in a storm, surging water can crash the debris they produce into other houses.
But Dr. Pilkey also pointed out steps property owners had taken to restore some of the protective beach landscape destroyed in development. For example, some homeowners are running sand fences across the beach in front of their homes. Sand collects at the fences, starting the process of dune formation. Others have planted sea grass and other vegetation to hold the dunes, and have built wooden walkways across them so that the plants are not damaged.
Such steps will not save structures from destruction in a major hurricane, Dr. Pilkey said, but they can reduce damage in lesser storms. What of the Future? Difficult Choices Still Lie Ahead But what should public officials do when developed areas are threatened?
In principal, said Dr. Leatherman, ''I'd say, let 'em take their licks.''
''But,'' he said, ''the reality is that Ocean City is Maryland's major resort. It's a place where the average person can afford a vacation in, and it's a place the masses enjoy. I would say you can't let Ocean City fall in.''
For now, he said, the best way to protect resorts like Ocean City is to nourish the beaches with sand. But as sea levels rise, such programs get more expensive. ''We may have to abandon more of the beach and wall up the rest'' of the island, he said.
Dr. Houston also said that while he believed undeveloped barrier islands ought to be left that way, where development exists, ''Why not protect it?''
''In California there are earthquakes,'' he said. ''In geologic time, which is the kind of time Orrin Pilkey likes to talk about, it's probably going to be destroyed. But we don't say people can't build in California. We don't say people can't build in Kansas because of tornadoes.''
But for people like Dr. Pilkey, the choice is simple. ''I feel that beaches should be viewed as sacred,'' he said. ''I can't accept the idea that any development should have any consequence as opposed to a beach.'' | <urn:uuid:995c7a59-9b74-4642-a226-5a9e2f7e66b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/01/science/as-beach-erosion-accelerates-remedies-are-costly-and-few.html?pagewanted=3&src=pm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964774 | 754 | 2.875 | 3 |
Space Cover #180: The Space Shuttle's First Flights: Enterprise and the Approach and Landing Tests
35 years ago, from February to October 1977, NASA's first space shuttle orbiter, OV-101 Enterprise, was involved in the Approach and Landing Test (ALT) Program at Edwards AFB, CA. ALT was designed to test the flight characteristics of the space shuttle orbiters, by simulating a typical approach and landing profile from orbit.
Enterprise was carried aloft a total of 13 times by a Boeing 747, the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA). The first five flights, from February 18 to March 2, 1977, were called Inactive Captive flights (Enterprise unmanned), then from June 18 to July 26, three more flights took place, called Active Captive, with Enterprise manned by a 2-man astronaut/pilot crew. And then on August 12, Enterprise was released from atop the SCA for its first of five free flights. Piloting Enterprise on its first, third and fifth free flights were Fred Haise and Gordon Fullerton. Joe Engle and Richard Truly piloted Enterprise on its second and fourth free flights. These five flights were the only time that Enterprise ever flew alone.
The top cover is a Rockwell Space Division Stamp Club cover for Enterprise's rollout from its assembly plant in Palmdale in September 1976. It is also canceled for its final free flight on October 26, 1977 and autographed by the four NASA astronaut pilots who comprised the two 2-man flight crews. the bottom NASA Exchange cover marks the first of five Inactive Captive flights and is autographed by the SCA crew, including SCA commander Fitz Fulton.
The top cover, autographed by the crew of Haise and Fullerton, marks Enterprise's first manned Active Captive flight. The bottom cover marks Enterprise's first of five free flights.
The top cover marks Enterprise's second free flight and is autographed by the crew of Joe Engle and Richard Truly. The bottom cover is canceled for the first ALT free flight and is autographed by the SCA crew and the four ALT Enterprise astronaut pilots.
Enterprise did its important part in paving the way for the later shuttle orbital flights and is now residing as a museum piece at the Intrepid Sea, Air and Space Museum in NYC. | <urn:uuid:a8c0ef7d-0a02-4577-89f5-3915084cbc31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.collectspace.com/ubb/Forum20/HTML/000825.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965317 | 475 | 2.90625 | 3 |
An increasing number of developing countries have adhered to international fisheries instruments over the past few years. Implementation of these instruments is a formidable challenge for the fisheries authorities of these countries, which in most cases suffers from a lack of human and financial resources. Application of the four components of sustainability shows that developing countries have, so far, been unable to translate fisheries management principles into effective management actions. Lack of good governance in all dimensions of fisheries management was identified as the principal obstacle to achieving sustainability. It was argued that unless this issue is addressed, it would very difficult for developing countries to improve significantly the effectiveness of fisheries management.
The purpose of this paper is to examine whether developing countries have been able through the implementation of international fisheries instruments to address effectively the main factors contributing to unsustainability and overexploitation that were identified and discussed in the framework of a first workshop organized by FAO in February 2002. The approach elected to carry out this objective consisted in analyzing the way fisheries management is conducted in two countries familiar to the author and where fisheries is significant both economically and socially, namely, Senegal and Indonesia.
In recent years, international initiatives have led to the improvement of the international legal and policy framework for fisheries management through the adoption of international fisheries instruments and the establishment of regional fishery bodies. An increasing number of developing countries have, over the past few years, ratified or adhered to major international fisheries instruments and become members of regional fishery bodies. This trend is encouraging as it reflects developing countries interest in strengthening regional cooperation and in improving international fisheries management.
The present document aims to: identify the main constraints faced by developing countries in implementing international fishery instruments; assess the extent to which the implementation of such instruments has contributed to lessening the impact of the main factors of unsustainability and overexploitation; and suggest steps towards sustainability.
2. DIFFICULTIES AND OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF MAJOR EXISTING FISHERIES INSTRUMENTS
This section attempts to identify the main difficulties and obstacles that developing countries are confronted with in implementing major fisheries instruments. To this end, the present document examines whether fishery management in developing countries is successfully achieving the four components of sustainability as identified by the first workshop: bio-ecological, social, economic and institutional.
2.1 Bio-ecological component of sustainability
Analysis of national fishery policies and fishery laws and regulations shows that main bio-ecological objectives embedded in major international fishery instruments, such as the need to protect, conserve, and restore fishery resources, the marine environment, habitats, ecosystems and biodiversity, the need to create the conditions capable of producing the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) as well as the need to take all necessary measures to avoid overexploitation are widely recognized. While it is fair to say that the bio-ecological aim enshrined in international fishery instruments is generally well understood by fishery authorities, this may not be necessarily so at the grass-root level. Indeed, local fishers may not be aware of the importance of such issues as well as their implications on their livelihood and thus not fully understand where their long-term interests lie. In a context of fierce competition, as is often the case in coastal areas, awareness, however, may not necessarily be conducive to responsible fisheries practices, as some fishers may feel compelled to use harmful fishing methods in order to survive. Therefore, while the degree of awareness tends to vary in relation to the education level of each individual fisher, use of responsible fishery practices by local fishers depends primarily on the local context and on their ability to make a decent living by using such practices.
While the need to protect the marine environment, habitats and marine ecosystems is generally recognized in recent fishery legislation, one notes that the inclusion of such principles in the law does not necessarily carry any legal implication. Hence, management institutions and fishers may not feel compelled to abide by them.
So far, protection and conservation of marine biodiversity and ecosystems through the establishment of marine parks or other types of protected areas have had limited success in developing countries as most of them do not have the necessary means to implement and enforce the conservation and management measures provided for in the management plans for these areas. Likewise, implementation of conservation and management measures prohibiting the use of harmful fishing gear or methods has proved difficult to achieve.
Regional fishery bodies have been instrumental to the promotion of the main bio-ecological aims of fisheries management at the regional level, notably, through the organization of workshops on specific aspects of fishery management. They provide a forum of discussion where experiences can be shared amongst fishery managers and where strategies to ensure implementation of international instruments at the regional level can be developed. In this regard, one should point out that regional plans of action for the protection of certain species such as sharks have been adopted in certain areas. National plans of action, however, have yet to be developed in most developing countries.
While there is a general consensus on the need to improve fishing gear selectivity and to promote environmentally safe fishing gear and methods, little has been done so far to achieve these goals. Moreover, too many legal frameworks still do not provide sufficient safeguards to prevent the introduction and use of harmful fishing gear or methods.
Few conservation and management measures have been adopted to address the issues of by-catch and discard and to ensure the conservation and protection of associated species. Lack of adequate data gathering systems prevent fisheries authorities from measuring the impact of these issues. Some States, however, have taken action by enacting regulations prohibiting discard and restricting the amount of by-catch that can be landed in specified fisheries.
2.2 Social component of sustainability
2.2.1 Safety at sea
In recent years, improvement of safety at sea in small-scale fisheries has come to the forefront of fisheries management in many developing countries. Increasing competition for dwindling resources has led many small-scale fishers to fish further out at sea increasing risks of collision with industrial fishing vessels and merchant ships. Small-scale fishing vessels are generally poorly equipped, lacking the most basic safety equipment such as life vests, radio HF or radar reflectors. In the face of frequent losses of life at sea, many governments have launched safety-at-sea programs with the support of foreign aid and have introduced regulations requiring small-scale fishing vessels to meet minimum safety and seaworthiness standards. Typically, such regulations require that safety vests, lights, radar reflectors, fire extinguisher, first-aid kit and anchors be carried on board. GMDSS pilot projects aiming at establishing GMDSS centres and at equipping all small-scale fishing vessels with a radio HF and EPIRB are tried in certain areas. Despite all these initiatives, much effort remains to be made to make these programs fully effective. The fact that small-scale fishers are often poorly organized compounds the implementation of such programs. Lawmakers in some countries have envisaged introducing regulations conditioning access to fisheries by small-scale fishing vessels to compliance with safety and seaworthiness standards as is required for industrial fishing vessels. In practice, high degree of compliance with such measures is unlikely unless small-scale fishers understand the benefits they can derive from such measures and required equipment is made affordable.
Loss of life at sea is a frequent occurrence in fishing communities and may have enduring social implications on the families of deceased fishers. Although many communities still rely on traditional solidarity systems to support the families of deceased fishers, these mechanisms often prove insufficient to sustain these families in the long run. Hitherto, banks or other financial institutions have failed to devise insurance products tailored for the needs of small-scale fishers.
2.2.2 Fair and healthy working conditions
While it is the duty of governments to ensure fair and healthy working conditions for fishers, rules governing living and working conditions on board fishing vessels have yet to be developed in many developing countries. Absence of legal protection results in living and working conditions on board fishing vessels often not satisfying internationally agreed standards. In addition, it prevents fishers from taking legal action. Furthermore, it should be emphasized that fishers social and legal status are often ill-defined as lawmakers, in many developing countries, have failed to specifically address this issue.
Lack of organization, in particular in the small-scale fisheries sector, prevents fishers from influencing decision makers effectively and thus from protecting their rights efficiently.
2.2.3 Quality and safety of fish and fishery products
In many developing countries, quality and safety standards to be applied to fish and fishery products depend on whether such fish and products are to be exported or consumed locally. For the former, stringent quality and safety standards modelled after those applicable in the targeted markets apply. Countries such as the United States of America, Japan and the European Union impose drastic quality and safety standards on fish and fishery products to satisfy local consumers and require that all imported fish and fishery products meet these standards. By contrast, few quality and safety standards governing the harvesting, handling, processing and distribution of fish and fishery products have been developed in the latter.
Profitability is the driving force behind the enactment of regulations governing safety and quality of fish and fishery products in many developing countries, as such fish and products fetch much higher prices in the US, Japanese or EU markets than in local ones. In the meantime, little attention, if any, has been paid to the need to improve the safety and quality of fish and fishery products in local markets, even though harvesting, handling, processing and distributing practices are recognized to be of low standards. Some countries have been as far as introducing EU or US regulations in their national legislation without adjusting them to the local context. As a result, such rules are totally inapplicable locally, except for a few fishing companies and processing plants targeting foreign markets. Failure to set appropriate quality and safety standards for fish and fishery products traded in local markets adversely affects public health and the general well-being of populations.
2.3 Economic component of sustainability
2.3.1 Management of fishing capacity
It is the duty of coastal States to ensure that the fishing capacity deployed in their waters is commensurate with the productive capacity of the fishery resources, the environment and the ecosystem. To this end, States are required to assess the fishing capacity of all the fleets of principal fisheries, including foreign vessels duly authorized to operate therein, and to update this assessment periodically. Fulfilling this obligation is likely to be a challenge for many developing countries provided that few systematically register or record small-scale fishing vessels and that accuracy of information entered into industrial fishing vessels registers is questionable, as there is no local expertise to verify the accuracy of such information. It is widely recognized, for instance, that many industrial fishing vessels recorded tonnages are understated or false. Failure to register or record small-scale fishing vessels combined with recording of unreliable data on the industrial fishing fleet are likely to distort the overall assessment of fishing capacity. This may in turn prompt fisheries managers to make wrongful conclusions and propose inappropriate national plans of action for managing fishing capacity. Inaccurate assessment of fishing capacity at the national level is also likely to affect effective management of fishing capacity at the regional level.
Most developing states do not have the financial and human means to ensure a systematic and accurate monitoring of the fishing capacity.
Where required, reduction of fishing capacity may be difficult to achieve, in particular in areas where alternative sources of employment and livelihood for fishing communities are not readily available.
2.3.2 Trade of illegally-caught fish
States have a duty to prevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishing. To this end, they are required, among other things, to take all necessary measures to prevent fish caught by vessels engaged in IUU fishing from being traded or imported into their territories. While regional commitment to combat IUU fishing has been forcefully proclaimed in certain areas, actions to make this commitment effective have yet to be undertaken at the national level. Little has, indeed, been done to devise or strengthen national strategies and procedures for port State control of vessels involved in fishing and related activities. Appropriate links and cooperation mechanisms between port and fishing authorities, which are critical to make control and monitoring effective, are still lacking.
Most States have yet to review their legal framework to ensure that it provide fisheries managers and law enforcement officers with all the necessary legal tools to prevent and deter IUU fishing.
2.4 Institutional component of sustainability
2.4.1 Data gathering and management advice
Lack of sufficient and reliable scientific information to evaluate the state of the fishery resources is a major problem hampering the devising of conservation and management measures, the development of fisheries management plans and the determination of Total Allowable Catch (TAC). Uncertainty may lead to wrongful managerial decisions.
Research programs in support of fishery conservation and management are not always properly tailored to the needs of fisheries managers and policymakers.
Funding is generally insufficient to ensure the sustainability of research programs in support of fishery conservation and management. Scarcity of financial resources results in research programs being discontinued at times and/or heavily dependent upon foreign aid through execution of projects. Needless to say that irregular funding of research programs undermines the effectiveness of fisheries management.
Tools and procedures to ensure timely, complete and reliable collection of statistics on catch and fishing effort have been established through laws and regulations. Keeping of logbook and position reporting by industrial fishing vessels are required in most developing countries. Maintenance of collected information, however, does not always comply with applicable international standards and does not always provide sufficient information to enable sound statistical analysis. In this regard, it should be emphasized that developing countries often lack appropriate software programs and the necessary expertise to perform meaningful analysis of the collected data. Oftentimes, updating of data lags behind and no appropriate data verification system is designed, thus encouraging underreporting and misreporting of catch. Moreover, no proper safeguards designed to ensure confidentiality of collected information, including access, use and disclosure, have been developed.
Collection of complete and reliable statistics on catch and fishing effort from small-scale fisheries is a major problem due, inter alia, to the difficulty for understaffed fishery authorities to control scores of landing sites and to the high rate of illiteracy amongst small-scale fishers. It should be pointed out that provisions pertaining to data collection provided for in fisheries laws and regulations are primarily aimed at industrial fishing vessels. Few, if any, rules designed to ensure collection of data from small-scale fisheries are devised. Where such rules have been enacted, one notes that it is generally extremely difficult to implement them satisfactorily. In certain areas, local and regional projects have contributed to the strengthening of data collection systems from small-scale fisheries. However, ensuring the sustainability of such systems in the long run remains a challenge in most developing countries.
Socio-economic studies generally sponsored by foreign aid have contributed to improve knowledge and understanding of socio-economic issues in the fishery sector and to the taking into account of social and economic factors in fishery management. However, there is no systematic gathering and analysis of socio-economic data.
2.4.2 Management framework
126.96.36.199 Fisheries management plans
It should be pointed out that broadly stated management objectives, enshrined in developing countries fishery policies and basic fisheries laws, are rarely translated into management actions. In this regard, it is interesting to note that many fisheries legislation make it a legal obligation for the competent authority to devise comprehensive fisheries management plans and to review them periodically. Experience has shown, however, that most developing countries have yet to develop such plans. Meanwhile, developing countries have adopted general management measures applicable throughout their waters without specific reference to particular fisheries. Lack of reliable scientific data and insufficient knowledge explain to a large extent why many developing countries have failed to draw up fisheries management plans. Lack of local expertise, complexity of multispecies fisheries, and lack of political will are other factors contributing to this situation.
Mechanisms to evaluate policies and management performance have rarely been put into place thus failing to create proper incentives to improve fisheries management.
188.8.131.52 Planning of coastal areas multiple uses
The extent to which fisheries interests are taken into account in the multiple uses of coastal areas and are integrated into coastal area management, planning and development varies from one country to another. It depends essentially on the political weight of fishing communities and producer organizations, on the socio-economic importance of the fisheries sector in the country and on the ability of the fisheries department to ensure that the fisheries sector is recognized as a legitimate user of coastal areas. Formal mechanisms designed to ensure that all interests are fairly taken into account and properly balanced in the management of coastal areas have yet to be devised.
Adequate protection of marine ecosystems, habitats and biodiversity cannot be achieved unless all users of the marine environment cooperate with a view to reaching that goal. It is therefore the duty of governments to facilitate the achievement of that goal through the establishment of proper consultation mechanisms and decision-making processes and through the devising of effective linkages between all interested departments and authorities. Ultimately, such action may translate into the development of an integrated coastal zone management plan. So far, many governments have failed to coordinate the actions undertaken by all interested departments and authorities so as to ensure that a global and integrated approach to the protection and the conservation of the marine environment is applied. Environment is, to some extent, still perceived as a preoccupation of rich countries and therefore is not yet regarded as a priority in many developing countries.
In order to secure the long-term exploitation rights of aquaculturists, it is critical that governments ensure the taking into account of aquaculture interests in the multiple uses of the coastal zone and their integration into coastal area management, planning and development.
2.4.3 Legal and administrative framework
Implementation of major international instruments generally requires that States translate their international rights and duties under such instruments into national legislation. This process may be slow at times and result in time-lag, which is a major impediment to effective implementation of international instruments.
184.108.40.206 Access conditions
Most coastal States have opted to restrict access to their fishery resources through the establishment of a licensing system. Such a requirement is generally applicable to all industrial fishing vessels, whether foreign or national, operating within waters under national sovereignty or jurisdiction and also, but not always, to small-scale fishing vessels. In certain areas, where fishing communities are well-organized and politically influential, governments may be reluctant to subject small-scale fishing vessels to a licensing regime. The need to maintain peace may also prevent the introduction of such a regime in other areas. In countries where a license is required for any small-scale fishing vessel, implementation of such a requirement has often proved difficult, if not impossible, to achieve due, notably, to the failure of the administration to systematically record small-scale fishing vessels and to the lack of understanding of such a measure by fishing communities. In this regard, one should not underestimate the fact that the need to first obtain a license to fish in the sea area adjacent to coastal villages is a concept still foreign to many fishing communities where freedom of fishing, and thus free and open access to fisheries, is a long-standing principle. Non-compliance to such a requirement is also the result of the fisheries authorities being often ill-prepared to carry out that task.
Recent fisheries legislation generally subject flag vessels to an authorization regime to fish on the high seas or in the waters under the sovereignty or jurisdiction of a third party. Some developing States, however, object to the inclusion of such a requirement in their fisheries law on the ground that it is irrelevant since no flag vessels undertake any fishing operation on the high seas and/or that it is the duty of the coastal state in the waters of which a flag vessel wishes to fish to ensure that vessels operating therein comply with applicable legal requirements. Few developing States, even where a special authorization to fish on the high seas is required under national law, are able to exercise effectively their jurisdiction and control over such vessels. Data on catches on the high seas are scarce. Where existent, competent authorities have no means to verify their accuracy. So far, few States have established and maintained an up-to-date national record of fishing vessels authorized to fish on the high seas, making the goal of establishing a regional register or record of fishing vessels difficult to achieve.
Access by foreign fishing vessels to fisheries under national sovereignty or jurisdiction is generally allowed through fisheries agreements concluded between States or through chartering arrangements. It should be no surprise that, in cash strap countries, conclusion of fisheries access agreements is, at times, dictated more by the prospect of making short-term financial gains rather than based on managerial considerations. Such approach runs counter to fisheries management principles and is likely to affect the long term sustainability of fishery resources. It may also adversely impact the livelihood of small-scale fishers.
Few measures have yet been taken by developing States to ensure that flag vessels do not engage in IUU fishing. In particular, little has been done to avoid flagging vessels with a history of IUU fishing. Likewise, not enough attention is paid to vessels previous history, when deciding whether to grant such vessels an authorization to fish within waters under national sovereignty or jurisdiction.
220.127.116.11 Decision-making process
In recent years, many developing States have introduced mechanisms designed to ensure transparency in decision-making process and procedures to facilitate involvement of interested parties in the development of laws and policies related to fisheries management. Participation of fishers in law enforcement has also been experimented in some countries. While it is too early to measure the extent to which the introduction of such mechanisms and procedures has improved fisheries managements effectiveness, it is clear that fishing communities have shown a great deal of interest in being involved in the decision-making process. General discussions and debates leading to the establishment of participatory mechanisms and consultation procedures have revealed that whatever the form of the mechanisms proposed meaningful participation of interested parties must be ensured to improve confidence in the management system and willingness to support conservation and management measures.
Lack of transparency in the license allocation process is likely to undermine the effectiveness of the management system.
18.104.22.168 Monitoring, control and surveillance
It is the duty of States to ensure compliance with and enforcement of conservation and management measures and establish effective mechanisms to monitor and control activities of fishing vessels. To this end, many coastal States require that duly authorized industrial fishing vessels be registered and properly marked, maintain a logbook, undertake regular technical visits, embark observers on board and communicate their geographical position regularly. Satisfactory implementation of such measures has proved difficult to achieve for most developing countries due to well-known constraints, particularly lack of financial and human capacity. For a long time, monitoring and control measures were primarily directed at industrial fishing vessels, while little attention was paid to small-scale fisheries. Lately, however, the need to control and monitor the fishing effort of small-scale fishing fleets as well has been increasingly recognized. So far, few countries have managed to systematically register and mark their small-scale fishing vessels. Lack of monitoring and control of small-scale fisheries combined with increasing competition result in very low compliance with conservation and management measures by small-scale fishers.
Many coastal States impose duly authorized foreign fishing vessels and often, but not always, certain categories of flag vessels to take on board one or two observers when operating within waters under national sovereignty or jurisdiction. Running of observer programs is costly and developing States do not always have the capacity to ensure that observers are adequately qualified to carry out their tasks and receive proper financial incentives to perform their duties honestly. In addition, observers status is not always well-defined as they are often employed on a contract basis and thus are not part of fishery authorities staff. Furthermore, considering the risks to which observers are exposed, States do not always provide them with sufficient legal protection.
While recognized as a key component of MCS system, surveillance at sea, using traditional means (surface and aerial surveillance), has proved way too costly to operate for developed and developing countries alike. Over the past decade, more and more developing States have opted to install a vessel monitoring system (VMS) using satellite communications to improve the cost-effectiveness of surveillance at sea. Introduction of VMS has sparked a shift in surveillance strategies and led management authorities to rethink the way of using traditional means of surveillance in support of VMS. So far, however, most developing States have failed to establish proper mechanisms to coordinate actions by the fishery authority, the Navy and the Coast Guards (both being responsible for law enforcement at sea and owners of patrol vessels).
It is widely recognized that in port monitoring and control of fishing fleets is critical to deter IUU fishing and trade in illegally caught fish. It appears, however, that little has been done to improve in port monitoring and control procedures in developing countries as focus of fishery authorities is primarily directed at acquiring new technology through the installation of VMS. Monitoring and control of small-fishing activities is virtually inexistent.
Although many developing coastal States have enacted legislation providing for the protection of marine ecosystems and biodiversity from marine pollution and have designated competent authorities for administering such legislation, few actions have ensued. As a consequence, nowadays few States have the capacity to monitor the state of the marine environment and are adequately prepared and equipped to prevent, mitigate and combat marine pollution (e.g. development of contingency plans, acquisition of equipment). Moreover, failure to establish such monitoring systems also undermines States ability to protect public health effectively.
Aquaculture contributes to the diversification of income in many developing countries. Shrimp aquaculture, for instance, is a lucrative business in Asia. Development of this activity, however, has had some adverse impacts on the environment in coastal areas. Large swaths of mangrove, for example, have been destroyed in order to dig ponds for shrimp farming. Degradation of water quality has occurred in some areas due to aquaculture activities (dejection of farmed animals, use of chemicals, wastewater discharge). Escape of genetically modified organisms is also a potential threat to the local biodiversity and the balance of marine ecosystems. While an increasing number of developing States has improved the legal framework governing aquaculture activities by requiring, for instance, environmental impact assessment prior to authorizing the exploitation of fish farms, by imposing restriction on the use of chemicals, and by subjecting use of fresh water, wastewater discharge, and movement of farmed species to authorization systems, a lot remain to be done to strengthen technical controls of aquaculture activities and make them fully effective.
22.214.171.124 Law enforcement
It is the duty of States to ensure that their legislation provide for adequate sanctions in respect of violations. Imprisonment, which was a common feature of fisheries law adopted in the eighties, has been struck out of most recent fisheries legislation, while fishery authorities have been empowered to refuse, withdraw or suspend licenses in the event of non-compliance with conservation and management measures. The threat of having their license withdrawn or suspended is a potent deterrent for fishers as it prevents them from going to sea and hence from generating revenues. However, lack of enforcement and lack of appropriate procedures to ensure transparency in decision-making and thus avoid arbitrariness undermines the effectiveness of this approach in many countries.
To ensure swift decisions and thus avoid the lengthy procedures of court proceedings, lawmakers have, in an increasing number of countries, introduced, in their fisheries legislation, mechanisms providing for out-of court settlement. These mechanisms allow designated authorities to compound all or certain categories of offences. Lack of adequate procedures and proper safeguards to ensure transparency and fairness in decision-making has unfortunately led to arbitrary decisions. It should be pointed out that in certain countries, where there exists general distrust in the judicial system, use of compounding has replaced court decisions.
Rules of evidence are generally given little attention by lawmakers in fisheries legislation since general rules defined in criminal and civil law are generally applicable. Use of new technology in fisheries management requires that States develop new sets of rules to specify the evidential value of information generated by the new technology (e.g. VMS position reports).
While water pollution generated by fishing vessels or fish farms is an offence under the fisheries and aquaculture laws of some countries, few make the destruction or degradation of ecosystems or habitats caused by such activities (e.g. use of explosives or noxious substances) an offence and provide for the restoration of the resources, ecosystems or habitats that may have been adversely affected. Although remedy may be sought under environmental legislation, it would be useful to incorporate language dealing with this issue in fisheries laws.
Lack of regional or sub-regional cooperation in monitoring, control, surveillance and enforcement (MCSE) undermines the effectiveness of law enforcement of individual coastal Sates, especially with regard to IUU fishing.
2.4.4 Precautionary approach
Recent fishery policies and legislation require decision makers to apply the precautionary approach to conservation, management and exploitation of fishery resources. In practice, too many fishery managers still postpone or fail to take conservation and management measures on the ground that no sufficient and reliable scientific evidence is available.
Few States have developed a global strategy to implement the precautionary approach.
2.5 Cooperation to promote conservation and responsible fishing
As was noted at the first workshop, the focus of many international fishery instruments is on action at the regional level, primarily through the establishment of regional fishery bodies. In recent years, many regional fishery bodies have been created to enhance regional cooperation. Some of the existing regional fishery bodies are ineffective as they lack the proper financial resources to operate and lack effective participation by members. Failure of members, particularly developing countries, to discharge their responsibilities under international instruments is an issue of concern that needs to be urgently addressed.
Regional cooperation is critical to improve monitoring, control, surveillance and enforcement of fisheries management measures as the FFA example in the South Pacific region illustrates. Most regional fishery bodies promote the strengthening of regional cooperation in MCSE and advocates the development of regional VMS and the establishment of regional fishing vessels registers. While many States have expressed their interest in strengthening regional cooperation in MCSE, they have yet to translate their political commitment into action.
Bilateral agreements designed to improve management of shared stocks and MCS over both the industrial and small-scale fishing fleets have been signed in some areas of the world. Although such initiatives contribute to bolster sub-regional cooperation, their effects on fisheries management have, so far, not been significant as States often fail to discharge their responsibilities under the agreements.
The costs of implementing international instruments are prohibitive for some countries. Hence, in a context of proliferation of international agreements, some developing States are likely to opt not to participate in international instruments that they do not view as essential for their interests and by doing so may undermine regional cooperation.
Table 1. A summary of major difficulties and obstacles to implement major existing fisheries instruments by developing States (bio-ecological, social and economic)
1. Lack of awareness and understanding or disregard of fishery management principles at the grass-root level
2. Most conservation and management measures aimed to protect and conserve marine biodiversity, habitat and ecosystems and to prohibit the use of harmful fishing gear and methods have to a large extent been ineffective
3. Few actions have been undertaken to improve selective and environmentally safe fishing gear and methods
4. Little has been done to address comprehensively the issues of discard and by-catch
1. Implementation of safety-at-sea program so as to reduce losses at sea has proved difficult to achieve
2. No insurance products tailored for the needs of small-scale fishers available
3. Absence or lack of legal protection to ensure fair and healthy working conditions on board fishing vessels
4. Social and legal status of fishers are ill-defined
5. Fishers are generally not sufficiently organized to influence effectively political decisions affecting their livelihood
Failure to improve the quality and safety of fish and fishery products destined for local markets
1. Inability to manage fishing capacity effectively
2. Lack of economic alternatives impedes implementation of plans of reduction of fishing capacity
3. Ineffective port State control and monitoring procedures to prevent and deter IUU fishing
Table 2. A Summary of major difficulties and obstacles to implement major existing fisheries instruments by developing States (institutional component)
1. Lack of sufficient and reliable scientific information undermines effective management
2. Sustainability of research programs in support of fishery conservation and management is not secured
3. Ineffectiveness of data collection systems and lack or absence of verification procedures
4. Lack of appropriate procedures to ensure confidentiality of data
5. Lack of appropriate mechanisms to ensure data collection from small-scale fisheries
6. Failure by management institutions to develop fisheries management plans as required by law and to devise mechanisms of evaluation of policies and management performance
7. No formal mechanism to ensure the integration of fisheries interests in the multiple uses of coastal areas
8. Failure to establish proper coordination mechanisms amongst all users of the marine environment undermines the protection of the marine ecosystems, habitat and biodiversity
9. Integration of aquaculture interests into coastal area management, planning and development is required to secure long-term exploitation rights
10. Limited-entry through licensing system is ineffective, particularly for small-scale fisheries
11. Inability of developing States to exercise effectively their jurisdiction and control over flag vessels authorized to operate on the high Seas or in third party waters
12. Access by foreign fishing vessels for short-term financial gains may undermine the long-term sustainability of the fishery resources
13. Failure to take action to prevent flagging and licensing of vessel with previous history of IUU fishing
14. Lack of transparency and meaningful participation of fishers in management system
15. Low compliance with management measures
16. Lack of safeguards to ensure effectiveness of observer programs
17. Lack of proper mechanisms of cooperation and coordination undermines surveillance effectiveness
18. Failure to improve in port monitoring and control procedures to deter IUU fishing
19. Failure to establish adequate monitoring system of the marine environment
20. Insufficient technical control of aquaculture activities
21. Lack of transparency and fairness in decision-making leads to arbitrariness in law enforcement
22. Distrust in judicial system
23. Review of rules of evidence in fisheries law
24. Inadequacy of the legal framework to protect and conserve marine biodiversity and ecosystems and to provide for appropriate remedy
25. Poor application of the precautionary approach
26. Failure of States to discharge their responsibilities under international agreements
27. Cost of implementing international instruments is prohibitive
3. WHY IS FISHERIES MANAGEMENT NOT SUCCESSFUL?
Participants in the first workshop noted that factors contributing to unsustainability and overexploitation are of a similar nature in almost all fishery systems and jurisdictions, if on a different scale and with a variable degree of importance. It identified six general categories of factors of unsustainability, namely, inappropriate incentives, high demand for limited resources, poverty and lack of alternatives, complexity and inadequate knowledge, lack of governance and interactions of the fishery sector with other sectors, and the environment. This section examines how main factors of unsustainability interact with the achievement of the bio-ecological, social, economic and institutional components analyzed in Section 2 of this document.
3.1 Inappropriate incentives
Lack of transparency and participation of fishers in the management system undermines confidence and willingness to comply with management measures. To tackle this problem, many States, under pressure from donor agencies, have initiated programs designed to introduce some form of co-management mechanisms. Whatever the form of the proposed institutional arrangements, it is crucial that meaningful participation be ensured. Mere consultation of fishing communities may fall short of what is expected and is likely to be interpreted as a ploy from the government.
In a context of economic hardship and overexploitation, conclusion of fisheries access agreements for short-term financial gains sends the wrong signal to local fishers and generates strong feelings of distrust in government actions. This is particularly true where no or little moneys derived from these agreements are used by governments to improve social and economic conditions of local fishing communities.
3.2 High demand for limited resources
Growing demand for fish in a context of limited sustainable supply may result in market price increase. Higher prices may, in turn, provide an incentive for intensifying exploitation and expanding fishing capacity further. Prospects of making financial gains are likely to intensify pressure on governments to allocate more licenses.
3.3 Poverty and lack of economic alternatives
Overcapacity of the small-scale fishing fleet is to a large extent responsible for overfishing in coastal areas. Programs of reduction of fishing capacity in already overexploited fisheries are unlikely to succeed as there are few, if any, alternative sources of employment and livelihood in coastal areas. Moreover, migration of population to coastal areas increases pressure on fishery resources and exacerbates competition for space. This movement of population is also likely to give rise to conflicts between long-established coastal communities and new comers.
3.4 Complexity and inadequate knowledge
The complexity of many fishery systems as well as inadequate knowledge and understanding make it hard for fishery authorities to identify the right course of action.
In small-scale fisheries, high rates of illiteracy among fishers make it difficult to collect sufficient and reliable catch data.
3.5 Lack of governance
To be effective ocean governance requires a high level of cooperation between interested departments at the central level and between the central level and other levels of government as well as proper coordination of actions undertaken by each legitimate department or authority. So far, many States have failed to establish appropriate mechanisms of cooperation and coordination to ensure effective ocean governance. One of the reasons is that sectorial departments have no tradition of cooperating with each other. In this context, cooperation relies more on individual networking than on formally established institutional cooperation mechanisms. Improved cooperation between the Fishery Department, responsible for issuing fishing authorizations, and the Shipping Department, responsible for the flagging of vessels, including fishing vessels, is required in most States so as to avoid re-flagging of vessels with previous history of IUU and inaccurate declaration of vessels characteristics. Likewise, better cooperation is required between the Fisheries Department, the Navy and the Coast Guards to ensure compliance with management measures and law enforcement at sea. While the creation of environmental departments or agencies has been instrumental in improving the integration of environmental concerns in the devising of sectorial policies, much remains to be done to establish appropriate mechanisms designed to coordinate the actions of individual departments and agencies and to ensure their compatibility with the global environmental policy. Effective protection and conservation of the marine ecosystems, habitats and biodiversity can only be achieved through effective mechanisms of cooperation between all users of the marine environment.
Non-compliance with fisheries regulations is widespread and a major factor in unsustainability. A central issue for governments therefore is to identify the factors explaining non-compliance and to act upon them. Enacting ever more legislation and regulations is not going to solve the problem. Key elements that need to be addressed include: (1) ensuring widespread publication of enacted laws and regulations; (2) ensuring applicability of proposed measures; and (3) ensuring global coherence of the legal framework. Limited publication of laws and regulations results in their provisions not being well-known by fishers and enforcement agents alike. Too often proposed measures are inapplicable in the local context either because they have not been discussed with interested parties prior to their enactment or because they are not understood locally or are contrary to traditional practices. Another reason is that management institutions are not always ready to implement enacted laws and regulations (e.g. lack of implementing strategy) and/or do not have the necessary means to implement them.
Moreover, lawmakers must ensure the global coherence of the legal framework so as to avoid conflicting objectives (e.g. prohibition of using certain gear, while the importation and manufacturing of such gear is lawful).
Time-lag between the enactment of laws and regulations and their implementation undermines the timeliness and credibility of fishery management measures.
Poor law enforcement is a critical element in unsustainability. While financial and human constraints are partly responsible for lack of enforcement, other factors contribute to this situation. First, lack of cooperation amongst law enforcement departments and agencies undermines at sea and in port enforcement. Second, existing legal procedures are either insufficient or not scrupulously complied with (e.g. procedures governing arrest and release of vessels, report of violations, compounding). Third, lack of in-built legal safeguards in the decision-making process leads to arbitrariness (e.g. unchecked use of discretionary power).
Distrust in or deficiency of the judicial system results in criminal proceedings not being a deterrent. Indeed, it is not unusual in developing countries that law cases in fishery matters never reach the courts. While out-of-court settlement may be desirable to speed up the process, it should not be substituted to judicial review and should not lead to arbitrary decisions as is too often the case.
Mismanagement of qualified personnel is a common occurrence. Training programs proposed to local agents are not always relevant to the needs of the department.
Little attention has been paid by governments to provide conflict-resolution mechanisms to settle disputes among resource users whenever they cannot be settled within the community.
Transfer of excess capacity to other states or on the high seas is an issue of concern. In certain areas of the world, governments turn a blind eye to the illegal operations of their vessels outside their waters and in so doing fail to discharge their flag State responsibilities.
Adhesion to international agreements is at times a political gesture intended to send the right signal to the international community and donor agencies rather than a commitment to discharge responsibilities under the agreements.
Little attention has been paid to improve the social status of fishers and to provide them and their family with some type of insurance coverage.
3.6 Interactions of the fishery sector with other sectors, and the environment
It is a duty of governments to ensure a balanced and peaceful development of coastal areas. To this end, improved planning, management and development of such areas involving local communities and authorities and development of an integrated policy are required.
Proliferation of projects supported by foreign aid requires a better coordination at the national level so as to avoid conflict of objectives.
Activities of other sectors in coastal areas are likely to affect fisheries activities in one way or another (e.g. pollution, competition for space or resources). Since these factors are beyond the control of the fisheries sector, there is a need to integrate the impact of such activities in fisheries management and to take actions in order to mitigate their negative effects on fisheries activities.
4. HOW CAN THE DIFFICULTIES AND OBSTACLES BE OVERCOME?
The first workshop concluded that the main problem was not the lack of international instruments, but the lack of implementation of such instruments. One cannot agree more with this statement in particular for developing countries as shown in Sections 2 and 3 of this document. The workshop identified seven types of measures to address the issue of unsustainability, namely, rights, transparent and participatory management, support to science, planning and enforcement, benefit distribution, integrated policy, precautionary approach, capacity building and public awareness raising and market incentives.
This section examines how the identified paths to solution listed above could help to overcome the difficulties and obstacles to successful implementation of fishery management.
The granting of secure rights to resource users for use of portion of the catch, space, or relevant aspects of the fishery would certainly be an incentive for rights owners to use responsible fishing practices and to comply with management measures. The difficulty would be to select the appropriate criteria to determine who would be entitled to apply for such rights and who would not. In the context of developing countries, such approach may be difficult to achieve, especially where no economic alternatives to fishing is available.
The granting of secure rights to qualified fish farmers for the use of water and space, both on land and at sea, are crucial for the development of aquaculture.
There is a need to improve legal protection of fishers in many developing countries. This can be done through the clarification of their social and legal status and through the devising of specific sets of rules governing working conditions of fishers on board fishing vessels both in the industrial and small-scale fishing sectors (e.g. conditions of employment).
4.2 Transparent, participatory management
There is an urgent need to ensure transparency in decision-making processes through the establishment of appropriate mechanisms and procedures and to provide for meaningful participation of stakeholders in the full range of management. In small-scale fisheries, for instance, where surveillance is complex and virtually inexistent in most developing countries, involvement of fishing communities and local and traditional authorities in the monitoring and controlling of landing sites through the devising of appropriate mechanisms is critical to improve fishery management. Such steps would also be instrumental in restoring confidence in the government.
To avoid arbitrariness in decision-making processes, proper safeguards should be provided for in legislation (e.g. obligation to motivate decision where a right is denied, incorporation of appeal procedures, and restriction of discretionary power).
4.3 Support - science, enforcement, planning
While providing the resources necessary for all aspects of fishery management is certainly desirable, it is, as of yet, a wishful thinking in the context of developing countries. Therefore, effort to use more rationally whatever resources are available and to find ways to increase or secure financial support should be pursued. Particular effort should be directed at ensuring the long-term sustainability of programs started with the help of foreign aid and expertise (e.g. data collection system, MCS programs).
4.4 Benefit distribution
There is little doubt that unless socio-economic issues in coastal areas are addressed comprehensively by governments, plans of reduction of fishing capacity in over-fished coastal areas are unlikely to be successful. Therefore, economic tools to distribute benefits from the fishery could be used to tackle these problems. Adoption of such an approach, however, is likely to depend on the ability of the Fisheries Department to convince the government of the necessity of taking such a course of action.
4.5 Integrated policy
There exists a large consensus in the need to develop and apply an integrated policy if fishery management is to be effective. To do so, proper coordinating mechanisms between sectorial institutions would have to be devised as lack of cooperation is likely to be one of the main constraints to the achievement of this goal in developing countries.
4.6 Precautionary approach
Application of a precautionary approach in fisheries management is inscribed in most recent fisheries legislation. So far, however, few governments seem to have devised a strategy for its application. Failure to do so has led many governments to refuse to take action to reduce fishing capacity arguing that there is no sufficient scientific evidence to support that view. This shows that much effort remains to be done to ensure proper understanding and therefore proper application of the precautionary approach.
4.7 Capacity building and public awareness building
Capacity building is a central issue to help developing countries manage their resources effectively and has been rightly recognized as such by the international community as its inclusion in most development projects indicates. It is required in all aspects of management. Attention should also be given to the need to support the action of the judiciary as it is necessary to restore trust in the judicial system if judicial review is to be perceived as a deterrent.
Large dissemination of information to increase awareness of policymakers, lawmakers, enforcement officers and the public at large about main fisheries issues is required if the importance of what is at stake through fishery management is to be widely understood. Increased awareness and better understanding of fisheries issues by stakeholders will in turn improve the quality of their participation in the decision-making process and make it more meaningful.
4.8 Market incentives
In developing countries, effective use of market tools to improve responsible fishing requires that producers and the public at large be better informed about main fisheries issues.
So far, developing States have had little success in implementing international fishery instruments effectively. Lack of political will plays an important role in governments inability to discharge their responsibilities under international fishery instruments as few of them have devised any strategy for their implementation.
While, as shown above, an array of factors contribute to ineffective fisheries management, the main constraint appears to be that of bad governance. Bad governance affects all dimensions of fisheries management. Of particular importance is the failure of governments to provide for adequate mechanisms and procedures in decision-making processes (to ensure transparency and fairness) and in coordinating of actions between different entities at the various levels of government. Although progress has been made to ensure participation of stakeholders in fisheries management through the establishment of fisheries management committees or other institutional arrangements, more effort remains to be made to ensure the proper functioning and the long-term sustainability of such mechanisms. For a long time, governments have primarily directed their actions at industrial fisheries, while little attention has been paid to small-scale fishers. Where it has, it generally responds to a need to maintain peace in coastal communities, but rarely translates a willingness to improve their economic and social conditions. Another result of bad governance is the general distrust in the judicial system displayed by people in many developing countries. This, of course, should be a matter of primary concern as it reflects States inability to enforce the rule of law.
Steps towards sustainability should therefore primarily focus on the need to improve governance through capacity building, awareness raising and strengthening of the rule of law.
| The views expressed
in this paper are solely those of the author, Philippe Cacaud, consultant,
Viry, France, [email protected].|
See: Report and Documentation of the International Workshop on Factors Contributing to Unsustainability and Overexploitation in Fisheries (Bangkok, Thailand, 4-8 February 2002) . FAO Fisheries Report, No. 672. Rome, 2002. | <urn:uuid:89ce25b4-37fb-46e4-a779-d49e13ba4b45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5242e/y5242e0l.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944278 | 10,236 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Urban and rural schools across the state of Michigan are working to increase academic performance by involving students in efforts to improve the environment. This work is the focus of a new documentary, “Growing Up Green,” which begins running on public broadcast stations in April.
The 27-minute documentary features work done by students in nine different hubs across Michigan, including the Kent County hub Groundswell, which is housed at Grand Valley State University’s College of Education. Students from Grand Rapids C.A. Frost Environmental Science Academy and East Kentwood High School make appearances in the film showing work completed through their school’s environment-centered service learning projects.
“Growing Up Green” will air on WGVU-TV Sunday, April 27 at 4 p.m. and Monday, April 28 at 11:30 p.m.
For more information on Groundswell at Grand Valley, contact Colleen Bourquec, at (616) 331-6804 or visit www.gvsu.edu/coe. | <urn:uuid:db5ea9f7-8315-4c1e-ac93-65ac485fb105> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gvsu.edu/gvnow/index.htm?articleId=93540CA3-C6F3-A00A-399D8D73CAEFB2B5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950549 | 212 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The new American history blog Almost Chosen People reminds us that today is the anniversary of the Gettysburg Addess, delivered on Nov. 19th, 1863. The Gettysburg Address stands unique, to my knowledge, in the American branch of the English-speaking world as the only speech by a political leader which is widely memorized and quoted in its entirety long after the fact. There are some isolated famous sections of speeches by FDR, JFK and Martin Luther King which are widely remembered, but unless anyone else can think of anything I’m completely forgetting, the Gettysburg Address is uniquely treated as a piece of rhetoric which is remembered and memorized in its entirity. (I still recall it nearly word for word, having memorized it in fifth grade.) Indeed, the only other similarly treated piece of oratory I can think of is the (fictional) Crispin’s Day speech in Shakespeare’s Henry V.
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that this nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate…we cannot consecrate…we cannot hallow…this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us…that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
From our international readers, I’m curious: What pieces of oratory are similarly remembered in the British-English world, or in other non-English-speaking countries? | <urn:uuid:a272639e-8d2c-4ccd-83e7-006766c40e83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://the-american-catholic.com/2009/11/19/long-remembered/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963446 | 536 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Blood pressure is a strong, independent and modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular and renal diseases. In view of the continuing epidemic of hypertension-related disorders, effective public health approaches that lead to population-wide reductions in blood pressure are warranted. More than half of cardiovascular events could be prevented by a healthy diet and lifestyle. Well-established dietary factors that lower blood pressure are weight reduction in overweight and obese individuals, reduced salt intake and moderation of alcohol use. Increasing the intake of potassium, especially in the context of a high salt diet, can also reduce blood pressure. There is growing interest in total dietary patterns, such as the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet that emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains and low-fat dairy products. Dietary protein may be more beneficial to blood pressure than carbohydrates. Also, polyphenols (e.g. in cocoa) have been shown to lower blood pressure through improved endothelial function. A state-of-the art overview on the potential role of these and other dietary factors in the prevention of hypertension will be presented.
(C) 2012 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. | <urn:uuid:e2699b46-1f76-4715-9715-4ae46c6f1b66> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://journals.lww.com/jhypertension/Abstract/2012/09001/412_DIETARY_INFLUENCES_ON_BLOOD_PRESSURE_.388.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921679 | 233 | 3.453125 | 3 |
This chapter describes server load balancing (SLB) as implemented in the Cisco Application Control Engine (ACE) module. It contains the following major sections:
•Server Load-Balancing Overview
•Real Servers and Server Farms
•Configuring Traffic Classifications and Policies
•Connection Limits and Rate Limiting
•Operating the ACE Strictly as a Load Balancer
•Where to Go Next
Server Load-Balancing Overview
Server load balancing (SLB) is the process of deciding to which server a load-balancing device should send a client request for service. For example, a client request may consist of a HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) GET for a web page or a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) GET to download a file. The job of the load balancer is to select the server that can successfully fulfill the client request and do so in the shortest amount of time without overloading either the server or the server farm as a whole.
The ACE supports the load balancing of the following protocols:
•Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)
•Reliable Datagram Protocol (RDP)
•Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP)
•Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
Depending on the load-balancing algorithm—or predictor—that you configure, the ACE performs a series of checks and calculations to determine which server can best service each client request. The ACE bases server selection on several factors including the source or destination address, cookies, URLs, HTTP headers, or the server with the fewest connections with respect to load.
The ACE uses the following predictors to select the best server to fulfill a client request:
•Application response—Selects the server with the lowest average response time for the specified response-time measurement based on the current connection count and server weight (if configured).
•Hash address—Selects the server using a hash value based on either the source or destination IP address or both. Use these predictors for firewall load balancing (FWLB). For more information about FWLB, see Chapter 6, Configuring Firewall Load Balancing.
•Hash content—Selects the server using a hash value based on a content string in the Trusted Third Parties (TTP) packet body.
•Hash cookie—Selects the server using a hash value based on a cookie name.
•Hash header—Selects the server using a hash value based on the HTTP header name.
•Hash URL—Selects the server using a hash value based on the requested URL. You can specify a beginning pattern and an ending pattern to match in the URL. Use this predictor method to load balance cache servers.
•Least bandwidth—Selects the server that processed the least amount of network traffic based on the average bandwidth that the server used over a specified number of samples.
•Least connections—Selects the server with the fewest number of active connections based on server weight. For the least-connections predictor, you can configure a slow-start mechanism to avoid sending a high rate of new connections to servers that you have just put into service.
•Least loaded—Selects the server with the lowest load based on information obtained from Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) probes. To use this predictor, you must associate an SNMP probe with it.
•Round-robin—Selects the next server in the list of real servers based on the server weight (weighted round-robin). Servers with a higher weight value receive a higher percentage of the connections. This is the default predictor.
Note The hash predictor methods do not recognize the weight value that you configure for real servers. The ACE uses the weight that you assign to real servers only in the least-connections, application-response, and round-robin predictor methods.
For more information about load-balancing predictors, see Chapter 2, Configuring Real Servers and Server Farms.
Real Servers and Server Farms
This section briefly describes real servers and server farms and how they are implemented on the ACE. It contains the following topics:
To provide services to clients, you configure real servers (the actual physical servers) on the ACE. Real servers provide client services such as HTTP or XML content, hosting websites, FTP file uploads or downloads, redirection for web pages that have moved to another location, and so on. The ACE also allows you to configure backup servers in case a server is taken out of service for any reason.
After you create and name a real server on the ACE, you can configure several parameters, including connection limits, health probes, and weight. You can assign a weight to each real server based on its relative importance to other servers in the server farm. The ACE uses the server weight value for the weighted round-robin and the least-connections load-balancing predictors. For a listing and brief description of the ACE predictors, see the "Load-Balancing Predictors" section. For more detailed information about the ACE load-balancing predictors and server farms, see Chapter 2, Configuring Real Servers and Server Farms.
Typically, in data centers, servers are organized into related groups called server farms. Servers within server farms often contain identical content (referred to as mirrored content) so that if one server becomes inoperative, another server can take its place immediately. Also, mirrored content allows several servers to share the load of increased demand during important local or international events, for example, the Olympic Games. This sudden large demand for content is called a flash crowd.
After you create and name a server farm, you can add existing real servers to it and configure other server-farm parameters, such as the load-balancing predictor, server weight, backup server, health probe, and so on. For a description of the ACE predictors, see the "Load-Balancing Predictors" section. For more detailed information about the ACE load-balancing predictors and server farms, see Chapter 2, Configuring Real Servers and Server Farms.
You can instruct the ACE to check the health of servers and server farms by configuring health probes (sometimes referred to as keepalives). After you create a probe, you assign it to a real server or a server farm. A probe can be one of many types, including TCP, ICMP, Telnet, HTTP, and so on. You can also configure scripted probes using the TCL scripting language.
The ACE sends out probes periodically to determine the status of a server, verifies the server response, and checks for other network problems that may prevent a client from reaching a server. Based on the server response, the ACE can place the server in or out of service, and, based on the status of the servers in the server farm, can make reliable load-balancing decisions. For more information about out-of-band health monitoring, see Chapter 4, Configuring Health Monitoring.
Configuring Traffic Classifications and Policies
The ACE uses several configuration elements to classify (filter) interesting traffic and then to perform various actions on that traffic before making the load-balancing decision. These filtering elements and subsequent actions form the basis of a traffic policy for SLB. This section contains the following topics:
•Filtering Traffic with ACLs
•Classifying Layer 3 and Layer 4 Traffic
•Classifying Layer 7 Traffic
•Configuring a Parameter Map
•Creating Traffic Policies
•Applying Traffic Policies to an Interface Using a Service Policy
Filtering Traffic with ACLs
To permit or deny traffic to or from a specific IP address or an entire network, you can configure an access control list (ACL). ACLs provide a measure of security for the ACE and the data center by allowing access only to traffic that you explicitly authorize on a specific interface or on all interfaces. An ACL consists of a series of permit or deny entries with special criteria for the source address, destination address, protocol, port, and so on. All ACLs contain an implicit deny statement, so you must include an explicit permit entry to allow traffic to and through the ACE. For more information about ACLs, see the Cisco Application Control Engine Module Security Configuration Guide.
Classifying Layer 3 and Layer 4 Traffic
To classify Layer 3 and Layer 4 network traffic, you configure class maps and specify match criteria according to your application requirements. When a traffic flow matches certain match criteria, the ACE applies the actions specified in the policy map with which the class map is associated. A policy map acts on traffic ingressing the interface to which the policy map is applied through a service policy (globally to all VLAN interfaces in a context or to a single VLAN interface).
Class maps that operate at Layer 3 and Layer 4 for SLB typically use virtual IP (VIP) addresses as matching criteria. For details about Layer 3 and Layer 4 class maps for SLB, see Chapter 3, Configuring Traffic Policies for Server Load Balancing.
Classifying Layer 7 Traffic
In addition to Layer 3 and Layer 4 class maps, you can also configure Layer 7 class maps for advanced load-balancing matching criteria, such as HTTP cookie, header, and URL settings. After you configure a Layer 7 class map, you associate it with a Layer 7 policy map. You cannot apply a Layer 7 policy map to an interface directly (see the "Creating Traffic Policies" section). For details about Layer 7 class maps for SLB, see Chapter 3, Configuring Traffic Policies for Server Load Balancing.
Configuring a Parameter Map
A parameter map combines related HTTP or RTSP actions for use in a Layer 3 and Layer 4 policy map. Parameter maps provide a means of performing actions on traffic that ingresses an ACE interface based on certain criteria, such as HTTP header and cookie settings, server connection reuse, the action to take when an HTTP header, cookie, or URL exceeds a configured maximum length, and so on. After you configure a parameter map, you associate it with a Layer 3 and Layer 4 policy map. For details about configuring an HTTP or RTSP load-balancing parameter map, see Chapter 3, Configuring Traffic Policies for Server Load Balancing.
Creating Traffic Policies
The ACE uses policy maps to combine class maps and parameter maps into traffic policies and to perform certain configured actions on the traffic that matches the specified criteria in the policies. Policy maps operate at Layer 3 and Layer 4, as well as Layer 7. Because the ACE considers a Layer 7 policy map a child policy, you must associate each Layer 7 policy map with a Layer 3 and Layer 4 policy map before you can apply the traffic policy to an interface using a service policy. For more information about configuring SLB traffic policies, see Chapter 3, Configuring Traffic Policies for Server Load Balancing.
Applying Traffic Policies to an Interface Using a Service Policy
To apply a traffic policy to one or more interfaces, you use a service policy. You can use a service policy on an individual interface or globally on all interfaces in a context in the input direction only. When you use a service policy on an interface, you apply and activate a Layer 3 and Layer 4 policy map with all its class-map, parameter-map, and Layer 7 policy-map associations and match criteria. For more information about using a service policy to apply a traffic policy to an interface, see Chapter 3, Configuring Traffic Policies for Server Load Balancing.
Connection Limits and Rate Limiting
To help protect system resources, the ACE allows you to limit the following items:
•Maximum number of connections
•Connection rate (connections per second applied to new connections destined to a real server)
•Bandwidth rate (bytes per second applied to network traffic between the ACE and a real server in both directions)
For more information, see Chapter 2, Configuring Real Servers and Server Farms and the Cisco Application Control Engine Module Security Configuration Guide.
Operating the ACE Strictly as a Load Balancer
You can operate your ACE strictly as an SLB device. If you want to use SLB only, you must configure certain parameters and disable some of the ACE security features. By default, the ACE performs TCP/IP normalization checks and ICMP security checks on traffic that enters the ACE interfaces. Using the following configuration will also allow asymmetric routing as required by your network application.
The major configuration items are as follows:
•Configuring a global permit-all ACL and applying it to all interfaces in a context to open all ports
•Disabling TCP/IP normalization
•Disabling ICMP security checks
To operate the ACE for SLB only, perform the following steps:
Step 1 Configure a global permit-all ACL and apply it to all interfaces in a context. This action will open all ports in the current context.
host1/Admin(config)# access-list ACL1 extended permit ip any any
host1/Admin(config)# access-group input ACL1
Step 2 Disable the default TCP/IP normalization checks on each interface where you want to configure a VIP using a load-balancing service policy. For details about TCP normalization, see the Cisco Application Control Engine Module Security Configuration Guide.
host1/Admin(config)# interface vlan 100
host1/Admin(config-if)# no normalization
Disabling TCP normalization may expose your ACE and your data center to potential security risks. TCP normalization helps protect the ACE and the data center from attackers by enforcing strict security policies that are designed to examine traffic for malformed or malicious segments.
Step 3 Disable the default ICMP security checks on each interface where you want to configure a VIP using a load-balancing service policy. For details about the ICMP security checks, see the Cisco Application Control Engine Module Security Configuration Guide.
host1/Admin(config-if)# no icmp-guard
Disabling the ACE ICMP security checks may expose your ACE and your data center to potential security risks. In addition, after you enter the
no icmp-guard command, the ACE no longer performs Network Address Translations (NATs) on the ICMP header and payload in error packets, which potentially can reveal real host IP addresses to attackers.
Step 4 Configure SLB. For details, see the remaining chapters in this guide.
Where to Go Next
To start configuring SLB on your ACE, proceed to Chapter 2, Configuring Real Servers and Server Farms. | <urn:uuid:bb0f4008-4a5a-4230-acff-91849fc64ad5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/interfaces_modules/services_modules/ace/vA4_1_0/configuration/slb/guide/slbgd/overview.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.823502 | 2,988 | 2.8125 | 3 |
The valves are variable in size and shape and are more or less heteropolar. The headpole is broadly rounded, but the footpole varies between broadly rounded in the smaller valves and cuneately rounded in the larger valves. The valve face slightly concentrically undulate and is partially twisted about the apical axis. The fibulae are marginal and have a density of 6-8 per 10μm. The costae extend from the marginal area to the apical axial line in a density of 16-26 per 10μm. The areolae on the valve face, only visible in the SEM, are round and in rows of 1-2 near the apical axis and of 3-4 near the marginal area. There are what appear to be in the LM large areolae around the circumference of the valve but these are actually indentations in the valve face at the end of the striae.
Basionym: Surirella iowensis
Author: Lowe 1973
Length Range: 17-54 µm
Width Range: 10-25 µm
Striae in 10 µm: 18
Cells heteropolar, more or less torsioned about the transapical axis. Valves ovoid, with broadly rounded headpole and more narrowly rounded footpole, 17-54 µ long, 10-25 µ broad. wings little developed, “windows” not apparent. Wing canals 5-7 in 10 µ, extending to center of valve where they are interrupted by a narrow pseudoraphe. Surface of central portion of valve striate, striae about 18 in 10 µ.
Lowe, R.L. (1973). Notes on Iowa diatoms X: New and rare diatoms from Iowa. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 79:66-69, pl. 1-5.
Stoermer, E.F. (1963). New taxa and new United States records of the diatom genus Neidium from West Lake Okoboji, Iowa. Notulae Naturae 358: 1-9.
NADED ID: 65058 | <urn:uuid:bab3567b-9e78-4a3e-9a24-a22ff1bf40e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://westerndiatoms.colorado.edu/taxa/species/surirella_iowensis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.862662 | 440 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Marijuana Chemical May Fight Brain Cancer
Active Component In Marijuana Targets Aggressive Brain Cancer Cells, Study Says
April 1, 2009 -- The active chemical in marijuana promotes the death of brain cancer cells by essentially helping them feed upon themselves, researchers in Spain report.
Guillermo Velasco and colleagues at Complutense University in Spain have found that the active ingredient in marijuana, THC, causes brain cancer cells to undergo a process called autophagy. Autophagy is the breakdown of a cell that occurs when the cell essentially self-digests.
The team discovered that cannabinoids such as THC had anticancer effects in mice with human brain cancer cells and people with brain tumors. When mice with the human brain cancer cells received the THC, the tumor growth shrank.
Two patients enrolled in a clinical trial received THC directly to the brain as an experimental treatment for recurrent glioblastoma multiforme, a highly aggressive brain tumor. Biopsies taken before and after treatment helped track their progress. After receiving the THC, there was evidence of increased autophagy activity.
The findings appear in the April 1 issue of the Journal of Clinical Investigation.
The patients did not have any toxic effects from the treatment. Previous studies of THC for the treatment of cancer have also found the therapy to be well tolerated, according to background information in journal article.
Study authors say their findings could lead to new strategies for preventing tumor growth. | <urn:uuid:2b3c337c-4428-4b12-bf2a-40da8e5dcd8f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/cancer/brain-cancer/news/20090401/marijuana-chemical-may-fight-brain-cancer?src=rss_cbsnews | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946224 | 292 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Occupational therapy helps children achieve independence in all areas of their lives. It helps improve their cognitive, physical and motor skills and enhances their self esteem.
Fine motor skills are the basis for the preparation of the hand and are not only essential for handwriting but a necessity for daily living.
These skills are needed for writing, colouring, cutting, painting, playing with small objects, computer use and for self care activities such as tying shoelaces, dressing, doing buttons and zips and using a knife and fork. They are integral to a child’s development. Children who struggle with any of these activities often feel frustrated and their self esteem suffers.
Please view the navigation list for some exercises to help fine motor skill development | <urn:uuid:103f7d50-93fc-4d14-bfbc-a9033f09b9d7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ssli.ie/OT/index.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955188 | 148 | 3.546875 | 4 |
A Layered Drawing of a tree T is a drawing of T such that a vertex v of depth i has y-coordinate y(v) = -i. An algorithm constructs a drawing by computing the x-coordinates. We implement two methods for assigning x-coordinates. One is to set x(v) equal the rank of v in the inorder traversal of T, it works only for binary trees. Another one is by Reingold and Tilford (1983), it is a recursive drawing algorithm. For binary trees, after drawing the left and right subtrees, place the drawings of the subtrees at horizontal distance 2; place the root one level above and half-way between the children; however, if there is only one child, place the root at horizontal distance 1 from the child. This algorithm (Reingold and Tilford) has a straightforward generalization to rooted trees.
You can first set what kind trees (binary or rooted) you want to draw (the default is binary tree), and which drawing algorithm (Reingold-Tilford or inorder) you want to use (the default is Reigold-Tilford, and for rooted trees, you can use this algorithm only, the choice for inorder will be changed to R-T automatically), by clicking on named buttons below the first canvas. Then you can input your tree in the first canvas. You can either click on any point as the root or draw a line which will contains the root and its first child, then you can expand your tree by adding lines to any node. Note that if you choose a binary tree mode, any line to a node already with two children will be ignored. You are not allowed to draw the tree upward (the segment will be ignored). You may delete a node and all its children, to do this, you click on the delete button first to activate it (the button is checked), then click on the node you intend to delete. To deactivate delete function, click on the delete button again to make sure the button unchecked. After you draw a legal line (mouse-up), the layered drawing for you current tree will be displayed in the second canvas. You can move the displayed tree by clicking and dragging it.
You can read the book "Graph Drawing" by G. Battista, P. Eades, R. Tamassia, and I.G. Tollis. Draft available here. | <urn:uuid:a4710da9-1296-4c41-81fc-2343d393054e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cfm.brown.edu/people/hu/cs252/online.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925293 | 500 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Lead Hazards May Be In Your Home
In 1996, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission determined that there were hazardous levels of lead in imported, vinyl mini-blinds that could be especially hazardous to young children. They strongly recommended that the dangerous blinds be immediately removed from homes, apartments, and other dwellings. The blinds were once readily available in home improvement stores but are no longer imported into the U.S.
Young children under the age of six are most susceptible to the poisoning. It can happen either when the blinds are directly chewed, or possibly when the blinds dust, which may accumulate on the sill or floor as the blinds deteriorate, is touched and then the hand is touched to the mouth.
You may be asking yourself why this continues to be an issue in the U.S. It is because as people move into older homes and apartments that were built or decorated before 1996, the potential for lead poisoning still exists. It is important to be diligent about checking existing blinds in pre-1996 homes and apartments to be certain that they do not contain lead. In reality, it is probably cheaper to replace questionable blinds than to test them. And do not limit your diligence to your home. Childcare centers and homes of friends or relatives that your children may visit should also be of concern.
But blinds are not the only hazard. Lead-based paint remains a major concern along with water from old lead or lead-soldered pipes.
The dust produced while renovating homes built prior to 1978 could be especially hazardous if lead-based paints or products were used. The opening and closing of window or doors that were once painted with lead-based paint can be especially problematic as they can readily produce hazardous dust caused by the friction of their movement.
Depending on the severity of the problem, remedies for homes with lead paint may include a specialized process of repainting with lead-free paints or the need for full lead remediation and repainting. As always, where issues of safety are a concern, you should seek the advice of licensed experts. | <urn:uuid:9f0a99f9-d36d-4377-9156-1c3a726b88fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www1.americanblinds.com/control/infopage?page=article_get-the-lead-out.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970373 | 427 | 2.59375 | 3 |
6- Why is cancer incurable ?
In other words : What must be discovered, to lead to the cure of cancer ?
When a case has been cured, why was it possible when other cases, and most cases, have resulted in failure ?
It is true that in some cases there are hold-over symptom enough to lead to the remedy, but in most cases there is nothing discoverable but the malignant growth and its associated features of hardness, stinging pains, ulceration, enlarged glands and the tendency to involve the surrounding parts in its own development.
A neophyte could say that such a growth is malignant, without the aid of a microscope.
Then, in most cases, the paucity of symptoms is the present state of the situation.
If the child's mental symptoms could be fully ascertained, and the symptoms from the childhood to adult age, something might be done.
Cancer generally comes on in after life, when childhood actions have been forgotten.
The patient does not know her own childhood mental state, the parents may be dead, sisters and brothers may describe the antics of the child.
Many of our patients come to us with a history of old school drugging from childhood; every childhood morbid condition has been suppressed; eruptions have been suppressed; symptoms have been changed by crude drugs; no clear-cut representation of the constitution has been permitted to evolve.
We do not know whether the child was obstinate, hateful, ungovernable, hysterical, violent, slow in school work, or the opposite; we can learn only the commonest features of puberty, which is a most important time to investigate in all women.
If the symptoms that have appeared from birth to the present date are undiscovered, it is no wonder that cancer is incurable.
To cure any condition we must base the prescription on the totality of the signs and symptoms and not on the pathology.
The cancer is the ultimate. The symptoms from the first are the outward image of the patient. If they have been suppressed or changed by drugs that are not homoeopathic, there is nothing left for the homoeopath to do and the surgeon can do no better. Palliation and prolonging life are not curing.
"All curable diseases make themselves known to the intelligent physician in signs and symptoms."(Hahnemann.)
Pathological conditions, as also the patient, are incurable when there are no signs and symptoms, and so long as there are no signs and symptoms these remain incurable. In proportion as the pathology progresses the signs and symptoms decrease.
This is marked in cancer, in tuberculosis, in diabetes, in Bright's disease, and in all of the organic conditions of the body. In some instances, the remedy that was once indicated by mental and physical symptoms will cure even in moderately advanced pathological conditions; again, such a remedy will soon reveal that the patient has been sick too long and the pathology has progressed too far, and the reaction is so feeble that he sinks rapidly and the remedy must be antidoted.
I remember a patient who had long suffered from tuberculosis of the lungs; cavities were present; several haemorrhages had occurred; the mental and physical symptoms had called forPhosphorus from the early history, and even at the time he came this remedy fitted the symptoms.
Phosphoruswas given in high potency, as I had not then learned better, and there followed a high fever, involuntary diarrhoea, and sinking.
It was apparent that this patient would soon die, butArsenicum antidoted the over-action of Phosphorus and the patient lived several months.
The patient must have the reactive ability when the similar remedy is administered, or become worse after such a remedy than before.
Therefore, it is a homoeopathic remedy when the patient can react from it, otherwise it is only a similar agent and not a remedy.When a similar remedy is not a homoeopathic remedy is quite a new problem to many good thinkers.
It is never such when the patient lacks that reaction which is always depended on and so promptly noticed in all curable cases. Some patients have lost this reaction when there is no visible or discoverable organic disease.
This is what comes to the aged who die of senile debility and it may be said, as a fact, that the deceased had no disease.
We often see, in the last days of the aged, a quick response after the remedy, but it holds only a few hours and he sinks to his final rest. Quite similar is this lack of reaction in some feeble, young, and middle-aged people.
Whether it comes from constitutional debility or pathological conditions, the lack of vital reaction is the same.
When we think of the curability of cancer or tuberculosis, this is the question to be considered.
We can judge the measure of his reaction by watching the symptoms after the administration of the remedy. No two patients react the same.
It is generally safe to conclude that so long as signs and symptoms are present good vital reaction continues, but after the signs and symptoms have departed, and pathology has taken their place, it is impossible to predict what the quality of his reaction may be, until the patient has been tested by the similar agent.
When this is known, it will be easy to understand why old symptoms return, in chronic cases, after the administration of the similar remedy.
Patients having only feeble reaction are only palliated, while those of strong reaction go through all their past symptoms in the reverse order of their appearance.
In patients with cancer or tuberculosis, we may be quite certain of their ultimate recovery, if old symptoms return after administration of the remedy.
These patients seldom have the vital reaction strong enough to develop former symptoms, hence they are incurable.
To be able to perceive the remedy from the signs and symptoms in the present or history is one item of cure, but another and quite different item is the vital reaction of the patient. To find a remedy that will restore his lost vital reaction is thus far impossible. Even the surgeon's knife has been a failure.
Copyright © Robert Séror 1999 - Mise en page ® Sylvain Cazalet 1999 | <urn:uuid:3ba0c28a-320a-4b13-a960-903d12d5cc0b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.homeoint.org/books3/kentwrit/writ06.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968482 | 1,278 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Anabel Taylor Chapel
Cornell University Baroque Organ
Ithaca, New York
GOArt / Parsons / Lowe
In 2003 Cornell University began planning for a new Baroque organ that would complement the existing Aeolian-Skinner organ in Sage Chapel (Opus 1009 III/68, 1940), as well as other smaller instruments located on campus. The decision was made to place the new instrument in an enlarged rear gallery, constructed with heavy timbers, in the intimate acoustic of Anabel Taylor Chapel. The new Baroque organ would be built by the Gothenburg Organ Art Center (GOArt), part of Gothenburg University in Gothenburg, Sweden, under the primary leadership of researcher and organbuilder Munetaka Yokota. This would not merely be an organ in “Baroque style,” but as much as possible, a reconstruction of an organ that could have been built in the late 17th or early 18th centuries by the German builder Arp Schnitger. The organ that Schnitger built in 1706 for the Charlottenburg Schlosskapelle (Palace Chapel) in Berlin was used as the primary model. This instrument is unique in that it blends the usual characteristics of Schnitger’s instruments built for the area around Hamburg (northwest Germany and the Netherlands), and characteristics of instruments in eastern and central Germany similar to what Johann Sebastian Bach would have known. It was also a sizable instrument for the Palace Chapel in which it stood.
The Charlottenburg organ was unfortunately destroyed during World War II, but there are recordings of the organ in addition to several photographs and documentation data, which allowed GOArt to use the original organ as a model. Because the Charlottenburg organ was confined in an unusual space, it was decided to follow a different model for the case design. The organ built by Schnitger in 1702 for the church of St. Salvator in Clausthal-Zellerfeld was chosen as a model for the case. Although its mechanism has been replaced several times since, the original Schnitger case is still in existence.
During the planning for this project, it was also decided to research how Schnitger built instruments in a city that was some distance from his home in Hamburg. This prompted GOArt and Cornell to enlist cabinetmaker Christopher Lowe of Freeville, New York, and Parsons Pipe Organ Builders of Canandaigua, New York, as local collaborators on the project. GOArt would design the organ, make the pipes, and build the keyboards, pedalboard, music rack, and bench, and provide all of the blacksmith work. Chris Lowe would construct the case, moldings, and balcony structure, and Parsons would build all of the internal mechanism: bellows, foot pumping mechanism, wind trunks, sperrventile, tremulant, key action, stop action, and windchests. The Parsons firm, Chris Lowe, and Munetaka Yokota would all work together to install the completed organ once the organ was set up and tested at Parsons’ Canandaigua workshop.
Each new project brings its own set of challenges, and when a project involves three primary collaborators working for a university that demands perfection, those challenges could become overwhelming. However, working carefully through each new challenge, the final result speaks for itself as to the dedication to quality brought by each party.
One of the first challenges that we were presented with was the process of communicating design drawings. The design team in Gothenburg created a 3D CAD model of the organ. This model could be imported to our own 3D software, enabling us to measure components and create our own supplemental technical drawings. Three-dimensional computer modeling provides us with a greater sense of how all of the components relate to each other, allowing us to look at any combination of components and to rotate the computer model, and examine it from many angles. This was especially useful during this project, as this construction style was new to our staff and different from that to which we were accustomed.
Although the communication of CAD files across platforms provided challenges, other modern forms of communication were invaluable to this project, and are something that we guess Schnitger might have appreciated if it had been available to him. The use of Internet video conferencing allowed us to demonstrate and ask questions about specific shop techniques while allowing us to watch as Munetaka addressed these questions through demonstration, sketches, and gestures. These calls became daily occurrences during the latter part of the project and were crucial to its success.
This project was to be a “Process Reconstruction”—a term coined by the GOArt research team to describe the method used to discover unknown construction techniques, through the process of actually building the organ, rather than just through scholarly discussion. In other words, sometimes we cannot know the specific process or the correct way of building a component until we have experimented. In the end, this required us to learn many new skills and gave us an appreciation for the process that we may not have otherwise known.
The use of woodworking techniques consistent with the period was essential for the project’s success. We were permitted to use power equipment to mill lumber and cut it to size, but the final surface needed to show the traces of hand planing and scraping. As modern woodworkers, we are more likely to reach for our router or palm sander than for our hand plane. The necessity of using hand planes and scrapers in this project has re-trained us to reach for those tools and complete the task at hand before we could have gotten the router set up. The organ is made entirely of quarter-sawn white oak. This construction style relies heavily on joinery, some nails, and some glue. Long nails, ranging in length from 4 to 5 inches, were hand-forged by a blacksmith in Sweden, along with all the other ironwork required for the key and stop action, the bellows pumping mechanism, and the casework hinges and locks. Leather was provided by a German supplier, using period tanning techniques.
The key and stop actions are made in a manner consistent with Arp Schnitger’s practice. The key action rollers are made of white oak. Key action squares are made of iron and were supplied by GOArt. Most trackers and stickers are made of white oak, and the ends are hand wrapped with twine for strength. All metal trackers are of brass wire, and all trackers and stickers have hand-bent brass wire ends inserted. The key action is suspended, which means that the keys pivot at the tail and hang from the trackers or rest on the stickers from the chest. The Manual key action travels up from the key to the rollerboard, which is nailed to the back frame of the organ. The Rucwerk keyboard pushes stickers that carry the action to a rollerboard, which is located under the organist. The Pedal key action also relies on stickers that transfer motion to a rollerbox, which carries the motion, via trackers rather than rollers, to the Pedal chests on either side of the organ.
The stop knobs are made of pear that has been dyed black, with a bone button in the center. The stop action traces and trundles are made of white oak, with iron arms and levers. The iron arms are heated red-hot and then pounded into the oak trundles and are secured by quickly peening the iron.
The organ is winded from four large wedge bellows located in an isolated room in the tower of Anabel Taylor Chapel, approximately 30 feet above and behind the organ. The bellows can be foot pumped, or an electric blower can be used for practice without an assistant. Solid oak windlines connect these bellows to the organ. Windlines are joined with splines or inserted with tenons, and all joints are sealed with leather. A single Schnitger-style tremulant affects the entire organ.
Five windchests are located throughout the organ. The Manual and Pedal each have two chests, and the Rucwerk has one. All of the chests are built of solid quarter-sawn white oak. Given the wide humidity swings common to New York State, leather slider seals are used to eliminate runs and provide consistent wind to the pipes through changing climatic conditions. This required that each individual toeboard be carefully shimmed to allow the sliders to move with the correct freedom.
The casework was made by Christopher Lowe and Peter DeBoer in Chris’s workshop outside of Ithaca, New York. As the parts were made over an eleven-month period, they were assembled in a nearby barn. The case is made almost entirely of quarter-sawn white oak, mostly domestic. The oak in the long pedal tower frames and the thick posts at the console sides was imported from Germany. The rear panels are made of unfinished pine. Traditional joints hold the frame together: dovetails, splines, and pegged mortise and tenon. The panels are held together with clenched wrought-iron nails and have hand-forged iron hinges where access is needed for tuning. The molding profiles taken from the Schnitger organ in Clausthal-Zellerfeld were smoothed with an array of old wooden molding planes and custom-made planes and scrapers.
When Chris asked for guidance on what the finished surface of the moldings should be like, Munetaka responded, “We want to see the tool marks . . .
but they have to be nice tool marks.” The insides of the panels are finished with an extra deeply scooped texture for its acoustic property. All the oak has been fumed with ammonia to darken it, and the exterior surfaces were rubbed with linseed oil with iron-oxide pigment. The pipe shades are of basswood scroll-sawn to leafy shapes, and were painted by Joel Speerstra and his mother, Karen, with shadows and details to appear three-dimensional.
The casework was dismantled from the barn and moved to our Canandaigua workshop in November 2008. The interior components were installed over the next year, and the entire organ was enclosed in a tent and fumed with ammonia. Following this process, three wooden stops were installed for testing, and the organ was featured in an open house event at our facility on January 10, 2010.
Installation of the organ began in February 2010. This process required more on-site construction than to what we are accustomed. Because the pipes were shipped directly to Cornell University, the racking process had to be completed on-site. This required burning the rack holes to the correct size, for each pipe, in a tent outside the chapel in the frigid February air. The various tapered irons were carefully heated in a hand-crank coal forge; monitoring the exact temperature of the irons was critical to the process. Once ready, the irons were used to enlarge the holes by burning the wood until the pipes fit correctly. All of the upper racking was performed on-site, with the façade pipes being carefully carried up the scaffold to be marked for the precise location of the hook. Once soldered, a pin was located and driven into the oak rack.
All of the pipes that are offset from the main chests are conducted with lead tubes that were individually mitered, soldered, and fit on-site, and forced into leathered holes in the toeboards.
The majority of the pipes in the organ are combinations of lead and tin. The wooden stops are made of pine. The pipe metal was cast on sand, as it would have been in Schnitger’s time. This technique was “rediscovered” by GOArt as part of their original research project in Gothenburg. In contrast, the modern method of casting thick metal sheets and then planing metal to the desired thickness by machine, produces a weaker material because it removes the hardest metal from the outer surface.
As Munetaka Yokota notes,
If the handcraft worker has to do everything by hand, then she or he will have the incentive of casting it as close as possible to the desired thickness and with the desired taper, and scraping it minimally, but very carefully, in the areas where it must be scraped well for acoustical reasons. This much more complex process works with the metal to create a sheet that gives a structural and acoustic result that, almost as a byproduct of the process, is as close as possible to the original Schnitger pipes. . . . Process reconstruction was developed with the goal of reproducing the acoustical quality of the 17th-century organ pipes, and this . . . philosophy is applied to the rest of the organ production as much as possible.
The organ was publicly presented during the Organ Inauguration and Dedication Festival and Conference, March 10–13, 2011 on the Cornell University campus. Many lectures were presented detailing the world that existed when the original organ at Berlin’s Schlosskapelle was introduced in 1706. There were demonstrations of the organ’s individual stops and a discussion about the construction process, and numerous concerts to demonstrate the organ as a solo instrument as well as how it worked together with other instruments. The inaugural concert by Harald Vogel was presented twice to allow more people to experience the new instrument in the intimate space of Anabel Taylor Chapel. The first inaugural concert also featured the new composition Anacrusis by Kevin Ernste. This piece featured the organ with electronic sounds as well as live organbuilding sounds made by numerous students and organbuilders who had worked on the instrument.
We would like to thank Professor Annette Richards, University Organist, who was the impetus behind this project and the glue that held it all together. Professor David Yearsley also provided welcome support and encouragement throughout the project. The support of Jacques van Oortmerssen, who served as inspector for Cornell during the project, was crucial to its success, and his performance during the festival was a tribute to his contributions.
The artistic endeavor of building the organ now gives way to the artistic endeavor of using it to teach and to enrich the lives of people for generations to come. For Parsons Pipe Organ Builders, there is a single underlying purpose to creating these beautiful instruments: that this organ will be used by Cornell students to glorify God through weekly services of worship.
—Parsons Pipe Organ Builders
4820 Bristol Valley Road
Canandaigua, NY 14424-8125
To view a descriptive video produced by Cornell University, visit <http://www.cornell.edu/video/index.cfm?VideoID=1017>.
Photo credit: Timothy Parsons, unless otherwise indicated
Anabel Taylor Chapel
Cornell University Baroque Organ
Ithaca, New York
GOArt / Parsons / Lowe
1 PRINCIPAL 8 fus
2 QVINTADENA 16 fus
3 FLOITE DVES 8 fus
4 GEDACT 8 fus
5 OCTAV 4 fus
6 VIOL DE GAMB 4 fus
7 SPITZFLÖIT 4 fus
8 NASSAT 3 fus
9 SVPER OCTAV 2 fus
10 MIXTVR 4 fach
11 TROMMET 8 fus
12 VOX HVMANA 8 fus
1 PRINCIPAL 8 fus
2 GEDACT LIEBLICH 8 fus
3 OCTAV 4 fus
4 FLÖITE DVES 4 fus
5 OCTAV 2 fus
6 WALTFLÖIT 2 fus
7 SEPQVIALT 2 fach
8 SCHARF 3 fach
9 HOBOY 8 fus
1 PRINCIPAL 16 fus
2 OCTAV 8 fus
3 OCTAV 4 fus
4 NACHT HORN 2 fus
5 RAVSCHPFEIFE 2 fach
6 MIPTVR 4 fach
7 POSAVNEN 16 fus
8 TROMMET 8 fus
9 TROMMET 4 fus
10 CORNET 2 fus
Four wedge bellows
Pitch: a1 = 415 Hz
Compass: Manuals C, D–d3
Pedal C, D–d1
Temperament: Werckmeister III
The stop names are presented as on the stop labels. Note that the “x” has been replaced by a “p” in both the Rucwerk Sepquialt and Pedal Miptur, possibly as a nod to the division names Rückpositiv and Pedal.
30 stops, 40 ranks, with one preparation. | <urn:uuid:ac08cdc4-d9ad-44ba-b125-482a2b3daced> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thediapason.com/cover-feature-74 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960413 | 3,473 | 2.625 | 3 |
29 November 2010 by Stephen
I find the words on the napkin, produced to commemorate one of the worst maritime disasters of the First World War, very moving.
To many people at the time the loss of the Lusitania came to symbolise Liverpool’s suffering, as she was the city’s favourite passenger liner.
The spectacular coloured glass war memorial at one of my local churches, St James’s in West Derby, uniquely uses an image of the doomed ship to silently express that grief.
He was just 31 years old, a much-loved husband and the father of a daughter he would never see – John Henry Hayes was one of the 1,200 innocent victims of the Lusitania disaster.
On a sunny day in May, in calm seas off the coast of Ireland, she was sunk in a surprise attack by a German U-boat submarine.
The Lusitania sank in just 18 minutes amid chaotic scenes as frantic passengers and crew tried to reach the lifeboats.
John, the ship’s junior fifth engineer, had left his pregnant wife Jeanette at their home in Bootle while he took another voyage across the Atlantic. It was 1915 and the First World War had started the previous summer.
The Lusitania, which had sailed regularly on Cunard’s Liverpool to New York run since 1907, carried on despite warnings from Germany that British ships would be attacked.
Poignant Hayes family photos are on display in the Merseyside Maritime Museum’s Titanic, Lusitania and the Forgotten Empress (of Ireland) gallery. We see John in uniform, his wife in a studio portrait and baby Jeanette born after her father’s death.
There are many items on display linked to the Lusitania. The sinking prompted a huge rush of commemorative items.
The memorial paper napkin was printed by the Palatine Press, Wigan. It has the headline: The Lusitania The World’s Most Popular Steamship.
Under a photo of the ship it says: “The Lusitania was one of the most sumptuous ships that ever ploughed the seas. Luxurious was her first class accommodation, but not one iota of possible comfort was sacrificed …
“In any direction the view was charming from the central hall. This spacious hall was 24 ft long, the full breadth of the ship. There were two electrically worked passenger lifts situated in the centre of the staircase.”
The napkin includes other facts about the Lusitania and records: At the inquest held at Kinsale (Ireland) the verdict was “Wilful and wholesale murder against the Kaiser and Government of Germany.”
A new Maritime Tale by Stephen Guy appears every Saturday in the Liverpool Echo. A paperback – Mersey Maritime Tales (£3.99) – is available from the museum, newsagents or bookshops.
(Comments are closed for this post.) | <urn:uuid:ab31a4d8-e705-4ce5-af3c-1ef733031c87> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/2010/11/lusitania-losses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969622 | 621 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Biologists with the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission's Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWRI) request angler assistance with a research project focusing on red snapper and other reef fish on Florida's Gulf Coast. This project will provide fisheries researchers and managers with much of the catch-and-release survival information they need for assessing reef fish stocks.
Reef fish include a variety of snapper and grouper species commonly targeted by recreational anglers. Anglers can contribute to reef fish research by participating in angler surveys. They also can help by reporting tagged fish to the Angler Tag Return Hotline at 800-367-4461.
As part of the research, FWRI biologists will approach anglers at public areas such as boat ramps, fishing piers and marinas to request participation. These biologists will distribute survey cards designed to collect detailed information on fishing trips in the Gulf of Mexico. This information includes where red snapper are caught and released, the type of equipment used and the condition of the fish when released.
Anglers can also e-mail their name and address to [email protected] to obtain a postage-paid survey card in the mail. Downloadable data sheets are also available on the FWRI Web site at http://research.MyFWC.com/features/view_article.asp?id=32671.
Additionally, each month FWRI will mail surveys to a random sample of licensed saltwater anglers. These surveys focus on the habits of anglers who target reef fish. Survey questions include when and how often anglers fish, as well as the type and number of fish they harvest or release. Biologists request that anglers respond to the survey, even if they are not fishing for reef fish.
FWRI biologists are tagging and releasing reef fish back into the wild to evaluate the survival of released fish. For this project, biologists are placing an orange tag near the dorsal fin of the fish. Each tag has a unique number printed on the side. When anglers catch a fish with one of these tags, they should call the Angler Tag Return Hotline. Biologists would like to know the species of fish, tag number, date and time of capture, where the fish was caught, fish length, type of bait used and whether the fish was kept or released. If the fish is released, anglers should leave the tag in the fish so biologists can continue to collect data. Receiving this information is important for the success of this project.
Anglers will receive a token of appreciation for participating in this study.
For more information on reef fish research, visit http://research.MyFWC.com. | <urn:uuid:bbff50e3-a65b-435e-a031-4b7663fff43c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.captivacurrent.com/page/content.detail/id/504006/FWC-asks-anglers-to-help-gather-reef-fish-data.html?nav=5062 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93477 | 546 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Bats have sex on the brain
Mixed signals Bats may have more in common with the fictional Batman than previously believed, combining work with courting potential mates - a lot of them.
A new study, published in the latest Proceedings of the Royal Society B, reveals that bat echolocation calls, primarily used for orientation and foraging, also contain information about sex, which helps the flying mammals to acquire and keep mates.
The information is especially helpful to certain male bats with harems of adoring females that are actually huskier than the males. This holds true for the greater sac-winged bat (Saccopteryx bilineata), which was the focus of the study.
Lead author Mirjam Knörnschild says that "male S. bilineata court females whenever the opportunity arises. The social information in echolocation calls about the sex of the calling bat benefits listening harem males because they can distinguish between females and male rivals. It might also benefit calling females because they are greeted friendly."
Knörnschild, a researcher at the University of Ulm's Institute of Experimental Ecology, and her team analysed greater sac-winged bat echolocation calls.
The scientists discovered that the calls contain "pronounced vocal signatures encoding sex and individual identity." This can include species identity, age, sex, group affiliation, and other more specific information about the individual.
Serving a dual purpose
Previously it was thought that bats just used echolocation to see with sound, utilising sonar to detect obstacles while in flight, to find their way around in the dark, to help forage for food, and for other essential purposes.
Now it's known that this very utilitarian system serves a dual function by facilitating courtship and social communication in general.
Although females of this bat species are significantly larger than males, their echolocation calls turns out to be higher pitched and shorter.
When played back to males, such calls led to wooing with courtship vocalisations. When males heard the lower pitched longer echolocation calls of other males, they responded with the bat version of an aggressive rant.
Echolocation is only the latest known tool in the male bat's impressive attraction arsenal.
"Male bats use various displays to attract females, often combining visual, acoustical and olfactory stimuli," says Knörnschildsays, explaining how males try to excite every possible sense in females.
During displays, the male will hover in front of the female and fan her vigorously, exposing her to a stinky perfume of sorts comprised of urine and glandular secretions kept in the wing sacs.
"Females generally seek physically fit or genetically compatible males as mates," she says.
Dolphins may do it too
She suspects that many, if not all, "bat species are capable of encoding/extracting social information in and from echolocation calls. The same is probably true for dolphins."
The study is only the latest to suggest that certain animal calls are far more complex and info-rich than previously suspected.
Researchers studying bottlenose dolphins at Sarasota Bay, Florida, for example, determined that these marine mammals create signature whistles for themselves that are comparable to human names.
Project leader Laela Sayigh, now with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, says it's possible that other information, such as the age, sex and feelings of the dolphin, may be encoded into each unique name-like whistle.
Dolphins were also recently found to hold formal greeting ceremonies at sea, possibly electing an older respected "spokesman" to handle particularly important encounters.
Greater sac-winged bats can also be compared to humans in at least one respect.
In an earlier study, Knörnschild and her colleagues found that bat infants babble, mixing up echolocation with courting trills and more. Such baby babbling is the first known outside of primates. | <urn:uuid:6b8cf4eb-f7d2-4e0d-a13b-74c95a310510> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/10/03/3602684.htm?site=science&topic=latest&listaction=unsubscribe | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940087 | 825 | 3.0625 | 3 |
We're trying to get to Ardley Island in Fildes Bay today (-62 12 39.1, -58 56 24) but, once again, the weather is not cooperating. A cold 2° drizzle this morning here at Escudero Base with thick fog may change to rain and wind this afternoon. We'll see.
Ardley Island is actually very close to Escudero Base but if you can't keep a zodiac from flipping over in the wind, you can't get there. So Ardley is close but too far away for today. I was told that in the past, research scientists traveling in a zodiac that flipped out in the bay made it to Ardley island but weren't picked up before they froze to death.
Everyone at Escudero was deadly serious about their preparation for each expedition.
As the summer winds to its end here in Antarctica, the beginning of fall will offer an average March temperature 5° lower compared to February. At summer's height, temperatures here on King George Island rise to >20°C in January. At the "depth" of the winter, in July, low temperatures approached - 5°C. A 25 degree C spread is a 45 degree Fahrenheit difference.
While it appears that thick fog, cool temperatures and sustained winds have canceled today's sampling trip to Ardley Island, the culture enrichment experiments are getting exciting.
Below is a zoomed in photograph of two octrants of two different Te-amended agar plates. While each has 50 µg/mL added K2TeO3, one is a complex growth medium, LB, and the other a different, less complex medium, R2A. It appears that there are clearly two different bacterial morphologies for inocula taken from the same sampling tube, Sample B9, the soil from under the Antarctic grass Deschampsia one of only two flowering plants that are Antarctic natives. While the photograph you see here is not very clear, we think the following important:
1) The most obvious finding is that the low nutrient R2A medium has the largest number of apparent different microbial species. (By the way although we've got some fungal growth, nothing said here refers to fungi.)
2) The R2A plate octrant inoculated with sample B9 has more visually different bacterial colonies when looked at closely, i.e., different colony shapes, reflectivity, and border characteristics.
3) On the same plate, colonies with the same apparent growth rate, that is, same colony diameter, have different tellurite reducing abilities; some are black and some not. Since both the plates have tellurite added, everything that's growing must be Te resistant, but some microbes respond different from others: some produce Te0 and some don't.
Two-plate comparison of tellurium-resistant microbes | <urn:uuid:e648988d-09ba-44d2-8c86-ffb9776bb24b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shsu.edu/~chm_tgc/Blogs/AB13.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945364 | 582 | 2.59375 | 3 |
"The human body cannot manufacture adequate amounts of calcium without external support. Calcium is lost daily through hair, skin, nails, sweat, urine, and feces. This lost calcium must be replaced, or the body will take calcium from the bones to perform other functions," explains Cathy R. Kessenich, DSN, ARNP, professor in the department of nursing at the University of Tampa in Tampa, Florida.
For women aged 51 to 70 years, 1200 milligrams of daily calcium is recommended. Women older than 65 years should ingest 1500 mg calcium/day.
Calcium supplements in pill form often cause nausea, indigestion, constipation, and bloating. "Because of gastrointestinal intolerance, calcium supplements are often left in the medicine cabinet or kitchen drawer. To meet the growing demand for calcium supplementation, many alternative forms of calcium supplements were developed. Foods, snacks, and beverages fortified with calcium are a feasible alternative source of calcium, but they should not be used at the expense of foods naturally containing calcium," says Kessenich.
To capitalize on this trend several manufacturers have highlighted the naturally occurring calcium content of their spring water or developed flavored waters with additional calcium added. For example, Cole Brothers Mineral Water bottles and distributes natural spring water that contains approximately 65 milligrams of naturally occurring calcium per 16.9-ounce serving.
If you need flavor, Sanfaustino calcium water contains 450 milligrams of calcium per liter. Sanfaustino calcium water also comes in a pure, unflavored version but the lemon, raspberry lime, lime, and orange flavored waters give you a tasty way to keep up your hydration and calcium intake.
Kessenich says that the absorbability of this calcium-fortified water was independently documented and offers a good option for obtaining divided doses of calcium on a daily basis. "Calcium in either dietary or supplement form is typically better absorbed when consumed in small amounts throughout the day," she adds.
And according to the manufacturer, Sanfaustino calcium water provides high-bioavailable calcium carbonate, without the side effects common to most other calcium sources.
To meet this need many manufacturers of generic and name brands of orange juice have developed calcium-fortified options. Most orange juice products provide 30 to 35 percent of the daily calcium requirement (300 to 350 milligrams) in an 8-ounce glass and approximately 110 calories. Read the labels to make sure you are getting a calcium-fortified brand.
Healthy Indulgence is a line of calcium-fortified chocolate bites made with real chocolate. At a mere 25 calories per bite-sized piece, you get 500 milligrams of calcium carbonate. Healthy Indulgence comes in milk chocolate or dark chocolate varieties.
Are you concerned about your kids getting enough calcium?Thompson Candy Company has developed a new line of calcium-fortified chocolate for children. Moobles are an all natural milk chocolate candy wrapped in a black and white spotted foil and containing 140 milligrams of calcium carbonate per piece. This is a sweet treat you can feel good about.
But, like any other candy or chocolate, don't overindulge. These chocolates may be excellent sources of calcium, but they don't come calorie-free.
For example, Viactiv, a chewable product that has been on the market for years, is now available in chewable caplets in flavors such as milk chocolate, strawberry cream, chocolate mint, caramel, French vanilla, or raspberry. And for your teenagers, Viativ even has a fudge brownie-flavored option. All of the caplets contain 500 milligrams of calcium carbonate and are 20 calories.
Another option is Creamy Bites. Mission Pharmaceuticals has developed a product called Creamy Bites, that comes in chocolate fudge, lemon cream, or caramel flavors. Each serving contains 500 milligrams of calcium citrate and has 35 calories.
Proctor and Gamble has developed Metamucil plus Calcium, a capsule that contains 300 milligrams of calcium carbonate in each daily serving of five capsules. They recommend taking one serving with at least eight ounces of water or other fluid. One serving of Metamucil plus Calcium provides two grams of fiber.
Fiber Choice chewable tablets are sugar-free and contain 500 milligrams of calcium carbonate and four grams of fiber in each serving of two tablets. They come in cherry, strawberry, and wild berry flavors.
However, Kessenich warns that when calcium is ingested with meals that are high in fiber, calcium absorption is decreased. Therefore, you may need to increase the amount of daily calcium you are ingesting if you are relying on calcium-fortified fiber as a supplement.
However, she says that although extremely rare, calcium toxicity can occur with long-term consumption of excessive amounts (over 3000 milligrams) of calcium. Symptoms of toxicity range from constipation, irritability, and headache to soft tissue calcification and renal failure.
Lastly, if you are taking medications, be aware that calcium supplements and calcium-rich food sources may interact with or block the absorption of some medications. " For example, calcium supplements may reduce the absorption of tetracycline, iron, or thyroid medications. Typically, any medication that should be taken on an empty stomach should not be taken with calcium supplements, food, or alternative sources as noted in this article," adds Kessenich.
With dietary sources of calcium and these alternatives to calcium supplementation, meeting your daily needs for this bone-building mineral is easier than ever.
For more articles on women's health, visit theSheKnows.com Health and Wellness Channel.
And you'll see personalized content just for you whenever you click the My Feed .
SheKnows is making some changes! | <urn:uuid:b8f7f0fb-3574-4b1f-877c-e959fe7b5385> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sheknows.com/health-and-wellness/articles/803962/alternative-choices-for-calcium-supplementation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918812 | 1,196 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Pontormo's ultimate contribution to Florentine art rests on his drawings. There is a didacticism intrinsic to Pontormo's method of patient life drawing that had a major impact on Florentine art practice. His study of anatomy seems to have been as thorough as that of any Renaissance artist. Drawings made directly after bones and surface anatomy still exists. Passages of close anatomical observation can also be found within his surviving figure studies. | <urn:uuid:158a12cf-8929-4525-b2e7-117b48986c08> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wga.hu/html/p/pontormo/drawings/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977289 | 90 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Students count out sounds in a word at Centennial Elementary School, a Success for All school in Mt. Vernon, Washington.
In 1986, faced with failing schools in impoverished, inner-city neighborhoods, the Baltimore School Superintendent turned to Johns Hopkins researcher Bob Slavin for help. “[We] came to an agreement that we would try a model based on the idea that every single child was going to be successful – no matter what,” Slavin says. That model became research-driven Success for All, now used in 1,300 schools in 47 states* and rated one of the most effective reform models according to a meta-analysis of school improvement programs.
Slavin and his wife, Nancy Madden, both former special education teachers, developed the original model in 1987. They examined the research and handpicked the most effective tools and strategies that worked especially well with troubled inner city elementary schools. The Success for All strategy centers around a daily 90-minute reading period for all students, with a focus on phonics, and tutoring for children who are falling behind or need extra help. Students are grouped for reading by ability, not age, and their progress is assessed every eight to nine weeks at which time they can be moved to another reading group or receive additional tutoring.
To create an effective program, Slavin and his team intentionally engineered every aspect of learning. Teachers receive training in Success for All’s structured teaching practices and rigorous pacing. Schools also have a full-time Success for All facilitator on site to test and assess students, organize tutoring, and support teachers in the classroom. Since teacher buy-in is crucial to successful reform, before a school can bring in SFA, 80% of the faculty must vote for it. To date, Success for All has reached 1.5 million students since first beginning the program. It has expanded into the middle school and offshoots of the original program now target bilingual children and different subjects.
What You’ll See in a Success for All School:
- 90-minute reading groups: These fast-paced, reading groups are held school-wide at the same time every morning without interruption. Each lesson plan is structured around the same basic framework in which the teacher explains new material, allows children to work in small groups, tests them informally or formally, and recognizes students for academic improvement and teamwork. SFA packs the 90 minutes, using drills and chants to keep children engaged.
- Grouping by ability: Children who are the same age are grouped by ability for their 90-minute reading block. They are assessed regularly, and advanced as they improve. If a child is not improving, that student receives individual tutoring and other support.
- Cooperative learning: Children work in pairs or in very small groups to insure participation in learning by all students. They talked to each other about their reading, and subject matter, sharing questions and seeking answers. SFA has found this particularly effective with non-native English speakers, who are often embarrassed to ask questions or read aloud in front of their entire class.
- Continuous Testing and Assessment: Teachers constantly monitor student’s progress, formally and informally. All children are assessed in reading every eight or nine weeks. Teachers use data from assessments to plan lessons or interventions for individuals or groups, and also to do periodic regrouping of students on the basis of their latest performance.
*As of May 2005. Please note the total number of participating schools and states is subject to change.
Success for All Foundation
200 W. Towsontown Blvd,
Baltimore MD 21204
Some Research Reports and Articles
“Educating Students Placed at Risk: Evaluating the Impact of Success for All in Urban Settings,” (2003), by Marco Munoz, Dena Dossett, and Katalina Judy-Gullans. Jefferson County Public Schools
This study looks at the effect of Success for All on standardized reading scores, attendance and disciplinary needs of students in three SFA schools compared to control students. The researchers also compared the schools using teacher, student and parent perception data. They found benefits for SFA students, particularly with reading, attendance and achievement test scores.
“An ‘Inside’ Look at Success for All: A Qualitative Study of Implementation and Teaching and Learning,” (2000), by Amanda Datnow and Marisa Castellano. Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR)
This report examines the effects of SFA in three elementary schools over a two-year period. Includes data from staff interviews, class observation, and school documents. Researchers found strong gains in reading, but not for other whole school changes.
http://www.csos.jhu.edu (PDF - Adobe Reader Required)
“Coping with Change: Educational Reform in Literacy Practice,” (2001), by Priscilla A. Eide. Primary Voices K-6 Volume 9, Number 3, pages 15-20.
Third grade teacher, Priscilla Eide, writes about her experience with Success for All at
Little Mountain Elementary in Mt. Vernon, Washington. Eide talks about the challenges
of changing her teaching style and the structure of her lesson plans, and about finding
ways to work within the model’s specifications.
“The Long-Term Effects and Cost-Effectiveness of Success for All,” (2001), by Geoffrey Borman and Gina Hewes, Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR)
This report tracks the educational outcomes of the original SFA students in Baltimore, where the SFA program was first implemented. The study also looks at the cost of SFA and compares its cost-effectiveness to three other initiatives.
http://www.successforall.net (PDF - Adobe Reader Required)
The Success for All web site also lists quite a few research articles and evaluations. Be aware that these selections may only cite favorable findings, however. | <urn:uuid:c92c841d-1c1e-4702-9ebf-f70235081c7b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/makingschoolswork/sbs/sfa/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942044 | 1,238 | 3.28125 | 3 |
The Right to Education – A Global Perspective
“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.”
This saying of Nelson Mandela reveals a lot about the importance of education as a mean of achieving the changes we want to see in the world. Realizing...
WAQAR AHMAD RANA
Topic: HUMAN RIGHTS (Rights to free and compulsory Education in Pakistan)
Human rights imply the rights concerning to life, freedom, equality and self-worth of the distinct. The UN charter in its preamble reaffirms the determination of the United Nations “to save...
far as population is concerned. But so far as education is concerned it is a backward country. In past, women did not receive any education at all. They were not allowed to come out of the four walls of their houses. Domestic works were their only education.
During the British rule in India some noble...
Evolution Tarnished by Lack of Education
The right to an education is an essential human right. Every individual, regardless of race, gender, nationality, ethnic, social origin, religion, political preference, age, or disability is entitled to a free elementary education. This right is clearly stated in the...
Human Rights vs. Core Values
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Saint Leo University’s Core Values are very different. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights outlines every citizen’s right to choose how they want to live. Saint Leo University’s Core Values explain how they expect...
English 1302 Sec. 212
Sex Education in School Curriculum
Due to not having the correct amount of information about the consequences of sex, teenagers between the ages of 15 and 18 are drastically dropping out of high school, due to having unwanted pregnancies and the...
Advantages of Education
Human Capital – To build upon the previous point, when looked at from a macro perspective, an educated population provides a more valuable human capital base to the economy. A developed economy has maximum concentration of jobs in the tertiary sector which requires a highly skilled...
eighteenth century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. Some have claimed that women generally had more legal rights under Islamic law than they did under Western legal systems until more recent times. English Common Law transferred property held by a wife at...
Education is an essential human virtue, a necessity of society, basis of good life and sign of freedom. Education is a important for integration of separate entities. This article talks about the Importance of education in our life.
If you are in your academic career, then...
Sex Education in the Schools
Sex education in schools has been an area of concern in American education for many years and is the subject of intense debate. Through these years it has been discussed in nearly all aspects of American society, starting from classrooms through to boardrooms and...
Subject: SOCL 325 (gender)
Crisis of women’s education in Pakistan
Education is the most important and fundamental factor for any country. Inequality in education of men and women is highly immoral. Pakistan is facing major illiteracy issue...
EDUCATION IN MIZORAM
Education is the most vital process that contributes to all round development of a society. It not only brings about the best in human personality, but can also be the medium of peace and progress of a nation. Education is a critical factor in improving the quality of life of the...
The Civil Rights Movement Era from the 1950s and the 1960s transformed Blacks, women, and other minorities from second class citizen status to equal status through much of America, especially in the South. The movement was essential in advancing the lives of African Americans in particular....
Education in Society
Twenty-five percent of Americans that start Highschool do not graduate, thirty percent of Highschoolers graduate but do not go to College right after graduation, forty- three percent of students who start college will not graduate in six years.A better longer education leads...
The Grand Debate
In the ongoing controversial debate about sexual education, one thing is certain: no one will ever be able to agree on the issue and come to a conclusion as to which teaching is the “right” teaching. Our country has always used hegemony to outline what the “norm” of a certain...
Special Education: A Change in the Right Direction
“There is a brilliant child locked inside every student.” Marva Collins. The special education system of the past often forgot this adage. Children who were different were kept separate and not given the same education as other...
Com 150 Essay writing
March 12, 2010
I knew a couple of students trapped in the world of special education. These students appeared normal, some of them probably did sufferer from some type of learning disability...
Whether university education enables individuals to become creative has recently gained publicity. Some people point out that schools kill student’s creativity skills while others claim that to be creative education is essential. Sir Ken Robinson(2006) in his speech “Schools...
State of Women Rights in Pakistan
2. Women rights in the light of Islam
3. Women rights in the light of Constitution
4. Causes of violation of women rights in Pakistan
A. Cultural and traditional causes
• Patriarchal society
• Feudal system
• Tribal culture
EDUCATION FOR THE DIGINITY OF HUMAN LIFE
Education, if looked at beyond its conventional boundaries, forms the very essence of all our actions. What we do is what we know and have learned, either through instructions or through observation and assimilation. When we are not making an effort to learn...
HIGHER EDUCATION IN A REGIME OF GLOBALIZATION: DEVELOPING INTEGRAL PERSONALITY
(Man is neither mere intellect, nor the gross animal body, nor the heart or soul alone. A proper and harmonious combination of all the three is required for the making of the whole man and constitutes the...
Public Education should be a right not a privilege. In my opinion, public education should be a right. We need public education. When it comes to voting, the government can make more educated decisions concerning the will of the American Public. Public education is needed for all kids. Kids need to...
Alan Sears, Retooling the Mind Factory: Education in a Lean State
One of the neo-liberal reform agenda is the “lean state”. The lean concept involves every aspect of social changes. This paper will begin discussing the effects of lean state in education reform. Then, it will expand any dramatic...
schools and youth were an invaluable asset to the Civil Rights Protest in the 1950’s and 1960’s
* Emmett Till
* Brown vs. Board of Education
* Little Rock Nine
The idea that the youth and schools were valuable to ending the Civil Rights Protest in the 1950’s and 60’s is the most important...
Political, Social and economic spheres are quite remarkable. Literacy and education are the hallmark of Kerala’s social development. Its literacy rate is the highest in India. The indicators of physical qualities including education, infant mortality rate, high life expectancy, fair quality of living etc...
Did you know that education in school is really important? Many parents believe that education is important because it leads to a degree which grants you a good job. With an education you can get a steady pay check. With that pay check you will get away to financial independence as...
extent has marketisation of education encouraged equality in society?(20)
Marketisation refers to the process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers into areas run by the state, such as education. The marketisation of education is achieved in two main ways;...
college education in America has become synonymous with a flourishing middle-class and thus a stable economy. Ironically, the current state of the economy and America’s system of higher education are seemingly at odds; the economy, in its current state, hinders the growth of higher education as it pertains...
Education equates Empowerment?
There are countless students in America today from the young to the old. Education they receive ranges from public to private, traditional and non-traditional, but what links them all together is the end result. Regardless of whom you are as a person, as a student your...
Throughout history, women have been fighting a constant battle with men, and moreover, society. Rights would be granted to women, but restrictions would always follow. This eternal push and pull of the woman’s place in society lasted for many centuries. Women in Japan, China, and India were subject to...
Quality and Equality of Education: Short Literature Analysis Paper
Education is a human right. Every person is entitled to it. It is critical to our development as individuals and as a society and it helps pave the way to a successful and productive future. When we ensure that children...
Aboriginal Rights in Legal Context
“The native American has been generally despised by his white conquerors for his poverty and simplicity. They forget, perhaps, that his religion forbade the accumulation of wealth and the enjoyment of luxury... Furthermore, it was the rule...
The education your child receives will set the groundwork for future successes.
the parent cannot afford to send his children to a private school or tutor, and is prevented from instructing the children himself, he must send his child to a public school. In the public...
Civil Rights and the U.S. Supreme Court
The current presidential election campaigns have brought about a revival of interest in the civil rights movement as people once again re-examine the gains that many endured during those tumultuous times. We recall Rosa Parks and the Montgomery...
Right of a child to free, compulsory and universal primary education— Section 2 (15) of the Child Rights Act signed by 16 states in Nigeria)
“Any woman who is married shall be deemed to be of full age.” — Section 29 (4b) of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution.
Social media was awash last weekend with news...
educating children. It is not the duty of the teacher to force the child to learn. It is only the responsibility of the teacher to steer the child in the right direction and give them incentive to want to learn.
If someone is continually pressuring you to bake a cake, are you going to be inclined to actually...
Brown v. Board of Education
In 1952 the case of Brown v. Board of Education was first fought in the Supreme Court of the United States, attempting to end racial segregation in American public schools. The 14th Amendment and the Equal Protection Clause contained in it adopted in 1868, shows us that...
The role of education is very important in our society. An education is a long-term and never ending process. From the day person is born to the day he dies, he keeps getting knowledge. As a baby, person learns from his environment. As time goes on, his parents and teachers (school and college) contribute...
Is the education a right or a privilege? In my opinion, education should be a right. Everyone needs to be educated. Education is needed for all kids. Kids need to stay away from bad things. They need to learn something so that they can have a future. I believe that everyone has the right to...
The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948, as the result of the experience of the Second World War (History of Documents). Saint Leo University core values of community are rooted from their 1,500 year old Benedictine...
EC2, Section-3 Argumentative essay
Women Rights in South Africa
Hidden inside the veil unbroken, Lies my soul still unspoken, Countless words still unsaid, Many thoughts still not expressed...
During the pre-civil war period of 1820-1860, vast changes in society were occurring. Conflicts between the North and South were increasing in number and intensity, and many advocators of abolition and women’s rights began to gain recognition and supporters. This was a period of great...
The Best Education
Reading can help people equip with a few kinds of knowledge and mold people with different philosophical ideas and values, which is the best way to better people’s mind. So a lot of authors like to describe the experience of their education, and then narrate on their life. “Homemade...
28 Feb 2013
Religion and Education
The study of religion in the class room has been a big dispute for a while now. Making religion right in public schools really matters because religion and religious liberty matter. "Part of the problem is widespread misunderstanding regarding...
Indian Education System- An Advantage or Disadvantage
India is a promised land of scholars and saints. There has been no dearth of knowledge in India since time immemorial. Indian civilization has been blessed with priceless knowledge of Vedas and Puranas. Coming all along with these Holy Scriptures...
that children do have rights and believe that the only interesting question is whether children possess all and only those rights which adults possess. Others are sceptical believing that given the nature both of rights and of children it is wrong to think of children as right-holders.
Almost 10 percent of teenage girls in the U.S. become pregnant each year according to 'Abstinence-Only Sex Education Is Ineffective,' Deborah Roffman. Additionally, teenagers contract about three million sexually transmitted infections. Many people turn to the government to fix this problem, which...
“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can you use to change the world” by Nelson Mandela. This quotation somehow proves that education is really the most powerful weapon that each and every one of us can acquire. Education is equated with schooling and a change for the better...
“Women’s rights are human rights”
It is a misconception that we have come a long way from the patriarchal society we once were. Though in America women have “basic” equal rights (since 1920’s), women here, and all over the globe still lack rights that would make them equal to men.
Education in India
Creating Qualification, But No Quality
Ravali Rupaa Amba
India fascinates people world over with its diversity and with the extreme contrasts in lives of people. Indian education scenario which also paints the same contrasted picture has gained world recognition. Many foreign...
At a glance, whether or not to include children with learning disabilities in the normal classroom may seem like a simple question with an uncomplicated solution. One of the reasons that I have chosen to write on this topic is because my friend is a teacher and I see from her...
The family education is related to a person''s life. Nowadays, social development needs high qualified talents and good family education is the key point to the high qualified talents. Because of the different social systems, culture backgrounds, education aims and so on, family education for the children...
December 3, 2009
There are people out there who believe that public education cripples our children. Author John Taylor Gatto argues in his article "Against School," that "we have been taught (that is, schooled) in this country to think of "success" as synonymous...
human rights Article 26 says everyone has the right to education, and that education should be free for elementary levels. One of people's major concerns is if the statement is reflecting on the whole world, U.S. or even Europe. Some parts of the world mostly rural areas do not take education seriously...
Article 1 (definition of the child) Everyone under the age of 18 has all the rights in the Convention.
Article 2 (without discrimination) The Convention applies to every child whatever their ethnicity, gender, religion, abilities, whatever they think or say, no matter what type...
decisions about having sex (or not), and how to ignore peer pressure from friends and fellow classmates who have had sex.
The advantages of sex education in schools is that they're getting first hand information from a trained and qualified instructor. Another reason is that many kids tend to get the...
“ EDUCATION IS IMPORTANT “
Why is education so important?
Education is a self enlightening process. It is an important component of life. Education gives us the knowledge of the world around us. It develops in us a perspective of looking at life. It helps us build opinions and have points of view...
Bilingual Education: Pros and Cons
“Bilingual Education was to be a form of atonement for the nation’s sins against
Hispanics, and a means of easing Americas “guilt”…The ethnic politician has a
high stake in bilingual education: By it, students are molded into an ethnically conscious...
Americans with Disabilities Act and Higher Education
University of Memphis
Michael Johnson MSN, RN
Dr. Jeff Wilson
February 25, 2009
Americans with Disability Act and Higher Education
In 1975 Congress passed Public Law 92-142, formally named the Education of the...
ARTICLES RELATED TO EDUCATION
15th August 1947 is a red letter day in Indian History when India got freedom. The Constitution of the country was adopted on Nov. 26, 1949 and came into force on Jan 26, 1950. The Preamble of the Constitution outlines the social philosophy which should govern all our institutions... | <urn:uuid:d8725d13-5429-434d-9c68-0412fb183fe5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.brainia.com/topics/right-to-education/0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95294 | 3,624 | 3 | 3 |
Deep Vein Thrombosis
What is deep vein thrombosis?
Clots can form in superficial veins and in deep veins. Blood clots with inflammation in superficial veins (called superficial thrombophlebitis or phlebitis) rarely cause serious problems. But clots in deep veins (deep vein thrombosis) require immediate medical care.
These clots are dangerous because they can break loose, travel through the bloodstream to the lungs, and block blood flow in the lungs (pulmonary embolism). Pulmonary embolism is often life-threatening. DVT can also lead to long-lasting problems. DVT may damage the vein and cause the leg to ache, swell, and change color.
Blood clots most often form in the calf and thigh veins, and less often in the arm veins or pelvic veins. This topic focuses on blood clots in the deep veins of the legs, but diagnosis and treatment of DVT in other parts of the body are similar.
Each year in the United States, between 350,000 and 600,000 people get a blood clot in the legs or in the lungs.1
What causes deep vein clots to form?
Blood clots can form in veins when you are inactive. For example, clots can form if you are paralyzed or bedridden or must sit while on a long flight or car trip. Surgery or an injury can damage your blood vessels and cause a clot to form. Cancer can also cause DVT. Some people have blood that clots too easily, a problem that may run in families.
What are the symptoms?
Symptoms of DVT include swelling of the affected leg. Also, the leg may feel warm and look redder than the other leg. The calf or thigh may ache or feel tender when you touch or squeeze it or when you stand or move. Pain may get worse and last longer or become constant.
If a blood clot is small, it may not cause symptoms. In some cases, pulmonary embolism is the first sign that you have DVT.
How is deep vein thrombosis diagnosed?
If your doctor suspects that you have DVT, you probably will have an ultrasound test to measure the blood flow through your veins and help find any clots that might be blocking the flow. Other tests, such as a venogram, are sometimes used if ultrasound results are unclear. A venogram is an X-ray test that takes pictures of the blood flow through the veins.
How is it treated?
Treatment begins right away to reduce the chance that the blood clot will grow or that a piece of the clot might break loose and flow to your lungs.
Treatment for DVT usually involves taking blood thinners (anticoagulants) for at least 3 months to prevent existing clots from growing.
Your doctor also may recommend that you prop up or elevate your leg when possible, take walks, and wear compression stockings. These measures may help reduce the pain and swelling that can happen with DVT.
How can deep vein thrombosis be prevented?
There are things you can do to prevent DVT. After surgery, you can take an anticoagulant medicine to prevent blood clots. You might also wear compression stockings. You can try to get up and out of bed as soon as possible after an illness or surgery. If you are sitting for a long time, like during a long flight, you can exercise your legs to help blood flow.
Frequently Asked Questions
eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2014 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. | <urn:uuid:2b5f82bf-2c1e-4118-9343-8f1d11f21fd1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.emedicinehealth.com/deep_vein_thrombosis-health/article_em.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933329 | 787 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Usually a mesic prairie species, which does not tolerate inundation in
artificial situations. This is not necessarily true in natural areas, as it is
occasionally seen in sedge meadows and wet prairies.
Songbirds eat seed. Deer graze on plant. This species attracts butterflies and
provides a food source for silphium weevil.
Used for upland slope buffer stabilization.
Availability, Establishment, and Maintenance
Propagation is very successful from seed. Because of a tough seed coat, moist,
cold stratification at 33-38o F for 10-60 days is beneficial. After
stratification, sow seeds at a shallow depth (1/2 inch) in the spring.
This is a very slow growing plant above ground. It may only grow one leaf in
the first year and may need some protection.
Direct seeding has been moderately successful.
Deep taproot discourages transplanting, but can be successful if the taproot
is not broken. | <urn:uuid:42c6c26f-8033-45a7-aa20-4e735f8be4db> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/il/plantsanimals/?cid=nrcs141p2_030749 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892946 | 210 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Module 3: Abstract Data
This module applies a template protocol to abstract the three different data types: standards, unknowns, and quality control samples, from 96-well ELISA plates stored in plate data files with a .DAT extension. Before executing this option, Module 2 may be used to pick a template, with the 'Select' command button. Refer to the Template Design section for further details.
The present module begins by displaying a data file selection dialog window used to choose a plate data file for processing. All files with a .DAT extension will appear in the file list box.
If a template was not selected prior to entering this module, the user will be presented with a template file selection dialog window where a template file may then be chosen.
Once the plate and template data files have been selected, a dialog window appears as is shown in Figure 9. The dialog window displays the name of the plate data file as well as listing the number of plates contained in that file. Also listed is the current template chosen for plate data abstraction. Additionally, the dialog window informs the user of the plate number where processing will begin.
As mentioned in the data file structure section in the Introduction, several plates may be stacked or concatenated in one .DAT file. However, it is not necessary for all of these plates to be analyzed with the same template protocol. Conceivably, the placement of standards, unknowns, and quality control samples may be the same from plate to plate, but the dilution series may differ for some of the plates. Conversely, the different plates within one plate data file may have entirely different configurations. A new template is required each time the dilutions or the plate configuration change. The dialog window in Figure 9 permits the user to abstract the data from each .DAT file using one or more template protocols. If the default option, 'Use template for remainder of file', is selected, each of the three file types will be extracted using the selected template starting with the plate number listed in the dialog window. If the 'Stop after plate number' option is selected, the user will need to enter that plate number in the text box to the right of the option label. If this second option is chosen, the current template protocol will be used to extract the data starting with the plate number the file is currently set to (listed in the dialog window) through plate n where n is the number entered in the text box previously described. Note that the user must first select the 'Stop after plate number' option before actually entering the plate number itself. That is, the program will restrict plate number entry in the text box until the appropriate option has been selected. ELISA for Windows abstracts the data and then returns to the template file selection dialog window where a new template is chosen. The dialog window in Figure 9 reappears and includes the updated plate pointer: 'Data file currently set to plate number n+1'. The user now may choose to apply the new template to the remainder of the file or to stop after another plate number, m, where m > n.
To begin, assume the first option is selected where one template will be used for all plates. Once the plate data file has been specified, ELISA for Windows abstracts the three data types, standards, unknowns, and quality control samples. The abstracted data will scroll up the computer screen. The first column of the screen listing is the dilution in decimal form (e.g., 600 entered in the template module is converted to 0.001666667), the second column is the optical density, and the third column is STD, UNK, or QC for each of the three data types. These three data types will be written to three separate files named using the root file name of the plate data file selected above and the appropriate extension. Thus the standards are written to file.STD, the unknowns to file.UNK, and the quality control samples to file.QC, where file is the root file name of the plate data file previously selected. Any comment lines in the .DAT file will be abstracted and written to file.LBL. These four files will be written to the same subdirectory as the plate data file. An informational message detailing this will appear as shown in Figure 10.
Clicking on OK will return the user to the main menu (Figure 3).
The user selects the second option in the dialog window (Figure 9) to apply more than one template to a group of plates in a .DAT file. As an example, consider a plate data file with six plates. It is desired that three separate templates be used to process plates 1-3, 4, and 5-6, respectively. The dialog window (Figure 9) initially reports that the file is set to plate 1; select the second option and type 3 in the text box to indicate the current template will process plates 1 through 3. When these plates are processed, the template file selection dialog window will reappear and a new template may be chosen. The dialog window (Figure 9) will then appear stating that the plate data file is now set to plate 4. Select the second option again and type 4 in the text box. After plate 4 is processed, another template is selected and the dialog window reappears. Now the window indicates the plate data file is set to plate 5. choose the first option to process the rest of the plate data file (plates 5 and 6), or select the second option and type 6 in the text window to indicate processing should stop after plate 6. The module will conclude either way with the informational message shown in Figure 10.
If the template employed for abstracting the plate data does not contain one or more of these three data types or if there are no comment lines in the .DAT file, the associated files will still be created. They will, however, be empty. Also, if this module is exited using one of the earlier prompts, these files will also be created and, in this case, each of them will be incomplete. If an empty file is created, do not delete it because, in some cases, its presence may be required by succeeding modules in the data analysis modules of ELISA for Windows.
- Page last reviewed: September 4, 2013
- Page last updated: September 21, 2005
- Content source: | <urn:uuid:c32dd804-1d5f-46be-b4d2-b4246fb7d038> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cdc.gov/ncird/software/elisa/manual/mod-3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.880945 | 1,297 | 2.53125 | 3 |
The latest news from academia, regulators
research labs and other things of interest
Posted: Jun 09, 2011
Researchers discover method for direct measurement of the quantum wavefunction
(Nanowerk News) Scientists around the world now have a new tool to investigate the elementary units of nature. Until now, the quantum wavefunction was believed to be impossible to measure directly, since the very act of observing it would alter it.
The team of researchers include Jeff S. Lundeen, Charles Bamber, Brandon Sutherland, Aabid Patel and Corey Stewart from the National Research Council of Canada Institute for National Measurement Standards (NRC-INMS) in Ottawa. Their method was published in Nature ("Direct measurement of the quantum wavefunction").
"The wavefunction is probably the most complete description of a particle's state, yet it has been elusive to scientists since its inception" said Brandon Sutherland. We have brought clarity to the situation by showing for the first time how it can be directly observed and defined."
The team discovered that by measuring the position of the particle using what is known as "weak measurement," one can avoid the change normally inflicted on the particle. The catch is that one also gets very little information. But by performing the measurement over and over, one can eventually find the average result. This average is equal to the wavefunction itself.
The wavefunction is at the very heart of quantum mechanics. Every object in the universe has a quantum wavefunction that determines and predicts how it will react to other objects. It is used for everything from quantum cryptography, computing and metrology, to drug design and microelectronics. By knowing the measurement of the wavefunction, it is possible to calculate where a particle is most likely to be, or how fast it's likely to be moving.
"The wavefunction embodies the idea that every particle is also a wave" said Jeff S. Lundeen. "This wave is much like the set of ripples travelling out from a pebble dropped in a pool. A feature of the wavefunction is that, unlike a water wave, the very act of observing it changes it, making it a slippery object to measure."
The development of this direct measuring method could allow scientists to design better drugs and chemicals and build faster computer processors, in the decades to come. This discovery keeps Canada at the forefront of the development of quantum computers, which physicists around the world are currently competing to build first. Quantum computers would be able to solve problems that no regular computer ever could, including breaking encryption codes.
Source: National Research Council Canada
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on reddit or StumbleUpon. Thanks!
Check out these other trending stories on Nanowerk: | <urn:uuid:2165568e-9bfc-40b6-9e05-95aec8621b10> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=21692.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945083 | 557 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Peter T. Leeson
George Mason University - Department of Economics
January 10, 2010
Journal of Law and Economics, Forthcoming
I argue that medieval judicial ordeals accurately assigned accused criminals' guilt and innocence. They did this by leveraging a medieval superstition called iudicium Dei. According to that superstition, God condemned the guilty and exonerated the innocent through clergy conducted physical tests. Medieval citizens' belief in iudicium Dei created a separating equilibrium in which only innocent defendants were willing to undergo ordeals. Conditional on observing a defendant's willingness to do so, the administering priest knew he was innocent and manipulated the ordeal to find this. My theory explains the peculiar puzzle of ordeals: trials of fire and water that should've condemned most persons who underwent them did the reverse. They exonerated these persons instead. Boiling water rarely boiled persons who plunged their arms in it. Burning iron rarely burned persons who carried it. Ordeal outcomes were miraculous. But they were miracles of mechanism design.
Date posted: January 11, 2010 ; Last revised: November 24, 2011
© 2016 Social Science Electronic Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This page was processed by apollobot1 in 0.125 seconds | <urn:uuid:ffb5c7af-a7ce-47bc-a995-f32270c18823> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1530944 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950419 | 251 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Rhodochrosite is an interesting rose-colored gemstone that was only introduced to the market around 1940. Though it is not particularly hard - rating only 4 on the Mohs scale - it has become popular as a decorative material due to its attractive soft color and its intriguing variegated markings.
Like rhodolite garnet, rhodochrosite draws its name from the Greek for 'rose' (rhodochrosite means 'rose colored'). By chemical composition rhodochrosite is manganese carbonate. It is related to the mineral calcite, but where calcite has calcium, rhodochrosite has manganese. Transparent red crystals are rare; rhodochrosite is usually found in an aggregate form with alternating light and dark stripes in zigzag bands, somewhat similar in that respect to malachite or agate. The most common colors are light-red and pink. Rhodochrosite displays a vitreous luster when polished.
Rhodochrosite was first described in 1813 based on a sample from Romania. It most commonly forms in hydrothermal veins associated with silver, copper and lead sulfides. It was named the state mineral in mineral-rich Colorado in 2002, since some rare large red crystals have been found at the famous Sweet Home Mine near Alma, Colorado. Rhodochrosite has a density of 3.45 to 3.70 and a refractive index of 1.600 to 1.820.
Rhodochrosite is almost always cut as cabochons, beads or carved. Rare transparent crystals may be faceted, but they are usually heavily included. Fine, blood-red rhodochrosite mineral specimens are highly desired by collectors and sometimes command extraordinary prices in the market.
Significant deposits are found in Argentina on the eastern side of the Andes, especially in the province of Catamarca. Other deposits are found in Chile, Mexico, Peru, South Africa, Namibia, Russia, Canada and the USA (Colorado and Montana).
- First Published: July-08-2008
- Last Updated: June-17-2014
- © 2005-2016 GemSelect.com all rights reserved.
Reproduction (text or graphics) without the express written consent of GemSelect.com (SETT Company Ltd.) is strictly prohibited. | <urn:uuid:b0ed8951-0c27-4b61-b04a-2e5ab3e7826b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gemselect.com/other-info/about-rhodochrosite.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939679 | 485 | 2.984375 | 3 |
By the end of 2009, an estimated 5.2 million people in low- and middle-income countries received antiretroviral therapy (ART). In sub-Saharan Africa, nearly 37% [34%–40%] of people eligible for treatment had access to those life-saving medicines (UNAIDS 2010). This is an extraordinary achievement, considering that as recently as 2003, relatively few people living with HIV/AIDS had access to ART in Africa. The scaling-up of ART in Africa and other regions has saved the lives of countless people and we hope will continue to do so.
At the same time, access to HIV/AIDS treatment might have transformed the perception of AIDS from a death sentence to a manageable, chronic condition, not necessarily different from any other chronic disease. Such a change in perception could lead to change in sexual behaviors. If AIDS is not perceived as a killer disease anymore, it might induce complacency and increase risky behaviors and the mixing between higher- and lower-risk groups in the population. That’s what has been described as the “disinhibition” hypothesis. | <urn:uuid:cdac5ea5-26f6-45b1-b4b0-15aaa44354c4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/category/tags/hiv | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966237 | 227 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Karate kata also called Karate forms - are a series of related Karate techniques done in sequence. The number of moves in Karate forms range mostly from 20 to about 60. Some have more than a hundred moves. There are over 100 different katas practiced across all Karate styles.
The Shito Ryu Karate style practices more than 50 katas..!
Watch the Men's JKA All Japan Kata Champion in Action...
Originally kata was the only way Karate techniques were practiced. Karate bunkai was emphasised as application not presentation.
Karate basics kihon and sparring exercises kumite came much later.
Karate kata is taught and practiced in stages. The basic katas ‘lead’ a student through the early stages of learning and prepare her for the ‘advanced’ stages.
Karate forms seem to get easier with practice, and in a sense they do, but over time what was once ‘simple’ can become incredibly difficult.
The Karate techniques practiced in kata are highly applicable in kumite sparring. They train you to respond to situations naturally and freely.
The kata ‘state of mind’ is one of restful alertness. In this state Karate techniques can be applied as circumstances demand. A calm mind and trained body allows the true power of Karate kata to emerge. When they come together the Karateka can explode into action and down an opponent with one blow.
Watch the Women's JKA All Japan Kata Champ in Action...
Karate Ni Sente Nashi means "There is no First Attack in Karate".
A well known Karate Maxim - the first move of every kata is a block!
Karate Kata - 10 Elements
There are 10 aspects that make a successful kata.
Karate forms are done without any opponents so these elements apply to the person doing the kata. The ‘observer’ will ‘sense’ most of the 10 elements rather than see them.
1. Preparation of the mind - Yoi No Kisin
2. Awareness of attack and defence - Inyo
3. Balancing of power - Chikara No Kyojaku
4. Correct speed - Waza No Kankyu
5. Expand and contract - Tai No Shinshuku
6. Breathing and posture control - Kokyu
7. Understanding the target - Tyakugan
8. Demonstration of Martial spirit - Kiai
9. Stance and movement - Keitai No Hoji
10. Remaining completely aware - Zanshin
Shotokan Katas are part of the ‘trilogy’ that makes up the worlds most popular Karate style.
The three parts; kata, kihon and kumite are all emphasized equally in the Shotokan style.
The five Heian kata contain the essential Karate techniques learned in kihon practice. Heian is the training ground for all the other katas. Beyond the Heian kata there are twenty others.
The 15 "Styles" of Shotokan
Gichin Funakoshi originally only brought fifteen Karate forms from Okinawa. These became known as the "15 styles".
The Japan Karate Association now has 25 kata. Some other Shotokan groups still include the kata "Jiin" making the total 26.
List of Shotokan Katas
Karate Bunkai is where all the techniques of kata come to life. Karate kata is done against imaginary opponents, Karate bunkai deals with real attacks!
Kata was never intended to be a polished show of perfection. The Karate forms we see in martial arts tournaments are a million miles away from the
chaos of fighting
Competitive performances can be beautiful, skillful and athletic but they're not all practical.
In a real fight you will have trouble recognising any Karate techniques from a pretty world championship winning kata.
But... the fast and dynamic Karate Blocks, strikes, kicks and punches contained in Karate kata all have real-life combat application(s). These applications are tested in Karate bunkai. Some Karate styles (usually from the Okinawan tradition) use kata as it was intended to be used - others have made an ornament out of it.
If you take the view that all Karate techniques should have a combat application, then Karate forms should demonstrate hundreds of different ways to stun and subdue an attacker.
...anything else should be called ‘presentation’ or thrown away!
We think there is middle ground - both can co-exist.
If you look at the performance of Masao Kagawa or Hideto Tsuchiya of the Shotokan Karate style you will see Karate kata of masterful grace, power and brimming with fighting potential.
Whether it’s standing on a stage or facing an opponent “intent” will dictate whether an action “works”. The intention to perform is very different than the intention to survive. Karate bunkai is the place where kata either lives or dies.
Sitting down in your own time to watch your favorite Karate kata being performed over and over without raising a sweat. Bliss!
You know there’s no substitute for real practice but kata videos can inspire - sometimes more than actually training!
Great kata videos are everywhere. The trouble is - there’s too many! The best kata videos get lost in the crowd. Finding what is relevant is time consuming and annoying.
Over time we will fill these pages with exciting, relevant kata videos old, new, classics and those gems by ordinary Karateka that seem to slip under the radar. We may even show a dud or two to highlight the contrast between practical and showy.
We figure we know a good Karate kata when we see one - so we’ll share what we find right here.
...your opinions on any of the kata videos we present are welcome.
These are some of the most impressive names from the world of Karate Kata. Some were also great competition fighters. From this list who do you recognise as being equally impressive as a fighter..? | <urn:uuid:21d9c897-3342-40eb-b628-8612e688703a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dynamic-karate.com/karate-kata.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923027 | 1,326 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Silk is the luxury fabric of Asia. It has been used to make elaborate Japanese kimonos, splendid Indian sarees, and the luxurious robes of Chinese emperors. Affordable Thai silk scarves, shirts, bed sheets, dresses, and sleepwear are now commonplace. But in ancient times, a journey of thousands of miles was needed to acquire this luxury fabric from the Far East.
The first silk fabric was developed in ancient China over 5000 years ago. Wanting to keep a monopoly over the production of silk, the Chinese emperors kept the source of this amazing natural fiber a closely guarded secret for many years. But eventually the knowledge spread to nearby lands of how to make the finest luxury fabric from the cocoon of a simple little moth.
Silkworms are the caterpillar of the moth species Bombyx mori, which is a domesticated breed of moth, bred especially for the purpose of producing silk. The caterpillar larva feed on mulberry leaves, and so they are often called mulberry silkworms. The silk threads that form their cocoons are created by protein in their saliva. A single cocoon can contain up to a mile of silk thread. It takes about 3000 silkworms eating over 100 kg of mulberry leaves to produce one kg of silk thread.
The silk fiber produced by the mulberry silkworm is known for its luminous sheen and luster. This is due to the triangular shape of the thread, which creates a prismatic effect and reflects light back at various angles to produce different colors depending on the viewing angle.
Once the secret knowledge of silk production got out, it did not take long before it spread to India, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Silk production in Thailand led to the development of weaving as a highly developed art form. This skill was passed down from mother to daughter for generations. Each region of Thailand was known for particular designs in the silk fabrics created there. In recent years, the Thai silk industry has enjoyed a revival, as the ancient arts or spinning and weaving have been married to modern fashion design to produce contemporary clothing for men and women that carries with it an air of luxury.
The Thai silkworm produces a cocoon that can vary in color from off-white to bright yellow. If left to mature fully, the pupae will chew up the silk as it exits the cocoon, rendering the thread much shorter. So sadly, the caterpillars are killed in the process of harvesting the cocoons by dunking them in a vat of boiling water. The hot water also serves to break up the thread, so it can be separated into a long fiber. A single thread is to thin and weak to be used by itself. Therefore, several threads are spun together into one silk string, which is rolled up on a reel. It can take a full 40-hour work week to collect one pound of silk thread in this manner. After the yellow color is removed by bleaching, the raw silk can be dyed other colors.
Thai silk is used to create a huge variety of products. Everything from silk robes and boxer shorts for tourists to traditional tube skirts and silk scarves can be found in Thai markets.
There are many products being sold as “Thai silk” which are either a blend of silk and another fabric or else not really made of silk at all. Real 100% Thai silk will be much more expensive than artificial silk, and it will also have several characteristics that make it easy to recognize.
Genuine silk that is woven by hand will have unique irregularities, and different colors will be noticed by holding real silk fabric in the light at different angles due to the triangular shape of the threads. Artificial silk will not display the same natural luster. If you hold a flame up to a loose thread on an authentic Thai silk item, it will smell like hair as it burns and stop burning after you pull the flame away. Fake silk will smell like plastic as it burns. One other way to determine if a piece of fabric is authentic silk is if it passes the “ring test”. Real silk will slide smoothly through the center of a wedding ring, while artificial silk will not slide through easily as it bunches up and gets stuck.
The Thai silk industry went through a revival beginning in the 1950s with the help of an American businessman named Jim Thompson. He set up the Thai Silk Company, which kept alive a cottage industry of silk weaving by catering the colors and designs of the final products to the tastes of international consumers. Strangely, Jim Thompson mysteriously disappeared one day and was never heard from again. But his legacy continues on. Today, the Jim Thompson label is a well-known symbol of high quality silk products. And his house in the center of Bangkok is now a museum where visitors can learn about silk production while enjoying his collection of art and artifacts from the region.
China is the world’s largest producer of silk, with nearly 300,000 kg of silk fabric produced annually. India comes in second with about 77,000 kg of silk per year. Silk production in Thailand takes place mostly in the south and northeast regions of the country. Around 5,000 kg of silk is produced yearly in Thailand, which is certainly much less than the top producing countries, but it still puts Thailand within the top 10 producers of silk.
Some of the most popular Thai silk products include pillow covers and table runners. These are popular souvenirs for foreign tourists that can be found in many markets around the country. Raw silk scarves are another favorite item, especially with women. Scarves are incredibly versatile as they can be worn in any number of ways, and they also make excellent gifts since they take up so little room in your luggage.
Practical Thai silk items for men include things like neckties and boxer shorts. Silk shirts are also in high demand. There is a particular design of men’s short sleeved shirt with a collar that Thai men often wear on semi-formal occasions.
Traditional Thai skirts for women are long and tube shaped with a lot of extra space. They are folded over to get a snug fit and then secured with a belt. Thai silk skirts can be identified by the part of the country they were woven in according to the particular patterns used in the weaving.
In addition to the work of Jim Thompson, the Queen of Thailand has also done a lot to support and promote the Thai silk industry. Through her efforts, the smooth, radiant fabric hand-woven in the villages is now used for contemporary styles worn by Bangkok’s elite. These days, luxurious handbags and designer dresses are just as much a symbol of Thai silk as the traditional patterns and wrap-around skirts of the past were.
Photo credit: hadsie / Foter / CC BY-NC-SA
Photo credit: Kotivalo / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA
Photo credit: Srithern / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA
Photo credit: JJ Harrison / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA
Photo credit: jeff_leigh / Flickr / CC BY 2.0
Photo credit: Esme Vos / Flickr / CC BY 2.0 | <urn:uuid:5721c569-12b4-436d-bf09-05b003f6d939> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://amazingthaisilk.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957285 | 1,467 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Show image list »
The slavery trade well before the Revolutionary War...
Item # 211810 THE GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE, London, July, 1740 An article in this issue is titled: "Articles of Capitulation granted by Edward Vernon...in the West Indies to Don Juan Carlos...of the Castle of St. Lorenzo, at the Mouth of the River Chagre."
Among the articles noted in the Table of Contents are: "Destructive Effects of War" "Why we are at War with Iberia" "War Preferable to the Peace we Enjoy'd" "The Embargoes absolutely Necessary" "Our Constitution Endangered by our Immense Debts" "Nature & Injustice of the Negro Trade inquired into..." "Remark Upon Milton's Paradise Lost" "Opinion of the High Admiral of Spain of an Expedition of Sir F. Drake's" & more.
Near the back is a report which includes: "As to the progress of the war against the Spaniards at Fort St. Augustine...we have to add that the Castle was bomb proof, the walls 50 foot high & that the Spaniards had poison'd the waters about it...the place will not long hold out against the good conduct & bravery of General Oglethorpe. Some ships just arrived bring account that he was made himself master of it..." with more (see).
Lacking any plates or maps called for.
Complete in 40 pages, 5 by 8 inches, with full title/contents page featuring an engraving of St. John's Gate, nice condition.
A very nice pre-Revolutionary War magazine from the "mother country" with a wide range of varied content including news of the day, political reports, literary items, and other unusual tidbits. This was the first periodical to use the word "magazine" in its title, having begun in 1731 and lasting until 1907.
Category: The 1600's and 1700's | <urn:uuid:45b00a22-f782-436a-af74-66f915cbaab0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rarenewspapers.com/view/211810?list_url=%2Flist%2Fslavery_and_abolition%3Fpage%3D1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944522 | 412 | 2.6875 | 3 |
- About Us
- Local Savings
- Green Editions
- Legal Notices
- Weekly Ads
Connect with Us
Cultivate color in summer
By Linda Stephens-Urbaniak' email='[email protected]
Late summer is one of the hardest times of year to get constant color and flowers in the garden. The many other pleasures of summer take first place in our interest and activities, so the plants we choose have to be strong enough to endure our neglect. Here are a few that withstand the onslaught of August.
Coneflowers are North American natives that will, for the most part, grow well in any good soil as long as they have part shade to full sun and steady moisture. Rudbeckia fulgida Goldsturm' will produce a huge bouquet of large golden daisies centered with brown cones over two to three months. The plant has large, coarse leaves and is about 30- to 36-inches high. R. laciniata, sometimes called cutleaf coneflower, has more attractive leaves that are deeply-toothed. It is spectacular at the back of the border, growing from 4- to 9-feet high, and has bright yellow flowers with a matching or sometimes green cone. The cultivar Goldquelle' grows to about 5 feet. It features bright yellow double flowers but little evidence of a cone. R. hirta boasts tall brown cones above its yellow, gold, orange or burnt orange blossoms, living up to its common name of black-eyed Susan. Once established, all rudbeckia are fairly drought tolerant. To counteract all that yellow, consider the monkshoods, so named because their flowers look somewhat like the hoods that, guess what, monks wear. (Another common name is wolfsbane.) The genus should be handled with care and children should be warned of its danger. Aconitum japonicum forms large clumps of deeply-toothed leaves on a zigzag stem and in late summer develops short spikes of dark blue hooded flowers. A. x arendsii, also known as A. carmichaelii, has substantially stronger stems supporting its azure-colored flowers and grows to 3 to 4 feet. A. henryi Sparks Variety' has larger spikes of dark purple-blue flowers nearly overwhelming their stems. Although usually described as tall, to above 6 feet, its natural habit is more lax and will twine through loose shrubs or creep along the ground if not given support. While the aconitums can withstand full sun (with ample water), they do best in partial shade and moderately loamy moist soil. Another genera that contributes the much-loved blues are the salvias. Salvia x sylvestris May Night' or Mainacht' does well in full sun and blooms with large indigo-purple flowers with purple bracts. If kept cut, it will provide one to two months of floral display. Another bright blue sage is S. farinacea Victoria.' It grows best in dryish soil in full sun and has stems to approximately 2 feet tall. If you have damp soil in full sun S. uliginosa will reward you with many stems to 3 feet tall covered with bright true blue flowers centered with a white "landing strip" for pollinators. This species will quickly form clumps up to 4 feet across, so be careful where you put it.
For scent as well as dependable color from orange to purple, white to pink, nothing beats phlox. Phlox paniculata, a plant native to North America, will reward you with a lovely scent and tall green leaves topped with exuberant displays of many flowers. Popular cultivars are Nicky,' a dark purple, Starfire,' a good red, David' or Mt. Fuji,' both white, Orange Perfection,' with salmon orange flowers, Eva Callum,' a clear pink with a darker center called the eye, and the unusual Norah Leigh,' with creamy variegated leaves and somewhat nondescript pink flowers. The one drawback to this species is its tendency to develop powdery mildew. That can be curtailed with good air movement and a judicious spritzing with a tablespoon of baking powder mixed into a quart of water (add a drop of dishwashing detergent).
Now is the time to enjoy summer and our gardens. By carefully choosing plants that perform well with little attention we can enjoy both and have great flowers for cut arrangements and in the garden. Contact Linda at [email protected]. She welcomes questions and will respond to as many as possible. | <urn:uuid:93325cd9-b479-4e00-8ab4-f75f84d10f05> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mi-reporter.com/lifestyle/35034349.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934919 | 972 | 2.90625 | 3 |
What-does.net is your comprehensive online definition dictionary. If you are not sure how to define Navigation, our website can provide you with the appropriate definition. On this page, you can find what is Navigation.
navigation - 5 dictionary results
- 1. The act of navigating; the act of passing on water in ships or other vessels; the state of being navigable.
- 2. the science or art of conducting ships or vessels from one place to another, including, more especially, the method of determining a ship's position, course, distance passed over, etc., on the surface of the globe, by the principles of geometry and astronomy.
- 3. The management of sails, rudder, etc.; the mechanics of traveling by water; seamanship.
- 4. Ships in general.
- 5. Act of sailing; art of managing ships.
navigation - examples of usage
- He would make observations; perhaps, if need were, he might put off in a small boat and offer to assist in the navigation of the ship. - "The Beautiful Wretch; The Pupil of Aurelius; and The Four Macnicols", William Black.
- Over the years there had been some debate as to how the fort might be best located, with the result that in 1607 it was decided to locate it some distance up a river that would afford navigation for an ocean- going vessel but would force the enemy to fight his way inland against the disadvantage of the warning that could be given by an outer guard at the mouth of the river. - "The Virginia Company Of London, 1606-1624", Wesley Frank Craven.
- Nothing was further from her thoughts, she said, than navigation in any form. - "Somehow Good", William de Morgan. | <urn:uuid:b4717d17-8c80-4ea4-8af8-060770ab536f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://what-does.net/navigation-mean | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949153 | 370 | 3.671875 | 4 |
- About Us
- Career Center
- Nano-Social Network
- Nano Consulting
- My Account
Physicists Propose Innovative Probe For Quantum Criticalities
A team of theoretical and experimental physicists
from Rice University are preparing a unique probe in hopes of "dialing in"
elusive quantum states called "quantum criticalities." The team is using
nanotechnology to create a probe capable of trapping and tuning a single
electron to create the rarified physical state in nearby magnetic
The probe, a transistor thousands of times smaller than a living cell, is described in research published online this week by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
"The traditional theory of metals, which has held sway for 50 years and has fostered terrific technological advances in computing and materials science, breaks down completely in matter that exists in a 'quantum critical state,'" said Qimiao Si, professor of physics and astronomy at Rice and the lead theoretician on the project. "Previous experiments indicate that quantum criticality is characterized by the inherent quantum effect of entanglement, and the nanoscale magnetic probe we've proposed could provide a controlled and tunable setting to study entanglement at a quantum critical point."
The term "quantum critical point" refers to a phase transition. Just as water goes through a phase transition when it turns to ice or steam, all matter is subject to phase transitions due to fluctuations produced by the peculiar forces of quantum mechanics.
The probe proposed by Si and colleagues is based on a transistor with an active channel measuring just a few billionths of meter across. The transistor also uses a pair of electrodes made of ferromagnetic metal. The researchers plan to trap a single electron in the active channel between the electrodes. Then, they will capitalize on a uniquely quantum effect - the tendency of a trapped electron to "tunnel," or wink out of existence in one place and appear in another - to establish a quantum critical state in the metallic electrodes that trap the tiny particle.
"In principle, we can use the gate voltage in this setup to tune the physical state," said Douglas Natelson, assistant professor of physics and astronomy and of electrical and computer engineering. "We should be able to move the system from a quantum critical state and back again, simply by turning the knob on the voltage. That's a level of precision that's never been possible in another experimental system, and it's really nanotechnology - the control of matter at the atom-by-atom level - that will make it possible."
Elementary particles like electrons have an intrinsic angular momentum known as spin. The probe's design will allow the physicists to confine an electron with its spin on one molecule inside the transistor. In one quantum state, the tunneling effect causes the constrained electron spin to become "entangled" with the spins of electrons in the nearby metal electrodes. The magnetic nature of the electrodes also dictates the existence of a collective oscillation among the spins of electrons in the electrodes. These oscillations known as "spin waves" - will interact with the magnetic moment of the constrained electron's spin and try to break the entanglement. The quantum critical point occurs when it is broken and the material transitions from one quantum phase to the next.
Natelson has already used the technique to study electron spin in similar molecules while using non-magnetic gold metal electrodes. Results of those experiments are due to be published shortly in the journal Physical Review Letters.
"The usage of the ferromagnetic electrodes in the proposed probe brings in spin waves, which couple to the local magnetic moment of the molecule as a fluctuating magnetic field," said theorist and co-author Stefan Kirchner, a postdoctoral fellow of physics and astronomy at Rice. "It is this coupling that gives rise to the ability to tune the degree of and even destroy the magnetic quantum entanglement."
The effect is manifested in the unique way that the electrical conductance of the transistor depends on temperature and frequency.
Though nano in scale, the new probe serves as a realistic model system to elucidate physics that cannot be explained by the traditional theory of metals, including phenomena associated with bulk materials like rare-earth-based heavy fermion metals and copper-based high temperature superconductors. For example, the nanoprobe allows the physicists to introduce competition between two quantum effects - magnetic quantum entanglement and coupling with spin waves. By accessing the quantum critical point that lies at the phase change associated with these competing forces, the researchers can draw a direct linkage between the quantum criticality in the new probe and quantum criticalities in bulk materials like heavy fermion metals.
In a 2001 paper in Nature, Si and collaborators offered a new theory regarding a similar destruction of the magnetic quantum entanglement that appears at the quantum critical point of heavy fermion metals. The new probe could provide direct experimental evidence of this proposed effect.
"Based on previous experiments and theoretical predications, the new probe should provide us with much-anticipated evidence about the precise way that quantum criticality forms in nature," Si said. "With this unique experimental data, we hope to gain an in-depth understanding of the phenomena that may well be what engineers need in order to harness the power for high-temperature superconductivity."
The research was funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft), the Robert A. Welch Foundation, the National Science Foundation, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the David and Lucille Packard Foundation. Co-authors on the study include Kirchner, Si, Natelson and Lijun Zhu of the University of California at Riverside.
About Rice University:
Rice University is consistently ranked one of America's best teaching and research universities. It is distinguished by its: size: 2,850 undergraduates and 1,950 graduate students; selectivity: 10 applicants for each place in the freshman class; resources: an undergraduate student-to-faculty ratio of 6-to-1, and the fifth largest endowment per student among American universities; residential college system, which builds communities that are both close-knit and diverse; and collaborative culture, which crosses disciplines, integrates teaching and research, and intermingles undergraduate and graduate work. Rice's wooded campus is located in the nation's fourth largest city and on America's South Coast.
Issuers of news releases, not 7th Wave, Inc. or Nanotechnology Now, are solely responsible for the accuracy of the content.
|Related News Press|
Soft decoupling of organic molecules on metal June 23rd, 2016 | <urn:uuid:1d25e423-1291-48ca-9feb-fa80270c4f40> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanotech-now.com/news.cgi?story_id=12912 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922268 | 1,350 | 2.96875 | 3 |
The stock market crash of 1929 was an unprecedented economic event in American history and marked the beginning of the Great Depression in the United States. Fueled by exuberant speculation in the stock market, Americans failed to recognize the warning signs and continued to engage in risky behavior.
The end of World War I ushered in a prosperous era in America, as manufacturing boomed and inventions such as the airplane and the radio made life more enjoyable. With optimism at its height, Americans started to invest their money in the stock market. As more people invested, stock prices began to rise. This was first noticeable around 1925. Between 1925 and 1927 stocks rose and fell moderately.
In 1927, the market surged ahead. By 1928, the stock market boom was officially underway. Every day Americans regarded the stock market as a way to get wealthy, encouraged by stories of friends and family that had made fortunes from investing. The excitement surrounding the purchase of stocks soared. Unfortunately, not everyone who wanted to invest in the stock market could afford to do so and to alleviate this problem, banks allowed investors to buy “on margin.”
Buying stocks on margin means that an investor is only required to put down a portion of the purchase price (in this case, 10% to 20%) while the broker covers the remaining amount. Although buying on margin made it possible for many people to invest, it was in essence very risky. If the price of a stock fell below the loan amount, an investor was likely to receive a “margin call” which meant he/she would have to come up with the cash to pay the loan back immediately.
Americans neglected to recognize the risk inherent in buying stocks on margin and continued to make purchases. By 1929 everyone was investing: individuals, companies and banks. On March 25, 1929, the stock market experienced a mini-crash. As prices began to drop, margin calls were made. Panic began to set in. To stop the market from declining further, Charles Mitchell, a prominent banker from National City Bank, stepped in to reassure market participants that his bank would continue to lend. This assuaged investors and the panic subsided.
By spring of 1929, certain key economic indicators showed signs of weakening and knowledgeable people were warning of a crash; however, no one listened. During the summer of 1929 the market gained momentum, reaching its peak on September 3, 1929. Two days later the market started dropping. Margin calls were issued. The ticker could not keep up. In the afternoon of that same day, a group of bankers pooled their money and invested in the market ending the precipitous drop. By the end of the day, 12.9 million shares had been sold.
A few weeks later on October 28, 1929 the market fell again. Following weekend newspapers speculated about an impending crash and investors realized they needed to get their money out before it was too late. Tuesday, October 29, 1929 would go down as the worst day in stock market history even though over 16.4 million shares of stock were sold. The following day, the stock market was closed and when it reopened, stocks continued to drop. This signified the beginning of the stock market crash. Over the next two years, the stock market plummeted reaching its low point on July 8, 1932 when the Dow Jones Industrial Average hit 41.22.
The Stock Market crash of 1929 sent ripples throughout the economy. Unable to pay off debts, many Americans were financially ruined. Demand for consumer goods dropped as people began to live in poverty. After the crash, credit also became worthless; no one could be trusted to repay their debts.
The economy, individuals and corporations suffered for several years after the crash. Recovery was due in part to President Roosevelt and his Hundred Day plan, during which time he proposed legislation designed to prop up the banking system, stabilize the economy and restore confidence in Americans.
Although no one is sure exactly what caused the crash, there were several indicators that might have suggested a crash was imminent. Prior to the crash, unemployment was on the rise and construction, steel and automobile production was declining. Most economists subscribe to the theory that the crash was a result of the so-called “Boom-Bust.” This theory explains the disaster by describing the stock market as a bubble – the demand for stocks went unchecked which caused an increase in stock prices, margin buying, and widespread speculation, all of which led to a bubble that eventually burst.
While the recent events of the US economy will not lead to anything close to the Great Depression, the continued issues of health insurance, unemployment and now a massive BP oil spill will certainly have a negative impact on our economy. Hopefully the turnaround will be much faster than 11 years. | <urn:uuid:fb640c2a-1640-4cb6-af5f-d0c8158ebe42> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.doughroller.net/investing/understanding-the-wall-street-stock-market-crash-of-1929/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982808 | 962 | 3.9375 | 4 |
Skip to comments.Deciphered Ancient Tablet Reveals Curse of Greengrocer
Posted on 12/24/2011 9:37:45 AM PST by SunkenCiv
Written in Greek, the tablet holding the curse was dropped into a well in Antioch, then one of the Roman Empire's biggest cities in the East, today part of southeast Turkey, near the border with Syria.
The curse calls upon Iao, the Greek name for Yahweh, the god of the Old Testament, to afflict a man named Babylas who is identified as being a greengrocer. The tablet lists his mother's name as Dionysia, "also known as Hesykhia" it reads. The text was translated by Alexander Hollmann of the University of Washington.
The artifact, which is now in the Princeton University Art Museum, was discovered in the 1930s by an archaeological team but had not previously been fully translated. The translation is detailed in the most recent edition of the journal Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.
Reading a curse
"O thunder-and-lightning-hurling Iao, strike, bind, bind together Babylas the greengrocer," reads the beginning of one side of the curse tablet. "As you struck the chariot of Pharaoh, so strike his [Babylas'] offensiveness."
Hollmann told LiveScience that he has seen curses directed against gladiators and charioteers, among other occupations, but never a greengrocer. "There are other people who are named by occupation in some of the curse tablets, but I haven't come across a greengrocer before," he said.
The name Babylas, used by a third-century Bishop of Antioch who was killed for his Christian beliefs, suggests the greengrocer may have been a Christian. "There is a very important Bishop of Antioch called Babylas who was one of the early martyrs," Hollmann said.
The use of Old Testament biblical metaphors initially suggested to Hollmann the curse-writer was Jewish. After studying other ancient magical spells that use the metaphors, he realized that this may not be the case.
(Excerpt) Read more at livescience.com ...
The curse tablet calls on Iao, the Greek name for Yahweh, god of the Old Testament, to strike down Babylas who is identified as being a greengrocer. CREDIT: Photo courtesy Professor Alexander Hollmann
|GGG managers are SunkenCiv, StayAt HomeMother & Ernest_at_the_Beach|
Imagine if there had been used car salesmen back then.
Babylas the greengrocer probably tried to force his healthy veggies on the Antioch schoolchildren as mandated lunch fare.
Curse him indeed.
You must be old...
Don’t dispair, the boss sounds continue.
Head over to the south Jersey shore during any summer weekend. The Geater is still there. Had a gig in Sea Isle City on Saturday afternoons last year.
Per this web page http://geatorgigs.webs.com/ he’s in Atlantic City on New Years Eve.
Yep. You get that bag of potatoes home, and there’s the rotten one hidden in the middle of the bag. Curse you! Curse you, you apron-wearing leaf-cutting rascal!
I didn't know they had FReepers back then.
Cool! Thanks for the Info. I’ll check out his website.
Now if only Larry Ferrari was still living......
That guy sounds like he needed to hire a Walmart greeter!
Really the curse was put on him by another greengrocer, because he opened up that day’s version of Wal-Mart. Also he operated 24/7.
This curse didn’t happen to mention billy goats or the Cubs did it?
"O thunderand-lightning-hurling Iao, as you cut down the firstborn of Egypt, cut down his [livestock?] as much as..."
This could very well show that not only was Exodus a true event, but that it was common knowledge at the time. Anyone who's ever read the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, etc.)knows that according to those books, everyone at the time knew who God was. They were all aware of him, even those that worshiped other Gods.
Disclaimer: Opinions posted on Free Republic are those of the individual posters and do not necessarily represent the opinion of Free Republic or its management. All materials posted herein are protected by copyright law and the exemption for fair use of copyrighted works. | <urn:uuid:321b48a1-0f92-4fcc-bc66-91e96021c537> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-chat/2824674/posts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962439 | 985 | 2.546875 | 3 |
June 12, 2006A new species of hammerhead shark has been
discovered off the coast of South Carolina, but summer swimmers don't
have to worryit's the sharks that are in trouble, experts say.
The newfound shark species, which has not yet been named, is nearly identical to the scalloped hammerhead, a common Atlantic shark that can grow up to 10 feet (3 meters) long.
But the new species appears to be extremely rareso much so that it may only breed in certain South Carolina bays.
Biologists at Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, discovered the new species while studying the DNA of scalloped hammerheads. The researchers found that some hammerheads they examined had a significantly different genetic signature from the rest, despite their similar appearance.
A separate team led by Joe Quattro at the University of South Carolina in Columbia came to the same conclusion while studying the state's coastal shark stocks.
Discovery of the new hammerhead raises the need for better shark protection in the U.S., Quattro says.
"If South Carolina's waters are the primary nursery grounds for [this] species, and females gather here to reproduce, these areas should be conservation priorities," he said in a statement issued last week.
"Protecting this prime nursery habitat is vital to the survival of the species."
Blake de Pastino
See More Photos in the News
See Today's Top News Stories
Get Our Free Photo Newsletter | <urn:uuid:57f78607-3c05-4278-8217-0b44e52ad528> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/06/060612-sharks.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937779 | 306 | 3.046875 | 3 |
News & Policies
History & Tours | Kids | Your Government | Appointments | Jobs | Contact | Graphic version
For Immediate Release
Office of the Press Secretary
September 18, 2003
National Hispanic Heritage Month, 2003
By the President of the United States of America
America's Diversity Has Always Been a Great Strength of Our Nation. As we celebrate National Hispanic Heritage Month, we recognize and applaud the extraordinary accomplishments of Hispanic Americans.
From America's beginning, Hispanic Americans have served as leaders in business, government, law, science, athletics, the arts, and many other fields. In 1822, Joseph Marion Hernández became the first Hispanic to serve as a member of the United States Congress, representing the newly established territory of Florida. Businessman Roberto Goizueta, a refugee from Cuba who rose to become the CEO of one of America's largest corporations, is an inspiring example of what immigrants to America can achieve through hard work and character. Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient Roberto Clemente's athletic skills, generosity, and charity made him a legend on and off the baseball field. Through memorable recordings and performances, singer Celia Cruz celebrated her heritage and helped introduce salsa music to the United States.
Hispanic Americans have sacrificed in defense of this Nation's freedom, serving in every major American conflict. More than three dozen Hispanic Americans have earned the Medal of Honor. Today, more than 125,000 Hispanic Americans serve in the Armed Forces, approximately 9 percent of our active-duty military. As we work to advance peace, freedom, and opportunity abroad, we are grateful to all of the brave men and women who serve our Nation, and to their families.
During Hispanic Heritage Month, I join with all Americans in recognizing the many contributions of Hispanic Americans to the United States, and in celebrating Hispanic heritage and culture. To honor the achievements of Hispanic Americans, the Congress, by Public Law 100-402 as amended, has authorized and requested the President to issue annually a proclamation designating September 15 through October 15, as "National Hispanic Heritage Month."
NOW, THEREFORE, I, GEORGE W. BUSH, President of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim September 15 through October 15, 2003, as National Hispanic Heritage Month. I call upon public officials, educators, librarians, and all the people of the United States to observe this month with appropriate ceremonies, activities, and programs.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord two thousand three, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and twenty-eighth.
GEORGE W. BUSH
# # #
|Email this page to a friend| | <urn:uuid:f2f1587f-4709-42f7-af34-3edfb874c6be> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/09/text/20030918.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92446 | 562 | 2.953125 | 3 |
July 31, 2007 Traffic jams, aside from being extremely frustrating, are also extremely costly. The Texas Transport Institute calculated that during 1996 traffic congestion ate up $74 billion in lost hours and petrol – and with congestion only rising since then it’s a sure bet that even more money has gone down the drain while commuters get nowhere. In an effort to combat congestion, many governments are looking towards car-pooling, offering monetary incentives to businesses that encourage it and introducing high occupancy vehicle lanes. However, a potential problem lies in policing them. To that end, Loughborough University has released the Dtect system – an infra red camera and image processing unit that can determine how many occupants a car has in an instant. And unlike a sleepy toll booth operator, or other photography based systems, it won’t be fooled by dressed up mannequins.
The Dtect system operates by projecting two wavelengths of low intensity infra red light at the oncoming vehicle. The device has a range of up to 50 metres, and is effective on cars traveling at up to 80 miles per hour, eliminating the need for them to stop or even slow down. As the beams are fired, two digital cameras, specifically coordinated to capture the infra red wavelengths, take a photo. The accompanying software combines the two images and eliminates non-facial aspects of the photo before logging the picture with a printed timestamp, location and person count. An instant after the process begins and the beams are fired, the final picture will be sent off to a station of the operator’s choice – with the faces masked to prevent an invasion of privacy. When the Dtect system is correctly set up, and has an unhindered line of access to the windshields of oncoming automobiles, it is correct in its occupancy count 90% of the time. And in the ten percent of cases when it is mistaken, and challenged, the image in question can easily be examined by a human eye.
Although the Dtect system is most likely useful in a tolling scenario and to encourage a fairer system than the flat congestion charges currently in place in several major cities, possible applications for the technology extend well beyond this. Dtect could be used as a tool for border security, and also as a data gathering tool for governments or corporations. The latter application could prove especially useful in providing the basis for better planning and strategies to combat traffic congestion and help to stem the flow of all that wasted time and money. | <urn:uuid:57da4bad-bfe8-4551-8fa8-e77eb54b83e7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gizmag.com/go/7708/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95592 | 508 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test®-Third Edition
Overview: Updated achievement test for use in a variety of clinical, educational, and research settings.
Age Range: Individuals 4:0-50:11
RTI Tiers: RTI Levels 2 and 3
Administration: Paper-and-pencil or online administration
Completion Time: Varies by grade level and number of subtests administered
Fall, Winter, and Spring grade-based standard scores, age-based standard scores, percentile ranks, stanines, NCEs, age and grade equivalents.
Scoring Options: Q-interactive web-based administration and Q-global™ web-based scoring
Publication Date: 2009
Features & BenefitsWith a total of 16 subtests, WIAT-III offers:
- Three new subtests: Oral Reading, Math Fluency and Early Reading Skills
- Enriched Listening Comprehension, Oral Expression, and Written Expression subtests
- Enhanced Reading Comprehension subtest
- Improved scoring rules that are featured in response to scoring studies, theoretical reviews by expert researchers, and usability reviews by teachers and clinicians
- Enhanced scoring software and interactive scoring guide in every kit
- Updated norms for PreK through grade 12, and for ages 4:0–50:11
Content & Administration
- Measure all eight areas of achievement specified by IDEA legislation as important for identifying and classifying learning disabilities
- Focus on reading goals and objectives with the Early Reading Skills subtests
- Evaluate patterns of strengths and weaknesses to identify learning disabilities
Psychometric InformationThe WIAT-III was nationally standardized on 3,000 students and adults and features comprehensive normative information.
The WIAT-III was correlated with the following ability measures:
- Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third Edition (WPPSI-III; Wechsler, 2002)
- Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV; Wechsler, 2012) - Study included in the WPPSI-IV Technical and Interpretive Manual
- Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003)
- Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014) - Study included in the WISC-V Technical and Interpretive Manual
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV; Wechsler, 2008)
- Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability (WNV; Wechsler & Naglieri, 2006)
- Differential Ability Scales, Second Edition (DAS-II; Elliott, 2007)
WIAT-III Score Report
WPPSI–IV / WIAT-III Combination Reports
This combination report allows you to upgrade your WPPSI–IV or WIAT–III Score Report to include a pattern of strengths and weaknesses analysis and an ability achievement discrepancy analysis of the combined results.
Two options for scoring and reporting the WIAT-III are now available on Q-global.
The first option is to pay per-report. Customers who administer the WIAT-III only a few times each year, or those who want the flexibility to pay only as the assessment is used, may prefer this option.
The second option is to select an "unlimited use" subscription, where one user of the WIAT-III gets unlimited scoring and reporting for one, three, or five years depending on the selected term of the subscription. This may be a better option for customers who administer the WIAT-III several times each year—and don't want to worry about keeping track of their report expenses.
Scoring and/or Reporting Options
Q-global™ Web-based Administration, Scoring, and Reporting – Enables you to quickly assess and efficiently organize examinee information, generate scores, and produce accurate comprehensive reports all via the Web.
WIAT-III on Q-global also provides:
- Enhanced skill analysis for core subtests at item level and sub-item level
- Intervention goal statements for core subtests to assist with IEP goals and to help develop planning for intervention
- Annual goals and short-term objectives for problem areas based on specific abilities, strengths, and weaknesses
- Research-supported alternatives for determining severe learning disability and non-responders within an RTI environment
- Parent Report, with a description of each subtest, as well as information to help the parent understand the WIAT-III scores
For a description of subtests and composites, click here.
Q-global Unlimited-use Scoring Subscriptions Now Available!
Two pricing options are now available for scoring and reporting on Q-global. In addition to the current per-report price, there is now an unlimited-use scoring and reporting subscription available in one-, three-, and five-year terms. Both pricing options are listed in the pricing section below.
Important note: Each subscription is per user for the WIAT-III only and will begin on the date of order processing unless otherwise requested.
Quick Score Guide for WIAT-III Essay Composition (PDF - 507KB)
WIAT®-III Wechsler Individual Achievement Test®–Third Edition: An Introduction
This pre-recorded 20-30 minute session allows you to learn at your leisure. All you need is access to the Internet and the sound enabled on your computer. Please keep in mind that the session may take a few minutes to load.
This session provides you with essential information regarding the features of the WIAT-III. | <urn:uuid:2b866b0b-e485-4ebc-85df-34518f776674> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pearsonclinical.com/psychology/products/100000463/wechsler-individual-achievement-testthird-edition-wiatiii-wiatiii.html?Pid=015-8984-609 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.868429 | 1,178 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Related categories 3
Disability Social History Project
Timeline, essays, upcoming conferences, and other resources related to the history of disability in society. The ways in which people with disabilities have been treated vary dramatically throughout history and among different cultures.
The Innominate Society of Louisville
Presentations and discussions of papers dealing with subjects of interest or importance in the fields of medical history and the cultural aspects of medicine.
Medicine and Madison Avenue
Explores the complex relationships between modern medicine and modern advertising. Presents images and database information for various health-related advertisements printed in newspapers and magazines.
Photographs for Mental Health Care Reform: The Maryland State Care Campaign, 1908-1910
This online exhibition traces the Maryland State Lunacy Commission's successful campaign to transfer the mentally ill from county almshouses into state hospitals. Photographs played a key role in the passage of new laws.
Social History of Medicine
A journal concerned with all aspects of health, illness, and medical treatment in the past.
Society for the Social History of Medicine
Pursues inter-disciplinary approaches to the history of health, welfare, medical science and practice. Organization information, upcoming conferences, journal table of contents, and internet links.
Last update:June 10, 2015 at 1:31:06 UTC | <urn:uuid:65c80229-ac99-423b-b124-5be9d6b52b74> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Topic/Social_History/Health/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.874303 | 264 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Navicular Related Lameness
It is speculated that Navicular Syndrome is responsible for about 1/3 of all chronic forelimb lameness in horses. Although the Navicular region of the hind limbs can be affected in the same way, most Navicular Syndrome diagnosis are on the front feet. The terms Navicular “Syndrome” (NS) and Navicular “Disease” (ND) are often used synonymously; however there is a definite difference. There are generally less than 10% of all horses diagnosed with “Navicular Syndrome/Disease” that actually have radiographic changes or significant degeneration of the Navicular bone (NB). Over time there has been considerable debate regarding a Navicular diagnosis. It seems that typically horses could exhibit all the clinical signs of Navicular disease, but have no radiographic changes to the bone. Typically if a horse had heel pain, pain through the frog, and diagnostic anesthesia that localized the area around the Navicular bone, it would receive the diagnosis of “Navicular Syndrome” because the pain seems to be in the Navicular region. The use of the term “disease” seems to be reserved for cases where actual changes to the Navicular bone are seen, however even then it is a guarded prognosis because calling it a disease would imply that the cause is known and a specific treatment can be implemented. Until recently, the NS diagnosis was vague in many cases. Because both the cause and structure being affected was not fully known, the prognosis for most of these cases was less than bright. Most horse care professionals and horse owners grew to accept that the NS diagnosis meant limited use of the horse with regular administration of anti-inflammatory injections or a neurectomy. It was also commonly accepted that the horse would have frequent bouts of discomfort for the remainder of their life. However, over the last 15 years or so, there have been marked improvements in understanding the lameness in the Navicular region. With the advent of standing MRI for horses and high quality ultrasound, veterinarians are able to see pathology to connective tissue around the Navicular bone and the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint, long before changes to the bone are seen radiographically. Lesions to the collateral ligaments of the DIP joint and the collateral sesamoidean ligament (suspensory ligament to the NB) seem to represent a large portion of the current findings with MRI and ultrasound. If left untreated, the lesions can become chronic and progress to arthritic lesions. Typically, cases would reach the radiographically recognized state before a definitive diagnosis could be made. Today, more specific and comprehensive equipment are available to diagnose the condition so treatment can be more effective.
List of Specific Diagnosis within the “Navicular Syndrome” Group
- Bone Spurs of the Navicluar Bone (NB)
- Increased Vascular Channels in the NB (often referred to as “Lollipops”)
- Arthritic Lesions of the:
• Deep Digital Flexor Tendon (and/or tendon sheath and bursa)
• Impar Ligament
• Collateral Ligament of the DIP Joint
• Collateral Sesamoidean Ligament
- Navicular Bursitis
- Coffin Joint Disease or (Sub-condral bone bruising)
- Caudal Hoof or Heel Pain
Probable Causes of Navicular Region Lameness
For years the cause of “Navicular Syndrome” has been speculated and debated. In general the debates and speculations have centered around heridity and hoof balance. Some feel that NS is hereditary and that certain breeds and blood lines are predisposed to having Navicular region lameness. Another school of thought is that NS is caused from excessive leverage from a long toe and other hoof imbalances. Within the last 5 years, the later seems to be the more widely accepted theory in light of the soft tissue lesions occuring before bone changes are seen. The “hereditary” theory does have some valid points in that many horses have a hoof and limb conformation that makes hoof balance challenging. There are some breeds that were seen as being “pre-disposed” to Navicular Syndrome because of their conformations. For example, Quarter horses because they often had big bodies and little feet, and Thoroughbreds because they had flat feet with said to be poor heels and therefore prone to a broken back pastern axis. Although those specific breeds do tend to have those conformation generalities, the real problem lies with the hoof care trends associated with their breed/discipline.
Over the last 30 or 40 years, the quarter horse industry has been promoting a foot with taller heels as a desired model. If you are able to check out the "Natural Balance Hoof Care" book and videos, you will see clearly that taller heels and resulting lack of frog contact means insufficient support to the Navicular bone and the soft tissue surrounding it. Ultimately, the soft tissue fails and pain and trauma in the Navicular region is seen.
In the Thoroughbred industry, the trend used to be towards achieving a longer toe to increase the length of stride. Although the frog would end up closer to the ground, the heels were often underrun and crushed. The extra leverage from the long toe again leads to strain on the soft tissue in and around the NB and the DIP Joint. A toe-first landing also tends to go hand-in-hand with the long-toe/low-heel hoof shape. In short, the impar ligament, collateral sesamoidean ligament and the DDFT received additional strain and trauma at both the landing and breakover phase of the stride. The eventual result of the extra leverage would appear as a “Navicular” lameness.
From the hereditary stand point, breeds like Quarter horses and Thoroughbreds appear to make the theory plausible. However I do not believe that there has been enough consideration regarding the hoof care practices specific to certain breeds or disciplines. I think as more and more veterinarians and farriers have started to look at some of these hoof care practices with some discretion, it is becoming more evident that Navicular region lameness is indeed a result of unnatural biomechanical forces from such things as: hoof imbalances, excessive leverages, horses working on hard or unforgiving surfaces, and horses standing in confinement more than they are allowed to be active.
General Treatment Approach for Navicular Region Lameness
For the last 20 years or so, the standard treatment prescription for “Navicular Syndrome” has been egg bar or straight bar shoes and often wedge pads. The bar shoe was used to offer additional support to the heels or caudal part of the foot, while the wedge pad was perceived to improve the angle or pastern alignment. In general, the treatment was met with some success. The success or failure seemed to depend on foot preparation, specifically of the heels. If the heel was trimmed to a solid base and the shoe’s extension behind the heel was conservative so it did not cause undue pressure on the heel, and the bar was positioned so that the back of the frog could be in contact, then the treatment was fairly successful. The bar catching the frog as it descends is helpful to offer some support to the Navicular region. At the same time, it was acceptable to roll or square the toe on bar shoes to reduce the leverage at the time of breakover. The use of a full wedge pad, in conjunction with a rolled or squared toe bar shoe, helped with the alignment of the pastern plus added more support to the frog.
This approach has helped thousands of horses find some relief from the Navicular region pain. Typically horses would improve by 60% to 70% and would hover around that level of soundness for a few years. Over time, many horses would start to do poorly after several years and the next line of treatment would be a neurectomy (Nerving), which would basically remove the pain in that region, but not really fix the problem. If the “cause” of the pain was not addressed at the time of the nerving, it was not uncommon to see the same lameness level or worse return within a two year period.
Over the last 10 – 15 years, improved treatment approaches have surfaced for these cases. Simply getting the hoof wall balanced around the widest part of the foot, and trimming the wall level or parallel with the live sole, seems to help set the stage for a healing environment. From there, even better results are seen by reducing the leverages around the coffin joint with a more rounded edge shoe as well as incorporating some well distributed caudal foot support.
Example of Toe-First Landing Example of Heel-First Landing
For cases where the condition is chronic and there are radiographic changes to the NB, the best approach has been the EDSS treatment system because of its adjustment capabilities. There is no real need to offer additional clearance for a prolapsed sole in the toe (as there is in laminitis), so we typically fill the whole bottom of the foot with impression material. Once the EDSS shoe and pad are applied over the impression material, it is easy to make adjustments with the rails and frog inserts to help the horse turn comfortably and engage the ground slightly heel first.
The way the horse engages the ground (ie; toe-first, flat or heel-first) is what really determines what type of application the horse may require. For example, if after the foot is trimmed the horse lands heavy toe-first, then you would apply something like the EDSS so that you can make the necessary elevation adjustments. If the horse lands slightly toe-first or flat, then you might get the required elevation with a standard (NB, CF or PLR) shoe and wedged frog support pad. If the horse can land heel-first after trimming, then you may get by with a NB shoe or even barefoot. However, typically with these cases the caudal part of the foot has enough distortion and atrophy where a flat frog support pad may be very helpful. The package that is most widely used on “Navicular” horses is the Aluminum Natural Balance shoes or Aluminum NB PLR (performance leverage reduction) shoes, wedged Natural Balance Frog Support Pads, and Sole Support Impression Material. (Figure 1) If the use of pads is required for more than a few shoeing cycles, then many people find it helpful to alternate the use of Impression Material with something like Magic Cushion after about the 3rd shoeing. Keep in mind that support to the back of the foot and the reduction of leverage is your goal, so choose your package carefully and make sure you get the appropriate instruction for the products you are using. Along with proper hoof preparation, the reason the EDSS and the NB shoes and pads seem more effective than egg bars and wedge pads is because the support that is offered to the back of the foot is “Active” and not “Passive”. What is meant by that is, the system is doing more than just catching the frog and stopping it from dropping between the heels of the shoe. With a ‘firm’ frog support pad, there is active support to the frog (and therefore the Navicular bone and coffin joint) with each step. (Figure 2) By using an aluminum rolled toe shoe, or better yet a complete leverage reduction shoe, you are taking the extra strain off the collateral ligaments, collateral sesamoidean ligaments, impar ligaments and DDFT. Aluminum is even more effective because the horse will easily wear the balance point of breakover to its most optimal location.
The preferred approach of 15 – 20 years ago was useful in getting the “Navicular Syndrome” epidemic a treatment direction. The tools and techniques we have today are just another step, but do seem to offer a little more hope for lame horses. As more information about the specifics of Navicular Region Lameness is discovered, I’m sure the products and techniques used to treat the syndrome will continue to improve.
Copyright © 2007 Equine Lameness Prevention Organization ~ All Rights Reserved ~ | <urn:uuid:62b4b3df-08de-4f55-9b16-22bcc41208bf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.e-hoofcare.com/info/navicular-main.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954067 | 2,551 | 2.96875 | 3 |
The IPCC Global temperatures are calculated using a 5x5 degree grid based on data from the Hadley/Climatic Research Unit (CRU) CRUTEM3 database. I have often wondered what the temperature would be in the California cells, and now I know.
The following figure shows the average annual temperature anomalies for the average of the four 5x5 degree grids covering California for 1930 – 2009 (indicated in yellow on the map) [Click for a larger image]
The CRUTEM3 data was plotted at: [http://www.appinsys.com/GlobalWarming/climate.aspx] by Alan Cheetham at the Global Warming Science web site. The warmest year was 1934, with no statistically significant warming over the last 80 years. Wow, and we are about to destroy our economy with AB32 to stop this warming?
Next time you see the Governor, tell him your agree the “the science is settled” as there is no significant warming in California and he needs to get behind suspending AB32.
Alan Cheetham has added a California page dedicated to California here, with plots of historic temperature in cites around California. See if you can find the warming. | <urn:uuid:2aa0c392-11ad-48bf-8c9f-ef2d91e3a3c0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ncwatch.typepad.com/media/2010/04/california-no-statistically-significant-warming-last-80-years.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947255 | 250 | 3.046875 | 3 |
This animation show where and when photosynthesis happens around the world as the seasons come and go. The land in the Northern Hemisphere gets greener each spring and summer, an indication of high rates of photosynthesis, and yellow during autumn as most plants become dormant and the amount of photosynthesis decreases. In tropical rainforest areas, plants live and photosynthesize all year long.
The Earth's Biosphere
The biosphere includes all living things on our planet – the life on land and in the oceans - plants, animals, fungi, protists with only one cell, and even little bacteria.
Other than water, the most common thing in the bodies of living things is an element called carbon. There are so many living things on the planet that if you added up all the carbon in all of their bodies, cells, trunks, stems, and leaves it would be heavier than 116 billion school buses!
The biosphere can impact the Earth’s climate. This is because the biosphere can change the amount of greenhouse gases that are in the air of our atmosphere. When plants make their food by doing photosynthesis, oxygen is put into the air and carbon dioxide greenhouse gas is taken out of the air. When plants and animals respire, carbon dioxide is put to the air and oxygen is taken out of the air. Microbes that live in soils can add nitrous oxide, another type of greenhouse gas, to the air. When people burn fossil fuels, forests, and fields, greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere too.
Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!Traveling Nitrogen
is a fun group game appropriate for the classroom. Players follow nitrogen atoms through living and nonliving parts of the nitrogen cycle. For grades 5-9.
You might also be interested in:
Kingdom Plantae has almost 300,000 different kinds of plants. Plants are found all over planet Earth. They can live in fields, in swamps, in oceans and in the desert. They can live where it is hot and...more
Members of the Kingdom Protista are an unusual group of organisms that were put together because they don't really seem to belong to any other group. Some protists look or act like plants, others look...more
Each Eubacteria is a tiny prokaryotic cell. Some can make food from sunlight through photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria, also called blue-green algae, are able to do this. They have been living in the oceans...more
There are many different kinds of plants. Some have big leaves. Some have small leaves. Some even have flowers. All plants make their own food. When sunlight hits the leaves of a plant, photosynthesis...more
You can’t see air molecules. But if you could, you would see that most of them are made of two atoms of nitrogen bonded together. Nitrogen is not just in the sky. It is found all over the planet. It is...more
In the forests of the southern Rocky Mountains, trees are being killed by beetles that eat bark. Scientists are looking at forests where the beetles are eating the trees. They want to understand how trees...more
The first time people got to see the whole Earth was in 1968 when astronauts took pictures of the Earth as they traveled to and from the Moon. In their photographs, the Earth looks like a small blue and...more | <urn:uuid:3a6117a0-c3c5-4175-87d0-4385be8e96cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/biosphere.html&edu=elem | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954717 | 690 | 3.78125 | 4 |
So why is this page separate from Children's Services and Teens and Young Adults? Because there is a thread running through the library literature about the need to reach boys, who seem to read less and use the library less after the primary grades.
Here's a selection of recent items:
Boy Meets Book Official web site of "Connecting Boys with Books: What Libraries Can Do" author, Michael Sullivan
Boys, Literacy and Reading Collection of websites assembled by staff at Trinity College, Perth, Western Australia, for a meeting of the Western Australia School Library Association, April, 2003. Power points from the program also available.
BOYS WILL BE... : The unique reading and development needs of boys in libraries, A Resource Guide for Librarians, prepared for the 2003 ALSC Charlemae Rollins President's Program, ALA Annual Conference, June 19-23, 2003, Toronto, Barbara Genco, ALSC President
Guys Read Offers a list of books recommended by the webmaster, children's author Jon Sczieska, and others suggested by visitors to the website.
Horton, Rosemary. "Boys and reading: strategies and problems." Access, Volume 20, issue2, 2006, p. 5-7. Publication of the Australian School Library Association.
Knowles, Elizabeth and Martha Smith. Boys and Literacy: Practical Strategies for Librarians, Teachers, and Parents, by Elizabeth Knowles. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, 2005. ISBN 1591582121
Sullivan, Michael. Connecting Boys with Books: What Libraries Can Do. Chicago, ALA, 2003. [0-8389-0849-7]
Sullivan, Michael. "Why Johnny Won't Read."
Schools often dismiss what boys like. No wonder they're not wild about reading.
School Library Journal 8/1/2004 issue
Toppo, Greg. "Funny, but boys do read" July 5, 2005 USA Today
Interview with Jon Sczieska
"Why Aren't Little Boys Reading?" in Library Administrator's Digest, December 2005, p. 74. Cites research at the Toledo-Lucas County Public Library, and offers the following suggestions:
- Provide staff training
- Develop programs that are attractive to boys
- Present programming for parents to explore why boys lose interest in reading
- Construct displays of interest to boys
- Develop a tip kit
The item also notes that boys like nonfiction, action, adventures, Graphic novels, and sports stories. | <urn:uuid:33574221-5471-4252-afaf-968010588a27> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wikis.ala.org/professionaltips/index.php?title=Boys&oldid=1755 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.883269 | 522 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Mosquito Life Cycle
The length of the mosquito life cycle varies between species and is dependent upon environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture. However, the life cycle of all mosquitoes is comprised of the egg, larval, pupal and adult stages.
Male mosquitoes feed on plant nectar alone, while females extract the blood of hosts in order to develop and nourish eggs. Most mosquitoes lay their eggs directly into water. Others lay their eggs near bodies of water but not within them.
Eggs will hatch into larvae within 24 to 48 hours. Larvae soon grow to become approximately 5 mm in length. Most larvae breathe through air tubes. Larger larvae can be seen floating just above the surface of infested waters.
Within seven to 10 days, larvae enter the pupal stage. Pupae are also visible upon the surface of the breeding site. After a mosquito is fully developed, it will emerge as an adult from its pupal case. At this time, the new adult stands upon the water and dries its wings to prepare for flight. Adult female mosquitoes will then seek an animal on which to feed. Females are capable of flying for miles if necessary and can lay over 100 eggs at a time.
Larvae and pupae usually cannot survive without water. If a water source evaporates before the larvae and pupae within it transform into adult mosquitoes, those young often will die. | <urn:uuid:336b6fbf-b553-44a4-ba66-2e6418b8fe86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.orkin.com/other/mosquitoes/mosquito-life-cycle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966356 | 286 | 4.15625 | 4 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.