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22 April marks the anniversary of the birth of Henry Fielding in 1707. Fielding's lasting fame rests on his literary output: his novel The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, published in 1749, was one of the first to be written in the English language. Fielding's one and only encounter with Lyme Regis, however, occurred more than twenty years earlier, in 1725. On his brief visit here, he took a strong fancy to a wealthy local heiress named Sarah Andrew... a match doomed from the start, partly because the young lady was only fifteen years old at the time, and because her uncle, Andrew Tucker, had already marked her down for his own son, John. The young Fielding and his valet made a botched attempt to abduct the girl, but were soon chased off by the Tuckers.
To find out more about Henry Fielding and other writers associated with Lyme Regis, see the Writers and Artists page of the main website... or better still, visit the museum!
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en
| 0.98295 | 210 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Note that the
Element::innerText property will not contain the text which has been hidden by CSS style "
display:none" in Google Chrome (as well it will drop the content that has been masked by other CSS technics (including font-size:0, color:transparent, and a few other similar effects that cause the text not to be rendered in any visible way).
Other CSS properties are also considered :
- First the "display:" style of inner elements is parsed to determine if it delimits a block content (such as "display:block" which is the default of HTML block elements in the browser's builtin stylesheet, and whose behavior as not been overriden by your own CSS style); if so a newline will be inserted in the value of the innerText property. This won't happen with the textContent property.
- The CSS properties that generate inline contents will also be considered : for example the inline element
<br \> that generates an inline newline will also generate an newline in the value of innerText.
- The "display:inline" style causes no newline either in textContent or innerText.
- The "display:table" style generates newlines around the table and between table rows, but"display:table-cell" will generate a tabulation character.
- The "position:absolute" property (used with display:block or display:inline, it does not matter) will also cause a line break to be inserted.
- Some browsers will also include a single space separation between spans
Element::textContent will still contain ALL contents of inner text elements independantly of the applied CSS even if they are invisible. And no extra newlines or whitespaces will be generated in textContent, which just ignores all styles and the structure and inline/block or positioned types of inner elements.
A copy/paste operation using mouse selection will discard the hidden text in the plain-text format that is put in the clipboard, so it won't contain everything in the
textContent, but only what is within
innerText (after whitespace/newline generation as above).
Both properties are then supported in Google Chrome, but their content may then be different. Older browsers still included in innetText everything like what textContent now contains (but their behavior in relation with then generation of whitespaces/newlines was inconsistant).
jQuery will solve these inconsistencies between browsers using the ".text()" method added to the parsed elements it returns via a $() query. Internally, it solves the difficulties by looking into the HTML DOM, working only with the "node" level. So it will return something looking more like the standard textContent.
The caveat is that that this jQuery method will not insert any extra spaces or line breaks that may be visible on screen caused by subelements (like
<br />) of the content.
If you design some scripts for accessibility and your stylesheet is parsed for non-aural rendering, such as plugins used to communicate with a Braille reader, this tool should use the textContent if it must include the specific punctuation signs that are added in spans styled with "display:none" and that are typically included in pages (for example for superscripts/subscripts), otherwise the innerText will be very confusive on the Braille reader.
Texts hidden by CSS tricks are now typically ignored by major search engines (that will also parse the CSS of your HTML pages, and will also ignore texts that are not in contrasting colors on the background) using an HTML/CSS parser and the DOM property "innerText" exactly like in modern visual browsers (at least this invisible content will not be indexed so hidden text cannot be used as a trick to force the inclusion of some keywords in the page to check its content) ; but this hidden text will be stil displayed in the result page (if the page was still qualified from the index to be included in results), using the "textContent" property instead of the full HTML to strip the extra styles and scripts.
IF you assign some plain-text in any one of these two properties, this will overwrite the inner markup and styles applied to it (only the assigned element will keep its type, attributes and styles), so both properties will then contain the same content. However, some browsers will now no longer honor the write to innerText, and will only let you overwrite the textContent property (you cannot insert HTML markup when writing to these properties, as HTML special characters will be properly encoded using numeric character references to appear literally, if you then read the
innerHTML property after the assignment of
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| 0.863511 | 955 | 3 | 3 |
GRE stands for Graduate Record Examinations. Colleges and universities across US, and also in some other English speaking countries, use the GRE test to evaluate students. It is conducted by Educational Testing Service (ETS). It tests a student’s verbal and quantitative skills largely through multiple choice type questions, and an essay writing section tests the student’s abilities for analytical writing and critical thinking. It is a computer based examination and is administered worldwide by ETS.
GreGuide.com as the name suggests, guides thousands of students who are preparing for GRE. Here in GreGuide.com you will find all the information about the test absolutely free. GreGuide.com provides free preparation resources, practice tests, tips,tutorials and strategies to ace the GRE.
The new revised GRE from August 2011 will consist of 3 sections
Though the revised General Test consists of the same sections as before, each of the sections has been changed to a considerable amount. The verbal section in new revised format is modified to a great deal. Stress on vocabulary is reduced and real life logical problems in English are incorporated. To start with, the verbal section no more contains antonyms and analogies. Instead, the new Sentence Equivalence Questions test the student’s ability to form meaningful sentences by choosing appropriate words from a list. Both the verbal and the quantitative reasoning questions may have multiple correct answers in the new revised format, and the student needs to identify all of them accordingly. The most significant change in the quantitative reasoning section is that it now provides an online calculator for basic mathematical calculations. In case of the paper-based test, the calculators will be provided by the test center. Instead of multiple choice questions, this section may now contain Numeric Input questions in which the student requires to enter the answer rather than choosing it from a list. As for the Analytical essay writing section, the only significant change is that now students would not have two options to choose from in the analyze a critical issue section; only one topic will be given. Soon GreGuide.com will add more details on the new revised GRE.
Preparation for GRE requires a great deal of planning and precise execution as per the plan. Go through all the web pages of GreGuide.com. We have pages on
There are 3 ways to register forGraduate Record Examinations:
We have written a great deal about GRE registration here
Admission procedure to US universities after taking GRE is a baffling and difficult process. GRE guide has written step by admission procedure here and also the format of the transcripts required for universities is available for free download.
Visit this page to get some of the free GRE study material for the test.
Currently GRE is a Computer Adaptive Test (CAT). Visit this page to learn more about Computer Adaptive GRE.
The new revised GRE is a Computer Based Test (CBT) and is not Computer Adaptive (CAT). This is very important for students to remember that the new revised test no more adapts to the student’s standard.
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en
| 0.921932 | 625 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Daily Life on a
He wrote his diary in a secret code
- an archaic form of shorthand known only to the most educated
of his day. Because it was encoded, he was confident that no one
would ever read his revealing portrait of the world he lived in.
He was wrong. It took over 300 years, but in 1939 his code was
cracked and the observations of William Byrd II became known to
all. Because he never intended it to be read by others, his diary gives us an unvarnished view of life on a colonial
plantation in the early 18th century.
William Byrd II was born in Virginia in 1674 but was soon taken
to England where he was educated. He remained there until his father's
death in 1704. He returned to the colony and took over the management
of Westover, the family plantation on the James River. He became
an influential member of the Virginia aristocracy and was appointed
to the colony's Council of State in 1708. He owned vast amounts
of land (approximately 179,000 acres) and numerous plantations.
He founded two cities - Richmond and Appomattox - on his land.
He died in 1744.
Byrd kept a daily journal throughout
most of his life. In the following entries he reveals the routine
of his daily life:
I rose at 5 o'clock this morning and read a chapter in Hebrew and
200 verses in Homer's Odyssey. I ate milk for breakfast. I said
my prayers. Jenny and Eugene [two house
slaves] were whipped. I danced my dance [physical
exercises]. I read law in the morning and Italian in the
afternoon. I ate tough chicken for dinner. The boat came from
Appomattox [another plantation] and
was cut in the evening I walked about the plantation. I said
my prayers. I had good thoughts, good health, and good humor
this day, thanks be to God Almighty.
I was out of humor with my wife for trusting Anaka [a
house slave] with rum to steal when she was so given to
drinking, but it was soon over.
My wife was indisposed again but not to much purpose. In the afternoon
I beat Jenny [a house slave] for
throwing water on the couch.
My wife was much out of order and had frequent return of her pains.
...in the evening I took a walk about the plantation and when
I returned I found my wife very bad. I sent for Mrs. Hamlin and
my cousin Harrison about 9 o'clock and I said my prayers heartily
for my wife's happy delivery...I went to bed about 10 o'clock
and left the women full of expectation with my wife.
About one o'clock this morning my wife was happily delivered of a
son, thanks be to God Almighty. I was awake in a blink and rose and
my cousin Harrison met me on the stairs and told me it was a boy.
We drank some French wine and went to bed again and rose at 7 o'clock.
I rose at 6 o'clock and said my prayers and ate milk for breakfast.
Then I proceeded to Williamsburg, where I found all well. I went
to the capitol where I sent for the wench to clean my room and
when she came I kissed her and felt her, for which God forgive
Then I went to see the President, whom I found indisposed in
his ears. I dined with him on beef. Then we went to his house and
played at piquet [a card game for two players] where
Mr. Clayton came to us. We had much to do to get a bottle of French
About 10 o'clock I went to my lodgings. I had good health but
wicked thoughts. God forgive me.
In the spring of 1710 Byrd's son -
Parke - was 8 months old, his daughter - Evelyn - 2 1/2 years
old. We rejoin his diary as he arrives at his manor and discovers
his infant son suffering from a fever:
It was very hot this day, and the first day of summer...my wife
and I took a walk about the plantation; when we returned we found
our son very sick of a fever and he began to break out terribly.
We gave him some treacle water [a medicinal
compound used as an antidote for poison].
My son was a little worse, which made me send for Mr. Anderson [the
parish minister]. My express met him on the road and he
came about 10 o'clock. He advised some oil of juniper which did
|William Byrd II
The child continued indisposed. In the evening we walked home and
found Evie in great fever and to increase it [they] had given
In the evening the children were a little better.
I sent for my cousin Harrison to let Evie blood who was ill. When
she came back she took about four ounces. We put on blisters
and gave her a glister [an enema] which
worked very well. Her blood was extremely thick, which is common
in distemper of this constitution. About 12 o'clock she began
to sweat of herself, which we prompted by tincture of saffron
and sage and snakeroot. This made her sweat extremely, in which
she continued little or more all night.
Evie was much better, thank God Almighty, and lost her fever. The
boy was likewise but was restless.
Evie was better but the boy was worse, with a cold and fever for
which we gave him a sweat which worked very well and continued
Evie took a purge which worked but a little and my son had a little
fever. I went about 11 o'clock to Colonel Randolph's to visit
him because he was sick...and took my leave about 5 o'clock and
got home about 7 where I found the boy in his fever but Evie
was better, thank God Almighty.
The boy continued very ill of the fever.
I rose a 6 o'clock and as soon as I came out news was brought that
the child was very ill. We went out and found him just ready
to die and he died about 8 o'clock in the morning. God gives
and God takes away; blessed be the name of God. ...My wife was
much afflicted but I submitted to His judgment better, not withstanding
I was very sensible of my loss, but God's will be done.
About 2 o'clock we went with the corpse to the churchyard and as
soon as the service was begun it rained very hard so that we
were forced to leave the parson and go into the church porch
but Mr Anderson stayed till the service was finished. About 3
o'clock we went to dinner. The company stayed till the evening
and then went away. Mr. Custis and I took a walk about the plantation.
Two of the new negroes were taken sick and I gave each of them
a vomit which worked well."
Rumors of an invasion by the French
spread through the colony in the summer of 1711. The invasion
threat never materialized but the Tuscarora Indians attacked
settlements in North Carolina and threatened the same in Virginia.
In response, a local militia was raised with Byrd as its commander.
Byrd describes an expedition in October that was intended as
a show of force calculated to intimidate the Tuscaroa's into
I rose at 7 o'clock and my wife shaved me with a dull razor...About
11 o'clock we went to the militia court... We fined all the Quakers
and several others [for their refusal to
take up arms]... I spoke gently to the Quakers which gave
them a good opinion of me and several of them seemed doubtful
whether they would be arrested or not for the future. I told
them they would certainly be fined five times in a year if they
did not do as their fellow subjects did.
I rose about 7 o'clock and read nothing because I prepared myself
to ride to Major Harrison's...About 10 o'clock I got over the
river and proceeded on my journey but went a little out of my
way. However I got there about one o'clock and found the Governor,
Colonel Harrison, and Colonel Ludwell, which last had been sick...
About 2 o'clock we went to dinner and I ate boiled beef for my
part. After dinner we sat in council concerning the Indians and
some of the Tributaries came before us who promised to be very
faithful to us. It was agreed to send Peter Poythress to the Tuscaroras
to treat them and to demand the Baron Graffenriedt who was prisoner
among the Indians.
plantation on the James River
I rose about 6 o'clock and found it cold. We drank chocolate with
the Governor and about 9 o'clock got on our horses and waited on
the Governor to see him put the foot in order.
...About 3 o'clock the Tuscarora Indians came with their guard
and Mr. Poythress with them. He told the Governor that the Baron
was alive and would be released but that Mr. Lawson was killed
because he had been so foolish as to threaten the Indian that had
About 6 o'clock we went to dinner and I ate some mutton. At night
some of my troop went with me into town to see the girls and kissed
them without proceeding any further, and we had like to be kept
out by the captain of the guard. However, at last they let us in
and we went to bed about 2 o'clock in the morning.
I rose about 6 o'clock and drank tea with the Governor, who made
use of this opportunity to make the Indians send some of their
great men to the College, and the Nansemonds sent two, the Nottoways
two, and the Meherrins two. He also demanded one from every town
belonging to the Tuscaroras.
...Then we went and saw the Indian boys shoot and the Indian
girls run for a prize. We had likewise a war dance by the men and
a love dance by the women, which sports lasted till it grew dark.
Then we went to supper and I ate chicken with a good stomach.
We sat with the Governor until about 11 o'clock and then we went
to Major Harrison's to supper again... Jenny, an Indian girl, had
got drunk and made us good sport. I neglected to say my prayers
and had good health, good thoughts, good humor, thank God Almighty.
We drank chocolate with the Governor and about 10 o'clock we took
leave of the Nottoway town and the Indian boys went away with
us that were designed for the College. The Governor made three
proposals to the Tuscaroras: that they would join with the English
to pursue those Indians who had killed the people of Carolina,
that they should have 40 shillings for every head they brought
in of those guilty Indians and be paid the price of a slave for
all they brought in alive, and that they should send one of the
chief men's sons out of every town to the College.
About 4 we dined and I ate some boiled beef. My man's horse was
lame for which we drew blood. At night I asked a negro girl to
kiss me, and when I went to bed I was very cold because I pulled
off my clothes after lying in them so long."
Byrd's account is found in: Bryd, William The Secret Diary
of William Bryd of Westover 1709-1712 (Louis Wright and Marion Tinling, eds)
How To Cite This Article:
"Daily Life on a Colonial Plantation, 1709-11," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com
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en
| 0.984436 | 2,545 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Crohn's Disease is an inflammatory bowel disease that affects an estimated 1.4 million Americans. In 1933, Dr. Crohn and two colleagues published a paper describing what is now known as Crohn's Disease. Below are resources and information about Crohn's Disease, the causes, the complications, and treatments.
Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of America
Read an overview of Chron's Disease, the causes, who gets it, symptoms, medications, and the role of surgery, nutrition, and emotional factors.
Brief and concise information that includes the definition of Crohn's Disease, symptoms, causes, risk factors, complications, preparing for your visit to the doctor, tests and diagnosis, treatment and drugs, lifestyle and home remedies, alternative medicine, and coping and support resources.
National Digestive Diseases Info Clearinghouse
As well as the causes, symptoms, risks, complications, and treatment of Crohn's Disease, this article covers medications and gives more details about the surgical procedures, and discusses the risk of smoking and Crohn's Disease.
An in depth overview of Crohn's Disease, complete with illustrations and pictures, classification, systemic signs and symptoms, other organs that can be affected by Crohn's Disease, complications, causes, genetics, environmental factors, immune system, microbes, pathophysiology, tests, and information on management, lifestyle changes, and medications.
Crohn's Disease Web Site
Childhood Crohn's Disease
Healthy Recipes for Crohn's Disease
To the Health Index
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To the Big List of Holidays, Events, Occasions
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The complete list of clip art on the combined sites of two cousins (Clipart Mountain and ABKL Designs) that includes all the clip art: animals, people, houses and buildings, cactus, computers, cultural clip art, food graphics, hobby images, dance, military, music, religious clip art, sports images, holiday clip art, medical clip art links, photos, education, school, books, doctors, trains, seasons, nurses, garden, flowers, fantasy, awards, pride ribbons and everything else you might want in clip art.
Bobbie Jean Peachey
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en
| 0.864454 | 642 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Mrs Dalloway Warfare Quotes
How we cite our quotes: (Section.Paragraph)
"The War?" the patient asked. The European War – that little shindy of schoolboys with gunpowder? Had he served with distinction? He really forgot. In the War itself he had failed. (4.113)
When Septimus thinks back to the war, he no longer considers it a grand and patriotic event. In spite of his bravery, he believes the war was a foolish child’s game.
Really it was a miracle thinking of the war, and thousands of poor chaps, with all their lives before them, shovelled together, already half forgotten; it was a miracle. (4.196)
The war wasted thousands of lives. The feeling in London is forever changed by the devastation and loss.
"Just as we were starting, my husband was called up on the telephone, a very sad case. A young man (that is what Sir William is telling Mr Dalloway) had killed himself. He had been in the army." (6.83)
Lady Bradshaw mentions Septimus’ death at Clarissa’s party, an act that outrages Clarissa. He should almost be considered a war fatality, since his suicide is a direct result of combat trauma.
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|
en
| 0.978807 | 274 | 2.546875 | 3 |
(WESTERVILLE, OH — July 30, 2014) A poorly maintained water well system can lead to poor water quality, so household water well owners should inform themselves of good water well maintenance practices, the National Ground Water Association said today.
“Neglecting a water well system’s maintenance can have a direct impact on one’s health, so it’s important to stay on top of a water well system’s maintenance,” said Cliff Treyens, NGWA’s public awareness director.
A particular concern with poorly maintained well systems is the potential for bacteria to enter the well. This can happen if any of the well system’s sanitary seals, such as the well cap, are deteriorated, damaged, or loose. The presence of bacteria in one’s well water could result in gastrointestinal distress such as diarrhea, stomach upset, or vomiting. Some bacteria such as E. coli can cause severe illness or even be lethal.
To protect water quality, NGWA recommends periodic water well maintenance inspections. Such inspections also can help ensure that the well system is operating properly and prolong the useful life of the well.
A qualified water well system professional can determine whether an inspection is needed. Well inspections should only be done by a licensed water well system professional. For information on finding a licensed contractor, individuals can visit www.WellOwner.org and click on the “Licensing” link under the “Finding a Contractor” menu tab.
Steps in a routine water well system inspection include:
Indicators that well maintenance might be needed are cloudy water, a drop in the amount of water the pump can supply to the system, taste or odor problems, or a positive water test for bacteria. These signs could mean the well system needs to be cleaned.
Shock chlorination is not well cleaning. Proper well chlorination disinfects a well system by killing bacteria, but is only effective in killing the bacteria it can reach. Disinfection does not address nonbacterial-related well cleaning issues.
Well cleaning involves removal of debris from the well, cleaning the well system components, and flushing the geologic formation surrounding the well along with disinfection.
To learn more about water well system maintenance, visit www.WellOwner.org.
NGWA, a nonprofit organization composed of U.S. and international groundwater professionals — contractors, equipment manufacturers, suppliers, scientists, and engineers — is dedicated to advancing groundwater knowledge. NGWA’s vision is to be the leading groundwater association that advocates the responsible development, management, and use of water.
This page was last updated on
800 551.7379 (614 898.7791 outside the United States)
8 a.m.-5 p.m. ET Monday through Friday
fax 614 898.7786
National Ground Water Association
601 Dempsey Rd.
Westerville, OH 43081
(614 898.7791 outside the US)
fax 614 898.7786
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| 0.917979 | 625 | 2.53125 | 3 |
A new history of stained glass in English churches has been published in the popular Shire Books series.
Written by own indefatigable News Editor, Roger Rosewell, the book traces the history of stained glass from its origins in Anglo-Saxon England to the present day. Separate chapters describe Norman glass; developments in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; the impact of the Renaissance; the destructive frenzies of the Reformation and the English Civil War; the reappearance of stained glass in the nineteenth-century; and the achievements of twentieth-century artists. Other pluses include chapters of how medieval viewers saw stained glass, and the relationship between stained glass and other arts in the pre-Reformation church. A gazetteer lists over 600 places where glass can be seen.
The book is published in softback only, A5 format. It has 88 pages and over 100 original colour photographs, UK £7.99 or US $12.95. Copies can be purchased from bookshops or on line from Shire Books and other outlets. Signed copies can be purchased from the author via his website.
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| 0.940986 | 231 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Launch date: December 7, 2001
Purpose: Measure sea surface heights
Jason 1 is an oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation,
study the ties between the oceans and atmosphere, improve global climate
forecasts and predictions, and monitor events such as El Niño conditions
and ocean eddies.
It is a follow-on to the Topex/Poseidon mission,
which has been measuring
ocean topography since 1992. Like its predecessor, Jason 1 is a joint
mission of the United States and France. These two satellites will provide
a unique global view of the oceans that is impossible to acquire using
traditional ship-based sampling.
Like Topex/Poseidon, Jason 1 will be able to measure the large and small
hills and valleys of the ocean's surface. These measurements of ocean
topography allow scientists to calculate the speed and direction of ocean
currents and monitor global ocean circulation.
The global ocean is Earth's primary storehouse of solar energy. Jason 1's
measurements of sea-surface height will reveal where this heat is stored,
how it moves around Earth by ocean currents, and how these processes affect
weather and climate.
Jason 1 has been designed to directly measure climate change through very
precise millimeter-per-year measurements of global sea-level changes.
The Jason 1 satellite, its altimeter instrument and a position-tracking
antenna have been built in France. The spacecraft will also carry a radiometer
instrument to measure water vapor, a Global Positioning System receiver and a
laser retroreflector array built in the United States. Jason 1 was launched in December 2001 from California's Vandenberg Air Force Base.
Weighing 500 kilograms (about 1,100 pounds), Jason 1 is one-fifth the size of
Topex/Poseidon. After launch, Jason 1 will fly in tandem with Topex/Poseidon,
doubling the science data return for as long as Topex/Poseidon remains in good
health. Jason 1 will then assume Topex/Poseidon's former flight path. The
mission is planned to last for five years.
For more information, see this
Topex/Poseidon - Jason 1 web page.
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| 0.906334 | 472 | 3.5 | 4 |
The means you use to locate someone in another country are often similar or even identical as to how you would find someone in your home country, thanks in part to social networks such as Facebook and Twitter, which function similarly everywhere. More locally oriented resources, such as perusing local phone books and region-specific web directories, are useful, if using familiar methods isn't successful.
Log in to your social network of choice, Facebook, Twitter or MySpace. Type the name or email address of the person you want to locate into the "Search" field and hit the "Enter" key. Browse through results until you find the person for whom you're searching. Within MySpace and Facebook, select the "Location" filter and type in the name of the country or city where the person you want to find currently lives. On Twitter, click each profile name see if the location corresponds with your target location.
Use region-specific online search directories to locate someone. If you're in Italy, for example, consult "Italia Please" to find locals. Search for people who live in Thailand at "Peek You." Ask a staff member at your hotel -- or, if you work or study in the foreign country, one of your colleagues or faculty members -- for information on which online resources are most useful.
Consult a local phone book to find someone's home phone number. Obtain a phone book from your hotel's staff, or if you reside in a foreign country, from one of your friends or neighbors.
Ask people at a bar, restaurant or other establishment you frequent if they have seen or if they know a person you met there previously. Communities in foreign countries are sometimes more tightly knit than yours at home might be, so people who regularly visit an establishment may be familiar enough with another regular visitor to tell you how to contact him.
- When you search online for a local person, make sure to use her given name if at all possible. For example, while people in China often give themselves English names, they may use their given Chinese names on social networks and in other directories.
- Jupiterimages/liquidlibrary/Getty Images
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Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
Certain foods and medical supplies must be kept refrigerated at all times. Solar-powered refrigerators are ideal for storing such supplies because they provide constant, uninterrupted refrigeration. While certain remote areas have access to electricity or propane refueling stations, others must rely on alternative sources to provide electricity. Solar-powered refrigerator systems are perfect for these remote applications. Traditional solar panels provide the power needed to operate a solar-powered refrigerator.
An average portable cooler, which relies simply on insulation rather than a cooling element to keep food chilled, can only keep ice cold for up to a couple days maximum. Most solar-powered refrigerator models feature a battery that can store electricity derived from a solar panel system, which increases the overall cooling capacity of the refrigerator. A lot of the batteries used for solar refrigeration system applications are 12-volt batteries. Many of the solar refrigerator models available offer over 19 cubic feet (0.54 cubic meters) of storage space. These models are equivalent to most conventional refrigerators and freezers found in many residential homes.
Cabins, residential homes, farms, vacation homes, and even medical clinics can benefit from employing solar-powered refrigerators. While less efficient solar refrigerators are ideal where generators are easily available, more efficient models should be employed for applications where generators and direct sun exposure are limited. Refrigerators with efficient cooling systems, large batteries and thick insulation are more appropriate for these applications.
Solar-powered refrigerator manufacturers make both top-load as well upright refrigerator models. The most energy-efficient solar-powered refrigerators and freezers are traditionally top-load models that feature one single door. Upright models are less efficient than top-load models but unlike top-load models, they can be designed with two doors, allowing for a freezer and a refrigerator to be housed within the same cabinet.
Certain models feature hanging baskets that can slide from side to side across the refrigerator. These baskets make it much easier to access goods at different levels within the unit. The internal bladder system designed into many models reduces the overall amount of humid room air that reaches into the refrigerator, which contributes to a decrease in the average amount of ice buildup within the unit.
These refrigerators contribute to a reduction in power bills because they require no outside electricity to operate. Models that feature larger batteries can keep items inside the unit cold for up to several days without directly connecting to a power source. Battery systems also allow solar refrigerators to stay cool even during a power outage.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
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Definition of silk moth
1 : the common silkworm (Bombyx mori)
2 : saturniid; especially : one (as the cecropia moth) that produces a cocoon of silk
First Known Use of silk moth
Rhymes with silk moth
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up silk moth? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
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| 0.860807 | 92 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The RF signal from each antenna is mixed down to 2-12 GHz IF using a local oscillator tuned to 38 GHz. The IF signal is then split into 10 1-GHz bands, each of which is further mixed down to 1-2 GHz. The 13 signals at each frequency are fed to one of 10 identical analog correlators, where the 78 complex multiplications are formed, digitized and integrated for 0.84 s in a digital accumulator. A phase switch is applied to each LO in a Walsh sequence on a clock interval and is demodulated by the accumulators, to remove any offsets or slowly varying pickup. A second level of Walsh switching is performed in software with a switching period equal to the readout interval. The multiplier gains and quadrature errors are periodically calibrated by injection of a correlated broadband noise source at the input to each receiver.
Each analog correlator is integrated onto a single full-depth VME card, and the entire 10-GHz correlator fits into a crate approximately 75 cm on a side. Filtering and downconversion of the IF signal is accomplished in a similar crate, and both rotate with the antennas on the underside of the telescope faceplate. The short fixed distance to the downconverter and correlator provides tremendous phase stability, with observed instrumental phase drifts of less than over a period of weeks.
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| 0.925111 | 275 | 2.625 | 3 |
Your tax dollars fund a significant
amount of breast cancer research.
The federal government funds a significant portion of research for many types of cancer. In 1992, NBCC launched its 300 Million More campaign to increase federal funding for breast cancer. It was a success, and in 1993 federal appropriations for breast cancer research rose to more than $400 million. The National Cancer Institute funding went from $100 million to $225 million, and $210 million of defense funding went to begin the Department of Defense Peer Reviewed Breast Cancer Research Program (DOD BCRP). In response to NBCC's continued advocacy, congress has approved more than $2.68 billion in funding since the DOD BCRP began in 1992.
In addition, the National Institutes of Health has provided significant funding for breast cancer research for decades. Since 2001, NIH has spent roughly a half-billion dollars each year on breast cancer research.
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Kurrajongs are dry rainforest trees which take the “dry” more literally than most. We see them far out on the western plans, as in this specimen in a Western Downs town which is doing such a good job of shading a cool Queensland-style house.
Their deep roots help them survive droughts. Deep roots also mean (as with other dry rainforest trees) they are less likely to create problems for buildings and other structures. However the roots do seek water, so should not be planted closer than 3.5m to water pipes or sewage lines.
Another part of the secret of kurrajongs’ drought survival is the capacity to drop their leaves in dry winters. The degree of leaf drop depends heavily on the availability of soil moisture, so in wet winters they may lose very few of them. This photo was taken near Toowoomba in June 2008, which was probably the driest of all the dry times in our recent long drought.
The species can grow tall, as shown in this bushland example, also near Toowoomba. Usually, rainforest species only grow this shape if surrounded by other trees. It is possible that this very old tree spent its youth in a quite different environment from the grassy eucalypt woodland you can see in this modern photo. A great deal of such country, along the Great Dividing Range and the valleys to the west of it, was once dry rainforest. It was cleared so long ago that we have forgotten it was ever there. The shape of this tree may indicate that this was the case here.
Kurrajongs have a very pretty flower, and unlike some of the other Brachychiton species (notably the flame tree Brachychiton acerifolius), they don’t link flowering with leaflessness.
This photo was taken in October, and the tree had a shady green canopy.
While mature trees can put out a great show of flowers, it won’t happen every year, so the kurrajong’s ornamental qualities are largely based on its cool green canopy.
As with many Australian trees, their juvenile leaves differ from the leaves on older trees. These leaves are from a very young tree.
The shape on the right is the one we most commonly see, while the one on the left only occurs on mature trees.
I photographed this paddock of kurrajongs at Gilgandra. They were neatly pruned, and I wondered why. Then we drove on to visit the Dubbo Western Plains Zoo, where we watched giraffes being fed with kurrajong leaves. No doubt this explained the mystery!
The photo is such a good demonstration of the results that we can get from pruning most of our dry rainforest tree species. You can see how well these Australian native trees would grace a formal garden. They can be kept to a size suitable for the suburbs, and make very good street trees, as seen in Goondiwindi.
This young kurrajong in Crows Nest is being groomed for the job.
Pastoralists have long recognised the value of kurrajong leaves as emergency drought fodder for their stock. Unfortunately they have all too often solved their problem by cutting down whole trees, a curiously short-sighted solution. The result is that, while we see many young trees in the Toowoomba district, large, old ones are rare.
Kurrajongs are host trees for one of our larger butterflies, the tailed emperor (Polyura pyrrhus sempronius). We caught this delightful pair “kissing” in the bushes at Kwiambul National Park last weekend. (Butterflies kiss with their antennae.)
Brachychitons are recognised as being fire resistant. A row of them on a fenceline downhill from the house, in bushfire-prone areas, could make all the difference (though of course no tree will resist a very large bushfire). A green canopy catches sparks, and might just be the factor that saves a house from catching alight.
A “home among the kurrajongs” is a very Australian image, and considerably safer than the one among the gum trees which is celebrated in the well-known song.
Kurrajongs can be transplanted at up to 8 years old.
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A handwriting style that emphasizes on connecting all the letters in the word as a part of a single stroke is known as Cursive Writing. The cursive writing has been in usage since the 17thcentury. In Britain it is also referred as “joined up writing”. Likewise, in Australia it is also referred as “running writing”. It has been seen that many parents complain of cursive writing being losing its charm and hold.
With the advent of information technology, the reliance on the computers has increased to a greater extent. E-mails and the instant messaging has taken over the hand written letters and this has led to the decline of penmanship. This is probably the reason why most of today’s youngsters cannot write in cursive style.
There is a conflict among the experts about the usage of cursive writing. Some feel that the decline in the overall literacy skills is the main factor responsible for the decline of cursive writing and lack of its proficiency. There are other who feel that one must accept the change and the inclination towards the typewritten communication is the best sign of evolution in the technology.
In the recent years, it has been seen that the significance of good and proper hand writing has been declining. Now a days type written essays are gearing up and also the corporate and office workers prefer to send the reports, letters and any written communication in the form of emails. The postal service’s uses software for recognizing optical characters for sorting and processing mails. The postal service also discourages the usage of cursive writing as it causes errors in the process of recognizing the optical characters.
There are a few advantages of cursive writing too. The cursive writing can be seen to be faster than printing. When there is an impossibility of using the laptop one can rely on the handwriting. It is also seen that children who tend to have some sort of learning disability prefer cursive writing to printing or typing.
The art of teaching cursive writing though good is time consuming. It can also be seen that on the pretext of getting more federal funding and eradicating the handwriting instructions, many schools prefer to take up extra lessons in the subject of Mathematics and phonics and may even decide to get rid of the art of cursive writing. I’m now wondering whether this fantastic art of cursive writing will be completely eliminated or will survive the passage of time and emerge again?
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Your liver is generally a strong organ. Its job is to filter chemicals from your blood. It usually does this very well.
A lot of people worry about the perceived damage that medications can have on the liver. Most drugs however, including HIV drugs, are actually easily filtered without causing problems.
A few HIV drugs have been linked to liver problems. This is why routine blood tests check your liver enzymes (ALT and AST). Liver toxicity becomes a more complicated problem when alcohol use or viral hepatitis have damaged the liver.
Nevirapine is particularly associated with liver toxicity and the information leaflet that comes with your meds includes a ‘black box’ warning. Liver toxicity has also been reported with efavirenz. Ritonavir and tipranavir (due to the higher ritonavir dose) are also linked to liver toxicity.
The following factors can increase the risk of liver complications from HIV treatment.
- Viral hepatitis: hepatitis A, B or C (or other liver disease).
- Increased alcohol consumption.
- Use of other drugs, including recreational drugs, that are toxic to the liver.
- Gender: women are more prone to liver problems with HIV drugs.
Your doctor will normally test your liver function at the same time as testing CD4 count and viral load.
If you have hepatitis or previous liver damage, therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) should be used if you are using protease inhibitors or NNRTIs, you may need to use a lower dose.
When taking anti-HIV drugs you should report any side effects to your doctor. Especially if you have abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, yellowing of the skin or the whites of the eyes.
When liver toxicity is suspected, the drugs will normally be stopped to allow the liver to rest and return to normal. When the liver tests have returned to normal HIV drugs may be restarted. This is often with a different combination of drugs or reduced doses.
The risk of nevirapine-related liver toxicity is different between men and women. This risk is related to CD4 count when starting treatment.
Women starting treatment for the first time should not use nevirapine if their CD4 count is over 250 cells/mm3 and men should not use nevirapine if their CD4 count is over 400 cells/mm3.
These CD4 upper limits are not thought important if you already have an undetectable viral load and are switching one of your current drugs to nevirapine. They do not relate to pregnant women who are using a single dose of nevirapine as part of treatment to reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to their baby.
Close monitoring (every two weeks) in the first two months of therapy is recommended for anyone who starts a nevirapine-based combination. This is when liver problems first start to occur. Liver toxicity may also build up slowly and so routine monitoring after the first two months is also important.
Nevirapine must be taken as one tablet (200mg) once daily for the first two weeks.
Only if you have none of the symptoms listed below and your liver function tests are within the acceptable levels can you increase your nevirapine dose to one tablet (200mg) twice a day.
Blood samples should be taken every two weeks in the first two months to check liver function, then at the end of the third month, and then every three to four months if they are within normal limits.
During this first eight weeks you should contact your doctor straight away if you have any of the following symptoms:
- Blistering of the skin – seek immediate medical attention
- Mouth sores
- Facial or general swelling
- Flu-like symptoms, aching muscles or joint pains
Your doctor will do another liver function blood test if you have one of these symptoms.
If the results are not higher than twice the normal limit, and depending on the severity of your symptoms, a decision will be made whether or not to continue with nevirapine. If a decision is made to continue, you will be very closely monitored to ensure that the symptoms do not progress or your liver function tests get worse.
If your liver tests get to five times the normal limit or mild symptoms get worse, then your nevirapine must be stopped. Your doctor will recommend whether you need to stop all your treatments or just switch the nevirapine to another drug.
If you stop nevirapine for these reasons, you must not take it again in the future.
Hepatic steatosis/fatty liver
Hepatic steatosis is a medical term for ‘fatty liver’. This can develop from alcohol use, hepatitis, obesity and drug toxicity with the family of HIV drugs called NRTIs (nukes).
This build-up of fat in the liver can affect the way it processes fats. Hepatic steatosis often also leads to lactic acidosis. People who weigh over 70 kgs, especially women, may be more at risk of developing hepatic steatosis and lactic acidosis.
Ultrasonography is a sensitive, accurate, non-invasive screening tool to detect steatosis as this is not always shown in liver function tests.
Steatosis is also common in HIV-positive children. It has no impact on disease, testing or management.
1 July 2012
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| 0.927156 | 1,118 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Holland, John Philip (1840–1914)
John Holland was an Irish-born US engineer who invented the first modern, gasoline-driven submarine.
He offered a design to the US Navy department in 1875, but it was rejected
as impracticable. After further development, the successful Fenian Ram was launched in 1881. This was not practical for extended operations, but
its design was the basis for the Holland, which had an internal
combustion engine for surface cruising and an electric motor for submerged
operations. The US government bought the Holland in 1900.
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| 0.957147 | 123 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Foreign Language Policies: Is Everyone Else Really Speaking English?
Only 25% of Americans speak a second language. We rest on our laurels as speakers of English, believing that everyone else is learning our language—the language of business. And in many countries across the globe, English is being taught. However, studying English doesn't always equal fluency or even a conversational speaking level (think back to your one or two years of high school Spanish or French!). Plus, not everyone is on the English bandwagon—by some estimates, 75% of the world does not speak English.
Let's explore some of the policies other countries have regarding English—and why they matter to the U.S.
We are losing money
A recent and well-publicized report by the Pew Research Center showed that most European students are learning a second language, and for a majority of them, this means learning English (over 90% of secondary students and 73% of primary students). However—and this shouldn't come as a surprise—Ireland and Scotland, two native English-speaking countries, are the only countries in Europe that currently do not require students to learn another language (but in fairness to Ireland, their students learn in English and Irish).
Starting in 2016, taking language classes may be voluntary in Britain as well. But having the same arrogant attitude toward learning languages as the U.S. could cost Britain. James Foreman-Peck of Cardiff University estimates the potential income lost from international trade because of a lack of language proficiency is around 3.5% of GDP or £59 billion ($90 billion)—something he calls the "gross language effect." Can you imagine how much larger that number would be if the same study was done on the U.S.? As Nick Brown, a business leader, said: "English is fine if you want to buy things, but it's not the right language to use for people who want to sell things." In other words, learning a language is your key into the local culture and local economy.
Not all native English-speaking locales are waiting for the world to learn our language. In New Zealand, where 20% of students currently study a second language (the lowest percentage since the 1930s), Auckland is developing a regional languages strategy. This is seen as a first step toward increasing language offerings in schools to build capacity to meet increasing tourism and trade demands.
Canada is also ahead of the United States. We all know they speak French in Quebec, but in Toronto, an extremely diverse city, 2,000 elementary students were studying a second language for free over the summer, courtesy of the Toronto District School Board. "It's not only first generation newcomers, but it's second and third generation young parents who want their children to understand their cultural and linguistic background," says Karen Falconer, the Executive Superintendent of International Education.
Here in the U.S., our growing diversity is helping to drive the demand for translation services, which is now our fifth fastest-growing occupation. Just look at Houston, one of our most diverse cities, which is facing a shortage of local interpreters. The Houston Independent School District (HISD), recognizing these challenges, is committed to the teaching of world languages. Arabic is the second most spoken language in the city after Spanish, so it makes sense that HISD opened a public Arabic immersion school this year, the first in the country. But not everyone agrees: a dozen protestors outside on the first day felt that these students should be receiving English-only education.
We are limiting higher education
An increasing number of universities across Europe and the world are mandating that at least some courses, if not entire programs of study, be taught in English. But not all faculty agree with these policies, which are usually set by the administration. In Italy, the Milan Polytechnic administration moved to teach masters degrees in English only. But the faculty cried foul and are trying to block it. The policy is currently under consideration by the Constitutional Court—the highest court in Italy.
Even if university faculty agree with English language policies, that doesn't mean that they can immediately flip a switch and teach with the same degree of expertise in English—or that students will have the same degree of comprehension. Take for example France, where there was a huge uproar over allowing universities to teach courses in English, which was outlawed until the summer of 2013. With many policies in place to protect the French language, the country has the weakest English skills of all European countries.
Anna Kristina Hultgren, a lecturer in English language and applied linguistics at Britain's Open University, has studied Nordic countries where there is a high degree of English ability. Even so, she found that having to cope with English instruction meant professors and students progressed much more slowly in their courses.
And in places like South Africa where there is still a huge disparity in the education of blacks and whites, English instruction leaves behind black students. "The young people who are from groups that were marginalized under apartheid are still marginalized, and those who were privileged are still privileged," says Russell H. Kaschula, a professor of African language studies at Rhodes University, in South Africa.
Iran and Iraq are two of the lowest ranking countries on the Education First English proficiency index. If we are going to be involved in security issues in these nations, we need to speak their language—conversing with the locals opens many doors and leads to better intelligence information. CW2 Rachid Akhrid, a Military Intelligence Officer in the United States Army, states that his language and cultural abilities saved his unit more than once, including the time they were lost and he was able to get directions from the locals to get everyone back to base.
We continue to face large shortages in speakers of critical languages like Arabic and Persian, not to mention Korean and Chinese. This could be the motive for a bipartisan group of members of the House of Representatives who recently asked the Department of Defense (DoD) to put more funding for world languages back into the 2016 budget. The DoD wanted to cut $31 million out of the $261 million budget of the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center.
English may not always be number one
Malaysian parents are concerned that learning two languages—English and Malay—is not enough to be successful. So now many are pushing their children to learn a third— this often means Mandarin, as it is seen as opening doors to future jobs. Some parents are even favoring Chinese over English as China's sphere of influence grows in the region.
Malaysians aren't the only ones learning Chinese around the globe: 750,000 people took the Official Chinese Language Proficiency test in 2010. While Chinese is not going to replace English anytime soon, it is growing in importance. In the U.S. alone, college enrollment in Chinese courses has jumped up by 51% since 2002.
We should not forget about the many cognitive reasons to learn another language, which I have outlined in a previous post (ward off Alzheimer's, plus grow a bigger brain!). Japan feels its students, who are studying abroad less than in the past, are growing too insular and are seen as bored and not very motivated, and therefore, less competitive in the international economy. One way the government is combating this is by lowering the age that students begin to learn English from age 13 to age 10 (5th grade). Rachel Sharp, Head of Languages at Cambridge International School, agrees with this idea. She says that language study is a way to overcome apathy, increase tolerance and acceptance of others, and enhance life skills. Why wouldn't we too want this for our youth?
Not everyone is speaking English, and we can't expect them to. There are so many benefits that we are currently missing out on in our monolingual bubble: enhanced business opportunities, smarter kids, stronger national defense, and better communication within our local communities just to name a few. So what do you say, America: can we stop turning a deaf ear to the rest of the world?
Image courtesy of iStock.
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Definitions of stoma
n. - One of the minute apertures between the cells in many serous membranes.
n. - The minute breathing pores of leaves or other organs opening into the intercellular spaces, and usually bordered by two contractile cells.
n. - The line of dehiscence of the sporangium of a fern. It is usually marked by two transversely elongated cells. See Illust. of Sporangium.
n. - A stigma. See Stigma, n., 6 (a) & (b).
The word "stoma" uses 5 letters: A M O S T.
Direct anagrams of stoma:
Words formed by adding one letter before or after stoma (in bold), or to amost in any order:
a - somata c - mascot g - magots l - almost smalto stomal n - tomans r - stroma s - stomas z - matzos
Shorter words found within stoma:
am as at atom ma mas mast mat mats mo moa moas moat mos most mot mots oast oat oats om oms os sat so som soma sot stoa ta tam tams tao taos tas to tom toms
List shorter words within stoma, sorted by length
Words formed from any letters in stoma, plus an optional blank or existing letter
List all words starting with stoma, words containing stoma or words ending with stoma
All words formed from stoma by changing one letter
Other words with the same letter pairs: st to om ma
Browse words starting with stoma by next letter
Previous word in list: stolports
Next word in list: stomach
Some random words: sifaka
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Early Church Fathers
Faustus is willing to admit that Christ may have said that He came not to destroy the law and the prophets, but to fulfill them but He did, it was to pacify the Jews and in a modified sense. Augustin replies, and still further elaborates the Catholic view of prophecyand its fulfillment.
1. Faustus said: I will grant that Christ said that he came not to destroy the law and the prophets, but to fulfill them. But why did Jesus say this? Was it to pacify the Jews, who were enraged at seeing their sacred institutions trampled upon by Christ, and regarded him as a wild blasphemer, not to be listened to, much less to be followed? Or was it for our instruction as Gentile believers, that we might learn meekly and patiently to bear the yoke of commandment laid on our necks by the law and the prophets of the Jews? You yourself can hardly suppose that Christ's words were intended to bring us under the authority of the law and the prophets of the Hebrews. So that the other explanation which I have given of the words must be the true one. Every one knows that the Jews were always ready to attack Christ, both with words and with actual violence. Naturally, then, they would be enraged at the idea that Christ was destroying their law and their prophets; and, to appease them, Christ might very well tell them not to think that he came to destroy the law, but that he came to fulfill it. There was no falsehood or deceit in this, for he used the word law in a general sense, not of any particular law.
2. There are three laws. One is that of the Hebrews, which the apostle calls the law of sin and death.1 The second is that of the Gentiles, which he calls the law of nature. "For the Gentiles," he says," do by nature the things contained in the law; and, not having the law, they are a law into themselves; who show the work of the law written on their hearts."2 The third law is the truth of which the apostle speaks when he says, "The law of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus hath made me free from the law of sin and death."3 Since, then, there are three laws, we must carefully inquire which of the three Christ spoke of when He said that He came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it. In the same way, there are prophets of the Jews, and prophets of the Gentiles, and prophets of truth. With the prophets of the Jews, of course, every one is acquainted. If any one is in doubt about the prophets of the Gentiles, let him hear what Paul says when writing of the Cretans to Titus: "A prophet of their own has said, The Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, slow bellies."4 This proves that the Gentiles also had their prophets. The truth also has its prophets, as we learn from Jesus as well as from Paul. Jesus says: "Behold, I send unto you wise men and prophets, and some of them ye shall kill in divers places."5 And Paul says: "The Lord Himself appointed first apostles, and then prophets."6
3. As "the law and the prophets" may have three different meanings, it is uncertain in what sense the words are used by Jesus, though we may form a conjecture from what follows. For if Jesus had gone on to speak of circumcision, and Sabbaths, and sacrifices, and the observances of the Hebrews, and had added something as a fulfillment, there could have been no doubt that it was the law and the prophets of the Jews of which He said that He came not, to destroy, but to fulfill them. But Christ, without any allusion to these, speaks only of commandments which date from the earliest times: "Thou shall not kill; Thou shalt not commit adultery; Thou shalt not bear false witness." These, it can be proved, were of old promulgated in the world by Enoch and Seth, and the other righteous men, to whom the precepts were delivered by angels of lofty rank, in order to tame the savage nature of men. From this it appears that Jesus spoke of the law and the prophets of truth. And so we find him giving a fulfillment of those precepts already quoted. "Ye have heard," He says, "that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not kill; but I say unto you, Be not even angry." This is the fulfillment. Again: "Ye have heard that it was said, Thou shalt not commit adultery; but I say unto you, Do not lust even." This is the fulfillment. Again: "It has been said, Thou shalt not bear false witness; but I say unto you, Swear not." This too is the fulfillment. He thus both confirms the old precepts and supplies their defects. Where He seems to speak of some Jewish precepts, instead of fulfilling them, He substitutes for them precepts of an opposite tendency. He proceeds thus: "Ye have heard that it has been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth; but I say unto you, Whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also." This is not fulfillment, but destruction. Again: "It has been said, Thou shall love thy friend, and hate thine enemy; but I say unto you, Love your enemies, and pray for your persecutors." This too is destruction. Again: "It has been said, Whosoever shall put away his wife, let him give her a writing of divorcement; but I say unto you, That whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery, and is himself an adulterer if he afterwards marries another woman."7 These precepts are evidently destroyed because they are the precepts of Moses; while the others are fulfilled because they are the precepts of the righteous men of antiquity. If you agree to this explanation, we may allow that Jesus said that he came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it. If you disapprove of this explanation, give one of your own. Only beware of making Jesus a liar, and of making yourself a Jew, by binding yourself to fulfill the law because Christ did not destroy it.
4. If one of the Nazareans, or Symmachians, as they are sometimes called, were arguing with me from these words of Jesus that he came not to destroy the law, I should find some difficulty in answering him. For it is undeniable that, at his coming, Jesus was both in body and mind subject to the influence of the law and the prophets. Those people, moreover, whom I allude to, practise circumcision, and keep the Sabbath, and abstain from swine's flesh and such like things, according to the law, although they profess to be Christians. They are evidently misled as well as you, by this verse in which Christ says that he came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it. It would not be easy to reply to such opponents without first getting rid of this troublesome verse. But with you I have no difficulty, for you have nothing to go upon; and instead of using arguments, you seem disposed, in mere mischief, to induce me to believe that Christ said what you evidently do not yourself believe him to have said. On the strength of this verse you accuse me of dullness and evasiveness, without yourself giving any indication of keeping the law instead of destroying it. Do you too, like a Jew or a Nazarean, glory in the obscene distinction of being circumcised? Do you pride yourself in the observance of the Sabbath? Can you congratulate yourself on being innocent of swine's flesh? Or can you boast of having gratified the appetite of the Deity by the blood of sacrifices and the incense of Jewish offerings? If not, why do you contend that Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it?
5. I give unceasing thanks to my teacher, who prevented me from falling into this error, so that I am still a Christian. For I, like you, from reading this verse without sufficient consideration, had almost resolved to become a Jew. And with reason; for if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, and as a vessel in order to be filled full must not be empty, but partly filled already, I concluded that no one could become a Christian but an Israelite, nearly filled already with the law and the prophets, and coming to Christ to be filled to the full extent of his capacity. I concluded, too, that in thus coming he must not destroy what he already possesses; otherwise it would be a case, not of fulfilling, but of emptying. Then it appeared that I, as a Gentile, could get nothing by coming to Christ, for I brought nothing that he could fill up by his additions. This preparatory supply is found, on inquiry, to consist of Sabbaths, circumcision, sacrifices, new moons, baptisms, feasts of unleavened bread, distinctions of foods, drink, and clothes, and other things, too many to specify. This, then, it appeared, was what Christ came not to destroy, but to fulfill. Naturally it must appear so: for what is a law without precepts, or prophets without predictions? Besides, there is that terrible curse pronounced upon those who abide not in all things that are written in the book of the law to do them.8 With the fear of this curse appearing to come from God on the one side, and with Christ on the other side, seeming, as the Son of God, to say that he came not to destroy these things, but to fulfill them, what was to prevent me from becoming a Jew? The wise instruction of Manichaeus saved me from this danger.
6. But how can you venture to quote this verse against me? Or why should it be against me only, when it is as much against yourself? If Christ does not destroy the law and the prophets, neither must Christians do so. Why then do you destroy them? Do you begin to perceive that you are no Christian? How can you profane with all kinds of work the day pronounced sacred in the law and in all the prophets, on which they say that God, the maker of the world, himself rested, without dreading the penalty of death pronounced against Sabbath-breakers, or the curse on the transgressor? How can you refuse to receive in your person the unseemly mark of circumcision, which the law and all the prophets declare to be honorable, especially in the case of Abraham, after what was thought to be his faith; for does not the God of the Jews proclaim that whosoever is without this mark of infamy shall perish from his people? How can you neglect the appointed sacrifices, which were made so much of both by Moses and the prophets under the law, and by Abraham in his faith? And how can you defile your souls by making no distinction in foods, if you believe that Christ came not to destroy these things, but to fulfill them? Why do you discard the annual feast of unleavened bread, and the appointed sacrifice of the lamb, which, according to the law and the prophets, is to be observed for ever? Why, in a word, do you treat so lightly the new moons, the baptisms, and the feast of tabernacles, and all the other carnal ordinances of the law and the prophets, if Christ did not destroy them? I have therefore good reason for saying that, in order to justify your neglect of these things, you must either abandon your profession of being Christ's disciple, or acknowledge that Christ himself has already destroyed them; and from this acknowledgment it must follow, either that this text is spurious in which Christ is made to say that he came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, or that the words have an entirely different meaning from what you suppose.
7. Augustin replied: If you allow, in consideration of the authority of the Gospel, that Christ said that He came not to destroy the law and the prophets, but to fulfill them, you should show the same consideration to the authority of the apostle, when he says, "All these things were our examples;" and again of Christ, "He was not yea and nay, but in Him was yea; for all the promises of God are in Him yea;"9 that is, they are set forth and fulfilled in Him. In this way you will see in the clearest light both what law Christ fulfilled, and how He fulfilled it. It is a vain attempt that you make to escape by your three kinds of law and your three kinds of prophets. It is quite plain, and the New Testament leaves no doubt on the matter, what law and what prophets Christ came not to destroy, but to fulfill. The law given by Moses is that which by Jesus Christ became grace and truth.10 The law given by Moses is that of which Christ says, "He wrote of me."11 For undoubtedly this is the law which entered that the offence might abound;12 words which you often ignorantly quote as a reproach to the law. Read what is there said of this law: "The law is holy, and the commandment holy, and just, and good. Was then that which is good made death unto me? God forbid. But sin, that it might appear sin, wrought death in me by that which is good."13 The entrance of the law made the offense abound, not because the law required what was wrong, but because the proud and self-confident incurred additional guilt as transgressors after their acquaintance with the holy, and just, and good commandments of the law; so that, being thus humbled, they might learn that only by grace through faith could they be freed from subjection to the law as transgressors, and be reconciled to the law as righteous. So the same apostle says: "For before faith came, we were kept under the law, shut up unto the faith which was afterwards revealed. Therefore the law was our schoolmaster in Christ Jesus; but after faith came, we are no longer under a schoolmaster."14 That is, we are no longer subject to the penalty of the law, because we are set free by grace. Before we received in humility the grace of the Spirit, the letter was only death to us, for it required obedience which we could not render. Thus Paul also says: "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life."15 Again, he says: "For if a law had been given which could have given life, verily righteousness should have been by the law; but the Scripture hath concluded all under sin, that the promise by faith of Jesus Christ might be given to them that believe."16 And once more: "What the law could not do, in that it was weak through the flesh, God sent His Son in the likeness of sinful flesh, that by sin He might condemn sin in the flesh, that the righteousness of the law might be fulfilled in us, who walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit."17 Here we see Christ coming not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it. As the law brought the proud under the guilt of transgression, increasing their sin by commandments which they could not obey, so the righteousness of the same law is fulfilled by the grace of the Spirit in those who learn from Christ to be meek and lowly in heart; for Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it. Moreover, because even for those who are under grace it is difficult in this mortal life perfectly to keep what is written in the law, Thou shall not covet, Christ, by the sacrifice of His flesh, as our Priest obtains pardon for us. And in this also He fulfills the law; for what we fail in through weakness is supplied by His perfection, who is the Head, while we are His members. Thus John says: "My little children, these things write I unto you, that ye sin not; and if any man sin, we have an Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous: He is the propitiation for our sins."18
8. Christ also fulfilled the prophecies, because the promises of God were made good in Him. As the apostle says in the verse quoted above, "The promises of God are in Him yea." Again, he says: "Now I say that Jesus Christ was a minister of the circumcision for the truth of God, to confirm the promises made unto the fathers."19 Whatever, then, was promised in the prophets, whether expressly or in figure, whether by words or by actions, was fulfilled in Him who came not to destroy the law and the prophets, but to fulfill them. You do not perceive that if Christians were to continue in the use of acts and observances by which things to come were prefigured, the only meaning would be that the things prefigured had not yet come. Either the thing prefigured has not come, or if it has, the figure becomes superfluous or misleading. Therefore, if Christians do not practise some things enjoined in the Hebrews by the prophets, this, so far from showing, as you think, that Christ did not fulfill the prophets, rather shows that He did. So completely did Christ fulfill what these types prefigured, that it is no longer prefigured. So the Lord Himself says: "The law and the prophets were until John."20 For the law which shut up transgressors in increased guilt, and to the faith which was afterwards revealed, became grace through Jesus Christ, by whom grace superabounded. Thus the law, which was not fulfilled in the requirement of the letter, was fulfilled in the liberty of grace. In the same way, everything in the law that was prophetic of the Saviour's advent, whether in words or in typical actions, became truth in Jesus Christ. For "the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ."21 At Christ's advent the kingdom of God began to be preached; for the law and the prophets were until John: the law, that its transgressors might desire salvation; the prophets, that they might foretell the Saviour. No doubt there have been prophets in the Church since the ascension of Christ. Of these prophets Paul says: "God hath set some in the Church, first apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly teachers," and so on.22 It is not of these prophets that it was said, "The law and the prophets were until John," but of those who prophesied the first coming of Christ, which evidently cannot be prophesied now that it has taken place.
9. Accordingly, when you ask why a Christian is not circumcised if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, my reply is, that a Christian is not circumcised precisely for this reason, that what was prefigured by circumcision is fulfilled in Christ. Circumcision was the type of the removal of our fleshly nature, which was fulfilled in the resurrection of Christ, and which the sacrament of baptism teaches us to look forward to in our own resurrection. The sacrament of the new life is not wholly discontinued, for our resurrection from the dead is still to come; but this sacrament has been improved by the substitution of baptism for circumcision, because now a pattern of the eternal life which is to come is afforded us in the resurrection of Christ, whereas formerly there was nothing of the kind. So, when you ask why a Christian does not keep the Sabbath, if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, my reply is, that a Christian does not keep the Sabbath precisely because what was prefigured in the Sabbath is fulfilled in Christ. For we have our Sabbath in Him who said, "Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me; for I am meek and lowly in heart, and ye shall find rest unto your souls."23
10. When you ask why a Christian does not observe the distinction in food as enjoined in the law, if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, I reply, that a Christian does not observe this distinction precisely because what was thus prefigured is now fulfilled in Christ, who admits into His body, which in His saints He has predestined to eternal life, nothing which in human conduct corresponds to the characteristics of the forbidden animals. When you ask, again, why a Christian does not offer sacrifices to God of the flesh and blood of slain animals, if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, I reply, that it would be improper for a Christian to offer such sacrifices, now that what was thus prefigured has been fulfilled in Christ's offering of His own body and blood. When you ask why a Christian does not keep the feast of unleavened bread as the Jews did, if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, I reply, that a Christian does not keep this feast precisely because what was thus prefigured is fulfilled in Christ, who leads us to a new life by purging out the leaven of the old life.24 When you ask why a Christian does not keep the feast of the paschal lamb, if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, my reply is, that he does not keep it precisely because what was thus prefigured has been fulfilled in the sufferings of Christ, the Lamb without spot. When you ask why a Christian does not keep the feasts of the new moon appointed in the law, if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, I reply, that he does not keep them precisely because what was thus prefigured is fulfilled in Christ. For the feast of the new moon prefigured the new creature, of which the apostle says: "If therefore there is any new creature in Christ Jesus, the old things have passed away; behold, all things are become new."25 When you ask why a Christian does not observe the baptisms for various kinds of uncleanness according to the law, if Christ came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, I reply, that he does not observe them precisely because they were figures of things to come, which Christ has fulfilled. For He came to bury us with Himself by baptism into death, that as Christ rose again from the dead, so we also should walk in newness of life.26 When you ask why Christians do not keep the feast of tabernacles, if the law is not destroyed, but fulfilled by Christ, I reply that believers are God's tabernacle, in whom, as they are united and built together in love, God condescends to dwell, so that Christians do not keep this feast precisely because what was thus prefigured is now fulfilled by Christ in His Church.
11. I touch upon these things merely in passing with the utmost brevity, rather than omit them altogether. The subjects, taken separately, have filled many large volumes, written to prove that these observances were typical of Christ. So it appears that all the things in the Old Testament which you think are not observed by Christians because Christ destroyed the law, are in fact not observed because Christ fulfilled the law. The very intention of the observances was to prefigure Christ. Now that Christ has come, instead of its being strange or absurd that what was done to prefigure His advent should not be done any more, it is perfectly right and reasonable. The typical observances intended to prefigure the coming of Christ would be observed still, had they not been fulfilled by the coming of Christ; so far is it from being the case that our not observing them now is any proof of their not being fulfilled by Christ's coming. There can be no religious society, whether the religion be true or false, without some sacrament or visible symbol to serve as a bond of union. The importance of these sacraments cannot be overstated, and only scoffers will treat them lightly. For if piety requires them, it must be impiety to neglect them.
12. It is true, the ungodly may partake in the visible sacraments of godliness, as we read that Simon Magus received holy baptism. Such are they of whom the apostle says that "they have the form of godliness, but deny the power of it."27 The power of godliness is the end of the commandment, that is, love out of a pure heart, and of a good conscience, and of faith unfeigned.28 So the Apostle Peter, speaking of the sacrament of the ark, in which the family of Noah was saved from the deluge, says, "So by a similar figure baptism also saves you." And lest they should rest content with the visible sacrament, by which they had the form of godliness, and should deny its power in their lives by profligate conduct, he immediately adds, "Not the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience."29
13. Thus the sacraments of the Old Testament, which were celebrated in obedience to the law, were types of Christ who was to come; and when Christ fulfilled them by His advent they were done away, and were done away because they were fulfilled. For Christ came not to destroy, but to fulfill. And now that the righteousness of faith is revealed, and the children of God are called into liberty, and the yoke of bondage which was required for a carnal and stiffnecked people is taken away, other sacraments are instituted, greater in efficacy, more beneficial in their use, easier in performance, and fewer in number.
14. And if the righteous men of old, who saw in the sacraments of their time the promise of a future revelation of faith, which even then their piety enabled them to discern in the dim light of prophecy, and by which they lived, for the just can live only by faith;30 if, then, these righteous men of old were ready to suffer, as many actually did suffer, all trials and tortures for the sake of those typical sacraments which prefigured things in the future; if we praise the three children and Daniel, because they refused to be defiled by meat from the king's table, from their regard for the sacrament of their day; if we feel the strongest admiration for the Meccabees, who refused to touch food which Christians lawfully use;31 how much more should a Christian in our day be ready to suffer all things for Christ's baptism, for Christ's Eucharist, for Christ's sacred sign, since these are proofs of the accomplishment of what the former sacraments only pointed forward to in the future! For what is still promised to the Church, the body of Christ, is both clearly made known, and in the Saviour Himself, the Head of the body, the Mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus, has already been accomplished. Is not the promise of eternal life by resurrection from the dead? This we see fulfilled in the flesh of Him of whom it is said, that the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.32 In former days faith was dim, for the saints and righteous men of those times all believed and hoped for the same things, and all these sacraments and ceremonies pointed to the future; but now we have the revelation of the faith to which the people were shut up under the law;33 and what is now promised to believers in the judgment is already accomplished in the example of Him who came not to destroy the law and the prophets, but to fulfill them.
15. It is a question among the students of the sacred Scriptures, whether the faith in Christ before His passion and resurrection, which the righteous men of old learned by revelation or gathered from prophecy, had the same efficacy as faith has now that Christ has suffered and risen; or whether the actual shedding of the blood of the Lamb of God, which was, as He Himself says, for many for the remission of sins,34 conferred any benefit in the way of purifying or adding to the purity of those who looked forward in faith to the death of Christ, but left the world before it took place; whether, in fact, Christ's death reached to the dead, so as to effect their liberation. To discuss this question here, or to prove what has been ascertained on the subject, would take too long, besides being foreign from our present purpose.
16. Meanwhile it is sufficient to prove, in opposition to Faustus' ignorant cavils, how greatly they mistake who conclude, from the change in signs and sacraments, that there must be a difference in the things which were prefigured in the rites of a prophetic dispensation, and which are declared to be accomplished in the rites of the gospel; or those, on the other hand, who think that as the things are the same, the sacraments which announce their accomplishment should not differ from the sacraments which foretold that accomplishment. For if in language the form of the verb changes in the number of letters and syllables according to the tense, as done signifies the past, and to be done the future, why should not the symbols which declare Christ's death and resurrection to be accomplished, differ from those which predicted their accomplishment, as we see a difference in the form and sound of the words, past and future, suffered and to suffer, risen and to rise? For material symbols are nothing else than visible speech, which, though sacred, is changeable and transitory. For while God is eternal, the water of baptism, and all that is material in the sacrament, is transitory: the very word "God," which must be pronounced in the consecration, is a sound which passes in a moment. The actions and sounds pass away, but their efficacy remains the same, and the spiritual gift thus communicated is eternal. To say, therefore, that if Christ had not destroyed the law and the prophets, the sacraments of the law and the prophets would continue to be observed in the congregations of the Christian Church, is the same as to say that if Christ had not destroyed the law and the prophets, He would still be predicted as about to be born, to suffer, and to rise again; whereas, in fact, it is proved that He did not destroy, but fulfill those things, because the prophecies of His birth, and passion, and resurrection, which were represented in these ancient sacraments, have ceased, and the sacraments now observed by Christians contain the announcement that He has been born, has suffered, has risen. He who came not to destroy the law and the prophets, but to fulfill them, by this fulfillment did away with those things which foretold the accomplishment of what is thus shown to be now accomplished. Precisely in the same way, he might substitute for the expressions, "He is to be born, is to suffer, is to rise," which were in these times appropriate, the expressions, "He has been born, has suffered, has risen," which are appropriate now that the others are accomplished, and so done away.
17. Corresponding to this change in words is the change which naturally took place in the substitution of new sacraments instead of those of the Old Testament. In the case of the first Christians, who came to the faith as Jews, it was by degrees that they were brought to change their customs, and to have a clear perception of the truth; and permission was given them by the apostle to preserve their hereditary worship and belief, in which they had been born and brought up; and those who had to do with them were required to make allowance for this reluctance to accept new customs. So the apostle circumcised Timothy, the son of a Jewish mother and a Greek father, when they went among people of this kind; and he himself accommodated his practice to theirs, not hypocritically, but for a wise purpose. For these practices were harmless in the case of those born and brought up in them, though they were no longer required to prefigure things to come. It would have done more harm to condemn them as hurtful in the case of those to whose time it was intended that they should continue. Christ, who came to fulfill all these prophecies, found those people trained in their own religion. But in the case of those who had no such training, but were brought to Christ, the corner-stone, from the opposite wall of circumcision, there was no obligation to adopt Jewish customs. If, indeed, like Timothy, they chose to accommodate themselves to the views of those of the circumcision who were still wedded to their old sacraments, they were free to do so. But if they supposed that their hope and salvation depended on these works of the law, they were warned against them as a fatal danger. So the apostle says: "Behold, I Paul say unto you, that if ye be circumcised, Christ shall profit you nothing;"35 that is, if they were circumcised, as they were intending to be, in compliance with some corrupt teachers, who told them that without these works of the law they could not be saved. For when, chiefly through the preaching of the Apostle Paul, the Gentiles were coming to the faith of Christ, as it was proper that they should come, without being burdened with Jewish observances-for those who were grown up were deterred from the faith by fear of ceremonies to which they were not accustomed, especially of circumcision; and if they who had not been trained from their birth to such observances had been made proselytes in the usual way, it would have implied that the coming of Christ still required to be predicted as a future event;-when, then, the Gentiles were admitted without these ceremonies, those of the circumcision who believed, not understanding why the Gentiles were not required to adopt their customs, nor why they themselves were still allowed to retain them, began to disturb the Church with carnal contentions. because the Gentiles were admitted into the people of God without being made proselytes in the usual way by circumcision and the other legal observances. Some also of the converted Gentiles were bent on these ceremonies, from fear of the Jews among whom they lived. Against these Gentiles the Apostle Paul often wrote, and when Peter was carried away by their hypocrisy, he corrected him with a brotherly rebuke.36 Afterwards, when the apostles met in council, decreed that these works of the law were not obligatory in the case of the Gentiles,37 some Christians of the circumcision were displeased, because they failed to understand that these observances were permissible only in those who had been trained in them before the revelation of faith, to bring to a close the prophetic life in those who were engaged in it before the prophecy was fulfilled, lest by a compulsory abandonment it should seem to be condemned rather than closed; while to lay these things on the Gentiles would imply either that they were not instituted to prefigure Christ, or that Christ was still to be prefigured. The ancient people of God, before Christ came to fulfill the law and the prophets, were required to observe all these things by which Christ was prefigured. It was freedom to those who understood the meaning of the observance, but it was bondage to those who did not. But the people in those latter times who come to believe in Christ as having already come, and suffered, and risen, in the case of those whom this faith found trained to those sacraments, are neither required to observe them, nor prohibited from doing so; while there is a prohibition in the case of those who were not bound by the ties of custom, or by any necessity, to accommodate themselves to the practice of others, so that it might become manifest that these things were instituted to prefigure Christ, and that after His coming they were to cease, because the promises had been fulfilled. Some believers of the circumcision who did not understand this were displeased with this tolerant arrangement which the Holy Spirit effected through the apostles, and stubbornly insisted on the Gentiles becoming Jews. These are the people of whom Faustus speaks under the name of Symmachians or Nazareans. Their number is now very small, but the sect still continues.
18. The Manichaeans, therefore have no ground for saying, in disparagement of the law and the prophets, that Christ crime to destroy rather than to fulfill them, because Christians do not observe what is there enjoined: for the only things which they do not observe are those that prefigured Christ, and these are not observed because their fulfillment is in Christ, and what is fulfilled is no longer prefigured; the typical observances having properly come to a close in the time of those who, after being trained in such things, had come to believe in Christ as their fulfillment. Do not Christians observe the precept of Scripture "Hear, O Israel; the Lord thy God is one God;" "Thou shalt not image," and so on? Do make Christians not observe the precept, "Thou shall not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain?" Do Christians not observe the Sabbath, even in the sense of a true rest? Do Christians not honor their parents, according to the commandment? Do Christians not abstain from fornication, and murder. and theft, and false witness, from coveting their neighbor's wife, and from coveting his property,-all of which things are written in the law? These moral precepts are distinct from typical sacraments: the former are fulfilled by the aid of divine grace, the latter by the accomplishment of what they promise. Both are fulfilled in Christ, who has ever been the bestower of this grace, which is also now revealed in Him, and who now makes manifest the accomplishment of what He in former times promised; for "the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ."38 Again, these things which concern the keeping of a good conscience are fulfilled in the faith which worketh by love;39 while types of the future pass away when they are accomplished. But even the types are not destroyed, but fulfilled; for Christ, in bringing to light what the types signified, does not prove them vain or illusory.19. Faustus, therefore, is wrong in supposing that the Lord Jesus fulfilled some precepts of righteous men who lived before the law of Moses, such as, "Thou shall not kill," which Christ did not oppose, but rather confirmed by His prohibition of anger and abuse; and that He destroyed some things apparently peculiar to the Hebrew law, such as, "An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth," which Christ. seems rather to abolish than to confirm, when He says, "But I say unto you, that ye resist not evil; but if any one smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also,"40 and so on. But we say that even these things which Faustus thinks Christ destroyed by enjoining the opposite, were suitable to the times of the Old Testament, and were not destroyed, but fulfilled by Christ.
20. In the first place let me ask our opponents if these ancient righteous men, Enoch and Seth, whom Faustus mentions particularly, and any others who lived before Moses, or even, if you choose, before Abraham, were angry with their brother without a cause, or said to their brother, Thou fool. If not, why may they not have taught these things as well as preached them? And if they taught these things, how can Christ be said to have fulfilled their righteousness or their teaching, any more than that of Moses, by adding, "But I say unto you, if any man is angry with his brother, or if he says Racha, or if he says, Thou fool, he shall be in danger of the judgment, or of the council, or of hell-fire," since these men did these very things themselves, and enjoined them upon others? Will it be said that they were ignorant of its being the duty of a righteous man to restrain his passion, and not to provoke his brother with angry abuse; or that, knowing this, they were unable to act accordingly? In that case, they deserved the punishment of hell, and could not have been righteous. But no one will venture to say that in their righteousness there was such ignorance of duty, and such a want of self-control, as to make them liable to the punishment of hell. How, then, can Christ be said to have fulfilled the law, by which these men lived by means of adding things without which they could have had no righteousness at all? Will it be said that a hasty temper and bad language are sinful only since the time of Christ, while formerly such qualities of the heart and speech were allowable; as we find some institutions vary according to the times, so that what is proper at one time is improper at another, and vice versa? You will not be so foolish as to make this assertion. But even were you to do so, the reply will be that, according to. this idea, Christ came not to fulfill what was defective in the old law, but to institute a law which did not previously exist; if it is true that with the righteous men of old it was not a sin to say to their brother, Thou fool, which Christ pronounces so sinful, that whoever does so is in danger of hell. So, then, you bare not succeeded in finding any law of which it can be said that Christ supplied its defect by these additions.
21. Will it be said that the law in these early times was incomplete as regards not committing adultery, till it was completed by the Lord, who added that no one should look on a woman to lust after her? This is what you imply in the way you quote the words, "Ye have heard that it has been said, Thou shalt not commit adultery: but I say unto you, Do not lust even." "Here," you say, "is the fulfillment." But let us take the words as they stand in the Gospel, without any of your modifications, and see what character you give to those righteous men of antiquity. The words are: "Ye have heard that it has been said, thou shall not commit adultery; but I say unto you, that whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her, hath committed adultery with her already in his heart."41 In your opinion, then, Enoch and Seth, and the rest, committed adultery in their hearts; and either their heart was not the temple of God, or they committed adultery in the temple of God. But if you dare not say this, how can you say that Christ, when He came, fulfilled the law, which was already in the time of those men complete?
22. As regards not swearing, in which also you say that Christ completed the law given to these righteous men of antiquity, I cannot be certain that they did not swear, for we find that Paul the apostle swore. With you, swearing is still a common practice, for you swear by the light, which you love as flies do; for the light of the mind which lighteth every man that cometh into the world, as distinct from mere natural light, you know nothing of. You swear, too, by your master Manichaeus, whose name in his own tongue was Manes. As the name Manes seemed to be connected with the Greek word for madness, you have changed it by adding a suffix, which only makes matters worse, by giving the new meaning of pouring forth madness. One of your own sect told me that the name Manichaeus was intended to be derived from the Greek words for pouring forth manna; for keein means to pour. But, as it is, you only express the idea of madness with greater emphasis. For by adding the two syllables, while you have forgotten to insert another letter in the beginning of the word, you make it not Manichaeus, but Manichaeus; which must mean that he pours forth madness in his long unprofitable discourses. Again, you often swear by the Paraclete,-not the Paraclete promised and sent by Christ to His disciples, but this same madness-pourer himself. Since, then, you are constantly swearing, I should like to know in what sense you make Christ to have fulfilled this part of the law, which is one you mention as belonging to the earliest times. And what do you make of the oaths of the apostle? For as to your authority, it cannot weigh much with yourselves, not to speak of me or any other person. It is therefore evident that Christ's words,am come not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it," have not the meaning which you give them, Christ makes no reference in these words to His comments on the ancient sayings which He quotes, and of which His discourse was an explanation, but not a fulfillment.
23. Thus, as regards murder, which was understood to mean merely the destruction of the body, by which a man is deprived of life, the Lord explained that every unjust disposition to injure our brother is a kind of murder. So John also says, "He that hateth his brother is a murderer."42 And as it was thought that adultery meant only the act of unlawful intercourse with a woman, the Master showed that the lust He describes is also adultery. Again, because perjury is a heinous sin, while there is no sin either in not swearing at all or in swearing truly, the Lord wished to secure us from departing from the truth by not swearing at all, rather than that we should be in danger of perjury by being in the habit of swearing truly. For one who never swears is less in danger of swearing falsely than one who is in the habit of swearing truly. So, in the discourses of the apostle which are recorded, he never used an oath, lest he should ever fall unawares into perjury from being in the habit of swearing. In his writings, on the other hand, where he had more leisure and opportunity for caution, we find him using oaths in several places,43 to teach us that there is no sin in swearing truly, but that, on account of the infirmity of human nature, we are best preserved from perjury by not swearing at all. These considerations will also make it evident that the things which Faustus supposes to be peculiar to Moses were not destroyed by Christ, as he says they were.
24. To take, for instance, this saying of the ancients, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor, and hate thine enemy," how does Faustus make cut that this is peculiar to Moses? Does not the Apostle Paul speak of some men as hateful to God?44 And, indeed, in connection with this saying, the Lord enjoins on us that we should imitate God. His words are: "That ye may be the children of your Father in heaven, who maketh the sun to rise upon the evil and the good, and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust."45 In ore sense we must hate our enemies, after the example of God, to whom Paul says some men are hateful; while, at the same time, we must also love our enemies after the example of God, who makes the sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust. If we understand this, we shall find that the Lord, in explaining to those who did not rightly understand the saying, Thou shalt hate thine enemy, made use of it to show that they should love their enemy, which was a new idea to them. It would take too long to show the consistency of the two things here. But when the Manichaeans condemn without exception the precept, Thou shall hate thine enemy, they may easily be met with the question whether their god loves the race of darkness. Or, if we should love our enemies now, because they have a part of good, should we not also hate them as having a part of evil? So even in this way it would appear that there is no opposition between the saying of ancient times, Thou shall hate thine enemy, and that of the Gospel, Love your enemies. For every wicked man should be hated as far as he is wicked; while he should be loved as a man. The vice which we rightly hate in him is to be condemned, that by its removal the human nature which we rightly love in him may be amended. This is precisely the principle we maintain, that we should hate our enemy for what is evil in him, that is, for his wickedness; while we also love our enemy for that which is good in him, that is, for his nature as a social and rational being. The difference between us and the Manichaeans is, that we prove the man to be wicked, not by nature, either his own or any other, but by his own will; whereas they think that a man is evil on account of the nature of the race of darkness, which, according to them, was an object of dread to God when he existed entire, and by which also he was partly conquered, so that he cannot be entirely set free. The intention of the Lord, then, is to correct those who, from knowing without understanding what was said by them of old time, Thou shalt hate thine enemy, hated their fellow-men instead of only hating their wickedness; and for this purpose He says, Love your enemies. Instead of destroying what is written about hatred of enemies in the law, of which He said, "I am come not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it," He would have us learn, from the duty of loving our enemies, how it is possible in the case of one and the same person, both to hate him for his sin, and to love him for his nature. It is too much to expect our perverse opponents to understand this. But we can silence them, by showing that by their irrational objection they condemn their own god, of whom they cannot say that he loves the race of darkness; so that in enjoining on every one to love his enemy, they cannot quote his example. There would appear to be more love of their enemy in the race of darkness than in the god of the Manichaeans. The story is, that the race of darkness coveted the domain of light bordering on their territory, and, from a desire to possess it, formed the plan of invading it. Nor is there any sin in desiring true goodness and blessedness. For the Lord says, "The kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent take it by force."46 This fabulous race of darkness, then, wished to take by force the good they desired, for its beautiful and attractive appearance. But God, instead of returning the love of those who wished to possess Him, hated it so as to endeavor to annihilate them. If, therefore, the evil love the good in the desire to possess it, while the good hate the evil in fear of being defiled, I ask the Manichaeans, which of these obeys the precept of the Lord, "Love your enemies"? If you insist on making these precepts opposed to one another, it will follow that your god obeyed what is written in the law of Moses, "Thou shall hate thine enemy"; while the race of darkness obeyed what is written in the Gospel, "Love your enemies." However, you have never succeeded in explaining the difference between the flies that fly in the day-time and the moths that fly at night; for both, according to you, belong to the race of darkness. How is it that one kind love the light, contrary to their nature; while the other kind avoid it, and prefer the darkness from which they sprung? Strange, that filthy sewers should breed a cleaner sort than dark closets!
25. Nor, again, is there any opposition between that which was said by them of old time, "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," and what the Lord says, "But I say unto you, that ye resist not evil; but if any one smiteth thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also," and so on47 The old precept as well as the new is intended to check the vehemence of hatred, and to curb the impetuosity of angry passion. For who will of his own accord be satisfied with a revenge equal to the injury? Do we not see men, only slightly hurt, eager for slaughter, thirsting for blood, as if they could never make their enemy suffer enough? If a man receives a blow, does he not summon his assailant, that he may be condemned in the court of law? Or if he prefers to return the blow, does he not fall upon the man with hand and heel, or perhaps with a weapon, if he can get hold of one? To put a restraint upon a revenge so unjust from its excess, the law established the principle of compensation, that the penalty should correspond to the injury inflicted. So the precept, "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," instead of being a brand to kindle a fire that was quenched, was rather a covering to prevent the fire already kindled from spreading. For there is a just revenge due to the injured person from his assailant; so that when we pardon, we give up what we might justly claim. Thus, in the Lord's prayer, we are taught to forgive others their debts that God may forgive us our debts. There is no injustice in asking back a debt, though there is kindness in forgiving it. But as, in swearing, one who swears, even though truly, is in danger of perjury, of which one is in no danger who never swears; and while swearing truly is not a sin, we are further. from sin by not swearing; so that the command not to swear is a guard against perjury: in the same way since it is sinful to wish to be revenged with an unjust excess, though there is no sin in wishing for revenge within the limits of justice, the man who wishes for no revenge at all is further from the sin of an unjust revenge. It is sin to demand more than is due, though it is no sin to demand a debt. And the best security against the sin of making an unjust demand is to demand nothing, especially considering the danger of being compelled to pay the debt to Him who is in debted to none. Thus, I would explain the passage as follows: It has been said by them of old time, Thou shall not take unjust revenge; but I say, Take no revenge at all: here is the fulfillment. It is thus that Faustus, after quoting," It has been said, Thou shall not swear falsely; but I say unto you, swear not at all," adds: here is the fulfillment. I might use the same expression if I thought that by the addition of these words Christ supplied a defect in the law, and not rather that the intention of the law to prevent unjust revenge is best secured by not taking revenge at all, in the same way as the intention to prevent perjury is best secured by not swearing at all. For if "an eye for an eye" is opposed to "If any one smite thee on the cheek, turn to him the other also," is there not as much opposition between "Thou shalt perform unto the Lord thine oath," and "Swear not at all?"48 If Faustus thinks that there is not destruction, but fulfillment, in the one case, he ought to think the same of the other. For if "Swear not" is the fulfillment of "Swear truly," why should not "Take no revenge" be the fulfillment of "Take revenge justly"?
So, according to my interpretation, there is in both cases a guard against sin, either of false swearing or of unjust revenge; though, as regards giving up the right to revenge, there is the additional consideration that, by forgiving such debts, we shall obtain the forgiveness of our debts. The old precept was required in the case of a self-willed people, to teach them not to be extravagant in their demands. Thus, when the rage eager for unrestrained vengeance, was subdued, there would be leisure for any one so disposed to consider the desirableness of having his own debt cancelled by the Lord, and so to be led by this consideration to forgive the debt of his fellow-servant.
26. Again, we shall find on examination, that there is no opposition between the precept of the Lord about not putting away a wife, and what was said by them of old time: "Whosoever putteth away his wife, let him give her a writing of divorcement."49 The Lord explains the intention of the law, which required a bill of divorce in every case where a wife was put away. The precept not to put away a wife is the opposite of saying that a man may put away his wife if he pleases; which is not what the law says. On the contrary, to prevent the wife from being put away, the law required this intermediate step, that the eagerness for separation might be checked by the writing of the bill, and the man might have time to think of the evil of putting away his wife; especially since, as it is said, among the Hebrews it was unlawful for any but the scribes to write Hebrew: for the scribes claimed the possession of superior wisdom; and if they were men of upright and pious character, their pursuits might justly entitle them to make this claim. In requiring, therefore, that in putting away his wife, a man should give her a writing of divorcement, the design was that he should be obliged to have recourse to those from whom he might expect to receive a cautious interpretation of the law, and suitable advice against separation. Having no other way of getting the bill written, the man should be obliged to submit to their direction, and to allow of their endeavors to restore peace and harmony between him and his wife. In a case where the hatred could not be overcome or checked, the bill would of course be written A wife might with reason be put away when wise counsel failed to restore the proper feeling and affection in the mind of her husband. If the wife is not loved, she is to be put away. And that she may not be put away, it is the husband's duty to love her. Now, while a man cannot be forced to love against his will, he may be influenced by advice and persuasion. This was the duty of the scribe, as a wise and upright man; and the law gave him the opportunity, by requiring the husband in all cases of quarrel to go to him, to get the bill of divorcement written. No good or prudent man would write the bill unless it were a case of such obstinate aversion as to make reconciliation impossible. But according to your impious notions, there can be nothing in putting away a wife; for matrimony, according to you, is a criminal indulgence. The word "matrimony" shows that a man takes a wife in order that she may become a mother, which would be an evil in your estimation. According to you, this would imply that part of your god is overcome and captured by the race of darkness, and bound in the fetters of flesh.
27. But, to explain the point in hand: If Christ, in adding the words, "But I say unto you," to the quotations He makes of ancient sayings, neither fulfilled the law of primitive times by His additions, nor destroyed the law given to Moses by opposite precepts, but rather paid such deference to the Hebrew law in all the quotations He made from it, as to make His own remarks chiefly explanatory of what the law stated less distinctly, or a means of securing the design intended by the law, it follows that from the words, "I came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it" we are not to understand that Christ by His precepts filled up what was wanting in the law; but that what the literal command failed in doing from the pride and disobedience of men, is accomplished by grace in those who are brought to repentance and humility. The fulfillment is not in additional words, but in acts of obedience. So the apostle says "Faith worketh by love;"50 and again, He that loveth another hath fulfilled the law."51 This love, by which also the righteousness of the law can be fulfilled was bestowed in its significance by Christ in His coming, through the spirit which He sent according to His promise; and therefore He said, "I came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it." This is the New Testament in which the promise of the kingdom of heaven is made to this love; which was typified in the Old Testament, suitably to the times of that dispensation. So Christ says again; "A new commandment I give unto you, that ye love one another."52
28. So we find in the Old Testament all or nearly all the counsels and precepts which Christ introduces with the words "But I say unto you." Against anger it is written, "Mine eyes troubled because of anger;"53 and again, "Better is he that conquers his anger, than he that taketh a city."54 Against hard words, "The stroke of a whip maketh a wound; but the stroke of the tongue breaketh the bones."55 Against adultery in the heart, "Thou shall not covet thy neighbor's wife."56 It is not," Thou shall not commit adultery;" but, "Thou shall not covet." The apostle, in quoting this, says: "I had not known lust, unless the law had said, Thou shalt not covet."57 Regarding patience in not offering resistance, a man is praised who "giveth his cheek to him that smiteth him, and who is filled full with reproach."58 Of love to enemies it is said: "If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink."59 This also is quoted by the apostle."60 In the Psalm, too, it is said, "I was a peace maker among them that hated peace;"61 and in many similar passages. In connection also with our imitating God in refraining from taking revenge, and in loving even the wicked, there is a passage containing a full description of God in this character; for it is written: "To Thee alone ever belongeth great strength, and who can withstand the power of Thine arm? For the whole world before Thee is as a little grain of the balance; yea, as a drop of the morning dew that falleth down upon the earth. But Thou hast mercy upon all, for Thou canst do all things, and winkest at the sins of men, because of repentance. For Thou lovest all things that are, and abhorrest nothing which Thou hast made; for never wouldest Thou have made anything if Thou hadst hated it. And how could anything have endured, if it had not been Thy will? or been preserved, if not called by Thee? But Thou sparest all; for they are Thine, O Lord, Thou lover of souls. For Thy good Spirit is in all things; therefore chastenest Thou them by little and little that offend, and warnest them by putting them in remembrance wherein they have offended, that learning their wickedness, they may believe in Thee, O Lord."62 Christ exhorts us to imitate this long-suffering goodness of God, who maketh the sun to rise upon the evil and the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust; that we may not be careful to revenge, but may do good to them that hate us, and so may be perfect, even as our Father in heaven is perfect.63 From another passage in these ancient books we learn that, by not exacting the vengeance due to us, we obtain the remission of our own sins; and that by not forgiving the debts of others, we incur the danger of being refused forgiveness when we pray for the remission of our own debts: "He that revengeth shall find vengeance from the Lord, and He will surely keep his sin in remembrance. Forgive thy neighbor the hurt that he hath done to thee; so shall thy sins also be forgiven when thou prayest. One man beareth hatred against another, and cloth he seek pardon of the Lord? He showeth no mercy to a man who is like himself; and doth he ask forgiveness of his own sins? If he that is but flesh nourishes hatred, and asks for favor from the Lord, who will entreat for the pardon of his sins?"64
29. As regards not putting away a wife, there is no need to quote any other passage of the Old Testament than that referred to most appropriately in the Lord's reply to the Jews when they questioned Him on this subject. For when they asked whether it is lawful for a man to put away his wife for any reason, the Lord answered: "Have ye not read, that He that made them at the beginning made them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife, and they two shall be one flesh? Therefore they are no longer twain, but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined, let no man put asunder."65 Here the Jews, who thought that they acted according to the intention of the law of Moses in putting away their wives, are made to see from the book of Moses that a wife should not be put away. And, by the way, we learn here, from Christ's own declaration, that God made and joined male and female; so that by denying this, the Manichaeans are guilty of opposing the gospel of Christ as well as the writings of Moses. And supposing their doctrine to be true, that the devil made and joined male and female, we see the diabolical cunning of Faustus in finding fault with Moses for dissolving marriages by granting a bill of divorce, and praising Christ for strengthening the union by the precept in the Gospel. Instead of this, Faustus, consistently with his own foolish and impious notions, should have praised Moses for separating what was made and joined by the devil, and should have blamed Christ for ratifying a bond of the devil's workmanship. To return, let us hear the good Master explain how Moses, who wrote of the conjugal chastity in the first union of male and female as so holy and inviolable, afterwards allowed the people to put away their wives. For when the Jews replied, "Why did Moses then command to give a writing of divorcement, and to put her away?" Christ said unto them, "Moses, because of the hardness of your heart, suffered you to put away your wives."66 This passage we have already explained.67 The hardness must have been great indeed which could not be induced to admit the restoration of wedded love, even though by means of the writing an opportunity was afforded for advice to be given to this effect by wise and upright men. They the Lord quoted the same law, to show both what was enjoined on the good and what was permitted to the hard; for, from what is written of the union of male and female, He proved that a wife must not be put away, and pointed out the divine authority for the union; and shows from the same Scriptures that a bill of divorcement was to be given because of the hardness of the heart, which might be subdued or might not.
30. Since, then, all these excellent precepts of the Lord, which Faustus tries to prove to be contrary to the old books of the Hebrews, are found in these very books, the only sense in which the Lord came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it, is this, that besides the fulfillment of the prophetic types, which are set aside by their actual accomplishment, the precepts also, in which the law is holy, and just, and. good, are fulfilled in us, not by the oldness of the letter which commands, and increases the offence of the proud by the additional guilt of transgression, but by the newness of the Spirit, who aids us, and by the obedience of the humble, through the saving grace which sets us free. For, while all these sublime precepts are found in the ancient books, still the end to which they point is not there revealed; although the holy men who foresaw the revelation lived in accordance with it, either veiling it in prophecy as suited the time, or themselves discovering the truth thus veiled.
31. I am disposed, after careful examination, to doubt whether the expression so often used by the Lord, "the kingdom of heaven," can be found in these books. It is said, indeed, "Love wisdom, that ye may reign for ever."68 And if eternal life had not been clearly made known in the Old Testament, the Lord would not have said, as He did even to the unbelieving Jews: "Search the Scriptures, for in them ye think that ye have eternal life, and they are they that testify of me."69 And to the same effect are the words of the Psalmist: "I shall not die, but live, and declare the works of the Lord."70 And again: "Enlighten mine eyes, lest I sleep the sleep of death."71 Again, we read, "The souls of the righteous are in the hand of the Lord, and pain shall not touch them;" and immediately following: "They are in peace; and if they have suffered torture from men, their hope is full of immortality; and after a few trouble, they shall enjoy many rewards."72 Again, in another place: "The righteous shall live for ever, and their reward is with the Lord, and their concern with the Highest; therefore shall they receive from the hand of the Lord a kingdom of glory and a crown of beauty."73 These and many similar declarations of eternal life, in more or less explicit terms, are found in these writings. Even the resurrection of the body is spoken of by theprophets. The Pharisees, accordingly, were fierce opponents of the Sadducees, who disbelieved the resurrection. This we learn not only from the canonical Acts of the Apostles, which the Manichaeans reject, because it tells of the advent of the Paraclete promised by the Lord, but also from the Gospel, when the Sadducees question the Lord about the woman who married seven brothers, one dying after the other, whose wife she would be in the resurrection.74 As regards, then, eternal life and the resurrection of the dead, numerous testimonies are to be found in these Scriptures. But I do not find there the expression, "the kingdom of heaven." This expression belongs properly to the revelation of the New Testament, because in the resurrection our earthly bodies shall, by that change which Paul fully describes, become spiritual bodies, and so heavenly, that thus we may possess the kingdom of heaven. And this expression was reserved for Him whose advent as King to govern and Priest to sanctify His believing people, was ushered in by all the symbolism of the old covenant, in its genealogies, its typical acts and words, its sacrifices and ceremonies and feasts, and in all its prophetic utterances and events and figures. He came full of grace and truth, in His grace helping us to obey the precepts, and in His truth securing the accomplishment of the promises. He came not to destroy the law, but to fulfill it.
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January 2, 2007 > Ring in a happy New Year
Ring in a happy New Year
By Pushpa Warrier
As the dawn of a New Year is celebrated, it is interesting to understand why a "Happy New Year" is celebrated at 12:01 a.m. on January 1st of each year.
New Year, oldest of all holidays, was first observed in ancient Babylon about 4000 years ago. Circa 2000 BC, the Babylonian New Year began with the first New Moon (the first visible crescent) after the Vernal Equinox (first day of spring). Spring, the season of planting new crops, is a logical time to start a new year. January 1, on the other hand, has no astronomical or agricultural significance. So how did the calendar shift so drastically?
The Babylonian New Year celebration lasted for eleven days, each day with its own significance. The Romans continued to observe the New Year in late March, but their calendar was continually changed by various emperors so it was no longer synchronized with the sun. In order to set the calendar right, the Roman senate, in 153 BC, declared January 1 to be the beginning of the New Year. But tampering continued until, in 46 BC, Julius Caesar established what has come to be known as the "Julian Calendar."
It again established January 1 as the New Year, but in order to synchronize the calendar with the sun, Caesar had to let the previous year drag on for 445 days. Although in the first centuries AD the Romans continued celebrating the New Year, the early Catholic Church condemned the festivities as paganism. But as Christianity became more widespread, the church began having its own religious observances concurrently with many of the pagan celebrations; New Year's Day was no different. New Year is still observed as the Feast of Christ's Circumcision by some denominations.
In "Christmas Style" dating, the New Year started on December 25. This was used in Germany and England until the thirteenth century and in Spain from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. In "Annunciation Style" dating, the New Year started on March 25, the feast of the Annunciation. Introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525, this was used in many parts of Europe during the Middle Ages. Annunciation Style continued to be used in the Kingdom of Great Britain until January 1, 1752, except Scotland which changed to Circumcision Style dating on January 1, 1600. The rest of Great Britain changed to Circumcision Style on the first of January preceding the conversion in Great Britain from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar September 1752. The United Kingdom tax year still starts on April 6th (March 25 + 12 days - eleven for the conversion from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar plus a dropped leap day in 1900).
In Easter Style dating, the New Year started on Easter Saturday (or sometimes on Good Friday). This was used in France from the eleventh to the sixteenth century. A disadvantage of this system was that because Easter was a movable feast, the same date could occur twice in a year; the two occurrences were distinguished as "before Easter" and "after Easter."
Irrespective of country or creed, tradition or mode of celebration, the transition from one calendar year to the next is an occasion to rejoice, introspect and learn. At this juncture, the following words of the late renowned journalist and author Hal Borland come to mind, "Year's end is neither an end nor a beginning but a going on, with all the wisdom that experience can instill in us."
Best wishes for a "Happy New Year" from TCV.
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Madagascar Traditional Beliefs and Religion
Sources: The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook
Madagascar's capital, Antananarivo
A firm belief in the existence of close ties between the living and the dead constitutes the most basic of all traditional beliefs and the foundation for Malagasy religious and social values. All the Malagasy peoples have traditionally accepted the existence of a supreme God, known commonly as Zanahary (Creator) or Andriamanitra (Sweet, or Fragrant, Lord). The dead have been conceived as playing the role of intermediary between this supreme God and humankind and are viewed as having the power to affect the fortunes of the living for good or evil. The dead are sometimes described as "gods on earth," who are considered the most important and authoritative members of the family, intimately involved in the daily life of the living members. At the same time, the razana (best defined as "ancestors") are the sources from which the life force flows and the creators of Malagasy customs and ways of life. The living are merely temporary extensions of the dead. Great hardship or trouble can result if the dead are offended or neglected.
The burial tomb, a prominent part of the island landscape in all regions, is the primary link between the living and the dead among the Malagasy. It is built with great care and expense, reflecting the privileged position of the dead, and is often more costly and substantial than the houses of the living. The land upon which a family tomb is situated--tanindrazana (land of the ancestors)--is inalienable, and social and economic practices are designed to guarantee that tomb lands are kept within the family. Anthropologists have described the Merina as living, in effect, in two localities: the place where one happens to work and keep one's household, and the tanindrazana, a locality of much deeper sentimental significance, the spiritual center where the family tomb is located. The two are usually separated by a considerable distance. Among some groups, whether one decides to be buried in the tombs of the father's or mother's family determines individual descent-group allegiance.
The tombs of the various peoples around the island differ somewhat in form. Merina tombs tend to be solid, stone structures, built partially underground, with a chamber in which the bodies of ancestors are kept on shelves, wrapped in silk shrouds. The traditional tombs of the Mahafaly in the southwest were built of stone but surmounted by intricately carved wooden posts depicting human and animal figures. More recent Mahafaly tombs, particularly those built by rich families, are often made of concrete, with glass windows, brightly painted designs and often remarkable depictions of airplanes, taxicabs, or other modern paraphernalia mounted on the roof. At one time, it was the custom of the Sakalava people living around the Morondava River on the west coast to decorate their tombs with carvings showing explicit sexual activity. These were meant to illustrate the life-giving force, or fertility, of the ancestors.
Among the Merina and Betsileo peoples of the central highlands, the custom of famadihana ("placing" or the "turning" of the dead) reaffirms the link between the living and the dead. This occurs when a person is taken from a temporary to a permanent tomb in the tanindrazana, and the remains are taken out of the tomb to be wrapped in new shrouds, or when a body is moved from one tomb to another. These ceremonies are costly, mainly because of the expense of providing food for a large number of relatives and guests. They represent for the peoples of the central highlands a time of communion with the razana and a means of avoiding or reducing guilt or blame. It is considered a serious transgression not to hold a famadihana when one is financially able to do so. The ceremony is presided over by an astrologer, but the chief participants are the close relatives of those persons whose remains are being moved or rewrapped. In this regard, the famadihana resembles in spirit a family reunion or the more austere ancestral ceremonies of China and Korea, where the spirits of ancestors are invited to a feast given by members of a family or lineage, rather than the funerals of the West, which are "final endings."
Although the famadihana does not occur outside the central highlands and the attitudes of the Merina and Betsileo toward the dead differ in certain significant respects, the idea of the dead as beings to be respected is universal in Madagascar. A number of different "souls" are recognized by the Malagasy. Among the Merina, these include the fanahy, a kind of essence which determines individual character and behavior; thus, an individual can have a good or a bad fanahy. Another is the soul of the person after death, the ambiroa, which is called to the tomb for the celebration of the famadihana, but which, over time, is believed to blend with the collective spirit of other ancestors. The ambiroa is believed to permeate the tomb building, the family household, and the hills and valleys of the tanindrazana, being in a sense omnipresent. Other concepts include the soul of a recently deceased person, the lolo, which is said to be harmless but feels homesick for its old surroundings and often appears in the form of a moth or a butterfly. The angatra, ghosts of the unknown dead, are often malevolent and frighten people at night. The emphases in the minds of the people, however, are not on the afterlife or on the experiences of the dead souls either as ghosts or in heaven or hell, but on the relationship of the dead with the living and the role of the former as bearers of power and authority.
The ombiasy and the mpanandro combine the functions of diviners, traditional healers, and astrologers. They originated among the Antaimoro and the Antambahoaka of the southwest coast, who were influenced by the Antalaotra. Among the Antandroy, it is the ombiasy who are often asked to eradicate a mistake made by neglecting a taboo. The Bara consult the ombiasy to look after the sick and dying. Family heads ask them when to begin certain agricultural tasks or when to marry or circumcise those entering adulthood. Merina families have their personal diviners who consult the stars; their advice is requested on all enterprises that are thought to involve dangers. They are paid a regular salary and additional fees for extra services. They set the auspicious day for a famadihana. Even a highly educated Merina would not think of building a house without consulting the ombiasy or the mpanandro for the favorable day to begin work. When a marriage is contemplated, both sets of parents will ask the ombiasy and the mpanandro whether the partners will be compatible.
The science of the ombiasy and the mpanandro is tied to the concept of vintana, which means fate ordained by the position of moon, sun, and stars. Accordingly, different values and different forces, either active or passive, are attributed to each fraction of time. Space, too, is thought to be affected by these forces, east being superior to west, and north being superior to south. Northeast therefore is believed to be the most favorable direction. People build their houses on the north-south axis and reserve the northeastern corner for prayers. Guests are seated on the northern side, and chickens are kept in the southwestern corner.
Fate is impersonal and cannot be changed, but certain aspects can be foretold and avoided. For divination the ombiasy use a system of Arabic origin in which fruit seeds or grains of corn are put into rows of eight. Various figure combinations indicate the future and what to do regarding sickness, love, business, and other enterprises. The ombiasy also sell talismans made of such objects as dried or powdered vegetables, glass beads, or animal teeth.
Fady are taboos on the use of certain substances, particularly foods, or on the performance, including the timing, of certain acts. They continue to regulate much of Malagasy life. Many are connected with vintana, while others express certain social values. For example, to deny hospitality to a stranger is fady, as is the act of refusing this hospitality. The concept of fady often also expresses a well-developed metaphorical sense. According to one fady, it is wrong to sit in the doorway of a house while the rice is sprouting, since the door of the house is compared to the "gateway" of birth and by blocking it, one might impede the "birth" of the rice. It is important to remember, however, that fady, particularly dietary prohibitions, vary widely among different ethnic groups, and from village to village within the same ethnic group. To be at home in a different locality, travelers must acquaint themselves with a large number of local variations.
Traditional beliefs are augmented by imported organized religions. Although exact figures on religious affiliations do not exist, it is estimated that approximately 55 percent of the total population adhere to traditional beliefs, and 40 percent are Christian, about evenly divided between Roman Catholics and Protestants, the remaining 5 percent being Muslim. Indeed, Protestant and Roman Catholic churches have found themselves competing for new adherents, most notably underscored by the fact that villages in the central highlands often have two churches, one Protestant and one Roman Catholic, that face each other at opposite ends of the village. The Roman Catholic church enjoys its largest support among the Betsileo people in the southern portion of the central highlands, and is also associated with former slaves and the côtiers. Protestantism enjoys its largest support among the Merina of the central highlands and, therefore, historically has been perceived as the Christian affiliation of the upper classes. Despite the minority status of Christians, the Council of Christian Churches in Madagascar played a major role in arbitrating a resolution to the conflict resulting from the violence and general strikes in May and August 1991 (see The Second Republic, 1975-92 , this ch.).
The nineteenth century witnessed a confrontation between Christianity and traditional religious beliefs, as Queen Ranavalona I expelled foreign missionaries and persecuted Christians, putting many of them to death. The tide reversed at her death, and at the beginning of the reign of Ranavalona II, the old sampy--idols or talismans endowed with supernatural powers to protect the kingdom--were destroyed, and Protestantism became the religion of the royal family. Yet opposition has given way in many cases to a kind of mutual assimilation. Christian missionaries were able to build on the Malagasy concept of a supreme God by using the term, "Andriamanitra," to refer to the biblical God and by choosing one of the traditional terms for soul, fanahy, to define its Christian counterpart. Although the supremacy of Christianity in the central highlands led to the demise of idol worship, Malagasy pastors have not challenged the strength of traditional beliefs in the power and authority of the razana. Christians have their dead blessed at a church before burying them according to the old ceremonies, and may invite the pastor to attend a famadihana and place a cross on top of the tomb. Christian belief in the power of a transcendent and somewhat distant God has blended with older beliefs in the closeness and intimacy of the dead as spiritual beings. Some Malagasy Christians will even say that the dead have become Christians themselves and continue to be the arbiters of right and wrong.
Exact figures are not available, but followers of the Sunni (see Glossary) and Shia (see Glossary) variants of Islam together constitute somewhere around 5 percent of the total population. Most are Comorans or Indo-Pakistanis; a small number are converted Malagasy. The majority are located in Mahajanga Province. A small minority of the Indian community practices Hinduism.
Data as of August 1994
NOTE: The information regarding Madagascar on this page is re-published from The Library of Congress Country Studies and the CIA World Factbook. No claims are made regarding the accuracy of Madagascar Traditional Beliefs and Religion information contained here. All suggestions for corrections of any errors about Madagascar Traditional Beliefs and Religion should be addressed to the Library of Congress and the CIA.
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Making 10's with Cards
First Grade Math Lesson Plans
- Add and subtract within 10
- For any number from 1 to 9, find the number that makes 10 when added to the given number
- Solve problems that call for addition and subtraction within 10
Materials required:A deck of standard playing cards with the 10's and face cards removed, leaving 36 cards, four each from 1 to 9. Index cards can also be used - write 1 on four cards, 2 on four more, etc., and draw the corresponding number of shapes, for instance, triangles. Having different suits is not important.
Introduction - use cards to show addition:
- Pick out two cards, pointing out the numeral and counting out the corresponding number of objects (hearts, spades, diamonds or clubs).
- Write the two numbers with a + sign between and an = after, for example: 2 + 6 =
- Have the group count out loud the objects on both cards to determine the sum. Then write it, for example: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; 2 + 6 = 8
Activity - play a group matching game:
- Deal one card to each child. Keep any remaining cards handy. Explain that students will now take turns trying to find cards that add up to 10.
- Each child, in turn, stands up, holds up his or her card and says its number. Everybody else checks their own card.
- If a child thinks that his or her card and the first child's card will add to 10, the child should stand and join the first player. The two children count to make sure that the sum is 10 and if it is they sit down together.
- As soon as a pair that makes 10 is determined, any other children who have come forward with a possible match sit down again.
- If no student comes forward with a possible match, the group can check each other's cards in case a match has been missed. If no match is found, the card is put on the bottom of the deck, and the child picks a new card and sits down.
- The next child should then take his or her turn in the same way.
- When everyone has been paired up, end the game by having each pair write their sum on the board.
Activity - teach and play a Make 10 Solitaire game:
- Show the children how to make a 16 card Make 10 deck from the previous deck by taking four of one number (for example, the four 2's), four of the number that makes 10 (the four 8's), then four of another number (say, four 4's) and the four cards that make 10 (the four 6's). So a typical deck might be: four each of 2, 4, 6 and 8. A deck with four each of 1, 2, 8 and 9 would work just as well. You will need more decks if your group is large.
- Shuffle the deck. Lay out a 10 card pyramid and 3 cards on each side:
All cards should be face up (numerals showing).
- To play, match up two cards that add to 10 and remove them. The game ends when no more pairs can be made.
- There is one more rule: you can only match up completely uncovered or "top" cards. In the picture, the white cards are top cards. Any two cards in those positions that add to 10 can be removed.
- As cards are removed, they may uncover more cards that can be matched. In the picture, if the two white cards with * are removed, then the shaded card with * is uncovered and it becomes eligible for matching.
- If the rules are unclear, play the interactive Make 10 (<-- click the title to play). You may also want the children to play the online Make 10, because it will check that the pairs add to 10.
- Play a complete game, pointing out that sometimes all the cards can be removed and sometimes they can't. Then have the students pair up, create their own 16 card decks, and play a round or two.
- Suggest that they can play at home if they have a deck of cards.
©Courseware Solutions worksheetsPlus.com
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Workshop: The Teacher Read-Aloud
Each year in
February or March, I invite my eighth graders to evaluate reading
workshop. "You never skip read-aloud, even if the schedule's
been shortened," is a unanimous observation, and I wear it
as a badge. Sharing poems and books with the class nurtures me as
well as students; it sets the tone of our workshop and enables students
to quietly prepare for work.
When I'm pressed
for time, I'll read poetry, short myths, legends, folktales, a newspaper
or magazine article, a picture book selections that I
can complete in five to eight minutes. I'll alternate these selections
with short stories, which are perfect for introducing students to
narrative structure and a variety of themes. In two or three days,
I can complete a short story, giving students and me a common literary
experience to discuss. Together, we can share our personal responses
to the story and examine elements such as charatcer, plot development,
setting, and climax.
I offer students introduce them to new genres and reinforce their
experiences with literary language. It's an opportunity for me to
extend a theme, build prior knowledge about a topic before students
read, and model reading with expression and fluency. Through read-alouds,
I can draw students into the world of story and communicate meaning
and emotion through the beauty of language.
- Always read
the book before you share it with your class to make sure it's
appropriate for your students.
- Reserve a
minimum of 5 to 10 minutes for read-aloud. 8 to 10 is ideal for
- Be dramatic,
become a ham. Students enjoy hearing readers adopt the voices
of different characters. Remember, you're modeling good read-aloud
- Share books
you love, and you'll transmit enthusiasm for reading to students.
- Select a
variety of literay genres and authors throughout the year.
- After completing
a read-aloud, make the book available to students. Many will want
to reread sections, look at photographs or illustrations, or reread
the entire book.
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For hundreds of years, a free press has been considered an essential component of democracy. Today, however, independent media around the world face a surprising paradox: though more countries in the world are democracies than ever before, the past decade has also seen a stark rise in the number of journalists imprisoned and killed for their work. This includes not only reporters killed in wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and elsewhere in the Middle East, but journalists covering corruption, crime, and politics in their own countries, a situation former OSCE media official Miklos Haraszti recently described as “a peacetime war on journalism.” The U.S. State Department has even launched a “Free the Press” campaign to expose the plight of imprisoned journalists.
Given the democratic gains being made around the world, this “war on journalism” comes as a surprise. And unfortunately, some of the worst abuses are happening in countries where democratic gains are still being consolidated. Thomas O. Melia, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor described the rise in attacks on journalists as a symptom of a creeping “majoritarianism” in these countries, where electoral politics are well-established but dissent is still not tolerated.
The war on journalism goes beyond the most extreme acts of murder and intimidation — journalists routinely face legal and financial pressures and other forms of intimidation that prevent them from fulfilling their vital role in the democratic process. Restrictions on blogging, Internet usage, and popular social media services also serve to stifle the voices of “citizen journalists” like those who famously participated in the Arab Spring uprisings in Tunisia, Egypt, and elsewhere.
This World Press Freedom Day, when so many democracies are flourishing yet so many journalists are in peril, it is worthwhile to reflect on the importance of the free exchange of information to a functioning democracy. The crucial feature which sets democracy apart from other political systems is the ability to self correct. Even with free and fair elections, this can’t happen if dissenting voices are stifled.
There are some bright spots, however: Freedom House noted that the biggest gains in media freedom in 2011 were seen in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia, where long-ruling dictators were ousted in a wave of popular uprisings. So far, at least, the new governments in these countries seem to recognize — like the 18th century American and French revolutionaries — that they can’t build a democratic state without a vibrant and independent media.
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New research has revealed how dinosaurs like Velociraptor and Deinonychus used their famous killer claws, leading to a new hypothesis on the evolution of flight in birds.
Quoted from Dinosaurs with killer claws yield new theory about evolution of flight on ScienceDaily: Top News
Dinosaur Killer is a shoot em up game where you have to stand wave after wave of dinosaurs that are hungry for blood. Do you have what it takes to destroy New research from Montana State University reveals how dinosaurs like Velociraptor and Deinonychus used their famous killer claws, leading to a new Title: The Truth (2005– ) 7.3 /10. Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered Tags: truth, about, killer, dinosaurs, BBC - Science & Nature The Truth : In this innovative series, Bill Oddie takes great joy in paring their closest living relatives Deinosuchus – a terrible crocodile Seaboard sentinel and . If it lived today, there would be no larger, more dangerous and relentless
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Your odds of getting pregnant each month are closely linked to your menstrual cycle and specifically, to ovulation. Timing intercourse around the time you ovulate is therefore an excellent way to improve your chances of getting pregnant sooner and reduce the amount of time it takes for you to get pregnant. By understanding your reproductive system, you can determine when you’re most fertile and improve your chances of getting pregnant.
Popular Ways to Predict Ovulation
The following are some common ways to predict when you’ll be ovulating:
- Counting the Days. Keeping track of the average length of your menstrual cycles is one of the easiest ways to predict when you’ll be ovulating. The first day of your menstrual cycle is the day on which you begin menstruating. In a 28-day cycle, for example, ovulation will generally take place between 12 and 18 days, meaning that this is the time that you are most fertile and therefore most likely to get pregnant. As a result, the best time to have intercourse is between days 10 and 18 of your menstrual cycle. The general rule of thumb when predicting ovulation is that ovulation occurs 14 days before the end of your cycle, so subtract 14 from your normal cycle length in order to calculate the approximate onset of ovulation.
- Change in Cervical Mucus. As your menstrual cycle progresses, your cervical mucus changes in both volume and texture. You are most fertile when your cervical mucus discharge is clear, thin and stretchy.
- Lower Abdominal Discomfort. One-fifth of women experience mild aches and pain in the lower abdominal area. Referred to as mittelschmerz (a German word meaning "middle pain"), abdominal pain can last anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours and is a sign that ovulation is occurring.
- Increased Body Temperature. During ovulation, your body temperature rises on average of 0.5 to 1.6 degrees. This change in temperature occurs because of the release of the egg and the production of hormones that accompany it. While this temperature is too slight to be felt, it can be measured using a body temperature thermometer.
- Ovulation Prediction Kit. These kits are an increasingly popular option in predicting ovulation. In order to make sure you buy an accurate kit, ask a specialist for a recommendation, as well as family and friends. A positive result means that your hormone levels are high, signaling that ovulation will occur within 12 to 48 hours.
It is important to note that a variety of factors can delay the onset of ovulation. These factors include stress, excessive exercise and illness.
Get advice on predicting ovulation by chatting with other women in our forum.
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en
| 0.936221 | 555 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Graphene may have been first discovered in a European university, but it looks like it will be America or Asia that actually benefits most from it.
Following Andrej Geim and Konstantin Novoselov’s work at the University of Manchester, there has been a clamour to find useful applications for TechEye. Barely a week goes by without a new eye-catching use for graphene.
The discovery led to Nobel prizes and knighthoods, and with both the UK and the EU investing in development, it is hoped that it could lead to some lucrative uses down the line.
However, according to Professor Jari Kinaret, Head of the Nanoscience Area of Advance at Chalmers University, Europe is running the risk of leaving the glory to other regions more suited to full development.
Kinaret is part of of an initiative called the Graphene Coordinated Action, which is attempting to get some of the €1 billion funding that is being offered by the EU in the form of two ‘flagship projects’.
He believes that Europe is not able to compete in “integrating the whole chain, from basic research to product” – as Europe is not particularly skilled “compared with the Asians or the Americans”.
“Something is wrong here and we’re going to fix it,” Kinaret said.
Kinaret’s initiative is one of six shortlisted for the funding. If his is picked, he claims it will drive further investment in developing graphene research which will, in turn, lead to further funding.
“If we are selected, it would mean a substantial increase in grants for European graphene research – up to 50 percent more than at present,” Kinaret said.
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| 0.96481 | 365 | 2.8125 | 3 |
What is Repentance?
It is clear that the preachers of the New Testament preached that men should repent. John the Baptist (Matt. 3:2), Jesus (Matt. 4:17), Paul (Acts 20:21), and Peter.
Acts 2:38 “Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.” (KJV)
Acts 3:19 “Repent ye therefore, and be converted, that your sins may be blotted out, when the times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord.” (KJV)
This was not a new theme, but a continuation of one spoken often by the prophets of the Old Testament.
“Wash you, make you clean; put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes; cease to do evil; Learn to do well; seek judgment, relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow. Come now, and let us reason together, saith the LORD: though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow; though they be red like crimson, they shall be as wool. If ye be willing and obedient, ye shall eat the good of the land: But if ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured with the sword: for the mouth of the LORD hath spoken it.” (KJV)
It is obvious that God, through Isaiah, called for those who heard Isaiah to turn away from their sins, put them away completely, and take up obedience to God and His Word. It is also obvious that John the Baptist’s hearers understood exactly that.
“In those days came John the Baptist, preaching in the wilderness of Judaea, And saying, Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand. For this is he that was spoken of by the prophet Esaias, saying, The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight. And the same John had his raiment of camel’s hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins; and his meat was locusts and wild honey. Then went out to him Jerusalem, and all Judaea, and all the region round about Jordan, And were baptized of him in Jordan, confessing their sins. But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees come to his baptism, he said unto them, O generation of vipers, who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bring forth therefore fruits meet for repentance.” (KJV)
Repentance is a complete change of mind and heart concerning a number of things: sin, obedience to God, God Himself, and Jesus Christ as the Son of God. Repentance is the twin of faith. Saving faith does not exist apart from a commitment to be obedient to God.
“What doth it profit, my brethren, though a man say he hath faith, and have not works? can faith save him? If a brother or sister be naked, and destitute of daily food, And one of you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and filled; notwithstanding ye give them not those things which are needful to the body; what doth it profit? Even so faith, if it hath not works, is dead, being alone.” (KJV,)
Saving faith is necessarily accompanied by a devout forsaking of sin and a turning toward obedience that is just as devout. This is the reason that sound churches and sound preachers proclaim repentance.
How is repentance proclaimed in scripture? It is taught by an open and frank discussion of the nature of sin which includes a discussion of the law of God and the duty of man to obey it. Those who believed to the saving of their souls in the Bible were most often confronted in a very powerful way with those things which they had done in violation of God’s commands. It is clear that the preachers of scripture considered it their duty to speak openly and plainly about those things which men had done to offend the Holy God. Often those discussions also involved the eternal consequences of failing to repent.
But the scriptures are also clear that sin has so totally invaded the sinner and captured his heart that he cannot turn from it even if he had the desire to do so. We speak of this under the heading of Total Depravity or Total Inability. This does not mean that every person is as bad as he could possibly be but points to the fact that sin and rebellion have so completely infected every person that he does not have one remaining faculty, including his will, which is not influence and controlled by sin.
Enter Saving Grace. Paul teaches in Eph. 3:8,9 that we are saved by grace through faith and that the faith is not out from ourselves but is the gift of God. Jesus said ‘no man can come to me unless the Father drags him,’ ‘unless it is given to him by the Father,’ John 6:44,65.
Therefore we preach that men must repent. We confront them with the issue of sin and we tell them ‘except ye repent ye shall…perish,’ Luke 13:3,5.
Repentance begins, then, with God changing the heart of the sinner, as Jeremiah wrote, ‘turn thou me, and I shall be turned; for thou art the LORD my God.’ Jer. 31:18. It proceeds to a broken heart over one’s violations of God’s law and a heartfelt confession of those sins. Then it produces a sincere and God-given purpose to make right the wrongs that one has done (consider Zacchaeus, Luke 19:8). The sinner is convinced that he cannot remedy his situation and realizes that only the sacrifice of the Holy One of God in his place can satisfy the justice of the Infinitely Holy God. So he casts himself upon the mercy of God with his only hope being the Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ. This is repentance. This is saving faith.Share on Facebook
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<urn:uuid:3bf4ccdf-9329-4654-a012-29069a7dbbb8>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://bridgetownbaptist.org/church/what-is-repentance/
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| 0.969945 | 1,305 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Topic Name: New study says Tonsillectomy to treat chronic and recurrent tonsillitis significantly improves quality of life
Research persons: David L. Witsell, MD, MHS, Laura J. Orvidas, MD
Location: American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, United States
Tonsillectomies to treat chronic and recurrent tonsillitis substantially
improve a patient’s quality of live in both children and adults, according to
two new studies published as a supplement to the January 2008 issue of
Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery.
In one study involving 72 adults, patients showed improvement in all six
subscales of the Tonsil and Adenoid Health Status Instrument (TAHSI), a scale
used to measure the quality of life (QOL) of patients pre- and post-procedure.
Among the scale-related findings, 98 percent reported fewer infections in the
six months following surgery, with 76.9 percent expressing strong satisfaction
with the surgery results. Patients also reported substantially fewer cases of
persistent bad breath (halitosis), sore throats, and trips to the doctor because
of sore throats.
In the study involving children, 92 patients also showed significant
improvements when measured with the same TAHSI scale, including airway and
breathing, infection, health care utilization, cost of care, eating and
swallowing, and behavior. Additionally, the Child Health Questionnaire-PF28 was
used on 55 of the subjects in order to measure QOL with regards to general
health, physical functioning, behavior, bodily pain, and parental impact. Among
the study’s findings were significant decreases in number of sore throats,
antibiotic courses, days missed from daycare/school, doctor visits, and
Tonsillectomy remains one of the most common procedures performed on children
each year, and while the number of incidences in adults is lower, it is still a
routine operation. The current clinical guidelines produced by the American
Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS), which were developed
using consensus of expert opinions, recommend tonsillectomy for children with
three or more documented tonsil infections in the span of a year.
The studies’ authors are
David L. Witsell, MD, MHS; Laura J. Orvidas, MD;
Michael G. Stewart, MD, MPH; Maureen T. Hannley, MD, PhD; Edward M. Weaver,
MD, MPH; Bevan Yueh, MD, MPH; Timothy L.. Smith, MD, MPH; and Nira A. Goldstein,
MD. Additionally, investigators in New York, North Carolina, Washington, Oregon,
Minnesota, and Virginia assisted with information gathering.
A tonsillectomy is a surgical procedure in which the tonsils are removed.
Sometimes the adenoids are removed at the same time.
Tonsillectomy may be performed when the patient:
Experiences frequent bouts of acute tonsillitis. The number requiring
tonsillectomy varies with the severity of the episodes. One case, even severe,
is generally not enough for most surgeons to decide tonsillectomy is necessary.
Has chronic tonsillitis, consisting of persistent, moderate-to-severe throat
Has multiple bouts of peritonsillar abscess.
Has sleep apnea (stopping or obstructing breathing at night due to enlarged
tonsils or adenoids)
Difficulty eating or swallowing due to enlarged tonsils
Otolaryngology is the branch of medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and
treatment of ear, nose, throat, and head & neck disorders. The full name of the
specialty is otolaryngology-head and neck surgery. Practitioners are called
otolaryngologists-head and neck surgeons, or sometimes otorhinolaryngologists (ORL).
A commonly used term for this specialty is ENT (ear, nose and throat). The term
comes from the Greek ωτολαρυγγολογία (oto = genitive for ear, laryngo = genitive
for larynx/throat, logy = study) and it literally means the study of ear and
neck. The full term ωτορινολαρυγγολογία (otorhinolaryngology), also includes
rhino, which is the genitive of nose.
Otolaryngologists are medical doctors (MD,MBBS,MBChB,etc.) or osteopathic
doctors (DO) who complete at least five years of surgical residency training.
Currently, this comprises one year in general surgical training and four years
in otolaryngology - head and neck surgery; in the past it varied between two and
three years of each. Otolaryngology is considered to be one of the most
competitive residency fields to match into.
Following residency training, some otolaryngologists elect to complete advanced
subspeciality fellowship training which can range from one to three years in
About Chronic disease
In medicine, a chronic disease is a disease that is long-lasting or recurrent.
The term chronic describes the course of the disease, or its rate of onset and
development. A chronic course is distinguished from a recurrent course;
recurrent diseases relapse repeatedly, with periods of remission in between. As
an adjective, chronic can refer to a persistent and lasting medical condition.
Chronicity is usually applied to a condition that lasts more than three months.
The definition of a disease or causative condition may depend on the disease
being chronic, and the term chronic will often, but not always appear in the
Chronic osteoarticular diseases: rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis
Chronic respiratory diseases: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma
Chronic renal failure
Autoimmune diseases, like lupus erythematosus
Cardiovascular diseases: heart failure, ischemic cardiopathy, cerebrovascular
Neoplasic diseases not amenable to be cured
About Quality of life
The well-being or quality of life of a population is an important concern in
economics and political science. It is measured by many social and economic
factors. A large part is standard of living, the amount of money and access to
goods and services that a person has; these numbers are fairly easily measured.
Others like freedom, happiness, art, environmental health, and innovation are
far harder to measure. This has created an inevitable imbalance as programs and
policies are created to fit the easily available economic numbers while ignoring
the other measures, that are very difficult to plan for or assess.
Debate on quality of life is millennia-old, with Aristotle giving it much
thought in his Nicomachean Ethics and eventually settling on the notion of
eudaimonia, a Greek term often translated as happiness, as central. The
neologism liveability (or livability), from the adjective liv(e)able, is an
abstract noun now often applied to the built environment or a town or city,
meaning its contribution to the quality of life of inhabitants.
Understanding quality of life is today particularly important in health care,
where monetary measures do not readily apply. Decisions on what research or
treatments to invest the most in are closely related to their effect on a
patient's quality of life.
The measures often used in the study of health care are 'quality-adjusted life
years' (QALYs) and the related 'disability-adjusted life years' (DALYs); both
equal 1 for each year of full-health life, and less than 1 for various degrees
of illness or disability. Thus the cost-effectiveness of a treatment can be
assessed by the cost per QALY or DALY it produces; for example, a cancer
treatment which costs $1 million and on average gives the patient 2 extra years
of full health costs $500,000 per QALY. Assessing treatments in this way avoids
the much greater problems associated with putting a monetary value on life, as
required in other areas of economics; saying that a treatment costs $5000 per
QALY (i.e. per year of life) does not say or assume anything about the monetary
value of a year of life or about the real quality of that life.
About the AAO-HNS
The American Academy of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery (www.entnet.org),
one of the oldest medical associations in the nation, represents more than
12,000 physicians and allied health professionals who specialize in the
diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the ears, nose, throat, and related
structures of the head and neck. The Academy serves its members by facilitating
the advancement of the science and art of medicine related to otolaryngology and
by representing the specialty in governmental and socioeconomic issues. The
organization’s mission: “Working for the Best Ear, Nose, and Throat Care.”
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.engineerdir.com/research/catalog/500/index.html
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| 0.90969 | 2,301 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Simple Technical Dictionary
Overly simple definitions for techinical terms.
numerical distance from zero (always an unsigned value)
A specific address (in reference to aboslute position) in memory.
seperating the conceptualization from the actual implementation of an idea.
A location of data (usually in memory or some other storage device).
A very strongly typed high-level language that specializes in supporting real-time applications.
an unit of data that is passed to a procedure or a program.
UNIX operating system produced by IBM.
Memory that is currently marked for storage of data.
Arithmetic logic unit, the part of the CPU that is used for arithmetic operations.
user-level programs that run on top of an operating system
American Standard Code for Information Interchange; the encoding scheme between characters to their corresponding numerical values.
American National Standards Institute; usually in reference to the standards that were used to define the C/C++ programming languages
number system composed of 1's and 0's.
A file that stores data in some organized form that generally is not directly readable by humans
The most basic unit of data that stores either a 1 or a 0.
Berkeley Software Distrobution is a UNIX based operating system that originally spun out of UC-Berkeley and is developed in the open-source community.
A temporary storage area; usually to allow for access and/or manipulation at an oppurtune time.
When the data being transferred into a buffer exceeds the storage space allotted and "overflows" into memory allocated for other storage; often used by malicious hackers to gain access to restricted data.
A series of bits used to represent a single character, almost always consisting of 8 bits
A programming language can be considered both a low-level language and a high-level language that specializes in being fast and flexible making it a strong candidate for OS level development.
A high-level language that is based on C, but adds object-oriented features to the C language.
In regards to object oriented programming, the definition/template for a specific type of object
See command-line interface.
A text based interface between a user and the operating system.
See "computer system"
All the compents necessary (both hardware and software) that make up a working computer.
Central processing unit, the part of a computer responsible for processing data.
short for source code
a utility used to convert source code into a runnable program
See "core dump"
Information that is stored in digital form
dynamic storage allocation
The reserving and releasing storage space during execution outside of the stack
A CPU with 2 cores
A modular IDE that was originally developed primary for Java developement.
An application that is used to edit text files.
See "procedure call"
See graphical user interface.
Graphical user interface
A graphical interface between a user and an application or operating system.
Physical components that are used to create a computer system.
space in memory that is usually allocated and deallocated for data that is not stored in the stack. Data in the heap is usually allocated and deallocated using a separate mechanism from the stack (either manually or with built-in garbage collection).
A programming language that is abstracted away from the computer system's hardware.
An Integrated Development Environment provides a feature rich text editor as well as other tools to aid programmers in developing software.
see "programming language"
A popular UNIX-like operating system that is developed by the open source community.
A programming language that is usually designed to interface with specific hardware architectures
The part of a compiler system that combines compiled objects and system libraries to form an executable
The combining of compiled objects and system libraries to form an executable
A series of binary encoded hardware specific instructions that a computer can run
hardware located inside a computer that stores data and is generally much faster than other input devices.
Usually referring to "main memory", more generally, any circuitry that can store data, but could also refer to virtual memory.
A method is the same as a "procedure" that is defined as part of an object class.
The act of running a method
A file containing definitions and statements of related functionality for use by other code.
The machine code that is created when source code has been compiled to run on specific hardware. Usually only part of an entire program.
In regards to object oriented programming, an instance of a class that may be used in a program
Apple's "Operating System 10" that is based on a UNIX BSD kernel.
In programming languages, when a function with the same name has been declared multiple times with different data type parameters. The determination of which function to run is usually made by the compiler based on the type of data being passed to that function.
an unit of data that is passed to a procedure.
A set of instructions that perform a task.
The act of running a procedure
A CPU with 4 cores
A request from a database or other information source.
Lining up of resources to be processed in turn, usually in FIFO (first in, first out) order.
relocatable object file
See "object file".
See "procedure call"
a term usually used in reference to operating systems that guarantee operations will occurr withing a specified amount (usually perceived as instantly performed).
A command-line interface between the user and the operating system kernel.
Instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically for a computer to use.
Hardware that stores data.
instructions for a computer that are stored using a programming language specification
a text file that contains the source code used to create a program
space in memory that is usually allocated and deallocated based on space requirements for current function calls that have been made. Data in the stack is pushed on and popped off in a last-in, first-out (LIFO) fashion; including data that is owned by each function call as it is added and removed from the stack.
See "procedure call"
a human readable file that is generally encoded according to the ASCII format
The basis for many multi-user based operating systems including OS X and Linux.
Numbers (or storage of numbers) that do not contain negative values (because it doesn't support positive/negative signs)
see "Virtual Machine
a self-contained operating environment that simulates a separate computer.
More detailed definitions are avilable from webopedia
(for short descriptions) or Wikipedia
(for full explanations).
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<urn:uuid:602a953f-a677-4eae-8c19-3c8c85f1dfb3>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://cs.nyu.edu/~acase/sysdict/
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| 0.884922 | 1,370 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Thomas Middleton plantation book, 1734-1813.
Creator: Middleton, Thomas, 1753-1797.
Collection number: 506-z
View finding aid.
Abstract: Thomas Middleton, son of Henry Middleton (1717-1784) and grandson of Arthur Middleton (1681-1737), was a planter on the Combahee River, which forms the border between Colleton and Beaufort counties, S.C. The collection is a volume with the inscription, “Thomas Middleton’s Plantation Book,” on the first page. The volume contains lists of slaves owned by Thomas Middleton and by the estate of his father, Henry, as well as a copy of an act establishing a free school at Dorchester, S.C., in 1734, and miscellaneous accounts, perhaps of Arthur Middleton (1785-1837).
Repository: Southern Historical Collection
Collection Highlights: The book includes lists of slaves owned by Middleton and by the estate of his father, Henry Middleton, as well as a copy of an act establishing a free school at Dorchester, South Carolina in 1784.
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Dogs, Nature’s Best Antidepressants
Science confirms – dogs make a difference!
Professionally trained service animals—such as Guide Dogs, Alert Dogs, or Special Needs Dogs for the physically disabled offer obvious benefits to humans.
There is more and more evidence that we have only just started to really understand the many therapeutic and health benefits that Service, “Surfice”, Therapy and Companion dogs can provide.
Benefits of Caring For or Petting a Dog or Puppy
A dog is not a substitute for proper medical diagnosis or treatment, but there is scientific evidence that caring for and petting a dog can help
- reduce anxiety
- lower blood pressure
- reduce fatigue
- increase interest in life
- ease loneliness
- increase focus
Dogs can fulfill a basic human need for affection and touch.
In our Puppies and Dogs Make A Difference episodes, Dr Stanley Coren explains that there can actually be chemicals released in the brain when you pat, cuddle and smell a puppy or dog that in some cases, are similar to the effect of taking anti-depressants or holding a human baby.
Dr Fogel explains they can provide a source of positive non-verbal communication. Dogs have been shown to calm some kids with autism or anxiety, and even adults with Alzheimers. The body pressure and presence can also help those with PTSD. The American Heart Association has linked the ownership of pets, especially dogs, with a reduced risk for heart disease, greater longevity and fewer health issues.
Therapy and Service Dogs
The many wonderful therapy dogs we have met bring smiles to the faces of people in hospitals, rehab centres, disaster areas and nursing homes. Some can help kids read out loud or cope with exams in schools and libraries or deal with other stress or loss.
Laughter and dogs really may be the best medicine.
Laughter and dogs really may be the best medicine, and they are all natural, with no additives, no preservatives, no judgements, no criticisms (except the looks my pug Kilo gives me if I don’t give him food he wants).
Just be warned though, side effects of caring for a dog may include weight loss from walking more, participation in dog sports, higher spending on treats and pet products, more social interaction, more compassion, better mood, and of course participation in twitter chats and blog hops like this, and blogging, Instagram, Pinterest, Facebook and other Social Media
Check out our story of Bocker Labradoodle HERE, Braydon and Autism Assistance Dog Keats HERE, Max and NSD Chester HERE, Gizmo the Wonderdoglet HERE, Muttley Cyrus HERE, NSD Flicka HERE, Surf Dog Ricochet HERE. We will be featuring more amazing Service and Therapy dogs from our community each week.
Interesting study on the dog human bond with mothers in US http://medicalxpress.com/news/2014-10-neurobiological-basis-human-pet-relationship.html
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http://talenthounds.ca/news/dogs-natures-best-antidepressants/
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| 0.910535 | 625 | 2.828125 | 3 |
full title · The Power and the Glory
author · Graham Greene
type of work · Novel
genre · Realist novel; novel of spiritual development; saint's life
language · English
time and place written · 1938–9, Mexico and London
date of first publication · 1939
publisher · The Viking Press
narrator · Anonymous
point of view · The narrator speaks in the third person and reports the characters' thoughts and self-analysis but only rarely offers his own opinions. He primarily gives us an account of the priest's actions and thoughts.
tone · The narrator is earnest and although he usually withholds his explicit opinion about the priest, the arrangement of the plot implies a sense of respect and admiration for him.
tense · Past tense
setting (time) · Mexico during the 1930's
setting (place) · Chiapas, Mexico
protagonist · The last priest in the state, on the run from the authorities
major conflict · The priest is trying to evade capture by the police and struggling internally with his own sense of sinfulness and unworthiness.
rising action · The priest moves from village to village trying to escape from the lieutenant and his men. An untrustworthy man, known as the mestizo, learns his true identity and begins working with the police to capture him. After a few very close calls with the police including being arrested for smuggling, the priest finally escapes danger and makes his way across the border and out of the reach of the authorities.
climax · The priest, knowing he is walking into a trap set by the mestizo, decides to return to the state to hear the confession of a dying man and is captured by the lieutenant.
falling action · The priest and the lieutenant finally face one another and discuss their differences; the priest is brought back to the capital city where he is executed;
themes · The dangers of excessive idealism; the disparity between representation and reality; the interrelated nature of so-called opposites; the paradox of Christian humility
motifs · Animals; half-things; abandonment
symbols · Alcohol; Christian symbolism; children
foreshadowing · Almost immediately upon meeting him, the priest calls the mestizo "Judas", anticipating the role he will in fact play in the priest's story; the girl singing on the boat at the conclusion of the first chapter does not know why she is so happy, foreshadowing the uneasy nature of happiness and the fact that most of the characters in the novel will be riddled with troubles
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<urn:uuid:aff83bc3-242c-49a2-8631-fb6300ccbe07>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/powerglory/facts.html
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| 0.945728 | 523 | 2.546875 | 3 |
- Vitamin Guide
- Health Conditions
- Health Centers
- Diet & Weight Loss
- Herbal Remedies
- Current News
- Food Guide
In this study, heart and vascular health was measured by longevity: death due to any cause (all-cause mortality), cardiac death, or sudden death due to heart disease, heart attack, and stroke. Researchers pooled results from 20 previous studies of a total 68,680 adults in a statistical method called meta-analysis. All of the studies included in the meta-analysis were clinical trials in which some of the participants were given omega-3 fat supplements and others were given a placebo (containing no omega-3s).
Researchers found that omega-3 fat supplementation was not associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality, cardiac death, sudden death, myocardial infarction, or stroke. For all of the conditions other than stroke, the results trended in the direction of fish oil supplements protecting against cardiovascular disease, though these results weren’t statistically significant. For stroke, the result trended in the direction of suggesting more harm than benefit from omege-3 fat supplements, though again, results were not statistically significant.
Why do omega-3s have a heart-healthy reputation? While the results of the meta-analysis demonstrate that the relationship between fish oil and heart health is more complicated than previously thought, keep in mind that, among other heart-related benefits, fish oil has been shown to reduce high blood pressure and high triglycerides, both considered markers for heart disease risk. And studies have consistently associated fish-rich diets, such as the Mediterranean-style diet, with better cardiovascular health.
It should also be considered that of the 3,635 studies assessed, just 20 made the cut for the meta-analysis. Studies are often eliminated because a study's design makes it difficult to compare with other studies, but they may still be relevant to the larger question of a supplement's efficacy. Of the more than 3,600 other studies on omega-3 fat that were not included in the review, many support health benefits of taking omega-3 fat supplements.
So what’s a health-conscious consumer to do? Before deciding whether or not omega-3 supplements are right for you, ask yourself some of these questions:
(JAMA 2012;Vol 308:1024–33)
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| 0.955801 | 483 | 2.59375 | 3 |
[ The PC Guide | Systems and Components Reference Guide | Motherboard and System Devices | System Cache
| Function and Operation of the System Cache ]
Comparison of Cache Mapping Techniques
There is a critical tradeoff in cache performance that has led to the creation of the
various cache mapping techniques described in the previous section. In order for the cache
to have good performance you want to maximize both of the following:
- Hit Ratio: You want to increase as much as possible the likelihood of the cache
containing the memory addresses that the processor wants. Otherwise, you lose much of the
benefit of caching because there will be too many misses.
- Search Speed: You want to be able to determine as quickly as possible if you have
scored a hit in the cache. Otherwise, you lose a small amount of time on every access, hit
or miss, while you search the cache.
Now let's look at the three cache types and see how they fare:
- Direct Mapped Cache: The direct mapped cache is the simplest form of cache and
the easiest to check for a hit. Since there is only one possible place that any memory
location can be cached, there is nothing to search; the line either contains the memory
information we are looking for, or it doesn't.
Unfortunately, the direct mapped cache also has the worst performance, because again there
is only one place that any address can be stored. Let's look again at our 512 KB level 2
cache and 64 MB of system memory. As you recall this cache has 16,384 lines (assuming
32-byte cache lines) and so each one is shared by 4,096 memory addresses. In the absolute
worst case, imagine that the processor needs 2 different addresses (call them X and Y)
that both map to the same cache line, in alternating sequence (X, Y, X, Y). This could
happen in a small loop if you were unlucky. The processor will load X from memory and
store it in cache. Then it will look in the cache for Y, but Y uses the same cache line as
X, so it won't be there. So Y is loaded from memory, and stored in the cache for future
use. But then the processor requests X, and looks in the cache only to find Y. This
conflict repeats over and over. The net result is that the hit ratio here is 0%. This is a
worst case scenario, but in general the performance is worst for this type of mapping.
- Fully Associative Cache: The fully associative cache has the best hit ratio
because any line in the cache can hold any address that needs to be cached. This means the
problem seen in the direct mapped cache disappears, because there is no dedicated single
line that an address must use.
However (you knew it was coming), this cache suffers from problems involving searching the
cache. If a given address can be stored in any of 16,384 lines, how do you know where it
is? Even with specialized hardware to do the searching, a performance penalty is incurred.
And this penalty occurs for all accesses to memory, whether a cache hit occurs or
not, because it is part of searching the cache to determine a hit. In addition, more logic
must be added to determine which of the various lines to use when a new entry must be
added (usually some form of a "least recently used" algorithm is employed to
decide which cache line to use next). All this overhead adds cost, complexity and
- N-Way Set Associative Cache: The set associative cache is a good compromise
between the direct mapped and set associative caches. Let's consider the 4-way set
associative cache. Here, each address can be cached in any of 4 places. This means that in
the example described in the direct mapped cache description above, where we accessed
alternately two addresses that map to the same cache line, they would now map to the same
cache set instead. This set has 4 lines in it, so one could hold X and another
could hold Y. This raises the hit ratio from 0% to near 100%! Again an extreme example, of
course. As for searching, since the set only has 4 lines to examine this is not very
complicated to deal with, although it does have to do this small search, and it also
requires additional circuitry to decide which cache line to use when saving a fresh read
from memory. Again, some form of LRU (least recently used) algorithm is typically used.
Here's a summary table of the different cache mapping techniques and their relative
Very Good, Better as N Increases
Good, Worse as N Increases
In the "real world", the direct mapped and set associative caches are by far
the most common. Direct mapping is used more for level 2 caches on motherboards, while the
higher-performance set-associative cache is found more commonly on the smaller primary
caches contained within processors.
Next: Tag Storage
Home - Search
- Topics - Up
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http://pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/cache/funcComparison-c.html
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| 0.925046 | 1,064 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Romeo, away, be gone!
The citizens are up, and Tybalt slain.
Stand not amaz'd, the Prince will doom thee death
If thou art taken. Hence be gone, away!
Romeo:Romeo And Juliet Act 3, scene 1, 132–136
O, I am fortune's fool!
Lear:King Lear Act 4, scene 6, 190–191
I am even
The natural fool of fortune.
Timon:Timon Of Athens Act 3, scene 6, 96
You fools of fortune. . . .
Foolishness fascinated the Bard and his audience; the number of contemporary proverbs about fools is stunning. "A fool's bolt [arrow] is soon shot"; "No fool to [like] the old fool"; "Either a fool or a physician"; "A fool and his money be soon at debate"; "The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool" (that one's inherited from Socrates); "The first chapter of fools is to hold themselves wise"; "As the fool thinks, so the bell clinks"; "A fool's paradise"; "Fat as a fool"; "Two fools in one house are too many"—just to mention a few.
Shakespeare's phrase "fortune's fool" seems to be his invention, although it has proverbial kin: "Fortune favors fools"; "God sends fortune to fools"; and "Fools have fortune," all of which date from the mid-sixteenth century. In Shakespeare's hands, however, the sentiment of all these proverbs is inverted. Fortune is not bestowed on fools; men are the slaves Fortune makes fools of. Romeo, for example, simply by defending himself against Tybalt, a Capulet and therefore a blood enemy, becomes an outlaw. Caught up in a design he is powerless to affect, Romeo feels like fortune's puppet.
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| 0.939786 | 401 | 3 | 3 |
How much might you have to borrow, and how much will it cost?
Based on budget exercises completed in prior modules, and the portfolio of non-repayable sources developed in Module Four, determine how much you may need to borrow for one year, two years, or the length of your program.
- Review budgets.
- Review non-repayable sources of funding.
- Calculate actual amounts to be borrowed.
- Use the formula on the next page to calculate monthly payments.
Review the concept of amortization and the effect of interest rates on repayment based on the charts on worksheet 5-1. Based on the loan amount required, calculate monthly payment on graduation based on the amount you will need to pay back. What is the total amount you will be paying back? You may be surprised at how much student loans really cost. Now is the time to consider alternatives, including studying part-time and working part-time, and the grants that might be available to part-time students.
You should also have alternate plans in case you do not find work within six months of finishing your program, or leaving post-secondary studies.
Consult with the financial aid office regarding repayment alternatives and develop a "Plan B" should things not go the way you expect. Read the testimonials beginning on the next page for some ideas used by other students.
How to calculate the total cost of a loan:
Amount of loan x annual percentage rate (APR) x number of years*
Example: for a $10,000 loan at 10% to be paid back over five years
$10,000 x 0.10 x 5 years = $5,000
To estimate the amount of monthly payments:
Total to be paid divided by the number of months of the loan*
Example: $15,000/60 months = $250/month
* These formulas produce estimates that are slightly higher then your actual costs and payments, because they do not account for the reduction in interest payments as you repay the loan.
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http://www.ufv.ca/fineaid/comprehensive-financial-planning-for-education/module-five/how-much/
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| 0.946581 | 420 | 2.75 | 3 |
La science des medailles.
Louis Jobert (1637-1719). La science des medailles. Paris: Bure l'aîné, 1739 (original edition 1692).
A great admirer of Spanheim, Father Jobert published a synopsis of numismatic knowledge and bibliography in 1692. In it, he counsels collectors to consider not only the rarity of a coin but its historic importance and state of preservation.
In addition to ancient Greek and Roman coins, Jobert gave considerable attention to Byzantine coins, beginning with the foundation of Constantinople to the city’s conquest by the Ottomans.
Jobert’s book became so popular that it was translated and reprinted numerous times. The edition on display here is the most important to be published posthumously because it is enhanced with notes by Baron Joseph Bimard de la Bastie (1703-1742) and engravings by Franz Ertinger(1640-1710).
More Exhibit Items
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| 0.876126 | 214 | 2.953125 | 3 |
High-Temperature Shape Memory Polymers
- Created: Sunday, 01 April 2012
The shape memory behavior is provided by a non-polymer additive.
Shape memory materials undergo physical conformation changes when exposed to an external stimulus, such as a change in temperature. Such materials have a permanent shape, but can be reshaped above a critical temperature and fixed into a temporary shape when cooled under stress to below the critical temperature. When reheated above the critical temperature (Tc, also sometimes called the triggering or switching temperature), the materials revert to the permanent shape.
The current innovation involves a chemically treated (sulfonated, carboxylated, phosphonated, or other polar function group), high-temperature, semicrystalline thermoplastic poly(ether ether ketone) (Tg ≈140 °C, Tm = 340 °C) mix containing organometallic complexes (Zn++, Li+, or other metal, ammonium, or phosphonium salts), or high-temperature ionic liquids (e.g. hexafluorosilicate salt with 1-propyl-3-methyl imidazolium, Tm = 210 °C) to form a network where dipolar or ionic interactions between the polymer and the low-molecular-weight or inorganic compound forms a complex that provides a physical crosslink. Hereafter, these compounds will be referred to as “additives.” The polymer is semicrystalline, and the high-meltpoint crystals provide a temporary crosslink that acts as a permanent crosslink just so long as the melting temperature is not exceeded. In this example case, the melting point is ≈340 °C, and the shape memory critical temperature is between 150 and 250 °C. PEEK is an engineering thermoplastic with a high Young’s modulus, nominally 3.6 GPa.
An important aspect of the invention is the control of the PEEK functionalization (in this example, the sulfonation degree), and the thermal properties (i.e. melting point) of the additive, which determines the switching temperature. Because the compound is thermoplastic, it can be formed into the “permanent” shape by conventional plastics processing operations. In addition, the compound may be covalently crosslinked after forming the permanent shape by S-PEEK by applying ionizing radiation (λ radiation, neutrons), or by chemical crosslinking to form a covalent permanent network.
With respect to other shape memory polymers, this invention is novel in that it describes the use of a thermoplastic composition that can be thermally molded or solution-cast into complex “permanent” shapes, and then reheated or redissolved and recast from solution to prepare another shape. It is also unique in that the shape memory behavior is provided by a non-polymer additive.
This work was done by Mitra Yoonessi of Glenn Research Center and Robert A. Weiss of the University of Akron.
Inquiries concerning rights for the commercial use of this invention should be addressed to NASA Glenn Research Center, Innovative Partnerships Office, Attn: Steven Fedor, Mail Stop 4–8, 21000 Brookpark Road, Cleveland, Ohio 44135. LEW-18756-1
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http://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/article/5-ntb/tech-briefs/materials/13263-lew-18756-1
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| 0.890296 | 690 | 2.921875 | 3 |
(also written Pharm.D.
, but PharmD is more common)
PharmD is the abbreviation
for the Doctor of Pharmacy
degree, an advanced post-baccalaureate
professional degree in Pharmacy
. (Pharmaceutical Science
) The term professional degree is to distinguish it from other graduate programs such as the M.Sc. Pharm and the Ph.D. in Pharmacy, which are primarily academic. Like the MD
degree for physicians, the PharmD degree involves both an academic component and further clinical training.
In Canada, the PharmD program is very new - so far (2001) only one school, UBC, has a PharmD program. Most licensed pharmacists have a Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy, and sometimes also a M.Sc. or a Ph.D. in Pharmacy. Candidates for the PharmD program have generally obtained their B.Sc. and spent some time employed as a licensed pharmacist or in a residency program. When taken after a B.Sc., the typical PharmD program lasts two years - part spent in coursework, part spent in clinical training in a variety of settings.
In the United States, the PharmD is much more prevalent. The pharmacy schools are all currently in the process of shifting from offering a B.Sc. degree to offering only the PharmD degree. Schools are expected to graduate their last class of B.Sc. students in 2003. In the US under this new situation, PharmD program will be integrated with the traditional B.Sc. program.
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http://everything2.com/title/PharmD
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| 0.964442 | 322 | 2.578125 | 3 |
December 21, 2005
Flashes from the Past: Echoes from Ancient Supernovae
Cambridge, MA -- A team of astronomers has found faint visible echoes of three ancient supernovae by detecting their centuries-old light as it is reflected by clouds of interstellar gas hundreds of light-years removed from the original explosions.
Located in a nearby galaxy in the southern skies of Earth, the three exploding stars flashed into short-lived brilliance at least two centuries ago, and probably longer. The oldest one is likely to have occurred more than six hundred years ago.The light echoes were discovered by comparing images of the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) taken years apart. By precisely subtracting the common elements in each image of the galaxy and looking by eye to see what variable objects remain, the team looked for evidence of invisible dark matter that might distort the light of stars in a transitory way, as part of a sky survey called SuperMACHO.
This careful image analysis also revealed a small number of concentric, circular-shaped arcs that are best explained as light moving outward over time, and being scattered as it encounters dense pockets of cool interstellar dust. Team members then fit perpendicular vectors to the curves of each arc system, which were found to point backwards toward the sites of three supernovae remnants, which were previously known and thought to be relatively young.
"Without the geometry of the light echo, we had no precise way of knowing just how old these supernovae were," said astronomer Armin Rest of the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), lead author of a paper on the discovery in the December 22, 2005, issue of Nature. "Some relatively simple mathematics can help us answer one of the most vexing questions that astronomers can ask-exactly how old is this object that we are looking at?"
Just as a sound echo can occur when sound waves bounce off a distant surface and reflect back toward the listener, a light echo can be seen when light waves traveling through space are reflected back toward the viewer-in this case, the Mosaic digital camera on the National Science Foundation's Blanco 4-meter telescope at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) in Chile.
This technique can be extended to famous supernovae in history. "Imagine seeing light from the same explosion first seen by Johannes Kepler some 400 years ago, or the one recorded by Chinese observers in 1006," said Christopher Stubbs of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), co-author of the paper and principal investigator for the SuperMACHO program. "These light echoes give us that possibility."
In principle, astronomers can split the light echo into a spectrum to investigate what type of supernova occurred. "We have the potential with these echoes to determine the star's cause of death, just like the archaeologists who took a CT scan of King Tut's mummy to find out how he died," said co-author Arti Garg of CfA.
Astronomers can also use supernova light echoes to measure the structure and nature of the interstellar medium. Dust and gas between the stars are invisible unless illuminated by some light source, just as fog at night is not noticeable until lit by a car's headlights. A supernova blast can provide that illumination, lighting up surrounding clouds of matter with its strobe-like flash.
"We see the reflection as an arc because we are inside an imaginary ellipse, with the Earth at one focus of the ellipse and the ancient supernovae at the other," explained Nicholas Suntzeff of NOAO. "As we look out toward the supernovae, we see the reflection of the light echo only when it intersects the outer surface of the ellipse. The shape of the reflection from our vantage point appears to be a portion of a circle."
An unusual aspect of the arcs is that they generally appear to move much faster than the speed of light. This does not violate the cosmic speed limit, which states that any object cannot move faster than the speed of light.
"What our telescopes see is the reflection moving, and not any physical object," Suntzeff added. "It is also very exciting that our observations confirm the visionary prediction of Fritz Zwicky in 1940 that light from ancient supernovae could be seen in echoes of the explosion."
Other co-authors of the Nature paper are Knut Olsen and Chris Smith (CTIO); Jose Luis Prieto (Ohio State University); Douglas Welch (McMaster University, Ontario); Andrew Becker and Gajus Miknaitis (University of Washington); Marcel Bergmann (Gemini Observatory); Alejandro Clocchiatti and Dante Minniti (Pontifica Universidad Catolica de Chile); and, Kem Cook, Mark Huber and Sergei Nikolaev (Lawrence Livermore).
Headquartered in Cambridge, Mass., the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) is a joint collaboration between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Harvard College Observatory. CfA scientists, organized into six research divisions, study the origin, evolution and ultimate fate of the universe.
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| 0.933636 | 1,058 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Jeju Island: carbon-free by 2030
ICLEI Member Jeju Island, South Korea announced that they will be charging ahead with the 'Carbon-Free Island Jeju by 2030’, a plan supporting the shift to renewable energy.
By 2030, 100% of existing fossil fuels will be substituted with renewable energy. Jeju residents will also see the proliferation of electric cars and smart homes, among many other improvements:
- Wind and solar power
Based on projections, wind and solar power sources can supply approximately 6561GW which is more than the total used amount on Jeju Island.
- Smart-grid technologies
Jeju will aim to be the world's smart grid leading city by supporting the development and implementation of smart grid technologies.
- Electric cars
371,000 electric cars and 225,000 rechargers will be available across the island by 2030. In addition, improvement of law and regulations for vitalizing electric cars and incentives for spreading battery cars will help Jeju to be a model city of electric cars.
- Green jobs
About 40,000 green jobs will be created, mostly through carbon emissions training, returning a profit of up to 35.4 billion Korean.
Gong, Young-Min, Director of Knowledge and Economy Department of Jeju Province, said that a team will be created to implement the ‘Carbon Free Island Jeju by 2030’ plan starting on the second half of this year. Jeju will also be presenting this plan at the World Conservation Congress in September.
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| 0.909294 | 311 | 2.578125 | 3 |
This week a consortium of Czech and European companies and institutions opened the first hydrogen filling station in the Czech Republic, helping the country of 10 million to lead the way to a cleaner future among former communist countries in central Europe.
Coming at a cost of over EUR1 million, this first station should be joined by another one in the Czech Republic in the near future as the country makes a slow but steady move to build infrastructure to support zero-emission transport and industry.
Only last week Czech power company CEZ AS took bids in central Europe’s largest ever tender to build five new nuclear reactors to help the country wean itself off of fossil fuels.
The European Union is supporting the program to develop zero-emission transport, and a host of companies are involved in the development of the station and bus, including Germany’s Linde Gas, French Veolia Transport, Skoda Electric and the Czech Nuclear Research Institute Rez, among others.
The new station is north of Prague in the town Neratovice, conveniently located near the local unit of Germany’s Linde Gas, which produces the hydrogen fuel from natural gas. What’s more, decision to locate the station in Neratovice enables vehicles running on hydrogen to make the drive to the next closest hydrogen filling station, in Dresden.
The station services a zero-emission bus made by Skoda Electric AS and together with the filling station they’re being used to evaluate whether the alternative fuel could become a valid means of public transport.
Now, almost 20 years after the fall of the Iron Curtain, international cooperation is taking a united Europe slowly but surely into a cleaner future.
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| 0.943764 | 342 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Premature Babies and Eye Problems
Strabismus in Babies continued...
Children with any of these conditions should be examined by a pediatric ophthalmologist. Also contact the doctor if you notice that your child's eyes are crossing.
Complications of Strabismus
Because the eyes focus in two different areas, the brain receives two different images. To compensate, the baby's brain ignores the image from the crossed eye and perceives the image from the straighter eye. This can affect depth perception.
Strabismus can also lead to amblyopia, or lazy eye. This occurs when the crossed eye doesn't develop good vision and may even lose vision. About one-third of children with strabismus develop amblyopia.
If the child has developed amblyopia, this will need to be treated first. The stronger eye will be covered with a patch or drops can be used so that the brain only sees images from the weaker eye. This strengthens the crossed eye and improves vision. Children may not like wearing an eye patch, but it is important to follow through on treatment. Amblyopia can become permanent if treatment is delayed.
Once vision has stabilized, surgery repairs the muscles around the eye. You may hesitate to put your child through surgery at a young age. However, treating strabismus before age 2 has been shown to have better long-term results than waiting until a child is older.
Even after surgery a child may still need glasses. Because the strabismus can return, be sure your child has eye exams as recommended by a pediatric ophthalmologist.
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| 0.931051 | 332 | 3.03125 | 3 |
By the second week of school the class was tired. The novelty of the first week had worn off and the sleep deprivation from starting school at 7:30 am had set in. Lets just say....they were not very energetic. They were not following directions quickly or responding appropriately.
My first line of defense is the scoreboard. It is an amazing tool. According to the +/- 3 rule, neither side should ever be too far ahead so as to maintain the anticipation. There are some days, like I had last week, where I could have easily had 3 happy points vs. 15 frownie points. However, I realized that it was important for me to keep the +/- 3 because...
- it forced me to look for and celebrate positive behaviors.
- when we were 3 frownie points ahead it gave me a big reminder to STOP and PRACTICE. Continuing to add to the frownie points wouldn't be very effective. The class needed time to focus on procedures.
- it has the ability to bring amazing energy to the classroom! Maintain a fast paced volley between Oh Yeah! and the Might Groan and it draws the stragglers in.
Here is a little look at my scoreboard- its not pretty, but it serves its purpose and gets plenty of use!
Here are some ways that we practiced:
- We reviewed proper procedures using Mirror. (You should have seen my "How to wash your hands" lesson! We mirrored, taught, non-exampled, exampled, and then actually practiced at the sink!)
- Students taught their partner procedures using Teach-Ok. (They told their partner many times what to do when the teacher says "Class".)
- We pretended in order to offer practice opportunities. (Pretend to talk to your partner....."Class, class, class!"...."Yes, yes, yes!")
- We did things over, and over, and over again. ("Page 32....I don't hear any voices, we need to practice again! Page 32." "Page 32, page 32, page 32," as they open their books quickly.)
- Students modeled the wrong way and the right way.
Check back soon! I can't wait to tell you more about our new line up procedures and the Universal Homework Model!
WBT Intern, 2011-12
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| 0.976879 | 479 | 2.53125 | 3 |
by James A. Bacon
Nat Bottingheimer, a former executive with the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA), has been asking the same kinds of questions that I have about the impact of self-driving cars (SDCs) on transportation policy and human settlement patterns. Writing in Greater Greater Washington, he urges transportation planners to begin thinking about the potential impact of SDCs on everything from the demand for highways and mass transit to ride sharing and parking. Says he: “Planners and place-making advocates will need to step up their game.”
In my previous cogitations, I had focused mainly on two potential impacts: (1) reducing the perceived cost of long-distance commuting by allowing drivers to spend time on non-driving tasks like reading email and surfing the web, and (2) enhancing the advantages of shared car-ownership and shared car-ridership services that allow more people to live car-free lifestyles. The implications, to the limited extent that I had thought them through, pointed to a taffy-pulling effect on the urban form that would favor high-density communities in the urban core and low-density communities on the metropolitan periphery.
Bottingheimer raises other issues. They include (with my editorial elaborations):
- Highway capacity. If SDCs can travel faster at closer distances, the potential exists to increase highway capacity without the need to add new lanes. Asks Bottingheimer: “How can planners today [ensure] that scarce infrastructure dollar are spent on things that might be less needed in the near future?”
- Smart intersections. Could coupling SDCs with “smart” traffic lights make it possible to increase the through-put of intersections without the need for widening?
- Complete streets. Can SDCs, with their advanced collision-avoidance technologies, make it easier to design intersections that accommodate a mixing of cars, pedestrians and bicycles?
- Mass transit. Will SDCs erode the demand for transit, especially in low-density settings? Conversely, will driverless buses enhance the economics of transit? (For that matter, will driverless minibuses make jitney services a winning proposition?)
- Paratransit. Will SDCs increase mobility for the elderly and handicapped, populations that cannot drive themselves? If so, how will that impact the demand for paratransit services?
- Parking. What impact will SDCs have on park-and-rides if drivers let their cars drop them off at a destination and then drive themselves home? Could SDCs improve parking utilization when combined with emerging smart-parking technologies that identify empty spaces and vary the parking rate with supply and demand?
American states and municipalities spend billions of dollars a year building transportation infrastructure — streets, roads, highways, mass transit, sidewalks, bike lanes, parking. Those investments typically have life cycles of 30 years or more. Yet, as a study by IHS Automotive predicts, cars capable of assuming all driving functions will be hitting the highways by 2025, only 11 years from now.There are currently no comments highlighted.
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en
| 0.937877 | 644 | 2.90625 | 3 |
The most popular American poet of his day, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807--1882) was a multiculturalist before the term was invented. He passionately believed in the value of foreign travel and conceived of American literature as deeply "transatlantic." A polyglot poet-scholar, the first American to translate Dante's entire Divine Comedy, he was also a hands-on, unconventional father who produced numerous Edward Lear--like drawings for the entertainment of his children. Based on an exhibition at Harvard's Houghton Library and originally published as a special issue of the Harvard Library Bulletin, this volume offers an innovative view of the poet's personal life, his connection with his audience, and his efforts to add an international dimension to American literature. Profusely illustrated with manuscripts, drawings, and photographs from the extensive collections of Houghton Library and the Longfellow National Historic Site, it demonstrates how intensely involved Longfellow was in family, fatherhood, and friendship. It also shows how these supposedly "private" aspects of his life constantly intersected with the more public aspects of his understanding of authorship, his collaborative projects, and his commitment to his readers. The result is a vivid introduction to Longfellow's world.
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Rent Public Poet, Private Man 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Christoph Irmscher. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by University of Massachusetts Press.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now.
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http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/public-poet-private-man-1st-edition-9781558495845-1558495843?ii=3&trackid=1a3dfdf1&omre_ir=1&omre_sp=
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en
| 0.974723 | 331 | 2.9375 | 3 |
This is one of the original pine "needles". As the bays of the Spillway are opened, a crane lifts the needle from its location by the hook, thus opening the floodgate to allow the River to flow into the Spillway. Note the metal S that was placed in the pine. Much pride and care went into the building of the Spillway locks and its simple, yet highly efficient design has worked almost faultlessly through the years. The structure is as sound today as when it was completed in 1931 and is truly an architectural feat.
In 1931 the Corps was truly a corps of engineers and did not contract out jobs as is done today.
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| 0.991409 | 136 | 2.703125 | 3 |
"HTTPA would be voluntary. It would be up to software developers to adhere to its specifications when designing their systems."
New York, June 15 - Once you share your data with a private company, say a bank, for your online transactions, you hardly have any control over who exactly is using or misusing your data.
That could soon change as researchers are now developing a protocol they call HTTP with Accountability, or HTTPA which will automatically monitor the transmission of private data and allow the data owner to examine how it is being used.
With HTTPA, each item of private data would be assigned its own uniform resource identifier (URI) - a key component of the Semantic Web - a new set of technologies championed by World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
This would convert the web from, essentially a collection of searchable text files, into a giant database.
Remote access to a web server would be controlled much the way it is now through passwords and encryption.
But every time the server transmitted a piece of sensitive data, it would also send a description of the restrictions on the data's usage.
And it would log the transaction, using only the URI, somewhere in a network of encrypted, special-purpose servers.
It is not that difficult to transform an existing website into an HTTPA-aware website, said Oshani Seneviratne from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US.
On every HTTP request, the server should say, 'OK, here are the usage restrictions for this resource', and log the transaction in the network of special-purpose servers, Seneviratne added.
HTTPA would be voluntary. It would be up to software developers to adhere to its specifications when designing their systems.
But HTTPA compliance could become a selling point for companies offering services that handle private data, researchers added.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.nerve.in/news:2535002381432
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| 0.936613 | 383 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The Solar Photon Random Walk Model simulates the path of photons in radiative transport as they escape from the Sun. Photons do not travel in a straight line, but rather collide with larger particles and get redirected. This simulation models that process using a random walk in polar coordinates. The random walk parameters are adjustable to match different models of the structure of the sun, or the user can input their own values.
The Solar Photon Random Walk Model was created using the Easy Java Simulations (EJS) modeling tool. It is distributed as a ready-to-run (compiled) Java archive. Double clicking the ejs_comp_phys_photon_random_walk.jar file will run the program if Java is installed.
Please note that this resource requires
at least version 1.5 of
%0 Computer Program %A Onken, Drew %D July 26, 2011 %T Solar Photon Random Walk %7 1.0 %8 July 26, 2011 %U http://www.compadre.org/Repository/document/ServeFile.cfm?ID=11349&DocID=2343
Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
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http://www.compadre.org/astronomy/items/detail.cfm?ID=11349&Attached=1
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| 0.844598 | 279 | 2.921875 | 3 |
In this tutorial you'll learn how to create a 3D floor plan model from an 2D architectural drawing. Karan Shah will show you some simple, yet effective techniques for constructing the walls, windows and doors following a basic interior schematic in Blender. With the model complete we'll add materials and textures, and do a final render of the scene.
Additional Files/ Plugins:
Floor Plans are simply a drawing or a diagram showing a top view of a site layout. You can see the picture to understand the meaning of some basic symbols used. More can be found
In a new file, select all objects with the 'A' key and press 'Del' to delete them. Press 'N' to bring up our View properties. In the Background Image Panel, add your reference image. Here I have used image courtesy of LiamKeiranCooper Ltd who kept the picture in public domain.
Press '7' on the NumPad to get into the Top view. Here you can see the background image. The view must be set to 'orthographic' in order to see the image. You can toggle between the ortho and perspective views with the '5' key on the Numpad. Press Shift+A and add a Plane.
With the Plane selected, press 'TAB' to get into 'Edit' mode. Select all the vertices with the 'A' key, or press 'B' to drag select them. Press 'G' and move them to the top left corner. You toggle the viewport shading between solid and wireframe with 'Z' key. Press 'S' and move the mouse to scale them down to fit the width of the wall (as shown below.)
Now we will cover all the black solid areas i.e. the walls. This will include the windows as they are part of the walls and will be added later. Any type of door whether it's a slider or normal, is to be left out. Select the bottom two vertices (press 'B' to drag select or Hold 'Shift' and Right click for multiple select.) And move them down just before the wall turns left. Press 'E' and extrude the wall again until you reach the edge.
Select the right two vertices and press 'E' to extrude, and match the reference.
Now, in order to extrude out a face from the middle, we need to add an Edge Loop. Hover your mouse over the face, and press 'CTRL+R' and Left Click to confirm. Move the mouse up and down and then Left click again to confirm its position.
Create another edge loop just below the previous one using the same method, matching the width of the wall to be extruded.
Select the two vertices and extrude the wall.
Create another edge loop on the corner and extrude the right edge.
Using the techniques above (extrude and edge loop division) fill all the solid black lines of the reference image with the mesh.
To start a new separate wall, duplicate the last edge and then start extruding it. Select the last edge and press 'Shift+D' to Duplicate it, and left click to confirm. Move it with the Move control widget or press 'G' key of the keyboard. And continue extruding the mesh along to match the reference.
Complete the walls with the techniques you learned from above steps.
After completing the wall, select all the vertices and then press 'E' to extrude them along the Z axis. Now we see that the structure is taking shape. The height should be equivalent to a door.
Press 'Ctrl+TAB' and select 'Edge' in the mesh select mode menu. Select the top two corner edges of a door (hold shift + right click to multiple select) and press 'F' to make a Face between them. Do this for all doors. Refer to your image and always check from all views.
Press '3' on the Numpad to get into side view, and Press 'Z' to get into wireframe view so that we can see all the vertices behind are visible and can be selected. Press 'B' to drag select all the top vertices or edges, then Press 'E' to extrude them. This will reach the final height of the wall.
Now we will place the windows. Press 'TAB' to get out of the Edit mode, and in object mode, press 'Shift+A' and add a 'Cube'. In the Top view, size (press 'S' to scale) and place it where the window is on the reference image.
In the side view, the top part of window should align to the top of door. Press 'TAB' to enter into the edit mode to adjust the vertices. Adjust the bottom height of the window too. The width of the cube should be such that it should be half inside and half outside. See image below.
Select the Wall mesh with Right click, and in the Properties button window, click on 'Object Modifiers'.
Click on 'Add Modifiers' and select 'Boolean'.
In the Boolean modifiers panel, select 'Cube' in the Object, and 'Difference' under 'Operation'.
To see the effect - Select the cube and press 'H' to hide it. You will see that there is a "hole" in the wall the size and shape of the cube. Press 'Alt+H' to 'Unhide' the Cube.
Now select the Cube (window) and in the 'Edit' mode, select all the vertices and press 'Shift+D' to make a duplicate. Place this new cube in the location of the next window.
Now press 'Tab' to get out of 'Edit' mode, and select the Wall mesh and press 'Apply' in the 'Boolean' Modifier panel. The holes are now part of the geometry.
Move the Cube to see the windows.
Similarly create all the needed windows with this Boolean modifier. Try doing them one by one, adjust the size and position of the cube according to the specific window.
Now we will create the Floor. In 'Object' mode and in the Top view, press 'Shift+A' and add a 'Plane'. Press 'Tab' to get into 'Edit' mode and adjust the vertices accordingly so that it covers the walls. Create Edge Loops or Extrude the edges where necessary.
Make sure that there are no gaps between the edges of the floor and walls. Also in the Side view, move the floor down so it's aligned with the bottom of the walls.
To make doors, add a new'Cube'. And in 'Edit' mode, press / on the Numpad for Local view (this will show only the selected object.) In the Top view, Move or Scale the vertices to give it a nice shape. Refer to the image for the height and width.
In the Top view, and in 'Edit' mode. Move all the vertices of the door along the Y axis, so that the center point of the object (orange dot) should be at the corner (see image.) This will set the transform orientation of the object from that corner. Press 'TAB' to get out of edit mode and then press'R' to Rotate and see the difference.
While in the edit mode, add a new 'Cylinder'. Rotate and scale it down to create the doorknob (you can add more details if you like.) Press 'TAB' to get out of edit mode.
With the help of the reference image, place the doors in the correct positions (press 'Shift+D' to make duplicates.)
Now we will create the window frame. Start with another new 'Cube', and press 'TAB' to enter into 'Edit' mode. Press the 'Z' key to toggle wireframe view, so that we can select the back vertices too. Press '3' on the Numpad to get into side view and then extrude the faces as shown in the image to make the window frame. Press 'TAB' to exit out of edit mode, and press / on the numpad again to get back to the scene.
Scale and place the window frames on the walls. Make duplicates and place them according to the image.
Now we will add a texture to the floor. Right Click on the Floor object to select it. And in the Properties window, click on the 'Materials' Icon. Add a New material and name it 'Floor', increase the 'Diffuse' intensity and reduce the 'Specular' intensity.
Next we will add an image to the floor. (I got mine from Here.) Click on the 'Texture' icon next to the Material icon, and then Click on the 'New' button. Select 'Image or Movie' for the Type and in the Image panel, click on "Open' and browse for the image.
You can preview the texture in the 3d View. Press 'N' to bring up the 'View Properties' and in the 'Display' panel, select GLSL in the 'Shading" menu (you'll need to add some lights in the 3d view to see the texture.) Now press 'N' again to hide the view properties panel.
Back to the Image Texture properties, scroll down to the Mapping Panel and increase the Size of X and Y to 5 or 6 depending upon your image file.
Now to add a separate floor to the Bathrooms, we will add a new 'Plane' and adjust it's dimensions and place it just above the wooden floor so that it's hidden.
Apply an image, just like we did on the floor (I got mine from Here.) Duplicate the Plane and adjust it's geometry by scaling and extruding for the second bathroom.
Select the walls and add a New material to them. Choose any color and Increase the 'Diffuse' intensity and set the 'Specular' to 0.0
Similarly assign the materials to the windows and doors. You can assign the same material to any object by selecting the material from the list.
Now we will prepare the scene for rendering. Make sure you are Not in 'Edit' mode (press 'TAB' to toggle Edit mode on/off.) Press '7' on the Numpad to get into the Top view, then press 'Shift+A' to add a camera.
Rotate and place it however you like. Press '0' on the Numpad to get into camera view.
Click on the 'World' settings and change the 'Horizon Colour' to white, then turn on 'Ambient Occlusion' and in the 'Gather' panel, increase the samples to 16. In the 3D view delete any lights if they exists.
Click on the 'Render Settings' button in the property window, and change the Dimensions (resolution) to your desired size. Down in the 'Output' panel, choose the file format for your render.
Press 'F12' or click on the 'Image' button in the render panel. Press 'F3' or click on 'Image > Save image as' to save the image.
Your 3D Floor map is now ready!
Other Great Arch-Viz Tutorials:
- Light and Render an Arch-Viz Style Outdoor Scene with V-Ray and 3ds Max
- Modeling & Rendering an Interior Scene using 3Ds Max and Vray
- Modo Interior With Precision
- An Archiviz Workflow Overview in 3ds Max, Sketchup, and Digital Fusion
- Model, Texture, and Render a Bathroom Interior Design with Maya
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en
| 0.834807 | 2,439 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Papua New Guinea’s Manam Volcano released a thin, faint plume on June 16, 2010, as clouds clustered at the volcano’s summit. The Advanced Land Imager (ALI) on NASA’s Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) satellite took this picture the same day.
Brown valleys, bare of vegetation, extend downwards from the summit craters. The valley floors are filled with recent lava flows and scoured by hot volcanic avalanches (called pyroclastic flows). The remaining slopes are carpeted in lush tropical vegetation.
The clouds appear to be composed of a mixture of steam emitted by the volcano, and atmospheric water vapor condensing on particles in the volcanic plume. The remaining plume appears as a thin, blue-gray veil extending toward the northwest (upper left) over the Bismarck Sea.
Located 13 kilometers (8 miles) off the coast of mainland Papua New Guinea, Manam forms an island 10 kilometers (6 miles) wide. It is a stratovolcano. The volcano has two summit craters, and although both are active, most historical eruptions have arisen from the southern crater.
- Global Volcanism Program. (n.d.) Manam. Accessed June 21, 2010.
NASA Earth Observatory image created by Jesse Allen, using EO-1 ALI data provided courtesy of the NASA EO-1 team. Caption by Michon Scott.
- EO-1 - ALI
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| 0.902485 | 308 | 3.640625 | 4 |
PRINT THIS DATA
This climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. This climate type is found on the eastern sides of the continents between 20° and 35° N and S latitude. In summer, these regions are largely under the influence of moist, maritime airflow from the western side of the subtropical anticyclonic cells over low-latitude ocean waters. Temperatures are high and can lead to warm, oppressive nights. Summers are usually somewhat wetter than winters, with much of the rainfall coming from convectional thunderstorm activity; tropical cyclones also enhance warm-season rainfall in some regions. The coldest month is usually quite mild, although frosts are not uncommon, and winter precipitation is derived primarily from frontal cyclones along the polar front.
The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa". (Humid Subtropical Climate).
The average temperature for the year in Harrison is 57.9°F (14.4°C). The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of 78.4°F (25.8°C). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 36.4°F (2.4°C).
The highest recorded temperature in Harrison is 112.0°F (44.4°C), which was recorded in July. The lowest recorded temperature in Harrison is -18.0°F (-27.8°C), which was recorded in January.
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Harrison is 44.1" (1120.1 mm). The month with the most precipitation on average is May with 4.7" (119.4 mm) of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is January with an average of 2.6" (66 mm). There are an average of 116.1 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in May with 12.6 days and the least precipitation occurring in February with 7.7 days.
In terms of liquid precipitation, there are an average of 74.3 days of rain, with the most rain occurring in June with 7.5 days of rain, and the least rain occurring in November with 5.0 days of rain.
In Harrison, there's an average of 7.4" of snow (0 cm). The month with the most snow is January, with 2.4" of snow (6.1 cm).
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en
| 0.959843 | 509 | 2.84375 | 3 |
WORCESTER, Mass. A team of scientists from Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) and CellThera, a private company located in WPI's Life Sciences and Bioengineering Center, have regenerated functional muscle tissue in mice, opening the door for a new clinical therapy to treat people who suffer major muscle trauma.
The team used a novel protocol to coax mature human muscle cells into a stem cell-like state and grew those reprogrammed cells on biopolymer microthreads. The threads were placed in a wound created by surgically removing a large section of leg muscle from a mouse. Over time, the threads and cells restored near-normal function to the muscle, as reported in the paper "Restoration of Skeletal Muscle Defects with Adult Human Cells Delivered on Fibrin Microthreads," published in the current issue of the journal Tissue Engineering. Surprisingly, the microthreads, which were used simply as a scaffold to support the reprogrammed human cells, actually seemed to accelerate the regeneration process by recruiting progenitor mouse muscle cells, suggesting that they alone could become a therapeutic tool for treating major muscle trauma.
"We are pleased with the progress of this work, and frankly we were surprised by the level of muscle regeneration that was achieved," said Raymond Page, assistant professor of biomedical engineering at WPI, chief scientific officer at CellThera, and corresponding author on the paper.
The current study is part of a multi-year program funded, in part, by grants from the National Institutes of Health and DARPA, the advanced research program of the U.S Department of Defense, to support the development of new technologies and therapies for people who suffer serious wounds and limb loss.
Mammalian skeletal muscles are able to repair small injuries caused by excessive exertion or minor trauma by recruiting muscle progenitor cells, which have not fully developed into muscle fibers, to the site of injury to rebuild the muscle. With major injuries, however, the body's first priority is to stop the bleeding, so scar tissue forms quickly at the wound site and overrides any muscle repair.
In the current study, the WPI/CellThera team combined two novel technologies to try to prevent scar formation and prompt muscle re-growth. The first was a method they had developed previously for reprogramming mature human skin cells without employing viruses or extra genes (Cloning, Stem Cells. 2009 Jul 21). The reprogrammed cells express stem cell genes and multiply in great numbers, but don't differentiate into specific tissues. The second was the use of biopolymer microthreads as a scaffold to support the cells. Developed by George Pins, associate professor of biomedical engineering at WPI, the threads--about the thickness of a human hair--are made of fibrin, a protein that helps blood clot.
Researchers removed a portion of the tibialis anterior leg muscle in several mice (the muscle was chosen because injury to it affects the foot's range of motion but doesn't prevent the mice from walking). In some mice, the injuries were left to heal on their own. In others, the wound was filled with bundles of microthreads seeded with reprogrammed human muscle cells. The untreated mice developed significant scarring at the injury site, with no restoration of muscle function. In sharp contrast, the mice that received the reprogrammed cells grew new muscle fibers and developed very little scarring.
Tests done 10 weeks after implantation showed that the regenerated tibialis anterior muscle functioned with nearly as much strength as an uninjured muscle. The scientists expected that most of the regenerated muscle would be composed of human cells, since the implanted cells were from human muscle. Surprisingly, most of the new muscle fibers were made of mouse cells. The team theorized that the fibrin microthreads, which in their composition and shape are similar to muscle fibers, may encourage resident mouse progenitor cells to migrate into the wound and begin restoring the tissue (they may also forestall the natural inflammatory response that leads to scarring after a major injury).
This surprise finding suggests that fibrin microthreads alone could be used to treat major muscle trauma while research on enhancing regeneration with reprogrammed human cells continues. "The contribution of the fibrin microthreads alone to wound healing should not be understated," the authors wrote. "While this clearly points to room for improving cell delivery techniques, it suggests that fibrin microthreads alone have tremendous potential for reducing fibrosis and remodeling large muscle injuries. Future studies will address, more completely, the capability of microthreads alone and determine, at what point, a combinational cell therapy is required for full functional tissue restoration."
|Contact: Michael Cohen|
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
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http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Body-rebuilding-3A-Researchers-regenerate-muscle-in-mice-22646-1/
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en
| 0.961546 | 986 | 2.6875 | 3 |
The English Civil War
||edHelper's suggested reading level:
||grades 7 to 9
||Flesch-Kincaid grade level:
||consent, monarchy, reign, treason, traitor, outcome, conflict, financial, victory, lasted, violent, rift, throne, attempt, monarch, government
||Anthony Van Dyck, English Civil War, Queen Elizabeth I., When Charles, King Charles, Henriette Marie, Thirty Years War, British Isles, Common Prayer, Thomas Wentworth
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The English Civil War
By Sharon Fabian
1 Caption: oil painting by Anthony Van Dyck of Charles I of England at the Hunt, around 1635
2 How does a civil war start? In the case of the English Civil War, there was a series of small steps that increased tensions between two groups. Then all it took was a final spark to set off the war.
3 The situation in England changed rapidly in the years leading up to the war. Less than forty years earlier, the country was enjoying the reign of the popular Queen Elizabeth I. Nearly everyone was happy with the form of government in which a monarch made the decisions for the whole country. When Charles I took the throne, the country was still in a peaceful mood. Then things started to change. One event after another led to a bigger and bigger rift between the king and Parliament.
4 Charles I hoped to follow in his father's footsteps, and he began to take steps to recognize his father's dream of uniting England, Ireland, and Scotland. Charles believed that he had a divine right to rule and that his wishes should be obeyed. Parliament, however, was suspicious of King Charles' motives and of the effect that this might have on England. The steps towards civil war had begun.
5 Then, Charles I married the Catholic princess, Henriette Marie de Bourbon. This stirred up new doubts and fears as the members of Parliament worried about the possibility of a Catholic prince who would one day inherit the throne.
6 Charles wanted England to continue fighting in the Thirty Years War in Europe. Like all wars, this one cost a lot of money. Soon, England was in financial difficulties, and more controversies between Charles and Parliament resulted.
7 King Charles also wanted a uniform Church of England throughout the British Isles. He introduced a new version of the prayer book, the Book of Common Prayer. Violent protests broke out in Scotland. King Charles sent forces towards Scotland, but this time the conflict was settled by a truce.
8 In 1640, when King Charles was not able to get any more money from Parliament, he dissolved the Parliament. Later in 1640, a new Parliament was formed, but this one was even more hostile towards the king. At sessions of Parliament, they discussed their grievances against the king.
9 Then, in 1641, Parliament had Thomas Wentworth, the Earl of Strafford, arrested for treason. Thomas Wentworth had worked for the same causes as other members of Parliament on many occasions, but at other times he had chosen to support the king. This time when he chose to support the king, he found that the tide had turned severely against King Charles. He was considered a traitor and was executed in 1641.
Paragraphs 10 to 18:
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Definitions for el salvadorɛl ˈsæl vəˌdɔr
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word el salvador
El Salvador, Republic of El Salvador, Salvador(noun)
a republic on the Pacific coast of Central America
A country in Central America. Official name: Republic of El Salvador. Capital: San Salvador.
Origin: From salvador.
El Salvador is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. The country's capital city and largest city is San Salvador; Santa Ana and San Miguel are also important cultural and commercial centers in the country as well as Central America. El Salvador borders the Pacific Ocean on the south, and the countries of Guatemala to the west and Honduras to the north and east. Its easternmost region lies on the coast of the Gulf of Fonseca, opposite Nicaragua. As of 2009, El Salvador had a population of approximately 5,744,113 people, composed predominantly of Mestizos. The colón was the official currency of El Salvador from 1892 to 2001, when it adopted the U.S. Dollar. In 2010 El Salvador ranked in the top 10 among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index and in the top 3 in Central America, due in part to ongoing rapid industrialization.
The numerical value of el salvador in Chaldean Numerology is: 8
The numerical value of el salvador in Pythagorean Numerology is: 1
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
Last year I went fishing with Salvador Dali. He was using a dotted line. He caught every other fish.
We've had to cut staff salaries by half, but we carry on because despite everything we believe in the future of our country and we have to do something for El Salvador.
In El Salvador, the recommendation to postpone pregnancy is offensive to women and even more ridiculous in the context of strict abortion laws and high levels of sexual violence against girls and women.
I've had leaders of the Northern Triangle in Central America -- Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador -- tell me that DACA was used by trafficking groups in the Northern Triangle to recruit people to send their children here illegally.
The game was on a upward spiral anyway, but I do think the Rugby World Cup is giving us huge exposure, japan beating South Africa and the competitiveness of the Tier Two countries is opening us up to a lot of new markets ... we have seen some good growth in Central America, El Salvador, Guatemala, also in Ecuador.
Images & Illustrations of el salvador
Find a translation for the el salvador definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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Let the number that like plain chocolate be
A ratio means the value of . The ratio of five to three in favour of milk means:
and hence (eq1)
If 46 more people preferred milk to plain then
There are now two equations and two unknowns, has your daughter done simultaneous equations?
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Brillouin Energy has entered into its first international licensing agreement covering three nations. The firm is involved in on-going negotiations for other potential international partners. This makes the second Cold Fusion or Low Energy Nuclear Reaction (LENR) Lattice Assisted Nuclear Reaction (LANR) and Brillouin’s Controlled Electron Capture Reaction (CECR) idea to attract commercial interest. The other being the Rossi led effort.
For a first person view of the news pull the YouTube up to 30 minutes and listen to the Robert Godes and Robert George interview.
Brillouin’s CECR starts by introducing hydrogen into a suitable piece of nickel (or other metal with the correct internal geometry). A proprietary electronic pulse generator then creates stress points in the metal where the applied energy is focused into very small spaces. This concentrated energy allows some of the protons in the hydrogen to capture an electron, and thus become a neutron. This step converts a small amount of energy into mass in the neutron.
More pulses both create more neutrons and allow neutrons to combine with some of the hydrogen to form deuterium (a form of hydrogen with both a proton and a neutron in the nucleus). This ‘combination’ step releases energy. The process continues, again, with some neutrons combining with deuterium to form tritium (hydrogen with one proton and two neutrons). This step releases still more energy. The process continues with some neutrons combining with the tritium to form quadrium (hydrogen with one proton and three neutrons). Since quadrium is not stable, it quickly turns into helium in a process that releases more energy than it took to create all the preceding steps.
Brillouin’s power equation is 2.4 units of energy going in and 24 units coming out.
The Brillouin CECR is thought to be quite versatile. The released energy is initially absorbed by the metal element, and then made available as heat. At lower temperatures, this generated heat can be used directly for space heating, hot water and similar applications. Further refinements of the Brillouin Energy system will produce the higher temperatures needed for electrical generation, dry industrial stream and industrial processes.
Related article: One Step Closer to Fusion Power
Using CECR is very light on hydrogen resource demands. The amount of hydrogen in a 8-oz (237 ml) glass of water holds the energy equivalent of the gasoline needed to fill up 7903 Ford Explorers or to power 3279 average homes for a month. The nickel or other metal element acts only as a host and catalyst, and is not consumed.
The CECR is different than the Rossi device that reportedly needs a “catalyst” switch out at about six months of operation.
Big investment money is lining up. Brillouin has raised about $3 million in funding. A “second stage” $20M investment conditional agreement from Sunrise Securities of New York for $20 million is now in place.
The Sunrise deal offers to purchase 15% of Brillouin post-money, conditional on Brillouin moving ahead with and completing successful testing of its CECR at SRI.
The Sunrise folks are also linking the investment to Brillouin striking preliminary agreement to acquire at least one “stranded asset” conventional fuel source small scale (5-10MW) power plant, with existing conventional co-generation equipment, and replacing (retrofitting) the old fuel source with Brillouin’s CECR, together with renewal of an operating power purchase or steam heat contract with an industrial or a utility.
The $20M Sunrise offer would fund full commercial launch of this merchant power supply retrofit business model after successful testing of the CECR called NHB™ at SRI.
Brillouin’s Hot Tube Commercial Scale Boiler
Related article: What a World Without Nuclear Looks Like
Chances are the Brillouin team will get to commercial scale. Key expert affiliates of Sunrise includes a former director of the California Public Utilities Commission independent power division who has already provided potential acquisition candidates, available for negligible cost, with power contracts already in place.
Looks like a done deal. Cold Fusion is almost here. If Brillouin can scale up.
Your humble writer suspects the Brillouin team will scale up and do it in a successful and classy fashion.
By. Brian Westenhaus
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Molluscum contagiosum is an infection of the skin.
Molluscum contagiosum is caused by a specific virus. The virus can be spread from: Direct skin to skin contact with an infected personShared items, such as towels or wrestling matsOne part of a person's body to another area
Factors that may increase your risk of getting molluscum contagiosum include:
Weakened immune system, especially in people with
Poor hygieneOvercrowded conditionsSexual contactHaving other skin conditions, such as atopic dermatitis
Molluscum contagiosum usually affects the face, trunk, arms, and legs of children. The genitals, abdomen, and inner thighs are common sites in adults.
Symptoms may include: Small, dome-shaped bumps with dimpling in centerItching and tendernessTranslucent, pearly, or flesh-colored bumps that may turn gray and drainWhite or waxy substance in the center of lesionMultiple lesions in groups
Symptoms may last from several weeks to several years.
Copyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc.
Diagnosis is usually made based on the lesion appearance. Sometimes, a biopsy will be taken to rule out other conditions. A biopsy is the removal of a small sample of the area.
Molluscum contagiosum usually goes away on its own within 6 months to 2 years without any treatment. For people with HIV infection, the lesions usually persist and spread indefinitely. Your doctor may recommend the removal of some lesions to prevent the spread of the infection or to avoid infecting others.
Lesion may be removed by one of the following: Cryotherapy—freezing of the lesionCurettage—cutting out lesionLaser surgery—steady or pulsed high intensity lightTopical therapy—destruction of the lesion with a variety of chemicals
To reduce your chances of getting molluscum contagiosum, avoid any contact with an infected person.
If you are contagious, avoid any personal contact with others, contact sports, or sharing personal items.
Dohil MA, Lin P, et al. The epidemiology of molluscum contagiosum in children.
J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;54(1):47-54.
Hanson D. Diven DG. Molluscum contagiosum.
Dermatology Online J. 2003;9(2):2.
Molluscum contagiosum. American Academy of Dermatology website. Available at:
http://www.aad.org/dermatology-a-to-z/diseases-and-treatments/m---p/molloscum-contagiosum. Accessed June 4, 2015.
Molluscum contagiosum. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at:
http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. Updated March 18, 2015. Accessed June 4, 2015.
Molluscum contagiosum. American Social Health Association website. Available at:
http://www.ashasexualhealth.org/stdsstis/molluscum-contagiosum/. Accessed June 4, 2015.
Stulberg DL, Hutchinson AG. Molluscum contagiosum and warts.
Am Fam Physician. 2003;67(6):1233-1240.
Theos AU, Cummins R, et al. Effectiveness of imiquimod cream 5% for treating childhood molluscum contagiosum in a double-blind, randomized pilot trial.
Last reviewed June 2015 by Michael A Woods, MD
Please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.
Copyright © EBSCO Publishing. All rights reserved.
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As an admirer of precision grandfather clocks, including astro-regulators, I was struck that on the day after the world’s newest longest tunnel, beneath the Swiss Alps, a picture similar to the one below in The New York Times, with the caption, Like Clockwork. This amazing mechanical marvel was photographed as the tunnel broke through on the other end, with the Miners celebrating after a giant drilling machine completed the world’s longest tunnel beneath the Swiss Alps this past Friday.
The photo below should be credited to Fabrice Coffrini/Agence France-Presse, and Getty Images.
Clocks of all kinds are mechanical miracles, and were in most ways the earliest precision mechanical instruments presaging the industrial revolution that has helped propel us forward to where we are today with technology driven products and capabilities.
Wall clocks, mantel clocks, mantle clocks, grandmother clocks and grandfather clocks both antique and new share some of the common heritage that led mankind to be able to invent such a tunnel digging machine that is truly magnificent, and no doubt has many working wheels and springs and even motors which have been used through the ages of clocks.
Would this not make a magnificent design for a clock, or even a wristwatch? The similarities in shape, structure and design cannot be overlooked.
We would encourage clock makers like Howard Miller Clocks and Hermle Clocks and the Ridgeway Clock company to consider incorporating a design like this into either a wall clock or mantel clocks.
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History Matters: The U.S. Survey on the Web (http://historymatters.gmu.edu) serves as a gateway to Web resources and offers unique teaching materials, primary documents, and threaded discussions on teaching U.S. history. One of our goals is to make History Matters a space where teachers, too often isolated, can share strategies and resources. Toward that end, we are soliciting contributions from teachers of annotated syllabi for the Syllabus Central section of History Matters. Authors of selected syllabi will receive an honorarium of $100.
Syllabus Central contains annotated syllabi that demonstrate creative approaches to teaching U.S. History survey courses and are enhanced by teachers’ written reflections. We are currently seeking syllabi for high school and college level U.S. History survey courses that include commentary on the specific experience of teaching the course, in the form of a brief introduction and several annotations. The syllabi should fit *at least one* of the following criteria:
offer unusual approaches to teaching U.S. History courses (for example, courses organized around an interpretive theme, such as gender or race; or around a type of evidence, such as biography or visual sources)
utilize active learning or student-centered techniques and assignments
incorporate Internet or other new media resources
Questions to address in the introduction and annotations could include:
What is the conceptual framework of the course? How does it differ from the traditional chronological approach?
What are the rationale, goals, and outcomes of your assignments?
What worked well in the course? What was less effective? What was most exciting or challenging for you as the teacher? Why?
Did you observe any new learning dynamics (between teachers and students or among students) that you attribute to your approach to the subject matter, use of student-centered pedagogy, and/or use of new media?
(if applicable) What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of incorporating new media resources into U.S. history survey courses? Has the use of technology made any difference in the way you conceptualize your course?
Syllabi must be annotated to be considered for inclusion in Syllabus Central. The syllabus does not need to be online already—we will convert and post your syllabus for you. For an example of an annotated syllabus please see http://historymatters.gmu.edu/syllabi/jaffeeintro.html
Because we need to evaluate submissions in order to assemble a diverse collection of syllabi, we request a preliminary submission of a paragraph description of the course and the focus of your proposed annotations, and a resume or brief professional biography. Please send submissions to Ellen Noonan, American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning, at [email protected]
Send comments and questions to H-Net
Webstaff. H-Net reproduces announcements that have been submitted to us as a
free service to the academic community. If you are interested in an announcement
listed here, please contact the organizers or patrons directly. Though we strive
to provide accurate information, H-Net cannot accept responsibility for the text of
announcements appearing in this service. (Administration)
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Richards-Rundle syndrome: Introduction
Richards-Rundle syndrome: A very rare syndrome characterized mainly by mental retardation, ataxia, deafness and ketoaciduria.
More detailed information about the symptoms,
causes, and treatments of Richards-Rundle syndrome is available below.
Symptoms of Richards-Rundle syndrome
See full list of 10
symptoms of Richards-Rundle syndrome
Home Diagnostic Testing
Home medical testing related to Richards-Rundle syndrome:
- Child Behavior: Home Testing
- Child General Health: Home Testing
Wrongly Diagnosed with Richards-Rundle syndrome?
Richards-Rundle syndrome: Related Patient Stories
Causes of Richards-Rundle syndrome
Read more about causes of Richards-Rundle syndrome.
More information about causes of Richards-Rundle syndrome:
Less Common Symptoms of Richards-Rundle syndrome
Read more about symptoms of Richards-Rundle syndrome
Richards-Rundle syndrome: Undiagnosed Conditions
Commonly undiagnosed diseases in related medical categories:
Misdiagnosis and Richards-Rundle syndrome
Mild worm infections undiagnosed in children: Human worm infestations, esp. threadworm, can be overlooked in some cases,
because it may cause only mild or even absent symptoms.
Although the most common...read more »
Undiagnosed stroke leads to misdiagnosed aphasia: BBC News UK reported on a man who
had been institutionalized and treated for mental illness
because he suffered...read more »
Dementia may be a drug interaction: A common scenario in aged care is for
a patient to show mental decline to dementia.
Whereas this can, of course, occur due to various medical conditions,
such as a stroke or Alzheimer's disease,
it...read more »
Mesenteric adenitis misdiagnosed as appendicitis in children: Because appendicitis is one of the
more feared conditions for a child with abdominal pain,...read more »
Blood pressure cuffs misdiagnose hypertension in children: One known misdiagnosis issue
with hyperension, arises in relation to the simple equipment used to test blood pressure....read more »
Mild traumatic brain injury often remains undiagnosed: Although the symptoms
of severe brain injury are hard to miss,
it is less clear for milder injuries, or even those causing...read more »
MTBI misdiagnosed as balance problem: When a person has symptoms
such as vertigo or dizziness, a diagnosis of brain injury may go overlooked.
This is particularly true of mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), for which the...read more »
Brain pressure condition often misdiagnosed as dementia: A condition
that results from an excessive pressure of CSF within the brain is often misdiagnosed.
It may be misdiagnosed as ...read more »
Post-concussive brain injury often misdiagnosed: A study found that soldiers who had
suffered a concussive injury in battle often were misdiagnosed on...read more »
Children with migraine often misdiagnosed: A migraine often fails to be
correctly diagnosed in pediatric patients.
These patients are not the typical migraine sufferers, but migraines can also occur...read more »
Read more about Misdiagnosis and Richards-Rundle syndrome
Richards-Rundle syndrome: Research Doctors & Specialists
Research related physicians and medical specialists:
- Ear, Nose & Throat Specialists:
- Neurology (Brain/CNS Specialists):
- Child Health Specialists (Pediatrics):
- more specialists...»
Other doctor, physician and specialist research services:
Hospitals & Clinics: Richards-Rundle syndrome
Research quality ratings and patient safety measures
for medical facilities in specialties related to Richards-Rundle syndrome:
Hospital & Clinic quality ratings »
Choosing the Best Hospital:
More general information, not necessarily in relation to Richards-Rundle syndrome,
on hospital performance and surgical care quality:
Richards-Rundle syndrome: Rare Types
Rare types of diseases and disorders in related medical categories:
Richards-Rundle syndrome: Animations
More Richards-Rundle syndrome animations & videos
Statistics for Richards-Rundle syndrome
Richards-Rundle syndrome: Broader Related Topics
Types of Richards-Rundle syndrome
User Interactive Forums
Read about other experiences, ask a question about Richards-Rundle syndrome, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards:
Definitions of Richards-Rundle syndrome:
Richards-Rundle syndrome is listed as a "rare disease" by the Office of
Rare Diseases (ORD) of the National Institutes of Health
(NIH). This means that Richards-Rundle syndrome, or a subtype of Richards-Rundle syndrome,
affects less than 200,000 people in the US population.
Source - National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Ophanet, a consortium of European partners,
currently defines a condition rare when it affects 1 person per 2,000.
They list Richards-Rundle syndrome as a "rare disease".
Source - Orphanet
Contents for Richards-Rundle syndrome:
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A team of quantum engineers in Germany have created the first air-to-surface quantum network, between a base station and an airplane flying 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) above. This is all that is needed for governments to create quantum-secured battlefield or surveillance networks — and a very tantalizing step towards a global quantum communications network.
The researchers, led by Sebastian Nauerth of the Ludwig Maximilian University, performed the experiment at an airport near Munich using a specially-equipped plane. The airplane is outfitted with a a photon source (a laser), and a system that can alter the spin (polarization) of the photons very exactly to encode data using the BB84 protocol. BB84 is the first protocol devised for quantum key distribution (created way back in 1984 by Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard), for the purpose of quantum cryptography. In essence, BB84 encodes digital bits as polarized photons (i.e. qubits).
Once the plane is aloft, the base station (a telescope) tracks the plane using a motorized mirror, which is quite difficult as the plane is moving at 300 kmh (200 mph) and is 20 kilometers up in the air. The telescope picks up the transmitted photons, bounces them through a few more mirrors (the green path in the image below), and then uses a very sensitive photodetector to turn them into qubits.
All told, the plane/base station were able to maintain a stable link for 10 minutes, transmitting 145 qubits per second, with a quantum bit error rate (QBER) of 4.8%. This might seem like a small amount of data, but it’s more than enough to securely transmit an encryption key that can then be used to encrypt normal data that’s sent over standard networks. Key exchange has always been one of cryptography’s biggest weaknesses — but quantum key exchange is intrinsically secure, as observing the qubits during transmission instantly nullifies the data (and alerts the receiver that someone is listening in).
Interestingly, the experiment was performed just after sunset, to minimize the interference of sunlight. While the research paper [PDF], presented at the QCrypt convention last week, doesn’t explicitly mention if this technique would work during daylight hours, it would probably just be a matter of using a more powerful laser.
We should also point out that this approach — using photon polarization — is very different from quantum teleportation, which we reported on last week. Quantum teleportation relies on entangled photons, which are quite finicky beasts; polarized photon qubits, on the other hand, as this new experiment shows, aren’t quite so hard to handle.
Moving forward, there is the exciting prospect that this method of quantum key distribution could actually be used today by military drones, which fly at similar altitudes. You can imagine a plane that hovers over a battlefield, providing soldiers with unbreakable communications. It shouldn’t be too long until qubits can be bounced off satellites and everyone can enjoy quantum-secured communications, though.
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Access your personal account or get JSTOR access through your library or other institution:
Avian Use and Vegetation Characteristics of Conservation Reserve Program Fields
Jennifer M. Delisle and Julie A. Savidge
The Journal of Wildlife Management
Vol. 61, No. 2 (Apr., 1997), pp. 318-325
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3802587
Page Count: 8
Preview not available
We compared avian use of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) fields enrolled in the CP1 (cool-season grasses and legumes) and CP2 (warm-season native grasses) options in southeastern Nebraska from 1991 to 1995. In winter and in the breeding season CP2 fields had taller, denser vegetation than CP1 fields. However, total bird abundance did not differ between CP1 and CP2 fields (P = 0.47). Dickcissels (Spiza americana) and grasshopper sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum) were the most abundant species during the breeding season although population numbers varied among years (P < 0.001). Dickcissels and grasshopper sparrows showed no differences in abundance between CPs, but dickcissels were associated with tall, dense vegetation and grasshopper sparrows with sparser vegetation and a shallow litter layer. Bobolinks (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) were more abundant on CP1 fields (P = 0.001), and common yellowthroats (Geothlypis trichas) and sedge wrens (Cistothorus platensis) were more abundant on CP2 fields (P = 0.001 and P = 0.05). Average winter abundances did not change over years (P = 0.90). American tree sparrows (Spizella arborea) and ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) were the most abundant species during winter and were more abundant on CP2 fields (P < 0.05). Meadowlarks (Sturnella spp.) were more abundant on CP1 fields in winter (P < 0.05).
The Journal of Wildlife Management © 1997 Wiley
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Including strawberry sap beetle (Stelidota geminata) (Glischrochilus quadrisignatus)
Sap beetles are a common group of insects in home gardens. Two species that are particularly attracted to the ripe strawberries in Minnesota are the strawberry sap beetle and picnic beetle.
Sap beetles are generally small insects, usually less than 1/2 inches long with oval-shaped bodies. They are generally dark colored, sometimes with orange or yellow spots.
The adult strawberry sap beetle is dark brown, oval, less than 1/8-inch long, and has no prominent markings on the wings. The adult picnic beetle is somewhat longer at 1/5-inch long, is thinner, and has four orange blotches on the back. Look for the "knobbed" antennae when identifying sap beetles.
Sap beetles overwinter as adults in organic matter in protected sites and become active early in spring. They will mate and begin laying eggs in fermenting material in May and June. Adults emerge in late June and July.
When the strawberries begin to ripen, sap beetles are attracted into gardens. Strawberries are the primary host for the strawberry sap beetle which prefers over-ripe fruit but will also readily attack ripening fruit. The strawberry adult sap beetle tends to feed on the underside of berries creating holes. The picnic beetle is attracted to all types of over-ripe and damaged fruit. Beetles usually overwinter in sites outside gardens. There is usually only one generation per year.
Sap beetles feed on ripe and overripe strawberries, sometimes congregating in large numbers. They can leave deep cavities in the berries, an injury similar to slug injury. At the same time they introduce fungal spores of organisms that can further decay the fruit
Watch for sap beetles in gardens starting in early July when adults first start to emerge. Particularly check overripe strawberries, although they can also be found in ripening fruit.
Keep the field clear of ripe and over-ripe fruit, as reducing the attractant is the best management tactic. Place "trap buckets" baited with whole wheat bread dough and over-ripe fruit outside the patch to intercept immigrating beetles and reduce numbers. The beetles are highly attracted to anything that has the ability to ferment.
Chemical control is not effective for several reasons. First, the beetles are moving into the fields from other areas and killing the ones in the field is no guarantee that others will not enter the field following the spray. Second, populations do not build up until harvest so nothing preventative can be done.
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Rivers and Lakes on Mars
Mars was warm and wet early in its history. Impact craters that once held lakes, dried river channels, and ancient deltas tell us about early Martian climate.
Image Number: WEB13136-2013
Credit: NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems
For print or commercial use please see our permissions page.
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Rosie the Riveter
At the start of World War II women’s contribution to the work place was limited at best. There were certain positions women could respectably hold, such as stenographer, secretary, or schoolteacher, but never had women considered going to work in the factories. But as the war progressed, and the need for wartime production increased, the demand that women join the workforce became a focus. The American Ad Council, in an attempt to promote working women in a positive light, came up with the "Rosie the Riveter" campaign. Rosie the Riveter was a brawny woman dressed in blue work overalls, who proudly stated “We Can Do It.” The campaign became wildly successful. In December 1941 almost 13 million women were at work. By February 1943 that number rose to 15 million. Women across the nation began putting down the dust cloths, and picking up drills, going to work and every wartime production factory in America.
The origin of Rosie the Riveter is at times uncertain, but it would appear the name first appeared in a song written by Redd Evans and John Jacob Loeb in 1942. In 1943 Norman Rockwell gave Rosie a body on the front of the Saturday Evening Post. Rosie was shown as a large woman sitting with riveting equipment in her lap, a sandwich in her hand, and lipstick on. The image became hugely popular, and soon prompted numerous versions of Rosie to be created. Meanwhile several real life “Rosies” began springing up across the country. Women would be featured in newspapers and magazines for their contributions to the war effort.
Kansas was not exempt from this media barrage. Mrs. Hopkins, a life time Kansas resident, and proud mother, was featured in a Kansas paper for her efforts. Hopkins was a farm wife who had originally began working at the Boeing plant with her husband. She was quickly assigned to specialized work as a cable rigger, a job usually requiring weeks of training, which she picked up in a few days. While her husband was forced to return home to the farm, Mrs. Hopkins continued on at the plant 6 days a week for 80 cents an hour. Women only made 60% of what men did during this time. Though the newspaper spoke praisingly of Hopkins, she downplayed her own effort, saying, “There are hundreds of families like ours, I am sure. If farm women do not help in these defense plants where are the needed workers to come from? It all seems a simple and natural effort of a war era and we are proud to help.”
Mrs. Hopkins was only one of many Kansas women who chose to join the work force. The Rosie the Riveter ad campaign was considered one of the most successful within the nation, and resulted in the employment of millions of women in America.
Entry: Rosie the Riveter
Author: Kansas Historical Society
Date Created: June 2011
Date Modified: June 2011
The author of this article is solely responsible for its content.
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An asteroid, designated 1999 FN53, will safely pass more than 26 times the distance of Earth to the moon on May 14. To put it another way, at its closest point, the asteroid will get no closer than 6.3 million miles away (10 million kilometers). It will not get closer than that for well over 100 years. And even then, (119 years from now) it will be so far away it will not affect our planet in any way, shape or form. 1999 FN53 is approximately 3,000 feet (1 kilometer) across.
"This is a flyby in the loosest sense of the term," said Paul Chodas, manager of NASA's Near-Earth Object Program Office, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. "We can compute the motion of this asteroid for the next 3,000 years and it will never be a threat to Earth. This is a relatively unremarkable asteroid, and its distant flyby of Earth tomorrow is equally unremarkable."
NASA detects, tracks and characterizes asteroids and comets using both ground- and space-based telescopes. Elements of the Near-Earth Object Program, often referred to as "Spaceguard," discover these objects, characterize a subset of them and identify their close approaches to determine if any could be potentially hazardous to our planet. NASA's Near-Earth Object Program is part of the agency's asteroid initiative, which includes sending a robotic spacecraft to capture a boulder from the surface of a near-Earth asteroid and move it into a stable orbit around the moon for exploration by astronauts, all in support of advancing the nation's journey to Mars.
JPL manages the Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA's Science Mission Directorate in Washington. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.
More information about asteroids and near-Earth objects is at:
To get updates on passing space rocks, follow:
News Media ContactDC Agle
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
NASA Headquarters, Washington
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Internal Revenue Service(redirected from US Internal Revenue Service)
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Financial, Encyclopedia, Wikipedia.
Internal Revenue Service
The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the federal agency responsible for administering and enforcing all internal revenue laws in the United States, except those relating to alcohol, tobacco, firearms, and explosives, which are the responsibility of the alcohol, tobacco, firearms, and explosives bureau's Tax and Trade division.
The IRS is the largest agency in the Treasury Department. By the mid-1990s it had approximately 110,000 employees, 650 office locations in the United States, and 12 offices abroad. The agency processes approximately 205 million tax returns and collects more than $1.2 trillion each year.
The U.S. tax system, which the IRS oversees and administers, is based on the principle of voluntary compliance. According to the IRS, this means "that taxpayers are expected to comply with the law without being compelled to do so by action of a federal agent; it does not mean that the taxpayer is free to decide whether or not to comply with the law."
Duties and Powers
The IRS is responsible for enforcing the Internal Revenue Code (U.S.C.A. tit. 26), which codifies all U.S. tax laws. Basic IRS activities include serving and educating taxpayers; determining, assessing, and collecting taxes; investigating individuals and organizations that violate tax laws; determining Pension plan qualifications and exempt organization status; and issuing rulings and regulations to supplement the Internal Revenue Code.
Historically, Congress has given the IRS unique and wide-ranging powers for administering the U.S. tax system and enforcing its laws. For example, while in a criminal proceeding the government has the burden to prove that the defendant is guilty Beyond a Reasonable Doubt, in a tax proceeding the burden is on the taxpayer to prove that he or she does not owe the amount claimed by the IRS. The IRS also has the power to impose civil penalties for any of a number of violations of tax law. These penalties are seldom employed, however, and with respect to penalties, the IRS bears the burden of proving that the penalty is justified.
The IRS has the power to collect large amounts of information on U.S. citizens, companies, and other institutions. The most obvious example of this power is that each year all taxpayers must file tax returns containing detailed financial and personal information. Many organizations are also required to notify the IRS of any payments they make to individuals; the IRS receives approximately one billion of these third-party reports annually. The IRS also has the legal authority to order banks, employers, and other institutions to provide information about a taxpayer without having to obtain a warrant from a judge; other law enforcement agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and local police forces, must obtain a warrant in such situations.
Another crucial power of the IRS is the ability to withhold taxes automatically from employee paychecks. The IRS was given this authority in 1943, when Congress passed legislation requiring employers to withhold from employees' paychecks the income taxes owed to the government. This withholding requirement was one of several actions taken by the government to increase revenue so that it could meet the huge financial requirements for fighting World War II. Today, automatic withholding accounts for the majority of tax dollars paid to the government, with only a small portion sent in with tax returns by April 15, the IRS annual tax deadline. Automatic withholding is important to the government because it enables it to receive a steady stream of tax revenue. It is also useful for enforcing voluntary compliance from taxpayers because the individual's tax burden seems less onerous when taxes owed are subtracted from a paycheck before the check is received.
The IRS is led by a commissioner, who works in the IRS National Office located in Washington, D.C. The commissioner and his or her chief counsel are appointed by the president and must be approved by the Senate. The chief counsel serves as the chief legal adviser to the IRS. At the next level are regional commissioners, who oversee IRS operations in the four regions into which the country is divided: the Northeast, Southeast, Midstates, and Western Regions. Within the four regions are 33 district offices, which are responsible for collecting revenue, examining returns, and pursuing criminal investigations within their geographic area. Also located across the country are ten service centers, five submission processing centers, two computing centers, and 23 customer service centers.
In addition to its geographic divisions, the IRS is organized into programs focusing on specific administrative tasks. Several of these, including the Taxpayer Services and Problem Resolution programs, focus on taxpayer assistance and education. Others, including the Examination, Collection, and Criminal Investigation divisions, focus on ensuring taxpayer compliance. Additional IRS programs include Appeals, which attempts to resolve tax controversies without litigation; Statistics of Income, which compiles and publishes data relating to the operation of the Internal Revenue Code; and Tax Practitioner Conduct, which enforces tax laws applying to attorneys, accountants, and taxpayer agents.
The IRS was created in 1952, though it was preceded by various other U.S. tax-collecting offices. The earliest incarnation of the IRS was the Office of the Commissioner of Revenue, which was established by Congress in 1792 in response to the request by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton that various tariffs and taxes be created to raise money to pay off the U.S. Revolutionary War debt. Trench Coxe of Pennsylvania was the first person to hold the office. By creating the Office of the Commissioner of Revenue, Congress delegated its constitutional power to "lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises" to the Treasury Department, which has retained the power ever since (art. 1, § 8, U.S. Constitution).
By the time Thomas Jefferson became president in 1801, the internal revenue program had grown to employ 400 revenue officials, who enforced a wide variety of tax regulations, including taxes on distilled spirits, land, houses, and slaves. Jefferson, a Democrat who fiercely opposed Hamilton and his Federalist Party programs, abolished the entire system and relied instead on taxes assessed on imported items for government revenue. When the War of 1812 increased the government's needs for funds, taxes were reimposed on items such as sugar, carriages, liquor, furniture, and other luxury items. At the war's end, all internal taxes and collection offices were abolished, and Customs Duties again became the primary source for government revenue.
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, President Abraham Lincoln faced a financial crisis because the government needed much more money to finance the war effort than could be raised through customs duties. To address this problem, Congress passed sweeping new tax measures, including the Civil War Revenue Act of August 5, 1861, which authorized the country's first Income Tax and imposed a direct tax of $20 million apportioned among the states. The Revenue Act of July 1, 1862, created a wide variety of new taxes. To oversee their collection, Congress created the Bureau of Internal Revenue under the secretary of the treasury. This office, which represents the first form of the modern internal revenue collection system, administered the tax system by dividing the country into 185 collection districts. The commissioner was given the power to enforce tax laws through both seizure and prosecution. George S. Boutwell of Massachusetts was the first commissioner of internal revenue. Boutwell was initially assisted by three clerks. By January 1863 the office had grown to employ nearly 4,000 people, most of whom worked in the field as revenue collectors or property assessors.
When the Civil War ended in 1865, the government's need for revenue was greatly reduced. Taxes were scaled back, the income tax was eliminated, and customs duties again became a sufficient source for federal funds. With the subsequent rise of industrialism and growth of populist political ideas, however, many citizens wanted the government to take a more active role and therefore lobbied for a reestablishment of the income tax to provide greater revenue. Most of the support for an income tax came from southern and western states. Most of the opposition came from the wealthier states whose citizens would be most affected by an income tax—Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.
After many attempts Congress finally passed a modest income tax in 1894. The Supreme Court quickly ruled it unconstitutional on the ground that it violated the constitutional provision requiring that federal taxes be apportioned equally among the various states. Supporters of the income tax overcame this hurdle in 1913, when Wyoming became the thirty-sixth state to ratify the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, giving Congress the power to collect taxes without regard to state Apportionment. That same year Congress enacted the first income tax act under the amendment, and the income tax became a permanent feature of the U.S. tax system.
The passage of the Sixteenth Amendment marked the beginning of an era of significant expansion for the Bureau of Internal Revenue. The establishment of the Personal Income Tax Division greatly increased bureau staff, and many new taxes were imposed to finance World War I, thus requiring new bureau divisions and programs. As the bureau's responsibilities continued to multiply, operations became more inefficient and disorganized. In the 1920s, for example, the national office of the bureau was housed in a dozen different buildings located all around the metropolitan Washington, D.C., area. Tax returns became backlogged, tax Fraud and evasion were rampant, and an extensive patronage system enabled politically appointed collectors to operate unchecked, outraging their civil service staffs. Beginning in 1945 Congress and the Treasury Department began efforts to overhaul the whole tax collection system. In 1952 the Bureau of Internal Revenue was reorganized and given a new name: the Internal Revenue Service. This new moniker was intended to emphasize the agency's focus on providing service to taxpayers. Patronage was eliminated, and power was decentralized, with the states being divided into seven regional districts through which all return processing, auditing, billing, and refunding would be administered.
Since 1952 the IRS has continued to undergo major changes and reorganizations. Advancements in technology have had a tremendous effect on IRS operations, beginning with the opening of the automatic data processing system in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in 1962. This system revolutionized the collection and audit process by enabling the IRS to maintain a master file of every taxpayer's account. More recent technological applications have changed the way taxpayers interact with the IRS. In 1995, for example, more than 14 million individuals and businesses used the IRS electronic filing program to submit their tax returns. Another approximately 685,000 taxpayers in ten states filed their tax return using their touch-tone telephone. Taxes were also paid electronically, with more than 41,000 businesses making more than $232 billion in federal tax deposits by electronic funds transfer.
Over the years the IRS has faced continuing pressure from Congress and the public to adopt more reasonable enforcement policies, to provide better service to taxpayers, and to protect private information more carefully. In an attempt to protect taxpayers' rights, Congress in 1988 passed the Taxpayer Bill of Rights (Pub. L. No. 100-647, tit. VI, §§ 6226–6247, 102 Stat. 3730–3752 [Nov. 10, 1988]), which outlines the rights and protections a taxpayer has when dealing with the IRS. Included are the right to have penalties waived if the taxpayer follows incorrect advice given by the IRS, the right to request relief when tax laws result in significant hardship, and the right to attorneys' fees in cases where IRS employees violate the Internal Revenue Code to the detriment of the taxpayer.
In 1995 the IRS administrative structure underwent a major reorganization. The seven regions that had been established in 1952 were reduced to four, and management was consolidated, decreasing the number of districts within those regions from 63 to 33.
The IRS came under close examination from Congress in the late 1990s following a series of allegations from taxpayers of improper behavior by IRS agents. In September 1997, over three days of televised hearings, the U.S. Senate Finance Committee heard a litany of horror stories: taxpayers gave accounts of ruined lives, and IRS agents described a culture of lawlessness that included forgeries, spying, shakedowns, and cover-ups. The dramatic testimony capped a six-month committee probe into IRS misconduct.
The first to testify in the open hearings were taxpayers, from business owners to an elderly priest, who told the panel how unfair IRS audits had led to Divorce, Bankruptcy, and, in some cases, years of fighting inflexible rules to correct the agency's mistakes. Others said they paid the IRS large sums rather than fight and risk jeopardizing their businesses. Tom Savage, a 69-year-old Delaware construction company owner, told lawmakers that he paid $50,000 in fines despite the fact that the Justice Department told the IRS that levying him was wrong. Another taxpayer, Nancy Jacobs of California, said that the IRS mistakenly assigned her husband a taxpayer identification number belonging to someone else but that she and her husband paid the agency $11,000 to stop enforcement actions in order to save her husband's optometrist practice.
IRS whistle-blowers also testified. Sitting behind screens with their voices garbled electronically to conceal their identities, they accused IRS management of several questionable practices: illegally snooping on private tax data, preying on vulnerable taxpayers, and unduly focusing collection efforts on lower- and middle-class taxpayers. Their chief allegation was that management evaluated employees based on their collection performance. Agents were pressured, they said, to seize as much taxpayer property and assets as possible, in violation of IRS policy and federal law. Jennifer Long, the only agent not to testify behind a curtain with a voice distortion mask, said that agents ignored cheating by friends and by those with resources to fight an audit. Statistics showed that the audit rate for people with annual incomes of more than $100,000 declined from 11.41 percent to 2.79 percent between 1988 and 1995. During that same period, the audit rate for people with annual incomes of less than $25,000 nearly doubled, from 1.03 percent to 1.96 percent.
In 1998, Congress passed the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 (IRSRRA), Pub. L. No. 105-206, 112 Stat. 685 (codified in scattered sections of 26 U.S.C.A.), to overhaul operations within the IRS. Title I reorganized the structure and management of the IRS with three sections designed to improve taxpayer treatment. The act directed the commissioner to discard the IRS organizational structure, which had previously run operations through local, regional, and national offices. In its place the commissioner was required to substitute organizational units serving taxpayers with similar tax obligations, such as individuals, small businesses, large businesses, and nonprofit organizations.
The IRSRRA created the Internal Revenue Service Oversight Board, which operates within the Department of the Treasury. The Oversight Board contains nine members, including the secretary of the treasury, the commissioners of the IRS, six civilians, and one federal government employee appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate. The board's general responsibility is to oversee the IRS "in its administration, management, conduct, direction, and supervision of the execution and application of the internal revenue laws." Although the board may not view the tax returns of individual taxpayers and, therefore, cannot rectify individual taxpayer abuse, IRSRRA commands the board to ensure that the IRS treats taxpayers properly.
Under the IRSRRA, the commissioner of the IRS must terminate agency employees who engage in a list of forbidden conduct that includes the following: failing to obtain required signatures before seizing homes, personal belongings, and business assets to satisfy tax deficiencies; making a false statement under oath concerning a taxpayer's case; violating a taxpayer's constitutional or Civil Rights; falsifying or destroying documents to conceal IRS mistakes; committing assault or Battery on a taxpayer; violating the tax laws or regulations for the purpose of retaliating against or harassing a taxpayer; and threatening to audit a taxpayer to extract a personal benefit. Although a loophole allows the commissioner to take personnel action other than termination at his sole discretion, he may not delegate that authority to any other officer.
Title III of IRSRRA contains a Taxpayer Bill of Rights, also designed to reduce taxpayer abuse. Most notably, it shifts the burden of proof in most tax cases to the IRS. Previously, taxpayers sued by the IRS had the burden of proving that their tax calculation was correct. Under IRSRRA, if a taxpayer keeps the appropriate records, cooperates during IRS investigations, and presents "credible evidence" to support his or her tax calculation, the IRS has the burden of proving the calculation is wrong. The requirement that the taxpayer show credible evidence has proven difficult in some cases. For example, in Higbee v. Commissioner, 116 T.C. No. 28 (2001), the u.s. tax court held that the testimony of the taxpayer and a document from a small-claims courts showing damages to a piece of property, which he alleged entitled him to a deduction, did not constitute credible evidence to shift the burden of proof to the IRS.The Taxpayer Bill of Rights also regulates IRS collection efforts and helps specific groups of taxpayers who might lack power to protect themselves. Some evidence suggests that IRSRRA reduced taxpayer abuse shortly after its enactment. By March 1999, property seizures were down 98 percent from levels two years prior; Garnishment of paychecks and bank accounts were down 75 percent; and liens, which ensure that a tax is paid when property is sold, were down 66 percent. Critics, however, contend that these figures reflect reduced, not better, enforcement efforts caused by IRS employees' fear of losing their jobs for violating the IRSRRA. Moreover, other evidence, addressed in a 2002 article in the New York Times, suggests that IRS agents are more likely to subject wage earners to heavy scrutiny over tax returns than they are businesses, trusts, and partnerships.
Burnham, David. 1989. A Law unto Itself: Power, Politics, and the IRS. New York: Random House.
Chommie, John C. 1970. The Internal Revenue Service. New York: Praeger.
Ely, Mark H. 2003. "The 'New' IRS Audits." The Tax Adviser 34 (Ocober).
Internal Revenue Service. Available online at <www.irs.org> (accessed July 28, 2003).
Richardson, Margaret Milner. 1994. "Reinventing the Internal Revenue Service." Federal Bar Association Section of Taxation Report 1 (winter).
Treasury Department. Internal Revenue Service. 1996. Guide to the Internal Revenue Service. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Whitman, Donald R., ed. 1983. Government Agencies. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
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Hello again Dannie!
I'm so glad you have a medical background as that is going to make it much easier for me to explain.
Hemangiopericytomas are a soft tissue sarcoma. I am going to start with giving you a FAQ prepared by a veterinary oncologist FOR veterinarians. This article and the one below are from a website (http://www.vin.com/) that is for veterinarians to discuss medicine with other general practitioners as well as to ask advice from veterinary specialists such as oncologists and surgeons.
Soft Tissue Sarcomas Medical FAQs
What tumors are we talking about here?
The three most common soft-tissue sarcomas (STS) are fibrosarcoma, hemangiopericytoma, and peripheral nerve sheath tumor. Less common STS include schwannoma, leiomyosarcoma, 'spindle cell tumor' (unspecified), neurofibrosarcoma, liposarcoma, and myxosarcomas. Hemangiosarcomas, rhabdomyosarcomas, and lymphangiosarcomas are also STS strictly speaking, but since they behave differently from other more typical STS, they are not covered in this FAQ.
What is the best way to approach surgery of soft-tissue sarcomas (STS)?
Soft-tissue sarcomas (STS) often extend well beyond the visible mass, much like mast cell tumors. For this reason you should ALWAYS know when you are going to excise a STS - ie diagnose before excision. This can be done by performing a fine needle aspirate (FNA) and cytology on every mass before it is excised. FNA can often be easily examined in-house, although the practitioner's level of training, interest and experience in cytological diagnostic interpretation will strongly impact the likelihood of a correct diagnosis. If a clinician lacks experience, interest or appropriate staining techniques, or has any hesitation in the cytological diagnosis, the sample should be sent out for specialist interpretation. Many STS are difficult to differentiate from fibroplasia (a benign process), requiring specialist interpretation. Additionally, Diff-quik staining is inferior to Giemsa staining, and may also hamper accurate in-house diagnosis. Thus, clinicians are advised to make 2 sets of smears - one for in-house examination (if desired), and a second (unstained) for submission to a diagnostic pathology service.
Once a STS is confirmed, the tumor is excised with 3cm lateral margins, 1 fascial layer deep. This avoids going anywhere near the tumor during your surgery and thereby adheres to an important principle of cancer surgery - en bloc resection. Some oncologists prefer to perform an incisional biopsy and histopathology to obtain a histological grade prior to performing the excisional biopsy, for prognostic purposes and therapeutic planning.
However, clinicians should be aware the up to 40% of STS that have "clean margins" histologically, may recur ("clean but close" margins are obviously at higher risk for such local recurrence). It is important to notice that we will often recommend advanced imaging (CT or MRI) prior to excision of a STS, especially when the mass is large, firmly attached to the underlying tissue, and/or in a location where wide margins may be more difficult. Consulting with a boarded surgeon is also recommended in such situations. This also applies to ALL feline vaccine site sarcomas.
The pathologist has said that a tumor I excised is a STS and margins were dirty. What should I do?
STS (including hemangiopericytomas, schwannomas, nerve sheath tumors, fibrosarcomas, spindle cell tumors, leiomyosarcomas, but not hemangiosarcomas or lymphangiosarcomas) all tend to have several features in common:
1. They invade well past their visible or palpable margins ("tendrils").
2. They appear to be encapsulated but are not. The pseudocapsule comprises a layer of compacted but actively growing neoplastic cells. This is important because dissecting these out ("shelling") will result in local recurrence.
3. They are locally invasive but late to metastasize. If you effect local control, then you often have obtained a cure.
Thus, if surgical margins were dirty, the treatments of choice are to re-excise en-toto with wider margins all around the original tumor site and/or perform radiation therapy.
To treat these you need to
1. Perform a wide and deep resection. 3cm wide, 1 fascial plane deep. If you cannot do this because of tumor location then get an incisional biopsy and discuss your options with a surgical or radiation oncologist. In some cases, grafts or patches may be necessary to reconstruct the wound site.
2. Stay well away from the edge of the tumor at all times.
3. If necessary, perform radiation therapy to sterilize residual disease if margins were not clean.
What about if the margins are clean or "clean but close"?
If margins are clean, radiation therapy can be considered (see below). This is probably even more valuable if the margins are "clean but close" (high risk of local recurrence). Alternatively, careful monitoring of the site for recurrence, with re-excision can be employed.
Does chemotherapy help with treating STS?
Soft tissue sarcomas are not very chemoresponsive in general and best treated surgically with or without adjunct radiotherapy. Most studies show modest response rates in the range of 20 to 30%. There may be limited rationale for using chemotherapy in STS that appear highly malignant, or have high metastatic potential. It should generally be coupled with surgery and radiotherapy.
Other agents, such as the non-specific immunomodulator Acemannan, have not been critically evaluated, and are not recommended currently.
Does radiotherapy help with treating STS?
There is evidence that adjunct radiotherapy offers a prolonged disease-free interval and survival when used to treat microscopic disease following surgical resection. Several studies have documented long remission and survival periods (>1500 days median survival) in that setting, when postoperative radiotherapy is used. Additionally, it has shown benefit in limb-sparing tumor treatment, with 75% disease free at 5 years in one study. However, as a sole treatment, responses seem poorer than if combined with surgery. Oral STS appear to be associated with poorer prognosis.
Radiotherapy can also be used palliatively in non-resectable STS to offer pain relief, in addition to traditional analgesic therapy.
So, as you can see from this article, STS's commonly are locally invasive, so it is not uncommon to have "dirty" margins with tumour cells extending past the margins and into the tissues. Ideally, treatment would be to surgicallly remove this tumour, as much as possible given the location. As you can see from the article, this means 3cm in EVERY direction. In this location it might be impossible, and I think that is what your vet wants to talk to the specialist about. In terms of radiation therapy, I will quote here from a 2003 conference proceedings.
Clinical Radiation Therapy Western Veterinary Conference 2003 Karelle A. Meleo, DVM, ACVIM, ACVR
Veterinary Oncology Services
Edmonds, Washington, USA
Reviewing the types of radiation available.
Identifying the tumors most commonly treated in veterinary radiation oncology.
Discussing treatment of radiation toxicity.
Overview of radiation therapy protocols.
Either a Cobalt source or a Linear Accelerator is used for megavoltage therapy.
When a patient is treated with definitive radiation therapy, multiple fractions are needed.
Radiation is a localized treatment.
Combining radiation and surgery is often recommended.
The skin and mucous membranes are common areas of acute toxicity.
The eyes, lungs, kidneys, and the nervous system are of concern for toxicity.
Types of Radiation Therapy
Most institutions have either Cobalt or a Linear accelerator (Linac) available. These both produce megavoltage radiation.
Orthovoltage generally does not penetrate as deeply as megavoltage so does limit the types of patients that can be treated.
Some (but not all) Linacs can generate electrons. Electrons are particularly useful in treating superficial areas with sensitive structures (such as lung) underneath.
Definitive vs Palliation Radiation Therapy
We should consider definitive (given with the intent of long term control) therapy in patients:
1. With tumors of low metastatic rate or in tumor types in which the mets can reasonably be controlled with chemotherapy or;
2. For whom the above is true and surgery is not an option either due to the location of the tumor, or due to the owner's reluctance to consider aggressive surgery or;
3. In whom surgery has been performed and there are still neoplastic cells remaining at the surgical margin (especially if #1 above is true as well).
We can consider palliative (given with the intent of managing pain, improving function, and/or maintaining the quality of life) therapy in patients:
1. With tumors of high metastatic rate or known metastases and/or
2. In whom pain management is needed (such as bone tumors).
Tumors Commonly Treated with Radiation Therapy
Advances in surgical techniques such as maxillectomy and mandibulectomy offer many patients excellent long-term control for many of these tumor types. Radiation therapy can be offered as an alternative to surgery or as an adjunct to surgery for many of these patients.
Epulides: Biopsies of these lesions may be acanthomatous epulis, fibromatous epulis, ameloblastoma, or odontogenic tumor.When treated with radiation therapy, 85% are free of disease at 1 year and 67% disease free at 2 years.
Canine oral fibrosarcoma & squamous cell carcinoma: For both of these tumor types, soft tissue resection alone is usually inadequate, especially if the tumor abuts the bone. The reported median survival time for dogs with oral sarcomas treated with surgery and radiation therapy is 540 days.
Tonsillar squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a very aggressive disease and is resistant to therapy.
When using radiation therapy alone to treat dogs with SCC of other locations, survival times from 14-17 months have been reported. Younger dogs and those with smaller and more rostrally located tumors have a better prognosis.
Canine Oral Melanoma: Melanomas are considered "relatively" radioresistant. This means we must give a larger radiation dose per fraction than is traditionally used for other tumors. These large dose per fraction protocols usually limits the total dose that can safely be used. This results in fewer fractions (3-6 vs 14-21 normal protocols), being delivered. In one study, dogs given 3 fractions had a median survival time of 7.9 months. In a study where dogs were given 6 fractions of along with Cisplatin chemotherapy, the median survival time was reported to be approximately 12 months. Unfortunately, most patients still succumb to metastatic disease.
The median survival time of dogs treated with megavoltage radiation is 12.8 months with a mean of 20.7 months. In some studies, dogs with sarcomas have been reported to have an improved survival time over dogs with carcinomas. This occurs even though sarcomas are not as radiation responsive as carcinomas. The slow growth rate of sarcomas compared to carcinomas likely explains this difference. It is not necessary to perform rhinotomy to reduce the tumor size prior to radiation therapy.
The survival time for cats treated with megavoltage radiation is similar to that seen in dogs. 44.3% of cats treated are alive at 1 year after therapy and 16.6% are alive 2 years after treatment.
Nasal lymphoma is a notable exception. When radiation is combined with aggressive chemotherapy over 75% of cats are alive at 2 years. Cats treated with 3 radiation treatments did just as well as cats treated with 18 treatments.
In general, megavoltage is recommended over orthovoltage therapy, but many patients treated with orthovoltage have benefited from treatment. Survival times reported in the literature range from 150-412 days. Radiation may be used alone or combined with surgery. Dogs with meningioma have a better prognosis than dogs with glioma. Severe neurologic signs and/or multiple tumors are considered negative prognostic factors.
There are few studies on cats with brain tumors treated with radiation therapy. Surgery alone results in survival times of months to years in cats with meningioma.
Mast Cell Tumors
When treated with surgery alone, 50% of dogs with grade II mast cell tumors will have recurrence or metastasis within 1 year. As 50-60% of canine mast cell tumors occur on the limbs it is difficult to get a complete (2 cm or larger) resection on many of these lesions.
Radiation is indicated in dogs with grade II mast cell tumor who have incomplete resection and who have no metastatic disease. Studies have shown that 86-95% of dogs who are treated post operatively are free of cancer for at least 3 years after treatment.
Radiation is a local treatment and does not address metastatic disease.
Soft Tissue Sarcomas
Among other tumor types, soft tissue sarcomas include: Fibrosarcoma, Hemangiopericytoma, Nerve Sheath Tumor, Leiomyosarcoma, Liposarcoma, Hemangiosarcoma, Synovial Cell Sarcoma, Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma, and Undifferentiated Sarcoma. With the notable exceptions of hemangiosarcoma and high-grade synovial cell sarcoma, these are characterized by a high rate of local recurrence but a low to moderately low rate of metastasis. Grade is important to prognosis.
In a study of dogs with soft tissue sarcomas treated with radiation following gross resection, 75% were still free of disease 5 years following surgery.
In some cases, it may be beneficial to use radiation prior to surgery. This is frequently true of vaccine-associated sarcomas in cats. It may be safer to treat a smaller field prior to performing surgery than a larger one postoperatively. Radiation will effectively treat the cells that are on the margins of the tumor as they are well oxygenated and often dividing rapidly. Surgery is then performed a few weeks after radiation to remove as much of the radiated field as possible.
Pre operative radiation is not recommended to make a tumor that is grossly unresectable resectable, but can be used to increase the probability that a grossly complete excision will also be microscopically complete. It also helps prevent seeding of tumor cells along the surgery site.
Radiation therapy can be used to temporarily reduce the size of a tumor and stop or slow its growth. This can be helpful in improving a patient's quality of life by relieving pain (especially bone pain), decreasing bleeding, and/or relieving swelling or obstruction. One commonly treated tumor is canine osteosarcoma. Approximately 75% of dogs treated have improved limb function for a few to several months. Because lymphocytes are very radiation sensitive, palliative radiation can play a role for lymphoma patients as well.
For additional information on the use of radiation therapy to treat mast cell tumors and head and neck cancer, the reader is referred to proceeding notes on these subjects.
The skin and mucous membranes are commonly affected during and immediately after therapy. Moist desquamation of the skin, similar to a "hot spot", is quite common. In areas that move or bear weight (such as the stifle or the carpus), lameness may result.
Skin reactions usually are treated with topical antibiotics and analgesics. In the early stages, vitamin E oil and Aloe Vera gel seem to reduce discomfort. When the majority of the field is involved, Silvadene® cream or similar can be applied B-TID. Preventing self-trauma is important, but bandaging should be used only if necessary. Oral antibiotics are rarely needed but can be used. Non-steroidal anti inflammatories can be used for pain, and the author often uses anti inflammatory doses of prednisone if there is lameness or a decreased appetite.
Mucositis is generally managed with anti inflammatory medications and soft food.
Depending on the radiation protocol, acute reactions should be well on their way to healing 10-14 days after the radiation is over. Although a lesion may still be visible, pain medication can usually be discontinued at that point. If the animal is still uncomfortable 3 weeks after radiation is over, consultation with a radiation oncologist is recommended.
KCS and conjunctivitis are common when the eye is in the radiation field. Both can be managed symptomatically. KCS may be temporary or permanent.
Acute pneumonitis may be seen if large volumes of lung are in the field.
Acute nephritis may occur soon after a kidney is irradiated.
The most common chronic toxicities we see are cosmetic. Alopecia, mild skin fibrosis, and a change of coat color are common.
The organ system that is responsible for most chronic toxicity is the vascular system. The vascular endothelium thickens after radiation, leading to narrowing of the vessel and increasing the risk of thrombosis and subsequent necrosis. The spinal cord is especially sensitive to this due to the lack of collateral circulation.
Anti-inflammatory levels of corticosteroids during and for several months following therapy reduce the probability of serious toxicity as they decrease the inflammation within the walls of the blood vessels.
Cataract formation 1 year or longer after radiation is expected when the eye is in the radiation field.
Fibrosis of the lungs is expected if this area is irradiated, however if the volume treated is low, this is not a clinical problem.
Radiation therapy can be used to prolong disease-free time in many common tumors. Treating soft tissue sarcomas and mast cell tumors with a combination of surgery and radiation can be very successful.
If your histology report says, "Tumor cells (may) extend to the excised margin" the best chance of preventing recurrence is immediately post op!
Palliative radiation therapy can be used to improve quality of life.
Acute toxicity is generally short lived and easily managed. Chronic toxicity is rarely serious if careful treatment planning is used
Karelle A. Meleo, DVM, ACVIM, ACVR
Specialty Practitioner, Oncology
Veterinary Oncology Services
So, as you can see from this article, radiation can be very useful, though it is still recommended to remove as much of the tumour as possible.
This all said, it is very encouraging that this tumour was a Grade Two (on a scale of 1 to 4). This means that it is not very aggressive yet, and the cells are only moderately different from normal cells. STS's are locally invasive but slow to metastasize (spread to other parts of the body). So, given that this is a Grade 2 STS, that is suggestive that this might not be a problem to your girl in the near future in terms of spreading. The concerns would be whether the tendrils would grow through the surrounding blood vessels and nerves, which migh result in sudden bleeding.
In summary, this tumour is likely to be slow growing locally and late to metastasize. It probably can not be completely removed so it is likely to recur. Surgery to remove all or part of the tumour might protect the delicate structures near it.. Alternatively, radiation would be helpful to slow down the recurrence of this tumour. Generally, radiation is given multiple times (in multiple "fractions" or treatments) over a short period of time. For example, your dog might need 15 fractions of radiation over 2 or 3 weeks. Each treatment requires an anesthetic. Thus it is likely your girl would be hospitalized at a specialty centre for this procedure.
If this has been helpful, please accept my answer and leave feedback. I will still be here to provide more information if you need it!
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| 0.936799 | 4,304 | 2.53125 | 3 |
A small single-story building of simple or crude construction, serving as a poor, rough, or temporary house or shelter.
- Corrugated huts house additional families in backyards and the shanty towns overflow with new arrivals.
- They were only able to get accommodation in beach huts at opposite ends of the island but met up every day.
- We walk away from the town and head towards the slopes past the harbour and towards beach huts.
verb (huts, hutting, hutted)[with object]
Provide with huts: (as adjective hutted) a hutted encampment
More example sentences
- This year is the 60th anniversary of the end of the second World War, and that gave particular relevance to a holiday visit to Eden Camp, in North Yorkshire, a hutted former prisoner of war camp which serves as a museum of the war.
- As its numbers have grown, the old hutted classrooms have been replaced with new permanent ones and a new library has been added.
- Initially made up of a few cottages and farm buildings, by 1918 the original buildings had become a large hutted camp with 50 officers and 1,100 other ranks.
- Example sentences
- The hut-like structure with six spacious rooms has been specially set up at the village as a make-shift election office.
- Almost everything can be destroyed if you have enough firepower (though mostly everything consists primarily of small hut-like buildings and some defensive structures).
- The skimmer came to a halt outside one of the hut-like buildings.
Mid 16th century (in the sense 'temporary wooden shelter for troops'): from French hutte, from Middle High German hütte.
Words that rhyme with hutabut, but, butt, cut, glut, gut, intercut, jut, Mut, mutt, phut, putt, rut, scut, shortcut, shut, slut, smut, strut, tut, undercut
For editors and proofreaders
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| 0.940858 | 452 | 2.9375 | 3 |
'Angels' in Greek mean 'Messengers'. In Bible, heavenly angels are mentioned as messengers of god. Christmas angels are perhaps the most popular form of angels that are used in our celebrations. Angels are believed to be immortal, who live in Heaven, and act as intermediaries between God and Humankind. Traditionally, pictures and poems on angels portray them having human bodies with wings sprouting from their backs. 'Wings' are said to symbolize Innocence, Virtue, Purity, Peace and Love, which place them above Humans though they are still under God. It was the Hebrew Bible or the Old Testament of Christianity, which first mentions that angels had a human body and angel wings and could fly.
According to the New Testament, when people are sorry for their sins,
angels rejoice. In Bible, nine ranks of angels are mentioned with
Seraphim and Cherubim angels on top. Angels are headed by a chief angel
known as an Archangel whose name is Saint Michael. We all have our
guardian angels or angel guardians who protect us, look after us and
comfort us in times of distress. It was in 1100 to 1200 AD when
Christian doctrine about angels evolved rapidly, as in the teachings of
Saint Thomas Aquinas. Saint Thomas believed that angels fill the gap
between God and mankind; they are countless and immortal. According to
Saint Thomas, angels have perfect knowledge except things that can
depend on human choice and things that only God knows.
They were quite instrumental in birth of Jesus Christ and hence, play
an important role in Christmas celebration and festivities. Angels were
the ones that brought us the news of the birth of the Christ child.
Gabriel, the heavenly Christmas angel brought the divine news to Mary
and revealed that she was chosen to bear God's son. Another angel
informed Joseph that he should marry Mary and look after the Christ.
According to a legend, God appointed a small group of tiny angels, who
were just learning their angel ways, to watch over Joseph and Mary on
their journey to Bethlehem. Tiny angels did all they could and tried to
do their best but could not help the couple to find shelter in the inn
in the over-crowded town. Finally, they had to make do with the inn's
They were so excited that they were to witness the birth of God's Only
Son that flew closer to earth and sang sweetly. The fastest among them
caught sight of the newborn child from stable's roof and instantly
understood their mission was to herald the birth. They were so filled
with joy and mirth that they burst into a glorious thanksgiving song
that reached the heavens and was so melodious that it could be heard all
over the Earth. A Christmas angel appeared to the shepherds near
Bethlehem about the Christ Child's birth too. We still see Christmas
angels singing and playing music in Nativity scenes who look so cute and
benevolent that they catch young one's attention and fascination
Read about the history of Christmas angels, traditional Christmas angel pictures and Gabriel as Christmas angel.
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| 0.963052 | 647 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Course pages 2013–14
Discourse and Text Summarisation
This module provides an introduction to text summarisation research, and in particular, discourse-oriented text summarisation. There are four lectures on the topic, after which the students will implement and evaluate their own discourse-based text summarisation system. This will be done in four practical sessions, which are demonstrated by students. Discourse processing methods necessary for the summarisation system are introduced. Special attention is given to the various types of evaluation.
- Session 1: Overview of summarisation techniques. Summarisation evaluation.
- Session 2: Lexical Coherence. Topic Segmentation. Information Status. Grosz/Sidner.
- Session 3: Anaphora Resolution and Coreference Resolution. Entity-based coherence. Centering. "When your child does not drink milk, try heating/distracting it" — how do we know what "it" refers to in each case? How could a computer?
- Session 4: Rhetorical Relations. Dialogue act determination. Plot Units. Kintsch/van Dijk
- Session 5: Build an extractive summariser based on frequency statistics.
- Session 6: Build a simple trained anaphora resolution module.
- Session 7: Include a recogniser for expletive anaphora. Evaluate.
- Session 8: Combine previous implementations into an anaphora-based summariser. There are several options that students can choose from. Run the final evaluation.
On completion of this module, students should:
- understand the phenomenon of anaphora resolution and coreference and be able to implement a simple solution
- be able to describe the ideas behind various methods of text summarisation that rely on continuity between objects or events (discourse-based)
- understand how text summarisers can be evaluated and have some practical experience in doing so;
- have implemented a prototype of a text summariser applying some of the ideas in this course.
Implement a simple anaphora-based summariser, in four demonstrated sessions.
An assessed report of the implementation and evalution of their own anaphora-based summariser.
- Jurafsky and Martin (2008), Speech and Language Processing, 2nd Edition, chapter 21.
- Mani, I. (2001), Automatic Summarization, John Benjamins Publishing.
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| 0.838153 | 492 | 2.640625 | 3 |
The microbes on your skin determine how attractive you are to mosquitoes, which may have important implications for malaria transmission and prevention, according to a study published Dec. 28 in the online journal PLoS ONE.
Without bacteria, human sweat is odorless to the human nose, so the microbial communities on the skin play a key role in producing each individual's specific body odor. The researchers, led by Niels Verhulst of Wageningen University in the Netherlands, conducted their experiments with the Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto mosquito, which plays an important role in malaria transmission. They found that individuals with a higher abundance but lower diversity of bacteria on their skin were more attractive to this particular mosquito. They speculate individuals with more diverse skin microbiota may host a selective group of bacteria that emits compounds to interfere with the normal attraction of mosquitoes to their human hosts, making these individuals less attractive, and therefore lower risk to contracting malaria. This finding may lead to the development of personalized methods for malaria prevention.
|Contact: Yael Franco|
Public Library of Science
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| 0.90833 | 214 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Food traditionally associated with black people of the southern US.
- These risk factors can be controlled through regular exercise and healthy diet, but for African Americans, our love of soul food and convenience foods has been difficult to balance.
- Why would a national debate on food tolerance focus on burgers to the exclusion of, say, Mexican fast food, soul food, or sushi?
- An estimated 60,000 adults and children thronged the Book Fair which had more than 350 stalls, including nine of them in the Food Court selling soul food.
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: soul food
Definition of soul food in:
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| 0.941539 | 159 | 3.09375 | 3 |
ⓘ One or more forum threads is an exact match of your searched term. Click here
WordReference Random House Learner's Dictionary of American English © 2016
pan•o•ram•a /ˌpænəˈræmə, -ˈrɑmə/USA pronunciation
n. [countable],pl. -ram•as. WordReference Random House Unabridged Dictionary of American English © 2016
pan•o•ram•ic /ˌpænəˈræmɪk/USA pronunciation adj.
- a wide view of a large area.
- a large picture display of a landscape or other scene, often shown one part at a time before spectators.
- a continuous unfolding of events:the panorama of Chinese history.
(pan′ə ram′ə, -rä′mə), n.
- an unobstructed and wide view of an extensive area in all directions.
- an extended pictorial representation or a cyclorama of a landscape or other scene, often exhibited a part at a time and made to pass continuously before the spectators.
- a building for exhibiting such a pictorial representation.
- a continuously passing or changing scene or an unfolding of events:the panorama of Chinese history.
- a comprehensive survey, as of a subject.
1 . scene, vista, prospect.
- pan- + Greek (h)órāma view, sight, derivative of horân to see, look 1790–1800
Collins Concise English Dictionary © HarperCollins Publishers::
panorama /ˌpænəˈrɑːmə/ n
Etymology: 18th Century: from pan- + Greek horāma viewpanoramic /ˌpænəˈræmɪk/ adj ˌpanoˈramically adv
- an extensive unbroken view, as of a landscape, in all directions
- a wide or comprehensive survey
- a large extended picture or series of pictures of a scene, unrolled before spectators a part at a time so as to appear continuous
- another name for cyclorama
'panorama' also found in these entries:
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| 0.784427 | 472 | 2.890625 | 3 |
These online books by Winfred P. Lehmann et al. are about Indo-European languages and historical linguistics, broadly interpreted. They are made available in online form in order to ensure their long-term, widespread accessibility; they may be accompanied by more recent, introductory essays (author/editor notes). In a few instances, minor errors or omissions in the original texts have been corrected; in rare instances, as much as a paragraph may have been rewritten in light of important new findings. On the other hand, digitization may have introduced new errors, for which the series editor offers apology; if attention is drawn to them, repairs will be effected whenever possible.
Hot-links below and in the left margin lead to online volumes by Winfred P. Lehmann and others that have been digitized and formatted for web presentation. We list the books here, for quick reference, but it may help to read the following Textual Conventions and Unicode sections before viewing any of these books.
These linguistic studies, like all others of their ilk, were and are written using a large number and wide variety of characters: letters in Roman (Latin), Greek, and other scripts, with overstrike diacritics etc. We are compelled to represent them all in this series; for this, we employ Unicode (see below). However, some textual conventions may be changed in accordance with more modern online publishing practice and/or to facilitate the display of citation forms, e.g. with special characters. For example, italics and/or a font shift may replace underlining (which, in a web page, generally signals hot-links).
Original page numbers, being irrelevant in an online resource, are not visible: they are present, if at all, only as comments in the underlying HTML source. Index and table of contents entries that refer to page numbers are converted to hot-links that lead to the location where, in the printed book, that page commenced.
Each book chapter is contained in a single web page. Any footnotes are relocated to the end of a chapter (i.e., to the end of the web page containing them), generally with hot-links from the footnote number.
In order to read these books online, your computer must employ Unicode-compliant software and have available a large Unicode-compliant font with the requisite character glyphs. All modern software is Unicode-compliant; most older computer systems can be upgraded to modern software. Large Unicode fonts are available for purchase or, in some cases (at the time of writing), free download; often a suitable font is already installed, or may be installed as an option with a word processor for example. Refer to vendor documentation for details.
It would serve no useful purpose to attempt to render these texts using a grossly simplified character set in order to accommodate the relatively few aged computer systems that remain incapable of displaying the many characters. Adequate software has been available from all major vendors for years, and adequate hardware, for decades.
Accordingly, these texts are published online only in the Unicode (a.k.a. ISO-10646) character set: the international standard means of encoding texts written in multiple scripts. These pages are intended to reflect accurately the original document content, although the font face used to render text online necessarily depends on the one(s) installed on your computer, and what your personal software settings are -- factors beyond the control, or even the knowledge, of web servers.
For technical reasons that cannot be explained in brief, our web page stylesheet can only recommend to your display software that it choose one font or another from its list. If your software is configured to ignore such recommendations, or if it is inadequate for any reason, you're on your own. Anyone wishing to read online texts in their native scripts should acquire and enable software that fully supports the Unicode standard; some resources are free, while others may require payment. The University of Texas cannot, and does not, make vendor recommendations. For convenience we list here, in alphabetic order and without evaluation, a few Unicode-compliant fonts that appear to meet the requirements of these pages:
What this means is that, in order to read these books online, you must employ Unicode-compliant software and it must have available a Unicode-compliant font -- such as one of those listed above, or an equivalent -- with the requisite character glyphs. Even the default "serif" and "sans-serif" fonts used by your browser may be assumed to contain Unicode characters such as a-with-macron and s-with-caron. These requirements are generally met, on Macintosh, only by OS X 10.2 or later with a suitably advanced browser. As we become aware of the existence and wide distribution of other large Unicode-compliant fonts having [typically] thousands of glyphs covering the characters in these books, we will add them to our style sheet.
Trademarks, including font names, are the property of their respective owners.
Readers interested in Indo-European languages may be especially interested in our "Early Indo-European Online Lessons" series; use the EIEOL link here or on any web page in this book series.Jonathan Slocum
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| 0.927788 | 1,074 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Google, the world's largest Internet search engine, has joined a group of 19 universities, national labs and private foundations that is building the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST).
Scheduled to begin operations in 2013, the 8.4-meter LSST will be able to survey the entire visible sky deeply in multiple colors every week with its three-billion pixel digital camera. The telescope will probe the mysteries of dark matter and dark energy, and it will open a movie-like window on objects that change or move rapidly: exploding supernovae, potentially hazardous near-Earth asteroids as small as 100 meters, and distant Kuiper Belt Objects.
The LSST and Google share a common goal, which is to organize massive quantities of data and make that data useful. The decade-long LSST sky survey will generate more than 30,000 gigabytes (30 terabytes) of image data every night.
The wide-field imaging telescope now known as the LSST was originally designed at The University of Arizona by Regents' Professor of Astronomy Roger Angel. UA astronomer Philip Pinto is responsible for simulating the telescope's operation to develop new scientific strategies and to ensure that the instrument works as intended.
The University of Arizona, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), and the Research Corp., all based in Tucson, were among the four founding members of the LSST Corporation in spring 2003. The National Science Foundation-funded NOAO is active in telescope design and site testing. LSST Corp. and Research Corp. offices are located in the same building.
The Google-LSST collaboration aims to organize LSST's massive amount of information, manage large parallel data streams, and process and analyze data non-stop so that discoveries become available in real time. In addition to aiding professional scientists and amateur astronomers, well-organized LSST data will generate a new and dynamic view of the night sky for the public.
William Coughran, Google Vice President of Engineering, said, "Google's mission is to take the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful. The data from LSST will be an important part of the world's information, and by being involved in the project we hope to make it easier for that data to become accessible and useful."
"The LSST will be the world's most powerful survey telescope, with vast data management challenges," Donald Sweeney, LSST project manager, said. "LSST engineers and scientists have been collaborating with Google on number of these exciting opportunities. Even though the universe is very old, exciting things happen every second. The LSST will be able to find these events hundreds of times better than today's other big telescopes. Google will help us organize and present the seemingly overwhelming volumes of data collected by the LSST."
"Partnering with Google will significantly enhance our ability to convert LSST data to knowledge," LSST Director J. Anthony Tyson of the University of California, Davis, said. "LSST will change the way we observe the universe by mapping the visible sky deeply, rapidly, and continuously. It will open entirely new windows on our universe, yielding discoveries in a variety of areas of astronomy and fundamental physics. Innovations in data management will play a central role."
More information about the LSST including current images, graphics, and animation can be found at http://www.
In 2003, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, Research Corporation, The University of Arizona, and the University of Washington formed the LSST Corporation, a non-profit 501(c)3 Arizona corporation, with headquarters in Tucson, AZ. Membership has expanded to include Brookhaven National Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Columbia University, Google Inc., Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology - Stanford University, Las Cumbres Observatory Inc., Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Princeton University, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, The Pennsylvania State University, University of California at Davis, University of California at Irvine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and University of Pennsylvania.
The LSST research and development effort is funded in part by the National Science Foundation under Scientific Program Order No. 9 (AST-0551161) through Cooperative Agreement AST-0132798. Additional funding comes from private contributions, in-kind support at Department of Energy laboratories and other LSST Corp. institutional members.
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<urn:uuid:1aa9e484-5d4d-4960-8d88-83c92bf85dea>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-01/uoa-gjl010507.php
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en
| 0.917079 | 908 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Immunoprecipitation Of Proteins
SP, Jan 2005
The immunoprecipitation technique involves isolation of a molecule (usually protein) using a specific antibody that is or can be bound to a solid matrix. Co-immunoprecipitation of a protein involves using an antibody specific to another protein that the first protein can bind to. In general, immunoprecipitation involves these steps -
I. Antigen solubilization
The source of protein of interest may be liquid, such as cell culture conditioned medium, in which case one need only spin down the medium to remove cells and debris before proceeding further.
One needs to prepare cell lysates if using cells as the source of the protein. Lysis can be done using detergents such as Triton X 100 or by mechanical means such as passing 15-20 times through a 25G needle. If using denaturing ionic detergents such as SDS (usually 1%) or Sarkosyl, remember to add 9 volumes of similar lysis buffer, but with a non-ionic detergents such as Triton or NP-40 (usually 1%), to the lysate before proceeding further. Also, the denaturing lysis buffer should have 5 mM EDTA and 15 U/ml DNAse I.
Protease inhibitors should be added to the lysate or medium. Cocktails are best but 1 mM PMSF and 2 ug/ml leupeptin together can suffice.
II. Clearing of lysate
Preclearing helps to remove non-specific proteins that bind to protein A or G beads. 15-20 ul solid beads per ml of lysate are incubated with the lysate with mixing at 4 deg for 30 min and then the beads are removed and discarded following a microspin. This step is optional but required when working with material that have a lot of unrequired protein A or G-binding proteins (such as spleen or thymus lysates - have endogenous immunoglobulins).
Preclearing may be essential if you are using cell culture-conditioned medium (containing serum), ascites fluid, serum, etc.
Note that each ml of protein A or G conjugated to agarose has capacity to bind 10-20 mg IgG. Fetal bovine serum has about 0.2 mg /ml IgG - values for ascitic fluid and high-titer antisera are 5-20 mg /ml.
This step involves setting the reaction so that the antibody binds to the antigen and a solid matrix binds to the antibody. If one has the antibody conjugated to the matrix (usually protein A or G covalently linked on agarose microbeads), it is added directly to the lysate or medium that has the protein of interest. Else, the antibody is added and allowed to bind to the protein and then the matrix is added. All steps are at 4 deg with rotation of reaction tubes for adequate mixing.
A typical immunoprecipitation reaction has this composition - 1-1.5% non-ionic detergent, 10-50 mM Tris buffer at pH 7.4 and 140 mM sodium chloride (or PBS) and protease inhibitors as detailed above. Thus, one can add appropriate chemicals and water to lysates prepared in buffers with other compositions. Final SDS concentration should not exceed 0.1%.
Antibody amounts to use will depend on the levels of target protein, efficiency of the antibody, etc.
1-2 h after addition of antibody, protein A or G beads are added to the reaction. After another 2-3 h (or overnight), most of the target protein would have precipitated. 5-20 ul of the beads are enough for 200 ul reaction volume.
If the antibody is very dilute (e.g., unconcentrated hybridoma culture medium), one may incubate the protein A/G beads with the antibody first (3-6 h to overnight at 4 deg C) and then use spun-down beads (need not be washed).
IV. Washes and further processing
Washes should be done over atleast 5-10 minutes to allow non-specific proteins to diffuse from the interior of beads. Ideally it should be done at 4 deg over 30 minutes, with each wash lasting 5 minutes. Beads are easily pelleted at 100-200 g during a 30 sec - 1 min spin.
Ordinary PBS or TBS, or those modified for higher salt concentration (upto 500 mM sodium chloride; usally 300 mM), and with 0.1% detergent is a good wash buffer. Note, however, that the strength of protein interactions vary from case to case, and high salt concentrations can break interactions. It is good to store such wash buffers at 4 deg with 0.02% sodium azide. Wash atleast thrice, with final wash done in PBS or TBS without high salt or detergent (for good migration on PAGE, etc.). Washes are done in the same tube as immunoprecipitation, using 1 ml buffer each time. After spins, supernantant is carefully aspirated (leaving 10-15 ul with the beads).
The beads can then be stored at -20 or -80 deg, or boiled in SDS-PAGE buffer for electrophoresis or their bound protein eluted using, for example, a low pH (2.5) glycine buffer.
Some prefer allowing the antibody to conjugate to the beads before they are added to the antigen colution. Ths involves incubating the antibody with the beads in the immunoprecipitation buffer for an hour or two and then pelleting the beads. This way, there are no soluble antibodies in the immunoprecipitation reaction to lower the efficiency of antigen binding to the antibody-coated beads, nor are there non-specific proteins to compete with the antibody in binding to the beads.
Protein A or G beads have efficiency of binding 10-20 ug protein per ul.
Most antibodies bind better or equally well to protein G than A - however, protein G binds only IgG antibodies.
Human IgG2 and rat IgG 2a and 2b, and chicken and donkey antibodies do not bind to protein A. Chicken antibodies do not bind to protein G either.
Unlike protein A or G that bind to Fc domain of antibodies (on heavy chains), protein L binds to kappa light chains (all antibody isotypes).
To eliminate or reduce signals from the antibody used for IP when using a secondary antibody in Western blots, etc., (this happens because the light chain of the antibody is bound to the heavy chain by disulfide linkages, and, unlike the heavy chain, is not directly conjugated to the beads; also, some heavy chain itself may come off the beads), one can use a primary antibody of a different isotype or from a different species. One can also, heat the beads in SDS-PAGE buffer without reducing agent for 15 minutes at 65 deg C to collect the supernatant containing bound proteins. Reducing agent is then added to the supernatant before boiling it prior to PAGE.
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<urn:uuid:eaeb3f77-e87c-4b39-874d-4a8a5d2b4ebc>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://stanxterm.aecom.yu.edu/wiki/index.php?page=Immunoprecipitation
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.906436 | 1,503 | 2.75 | 3 |
- What is water retention?
- What causes water retention?
- What are the symptoms of water retention?
- What is the treatment for water retention?
- What else can I do?
What is water retention?
Water retention is the buildup of excess fluid in the tissues. Water retention is typically first noticed by swelling of the extremities.
What causes water retention?
There are many possible causes of water retention, including:
- Heart damage
- Liver damage
- Kidney failure
What are the symptoms of water retention?
Notify your doctor if you have any of the following symptoms:
- Feelings of tightness in the arm or leg
- Decreased flexibility in a hand, elbow, wrist, fingers or leg
- Difficulty fitting into clothing
- Ring, wristwatch, bracelet, shoe that fits tighter than usual
- Pain, aching, heaviness, or weakness in the arm or leg
- Redness, swelling or signs of infection
- Skin that feels stiff or taut
- Pitting (small indentations left on the skin after pressing on the swollen area)
What is the treatment for water retention?
Treatment for water retention depends on the cause. Your doctor may recommend medications that make you urinate more to help remove fluid. These drugs area called diuretics; an example is furosemide (Lasix®). If your swelling is due to lymphedema, your doctor may recommend of variety of physical techniques to reduce and manage your symptoms.
What else can I do?
Remember to notify your doctor if you have any side effects of your treatment or symptoms that are disturbing.
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<urn:uuid:c5fd89d4-df68-4fa0-ae21-8232d68de582>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://news.cancerconnect.com/water-retention/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.912656 | 342 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Vehicle-to-Vehicle technology, known as V2V, is coming. It uses dedicated short-range communications similar to Wi-Fi that is combined with the Global Positioning System. This system provides a 360-degree view of similarly equipped vehicles within communication range. Nine indicators are used by the system to help prevent crashes: GPS location, speed, acceleration, heading, transmission state, brake status, steering wheel angle, path history and path prediction.
But have you heard of Vehicle-to-Infrastructure, known as V2I?
According to the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Research and Innovative Technology Administration, V2I “communications for safety is the wireless exchange of critical safety and operational data between vehicles and highway infrastructure, intended primarily to avoid or mitigate motor vehicle crashes but also to enable a wide range of other safety, mobility, and environmental benefits.”1
Will V2V and V2I be part of the same network?
The vision of V2I Communications is that a minimum level of infrastructure will be deployed to provide the maximum level of safety and mobility benefits for highway safety and operational efficiency nationwide. Importantly, V2I communications have the potential to resolve an additional 12 percent of crash types not addressed under V2V communications. V2I Communications for Safety is a key technology in the USDOT's Connected Vehicles Program, and is complemented by the V2V communications research. While the primary goal is safety, V2I communications are also significant in improving mobility and environment by reducing delays and congestion caused by crashes, enabling wireless roadside inspections, or helping commercial vehicle drivers identify safe areas for parking.2
Will it be secure?
If you listen to the U.S. DOT, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the Federal Communications Commission, the system will be secure.
The FCC chairman has made a commitment to ensure that the 5.9 GHz bandwidth -- which supports V2V -- remains free from interference that could result from expanded use of Wi-Fi in the band.
FCC Chairman Tom Wheeler said the agency has allocated the 5.9GHz bandwidth "for the development of connected vehicle technology" in response to the Intelligent Transportation Society of America's request for a V2V spectrum.
Wheeler offered his commitment in conjunction with the U.S. DOT’s NHTSA announcement that it intends to enable V2V communication technology for light vehicles.
However, an article in Wired magazine titled, “Hackers Can Mess With Traffic Lights to Jam Roads and Reroute Cars,” raises concerns about the security of the V2I network. In particular, the article points out the lack of security in sensors controlling traffic lights.3
According to Cesar Cerrudo, an Argentinian security researcher with IoActive who examined the systems, “By sniffing 802.15.4 wireless traffic on channels used by Sensys Networks devices, it was found that all communication is performed in clear text without any encryption nor security mechanism. Sensor identification information (sensorid), commands, etc. could be observed being transmitted in clear text. Because of this, wireless communications to and from devices can be monitored and initiated by attackers, allowing them to send arbitrary commands, data and manipulating the devices.”4
What does this mean in simpler terms?
“While Cerrudo acknowledges that the systems may have manual overrides and secondary controls that could be used to mitigate problems, an attacker could nevertheless create traffic jams and other problems — causing lights to remain red longer than they should or allowing cars at metering lights to enter freeways and bridges faster or slower than optimal — before anyone would notice and respond to the problem”(emphasis added).5
In other words, the sensors can be accessed by a hacker to cause deadly crashes. This is especially disconcerting for motorcyclists.
How do motorcycles fit into this emerging technology?
With privacy and safety our utmost priorities, the American Motorcyclist Association still has some areas of concern with this new technology.
The U.S. DOT has stated that privacy and system security are secure. We aren’t convinced.
The AMA has provided comments to the FCC to bring awareness that the V2V and V2I technologies may be compromised with unlicensed devices, such as other Wi-Fi networks or hackers. Therefore, we asked the FCC for further testing to ensure vehicles using advanced crash-avoidance and vehicle-to-vehicle- technologies are not compromised.
V2V and V2I technologies present another potential problem. With vehicular intersections already a well-documented problem for motorcyclists, can you imagine the false sense of security that drivers may have who are relying on advanced safety technologies?
They may listen and look for the bells and whistles on their cars rather than look out the windows to actually see motorcycles. Drivers may believe these technologies will protect them and other road users and may not be aware that these technologies could possibly malfunction at a critical moment.
As these new technologies emerge, we must remain vigilant to ensure that motorcyclists and motorcyclists’ rights are protected. The AMA is at the forefront in this effort, and we will continue to inform our members and all motorcyclists about our concerns and possible solutions.
1. http://www.its.dot.gov/research/v2i.htm, accessed May 30, 2014
3. http://www.wired.com/2014/04/traffic-lights-hacking, accessed May 30, 2014
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<urn:uuid:018f8a74-1073-4e24-a6a8-8de093fd60e0>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://americanmotorcyclist.com/blog/14-06-02/DC_Insider_Is_vehicle-to-vehicle_communication_technology_secure.aspx
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en
| 0.932653 | 1,141 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Here is an interesting article that my brother just sent me found here
Unless you have had your head buried in a Big Gulp you probably already know that there are a litany of reasons why soda is bad for you. It’s nothing but sugar water. It’s devoid of any nutritional value. It leads to obesity and diabetes. Here are things you might not know.
- Drinking non-diet soda leads to dramatic increases in fat buildup around your liver and your skeletal muscles, both of which can contribute to insulin resistance and diabetes. A Danish study revealed that people who drank a regular soda every day for six months saw a 132 to 142 percent increase in liver fat, a 117 to 221 percent jump in skeletal fat, and about a 30 percent increase in both triglyceride blood fats and other organ fat. Their consumption also led to an 11 percent increase in cholesterol, compared with the people who drank other beverages such as water or milk.
- Even diet soda will pack on the pounds: Researchers from the University of Texas Health Science Center found that those who drank diet soda had a 70 percent increase in waist circumference over the 10-year study, compared with those who didn’t drink any soda. Those who drank more than two diet sodas per day saw a 500 percent waist expansion!
- Artificial caramel coloring used to make Coke, Pepsi, and other colas brown. The reason: Two contaminants in the coloring, 2-methylimidazole and 4-methylimidazole, have been found to cause cancer in animals, a threat the group says is unnecessary, considering that the coloring is purely cosmetic. According to California’s strict Proposition 65 list of chemicals known to cause cancer, just 16 micrograms per person per day of 4-methylimidazole is enough to pose a cancer threat, and most popular brown colas, both diet and regular, contain 200 micrograms per 20-ounce bottle.
- Diet or regular, all colas contain phosphates, or phosphoric acid, a weak acid that gives colas their tangy flavor and improves their shelf life. Although it exists in many whole foods, such as meat, dairy, and nuts, too much phosphoric acid can lead to heart and kidney problems, muscle loss, and osteoporosis, and one study suggests it could trigger accelerated aging. Excessive phosphate levels found in sodas caused lab rats to die a full five weeks earlier than the rats whose diets had more normal phosphate levels—a disturbing trend considering that soda manufacturers have been increasing the levels of phosphoric acid in their products over the past few decades.
- The artificial sweeteners are bad for the environment. The artificial sweeteners in diet sodas don’t break down in our bodies, nor do wastewater-treatment plants catch them before they enter waterways so the end up in rivers and lakes. A recent test of 19 municipal water supplies in the U.S. revealed the presence of sucralose in every one. It’s not clear yet what these low levels are doing to people, but past research has found that sucralose in rivers and lakes interferes with some organisms’ feeding habits.
- Mountain Dew contains an ingredient called brominated vegetable oil, or BVO, added to prevent the flavoring from separating from the drink, is an industrial chemical used as a flame retardant in plastics. Also found in other citrus-based soft drinks and sports drinks, the chemical has been known to cause memory loss and nerve disorders when consumed in large quantities. Researchers also suspect that, like brominated flame retardants used in furniture foam, the chemical builds up in body fat, possibly causing behavioral problems, infertility, and lesions on heart muscles over time.
- It’s not just the soda that’s causing all the problems. Nearly all aluminum soda cans are lined with an epoxy resin called bisphenol A (BPA), used to keep the acids in soda from reacting with the metal. BPA is known to interfere with hormones, and has been linked to everything from infertility to obesity and diabetes and some forms of reproductive cancers.
- Yellow #5 is a common dye used to color soft drinks. Reactions to the consumption of this dye can include indigestion, anxiety, migraines, clinical depression, blurred vision, itching, general weakness, heat waves, feeling of suffocation, purple skin patches, and sleep disturbance. It has also been linked to childhood obsessive compulsive disorder and hyperactivity. Its use has been banned in Norway, Austria, and Germany.
- Carbonation is an irritant to the stomach. Our bodies pull calcium out of the bloodstream to cure this irritation. The blood must replenish its calcium supply, so it pulls calcium from the bones contributing again to osteoporosis.
- If you drink at least one soft drink every day, you could have more than a 50% higher risk of developing metabolic syndrome according to a study in the American Heart Association’s journal. Metabolic syndrome is a group of conditions which includes lower metabolic rate and excess fat around the waist. Researchers found the risk was high whether you were drinking regular or diet soda.
- Have you heard dentists refer to “Mountain Dew” mouth? Drinking soda has a detrimental effect on our teeth. While the high sugar content of soda causes tooth decay, the acid in all soft drinks easily dissolves tooth enamel.
- Michael Pollan says if we are what we eat we are mostly corn. Take a look at the ingredients list for any soda and chances are most of those ingredients are derived from corn. As much as 88 percent of the corn grown in the U.S. is genetically modified to resist toxic pesticides or engineered to create pesticides within the plant itself. There are no human studies that can prove or disprove whether these crops are safe. Independent scientists have found that, in animals, genetically modified crops, or GMOs, are linked to digestive tract damage, accelerated aging, and even infertility. By drinking soda, you’re taking part in the biggest science experiment on the planet.
Of commonly consumed legal substances, other than cigarettes, soda maybe the worst enemy to our health - and diet soda maybe worse than regular soda. The combination of sugar, sugar substitutes, caffeine and perhaps the chemicals, make soda very addicting. Do you really want to be owned by a can of chemical water? Maybe it is time to put down the Big Gulp and think.
“Every human being is the author of his own health or disease.” Buddha
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<urn:uuid:1fc4141a-7804-4af5-bb1d-52fea79e20f2>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.wholefoodmommies.com/Home/BlogByID?cuk=z/+8/Ofn88zJs8RcTtmmfQ==&bid=5c1c4d23-ab1a-4312-ac84-0e5b13696701
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.947316 | 1,352 | 2.921875 | 3 |
I bet you thought by swapping out those sugar-laden sodas for diet colas, you'd be doing your body a drink of good. Before you take another diet sip, you might want to kick your soft drink habit altogether. New research presented at the American Stroke Association’s International Stroke Conference 2011 suggests that diet soda increases your risk of stroke, heart attack, and vascular-related deaths.
I bet you thought by swapping out those sugar-laden sodas for diet colas, you'd be doing your body a drink of good. Before you take another diet sip, you might want to kick your soft drink habit altogether. New research presented at the American Stroke Association’s International Stroke Conference 2011 suggests that diet soda increases your risk of stroke, heart attack, and vascular-related deaths.Diet soda is not a healthy substitute
In findings involving 2,564 people in the large, multi-ethnic Northern Manhattan Study (NOMAS), scientists said people who drank diet soda every day had a 61 percent higher risk of vascular events than those who reported no soda drinking, according to a press release on the American Heart Association website.
“If our results are confirmed with future studies, then it would suggest that diet soda may not be the optimal substitute for sugar-sweetened beverages for protection against vascular outcomes,” said Hannah Gardener, ScD, lead author of the study and epidemiologist at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine in Miami, Florida.What's your diet soda habit?
In the study, researchers asked subjects at the outset to report how much and what kind of soda they drank.Based on the data, they grouped participants into seven consumption categories:
Diet sodas linked to heart disease
- no soda (meaning less than one soda of any kind per month)
- moderate regular soda only (between one per month and six per week)
- daily regular soda (at least one per day)
- moderate diet soda only
- daily diet soda only
- two groups of people who drink both types: moderate diet and any regular, and daily diet with any regular
During an average follow-up of 9.3 years, 559 vascular events occurred (including ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, which is caused by rupture of a weakened blood vessel). Researchers accounted for participants’ age, sex, race or ethnicity, smoking status, exercise, alcohol consumption and daily caloric intake. And even after researchers also accounted for patients’ metabolic syndrome, peripheral vascular disease and heart disease history, the increased risk persisted at a rate 48 percent higher.Diet soda study has its limitations
Any study based on self-reported information from participants has limited applicability because we humans aren't always accurate in our reporting, especially about our dietary habits. Additionally, the soda study lacks data on types of diet and regular drinks consumed, preventing analysis of whether variations among brands or changes over time in coloring and sweeteners might have played a role in the increased incidence of vascular events.
What does this mean for you? It's possible that drinking diet soda can hurt your heart health, so why not ditch your soda habit and hydrate your body with healthier fluids, such as water, green tea, or fresh juices?More vegan news you can use!
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<urn:uuid:ab408572-faab-4d3a-9d01-2a8bb982e9c6>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.sheknows.com/food-and-recipes/articles/999091/diet-soda-linked-to-strokes
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.929351 | 673 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Arctic inhabitants spend vast amounts of time on land and at sea. Drawing on personal experience, information shared with others, and knowledge handed down through generations, Arctic residents recognize subtle environmental changes and offer insights into their causes. They are community-based monitors by virtue of their day-to-day activities.
In addition to their inherent community based monitoring (CBM) capacity, Arctic residents can employ standard scientific monitoring procedures in the practice of citizen science, thereby extending the reach and effectiveness of programs that rely on a limited number of trained scientists to carry out monitoring.
Indigenous and other Arctic peoples wish to impart their environmental understanding to scientific discourse, not only because they have a great deal to offer, but also because this exchange represents an important step towards full participation in resource management activities.
The CBMP believes that CBM has significant contributions to make to circumpolar monitoring efforts. As such, all aspects of CBMP development have strong consideration and integration of CBM.
The CBMP has three primary goals with respect to CBM:
- To incorporate data, interpretation, and expertise from CBM in the CBMP’s efforts to detect, understand and report on significant Arctic biodiversity trends.
- To make CBMP data, interpretation, and expertise available to CBM efforts.
- To promote the extension and/or replication of established CBM approaches and programs to other regions of the Arctic in conjunction with existing monitoring networks.
CAFF's Permanent Participants and other Indigenous and local organizations desire a strong CBM element within the CBMP. The communities of the Arctic region will directly benefit from the powerful information gathering and dissemination approach that the CBMP offers. Maximizing the contributions of circumpolar peoples to the CBMP will help ensure that the program is relevant and responsive to local concerns.
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<urn:uuid:1712dd52-f48e-4166-9433-ebf413e882e7>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.caff.is/community-based-monitoring
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.934789 | 364 | 2.84375 | 3 |
WASHINGTON Mom-to-be closing in on her due date? The nation's obstetricians are getting more precise about exactly how close makes for a full-term pregnancy.
On average, a pregnancy lasts 40 weeks, counting from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. That's how a due date is estimated.
A baby is considered preterm if he or she is born before 37 weeks of pregnancy. Until now, a "term" baby was defined as one born anytime from 37 weeks to 42 weeks, a few weeks before or after the calculated due date.
Now the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists is refining the definition of a term pregnancy to make clear that even at the end of the last trimester, a little more time in the womb can be better for a baby's health and development.
"Weeks matter," said Dr. Jeffrey Ecker of Massachusetts General Hospital, who chaired the ACOG committee that came up with the more specific labels. Since babies' outcomes can differ, "let's not call it all the same."
The new definitions, released Tuesday in the journal Obstetrics & Gynecology:
- Early Term, between 37 weeks and 38 weeks 6 days.
- Full Term, between 39 weeks and 40 weeks 6 days.
- Late Term, the 41st week.
- Post Term, after 42 weeks.
In recent years, doctors' groups and the March of Dimes have stressed that elective deliveries - inductions and C-sections scheduled without a medical reason - shouldn't happen before the 39th week of pregnancy. Research shows that babies born at 37 weeks have more of a risk of complications, such as difficulty breathing, than those born just two weeks later.
Ecker said the new definitions will help doctors communicate that message.
The March of Dimes welcomed the change, saying it "eliminates confusion about how long an uncomplicated, healthy pregnancy should last.
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<urn:uuid:f9893f0f-4707-4262-8384-cdca4fc5a5c5>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.cbsnews.com/news/full-term-pregnancy-definition-changes/
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en
| 0.964336 | 402 | 2.953125 | 3 |
by Roland Pease
Princeton - August 23, 2000 - Could bizarre giant particles nearly as big as galaxies, but lighter than electrons, dig cosmology out of a hole? Physicists suggest the universe is jam-packed with these strange particles, which might explain why small galaxies are far rarer in the universe than theory predicts.
"I know it sounds crazy," says team member Andrei Gruzinov of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. "But so far as we can tell, no observations rule it out."
The weird particles could solve a problem related to galaxy formation. Observations suggest galaxies formed when the universe was less than a billion years old as matter clumped together under gravity.
But astronomers have trouble explaining how they formed so early on. The normal matter that makes up galaxies and stars should have taken much longer to collapse into lumps.
To resolve this, they've suggested the universe contains lots of so-called cold dark matter, which is different from ordinary matter and clumps together more readily under gravity.
Shortly after the big bang, the cold dark matter would have collapsed into pools whose gravity subsequently dragged in the ordinary matter that builds galaxies, speeding up their formation.
But computer simulations since 1996 predict the cold dark matter should have continued to collapse under its own weight, forming dense nuggets not just at the cores of big galaxies, but at random points in space as well. These nuggets should also have attracted normal matter, forming huge numbers of dwarf galaxies--far more than we can actually see.
Now a team led by Wayne Hu of the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study has come up with an extraordinary solution to this predicament from the quantum world.
According to quantum theory, matter can behave as both particles and waves. Normally we don't see the wavelike characteristics of matter because their wavelengths are so small--usually atom-sized.
But Hu's team says that if a particle was light enough--just 10-24 times as heavy as an electron--its wavelength would be a massive 3000 light years. In other words, each particle's size would be a significant fraction of the size of a whole galaxy.
So a collection of these giant particles would not collapse into small nuggets, explaining the dearth of dwarf galaxies. Instead, these particles would form giant globs of "fuzzy" cold dark matter.
David Spergel, an astrophysicist at Princeton University, calls it a cute idea. But he adds that to avoid upsetting everything else we know, fuzzy matter could only feel one force--gravity--and that it would be almost impossible to detect.
Hu argues that looking at the shapes of dwarf galaxies could help reveal whether fuzzy matter really does exist. Although the idea is speculative, adds Gruzinov, it sets up a challenge to their peers: "Can you prove this wrong?"
Source: Physical Review Letters (vol 85, p 1158)
This article appeared in the August 26 issue of New Scientist New Scientist. Copyright 2000 - All rights reserved. The material on this page is provided by New Scientist and may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without written authorization from New Scientist.
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The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth. It covers about 98% of the Antarctic continent. Antarctica is considered as a desert as this place is the coldest, driest, and windiest on the earth. It has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Now, NASA ice scientists have found a shrimp-like creature and a possible jellyfish ‘frolicking’ beneath 600 feet of solid Antarctic ice, where only microbes were expected to live.
From the news story:
Six hundred feet below the ice where no light shines, they had figured nothing much more than a few microbes could exist.
The climate of Antarctica does not allow Vegetation. Plant life is limited. Life can live in oceans and it can very complex too. So if such life is possible here under Antarctic Ice, why not elsewhere, in our own universe or other galaxy?
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|Brian N. Pasley and Ralph D. Freeman (2008), Scholarpedia, 3(3):5340.||doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.5340||revision #91581 [link to/cite this article]|
Neurovascular coupling refers to the relationship between local neural activity and subsequent changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF). The magnitude and spatial location of blood flow changes are tightly linked to changes in neural activity through a complex sequence of coordinated events involving neurons, glia, and vascular cells. Many vascular-based functional brain imaging techniques, such as fMRI, rely on this coupling to infer changes in neural activity.
Physiological consequences of neural activation
Brain activation is accompanied by a complex sequence of cellular, metabolic, and vascular processes. Although the mechanisms linking these events are still under investigation, the basic sequence can be summarized as follows ( Figure 1). Various cellular processes of neurons, such as the restoration of ionic gradients and neurotransmitter recycling, require energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is synthesized first by glycolysis, which is anaerobic and produces a small amount of ATP, and then by oxidative glucose metabolism, which requires oxygen and produces a large amount of ATP. In the brain, about 90% of glucose is metabolized by the latter mechanism, i.e., aerobically. Cerebral metabolism thus depends on a constant supply of both glucose and oxygen. A continuous supply of these two energy substrates is maintained by CBF, which delivers glucose and oxygen to neural tissue through the complex web of blood vessels in the brain’s vascular system ( Figure 2). Accordingly, during neural activity, increases in oxygen and glucose consumption are followed by an increase in CBF. Whereas the fractional increases in CBF and glucose consumption are similar in magnitude, oxygen consumption increases much less than CBF, leading to a net increase in the amount of oxygen present in the blood and tissue. This oversupply of oxygen due to the mismatch between CBF and oxygen consumption is the basis of blood-oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) fMRI, which detects alterations in levels of deoxygenated hemoglobin and cerebral blood volume.
While it is clear that alterations in neural activity and metabolism are correlated with changes in CBF, the mechanisms linking these processes are a matter of debate. One possibility is that blood flow is controlled directly by energy demand. In fact, this idea was originally proposed over a century ago by Roy and Sherrington (1890): “…the brain possesses an intrinsic mechanism by which its vascular supply can be varied locally in correspondence with local variations of functional activity.” In this view, regional blood flow is controlled by feedback mechanisms that are sensitive to variations in the concentrations of ionic and molecular metabolic by-products. These by-products, such as K+, nitric oxide (NO), adenosine, carbon dioxide (CO2) and arachidonic acid metabolites, may directly or indirectly alter blood flow by depolarizing (or hyperpolarizing) the vascular smooth muscle cells which trigger vasodilation (or vasoconstriction). Although intuitive, the idea that energy supply (i.e., local blood flow) is controlled directly by energy demand (i.e., metabolic activity) appears to be oversimplified. An alternative possibility is that local blood flow is controlled directly by a feedforward mechanism involving neuronal signaling via neurotransmitters (Attwell and Iadecola, 2002; Lauritzen, 2005). Evidence for this mechanism suggests that astrocytes may play an important role in linking neurotransmitter activity to vascular responses (Harder et al., 1998; Pellerin and Magistretti, 2004). Astrocytes are a critical component for glutamate recycling. A cascade of chemical events within the astrocyte may then link the rate of glutamate cycling to the production of vasoactive chemical agents (Raichle and Mintun, 2006). In this view, neurovascular coupling is mediated by neuronal signaling mechanisms via glial pathways, rather than by mechanisms that sense energy consumption. In addition, neurovascular coupling might be mediated by diffusion of products of neuronal activity without the involvement of glial cells (Attwell and Iadecola, 2002). Finally, there is evidence that direct neuronal innervation of smooth muscle cells can also control blood flow (Hamel, 2004; Iadecola, 2004). Ultimately, it is likely that multiple mechanisms, both feedforward and feedback, function to mediate neurovascular coupling (Attwell and Iadecola, 2002; Lauritzen, 2005; Uludag et al., 2004). It is important to note that neurovascular coupling must provide for continuous brain function which requires metabolic nutrients and the elimination of waste products such as CO2 and excessive heat. The fact that this process occurs on a fine spatio-temporal scale provides the basis for many powerful neuroimaging techniques.
Coupling to synaptic and spiking neural activity
Although neural activity and blood flow are closely coupled, it is important to understand which aspects of neural activity drive the vascular response. Synaptic transmission and action potentials represent two different aspects of neural activity, each with their own molecular basis and energy requirements. Synaptic activity is reflected in the local field potential (LFP) and can be considered as the input to the neuron, while action potentials (spikes) are the output signals that permit communication between neurons. In many cases, LFPs and spikes are highly correlated and will therefore both correlate with the vascular response. This is likely to be the case in most studies of bottom-up sensory processing where both efferent and afferent activity increase proportionally (Logothetis and Wandell, 2004). However, there are likely to be many situations where spikes and subthreshold responses are dissociated. For instance, higher level brain areas may be subject to feedback and neuromodulatory signals that alter subthreshold membrane potential but do not elicit spikes (Logothetis and Wandell, 2004). Several experimental investigations have noted such dissociations between LFPs and spikes, including:
- In cerebellar cortex, electrical stimulation of parallel fibers inhibits Purkinje cell spiking, but increases overall synaptic activity. LFPs and CBF both increased, whereas spiking activity was eliminated (Mathiesen et al., 1998).
- Adaptation to sustained visual stimulation decreases spike rate in many V1 neurons, while LFP and BOLD responses remain elevated (Logothetis, et. al., 2001).
- Visual stimuli presented at high flicker rates elicit LFP but not spiking activity in primary visual cortex. Strong coupling between LFP and vascular responses was observed even in the absence of spikes (Viswanathan and Freeman, 2007).
- Attentional modulation of activity in V1 is observed with fMRI (Gandhi et al., 1999), but not with neurophysiological recordings of spike activity. The vascular response observed with fMRI may therefore reflect increased subthreshold depolarizations that do not elicit spikes, but do drive the vascular response (but see Yoshor et al., 2007).
- Injection of a serotonin agonist in V1 reduced multi-unit spiking activity with no effect on LFP or BOLD (Rauch, et. al., 2008).
In summary, existing data suggest that when afferent and efferent activity are correlated, the vascular response can be considered to reflect both spike rate and synaptic activity. However, when the two are dissociated, the vascular response more closely reflects synaptic activity and may not serve as an indicator of spike rate in the local neural population.
Coupling in space, time, and amplitude
The use of vascular responses to infer neural activity requires an understanding of how these two signals are coupled in space, time, and amplitude.
When a limited focal population of neurons is activated, how well-localized is the vascular response? This is an important question for the application of neuroimaging techniques and it is necessary for the derivation of functional maps of cortical columns and lamina. Spatial resolution of the vascular response depends in large part on what component of the vascular system is considered. The dense network of capillaries penetrating the gray matter affords the highest spatial resolution, with an intervessel distance of ~25um, while the larger compartments of arteries and veins are much more sparse and less confined to individual functional modules (Pawlik et al., 1981). Thus, it has been shown, using different imaging modalities, that columnar maps can be obtained by enhancing signal from the capillary component while minimizing contributions from large vessels (Moon et al., 2007; Vanzetta et al., 2004; Yacoub et al., 2007). There are a few reports of a submillimeter vascular point spread function (PSF) (Duong et al., 2001; Harel et al., 2006), while other estimates are on the order of 1-2mm (Harel et al., 2006; Thompson et al., 2005), 2mm (Shmuel et al., 2007), or 3.5mm (Engel et al., 1997; Parkes et al., 2005). Overall, this estimate depends on the magnetic field (e.g., 1.5 Tesla vs. 7 Tesla), technique (spin echo vs. gradient echo BOLD fMRI), species (e.g., cat vs. human), and brain region (e.g., thalamus vs. cortex). Thus, while the underlying vascular PSF appears to provide submillimeter spatial specificity in some instances, the PSF of signals obtained from various imaging methods can be larger than the size of a functional module (e.g., ~1mm for a human ocular dominance column). Therefore, most successful high resolution studies have relied on a differential mapping approach, whereby two orthogonal conditions are compared in order to suppress spatially non-specific components of the signal (Grinvald et al., 2000). Use of the early metabolic response (i.e., “initial dip”) may provide improved localization and the ability to generate single condition functional maps (Frostig et al., 1990; Thompson et al., 2003), but practical use of the initial dip for functional mapping is severely limited by poor SNR and brief duration. Continued optimization of imaging techniques to selectively enhance capillary CBF responses may permit routine acquisition of single condition functional maps at high spatial resolution.
Perhaps the most severe experimental limitation imposed by neurovascular coupling is the lack of temporal information in the vascular response. The CBF response to a brief period of neural activation is typically delayed by 1-2 seconds and peaks 4-6 seconds after the neural response ( Figure 3). Because of this temporal filter, fast modulation of neural activity is unlikely to be reflected in the vascular response. The delay of CBF relative to neuronal activity is probably not due to slow reaction of smooth muscle cells. Instead, the delay is probably related to the slow diffusion and uptake of neurovascular mediators. In spite of this slow process, several studies suggest that the temporal fidelity of the vascular response (i.e., how accurately it reflects neuronal timing) may be fine enough to encode temporal differences in neuronal activity on the order of milliseconds (Kellman et al., 2003; Ogawa et al., 2000).
If the relationship between neural activity and vascular response is linear, the interpretation of neuroimaging studies is greatly simplified. In general, amplitude coupling appears to be largely linear (Li and Freeman, 2007; Logothetis et al., 2001), at least for stimulus durations larger than 4s, although various nonlinearities have been noted. For instance, neural responses below a certain amplitude may not evoke a CBF response (Sheth et al., 2004). Furthermore, neural responses may saturate, while vascular responses continue to increase (Sheth et al., 2004). In most investigations, however, there is a large range over which neural and vascular responses maintain a linear relationship.
Coupling during abnormal brain states
Neurovascular coupling may be altered during abnormal physiological states such as those found in the diseased or aging brain. These abnormal states could potentially alter the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the link between neural activity and blood flow. This would complicate the use of vascular responses to infer neural function in such conditions. Several examples of neurovascular coupling during abnormal brain states are given below.
- Disease and aging
The relationship between neural activity and CBF can be altered in the diseased brain. These alterations can include changes in both the chemical mediators of neurovascular coupling and the dynamics of the vascular system itself (D'Esposito et al., 2003; Iadecola, 2004). For example, ionic channels on vascular smooth muscle can be altered in hypertension, diabetes, and Alzheimer’s disease (D'Esposito et al., 2003; Iadecola, 2004), which could lead to abnormal patterns of vasodilation after neural activation. In addition, neural injury of many kinds is known to cause gliosis, e.g., a proliferation of astrocytes in the damaged area. Given the presumed function of astrocytes in linking neurotransmitter activity to vascular changes, neurovascular coupling in damaged tissue may differ from that of intact neural tissue. Finally, aging and vascular pathology can also change the vascular system itself, primarily through increasing tortuosity, reactivity, or reducing elasticity of the blood vessels (D'Esposito et al., 2003). In these cases, vasodilation or constriction will be limited and may therefore disrupt the relationship between vascular and neural responses.
Many drugs, such as nicorandil or diazoxide, are vasoactive, and can therefore cause large vascular responses with little or no change in neural activity. Hypercapnia, in which the concentration of CO2 in the blood is increased, also leads to vasodilation. The sensitivity of the vascular system to various medications and chemicals is a major consideration for interpreting neuroimaging results in clinical populations. The issue is further complicated by the fact that a number of agents (such as CO2 and caffeine) could have opposing effects on metabolism and CBF.
- Electrical stimulation
Electrical stimulation of the brain, for example through microelectrodes, deep brain stimulation, or transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), causes a variety of cellular alterations that could alter neurovascular coupling. These include swelling of the cell body, increases in extracellular potassium, and alteration of local metabolite concentrations. However, simultaneous measurements of neural and vascular responses to stimulation demonstrate that normal neurovascular coupling is maintained after TMS application (Allen et al., 2007). Furthermore, BOLD fMRI measurements of electrical microstimulation reveal activation in expected projection sites of the stimulated region (Tolias et al., 2005). These results suggest that the cellular effects of electrical stimulation do not substantially alter neurovascular coupling.
The examples noted above highlight the important observation that CBF responses reflect a mixture of neuronal and vascular effects. In some cases, these factors are unrelated. Importantly, there are quantitative biophysical models of neurovascular coupling which can be used to estimate the relative contributions of these physiological parameters from measured BOLD and CBF data (Davis et al., 1998; Stephan et al., 2004; van Zijl et al., 1998; Zheng et al., 2002). These models permit an approach whereby the distinct contributions from metabolic and vascular processes can be estimated and used to disambiguate neuronal and vascular effects when interpreting fMRI responses (Smith et al., 2002; Stefanovic et al., 2004; Uludag et al., 2004; Pasley et al., 2007).
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A battle is raging over the future of books in the digital age and the role libraries will play. One case now before a U.S. federal court may, some say, grant a practical monopoly on recorded human knowledge to global Internet search giant Google. The complex case has attracted opposition from hundreds of individuals and groups from around the planet.
Google announced in 2004 its plan to digitize millions of books and make them available online. Books in the public domain would be made freely available. Newer books, published since 1923 and for which copyright still exists, would still be online, but only viewable in what Google called “snippets.” Two groups, the Authors Guild and the Association of American Publishers, sued, alleging copyright violations. In October 2008, the groups and Google announced a settlement to the lawsuits, dubbed the “Google Book Settlement.” Google would pay $125 million and create a Books Rights Registry, an organization that would direct funds from the settlement, and future revenue from book sales, to the copyright holders. Google would be empowered not only to display works, but also to become a massive, online electronic bookstore.
The settlement grants Google, automatically, permission to scan, display and sell books that are still in copyright but are deemed “out of print,” and for which the copyright holder cannot be easily found. These are referred to as “orphan works.” The status of orphan works has been the subject of much debate, and legislation has been proposed to make orphan works more available to the public. The Google Book Settlement gives Google, and only Google, sole, legal access to digitize and sell these works.
UC Berkeley Law professor Pamela Samuelson wrote recently, “The Google Book Search settlement will be, if approved, the most significant book industry development in the modern era … (and) will transform the future of the book industry and of public access to the cultural heritage of mankind embodied in books.”
Brewster Kahle co-founded the Internet Archive, a digital library aspiring to provide “universal access to human knowledge.” It houses 150 billion Web pages, 200,000 movies, 400,000 audio recordings and more than 1.6 million texts. Kahle opposes the GBS. Google scans large library holdings and returns to each library digital versions only viewable on a limited number of computer terminals that Google provides.
I asked Kahle how he sees the future of libraries. “Libraries as a physical place to go, I think will continue,” he said. “But if this trend continues, if we let Google make a monopoly here, then what libraries are in terms of repositories of books, places that buy books, own them, be a guardian of them, will cease to exist. Libraries, going forward, may just be subscribers to a few monopoly corporations’ databases.” Kahle’s version of the digital library, which he and others are building collaboratively, is open and shareable, without strings attached as with Google’s deal. Kahle co-founded the Open Book Alliance, which filed an opposition to the Google Book Settlement, equating the settlement to oil price-fixing schemes set up by railroad barons and John Rockefeller’s Standard Oil in the 1870s.
After Judge Denny Chin, who is presiding over the case, called for public comment, opposition began flooding in from around the globe, from the governments of France and Germany to scores of smaller and foreign publishers, authors and artists, including folk singer Arlo Guthrie and author Julia Wright, daughter of Richard Wright, who wrote the classics “Black Boy” and “Native Son.” Marybeth Peters, head of the U.S. Copyright Office, called it an “end run around legislative process and prerogatives.” Judge Chin proposed a “fairness hearing” for Wednesday to decide on the Google Book Settlement.
On Sept. 18, the U.S. Department of Justice filed an opposition brief. It read, in part, “the breadth of the Proposed Settlement – especially the forward-looking business arrangements it seeks to create – raises significant legal concerns. … A global disposition of the rights to millions of copyrighted works is typically the kind of policy change implemented through legislation, not through a private judicial settlement.” Judge Chin announced a delay on the hearing. The Open Book Alliance, along with many others, applauded the delay and is calling for an open, transparent process going forward to deal with the future of book digitization and the issue of orphan works in a way that best benefits the public interest.
Last year, the average private college charged $43,921 for tuition, room and board. Public schools charged $19,548 for in-state students and $34,031 for those from out of state. That's enough ...
OUTDOOR EDUCATION -- Think ahead if you want to participate in the free and popular Wednesdays in the Woods programs at Riverside State Park. Only five of 95 preregistration spots ...
Check out the list of the tour's concert venues. Lots of big-league facilities. And Albi. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsters_of_Rock_Tour_1988 https://perishablepress.com/wp/wp-content/images/others/monster-story_01.jpg
Idaho Lt. Gov. Brad Little says he’s filing the paperwork today to form a campaign committee to run for governor in 2018. Little, the first candidate officially in the race ...
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Water is a part of our everyday life. Life as we know it could
not exist without water and although it may seem to be a simple
substance made up of just one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms its
complexity lies in its size and properties.
Studies on the structure of water
Water is made unique by its
variety of anomalous properties. These properties change the behavior
of liquid water in a way no other liquid molecule can act. Water in its
frozen and gas form also acts differently when compared to other solid
and gaseous molecules.
- Water Anomalies - Phase diagram and
explanation of phase anomalies of water.
Hydrogen bonding occurs when a
hydrogen atom attaches to two atoms instead of just one. This can
happen when partially positive hydrogen atoms lie between partially
negative charged atoms of nitrogen and oxygen.
When a hydrogen atom splits from a water molecule it has a
positive charge that attracts to negative charged hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. When this happens water can end up having a higher concentration
of hydrogen ions than normal water making it ionized. When water has
this higher concentration of positive ions it is called acidic.
Alkaline water would be Ionized water with a higher count of
hydrogen-oxygen pairs. Some believe that ionized water is beneficial to
the body by helping to rid it of free radicals others believe its a
huge money making scam.
- Ionized and alkaline water- A
chemist tells why he believes claims of ionized water is worthless and
why no one should buy into expensive machines and ionization products.
Water Hydration Resources
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"wipe your glosses with what you know" - FW p. 304
During some pretty idle and aimless book perusing and internet browsing I came across two images which I decided are good illustrations of important elements in Finnegans Wake. A saying goes that if a picture is worth a thousand words then a symbol is worth a thousand pictures. Let's take a brief look at how these two symbolic pictures sum up massive pieces of the Wake.
This is a woodcut by Japanese artist Utagawa Hiroshige from 1853. In imagining the recurring "characters" of Finnegans Wake, a family of five (sort of), I've found that it helps to maintain the idea of these figures as morphogenetic organic elements, not as individual people. A seemingly simple nature scene such as this one then manages to serve as a family portrait when you consider each character's earthly element:
HCE as Mountain
ALP as River
Shem as Tree
Shaun as Stone
Isabelle as Cloud
That's entirely what's represented in that picture. "Because it's run on the mountain and river system" (FW 288.F3). If you want to count the image in the Wake of the Chapelizod pub in which this "family" sleeps you can even find some little buildings in there.
This next one is both simpler in its representation and more difficult in concluding what exactly it means in the Wake.
Pretty familiar scene there. What's it got to do with the Wake?
From first page to last, Finnegans Wake is positively loaded with rainbows. The entirety of the 1st chapter in Book II, the stage play of "The Mime of Mick, Nick, and the Maggies" (the enactment of "a rainborne pamtomomiom" as p. 285 describes it) frequently features the seven colors with a dance of the seven rainbow girls who are described in endlessly varying names which always refer to the seven colors, as in "Rose, Sevilla ... Cintronelle ... Esmeralde, Pervinca ... Indra ...Viola" (p. 223) or, spelling out the acronym RAYNBOW on pg. 226:
"R is Rubretta and A is Arancia, Y is for Yilla and N for greeneriN. B is Boyblue with odalisque O while W waters the fleurettes of novembrance."Page 247 has the line "Split the hvide and aye seize heaven!" which indicates splitting the white (Danish "hvide") so the eye sees seven colors.
In the final chapter of the book, there's a debate between Bishop Berkeley and St. Patrick revolving around light and the visible universe in which the druid Berkeley refers to "the his heptachromatic sevenhued septicoloured roranyellgreenlindigan" (p. 611). There are many interpretations as to the importance and meaning of the recurring rainbows and Joyce himself indicated in his letters that the book features an elaborately developed theory of colors. John Bishop in his outstanding study Joyce's Book of the Dark devotes a lengthy chapter (entitled "Meoptics") to exploring the idea that the Wake's play of colors represents visions streaming across the inside surface of the eyelids of the sleeping person within whose body (Bishop argues convincingly) the whole book takes place. In the midst of his exegesis, we're led to some very intriguing considerations of the human eye, a fleshy filmscreen and projector. (I'll have lots more to say about Bishop's great book and his unique ideas very soon.)
Coming back to the organic scene from the first picture, I'm led to think about the bright white light of the sun interacting with the waters of the river mother evaporating into mist and daughter clouds whose raindrops bend light into rainbows, the rain eventually falling down the slopes of a mountain and turning back into a river ("Because it's run on the mountain and river system" FW288.F3). I could also start talking about the Wake's recurring use of the word "heliotrope" and moving towards the sun but I'll stop here...
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The school of Reid refers to the Scottish School of Common Sense, a school of philosophy founded by Thomas Reid in the late 1700s. Reid's Theory of Common Sense — the basis for his Essays on the Active Powers of Man, Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, and his other philosophical works — centers on a number of basic axioms, which the school sought to defend: that a person's conscious thoughts define his or her identity, that events distinctly remembered did really happen, that some degree of free will exists, that other people are alive and intelligent, and so forth. Essentially, Reid established the Scottish School of Common Sense to respond to the skepticism and philosophical paradox described in the works of René Descartes and David Hume (The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
In "Signs of the Times," Carlyle describes Reid's reaction to the views of Hume, who believed that morality and human nature could be examined scientifically. According to Carlyle, the idea that ethics can be reduced to a science "brought [the School of Common Sense] into being," with Reid unleashing "Instinct" — the notion that basic senses of perception should be trusted, and to have beliefs contradictory to common sense "is to be in deep conflict with one's nature as a human being"(The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) — as his initial, somewhat immature counterargument. Later on, Reid "tugged lustily at the logical chain" put forth by Hume, attempting to find a halfway point between science and Common Sense. According to William C. Davis's Thomas Reid's Ethics: Moral Epistemology on Legal Foundations, Reid believed in a "moral sense" analogous to hearing, sight, and touch (Davis 3). The "moral sense" concept proved problematic for several reasons, relating primarily to the untraceable origins of "moral sensations"(Davis 3), and as a result, Carlyle says, the chain between Hume and Reid eventually snapped. Hume's ethics and Reid's ethics, science and morality, proved irreconcilable, with the resulting tragedy being that people stopped caring about the dispute altogether.
- Emotionalist Moral Philosophy: Sympathy and the Moral Theory that Overthrew Kings
- The influence of Reid and the Common Sense School on John Ruskin
- Reid and the Scottish Enlightenment
Davis, William C. Thomas Reid's Ethics: Moral Epistemology on Legal Foundations. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006.
"Thomas Reid." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 20 Feb 2009. Accessed 29 March 2009.
Last modified 26 March 2010
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The Tehri Dam : The Tehri Dam Tehri Dam is a multi-purpose rock and earth-fill embankment dam on the Bhagirathi River near Tehri in Uttarakhand, India. It is the primary dam of the Tehri Hydro Development Corporation Ltd. and the Tehri hydroelectric complex. The dam is a 260 metres (850 ft) high rock and earth-fill embankment dam. Its length is 575 metres (1,886 ft), crest width 20 metres (66 ft), and base width 1,128 metres (3,701 ft).: Tehri Dam is a multi-purpose rock and earth-fill embankment dam on the Bhagirathi River near Tehri in Uttarakhand, India. It is the primary dam of the Tehri Hydro Development Corporation Ltd. and the Tehri hydroelectric complex. The dam is a 260 metres (850 ft) high rock and earth-fill embankment dam. Its length is 575 metres (1,886 ft), crest width 20 metres (66 ft), and base width 1,128 metres (3,701 ft). Mullaperiyar Dam: Mullaperiyar Dam PowerPoint Presentation: Kerala Government has long been demanding construction of a new dam in Mullaperiyar on the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border. Many believe that the existing 116-year-old dam could pose safety hazard. While the matter rests with the apex court, we look at some of India’s biggest and most famous dams, hailed by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru as ‘The Temples of a Resurgent India’. Bhakra Dam : Bhakra Dam PowerPoint Presentation: Bhakra Dam is a concrete gravity dam across the Sutlej River, and is near the border between Punjab and Himachal Pradesh in northern India. The dam, located at a gorge near the (now submerged) upstream Bhakra village in Bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh, is Asia's second highest at 225.55 m (740 ft) high next to the 261m Tehri Dam. The length of the dam (measured from the road above it) is 518.25 m; it is 9.1 m broad . Hirakud Dam: Hirakud Dam PowerPoint Presentation: Hirakud Dam is built across the Mahanadi River, about 15 km from Sambalpur in the state of Orissa in India. Built in 1957, the dam is one of the world's longest earthen dam. Hirakud Dam is the longest man-made dam in the world, about 16 mi (26 km) in length. It is one of the first major multipurpose river valley project started after India's independence Nagarjuna Sagar Dam : Nagarjuna Sagar Dam PowerPoint Presentation: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is the world's largest masonry dam built across Krishna River in Nagarjuna Sagar, Nalgonda District of Andhra Pradesh, India, between 1955 and 1967. The dam contains the Nagarjuna Sagar reservoir with a capacity of up to 11,472 million cubic metres. The dam is 490 ft (150 m). tall and 1.6 km long with 26 gates which are 42 ft (13 m). wide and 45 ft (14 m). tall. Nagarjuna Sagar was the earliest in the series of large The Sardar Sarovar Dam: The Sardar Sarovar Dam PowerPoint Presentation: The Sardar Sarovar Dam is a gravity dam on the Narmada River near Navagam, Gujarat, India. It is the largest dam and part of the Narmada Valley Project, a large hydraulic engineering project involving the construction of a series of large irrigation and hydroelectric multi-purpose dams on the Narmada River. The project took form in 1979 as part of a development scheme to increase irrigation and produce hydroelectricity. It is the 30th largest The Indirasagar Dam: The Indirasagar Dam PowerPoint Presentation: The Indirasagar Dam is a multipurpose key project of Madhya Pradesh on the Narmada River at Narmadanagar in the Khandwa district of Madhya Pradesh in India. The Project envisages construction of a 92 m high and 653 m long concrete gravity dam. It provides Irrigation in 1,230 square kilometres of land with annual production of 2700 million units in the districts of Khandwa and Khargone in Madhya Pradesh and power generation of 1000 MW installed The Tungabhadra dam: The Tungabhadra dam PowerPoint Presentation: The Tungabhadra dam is constructed across the Tungabhadra River, a tributary of the Krishna River. The dam is located near the town of Hospet in Karnataka. The dam creates the biggest reservoir on the Tungabhadra River with 101 thousand million cubic feet (tmc) of gross storage capacity at full reservoir level (FRL) 498 m MSL, and a water spread area of 378 square kilometres. The dam is 49.5 meters high above its deepest foundation The Bhavanisagar Dam and Reservoir: The Bhavanisagar Dam and Reservoir PowerPoint Presentation: The Bhavanisagar Dam and Reservoir, also called Lower Bhavani Dam, is located on the Bhavani River between Mettupalayam and Sathyamangalam in Erode District, Tamil Nadu, South India. The dam is situated around 16 km (9.9 mi) west to Satyamangalam and 35 km (22 mi) from Gobichettipalayam, 36 km (22 mi) north-east to Mettuppalayam and 70 km (43 mi) from Erode and 75 km (47 mi) from Coimbatore. The dam is considered to be among the biggest earthen The Koyna Hydroelectric Project: The Koyna Hydroelectric Project PowerPoint Presentation: The Koyna Hydroelectric Project is the largest completed hydroelectric power plant of India It is a complex project consisting of total four dams with the largest Dam built on Koyna River known as Koyna Dam hence the name Koyna Hydroelectric project. The total Installed capacity of the project is 1,920 MW. The project consists of 4 stages of power generation. Due to the project's electricity generating potential the Koyna River is considered as The Idukki Dam: The Idukki Dam PowerPoint Presentation: The Idukki Dam, located in Kerala, India, is a 168.91 m (554 ft) tall arch dam. The dam stands between the two mountains - Kuravanmala (839) m and Kurathimala (925)m. It was constructed and is owned by the Kerala State Electricity Board. It supports a 780 MW hydroelectric power station. It is built on the Periyar River, in the ravine between the Kuravan and Kurathi Hills in Kerala, India. At 167.68 metres, it is one of the highest arch dams in Asia PowerPoint Presentation: Krishna Raja Sagara , also popularly known as KRS, is the name of both a lake and the dam that causes it. Sir. Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya served as the chief engineer during the construction of this dam. The dam is named for the then ruler of the Mysore Kingdom, Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV The Mettur Dam: The Mettur Dam PowerPoint Presentation: The Mettur Dam is a large dam in India built in 1934. It was constructed in a gorge, where the Kaveri River enters the plains. The dam is one of the oldest in India. The total length of the dam is 1,700 m (5,600 ft). The Srisailam Dam: The Srisailam Dam PowerPoint Presentation: The Srisailam Dam is a dam constructed across the Krishna River at Srisailam in the Kurnool district in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India and is the second largest capacity hydroelectric project in the country. The dam was constructed in a deep gorge in the Nallamala Hills, 300 m (980 ft) above sea level. It is 512 m (1,680 ft) long, 145 m (476 ft) high and has 12 radial crest gates. It has a reservoir of 800 km2 (310 sq mi).
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Almost from the moment the guns fell silent, the Lost Cause argument became a major factor in Civil War histrography. The Lost Cause was the belief that the Southern Secession, even the defense of slavery, was honorable. Proponents tend to insist that Southern generals were more skillful, but their nobel effort was destined to failure because of the industrial superiority of the North. Lost Cause historians artgue that the true cause of the Civil War was not slavery but the attempy by the North to use the Federal Government to supress legitimate states rights. The War is presented as a nobel effort overwhealmed by the substantial materrial resources of the North. The Lost Cause proponents also maintained, often with considerable venim, that prostrate South after the Civil War was victimized during Reconstruction by unscrupulous carpetbaggers, scalawags and barely civilized blacks. The inferiority of Blacks which was described in both cultural and biological termns was used to justify segregation. Disenfranchisement was more of a problem and was variously denied, deemphasiuzed, or ignored. The Lost Cause was argued by considerable number of historians. The varied in the issues persued and the arguments made, but there were several basis arguments that were made by many of the Lost Cause historians.
Perhaps the most effective argument of the Lost Cause historians is that secession was legal and that the Southern states were exercising their legitimate rights. Here the Constitution is silent. But the the basic constitutional principle is that those powers not specufically allocated to the Federal Government are alloted to the states. We are not sure if the issue of secession was discussed at the Constitutional Convention, but adding a provision prohiviting secession would have made the Constitution impossible to rarify. We do know that states began tlking aout secssion soon after the Constitition was ratified. While the legitimate right of secession was a powerful argument, it was not used by many Lost Cause historians. The reason for this is that the late 19th century was an era of great patriotism and selling the idea that the states had the right to seceed ws not a winable exercise. Rather the Lost Cause historians turned to other arguments more acceptable to the American public, especially states rights and the benigh nature od slavery.
The Lost Cause was the belief that the Southern Secession, even the defense of slavery, was honorable. Lost Cause historians artue that the true cause of the Civil War was not slavery but the attempy by the North to use the Federal Government to supress legitimate states rights. Here again, even with the racist attitudes of the day, arguing that slavery was a legitimate institution was another tough sell. Thus many Lost Cause historians insisted that slavery was not the cause of the Wae, but rather states rights. This gave the Southern cause a legitimate issue. The division of power between the Federal Government and the states was one of the central issues debated at the Constitutional Convention and is still debated today. This was this a legtimate issue which could justify secession more honorably than the defense of slavery ever could. Of course the issue of state rights is not uncommonly raised when the issue considered is difficult to justify on its own merits. Modern scholars have little doubt as to the primacy of slavery as the cause of the War. Issues such as states rights were amenable to political solutiions. Slavery was another matter, it simoly could not be resolvedf constituionally. There was never any doubt in Lincoln's mind as to the main cause of the War. [Zeitz]
While Lost cause historians down played the centrality of slavery in leading to the Civil War. They could not, however, conceal the obvious importance of slavery. Thus many Lost Cause historians dismissed the horrors of slavery deficted by the abolitionists. Lost Cause historians often pinted a begin image od slavery. To my knowledge this was never done by actually interviewing former slaves. Normally it was done, if supporting evidence was offered at all, by collecting ancedotal evidence from the slave masters.
Proponents tend to insist that Southern generals were more skillful, but their nobel effort was destined to failure because of the industrial superiority of the North. Southern generals were lauded, the most famous of all was Robert E. Lee. Commonly Lee and other southern generals are depicted as cultured gentelmen. Federal generals like Grant were depicted as uncultured and professionally less skillfull, relying on the superior Northern resources to win battles. Somehow battlefield genius is seen as a more nobel chracteristic than industrial prowess. The War is presented as a nobel effort overwhealmed by the substantial material rsources of the North.
Lost Cuse historians also tend to laud the Confederate soldiers and people for the sacrifices they made to win independence. The argument seems to be that hightened sacrifce conveys nobility. Here there can be no argument that the Confederate soldier and most civilians may enormous sacrifics in an effort to gain independence. Suggesting that this conveys nobility or legitimacy is a less clear matter.
The Lost Cause proponents also maintained, often with considerable venim, that prostrate South after the Civil War was victimized during Reconstruction by unscrupulous carpetbaggers, scalawags and barely civilized blacks. The inferiority of Blacks which was described in both cultural and biological termns was used to justify segregation. Disenfranchisement was more of a problem and was variously denied, deemphasiuzed, or ignored.
Like all myths, there is some truth to the Lost Cause argument. It is true that a case can be made for the legitimate right of a state to seceed. It is not specificlly prohibited in the Constitution. It is also true that the North had a great material advantage. It is probably not true that Southern generals were significantly more skillful. It is true that Robert E. Lee was a towering figure and staved off the collapse of the Confederacy in 1862. It is also true that his combatitive tactics were very costly in bleeding the Army of Northern Virginia. More importantly Southern generals in the West proved to be generally ineffective and in some cases clearly incompetent. Perhaps the greatest inaccuracy of the Lost Cause argument is to deny the centrality of slavery as well as the nature of slavery. This was key to Lost Cause argument especially by the 20th century. The Confederacy could not be defendended on the basis of slavery. While slavery became indefensible, state's rights was an issue which could be legitimately defended. It was an issue with the Articles of Confederation as well as the Constitution and continues to be an issue in American politics today.
Racism in America
Zeitz, Josua. Lincoln's Boys: John Hay, John Nicolay and the War for Lincoln's Image (2913), 400p. John Hay and John Nicolay were President Lincoln's secretaries. They were thev cloest individuals to him outside his immediate family. After the War, despite the growth of the Lost Cause dioctrine, they both worked to preserve Lincoln's conviction for the historical record that slavery was at the heart of the War.
Navigate the CIH Civil War Section:
[Return to the Main Lost Cause page]
[Return to the Main Civil War page]
[Biographies] [Campaign] [Causes] [Emancipation] [Families and youth] [Fiscal policy] [Formations and units] [Law] [Railroads] [Slavery] [Soldiers] [Uniforms] [Weaponry]
[Lost Cause] [Civil Rights movement]
[Return to the Main Civil War page]
Navigate the Historic Boys' Clothing Web chronological pages:
[The 1820s] [The 1830s] [The 1840s] [The 1850s] [The 1860s] [The 1870s] [The 1880s] [The 1890s]
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THE discovery of two new pieces by renowned Worcestershire composer Sir Edward Elgar is music to the ears of his many fans.
Researchers at the British Library came across the previously unheard work, which is believed to have been written in the 1890s, in a notebook at the London archive.
The pieces, Muleterr’s Serenade and The Millwheel (Winter), will receive their first public performance this Sunday – on what would have been Elgar’s 156th birthday – at The Elgar Birthplace Museum, Lower Broadheath, near Worcester.
The music is thought to be the first such discovery of unheard Elgar music for two decades.
Chris Bennett from the Birthplace Museum, said: “We are all very excited about this. The words to The Millwheel are by Elgar’s wife, Alice, and we have her manuscript of the poem here. For complete Elgar songs to be discovered is extremely rare. I think the last one was a song called In May Week, discovered about 20 years ago.
“There are lots of sketches of unfinished works by Elgar both here and in the British Library, some have been ‘completed’ by musicologists.
“But these two songs are complete in themselves and are therefore very special.”
The discovery was made by John Norris, who is overseeing the Elgar Complete Edition at the British Library, as his team went through sketchbooks of his material.
Mr Bennett said Elgar had once written a piece of music called King Olaf, adding it had previously been believed the composer considered re-using some of the themes from that work to create two other songs but gave up on the idea. However, he says Mr Norris discovered that Elgar had written and completed the two songs before attempting King Olaf.
“There has been a tremendous amount of interest in these songs,” Mr Bennett said.
Having been born at Lower Broadheath, Elgar went on to pen numerous compositions including the Enigma Variations, the Pomp and Circumstance Marches, concertos for violin and cello, and two symphonies. He died in 1934 aged 76. Muleteer’s Serenade and The Millwheel will have their first public performance at the Elgar Birthplace Museum on Sunday from about 5.30pm.
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Many religious mysteries capture the imagination – here are our top 5 religious mysteries
5. The Holy Chalice and Holy Grail
The Holy Chalice is believed to be the cup or bowl that Jesus drank from during the Last Supper.
A chalice kept by the Cathedral of Valencia in Spain is recognised as a holy relic, but the Vatican has never claimed that it is the actual chalice that Christ used.
The story of the Holy Chalice gave rise to the later legend of the Holy Grail, which developed in the early Middle Ages.
The Holy Grail, which is said to possess special powers, is associated with Arthurian legend.
Many claims have been made about discoveries of the chalice, but as yet no proof has been provided – the holy cup remains a mystery.
4. The True Cross
As its name suggests, the True Cross refers to the wooden cross that Christ was crucified upon.
Churches across Europe claim to have in their possession fragments of wood from the cross on which Christ was crucified.
Many are said to have been brought back from the Holy Land by St Helena, the mother of Emperor Constantine, the Roman ruler who legalised Christianity in the Roman Empire in 313.
Some of the most famous relics are kept by the Church of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem – known in Italian as Santa Croce in Gerusalemme.
They include three fragments of the True Cross, a nail said to have been used in the crucifixion and a bone from the index finger of St Thomas, which the apostle is said to have poked into Christ’s wounds because he doubted the resurrection.
Any cross 2000 years old would surely have rotted away by know ?
3. The Dead Sea Scrolls
Considered to be one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of the 20th century, the Dead Sea Scrolls were found by a shepherd in a cave at Qumran, on the edge of the Dead Sea, in 1947.
Believed to be 2,000 years old, the collection of nearly 1,000 texts are written mostly on parchment in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. They have shed light on early Judaism and the origins of Christianity.
Most scholars believe they were written by an ancient Jewish sect, the Essenes.
The scrolls are kept in a dark, temperature-controlled room at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.
2. The Sudarium of Oviedo
The sudarium – a Latin word meaning sweat cloth – is said to be the piece of fabric wrapped around Christ’s head after he died.
It is kept in the Cathedral of San Salvador in Oviedo in Spain and is put on display three times a year.
Tests conducted in 1998 on the sudarium and the Turin Shroud found that blood on both relics was of the same type. The cloth of the two objects is also similar.
1. The Turin Shroud
Shroud of Turin is a cloth made of linen cloth and bears an image of a man, who appears to be physically traumatized to death in a manner similar to crucifixion.
The Shroud is currently kept in the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist’s Royal Chapel, which is located in Turin, Italy. Most Catholics believe that the cloth was placed on Jesus when he was buried.
Despite several scientific investigations, it’s still unclear how the shroud’s image got imprinted on it. Again, no one yet has managed to replicate the image. You can clearly view the shroud’s image in Black & White negative than its conventional sepia color. The Black & White image first got observed on May 28, 1898 on the reverse photographic plate of Secondo Pia, who was an amateur photographer and got the permission of photographing it during an exhibition in the Cathedral. It was revealed from the photographer himself that he almost broke the plate after seeing the image.
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Admit it: You've lied. You told a friend that his shirt looked stylish when you actually thought it was tacky and garish. Or maybe you said to your boss that her presentations were fascinating when in fact they were insipidly mindless. Or perhaps you told your landlord that the rent check was in the mail.
Don't feel bad. You're in good, dishonest company. A growing body of research shows that people lie constantly, that deception is pervasive in everyday life. One study found that people tell two to three lies every 10 minutes, and even conservative estimates indicate that we lie at least once a day. Such incessant prevarication might be a necessary social evil, and researchers have recently discovered that some fibbing might actually be good for you. "We use lies to grease the wheels of social discourse," says University of Massachusetts psychologist Robert Feldman. "It's socially useful to tell...
State-run education has a built-in conflict of interest with state-sponsored gambling, which funds schools. Why would they teach students economics, statistics, or common sense when their very existence would dry up if people saw gambling for what it was?
Anyhow, the bottom line is, if someone will lie about the small things, they'll lie about the big things, too.
Quite right, S.J. John! If people are going to become politicians they should also have to take ethic courses when they go to college or a remedial course when they go to college. A sermon about one ancient "politician"
Gil Rugh said or, wrote: .... 1. We must be careful of idle time. 2. We must guard against the pattern of sin. 3. Covering one sin leads to another. 4. Sin brings ruin and death. 5. Sin makes us hard and selfish. 6. Sin is always committed before the eyes of the Lord
Perhaps illogical reasoning serves a useful social purpose, too!
"researchers found that college students who exaggerated their GPA in interviews later showed improvement in their grades." - post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy. And this has no bearing on the morality of lying.
"Positive biases about the self can be beneficial" - depends upon one's definition of "beneficial," which in this case, seems to be material gain or good feeling. Watch out for such unstated premises in articles like this.
"But you can't stop lies entirely. Society would grind to a halt" - an unsubstantiated assertion. And I would like to see anyone try to verify it.
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Toads Caned by Own Poison
By Stephen Luntz
Cane toad poison can be trap the toad’s tadpoles so effectively that it may be possible to preserve high value conservation areas from this amphibious menace.
Last year Prof Rick Shine of the University of Sydney’s School of Biological Sciences outlined a number of ways in which the sensitivity of the toads to chemicals produced by their own species might be used against them (AS, Jan/Feb 2012, p.9). Now research published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B has revealed just how effective one of these approaches has been.
Shine’s team pondered the fact that toad tadpoles are attracted to dead toads. After testing a number of possible chemicals, team members discovered that the poison itself is a powerful attractant to cane toad tadpoles while repelling those of most native species. “A few species just ignore it,” Shine says.
Funnel traps baited with secretions from the shoulders of adult toads attracted so many tadpoles that bodies of water in which the traps were placed were clear of toads afterwards. This is a stunning finding given the difficulties of removing toads using other techniques.
Shine notes that a single female toad can lay 30,000 eggs. “This means that even if you catch and kill 99% of the adult toads in an area, the few that are left can produce so many offspring that before you know it you are back to where you started – just as many cane toads as ever.”
Toads have colonised such large areas of Australia that Shine considers eradication impossible. However, by placing traps in areas with high concentrations of threatened species, Shine believes it may be possible to avert the worst of Rhinella marina’s damage, particularly in parts of Western Australia that are currently toad-free.
“In continuing work with our collaborators at the University of Queensland we are developing an even stronger, safer and easier-to-use bait,” Shine says. “A purified version, possibly in tablet form, would last longer and be easier to handle.”
Shine also believes that the shape of the funnel trap may be improved to catch more tadpoles. However, after trapping 40,000 tadpoles in a single natural pond in less than a week, it is clear the traps, and poison, are well on the way to widespread use.
While being drawn to adult toads appears a risky move for tadpoles in a cannibalistic species, Shine explains: “The worst enemy of a toad tadpole is another tadpole. They’ve learned to recognise eggs and eat them quickly to destroy them.
“We realised the chemical in the eggs the tadpole picks up on is the same one in the adult poison. They put a lot of poison into the eggs to protect against other predators, but it makes them vulnerable to their own species.”
Other potential toad chemicals, such as one that deters females from laying eggs in waters where other toads have been, are now on the back burner.
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| 0.961327 | 659 | 3.1875 | 3 |
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