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1905: An Industry Is Born
In 1905, the city of Portland, Oregon was getting ready to host a World’s Fair as part of the 100th anniversary celebration of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Several local businesses were asked to prepare exhibits for the event, including Portland Manufacturing Company, a small wooden box factory in the St. Johns district of the city. Part owner and plant manager Gustav Carlson decided to laminate wood panels from a variety of Pacific Northwest softwoods. Using paint brushes as glue spreaders and house jacks as presses, several panels were laid up for display. Called “3-ply veneer work,” the product created considerable interest among fairgoers, including several door, cabinet and trunk manufacturers who then placed orders. By 1907, Portland Manufacturing had installed an automatic glue spreader and a sectional hand press. Production soared to 420 panels a day. And an industry was born.
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en
| 0.974311 | 187 | 2.875 | 3 |
Metals differ so widely in hardness, ductility (the potentiality of being drawn into wire), malleability, tensile strength, density, and melting point that a definite line of distinction between them and the nonmetals cannot be drawn. The hardest elemental metal is chromium; the softest, cesium. Copper, gold, platinum, and silver are especially ductile. Most metals are malleable; gold, silver, copper, tin, and aluminum are extremely so. Some metals exhibiting great tensile strength are copper, iron, and platinum. Three metals (lithium, potassium, and sodium) have densities of less than one gram per cubic centimeter at ordinary temperatures and are therefore lighter than water. Some heavy metals, beginning with the most dense, are osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, tungsten, uranium, tantalum, mercury, hafnium, lead, and silver.
For many industrial uses, the melting points of the metals are important. Tungsten fuses, or melts, only at extremely high temperatures (3,370°C.), while cesium has a melting point of 28.5°C. The best metallic conductor of electricity is silver. Copper, gold, and aluminum follow in the order named. All metals are relatively good conductors of heat; silver, copper, and aluminum are especially conductive. The radioactive metal uranium is used in reactor piles to generate steam and electric power. Plutonium, another radioactive element, is used in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors as well as in pacemakers. Some of the radioactive metals not found in nature, e.g., fermium and seaborgium, are produced by nuclear bombardment.
Some elements, e.g., arsenic and antimony, exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic properties and are called metalloids. Furthermore, although all metals form crystals, this is also characteristic of certain nonmetals, e.g., carbon and sulfur.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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en
| 0.891863 | 428 | 3.9375 | 4 |
OrderedDict is a subclass of
dict, and needs more memory to keep track of the order in which keys are added. This isn't trivial. The implementation adds a second
dict under the covers, and a doubly-linked list of all the keys (that's the part that remembers the order), and a bunch of weakref proxies. It's not a lot slower, but at least doubles the memory over using a plain
But if it's appropriate, use it! That's why it's there :-)
How it works
The base dict is just an ordinary dict mapping keys to values - it's not "ordered" at all. When a
<key, value> pair is added, the
key is appended to a list. The list is the part that remembers the order.
But if this were a Python list, deleting a key would take
O(n) time twice over:
O(n) time to find the key in the list, and
O(n) time to remove the key from the list.
So it's a doubly-linked list instead. That makes deleting a key constant (
O(1)) time. But we still need to find the doubly-linked list node belonging to the key. To make that operation
O(1) time too, a second - hidden - dict maps keys to nodes in the doubly-linked list.
So adding a new
<key, value> pair requires adding the pair to the base dict, creating a new doubly-linked list node to hold the key, appending that new node to the doubly-linked list, and mapping the key to that new node in the hidden dict. A bit over twice as much work, but still
O(1) (expected case) time overall.
Similarly, deleting a key that's present is also a bit over twice as much work but
O(1) expected time overall: use the hidden dict to find the key's doubly-linked list node, delete that node from the list, and remove the key from both dicts.
Etc. It's quite efficient.
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http://stackoverflow.com/questions/18951143/are-there-any-reasons-not-to-use-an-ordered-dictionary
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en
| 0.93897 | 443 | 2.734375 | 3 |
This week's Web 2.0 site is Where'sGeorge.com.
What is it?
Where's George (WG) is a site for tracking currency. The site offers maps and tables showing data for the travel of U.S. currency, and the cool thing is it tracks your currency! That's right: You can finally find out exactly where all your money goes!
How do I use the site?
There are two ways to interact with the site: entering a bill that is already registered, or registering a new bill. To enter a bill that is already registered, well, you have to have one! You'll know you have a registered Where's George bill in your hands because it will be marked or stamped with the website's URL (see the picture on the left). If you haven't found such a bill, that's okay! You can take any U.S. bill in any denomination and register it by entering the serial number and the series year, including any letters or stars (see below).
The order is Enter - Mark - Spend, or EMS. Enter the bill's information on the website, Mark it so others who receive it will know to return to the site, and Spend it as you normally would. Then you can come back later to see if anyone has found and entered your bills.
But wait, isn't it illegal to mark on currency?
Yes and no. It's illegal to deface currency, but the law defines defacement as making the bill unfit to be reissued. Small stamps or written messages that don't interfere with using the bill are not considered defacement. There is a law forbidding advertising on U.S. currency, but ever since the Where's George website stopped selling stamps, the Secret Service have no longer considered it an issue worth following. You can read more about legal issues at the Where's George FAQ and on the Wikipedia page for Where's George. Check out the citations at the bottom of the Wikipedia article if you want to read more. You don't have to purchase a stamp to be able to mark bills. A fine point Sharpie works just fine, too.
That's all great, but how can I use Where's George in the classroom?
As I mentioned above, the website has some great non-linguistic representations such as interactive maps and charts. You can use these as real-world examples for working with data and maps. As with any website, make sure you preview any page before having students visit. This website is not intended specifically for children, so adult participants could choose to include objectionable ideas or information. Most pages are fine, but check first! Try one of these activities:
- Print out the chart showing a popular bill's "hits" (entries on the site). Have students create maps showing the bill's travels and calculate the total miles. They can then compare their maps to the one on the website.
- The website report for a bill shows the average miles traveled per day. Have students compute this figure and then compare to the site.
- WG is a rich source of real-world data. Have students use the data for your graphing and other data objectives.
- Invite students to enter the bills from their own allowance or ice cream money on the Where's George website and track their bills throughout the year. Whose bills traveled the farthest? Who entered the most bills? Whose Where's George "score" ended up being highest?
- Have students use critical thinking to answer the question: How do you think this particular bill could've gone from Location A to Location B? For instance, this bill was first entered in Vermont in November of 2008, and was not entered again until March of the following year, in Germany!
- Use the journeys of a popular bill as a story starter. Have students write about the adventures of "George" based on the actual travels of a real bill. You might challenge older students to write in the first person.
- Where's George users can be very dedicated. A whole group of loyal followers have created advertisements and custom stamps for Where's George. Have your art or computer lab students design their own ads or stamps for Where's George.
- You can view a color-coded map showing total hits by state and county. Have students practice their map reading and critical thinking skills using these maps. What patterns do you discern as you look at the map? Which areas have the most and the least hits? Why do you think that might be so? Could our class change the trend? Why or why not?
- You can look at a list of the top users on the website. Have students create math questions for one another using the statistics found on users' profiles. For instance, top user Gary Wattsburg has entered over a million bills! If it takes 30 seconds to enter a bill, how much time has Gary spent entering bills? Gary joined WG on January 15, 2002. What has been his average time on WG per day, just entering bills?
Images courtesy of Wikimedia.
Note: There are no "aff" links on this post. I have received no remuneration or special consideration from any of the websites linked here.
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| 0.952388 | 1,070 | 2.546875 | 3 |
"mackled" = blurred (NSOED) +"mal" Fr. "bad" + claw
XXXXX - Greece
A sentient creature, capable of intelligent speech but not classified
as a being due to its violent tendencies, a manticore has a human-like
head, a lion's body, and the tail of a scorpion. The tail secretes a venom
that is instantly fatal to a victim of its sting. A manticore's skin repels
virtually all known charms, so it is
extremely difficult to subdue by magic
(FB). In 1296, a manticore
seriously wounded someone but was let off because no one dared go near it
(PA11). Hagrid bred the Blast-Ended Skrewt from a manticore and a fire-crab (GF24); we do not know how he
persuaded the manticore to cooperate.
Manticores originated in Greece (FB). Although this is never stated, it seems possible that like the acromantula, manticores may have originated as a wizard-bred species specifically created to guard treasures, strongholds, and the like, and thus serving as an example of why the Ban on Experimental Breeding is so important.
more about manticores
Sentient beings who live underwater in villages at the bottom of lakes and seas. Specific races of merpeople are also known as sirens (Greece), selkies (Scotland), and merrows (Ireland) (FB) (more...)
A small lizard that can shrink at will (FB).
A strange creature that lives in a burrow. It only comes out at the
full moon, when it dances on its enormous flat feet, sometimes leaving
intricate patterns in wheatfields (much to the confusion of Muggles). The
silvery dung of the mooncalf, if collected before the sun comes up, makes
an excellent fertilizer
c.f. crop-related charms.
The preserved remains of a body, human or animal, from which fluids have
been removed. Although mummification can occur through natural processes
in very dry conditions, the most common conception of a mummy is that of
one deliberately embalmed as a preparation for burial, for which additional
preservative measures have been performed. In ancient Egypt, mummification
was performed on the bodies of humans and of cats, and was considered a
necessary step in preparing the deceased for the afterlife.
It is unclear whether the type of mummy Parvati Patil fears (which the boggart impersonated during her first Defence Against the Dark Arts lesson with Remus Lupin, PA7), is an actual mummy animated or some Dark Creature resembling a mummy. If the latter is the case, a mummy is a frightening creature, bandaged, bloody, and sightless, possibly a manifestation of a curse left behind by ancient wizards (PA7). (Of course, if Parvati was exposed to Muggle entertainment as a child, she may just have watched too many horror movies.)
more about mummy curses
XXX - Britain
A seashore-dwelling rodent native to Britain, this
ratlike creature has on its back a growth resembling a sea anemone, which when pickled can be used to promote resistance to curses. The murtlap
will attack anyone who steps on it, although it usually eats crustaceans,
not people's feet
After Harry left his detention with Umbridge with cuts on the back of his hand, Hermione recommended Murtlap essence, which helped the pain immensely (OP15). Harry later recommends the same treatment to Lee Jordan, who in turn suggested it to the Weasley twins when they were seeking a solution to the problem of the boils caused by their prototype Fever Fudge (OP18, OP26).
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http://www.hp-lexicon.org/bestiary/bestiary_m.html
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en
| 0.948515 | 798 | 2.6875 | 3 |
If you haven’t read it already, please head over and read my Comprehending and Paraphrasing Expository Text post here. In that post, I detail the research behind this packet!
If expository text is too high level for your students, this packet is for you! It contains 36 cards with narrative text, a graphic organizer (2 versions), a die printable, dice game, 2 half-sheets for homework, and instructions!
Each student should draw a card. Then, according to the RAP protocol outlined in my earlier post, the student should detail the main idea and 2 details from the story (on the included graphic organizer). Last, the student should retell the story in their own words!
This is one of the best ways to increase your student’s comprehension of text!
Below are sample pictures of this packet:
If you’re interested, head on over to my TpT Store here.
P.S.: If you are interested in staying up to date on my future freebies, giveaways, and new posts, ‘like’ me on Facebook here.
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http://speechymusings.com/2013/02/16/comprehending-and-paraphrasing-narrative-texts-packet/
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|
en
| 0.904766 | 234 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Democratic Republic of the Congo
|Democratic Republic of the Congo
|Motto: Justice – Paix – Travail
"Justice – Peace – Work"
|Anthem: "Debout Congolais"
and largest city
|Recognised national languages||Lingala, Kikongo, Swahili, Tshiluba|
|-||Acting Prime Minister||Louis Alphonse Koyagialo|
|-||from Belgium||30 June 1960|
|-||Total||2,345,409 km2 (11th)
905,355 sq mi
|-||2011 estimate||71,712,867 (19th)|
|GDP (PPP)||2010 estimate|
|GDP (nominal)||2010 estimate|
|HDI (2011)|| 0.286
low · 187th (lowest)
|Currency||Congolese franc (CDF)|
|Time zone||WAT, CAT (UTC+1 to +2)|
|-||Summer (DST)||not observed (UTC+1 to +2)|
|Drives on the||right|
|ISO 3166 code||CD|
|a Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates.|
History[change | change source]
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (French: République démocratique du Congo), commonly referred to as DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa or the DRC, is a country in central Africa. It is the second largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh largest in the world. With a population of over 71 million, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the nineteenth most populous nation in the world, the fourth most populous nation in Africa, as well as the most populous Francophone (French-speaking) country.
DRC borders the Central African Republic and South Sudan to the north; Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi in the east; Zambia and Angola to the south; the Republic of the Congo, the Angolan exclave of Cabinda, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. It is separated from Tanzania by Lake Tanganyika in the east. The country has access to the ocean through a 40-kilometre (25 mi) stretch of Atlantic coastline at Muanda and the roughly 9 km wide mouth of the Congo River which opens into the Gulf of Guinea. It has the second-highest total Christian population in Africa.
The Second Congo War, beginning in 1998, devastated the country. It involved nine African nations and some twenty armed groups. Despite the signing of peace accords in 2003, fighting continues in the east of the country. There, the prevalence of rape and other sexual violence is described as the worst in the world. The war is the world's deadliest conflict since World War II, killing 5.4 million people since 1998. The vast majority died from conditions of malaria, diarrhea, pneumonia and malnutrition.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo was formerly, in chronological order, the Congo Free State, Belgian Congo, Congo-Léopoldville, Congo-Kinshasa, and Zaire (Zaïre in French). Though it is in the Central African United Nations subregion, the nation is also economically and regionally affiliated with Southern Africa as a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).
Geography[change | change source]
The capital is Kinshasa.
World Heritage Sites in the Democratic Republic of Congo are: Virunga National Park (1979), Garamba National Park (1980), Kahuzi-Biega National Park (1980), Salonga National Park (1984) and Okapi Wildlife Reserve (1996).
Provinces[change | change source]
The country is divided into ten provinces and one city-province. The provinces are then divided into districts. The districts are divided into territories.
Related pages[change | change source]
References[change | change source]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Democratic Republic of the Congo|
- Central Intelligence Agency (2011). "Congo, Democratic Republic of the". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cg.html. Retrieved 5 October 2011.
- "Democratic Republic of the Congo". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=76&pr.y=6&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=636&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
- "Human Development Report 2011". United Nations. 2011. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- See "Rumblings of war in heart of Africa" by Abraham McLaughlin and Duncan Woodside The Christian Science Monitor 23 June 2004 and "World War Three" by Chris Bowers My Direct Democracy 24 July 2006
- McCrummen, Stephanie (9 September 2007). "Prevalence of Rape in E. Congo Described as Worst in World". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/08/AR2007090801194.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- Robinson, Simon (28 May 2006). "The deadliest war in the world". Time.com. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1198921,00.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- Bavier, Joe (22 January 2008). "Congo War driven crisis kills 45,000 a month". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL2280201220080122. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- Report on the crisis Full report at IRC mortality facts from the International Rescue Committee
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en
| 0.766383 | 1,345 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) is the most useful.
Beyond the introduction of the spider line it is unnecessary to mention the various steps by which the Gascoigne micrometer assumed the modern forms now in use, or to describe in detail the suggestions of Hooke, 4 Wren, Smeaton, Cassini, Bradley, Maskelyne, Herschel, Arago, Pearson, Bessel, Struve, Dawes, &c., or the successive productions of the great artists Ramsden, Troughton, Fraunhofer, Ertel, Simms, Cooke, Grubb, Clarke and Repsold.
Under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke, a minister of rare ability and eloquence, the evangelical party triumphed in the church courts, and the Unitarians seceded and became a separate denomination.
In 1836 Cooke, to whom the idea appears to have been suggested by Schilling's method, invented a telegraph in which an alphabet was worked out by the single and combined movement of three needles.
Similar instruments to the single and double needle apparatus of Cooke and Wheatstone were about the same time invented by the Rev. H.
How would you define cooke? Add your definition here.
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http://www.yourdictionary.com/cooke
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|
en
| 0.945325 | 263 | 3.09375 | 3 |
1922 - Muskegon and Grand Rapids both set records for the warmest low temperature for the date. Grand Rapids has a low temperature of 66° and Muskegon also observes a low of 66°. Grand Rapids goes on to see a record high of 89° and Flint sees a steamy record of 90°.
1953 - The steel, bulk freight Henry Steinbrenner, while carrying iron ore, foundered in a 75 mph gale when her hatch covers blew off. She filled and sank quickly off Isle Royale in Lake Superior. Part of her crew had abandoned before she went down. 17 members of the 30 member crew perished.
1956 - A tornado hit the northeast edge of Kalamazoo, damaging 15 homes and destroying several barns.
1966 – Muskegon and Grand Rapids both set records for the coolest high temperature for the date. Muskegon only sees a high of 42° and Grand Rapids also records a high of 42°.
1974 - An F3 tornado moved through Livingston County at 5:31PM, near the community of Hell. This tornado only traveled less than a mile, but was responsible for one fatality, 3 destroyed houses and 15 damaged houses.
1990 - A record low temperature of 23° occurred at Weather Forecast Office in Marquette because of snow on the ground from the big snowstorm of May 9th-10th.
1996 - The all-time seasonal snowfall record of 283.1 inches in the snow season of 1995-1996 in Ironwood broke the previous record of 255 inches in 1970-71 where the average snowfall is 171.8 inches. 0.3 inch of snow fell this day, the last measureable snow for the season there.
2003 - 3 to 5+ inches of rain fell in watersheds of most rivers in the northwest third of the U.P. Flooding soon followed.
2011 - A warm front over Wisconsin generated severe thunderstorms with large hail over portions of western Upper Michigan. Lightning struck and damaged the steeple tower of the Keweenaw Heritage Center at St. Anne's located in Calumet Township in the early morning. This caused $20,000 in damage. 1 inch hail (quarter sized) fell 3 miles northeast of Mapleton in Iron County. Later in the morning, a large area of showers and thunderstorms impacted Northern Michigan for much of the day. The storms produced isolated severe weather and excessive rainfall, along with an area of high winds associated with a wake low trailing well behind the storms. A 74 mph wind gust was measured by the Great Lakes Observation System site at Big Bay. 1 inch hail (quarter sized) fell 7.5 miles northwest of Daggett at 1515 CST. A wake low, trailing well behind a large area of thunderstorms, produced damaging winds near Sault Ste. Marie. A gust of 55 mph was measured at Sanderson Field in the Sault. Over two dozen trees were downed along South Mackinac Trail, and scattered trees were downed elsewhere in the area. A tree fell onto a home in the Sault. Several roofs had shingles removed, and two billboards along I-75 sustained heavy damage. A garage and barn were damaged a few miles southeast of the Sault. $140,000 in damage was caused by the wake low in Chippewa County. In West Michigan 1 inch hail (quarter sized) fell 3 miles north of Borculo and a 60 mph wind gust was recorded at the spyglass condo in Holland.
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<urn:uuid:767da391-ffd9-40d3-b322-a1e3851927f6>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.examiner.com/article/large-hail-tornadoes-and-chilly-highs
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|
en
| 0.961336 | 719 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Burn Percentage in Adults: Rule of Nines
The rule of nines assesses the percentage of burn and is used to help guide treatment decisions including fluid resuscitation and becomes part of the guidelines to determine transfer to a burn unit.
You can estimate the body surface area on an adult that has been burned by using multiples of 9.
An adult who has been burned, the percent of the body involved can be calculated as follows:
As an example, if both legs (18% x 2 = 36%), the groin (1%) and the front chest and abdomen were burned, this would involve 55% of the body.
Consumer e-Tools are not intended to provide professional advice or recommend particular products. Physicians and healthcare professionals should exercise their own clinical judgment when assessing the results of our tools or calculators. Consumers should consult a doctor for advice when assessing the results.
Medically reviewed by John A. Daller, MD; American Board of Surgery with subspecialty certification in surgical critical care
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 5/23/2016
Must Read Articles Related to Burn Percentage in Adults: Rule of Nines
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<urn:uuid:0d901a2d-b053-4966-a046-23c7893880d3>
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http://www.emedicinehealth.com/burn_percentage_in_adults_rule_of_nines/article_em.htm
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|
en
| 0.945585 | 234 | 2.796875 | 3 |
This was a wild week for astronomers. At a meeting of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Prague, a proposal put forth to define the term "planet" would boost the tally from nine to 12 by adding asteroid Ceres, Pluto's moon Charon, and a distant icy object to the list.
Many astronomers criticized the proposal as being vague and setting arbitrary cutoff points. One researcher pointed out that with the definition, Earth's Moon might eventually become a planet when it drifts farther away.
So a second proposal was put forth that would demote Pluto to a non-planet status, as first reported yesterday by SPACE.com.
The next step is for the IAU Executive Committee to decide whether to stick with the original proposal, to modify it, or to go with the new proposal. A vote is slated for Thursday, Aug. 24.
Meanwhile, one of the adherents to the new proposal provided a copy to SPACE.com. Here it is:
New proposal for Resolution 5: Definition of a Planet
(1) A planet is a celestial body that (a) is by far the largest object in its local population, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape , (c) does not produce energy by any nuclear fusion mechanism .
(2) According to point (1) the eight classical planets discovered before 1900, which move in nearly circular orbits close to the ecliptic plane are the only planets of our Solar System. All the other objects in orbit around the Sun are smaller than Mercury. We recognize that there are objects that fulfill the criteria (b) and (c) but not criterion (a). Those objects are defined as "dwarf" planets. Ceres as well as Pluto and several other large Trans-Neptunian objects belong to this category. In contrast to the planets, these objects typically have highly inclined orbits and/or large eccentricities.
(3) All the other natural objects orbiting the Sun that do not fulfill any of the previous criteria shall be referred to collectively as ?Small Solar System Bodies?.
The local population is the collection of objects that cross or close approach the orbit of the body in consideration.
This generally applies to objects with sizes above several hundreds km, depending on the material strength.
This criterion allows the distinction between gas giant planets and brown dwarfs or stars.
This class currently includes most of the Solar System asteroids, near-Earth objects (NEOs), Mars-, Jupiter- and Neptune-Trojan asteroids, most Centaurs, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), and comets.
There has been a long discussion about what a planet is. This problem appears at both ends: for the very massive bodies and for the smaller ones. At the large end, the limit seems to be clearer; it is now widely accepted that planets must not generate any energy from nuclear fusion, while brown dwarfs generate some nuclear energy from the fusion of deuterium. More problematic is the small end. We think that the definition should be kept as simple as possible and based on physical and cosmogonic reasons.
There is a wide consensus that planets formed by the accretion of small bodies ? the planetesimals. The accretion process led to the formation of embryo planets that, as they grew in size and acquired more powerful gravitational fields, went to a process of runaway accretion in which the size of a few of them detached from the rest of the bodies of their neighboring zones. Given the powerful gravitational fields of these massive bodies - that we can call at this stage protoplanets - they were able to clean the population that had close encounters with them. The bodies interacting with the protoplanets were finally incorporated to the planets or scattered to other regions.
From a cosmogonic point of view, it therefore makes more sense to consider a planet as an object that acquired a mass large enough to clean a zone around its orbit. According to this definition, only eight planets, Mercury (perhaps marginally), Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune fulfill this condition. It is obvious that, at least for our solar system, this cosmogonic definition implicitly carries the condition of objects with a roundish shape determined by self-gravity.
From our definition, Pluto, Ceres and other large Trans-Neptunian objects in quasi-hydrostatic equilibrium should be not considered as planets, since they never were the dominant bodies in their accretion zones. It is suggested that Pluto be kept unnumbered by historical reasons.
Is may be possible that in the near future cases of objects not foreseen at present could appear beyond our solar system, as for instance free-floating planets, stray planets, or double planets. We think that we should not advance definitions at this point for these exotic cases and leave their discussion when if they became a part of the observed world.
From our present knowledge of the Solar System, we know that objects as small as Mimas (D~400km) are roundish. If this were the lower limit for an icy body to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, then we would already have several tens of bodies fulfilling this requirement.
List of adherents to the above proposal:
Julio A. Fernandez Uruguay
Marcello Fulchignoni France
Daniela Lazzaro Brazil
Gonzalo Tancredi Uruguay
Alessandro Morbidelli France
Mario Di Martino Italy
Paolo Paolicchi Italy
Antonella Barucci France
Giovanni Gronchi Italy
David Vokrovhlicki Czech Rep.
David Nesvorny USA
Fernando Roig Brazil
Hugo Levato Argentina
Steven Chesley USA
Alsonso Sena Mexico
J. E. Arlot France
I. Shevchenko Russia
Patrick Michel France
More on the Planet Proposals
- Pluto May Get Demoted After All
- Those Wild and Crazy Astronomers
- Earth's Moon Could Become a Planet
- Public Laughs and Shrugs at 12-Planet Proposal
- Astronomers Sharply Divided on New Planet Definition
- Adding Planets Means New Textbooks, Toys
- Nine Planets Become 12 with Controversial New Definition
- Image Gallery: The 12 "Planets"
Defining Moments: The Saga's History
- Pluto's Fate to be Decided by 'Scientific and Simple' Planet Definition
- JUNE: Definition of 'Planet' Expected in September
- 2005: Definition Debate: Planets May Soon Get Adjectives
- 2003: Controversial Proposal Would Boost Solar System's Planet Tally to 12
- 2000: What is a Planet? Debate Forces New Definition
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Don't Forget To Stretch!
October 3, 2011 - Dalia Jakubauskas
Even the most diligent exercisers tend to forget one of the most important components of any exercise program –stretching. A simple series of stretches takes just a few minutes and helps prevent injury to muscles and joints yet many exercisers neglect this part of their program. Well, here are some important reasons not to skip stretching. • Improve the range of motion in your joints • Improve your performance and reduce the risk of injury • Reduce muscle soreness and improve your posture • Help reduce lower back pain • Increase blood and nutrients to the tissues • Improve your coordination • Helps reduce stress • Can be the most relaxing part of an exercise routine
It’s no secret that physical therapists employ stretching techniques as a key component of the healing process for their patients. The same rules apply to average and elite exercisers, as do patients recovering from injury. Without sufficient stretching, muscles and joints stiffen, cannot heal properly and risk tears and injury –especially as we grow older. Stretching is not rocket science and takes just a few minutes at the end of each exercise session. Here are some tips to improve your stretching techniques.
1. Stretch after your workout when your muscles are warm and you're ready for a cool down. Some folks like to stretch before their workout but if you do, make sure to do a light warm up like a few-minute walk or marching in place. Cold muscles can lead to injury.
2. Try to hold each stretch for at least 15-30 seconds.
3. Do not bounce! This is called ballistic stretching and can cause injury. Simply hold the stretch. This technique is called static stretching.
4. Stretching between stretch training sets isn’t a bad idea. You can even perform light stretches throughout the day to deal with a tight neck, shoulders or back.
5. Target the muscles groups you’ve worked during your exercise sessions as well as any chronically tight areas.
Check the following website from the Mayo Clinic for some easy-to-replicate stretches: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/stretching/SM00043 So, if you’ve been engaging in a regular exercise program –great! Just don’t forget to stretch.
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Post a Comment
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JMeter is a Java-based tool for load testing client-server applications. Stefano Mazzocchi originally wrote it to test the performance of Apache JServ (the predecessor of Jakarta Tomcat). It has since become a subproject of Jakarta.
The most recent release of JMeter is version 1.8. You can download the latest stable version
from JMeter's site.
Downloads area available as either
JMeter 1.8 requires a working JDK 1.4 environment.
Once you extract the binary distribution file, JMeter is ready for you. On
Linux/UNIX, run JMeter by invoking the
jmeter shell script. On
Windows, call the
jmeter.bat file. Both files can be found in the
bin/ directory of the JMeter installation directory. Figure 1 shows
JMeter's main window, which is a Swing application.
Figure 1: JMeter's main window.
The user interface has two panes. The left pane displays the elements used in our testing. Initially, there are the Root and two sub-elements, Test Plan and WorkBench. In this article we're only concerned with Test Plans. Add an element to a node by right-clicking it and selecting Add. To remove an element, select the element by clicking on it, then right-click on the element and choose the Remove option.
The right pane of the user interface displays the details of each element. You are now ready to use JMeter. There are two things to note:
Let's start with a very simple test. In this test, we will set up a test plan and stress test a Web application. You will be introduced with some common concepts in JMeter. After understanding this basic test, you should be able to use all of the capabilities of JMeter.
To conduct a test, you must have a test plan. A test plan describes the steps that JMeter will take to perform the testing. A test plan includes elements such as thread groups, logic controllers, sample generating controllers, listeners, timers, assertions, and configuration elements. Don't worry at this stage if you don't understand what these elements are.
A test plan must have at least one thread group. A thread group is the starting point of a test plan, and it can contain all other JMeter elements. A thread group controls the threads that will be created by JMeter to simulate simultaneous users.
Now, let's start by creating a thread group. Right-click the Test Plan element and select Add and then Thread Group. JMeter will create a thread group element under Test Plan element. Click the Thread Group element, and you will see a screen like the one in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Configuring a thread group.
In this page, you can set the following properties:
For our simple test, fill the properties with the values found in Figure 2. We will use two users and each test will be performed three times. We use small numbers here so that we can easily explain the results later; in real load testing, you might want to use higher numbers for these properties.
Next, you need to add the element that represents HTTP requests. To do so, right-click the Thread Group element, and select Add, Sampler, and then HTTP Request. An HTTP Request element will be added to the Thread Group element. Click the HTTP Request element to select it, and you should see a screen similar to Figure 3.
Figure 3: Configuring an HTTP Request element.
On the HTTP Request screen, you configure the HTTP requests that will be used to "hit" your application. Here, you can set the following properties.
Connection = Keep-Aliverequest header. By default, an HTTP 1.1 browser uses
Keep-Aliveas the value of the Connection header. Therefore, this checkbox should be checked.
Now you should be able to figure out the values for the properties in the HTTP Request page. The last element that we need to add to our test plan is a listener, which in JMeter is the same as a report. JMeter comes with various reports to choose from. A report can be a table or a graph. For this testing, use the easiest report available: a table.
To add a listener, right-click the Thread Group element, select Add, and then Listener and View Results in Table. Now you are ready to run the test plan. Before you run your test plan, however, you are advised to save the test plan just in case JMeter crashes the system (an occasional occurrence with higher numbers of threads and loop counts). Afterwards, select Start from the Run menu to execute the test plan.
While the test plan executes, the small box on the bar right below the menu bar will turn green. For a test that does not run indefinitely, JMeter will automatically stop the test plan after it's finished. For a test that goes on indefinitely, you must intervene to stop the test. Do this by selecting Stop from the Run menu.
When I ran my test plan, I got the results like those shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: A table report.
It is very easy to understand the figures in the table. There are six samples taken (two threads and three loop counts, thus 2 x 3 = 6). The response time from each sample is given in the third column. They are 100, 60, 260, 50, 120, and 80 ms. All samples are taken successfully, as described by the fourth column. On average, each sample has a response time of 111 ms ((100 + 60 + 260 + 50 + 120 + 80)/6).
Another important figure is the standard deviation, defined as the square root of the total of the deviation of each sample from the average. This figure indicates how stable your Web application is. If the standard deviation is high, some users will experience very good responses while some other users will wait for a longer time. The smaller this value, the better.
After conducting a simple test, it is very easy to do more complex tests. For load testing Web applications, increase the number of threads and the loop counts gradually and see how your applications cope with the loads. The following sections of this article tackle some other important aspects of load-testing Web applications with JMeter.
JMeter comes with a number of listeners or reports. In the previous test, we used a table to display the test results. If this is not suitable for you, you can choose one or more of the other listeners for a thread group. A popular listener is the Graph Results, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Graph results.
A real application has multiple resources, both static and dynamic. Chances are, you want to see the performance of these resources. JMeter makes it easy to employ multiple HTTP requests. Just add any number of HTTP Request elements and configure them, as in the previous test. If you have multiple HTTP Request elements, you might want to use a HTTP Request Defaults element, described in the following section.
The HTTP Request Defaults element specifies the default values of existing HTTP Request elements within the same thread group. The HTTP Request Defaults element is especially useful because most, if not all, HTTP Request elements normally have the same server and port. Figure 6 shows the detail page of a HTTP Request Defaults element.
Figure 6: HTTP request defaults.
Add an HTTP Request Default element by right-clicking a Thread Group element and then selecting Add, Config Element, and HTTP Request Default.
Figure 7; Cookie Manager.
You can add a Cookie Manager element by right-clicking a Thread Group element and then selecting Add, Config Element, and Cookie Manager.
JMeter is capable of much more than our simple tests demonstrate. From these building blocks, it's possible to create extensive tests with highly detailed reports. Getting useful results is very easy, though.
For more information, see the JMeter User Manual.
Budi Kurniawan is a senior J2EE architect and author.
Return to ONJava.com.
Copyright © 2009 O'Reilly Media, Inc.
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From the World Heritage inscription:
Qal’at al-Bahrain is a typical tell – an artificial mound created by many successive layers of human occupation. The strata of the 300 × 600 m tell testify to continuous human presence from about 2300 BC to the 16th century AD. About 25% of the site has been excavated, revealing structures of different types: residential, public, commercial, religious and military. They testify to the importance of the site, a trading port, over the centuries. On the top of the 12 m mound there is the impressive Portuguese fort, which gave the whole site its name, qal’a (fort). The site was the capital of the Dilmun, one of the most important ancient civilizations of the region. It contains the richest remains inventoried of this civilization, which was hitherto only known from written Sumerian references.
Bahrain isn’t a very big country. You could probably drive from end-to-end the long way in an hour. Despite its size, it has been an historically significant port. The image above is of the old ruins of the ancient harbor. Just on the other side of these ruins, not in camera, are the ruins of an old Portuguese fort which was on the site. There is also a museum on the site which is the best cultural center I’ve seen in the Gulf.
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Know Garden Sage
Garden sage (Salvia Officinalis) is an aromatic herbal shrub that has green leaves with a silvery touch. It is also known as gulsham in Hindi, neelamulli in Tamil, neelambaramu in Telugu & marameeah in Arabic.
With a firm stem & deep purple flowers, the sage plant can achieve a height of two and a half to three feet. This herbal plant is also called kitchen & common sage.
Studies show sage leaves have beneficial organic compound contents. These include tannic, fumaric, caffeic & ursolic acids besides containing estrogenic substances & flavones.
Nonetheless, oil of this herb should be used in tiny amounts to avoid sage side effects.
Get Health Benefits of Sage
Many herbalists consider using this medicinal herb in treatments such as gingivitis, eczema, bad breath, canker sores and for clearing dandruff.
- In traditional medicines, the leaves are used as a poultice that is used externally for treating swelling, sprains, bleeding & ulcers.
- Sage herb leaves can be used to obtain sage tea benefits for treating sore throats and is also found to be of use for coughs. The sage flower petals are used to garnish salads.
- White sage oil is said to have antiseptic properties that is used to prevent infection and treat inflammation & wounds.
- In addition, the sage herb is also beneficial in treating symptoms associated with menopause.
- The sage plant is said to possess anti-bacterial, anti-viral & even anti-fungal properties that can be useful in treating various disease.
- Several studies have revealed benefits of sage in its effectiveness in fighting harmful microorganisms such as herpes simplex & influenza 2 viruses.
- Oil obtained from sage seeds can give dramatic results for inflammatory conditions and skin disorders.
- A combined sage infusion is used by natives to curb digestive problems and to enhance digestion.
- The sage herb also has shown anti-oxidant properties equal to that of alpha-tocopherol.
- Used as a dietary supplement, sage oil (use in low percentage) is said to improve short term memory. Sage tea can render a calming effect on your body.
Sage is used traditionally to stop excess salivation & perspiration. Sage seeds oil is observed to render mental clarity and is said to act as a stimulant for your nervous system.
Due caution is required to avoid sage side effects (such as convulsions) while using sage oil.
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Date of this Version
Lion Gardener (1599-1663) was an English military engineer, formerly in the service of the prince of Orange, who was hired by members of the Connecticut Company in 1635 to oversee construction of fortifications for their new colony. On arriving in Connecticut in early 1636, his first assignment was to finish and garrison Saybrook Fort, at the mouth of the Connecticut River. In August 1636, the area was visited by a punitive military expedition from the Massachusetts Bay Colony, led by John Endicott, intent upon intimidating the Pequot and Niantic tribes and demanding delivery of the killers of a group of Indian traders (John Stone, Walter Norton, and six crewmen), who had been killed late in 1633. Endicott’s force plundered and burned crops and villages and returned to Boston, touching off the Pequot War that lasted until the fall of 1637. Gardener’s command of Saybrook Fort placed him in the center of the action, and his military background made him an astute observer and critic.
Gardener’s Relation of the Pequot Warres was written in 1660, and it remained in manuscript in various Connecticut record collections until rediscovered in 1809 and printed in the Massachusetts Historical Society Collections in 1833 (3rd Series, III, pp. 131–160). The version presented here was republished from the surviving manuscript by the Acorn Club of Connecticut in 1901, and is said to be a more faithful rendering of Gardener’s original. The 33-page Relation is preceded by a 29-page introduction that gives a brief sketch of Gardener’s life and a longer description of the history and provenance of the manuscript.
Gardener’s Relation is one of four contemporary English accounts of the Pequot War; the others are by John Underhill, John Mason, and Philip Vincent, the last derived from an unidentified informant.
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When I tell someone I am majoring in English and philosophy, they almost always get a sarcastic twinkle in their eye, a friendly curl to one side of their lips, and inevitably say, “That’s cool, I really like philosophy. But don’t you think it just goes around in circles?” Through their thinly veiled politeness, I can read the true nature of their thoughts: you’re wasting your time, you foolhow can you possibly put up with all that nonsense that never leads anywhere (hence the part about the circles)?
This mode of thinking is a fundamental symptom of the blind faith that modern man places in the omnipotence of science and the technological hubris that permeates our culture as a result. Since philosophy never appears to reach a final result that can manifest itself as tangible proof, many people reject the field altogether as a playground for pointless ideasnothing but a tool to practice writing, argumentation, and critical thinking. I will make an attempt to defend my chosen craft against these scientific naysayers, and establish philosophy and literature as vitally important endeavors to our existence as human beings.
If philosophy is scorned for moving in circles, then I must suppose the preferred alternative would be a linear progression that ends at some reachable point. Science appears to have a more cumulative and ultimately progressive history because it continually relies on past results to build new theories and achieve even more advanced technological or hypothetical creations. Before I address anything else, I want to argue that philosophy is not quite so circular, and science is not quite so linear.
What would it really mean to move in an intellectual circle? Supposing the analogy were literally applied to an individual, I assume that the phrase would refer to a thinker who constantly achieves the same result regardless of the amount of thought he or she applies over time. In terms of personal philosophy, this reasoning seems almost empirically nonsensical: no thirty-year-old thinks about the world in the same way as they did when they were twelve (or even if they do, it is in a more mature context).
Historically speaking, to say that each philosopheror each epoch of philosophyultimately reaches the same results is absurd. Moreover, to believe that philosophy has, over time, made discoveries in a fashion somewhat similar to those made by science would also be utterly false. Every century in the past five hundred years has brought a myriad of new philosophical revelations improving on the ideas of the past. Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason came a long in part because of Aristotle’s Metaphysics, for instance.
But the critic will still argue that all these new formulations are simply increasingly complicated methods of the shuffling about of same old ideas, and that no philosopher has ever decisively come any closer to absolute truth than any other. The naïve critic would brashly argue that only science can deliver verifiable answers, and he would indignantly cross his arms in triumph. I concede that science and mathematics offer some solutions about the empirical world based on data collected concerning the laws of nature, but not a linear path to truth.
At the highest levels of physics and theoretical mathematics, ideas are just as nebulous and disputable as anything written by Kant or Hegel. Models are tested and proved, then tested again and retracted. Has anyone kept track of the number of times in this century scientists have determined that the universe will expand infinitely, then switched back to the Big Crunch theory, then switched back again? If they have, I’ve lost count. If that’s not a circle, I don’t know what is.
Yet again, that bothersome critic butts in and cries that what we don’t know now, we will figure out in the future. I contest that appealing to the future is a slippery slope, and could equally assert that philosophy could find absolute truth in the future before science does. There’s no telling that tomorrow I won’t write a paper that proves everyone else wrong and me rightunlikely, but possible.
Many people also ignore the questions to which science can never give the answers. Even if the scientists of the world were able to finally explain everything in the universe (something like a unified theory of physics, an idea that many scientists believe cannot be formed or proven), they still could not answer this question: why? Why is everything the way it is and not different? Why is the speed of light 186,000 miles per second? It just is, they would have to sayobserving the world itself could never yield any answers of this kind. But more importantly, no science, no matter how advanced, can guide the way we live our lives on daily basis. Scientific knowledge can significantly influence the way we relate to the world, but our conscious decision to act in certain ways according to this knowledge is philosophical, not scientific. What are protons and electrons when dealing with the decision to take one’s mother off life support, after all?
Now the same critic looks at me fearfully and asks, “If science can’t give us answers, then where do they come from? More importantly, what if there are no answers to these questions?” Such concerns get to the crux of people’s resentment and distaste for philosophy and literature. To the first inquiry I reply that the each person must find these answers for themselves and not wait until some lab junkie tells them it’s empirically justifiable. Our lives are our own, and we must fill them with meaning forged from our own hearts and minds. That is not to say that can be no objective truth, but an answer does not always have to be right to be important.
To the latter question, I assert that the human race must prepare itself for the real possibility that there could be no positive answers forthcoming for some questions. Some people living today have such reverence for the powers of science and the human intellect that they think there is no problem we can’t solve. Finding out that there could be a thing we can’t know is to find a truth just the same, and this is the purpose of philosophy. This concept is an essential property in the idea of truththe truth might be that there is no truth.
In conclusion, I want to state that I don’t have any contempt or disregard for science and its accomplishments. I believe scientific discoveries about the nature of things are vital to any philosophical investigation about the world. Science cannot take the place of philosophy however, and to be a human being is to think, and therefore to philosophize. The shape that would best characterize the movement of both science and philosophy would not be lines or circles but a combination of the two, ascending spirals that move gradually toward the shining force of truth.
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Guide Prepared by Michael J. Cummings...©
in 2010 ©
is an epic poem, a long narrative work about heroic exploits that is elevated
in tone and highly formal in its language. It was composed in ancient Greek
and transmitted orally before it was written down. Many modern translators
present the Iliad in prose, making it read like a novel.
derives the first two syllables of its name from Ilios or Ilion
(Greek for Troy) or, alternately, from Ilium (Latin for Troy).
-ad means related to, concerning, having to do with,
associated with. Thus, Iliad means a story concerning
of Action: About 3,200 years ago in recorded history's infancy, when
humankind's imagination peopled the known world with great heroes and villains
and nature reflected the mood of the gods inhabiting the mountaintops,
the seas, the forests, and the unseen worlds above and below. Homer fashioned
Iliad, the story of the Trojan War, about 600 years after the war ended.
The story is a mixture of fact, legend, and myth.
of Action: The walled city of Troy and the surrounding plains in northwestern
Anatolia, a region that is part of modern-day Turkey. Anatolia is west
of Greece (across the Aegean Sea) and north of Egypt (across the Mediterranean
archeological digs between 1870 and 1890, German-born American archeologist
Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) appeared to prove that the ancient city
of Troy was a fact, not a myth, as many had thought. However, the story
of the Trojan War—as passed down to Homer—was a mixture of fact, legend,
ranks as one of the most important and most influential works in world
literature in that it established literary standards and conventions that
writers have imitated over the centuries, down to the present day. It also
archetypes that hundreds
of great writers—including Vergil, Dante,
Shakespeare, Stephen Crane, and James Joyce—alluded
to when in need of an apt metaphor or simile. In addition, the Iliad
provided a mother lode of information about Greek customs and ideals and
about Greek mythology. The Iliad was a truly remarkable accomplishment.
Even though its author had no similar literary model on which to base his
work, he wrote a masterpiece that ranks with the greatest works of all
time. No student of literature can ignore Homer. No writer's education
is complete unless he has read Homer.
meter (rhythmic pattern of syllables) of Homer’s epic poems is dactylic
hexameter. A dactyl is a metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable
followed by two unaccented syllables, as in the words technical (TEK nik
l), allocate (AL oh kate), and harbinger (HAR bin jer). Hexameter is a
line containing six metrical feet. Thus, dactylic hexameter is a scheme
containing six dactyls, as in the following line: MAKE me a BEAU ti ful
GOWN and a HAT fringed with TASS les of DOWN, good sir. For
a full detailed discussion and explanation of meter and its forms, click
of the hallmarks of the Homeric style is the epithet, a combination of
a descriptive phrase and a noun. An epithet presents a miniature portrait
that identifies a person or thing by highlighting a prominent characteristic
of that person or thing. In English, the Homeric epithet usually consists
of a noun modified by a compound adjective, such as the following: fleet-footed
Achilles, rosy-fingered dawn, wine-dark sea, earth-shaking
Poseidon, and gray-eyed Athena. The Homeric epithet is an ancient
relative of such later epithets as Richard the Lion-Hearted, Ivan
the Terrible, and America the Beautiful. Homer repeated his
epithets often, presumably so the listeners of his recited tales could
easily remember and picture the person or thing each time it was mentioned.
In this respect, the Homeric epithet resembles the leitmotiv of opera composer
Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The leitmotiv was a repeated musical theme
associated with a character, a group of characters, an emotion, or an idea.
established literary practices, rules, or devices that became commonplace
in epic poetry written later. These rules or devices are now known as epic
conventions. They include the following:
Toward the Afterlife
The invocation of the muse,
a goddess. In Greek mythology, there were nine muses, all sisters, who
were believed to inspire poets, historians, flutists, dancers, singers,
astronomers, philosophers, and other thinkers and artists. If one wanted
to write a great poem, play a musical instrument with bravado, or develop
a grand scientific or philosophical theory, he would ask for help from
a muse. When a poet asked for help, he was said to
be “invoking the muse." The muse of epic poetry was named Calliope [kuh
LY uh pe].
Telling a story with which readers
or listeners are already familiar; they know the characters, the plot,
and the outcome. Most of the great writers of the ancient world—as
well as many great writers in later times, including Shakespeare—frequently
told stories already known to the public. Thus, in such stories, there
were no unexpected plot twists, no surprise endings. If this sounds strange
to you, the modern reader and theatergoer, consider that many of the most
popular motion pictures today are about stories already known to the public.
Examples are The Passion of the Christ, Titanic, The Ten
Commandments, Troy, Spartacus, Pearl Harbor, and
Conflict in the celestial realm.
Divine beings fight and scheme against one another in the epics of Homer
and Vergil, and they do so in John Milton's Paradise Lost on a grand
scale, with Satan and his forces opposing God and his forces.
Use of epithets. See "Homeric
here and now concerns the Greeks at Troy more than the afterlife, for they
generally believe that the abode of the dead is dark and dismal. Consequently,
their main purpose in life is to achieve immediate rewards and to live
for the moment. The idea of a heaven that will requite them for good deeds,
whether on or off the battlefield, is of less importance to them. However,
they generally do revere the gods of Olympus, who take sides in the war.
Offending the gods could incur their wrath and affect the outcome of the
Temperamental Greek warrior and king of the Myrmidons, who were soldiers
from Thessaly in Greece. Achilles, the protagonist, leads the Myrmidons
against the Trojans. He is revered as the greatest warrior in the world;
no man can stand against him. Achilles is the son of Peleus, the former
king of the Myrmidons, and a sea nymph named Thetis.
Commander-in-chief of the Greek armies and son of Atreus, the king of Mycenae.
He incurs the wrath of his greatest warrior, Achilles, by taking the latter's
prize of war, the beautiful Briseis.
King of Sparta and brother of Agamemnon. After his wife, Helen, the most
beautiful woman in the world, was taken by a Trojan named Paris, the Greeks
declared war on Troy.
Wife of Menelaus, paramour of Paris, and the most beautiful woman in the
(Roman Name, Ulysses): King of Ithaca and brilliant strategist. He
is unsurpassed in cunning.
the Great (Roman Name, Ajax the Great): Hulking giant who is second
only to Achilles in battlefield prowess. Many translators of the epic use
his Roman name, perhaps because of the force of its emphatic consonants.
Aias the Lesser (Roman
Name, Ajax the Lesser, or the Locrian Ajax): Leader of the Locrian archers
on the Greek side.
Greek warrior and beloved companion of Achilles.
Greek warrior of extraordinary valor and ability.
Greek soothsayer who advises Agamemnon.
Wise old king who advises Agamemnon.
Powerful Greek warrior.
King of Crete, who leads a Greek contingent against the Trojans.
Greek physician wounded by Paris.
Chariot driver for Achilles.
Elderly Greek warrior and trusted friend of Achilles.
Beautiful captive of Achilles.
Female captive of Agamemnon. He is forced to give her up.
commander under Achilles.
of Achilles. He arrives at Troy in the last year of fighting.
Stentor: Greek herald.
King of Troy.
Wife of Priam and queen of Troy.
Bravest and most accomplished of the Trojan warriors; son of Priam. Achilles
Hector's noble and dedicated wife.
Son of Hector and Andromache.
Trojan who took Helen From Menelaus.
Brave and powerful Trojan warrior.
Wise Trojan commander.
Great Trojan warrior.
Trojan spy who reconnoiters the Greek camp.
Advisor to King Priam. He argues that Paris should return Helen to the
Greeks, but Paris will not give her up.
Leader of the Lycian allies on the side the Trojans. He fights bravely
but dies at the hands of Patroclus. Sarpedon was the son of Zeus and Laodameia,
warrior and son of Priam.
warrior and son of Priam. He dies by an arrow meant for Hector.
driver for Hector.
Helenus: Trojan seer
and son of Priam and Hecuba.
soldier who wounds Patroclus.
(Roman names, Jupiter and Jove): King of the gods, who prefers to remain
neutral in the war but intervenes after a plea for help.
(Roman name, Juno): Queen of the gods, who favors the Greeks.
(Roman name, Minerva): Goddess of wisdom and war, who favors the Greeks.
(Roman name, Neptune): God of the sea, who favors the Greeks.
(Roman name, Vulcan): God of the forge, who favors the Greeks.
(Roman name, Venus): Goddess of love and beauty, who sides with the
(or Phoebus Apollo): Highly revered and feared sun god, who sides with
(Roman name, Mars): God of war, who sides with the Trojans.
(Roman name, Diana): Goddess of archery and hunting, who sides with
(Roman Name, Pluto): God of the Underworld.
(Roman Name, Mercury): Messenger god. He guides Priam to Achilles'
tent to ransom the body of Hector.
Sea nymph who is the mother of Achilles.
wrath of Achilles. The main focus of the
Iliad is the anger
of the Greek warrior Achilles and the revenge he seeks against those who
wrong him, including the general of the Greek armies, Agamemnon, and the
and honor are everything. The war begins because a Trojan offended
Greek honor by absconding with the wife of a Greek king. The war continues—for
fully 10 years—in part because the combatants seek glory on the battlefield.
In this respect, the combatants are like modern athletes, actors, and politicians
who compete for Heisman Trophies, Academy Awards, and votes. Achilles withdraws
from battle on a point of honor; King Priam reclaims his son's body for
the same reason.
The Greeks seek revenge against the Trojans because one of the latter has
taken the wife of a Greek king. Chryses and Apollo seek revenge because
Agamemnon has defied them. Achilles seeks revenge against Agamemnon because
the latter has insulted him. Later, after he reenters the battle, Achilles
seeks revenge against the Trojans in general—and Hector in particular—for
the death of Patroclus.
pays. For 10 years, the Greeks fight a foreign war. Although they long
for their families, although they have lost many men, they refuse to abandon
the battlefield. Ultimately, their pertinacity enables them to gain the
upper hand, setting the stage for ultimate victory.
play important roles in motivating action and shaping the future. Helen
is the immediate cause of the Trojan War. Chryseis is the cause of the
rift between Agamemnon and Apollo's priest, Chryseis. Briseis is the cause
of the rift between Agamemnon and Achilles. Athena, Aphrodite, Hera, and
the sea-nymph mother of Achilles—Thetis—all affect the action of The
Iliad significantly. Sometimes these goddesses get the better of their
Background and Plot Summary
Michael J. Cummings...©
the ancient Mediterranean world, feminine beauty reaches its zenith in
Helen, wife of King Menelaus of Greece. Her wondrous face and body are
without flaw. She is perfect. Even the goddess of love, Aphrodite, admires
her. While Aphrodite competes with other goddesses in a beauty contest—in
which a golden apple is to be awarded as the prize—she bribes the judge,
a young Trojan named Paris. She promises him the most ravishing woman in
the world, Helen, if he will select her, Aphrodite, as the most beautiful
goddess. After winning the contest and receiving the coveted golden apple,
she tells Paris about Helen and her incomparable pulchritude. Forthwith,
Paris goes to Greece, woos Helen, and absconds with her to Troy, a walled
city in Asia Minor (in present-day Turkey). ......Essay
Topics and Discussion Questions
elopement is an affront to all the Greeks. How dare an upstart Trojan invade
their land! How dare he steal the wife of one of their kings! Which Greek
family would be next to fall victim to a Trojan machination? Infuriated,
King Menelaus and his friends assemble a mighty army that includes the
finest warriors in the land. Together, they cross the sea in one thousand
ships to make war against Troy and win back their pride—and Helen. But
the war drags on and on. Weeks become months. Months become years. Years
become a decade. It is in fact in the tenth year of the war that Homer
picks up the thread of the story and spins his tale, focusing on a crisis
in the Greek ranks in which the greatest soldier in history, Achilles,
decides to withdraw from battle and allow his fellow Greeks to fend for
themselves. It is Achilles who is the central figure in The Iliad.
begins with a one-paragraph invocation requesting the Muse (a goddess)
to inspire him in the telling of his tale. Such an invocation was a convention
in classical literature, notably in epics, from the time of Homer onward.
years have passed since the Greek armies arrived in Asia minor to lay waste
Troy and win back their honor. Yet in all those years, neither side has
gained enough advantage to force a surrender. The Greeks remain encamped
outside the walls of the city, their nighttime fires mocking the glittering
firmament while their generals plot stratagems and their warriors hone
the Greek leaders, bloodstained and hardened to war, are Agamemnon, the
commander-in-chief; Menelaus, king of Sparta and brother of Agamemnon;
Odysseus, king of Ithaca and a military genius of unparalleled cunning;
and Aias the Great, a giant warrior of colossal strength. With sword and
spear, with rocks and fists, the Greeks have fought the Trojans—led by
the godlike Hector, their mightiest warrior, and Aeneas, a war machine
second only to Hector on the Trojan side—to a standoff. In time, the Greeks
believe, they will prevail. They have right on their side, after all. But
even more important, they have Achilles. He is the greatest warrior ever
to walk the earth—fierce, unrelenting, unconquerable. When Achilles fights,
enemies cower in terror and rivers run with blood. No man can stand against
him. Not Hector. Not an army of Hectors.
alas, in the tenth year of the great war, Achilles refuses to fight after
Agamemnon insults him. No one can offend the great Achilles with impunity.
Not even Agamemnon, general of generals, who can whisper a command that
ten thousand will obey. The rift between them opens after Agamemnon and
Achilles capture two maidens while raiding the region around Troy. Agamemnon’s
prize is Chryseis, the daughter of a priest of the god Apollo. For Achilles,
there is the beautiful Briseis, who becomes his slave mistress.
Chryses, the father of Chryseis, offers a ransom for his daughter, Agamemnon
refuses it. Chryses then invokes his patron, Apollo, for aid, and the sun
god sends a pestilence upon the Greeks. Many soldiers die before Agamemnon
learns the cause of their deaths from the soothsayer Calchas. Unable to
wage war against disease, Agamemnon reluctantly surrenders Chryseis to
for the Greeks, the headstrong king then orders his men to seize Briseis
as a replacement for his lost prize. Achilles is outraged. But rather than
venting his wrath with his mighty sword, he retires from battle, vowing
never again to fight for his countrymen. On his behalf, his mother, the
sea nymph Thetis, importunes Zeus, king of the gods, to turn the tide of
war in favor of the Trojans. Such a reversal would be fitting punishment
for Agamemnon. But Zeus is reluctant to intervene in the war, for the other
gods of Olympus have taken sides, actively meddling in daily combat. For
him to support one army over the other would be to foment celestial discord.
Among the deities favoring the Trojans are Ares, Aphrodite, Apollo, and
Artemis. On the side of the Greeks are Athena, Poseidon, and Hera—the wife
of Zeus. There would be hell-raising in the heavens if Zeus shows partiality.
In particular, his wife’s scolding tongue would wag without surcease. But
Zeus is Zeus, god of thunder and lightning. In the end, he well knows,
he can do as he pleases. Swayed by the pleas of Thetis, he confers his
benisons on the Trojans.
when the next battle rages, the Greeks—fired with Promethean defiance
and succored by their gods—fight like madmen. True, their right arm, Achilles,
is absent; but their left arm becomes a scythe that reaps a harvest of
Trojans. Aias and Diomedes are especially magnificent. Only intervention
by the Trojans’ Olympian supporters save them from massacre. Alas, however,
when the Trojans regroup for the next fight, Zeus infuses new power into
Hector’s sinews. After Hector bids a tender goodbye to his wife, Andromache,
and little boy, Astyanax, he leads a fierce charge that drives the Greeks
all the way back to within sight of the shoreline, where they had started
ten years before. Not a few Greeks, including Agamemnon, are ready to board
their ships and set sail for home. Such has been the fury of the Hector-led
Nestor, a wise old king of three score and ten, advises Agamemnon to make
peace with Achilles. The proud commander, now repentant and fully acknowledging
his unjust treatment of Achilles, accepts the advice and pledges to restore
Briseis to Achilles. When representatives of Agamemnon meet with lordly
Achilles, the great warrior is idly passing time with the person he loves
most in the world, his friend Patroclus, a distinguished warrior in his
own right. Told that all wrongs against him will be righted, Achilles—still
smoldering with anger—spurns the peace-making overture. His wrath is unquenchable.
However, Patroclus, unable to brook the Trojan onslaught against his countrymen,
borrows the armor of Achilles and, at the next opportunity, enters the
battle disguised as Achilles.
stratagem works for a while as Patroclus chops and hacks his way through
the Trojan ranks. But eventually Hector’s spear fells brave Patroclus with
no small help from meddlesome Apollo. The Trojan hero celebrates the kill
with an audacious coup de grâce: He removes
and puts on Achilles’ armor. Grievously saddened by the death of his friend
and outraged at the brazen behavior of Hector, wrathful Achilles—with a
new suit of armor forged in Olympus by Hephaestus at the behest of Achilles'
mother, Thetis—agrees to rejoin the fight at long last.
next day, Achilles rules the battlefield with death and destruction, cutting
a swath of terror through enemy ranks. Trojan blood mulches the fields.
Limbs lie helter-skelter, broken and crooked, as fodder for diving raptors.
Terrified, the Trojans flee to the safety of Troy and its high walls—all
of them, that is, except Hector. Foolishly, out of his deep sense of honor
and responsibility as protector of Troy, he stands his ground. In a fairy
tale about a noble hero with an adoring wife and son, Hector would surely
have won the day against a vengeful, all-devouring foe. His compatriots—and
the gallery of sons and daughters and wives peering down from the Trojan
bulwarks—would surely have crowned him king. But in the brutal world of
Achilles—whose ability to disembowel and decapitate is a virtue—Hector
suffers a humiliating death. After Achilles chases and catches him, he
easily slays him, then straps his carcass to his chariot and drags him
around the walls of Troy. Patroclus has been avenged, the Greeks have reclaimed
battlefield supremacy, and victory seems imminent.
old Priam, the king of Troy and the father of Hector, shows that Trojan
valor has not died with Hector. At great risk to himself, he crosses the
battlefield in a chariot and presents himself to Achilles to claim the
body of his son. But there is no anger in Priam's heart. He understands
the ways of wars and warriors. He knows that Achilles, the greatest of
the Greek soldiers, had no choice but to kill his son, the greatest of
the Trojan warriors. Humbly, Priam embraces Achilles and gives him his
hand. Deeply moved, Achilles welcomes Priam and orders an attendant to
prepare Hector's body. To spare Priam the shock of seeing the grossly disfigured
corpse, Achilles orders the attendant to cloak it. Troy mourns Hector for
nine days, then burns his body and puts the remains in a golden urn that
is buried in a modest grave.
Iliad ends here. Homer's audience was aware of the outcome of the war:
the defeat and destruction of Troy by the Greeks. When Troy fell, so did
Achilles—from the wound of arrow shot by Paris and guided by the god Apollo.
In his other great epic, the Odyssey,
Homer tells the story of the Greek hero Odysseus on his harrowing sea voyage
home from Troy.)
Achilles and Hector
and Hector are alike in some ways but different in many others. For example,
each is the greatest warrior of his army—Achilles, the Greek champion,
and Hector, the Trojan champion. In addition, both exhibit human flaws—Achilles,
vengeful rage, and Hector, impetuosity, as when he persuades Trojan warriors
to leave the safety of Troy's walls shortly before Achilles returns to
battle. However, they are unlike in many ways. Whereas Hector is a loving
family man, Achilles has no wife or children. He seeks only one thing:
battlefield glory. Write an informative essay or hold a discussion that
compares and contrasts Achilles and Hector. Consider their personalities,
their motivations, their intelligence, their leadership qualities, their
relationships and standing with those around them, their skills as soldiers,
their physical characteristics, and their moral and ethical values.
the central conflict of the Iliad an internal or external one—that
is, does the epic concern itself more with a conflict inside a person (or
persons) or more with a conflict outside of a person (or persons) him,
such as the war?
You Admire or Despise
character do you most admire? Which character do you least admire? Is your
selection based on qualities the character shares with you or on qualities
of the character that you would like to have but lack? Overall, what does
your choice say about your own personality and characteristics?
Role of Women
and report on the role of women in ancient Mediterranean society. Does
the treatment of women by Agamemnon, Achilles, Paris, Hector, or any other
character reflect the prevailing values of ancient society in Greece and
much of the Trojan War, as presented by Homer, is fact and how much legend
or myth? As a starting point, look up the name Heinrich Schliemann
(or Henry Schliemann) on the Internet or in an encyclopedia. Schliemann
(1822-1890), who changed his first name to Henry after moving from
his native Germany to America, conducted archeological digs in Turkey (the
country where the fabled city was said to be located) in an attempt to
prove that Troy really existed. What he found startled the world.
Gods of Olympus
and mythology books generally list twelve deities as the chief gods in
Greek mythology and as residents of Mount Olympus. However, two of
these important deities spent most of their time in the domains which they
governed, the sea and the underworld. In addition, the Greeks of one era
sometimes differed with the Greeks of another era on who were the most
important gods. Consequently, the list of the favored twelve sometimes
changed, omitting one god in favor of another.
Olympian gods were the successors of an earlier dynasty of gods known as
Titans. The Titan ruler, Cronos, believing that one of his children might
attempt to overthrow him, swallowed each of them after his or her birth.
However, one child, Zeus, was rescued by his mother and hidden on the island
of Crete. Later, Zeus forced his father to vomit the other children from
his stomach. Then, with the help of his siblings, he overthrew Cronus to
become lord of the universe.
names of the chief Olympian deities are listed below. Writers in ancient
Greece—such as Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides—used the original Greek
names, the English transliteration of which appears at left in the list.
Writers in ancient Rome and its dominions used the Latin version of the
names, the English transliteration of which appears in parentheses.
English language writers, past and present, use the transliteration of
the Greek version; others prefer the transliteration of the Latin (or Roman)
version. For example, William Shakespeare uses the transliteration of the
Latin version in his plays and poems. Instead of referring to the king
of the gods as Zeus (the transliteration of the Greek name), he refers
to him as Jupiter and Jove, the transliterations of the Latin names (Iuppiter
and Iovis). Here are the names of the Olympian gods and a brief
description of each:.
(Jupiter and Jove): King and protector of the gods and humankind. As
ruler of the sky, he made rain and thunder and wielded lightning bolts.
Zeus was the youngest son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea.
(Juno): Queen of the gods and protector of marriage. She was the wife
of Zeus and, as the daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, also his sister.
or Pallas Athena (Minerva):
Goddess of wisdom and war. She was born fully grown in a suit of armor,
issuing from the forehead of Zeus. The Greeks highly revered her and built
many temples in her honor.
(Mars): God of war and the son of Zeus and Hera.
(Neptune): God of the sea and brother of Zeus.
(Pluto): God of the underworld and brother of Zeus.
(Vulcan): God of fire and metalwork who built the palaces in which
the Olympian gods lived. He also forged their armor and made their jewelry.
He was the son of Zeus and Hera.
Phoebus Apollo, or Phoebus (Same as Greek Names): God of prophecy,
music, poetry, and medicine. His alternate name, Phoebus, means brightness,
and he was thus also considered the god of the sun. He was the son of Zeus
and Leto, the daughter of Titans. The Greeks highly revered him and built
many temples in his honor. One such temple at Delphi was the site of a
famous oracle, the Pythia, who pronounced prophecies as the mouthpiece
(Diana): Goddess of the hunt. She was the daughter of Zeus and Leto
(see Apollo) and the twin sister of Apollo.
(Venus): Goddess of love and beauty. According to Homer, she was the
daughter of Zeus and Dione, the daughter of a Titan; according to the Greek
poet Hesiod, she was born from the foam of the sea.
(Mercury): Messenger god who wore a winged hat and winged sandals.
He was also the god of science, luck, commerce, and cunning. He was the
son of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of a Titan.
(Vesta): Goddess of the home and hearth and sister of Zeus.
lists of the major Olympian gods omit Hades in favor of Hebe,
a cupbearer of the gods. Still others rank Dionysus (Roman name, Bacchus),
the god of wine and vegetation and a patron of the arts, as one of the
Abode of the Gods
Olympian gods lived in palaces constructed by Hephaestus on the summit
of Mount Olympus, the highest peak (9,570 feet) in a mountain range between
Macedonia and Thessaly near the Aegean Sea. Mount Olympus is sometimes
called Upper Olympus because it lies just north of a lesser peak (5,210
feet) known as Lower Olympus.
goddesses called the Seasons maintained watch at the entranceway of Mount
Olympus, a gate of clouds which opened and closed whenever a god left or
returned to Olympus.
their lofty domain, the gods breathed only pure air, or ether. They took
their meals in the palace of Zeus, eating ambrosia to sustain eternal life
and drinking a delicious beverage called nectar, served by Hebe. Near the
throne of Zeus sat lesser goddesses known as Muses, who were nine in number.
They regaled the gathering with songs of the gods and of earthly heroes
and history. These daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory,
learned under the tutelage of Apollo.
lesser gods on Olympus included the following: (1) Eros (Cupid), god of
love and son of Aphrodite who shot arrows that impregnated humans with
love. (2) Iris, messenger goddess of Zeus and Hera who created rainbows
when she flew across the sky. (3) Themis, a companion of Zeus who was the
goddess of justice. She holds scales on which she weighs the claims in
a suit of law. (4) The Charites, or Graces, goddesses of joy and beauty.
(5) Nemesis, the goddess of vengeance and punishment. (6) Aidos, the goddess
of Greek Mythology and Characteristics of the Gods
ancient times, western literature has lived at the foot of Mount Olympus,
the nearly two-mile high colossus that was believed to be home to important
Greek gods. Writers of every age and every genre have invoked the magic
of Olympus to make fire and thunder with words—or to perfume them with
the breath of Venus.
Greek writers Hesiod (born in the 7th or 8th Century B.C.) and Homer (born
in the 8th or 9th Century B.C.) immortalized the Olympian gods—Hesiod in
the Theogony and in Works and Days, Homer in The Iliad
and The Odyssey. The Theogony presents a creation myth and
a genealogy of the gods, along with accounts of their exploits. The Works
and Days advises farmers how to prosper, through honest
toil and righteous living, without incurring the disfavor of the gods.
Homer’s Iliad tells the story of the final year of the Trojan War,
between Greece and Troy, focusing on the greatest Greek warrior, Achilles,
and on the machinations of Olympian gods who take sides and attempt to
influence the outcome of the war. The Odyssey narrates the adventures
of Odysseus (known as Ulysses to the Romans), a hero of the war who designed
the famous Trojan horse to breach the walls of Troy, on his long sea voyage
home after the war. While sailing home, the Olympian gods alternately help
or hinder his progress. The Iliad and The Odyssey, both epic
poems, are among the greatest works in world literature.
great writer since Hesiod and Homer—including Sophocles, Vergil, Ovid,
Dante, Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton—has climbed Olympus to retrieve
metaphorical divinities or one of their qualities to illumine, clarify,
or beautify his or her language.
everlasting and supernal, the gods of Olympus exhibited humanlike behavior.
They could be loving and generous, wise and forbearing. They could also
be petty and base, fickle and vile. And, they could be quick to anger.
In Book I of The Iliad, the Olympian god Apollo descends the great
mountain in a rage after the Greek general Agamemnon captures a beautiful
maiden and refuses to give her up to her father, Chryses, a priest of Apollo.
came down furious from the summits of Olympus, with his bow and his quiver
upon his shoulder, and the arrows rattled on his back with the rage that
trembled within him. He sat himself down away from the ships with a face
as dark as night, and his silver bow rang death as he shot his arrow in
the midst of them. First he smote their mules and their hounds, but presently
he aimed his shafts at the people themselves, and all day long the pyres
of the dead were burning. (English translation by.Samuel
could also be quick to laugh. In Book 8 of The Odyssey, the blacksmith
god, Hephaestus (Vulcan)—a lame and ugly hunchback—fashions an invisible
chain to ensnare his beautiful wife, Aphrodite (Venus), and her inamorato,
Ares (Mars), after they rendezvous to make love. In bed, they become hopelessly
entangled in the chain. Hephaestus then invites other gods to look upon
his unfaithful wife and her paramour caught—like wasps in a spider’s web—in
this the gods gathered to the house of Vulcan. Earth-encircling Neptune
came, and Mercury the bringer of luck, and King Apollo. . . . Then the
givers of all good things stood in the doorway, and the blessed gods roared
with inextinguishable laughter, as they saw how cunning Vulcan had been.
. . . (English translation by Samuel Butler)
Literature at Amazon.com
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A toxicology test ("tox screen") checks for drugs or other chemicals in your blood, urine, or saliva. Drugs can be swallowed, inhaled, injected, or absorbed through the skin or a mucous membrane. In rare cases, a tox screen may check your stomach contents or sweat.
A tox screen may check for one certain drug or for up to 30 different drugs at once. These may include prescription medicines, nonprescription medicines (such as aspirin), vitamins, supplements, alcohol, and illegal drugs, such as cocaine and heroin.
Testing is often done on urine or saliva instead of blood. Many drugs will show up in a urine or saliva sample. And urine and saliva tests are usually easier to do than blood tests.
Why It Is Done
This test may be done to:
- Find out if a drug overdose may be causing life-threatening symptoms, unconsciousness, or strange behavior. It is usually done within 4 days after a drug may have been taken.
- Check for drug use in the workplace. Testing is common for people who work in public safety, such as bus drivers or child care workers. Some jobs require a tox screen as part of the hiring process.
- Check for drug use in students involved in extracurricular activities, such as sports and cheerleading.
- Look for the use of drugs that enhance athletic ability.
- Check for the presence of a date rape drug.
How To Prepare
Many medicines can change the results of this test. So give your doctor a list of all the medicines you have taken in the past 4 days. Be sure to include any prescription and over-the-counter medicines, vitamins, and natural health products.
You will be asked to sign a consent form that says you understand the risks of the test and agree to have it done. If you are a student, your parents may also need to sign a consent form before you can be tested.
Talk to your doctor if you have any concerns about the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results may mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form(What is a PDF document?).
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What is the difference between a relative adverb and a relative pronoun?
|who||subject or object pronoun for people||I told you about the woman who lives next door.|
|which||subject or object pronoun for animals and things||Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?|
|which||referring to a whole sentence||He couldn’t read which surprised me.|
|whose||possession for people animals and things||Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?|
|whom||object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)||I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.|
|that||subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)||I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.|
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.
|when||in/on which||refers to a time expression||the day when we met him|
|where||in/at which||refers to a place||the place where we met him|
|why||for which||refers to a reason||the reason why we met him|
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| 0.918722 | 312 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Johnson Space Center, Houston
HOUSTON – Neighbors of NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston may notice some loud noises coming from the 1,600-acre site in the coming weeks.
Johnson's Engineering Directorate is ready to begin testing its prototype lander as part of Project Morpheus– a vertical test bed designed to integrate technologies that could be used to build future spacecraft intended to land on the moon, Mars, asteroids or any other foreign surface.
The last time a prototype spacecraft was flown at Johnson, man hadn't yet landed on the moon. Located as it is in the middle of a busy urban area, the site isn't suitable as a launch site for the programs – such as the space shuttle and Apollo – that have called it home. But for the past 10 months, Johnson engineers have been working on Morpheus, and now they're ready to put it to the test.
"Morpheus is tangible proof that we can and are doing amazing and exciting things advancing exploration systems with a different paradigm," said Steve Altemus, director of Johnson's engineering directorate. "Over the past year, with very little funds, by leveraging our facilities and commercial partners, and most importantly by unleashing the power of our workforce, we put a functioning spacecraft together."
Though the schedule is weather dependent, the first Morpheus hot fire is set for Friday. Engineers will strap the vehicle down in a field on site, and fire the engine for 5 to 10 seconds. There will likely be a series of these tests, before the engineers move to tethered tests, in which the engine is fired while the vehicle is suspended from a crane.
The buildings closest to the tests, on- or off-site, stand about 2,000 feet away. At that distance, one can expect to hear the engine firings at a level of about 93 decibels – comparable to standing next to a lawn mower.
If all goes well, the tests will culminate with Morpheus' first free flight on May 4, as part of Johnson's Innovation Day activities. That will require the untethered vehicle to rise almost 100 feet into the air, fly 100 feet to the west and land safely. It's not an exact match for what the vehicle would be required to do on the moon or another planet or asteroid, but it allows the engineers to prove safely and cheaply that the various components of the vehicle work together as a system.
"In a lot of ways, this is what people came to NASA to do: To build things, to fly things", Project Morpheus Manager Matt Ondler said. "So it's a great opportunity to learn how to build things and fly things."
Morpheus is intended to prove two key technologies that could be used in future exploration: One, Automated Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology, would enable a lander to navigate itself around rocks, craters and other hazards, and into a safe landing space. The other is the use of liquid oxygen and methane as a propellant – these "green" fuels are cheaper and safer to use here on Earth, and could also be manufactured on the moon or even Mars.
Both technologies were being studied at Johnson well before Morpheus began to take shape, but integrating them into one vehicle allows engineers to verify that they'll work in real life, as well as in the lab.
"When you integrate all the different subsystems, you really learn a lot that you don't get from doing things individually in the lab," Ondler said. "So it's important to be able to do this testing here, to give our workforce the right hands-on opportunities to become better engineers and more capable of affordably building NASA's next vehicle."
To ensure that the free flight test could be done safely, Morpheus has two completely redundant termination systems. It would take multiple failures for the vehicle to leave its projected flight path. However, if that were to happen, the vehicle still would not be able to travel more than about 500 feet in any direction with the amount of propellant it will have, leaving some 1,500 feet between it and the nearest buildings.
For information about NASA:
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Ecologist Ilkka Hanski has received a prestigious international award for his ground-breaking scientific achievements.
Hanski became yesterday the first European scientist to receive the Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Ecology and Protection Biology, which – according to a press release published by the University of Helsinki – is valued at 400,000 euros.
The Spain-based BBVA Foundation established the awards in 2008 to recognise outstanding scientific achievements.
Hanski received the award for his ground-breaking work on metapopulation biology. “[His] work is pivotal to our understanding of how species are affected by the growing problem of man-made habitat fragmentation,” the BBVA Foundation acknowledges in its press release.
The conceptual tools of metapopulation biology are already applied in a variety of disciplines, including cancer research, according to the BBVA Foundation. “The impact of his work is increasing as habitats become more fragmented due to anthropogenic influences,” the jury highlights.
The University of Helsinki points out that Hanski was already the first European ecologist to receive two other prestigious recognitions – the Balzan Prize for Ecological Sciences in 2000 and the Crafoord Prize in Biosciences in 2011.
“Hanski is the first ecologist and evolutionary biologist in history to receive all three of the aforementioned awards,” it points out in the press release.
Aleksi Teivainen – HT
Photo: Wikimedia Commons
Source: Uusi Suomi
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In a finding that may cause a dramatic shift in the way scientists and researchers search for a therapy for Alzheimer’s disease, a team of researchers led by Jeff Johnson, an associate professor at the School of Pharmacy, has discovered that increased expression of a protein called transthyretin in the brain appears to halt the progression of the disease. The findings appear in the current issue of The Journal of Neuroscience. ”This work shows convincingly that if we can intervene in Alzheimer’s pathology by introducing molecules and drugs into the brain and increase transthyretin levels, we could slow the progression of the pathology.”From University of Wisconsin – Madison :
Discovery may halt progression of Alzheimer’s
In a finding that may cause a dramatic shift in the way scientists and researchers search for a therapy for Alzheimer’s disease, a team of researchers led by Jeff Johnson, an associate professor at the School of Pharmacy, has discovered that increased expression of a protein called transthyretin in the brain appears to halt the progression of the disease. The findings appear in the current issue of The Journal of Neuroscience.
”This work shows convincingly that if we can intervene in Alzheimer’s pathology by introducing molecules and drugs into the brain and increase transthyretin levels, we could slow the progression of the pathology,” says Johnson, who co-authored the report with Thor Stein, a former graduate student in UW’s M.D./Ph.D. program who performed most of the experiments. ”Even if patients have plaque formation in the brain, they still could have normal function.”
For years, researchers have focused on creating an animal model that mimics the pathology of Alzheimer’s disease to test potential therapies. By genetically engineering mice to express mutated genes from the families of patients with early-onset Alzheimer’s disease, researchers produced several mouse lines that over-express the human amyloid precursor protein (APP), a protein involved in the disease development. While the mice developed plaque formation in their brains, they didn’t develop the other hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease — neurofibrillary tangles, a leading indication that neural cells are dead or dying.
Most researchers noticed this and continued to search for a way to create the perfect mouse model. Johnson had a different thought.
”I said to myself, everybody is trying to kill neurons in mice to create the Alzheimer’s pathology,” he explains. ”And here we have a mouse that has amyloid deposition and plaques yet no neurons are dying. Let’s try to figure out why these mice aren’t getting the disease.”
The answer was surprising, and could completely alter the way researchers think about treating Alzheimer’s disease.
Johnson’s research is based on the widely held amyloid hypothesis: When amyloid precursor protein (APP) is cut into pieces in the human brain, there are ”good” cuts – proteins that help to protect neurons – and ”bad” cuts, toxic beta-amyloid protein that, when present in large amounts, causes massive neural cell death, leading to cognitive function loss. In Alzheimer’s patients, ”bad-cut” proteins significantly outnumber ”good cut” proteins.
Stein, under Johnson’s supervision, analyzed the brains of the mice with plaque formation, and noticed something interesting: The levels of a pair of specific proteins, transthyretin and IGF-2, increased dramatically. Since transthyretin had been shown in test tubes to bind to the toxic beta-amyloid protein, Johnson and Stein hypothesized that in the mice, the transthyretin was preventing the ”bad cut” toxic beta-amlyoid protein from interacting with the neuronal cells, thereby preventing tangle formation and subsequent neuronal cell death.
”Somehow, the adapted mechanism in the mice was due to the balance between the good cut and the bad cut,” says Johnson. ”The good cut product was causing the increase in transthyretin, which was balancing the toxicity of the beta-amyloid, or bad-cut protein.”
Further experimentation bore out their theory. When Stein introduced an antibody into the mouse brain that prevented transthyretin from binding with beta-amyloid protein, the mice developed early signs of neurofibrillary tangles and increased neuronal cell death. Johnson and Stein verified that this ”good” cut product has similar protective effects in human brain tissue in vitro. The latter finding is particularly significant.
”If we couldn’t show that, we wouldn’t have known if this protective mechanism is as relevant to humans as it was to mice,” Johnson explains.
The next question – and it’s a big one – involves developing a reliable method to deliver transthyretin into the brain, or developing drugs that increase transthyretin expression in the brain to combat the neurotoxicity of beta-amyloid.
”This gives us a great opportunity to identify a new concept in the field that other people and drug companies will pick up on,” says Johnson. ”Hopefully this will spur a new approach to Alzheimer’s disease. Instead of treating the cognitive symptoms, we can actually prevent the loss of the neurons that result in the cognitive symptoms.”
Johnson foresees a time when family members with a genetic predisposition to Alzheimer’s disease could take a yet-undeveloped drug or molecule to increase transthyretin protein and prevent the disease from developing. It could also theoretically halt the progression of the disease in patients in the early stages of the pathology, preserving a higher level of cognitive function.
The Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF) has filed a U.S. patent application on behalf of the chool of Pharmacy on specific protein sequences that confer this protective effect. In the coming months, WARF hopes to begin licensing this technology to drug companies that can begin researching an effective delivery method.
Johnson and Stein believe that these new discoveries may eventually be combined with other therapies to help prevent the progression of Alzheimer’s disease.
”What makes this interesting and novel is that nobody has really identified this mechanism for potential therapeutics,” Johnson says. ”I believe there will be drugs that cross the blood-brain barrier that can be used for Alzheimer’s therapy. We’ll find those molecules. They may already be out there, but nobody has looked at them in this context.”
Johnson and Stein’s research was and continues to be funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. To view the report in full, visit www.jneurosci.org
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If it's not one thing, it's another: a new hypothesis floating around the scientific community suggests that evolving bigger brains and superior intellect may have led to a dramatically elevated risk of cancer in humans. Thanks, brain.
The theory runs like this. Usually cells die off in a controlled fashion—called apoptosis—which allows fresh cells to replace tired old ones. The process allows old malfunctioning cells to be destroyed before they go rogue and grow into tumors. But in order for our brains to grow bigger, our bodies have had to learn to extend the life of cells, delaying apoptosis and in turn increasing the risk of cancer development.
The new idea is published in PLoS One and isn't just grandiose academic posturing. In fact, it's backed up by an analysis of the lifecycle of cells from both humans, chimpanzees and macaques. The results point to the fact that human cells undergo apoptosis much more slowly—and are at greater risk of mutation as a result.
Perhaps understandably, some academics warn that the theory should be taken with at least a small pinch of salt. "He has a sound experimental finding," explained Todd Preuss of the Yerkes National Primate Research Center in Atlanta, Georgia, to New Scientist. "What that means in the broader context is open to debate." Part of the problem is that there isn't really any systematic data on cancer rates in non-human primates to compare to.
Still, the idea is being taken seriously by many, and it could go a long way in explaining why cancer is such a serious medical problem for humans the world over. Let's just hope that cancer doesn't wipe us out before our brains are big enough to find a cure. [PLoS One via New Scientist]
Image from Wikimedia
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ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, videos, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you.
Find the latest in professional publications, learn new techniques and strategies, and find out how you can connect with other literacy professionals.
Teacher Resources by Grade
|1st - 2nd||3rd - 4th|
|5th - 6th||7th - 8th|
|9th - 10th||11th - 12th|
Crit Lit for Kids: From Critical Consciousness to Service Learning
|Grades||6 – 8|
|Lesson Plan Type||Unit|
|Estimated Time||Nine to eleven 60-minute sessions|
Grades 4 – 12 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson
In this alternative to the traditional book report, students create book trailers using Microsoft Photo Story 3, a free downloadable software program for digital storytelling.
Grades 3 – 12 | Student Interactive | Organizing & Summarizing
The Persuasion Map is an interactive graphic organizer that enables students to map out their arguments for a persuasive essay or debate.
Grades K – 12 | Student Interactive | Writing & Publishing Prose
The interactive Printing Press is designed to assist students in creating newspapers, brochures, and flyers.
Grades 6 – 12 | Calendar Activity | May 11
After learning about the story of Pedro Albizu Campos and his commitment to Puerto Rican independence, students research and share their learning about another nationalist figure from around the world.
Grades 1 – 12 | Calendar Activity | July 12
Students make mental "snapshots" of a natural setting, then capture the details of their setting by writing and then creating a class booklet of the nature walk.
Grades 4 – 12 | Calendar Activity | July 18
After reading Kadir Nelson's Nelson Mandela, students explore the Mandela Day website before using an online tool to start working on a service project of their own.
Grades 6 – 8 | Professional Library | Book
This unique instructional approach enables students to read literature they enjoy while developing critical consciousness and addressing issues of social justice.
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Mucus is something everyone has, and some people wish they had a lot less of the stringy, gooey stuff. Sure, it can be gross to blow globs of snot into tissue after tissue when you have a cold or sinus infection, but mucus actually serves a very important purpose.
"Mucus is incredibly important for our bodies," explains Michael M. Johns III, MD, director of the Emory Voice Center and assistant professor of otolaryngology -- head and neck surgery at Emory University. "It is the oil in the engine. Without mucus, the engine seizes."
Try these simple tips to control allergens that may lurk in your home.
Pollen sticks to everything. Shower, wash hair, and change clothing if you've been outdoors during heavy pollen times.
Sleep relieves stress and helps your body heal when fighting allergy symptoms.
Fixer Upper: Updating your house? Hardwood floors are a great amenity -- and perfect for allergy-prone families.
TLC for the AC: Don't take your air conditioner for granted...
How much mucus is normal, and how much is too much? What does its color tell you about your health? Can you just get rid of it, or at least cut down on it, and how should you do that? Here are answers.
Mucus-producing tissue lines the mouth, nose, sinuses, throat, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. Mucus acts as a protective blanket over these surfaces, preventing the tissue underneath from drying out. "You have to keep them moist, otherwise they'll get dry and crack, and you'll have a chink in the armor," says Neil L. Kao, MD, associate professor of medicine at the University of South Carolina School of Medicine.
Mucus also acts as a sort of flypaper, trapping unwanted substances like bacteria and dust before they can get into the body -- particularly the sensitive airways. "You want to keep that environment, which is a sterile environment," free of gunk, says Johns. "Mucus is kind of sticky and thick. It's got viscosity to it that will trap things."
But mucus is more than just sticky goo. It also contains antibodies that help the body recognize invaders like bacteria and viruses, enzymes that kill the invaders it traps, protein to make the mucus gooey and stringy and very inhospitable, and a variety of cells, among other things.
Why Am I Making So Much Mucus?
Even when you're healthy, your body is a mucus-making machine, churning out about 1 to 1.5 liters of the stuff every day. Most of that mucus trickles down your throat and you don't even notice it.
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China exports its environmental problems as consumer culture booms
6th September, 2011
China is attempting to pursue the same impossible path as the rest of the world: generating consumer demand and wealth without destroying its natural resources and the planet
If you look at who bears the brunt of pollution in China, it’s often the poorest
Despite its well publicised investment in green technology, China today has an unenviable list of ecological problems; its reliance on coal has left it with 16 of the 20 most polluted cities in the world; the north of the country is prone to frequent water shortages which have created hundreds of thousands of ‘environmental refugees’; and the dumping of chemicals into the Yangtze and other rivers means half the Chinese population drink water contaminated with human and animal excrement.
In a new book, ‘As China Goes, So Goes the World', Oxford professor Karl Gerth, claims that many of these problems have been directly caused by China’s move towards a more consumerist society. In just twenty years, writes Gerth, China has gone from being almost exclusively an exporter of consumer goods, to being ‘the world’s largest consumers of everything from mobile phones to beer.’
The decision to stimulate consumer demand in China was a conscious one taken by the country’s government. With a growing saturation of its products in Western markets, Chinese industry needed new consumers to ensure continued economic growth, and the only obvious place to turn was their own population.
In the light of the worldwide financial crisis, however, it is not just the Chinese Government which is relying on its population to help spend their way out of a recession, but the entire Western World. ‘In the West, we’re looking to a very poor country to save us twice’, says Gerth, referring to the economic dependence on China, and also the Western expectation that the Chinese will develop the green technology to combat rising emission levels.
Explosion in car ownership
The link between China’s consumption patterns and its ecological problems are clear. In 1993, there were only 37,000 private cars on the road, with the vast majority of the population using bicycles for transport. Today there are more than 35 million cars, a figure that is expected to grow to 150 million within the next ten years. All these cars have contributed to the severe air pollution and smog that blights many of China’s cities.
In dietary choices too, the Chinese have begun to move towards a more carbon-intensive Western lifestyle with meat and dairy products increasingly replacing the traditional protein source of beans. In the mid-1990s daily milk consumption was less than 5kg per person, today it is 11kg, whilst city dwellers eat twice as much meat as they did in the 1980s. This move has been facilitated by the rapid emergence of fast food restaurants such as MacDonalds. The resultant increase in cattle-rearing has lead to the erosion of top-soil, desertification and has helped to cause China’s water shortages.
The ruling Communist Party’s response to its environmental problems has often been to engage in dramatic large-scale building projects or alter consumer patterns with strict market control. For example, in order to combat water shortages in the North, the South North Water Diversion Project is being constructed to divert 44.8 billion cubic meters of water from Yangtze River to the Yellow River and Huai River. To drive down car emissions, various measures at both a state and municipal level have been introduced to encourage the use of electric vehicles, including the introduction last week of a congestion charge in Beijing.
China's state-led solutions
These dramatic policies have lead some commentators to conclude that China’s authoritarian system is better suited to tackling climate change and dealing with its own ecological problems than Western democracies. ‘This New Confucianism is misguided’, says Sam Geall, deputy editor of online environmental publication China Dialogue, ‘although it seems sensible philosophically, one only needs to look empirically at the record of the implementation of environmental law and regulation in China to see that it’s incorrect.’
In reality, environmental policies are hampered by the structural problems in China’s system of government. As Geall explains, whilst many government directives ‘might look good on paper’, they are often sidestepped at a local level, and frequently conflict with previous directives, even those issued by the same government department.
There are countless failed initiatives which attest to this inefficiency and corruption. For example, in 2006 the National Bureau of Statistics abandoned attempts to calculate a ‘Green GDP’, due to the difficulty of gathering the necessary information. This difficulty was largely caused by companies falsifying their emissions statistics, something which they had been doing for years with their economic figures.
Many academics and environmentalists have suggested that the solution to tackling Chinese environmental problems lies not in more authoritarian measures, but in greater accountability in government and industry and a higher degree of popular participation in government.
‘The government can’t tackle these problems without people themselves pointing to instances of mis-implementation of directives’, says Anna Lora-Wainwright, Lecturer in the Human Geography of China at Oxford University. ‘They simply don’t have enough capacity to find all the cases of pollution all over China; they rely on people’s assistance.’
There have been encouraging moves in this direction. On 13 August, the Dalian Fujia Petrochemical Company facility in Liaoning province was ordered to shut following demonstrations by locals who were concerned about a possible toxic spill.
Organisations such as the Institute of Public Environmental Affairs, run by Chinese environmentalist Ma Jun, have also recently been pushing for more transparency on environmental issues, utilising the 2008 government directive, Measures on Open Environmental Information, to obtain pollution statistics about companies and governments, much in the same way that people use freedom on information requests in the UK.
Exporting the pollution to Vietnam
As encouraging as these developments might seem, there is always the danger that they will simply result in China exporting its environmental problems to other parts of the globe in the same way Western nations have done. In fact, says Kerry Brown, Head of the Asia Programme at Chatham House, ‘it’s already happening’, with the ‘new Chinas’, like Vietnam and Thailand suffering the consequences.
‘What Chinese environmentalists will also point out is that this also plays out on a domestic level within China,’ says Lora-Wainwright, who has studied the effects of pollution on rural communities. ‘If you look at who bears the brunt of pollution in China, it’s often the poorest,’ she adds.
This is not, however, a simple case of industry imposing itself on poor farmers. ‘The pressure for development also comes from rural Chinese people, not just the government... they recognise that if they oppose pollution in their local area, they are less likely to reap the benefits of the investment that industry can bring with it,’ says Lora-Wainwright.
The Chinese government seems to be facing the impossible task of balancing the requirement of bringing wealth and prosperity to its people and meeting growing consumer demand, with preventing the destruction of its natural resources and the planet. As Gerth puts it, ‘The Chinese Communist Party is now riding the same tiger as the rest of the world.’
Low-cost e-waste recycling in China releasing catalogue of pollutants
The world's growing waste mountain of mobile phones, computers and other electronic goods is being illegally recycled in unregulated and primitive conditions in China and causing significant toxic pollution
Resettlement fears over China's South-North water transfer project
Biggest engineering project in Chinese history could repeat failures of Three Gorges Dam, with significant pressure on ecosystems and fisheries from the resettlement of 300,000 people
Apple: the hidden costs of your iPad and iPhone
It may have billion-pound profits and gushing praise for technological innovation but Apple is increasingly in the spotlight over its labour rights and environmental record. Eifion Rees reports on the 'sweatshop brand'
Three Gorges Dam 'a model for disaster'
International Rivers has highlighted the environmental damage caused by the world's biggest hydropower project amid concern about plans for two new dams in China
China using 'mind blowing' amount of fertiliser
Overuse of nitrogen fertilisers in China is leading to rapid soil acidification and is causing lasting damage to ecosystems, according to soil study
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From ESL Instructional Resources by Young-Kyung Min, PhD
As the number of international students and 1.5 generation students rapidly increases on our campus, it is important for faculty to create a learning environment in which both native speakers and non-native speakers become an important part of their own learning processes. An effective way to cultivate such an environment is to design course assignments and class activities by utilizing the strengths and challenges of native speakers and non-native speakers.
When designing class assignments and activities, there are some important points for faculty to consider. Let’s take a look at the following assignment prompts.
Watch the Superbowl and discuss its influence on American culture.
Compare David Letterman’s talk show with Conan O’Brien talk show.
Listen to the State of the Union Address by the President and critique his economic vision.
Certain cultural assumptions are deeply embedded in these assignment prompts. They invite us to think about what identities international and 1.5 generation students are expected to enact in these assignments. Such students can be engaged in the assignments in a more meaningful way if they are asked to examine the influence of the most popular sports game in their home countries; compare a well-known talk show in their home countries with one of the talk shows in the US or compare two most well-known talk shows in their home countries; and critique the economic vision of the Presidents of their home countries. This way, they can also help create a global moment in a local classroom by introducing their own cultures and customs. It is important to remember that international students are valuable assets for classroom activities and assignments, and they can help prevent class assignments or projects from being ethnocentric.
When faculty design a group project that requires an international perspective, international students and 1.5 generation students can take a more active role in the research process while native-English-speaking students can be more active in writing the paper. Native speakers become language informants and non-native speakers become cultural informants for their group project.
If it is a speaking assignment, faculty may pair an ESL student with a native speaker; the ESL student becomes the discussant for a native-English-speaking presenter. The ESL student should read the native speaker’s presentation material before the presentation and conduct the Q&A session for the native speaker. They get to know each other’s presentation topics beforehand and can help each other develop their ideas further for their projects (it is similar to the Discussant and Presenter format that is often used in professional conferences). This way, faculty can foster interactions between both groups of students that can benefit the learning of both students.
Another effective way to guide ESL students to become more active in their learning processes is to encourage them to bring back some artifacts that capture key aspects of their cultures or any artifacts that have some symbolic meanings in their cultures. Ask them to bring significant objects and introduce their cultures to your class. They can create a global moment both in their local classroom and on our campus by introducing their own cultures and customs. Cultural mementos can be also invaluable primary data sources for research projects in many courses that require an active inquiry into cultures, literacies, and languages. Also, each quarter, a variety of cultural events are arranged by the Office of Student Life and other student organizations on campus. They can use those artifacts to participate in the cultural events that take place on our campus (e.g. Intercultural Nights).
Faculty should not aim to assimilate international students into the US academic discourse community or simply acculturate them into the US academic culture. The goal of our education is not to Americanize international students; most of our international students go back to their home countries after their education at UWB. Our goal is to guide them to become more competent global citizens. We should help such students develop intercultural literacy, which Juan Guerra defines as “the ability to consciously and effectively move back and forth among as well as in and out of the discourse communities they belong to or will belong to” (1997, p. 259).
In order to guide the students to move back and forth between the communities, it is crucial for faculty to provide them with a point of reference and a point of comparison for class activities and assignments. They should be given opportunities to talk and write about their cultural identities, heritages, and conflicts. They should be guided to “shuttle between their cultures and communities” (Canagarajah, 2002, p. 146). Their education in the US should not weaken their existing relationships with their home cultures: they should be constantly encouraged to negotiate and articulate their differences in order to become more competent global citizens (Connor, 2011; Min, 2012). This is the key idea in fostering an intercultural educational environment that can benefit both native and non-native speakers in our classrooms and on campus.
Canagarajah, S. (2002). Globalization, methods, and practice in periphery classrooms. In D. Block & D. Cameron (Eds.), Globalization and language teaching (pp. 134-150). New York, NY: Routledge.
Connor, U. (2011). Intercultural rhetoric in the writing classroom. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Guerra, J. (1997). The place of intercultural literacy in the writing classroom. In C. Severino, J. Guerra, and J. Butler (Eds.), Writing in multicultural settings (pp. 234-244). New York, NY: Modern Language Association of America.
Min, Y. K. (2012). Contact zone in TESOL: East and west immersion. Journal of International Students, 2(1). 83-85.
Min, Y. K. (work in progress). Teaching ESL students: Guidelines for inclusive pedagogical practices.
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1. Dicranopteris Bernhardi, Neues J. Bot. 1(2): 38. 1805.
Forking ferns [Greek dikranos, twice-forked, and pteris, fern, derived from pteron, feather, in reference to the leaf architecture]
Clifton E. Nauman
Stems long-creeping; hairs many celled, rigid to lax. Leaves usually separated several centimeters, of apparently indeterminate growth; pinnae opposite, in 1--several pairs, each pinna 1--many times forked, equal, each fork bearing arrested apex (bud) covered with tuft of hairs (all other axes glabrous) and pair of stipulelike appendages. Penultimate segments pectinate, in ± equal pairs, usually ascending. Veins 2--4-forked. Sori with 6--15 or more sporangia, not paraphysate. Spores trilete.
Species 8--12 (1 in the flora): nearly worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions.
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Updated at 8:23 a.m., Wednesday, April 4, 2007
Washington Place named national historic landmark
The former home of Queen Lili'oukalani the last reigning monarch of the Hawaiian kingdom is among one dozen new national historic landmarks recognized for their importance in interpreting the heritage and history of the United States.
The others established today are in Massachusetts, Ohio, California, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Utah, South Carolina, Missouri and Illinois.
"These new National Historic Landmarks reflect some of the most important historical and cultural developments in American history," Kempthorne said in a news release issued today. "Each of them tells a story about us as a nation and a people. Together they exemplify our history, heritage, literature and architecture. They are designated as National Historic Landmarks so that we may all enjoy and learn from them."
Washington Place is nationally significant for its close association with the life of Queen Lili'oukalani. It was her home from the time of her marriage in 1862 to John Owen Dominis, son of the original builder, to her death in 1917. Her constitutional monarchy was overthrown in an 1893 coup d'etat, and, in 1898, Hawai'i was annexed to the United States. Two years later, it formally became a territory.
Built in 1844-1847, Washington Place also is significant for its service as the executive mansion for the territorial governors from 1918 to 1959, and, after Hawai'i became the 50th state, the state governor's mansion, from 1959 to 2002. Washington Place is significant for its association with the historical theme of America's 19th-century expansionist history because it occupies a pivotal role in the 19th-century history of the extension of U.S. territory into the Pacific and the rise of the nation as a Pacific power.
Among the new landmarks in other states are buildings that mark the evolving architectural style of Frank Lloyd Wright; a "quintessential" country estate of the Gilded Age; the home of Roswell Field, the legal counsel for Dred Scott in one of the most significant Supreme Court cases in U.S. history; a residence reflecting Nathaniel Hawthorne's The House of the Seven Gables; and an American Garden City model of an ideal planned community, according to a news release issued by the Interior Department.
The National Historic Landmark designation is the highest such recognition accorded by the nation to historic properties determined to be of exceptional value in representing or illustrating an important theme, event, or person in the history of the nation.
These landmarks can be actual sites where significant historical events occurred, places where prominent Americans lived or worked as well as sites that represent the ideas that shaped the nation. Designation and national recognition encourages owners to protect and preserve their properties.
The properties are recommended by the National Park System Advisory Board and designated by the Secretary of the Interior.
Today, fewer than 2,500 historic places bear this national distinction.
Additional information on the National Historic Landmark program can be found on the NPS Web site at http://www.cr.nps.gov/nhl/.
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The basics of this relationship in the post-WWII era seem pretty well understood: basically, the richer the country, the more “democratic” it appears to be (in the sense I’ve discussed here and here, where democracy is conceived as a system of normatively regulated competition for control of states including the usual paraphernalia of elections, freedoms of speech and assembly, etc.), though the reasons for why this is the case remain disputed, and there are obvious and significant exceptions to this pattern. Conversely, the academic literature suggests that democratic regimes have a slight and indirect long-term development advantage, though the evidence for this claim is much more controversial, and there is no consensus on how this particular advantage operates, if it exists at allThere are links to literature describing all of these assertions in the original post. Marquez then runs down some simple data (and presents it very well) and notes:
The median income of democratic regimes has been higher than the median income of both hybrid and fully authoritarian regimes since at least the 1950s, and the gap has in general widened, not narrowed, even as the number of democratic countries has increased. (From this graph we cannot tell, however, whether the gap has widened because democratic countries have grown faster, or because non-democratic countries that grew fast turned into democracies; from the graphs below, we may infer that it was a mixture of both). The gap was highest during “peak authoritarianism” in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when most poor and newly independent countries were either hybrid regimes or dictatorships, but it stopped growing after the end of the cold war, when a number of relatively poor countries became democratic. ...
What about growth? Is any particular regime type consistently associated with economic growth? ...The answer is "not really" or at least "not very much". Dictatorships and hybrid regimes have more variability -- some grow very quickly, at least for awhile, but also go bust more frequently -- but averaging across regime types shows very little difference in central tendency:
To the extent that we can ignore these confidence intervals and focus only on the trend performance, democracies have not always done better than these other regimes. In the early post-war era it seems that dictatorships did better (though most did about as well as democracies), but then decolonization came along and the growth performance of dictatorships basically cratered. Indeed, the 80s, when the so-called “third wave” of democratization began, was also (not coincidentally perhaps?) the time when the “growth gap” between democracies and hybrid and dictatorial regimes was at its widest. Ominously, the last decade has seen a reversal of this pattern, which explains much of the (not very well thought out) commentary about the rise of the “Chinese model.”He has a very cool motion chart at his blog (that I can't find the embed code for) that maps out the null effect, so click through to watch it.
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When I was a kid, we had a neighbor who had a big, loud dinner bell. She'd stand on her porch and ring the bell when she wanted her children to come in for supper.
I still remember sitting on the ground watching some ants marching down the sidewalk when the neighbor lady rang the bell. The ants broke their line and scattered in all directions in apparent panic. They soon regrouped and continued about their business. She rang the bell again and the same thing happened.
If you look at the magnified head of an insect, you will not find any ears, but it is apparent that at least some of them can hear. Many insects make sounds, especially those such as crickets and cicadas that have mating calls, so they certainly must be able to hear them. Even insects that do not make sounds need to hear to avoid approaching dangers.
The praying mantis is unique because it is the only creature in the animal kingdom with just one ear. The ear is slit with a membrane under it on the underside of the thorax, between the middle pair of legs. Mantises often fly at night and can fall prey to bats, which hunt by sending out bursts of ultrasound that work like radar. The mantis ear can pick up the frequency of bat radar and take evasive action.
Before much was known about ant sounds, ants were thought to be unable to hear airborne sounds. It was assumed that they could only feel vibrations through whatever surface they were standing on, via sensitive hairs on their "knees."
Many species of ants make squeaks to communicate with each other by rubbing body sections together, a process called stridulation. Some species of ants squeak loud enough for a person to hear, if they get close enough. The many uses of ant sounds within colonies were unknown until recent years when better amplifying and recording equipment was invented.
However, once it was learned that they actually communicate by sounds, the question was exactly how they hear. Researchers are still working on this. Since ants seldom react to all of the huge, loud human-made noises in the environment, it is thought that they can hear small sounds at a close range by means of organs on their antennae.
The typical "singing" insects such as crickets, grasshoppers and cicadas, as well as some moths and butterflies, hear with what are called tympanal organs. As the name tells us, these organs are like drums, with a membrane stretched over an air space. Sounds cause the "drum" to vibrate, much like our eardrum. Crickets have tympanal organs on their front legs, grasshoppers on the thorax, cicadas on the abdomen. Tympanal organs are in pairs, like our ears.
The praying mantis is very unusual because it is the only creature in the animal kingdom with only one ear. The ear is slit with a membrane under it on the underside of the thorax, between the middle pair of legs. Mantises often fly at night and can fall prey to bats, which hunt by sending out bursts of ultrasound that work like radar. The mantis ear can pick up the frequency of bat radar and take evasive action. That is (at least so far) the only known function of this ear.
Mosquitoes and fruit flies hear with something called a Johnston's Organ. It is a receptor near the base of the antennae, and it detects vibration.
Some insects, especially some fuzzy or hairy caterpillars, sense sounds through vibration of delicate hair on their bodies. If you make a loud noise close to them, they will sometimes freeze or curl up in a ball or even rear up in a fighting position.
Honey bees sense vibrations on a surface through organs on their legs. They also have hearing organs on their antennae. They hear in the frequencies used to communicate inside the hive, where the younger bees work. When they are old enough to go outside and forage, they develop antenna sensors that detect the frequencies used to communicate about food sources.
- Send your insect questions to Claire Stuart by e-mail at [email protected] or write her (with self-addressed stamped envelope) in care of Living Section, The Journal, 207 W. King Street, Martinsburg, WV 25401.
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Today, Huxley receives even less notice as an ethnologist than as a physical anthropologist. His contributions to ethnology begin with the observations he wrote in the journal and letters of the Rattlesnake voyage and with the many sketches he made of New Guinea people and of their artifacts and continued to 1890. Commentaries in his Rattlesnake diary provide material for appreciating his role as an observer and interpreter of cultures that seem to be far removed from the European, though he would devise generalizations covering both. Of the many examples in diary items, letters, and pictures, these are representative of his early ethnological interest and skill as reporter and as artistic recorder of natives and of their artifacts, canoes, huts and villages. His first drawing of a native is that of Sewan, "The little Asmodeus of a boy," a Mauritius boy sketched at Chamerelle Falls in 1847.
Additional pictures, diary items, and letters of an ethnological interest are in§ 2. Voyage of the Rattlesnake.
On the Rattlesnake cruise, Lieutenant Huxley showed no more interest in rendering any hostile criticism of British imperialism than did any of his crewmates, all of whom had a job in insuring safety for British commerce through the Torres Straits. His comments on Portuguese imperialism were hostile, since he believed that the British would have been more humane than the Portuguese if they had been the occupying power of Brazil: he had "much greater respect" for the slaves than " for their beastly Portuguese masters, than whom there is not a more vile, ignorant, and besotted nation under the sun. I only regret that such a glorious country as this should be in such hands. Had Brazil been colonised by Engl, ve rivalled our Indian Empire"March 28, 1847.
While he admired the Papuans, he did not admire Australian aborigines or European colonists. In Science at Sea (1854), he wrote: "[T]here can be no doubt as to the immense difference which exists at present between the Papuan and the Australian races. The elimination of the latter from the earths surface can be viewed only with satisfaction, as the removal of a great blot from the, 19ty, by all those who know them as they are, and are not to be misled by the maudlin philanthropy of 'aborigines friends.' But we must confess that, even while believing it to be necessary step in the progress of mankind, we cannot look forward without a feeling of sadness to the time, assuredly fast approaching, when the peaceful idyllic simplicity of a life without care and without reproach, such as glides along in these Papuan Islesthe very Paradise of Lotus Eatersin harmony with the soft murmur of the graceful feathery leaves of the cocoa-nut trees, trembling in the lap of the gentle monsoon, with the surf breaking in long white lines athwart the deep blue sea, not in loud and angry rebellion against iron-bound shores, but in lazy play with the outstretched arms of the coral; when all this shall be defaced by the obtrusion of the polynesian 'scourge of God'the white man. To substitutewhat? 'The blessings of civilization'which means for the dark race, labour, care, drunkenness, disease, and ultimate subjection and extinction."
Several of the articles in the 1854-55 Westminster Review are on ethnological subjects, e.g., Carpenter, et al.: on a book about New Zealanders, Huxley contributes an anecdote from his brief visit to New Zealand and favors a novel ethnological hypothesis that has Sanskrit, Lithuano-Slavic, and other tongues resulting from an eastward rather than westward migration; and on monogeny vs. polygeny in tracing etiology of racesBrewster, et al. The "blessings of civilization" at least did not, contrary to popular belief, render the innate senses of Europeans inferior to the senses of other peopleOctober 27, 1890.
In April 1867, he delivered a series of twelves lectures on ethnology to the Royal Institution. "Lecture II. The Negritos" exists as a heavily-edited galley proof of 23 pages, unpublished. It covers Indian, Australian, and New Guinea people, attempting to answer questions such as "Are these people really a distinct race from any other kind of man? Or, to go further, are they a distinct species from any other kind of man?" Is it true that infertility is inspired by the mating of people of different races? He thought that as imaginary a view as the belief that "a black woman who had once had children by a white man would never again have one by a black man."
The essay gives detailed descriptions of New Guinea hair-style, its structure and tincture, of combs, artifacts, skulls (he presented drawings of New Guinea artifactsinventoried above). Though the natives offered a "hideous" appearance when they opened their mouths and revealed betal stains, the appearance prompted Huxley to compare them to English snuff-takers. Discussion continued of perched huts, such as that of Darnley Island. He planned a series of ethnological lectures to give to working-men (in 1880): "Anthropology: the distinctive characters of the Human Species and of the Races of Mankind."
As in the laboratory he investigated brains, so in the field and in the library he investigated not only to compare human beings of different ethnic and racial groups on their anatomies, but also on their myths and cultures. 1865 began with his series of lectures on "The Various Races of Mankind"January 1, 1865. He studied and published articles on the ethnology of native Americans, of Indians, and, especially, of Britons. On the Method and Results of Ethnology (1865) has ethnology incorporated into physical anthropology. The Asiatic Society had a plan to select and study representatives of Asian tribes, Huxley invited by Dr. Fayrer to travel to Calcutta as a physical anthropologist and ethnologist. Though he could not undertake that mission, he wrote to Fayrer commending the plan and recommending procedures for observing and recording physical and linguistic featuresJune 14, 1866. At a talk in Birmingham in 1867, he pointed out, as Alfred Russel Wallace would do at some length, that a study of people who lack technological advance shows that they are not inherently more primtive than those who enjoy it.
Huxley was elected President of the Ethnological Society in 1870Anniversary Address of the President of the Ethnological Society and On the Ethnology of Britain, reviewed in Professor Huxley on Political Ethnology (Pall Mall Gazette, January 1870); another version of the address was reproduced in Nature (March 1870): The Forefathers of the English People. In 1870 he wrote On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. At the British Association meeting in the fall of 1870, Huxley read a paper on research he had done into penicillium. After listening to a paper by John Lubbock on the "Social and Religious Condition of the Lower Races of Mankind," Huxley drew parallels betweeen the savage behavior of Papuans and that of slum dwellers in London and Liverpool and other centers of advanced civilizationRotherhithe (September 17, 1870).
To Huxley's ideas on British ethnology, R. H. Hutton took exception in an article in the Spectator Pope Huxley (1870), as did "A Devonshire Man" in the Pall Mall Gazette (1870)Professor Huxley's Last New Theory, to which Huxley replied with humor and venom in Professor Huxley on Celts and Teutons (January 21, 1870), noting to Darwin why he had taken the time to chastise the Devonshire ManJanuary 21, 1870. Huxley's On Some Fixed Points in British Ethnology appeared in 1871. A Nature report on a meeting held in the summer of 1878 gave his views of that yearPractical Fallacies, and Huxley's letter, British Race Types of To-Day, appeared in the Times later (October 12, 1887).
In a letter to Sir John EvansAugust 12, 1890, Huxley suggested the probability that a Pliocene hominid had existed: "For my part I should by no means be astonished to find the genus Homo represented in the Miocene, say the Neanderthal man with rather smaller brain capacity, longer arms, and more movable great toe, but at most specifically different"; and he returned once more to his ethnological thesis that language is not a test of race. He found bones more importrant features of racial and ethnic determination than language or other artifacts.
The next month, he confided to Joseph Hooker that his controversy with Prime Minister Gladstone on demonology had made him "quite unendurable" to himself and everyone else, and that he had been toiling away "at a tremendously scientific article about the 'Aryan question' absolutely devoid of blasphemy"September 29, 1890'. The Aryan Question and Pre-Historic Man(1890) continues his contention that language is no sign of race, people of different races speaking the same language, and people of the same race speaking different languages. The original inhabitants of western Europe, including Britain, were Melanchroi (whose language, he suggests, was allied to Basque); the later group, the Xanthochroi, spoke Celtic as well as other languages differing from those of the Melanochroi. He preferred sub-divisions Xanthrochroi and Melanochroi to the taxon name Caucasian. He notes "The combination of swarthiness with stature above the average and a long skull, confer upon me the serene impartiality of a mongrel." Unlike the Africans, the Xanthochroi had histories.
Foreign affairs was never a favorite topic for Huxley. He commented on Irish agitation, including assassination and bombing, in many letters, such as that to Leonard HuxleyMay 9, 1882' and to DonnellyJanuary 25, 1885. He was against Home Rule for Ireland, his prognosis for what would happen were it granted: "It is just because I do not want to see our children involved in civil war that I postpone all political considerations to keeping up a Unionist Government" (October 15, 1891). A comment on this appears in a letter of the following year, to Grey: "I am as much opposed to the Home Rule scheme as any one can possibly be, and if I were a political man I would fight against it as long as I had any breath left in me; but I have carefully kept out of the political field all my life, and it is too late for me now to think of entering it. Anxious watching of the course of affairs for many years past has persuaded me that nothing short of some sharp and sweeping national misfortune will convince the majority of our countrymen that government by average opinion is merely a circuitous method of going to the devil; and that those who profess to lead but in fact slavishly follow this average opinion are simply the fastest runners and the loudest squeakers of the herd which is rushing blindly down to its destruction"March 21, 1886. In a later letter, to Lecky, he wrote: "The Unionist cause is looking up. What a strange thing it is that the Irish malcontents are always sold, one way or the other, by their leaders"November 26, 1890.
Far from being a internationalist in his views, Huxley supported imperialistic conquest not only in Ireland, but in Tasmania, Africa, and the rest of the non-European world, European people being civilized and therefore not only more ethical but more powerful than savages.
Asia and Africa
He much approved of Germany as an intellectual, particularly scientific, center, and sided with Germany in that country's engagement with France, though he warned prophetically that Germany was in danger of getting "bitten by the military mad dog"November 17, 1870, the year in which Huxley studiedd a large collection of ethnological photographs provided by the Colonial Office.
Though he was no admirer of Russia, he did not approve of British support of the Afghans, Russia interested then as it would be a century later in controlling Afghanistan. On the Afghans, harbinger Huxley wrote to his daughter Jess: "At this present time real justice requires that the power of England should be used to maintain order and introduce civilisation wherever that power extends. The Afghans are a pack of disorderly treacherous bloodthirsty thieves and caterans who should never have been allowed to escape from the heavy hand we laid upon them, after the massacre of twenty thousand of our men, women (and) children in the Khoord Cabul Pass thirty years ago. We have let them be, and the consequence is they now lend themselves to the Russians, and are ready to stir up disorder and undo all the good we have been doing in India for the last generation. They are to India exactly what the Highlanders of Scotland were to the Lowlanders before 1745; and we have just as much right to deal with them in the same way. I am of opinion that our Indian Empire is a curse to us. But so long as we make up justice both for ourselves, our subject population, and the Afghans themselves"our minds to hold it, we must also make up our minds to do those tings which are needful to hold it effectually, and in the long-run it will be found that so doing is real December 7, 1878.
Huxley's Schamyl, the Prophet-Warrior of the Caucasus (1854) is both the first of his biographical sketches and the most surprising, the Islamic fanatic Schamyl raised to the level of Oliver Cromwell. Huxley preferred Islam's "youthful vigour" to Russia's "degraded idolatry ... misnamed Christianity," and thought his paper among the best he had ever written, well worth its £30. What is not surprising is Huxley's affection thirty years later for General Gordon, whose dramatic mission was to rescue British soldiers from a jihad triumph in Khartoum; Huxley exclaimed to John Donnelly: "How wonderfully Gordon is holding his own. I should like to see him lick the Mahdi into fits before Wolseley gets up. You despise the Jews, but Gordon is more like one of the Maccabees of Bar-Kochba than any sort of modern man"September 10, 1884; also to Donnelly, February 16, 1885, and to Foster, February 14, 1885. Prime Minister Gladstone's refusal to help Gordon and the G. O. M.'s favoring of home rule for Ireland were additional stimuli to Huxley's dislike of his antics.
He referred now and again in the mid-80's to General Gordon's attempt to relieve the British installation at Khartoum. Though General Gordon's past exploits to locate the sites of the Garden of Eden, of where the Ark landed after the flood, and of the resurrection did not elicit Huxley's admiration, Huxley much approved of the military hero Gordon. "Of all the people whom I have met with in my life, he and Darwin are the two in whom I have found something bigger than ordinary humanityan unequalled simplicity and directness of purposea sublime unselfishness. Horrible as it is to us, I imagine that the manner of his death was not unwelcome to himself. Better wear out than rust out, and better break than wear out" February 16, 1885.
A readable and informative discourse, a highlight example of Huxley as historian, to Eton volunteers tracks connections between ancient Greece and ancient EgyptUnwritten History (1883). A useful synopsis of his views on the Negro as a full member of the human species, though "lower" than the "higher" Aryans, is to be found in Mammalia (1864). Objective ethnological evaluation of New Guinea culture often was lost in his admiration of the intelligence, the sense of fun, and good behavior of the people, as for example in his diary items June 13, 1849 and September 5, 1849.
Huxley never re-visited the South Pacific, though he cruised there often through strange seas of thought. He did once visit the United States, in 1876, to give the opening address for a new university, Johns Hopkins, and lectures on evolution in New York; and he was a frequent traveller in Great Britain, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, once south to Egypt. From these places, he would comment, rarely reaching the level of picareque narrative of the Rattlesnake voyage, on the natural history, the artifacts and the people of the lands he toured. Touring the Alps with Tyndall resulted not only in fun, but also in investigation of glaciersLetter to Mr. Tyndall on the Structure of Glacier Ice (1857); touring Italy resulted in investigation of Mount Vesuvius, reported to Tyndall in a flaming passage describing red-hot stones, lava, a "most charming little pocket-volcano," and violent torrents of steamMarch 31, 1872.
Glaciers and volcanoes were more innocent than the rituals of Roman Catholic belief he witnessed during his several vacations in Italy. Seeing God made and eaten was not pleasant: "I must have a strong strain of Puritan blood in me somewhere, for I am possessed with a desire to arise and slay the whole brood of idolators whenever I assist at one of these ceremonies. You will observe that I am decidedly better, and have a capacity for a good hatred still" January 18, 1885. Jesus, he informed his son Leonard, would not have recognized the Papacy: "She was a simple maiden enough and vastly more attractive than the bedizened old harridan of the modern Papacy, so smothered under the old clothes of Paganism which she has been appropriating for the last fifteen centuries that Jesus of Nazareth would not know her if he met her"January 25, 1885, would have been driven distraught by its fetish worshipMay 9, 1882', such as adoration of the "Bambino"January 8, 1885. From Siena, he wrote to Leonard: "The old town itself is a marvel of picturesque crookedness, and the cathedral a marvel. M. and I have been devoting ourselves this morning to St. Catarina and Sodoma's pictures. I am reading a very interesting life of her by Capecelatro, and if my liver continues out of order, may yet turn Dominican"February 25, 1885.
An ethnological paper of great importance because it compares New Guinea religion with Hebraic, combining Huxley's interests in anthropology and ethnology with those in philosophy and theology, is The Evolution of Theology: An Anthropological Study (1886).
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The World's Richest Countries And Biggest Economies, In 2 Graphics
Gross Domestic Product — GDP — may have its limits. But it's a useful, broad measure for looking at national economies. It's basically the total dollar value of all of the goods and services a country produces in a year.
Here are all the countries with GDP of over $100 billion:
Having a very large GDP means a country is an important economic player in the world. But it doesn't necessarily mean the country's citizens are rich.
A better measure for looking at the wealth or poverty of a nation's citizens is GDP per capita (adjusted for the fact that $1 buys more in some countries than in others).
Here are all the countries in the world with GDP per capita over $15,000 a year:
Perhaps the most striking difference between the two graphs is China, which has the second biggest economy in the world but is still very poor. China, which has a GDP per capita of $7,599, doesn't even show up on the second graphic.
It's also worth noting that GDP per capita is just an average. So a country with a high level of inequality may have a relatively high GDP per capita, but many poor people.
Update: The World Bank does not list Taiwan as a separate country. Thanks to one of our readers for pointing it out.
Correction: A previous version of the GDP per capita graphic shaded Trinidad and Tobago in red. The bubble should have been dark blue.
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It sounds like your son experienced a night terror — which can be truly terrifying for parents to watch! The good news is that these eerie episodes are not dangerous nor are they uncommon (especially if your child is overtired) during toddlerhood.
What makes a night terror different from a nightmare? Nightmares typically occur during the later, lighter dream (or REM) phases of sleep (which explains the 2 a.m. wake-up call you get with a nightmare). Your child will likely appear calm during a nightmare but may be frightened and upset afterward, when he wakes up and clings to you for comfort. He may remember the nightmare the next day.
During a night terror your child seems to be awake, but is in fact asleep. You may see him sweating and breathing fast and even feel his little heart beating at a rapid rate. He's likely to appear scared and confused, even panicked, and may talk, cry, or scream. A night terror usually occurs early in the evening (one to four hours after he's fallen asleep, during very deep or non-REM sleep). Fortunately, your child will not remember any of this the next day (though you surely will!).
What can you do to comfort your child during a night terror? Not much, actually. Don't wake him or try to hold him; remember, he's sound asleep and startling him may only upset him more. Instead, just stand by until it subsides (night terrors usually don't last more than 30 minutes). Your only job (besides trying to keep yourself calm) is to make sure your son doesn't hurt himself if he starts thrashing. Once the night terror is over, your child will calm down and return to a relaxed sleep.
Unfortunately, there's no way to ensure that your son won't have another night terror —but because overtiredness seems to contribute to them, you should make sure he's getting enough z's. If he has more than three night terrors in a year, or experiences them past the age of six, speak to his doctor.
Sweet dreams to you both!
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Plimsoll Day is to dedicated to the memory of Samuel Plimsoll, a member of the English Parliament who championed sailors’ safety while traveling the world’s waterways in crammed ships. He was instrumental in the amendment of Britain’s Merchant Shipping Act, which came about in response to the then – national problem of dangerously overloaded ships. Plimsoll’s bill, named the Unseaworthy Ships Bill, was passed in 1876, and required that a mark be present on a ship’s hull to indicate the waterline at which maximum cargo capacity was reached for the vessel. For the law merely required that said line – which came to be known as the Plimsoll Line, or the Plimsoll Mark – be painted on the boat. It did not say the line had to be an accurate representation of the safe waterline position for the ship’s cargo load. That little stipulation didn’t make it’s way into law until 1894. Today, the Plimsoll Mark is universally recognized, and is actually represented by several lines – each one indicating the safe waterline mark in relation to both cargo type and water type (salinity, temperature, ocean region, and season).
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The tiny Proteus motor, at only 2.5 times the width of a human hair, is small enough to enter the bloodstream and perform duties previously requiring some surgical slice-and-dice.
Researchers at Australia's Monash University developed the tiny motor to minimalize the risk of certain, more invasive surgeries. After being injected into the bloodstream, it can carry a camera and other sensors to monitor a patient without the danger that cutting and sewing presents. To move, it uses a spinning tail that spirals at 1295 RPM, and uses piezoelectricity (which uses mechanical stress to create electrical potential) for energy.
Oh, and here's my required Fantastic Voyage reference: This bloodstream sperm motor is named for that movie I never saw! [GizMag]
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The Andean cat is a small, attractive wildcat with a tabby coat and long tail. It inhabits a rather harsh, cold and barren landscape in the Andes Mountains at around 4,000 meters above sea level. Its population is low at an estimated 2,000. Its primary prey is viscacahs; rodents related to chinchillas. The Andean cat allows people to approach. This has facilitated its demise as locals like to kill this cat for ritualistic purposes. Hence the need to get local people involved in its conservation.
The Andean Cat is yet another wildcat that is either endangered or under threat of entering that fragile classification by the IUCN Red List (see IUCN Red List for Cats). Accordingly, I focus on conservation in this post. PoC has donated $50 to the Andean Mountain Cat and Small Cats in S. America wildaboutcats.org project. (see Pictures of Cats org Donations).
In 2002 Mel and Fiona Sunquist, the authors of Wild Cats Of The World say that this cat was one of the least known felids in South America. In 2010, Jim Sanderson Ph.D., an expert on this cat species, is managing with his colleagues the Andean Cat Project in South America and has received the go ahead from the government to create the first Andean cat conservation and monitoring center.
This center is to be located in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. It is marked on the map, below. Dr.Sanderson works with the local people to help create a better understanding of the conservation requirements of the Andean cat and there are now at least two large areas within the Andean cat range in which the local people are supportive of its conservation.
The scientific name is Leopardus jacobita. The genus Leopardus, in which this cat is included, contains most small Neotropical felids. Its inclusion is based on genetic analysis. Although the classification was based in part on a very small number of individual cats. The classification was also based on the size of the auditory chambers in the skull. It is not known how closely it is related to the Pampas cat (src: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – “Red List”).
As stated in the name, its range is the Andes Mountains in the west of South America and is indicated in red (and extended by a blue line) on the map below, which is an embedded Google map created by me. The range is a refined version based on the IUCN Red List and should be up to date Update 10 Feb 2010:the additional area within the blue line is due to recent research by Jim Sanderson PhD and his team. You can refine it if you have the knowledge to do so.
View Andean Mountain Cat Range 2009 in a larger map
I have created a map of the Andean cat range using Google My Maps. The intention is to let people contribute to it. Often precise information is not available to allow a map of the range of a wildcat to be drawn accurately. If anyone has the knowledge to refine the map then please contact me by email: mjbmeister[at]gmail.com, whereupon permission will be granted. You can then go to this link: Andean Cat Range – Google My Maps and amend it – thanks. The link opens in a new window. You can see the above map in larger format and some more information about the range of this cat here: Andean Cat Range.
The Andes covers these countries: Argentina; Bolivia; Chile; Peru. The distribution of this cat is restricted to the higher areas of the Andes. The range map below is one I made earlier.
These are the heights at which this cat has been seen in the countries mentioned:
|Country – Area||Height above sea level – meters|
|Chile||3,714 to 4,414|
The range in Peru has been found to extend from the far south to 800 kms away in the center of Peru. The records of distribution are down to the efforts of the Andean Cat Alliance (www.gatoandino.org). Although, sightings of this scarce cat are very rare. Apparently less than 2500 cats are believed to exist.
As mentioned, this is low (not untypical for wildcats, sadly). Although the Pampas cat, a close relative, is similar in appearance in the high Andes, the Andean cat is much rarer. Apparently, the local people have difficulty distinguishing the Pampas cat from the Andean cat. This may prove important as they are killed sometimes for what can only be regarded in modern times as superstitious reasons (education is the answ er, see below). There is a lower genetic diversity in this cat species compared to the Pampas cat (see Cat Inbreeding Means Poor Sperm). A population estimate was one cat per 5 square kilometers ( 25,000 ha area in northern Chile). There are none in captivity as far as is known. The population size trend is, unsurprisingly, downwards.
Andean Cat – Photograph copyright Jim Sanderson, Ph.D.
Habitat – Ecology – Appearance
This wildcat is found in arid and sparse land (note the photograph above). The high Andes has no forest. The terrain is rocky and steep. This cat is thought to be solitary but can be seen in pairs. This cat is mainly crepuscular, it seems (active at dusk and dawn and night – in line with domestic cats). This is because its main prey is also crepuscular, the Mountain Vizcacha. As the terrain is sparse and poor in regards to supporting wildlife, the range is probably large (estimated home range of 65.5 km²).
The Andean cat is medium sized, similar in size to the domestic cat. Appearance is as follows:
|Adult length||740 to 850 mm|
|Sub-adult||577 to 600 mm|
|Adult Tail length||410 to 485 mm|
|Tail||Very long (66 – 75% of the head and body length). It is thick and cylindrical, fluffy and with 6 to 9 wide dark brown to black rings. A long tail helps with balance (see also Clouded Leopard)|
|Adult female weight||4.5 kg|
|Fur||Ash grey with brown-yellowish blotches that are distributed as vertical lines at both sides of the body.|
|Juveniles||Lighter color with smaller blotches and more of them.|
The Threats to the Andean Cat
The threats to the survival of this rare wildcat are set out in tabular form for ease of reference below:
|Question regarding threat||Answer|
|Top threat||Hunting despite being banned in Chile (a crime) and protected (Peru, Bolivia and Argentina).|
|Lesser threat||Prey reduction, habitat loss and fragmentation (this is in part the cause of the prey reduction of course).|
|Reason for hunting||(1) Considered sacred animal. Stuffed Andean cats used in harvest festivals (2) People consider the Andean Cat a predator of small livestock (Argentina, Chile and Peru) (3) For traditional medicine and food (c.f. Cat Meat)|
|Other reason for killing of this cat||Shepherd’s dogs|
|How many people hunt small cats?||69% of people|
|Possible cause of fragmentation||Mountain Chinchilla, prey of Andean Cat hunted to extinction|
|Reason for habitat destruction||Mining, extraction for fuel, cattle grazing|
As mentioned above the Andean cat is protected in the countries concerned to little effect, it seems, due to poor or little enforcement of legislation. This is a problem worldwide due to lack of commitment from the authorities. I say that the IUCN Red List should take this into account (i.e. project ahead not just assess the present, which seems to be the case). This wild cat is listed in CITES Appendix I (see IUCN Red List for cats to see overlap between Appendix I and Red List).
The Andean Cat Conservation Action Plan list six objectives in conservation:
- Determine distribution and threat (I presume this means more precisely and currently).
- Research further ecology and biology.
- Educate to minimize negative human impact.
- Improve management of conservation and develop initiatives.
- Promote implementation of conservation.
- Continuously evaluate.
I find these (summarized by me) objectives worthy but ask whether they will be implemented properly. I have doubts but as mentioned the best man to manage conservation is actively involved, Jim Sanderson, and I would think he is quite possibly down there right now (July 2009) working on the conservation center. The Andean cat is the most endangered wild cat in the Americas.
Update 7th June 2009:
Jim Sanderson Ph.D. is recognised as one of the top small wildcat researchers and conservationist in the world and he is establishing an Andean Cat Conservation Center at San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. He has makes these points about this cat:
(1) It is the only endangered cat in the Americas with an estimated fewer than 2,000 existing (at Feb 2009). (2) With local help (Andean Cat Alliance) he has identified where there are significant populations of this cat. (3) There are five threats to this cat’s survival in the wild.
(a) Many people of the area believe that this cat carries supernatural powers which can be harnessed for the benefit of a person if the cat is killed and it is then decorated and displayed. This wild cat is easy to kill because it is not afraid of people (b) In many areas eating the prey of this wild cat, viscachas, is common. Viscachas are the primary source of food for this wildcat (c) Mining activity destroys habitat (d) Exotic species that have been introduced threaten this wildcat (e) The feeding areas of viscachas are threatened by global warming as the glaciers that maintain these areas are melting.
Jim Sanderson is working with local people to mitigate these threats.
Unsurprisingly, there are no videos of this cat so to give a flavor of life in the Andes Mountains here is a video. The survival of this cat depends on the people:
My Thanks to http://www.iucnredlist.org.
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A recent paper by Veronique de Rugy examines how policymakers use various budgeting gimmicks to increase spending and obscure liabilities. One particularly abusive mechanism is the designation of supplemental spending as an “emergency.” The emergency designation makes it easier for policymakers to skirt budgetary rules, particularly “pay-as-you-go” (PAYGO) requirements.
The following chart from the paper shows how supplemental spending, most of which was designated as “emergency,” has taken off in the last decade:
As the chart notes, much of the increase is attributable to supplemental appropriations for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The Bush administration was rightly criticized by analysts across the ideological spectrum for funding the wars outside of the standard budget process.
However, with the Democrats in control, the emergency designation is now being abusively applied to domestic spending. Congressional Research Service data obtained by the office of Senator Tom Coburn (R-OK) finds that emergency spending has increased deficits by almost $1 trillion since the 111th Congress was seated in January 2009.
The biggest chunk came with passage of the $862 billion “emergency” stimulus bill in February 2009. The Obama administration insisted that the emergency spending legislation was necessary to jump-start the economy and keep unemployment below 8 percent. Oops
Congress has since passed additional multi-billion dollar “emergency” bills to extend supposedly simulative activities like unemployment benefits. The latest “emergency” extender bill that is bogged down in the Senate would add another $57 billion in debt
What is Congress allowed to designate as emergency spending? Keith Hennessey
, a former economic advisor to George W. Bush, offers the best definition: “it’s whatever you can get away with labeling as an emergency.”
However, Hennessey points out that there was originally a test with a fairly high bar created by the Office of Management and Budget in 1991 under the first president Bush. According to Hennessy, all five of these conditions had to be met:
- Necessary; (essential or vital, not merely useful or beneficial)
- Sudden; (coming into being quickly, not building up over time)
- Urgent; (requiring immediate action)
- Unforeseen; and
- Not permanent.
Hennessey says the definition was included in congressional budget resolutions during Bush II’s administration and that the president proposed codifying it in law. But that doesn’t seem to be the policy that the Bush II administration actually followed. With perhaps the exception of initial hostilities, there was nothing “unforeseen” about Bush’s “emergency” war spending in Iraq and Afghanistan. It seems that Bush’s inability to abide by his own proposal is another sad reminder that his fiscally reckless tenurehelped pave the road to Obama.
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Here's what the lower court had said was the reason for the law:
The salutary purpose of the statute is clear. The Legislature had seen the baneful effects of permitting foreigners, who had taken residence in this country, to rear and educate their children in the language of their native land. The result of that condition was found to be inimical to our own safety. To allow the children of foreigners, who had emigrated here, to be taught from early childhood the language of the country of their parents was to rear them with that language as their mother tongue. It was to educate them so that they must always think in that language, and, as a consequence, naturally inculcate in them the ideas and sentiments foreign to the best interests of this country. The statute, therefore, was intended not only to require that the education of all children be conducted in the English language, but that, until they had grown into that language and until it had become a part of them, they should not in the schools be taught any other language. The obvious purpose of this statute was that the English language should be and become the mother tongue of all children reared in this state. [citations omitted]
And, here's what the Supreme Court said in reversing the Nebraska court on constitutional grounds:
The desire of the Legislature to foster a homogeneous people with American ideals prepared readily to understand current discussions of civic matters is easy to appreciate. Unfortunate experiences during the late war and aversion toward every character of truculent adversaries were certainly enough to quicken that aspiration. But the means adopted, we think, exceed the limitations upon the power of the state and conflict with rights assured to plaintiff in error. The interference is plain enough and no adequate reason therefor in time of peace and domestic tranquility has been shown. ... As the statute undertakes to interfere only with teaching which involves a modern language, leaving complete freedom as to other matters, there seems no adequate foundation for the suggestion that the purpose was to protect the child's health by limiting his mental activities. It is well known that proficiency in a foreign language seldom comes to one not instructed at an early age, and experience shows that this is not injurious to the health, morals or understanding of the ordinary child.
Every period of immigration has resulted in the same cycle of fear, ultimately unnecessary and ham-handed attempts at forced assimilation, and legislative isolationism.
As Santayana said: Those who cannot learn from history are doomed to repeat it.
What's next ... shall we repeat the experience with internment of the Japanese?
How many more apologies will future Virginia legislatures need to offer?
"We are made wise not by the recollection of our past, but by the responsibility for our future." George Bernard Shaw
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They’re sometimes disguised as personal effects — fragile pots concealed amid negligées in luggage or ancient scrolls surreptitiously rolled up like newspapers in handbags. Smuggled antiquities have surfaced everywhere, from midtown Manhattan galleries to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. On January 13, an agreement to prevent looted Chinese antiquities from entering the United States was quietly renewed for another five years, though controversy has now emerged over how valuable it actually is.
First signed by the U.S. and China during the Bush administration’s final days in early 2009, the law made it illegal to import any archeological goods dating from China’s Paleolithic Period (c. 75,000 B.C.) to the Tang Period (A.D. 907), as well as sculpture and wall art at least 250 years old, without explicit government approval. Coming three decades after the U.S. resumed relations with China, it seemed promising. That same year, the value of antiquities imported by the states decreased from $250 million in 2007 to $120 million.
But the numbers aren’t so clear-cut today, as an article in the March issue of The Art Newspaper points out. Citing a new thesis, titled “The People’s Republic of China and the Foreign Art Trade: Where the Data Falls Short” and written by Alice Lovell Rossiter for Sotheby’s Institute of Art, it suggests that millions of unreported dollars worth of antiquities are still being smuggled into the US from China. Rossiter alleged that the Chinese have consistently under-reported the value, volume and nature of art shipments coming in and out of the country. In 2012 alone, the US imported $84 million more worth of Chinese antique objects than Chinese officials cited having exported.
Two opinion pieces published in the paper afterward reveal just how divided experts are over the results. Some say the agreement has created an uneven playing field, bolstering the Chinese smuggling trade while hurting U.S. business, as New Mexico lawyer Kate Fitz Gibbon argued in her op-ed:
There is no evidence that US import restrictions have had the slightest effect on China’s internal cultural losses or that cultural exchanges have improved over the last five years. China is capable of enforcing draconian laws against its own citizens, but while it harshly punishes small-time looters it encourages the elite-run domestic trade. Chinese ministries continue to demand high fees for tightly controlled, often highly censored, travelling exhibitions. The only result of the ban is that US citizens and institutions cannot import or collect items traded freely in other parts of the world, including in mainland China and Hong Kong. In fact, China has the world’s fastest growing and largest internal art market—focused entirely on Chinese art.
Others maintain that looting of Chinese archeological sites has diminished and that the deal has been a constructive step toward rebuilding U.S.-China relations. Laetitia La Follette, a professor of art history at the University of Massachusetts and vice-president for professional responsibilities at the Archeological Institute of America, defended the agreement in her op-ed. She says that cultural exchanges with the Chinese and long-term loans to US museums have increased since 2009.
In the last decade, the global political landscape has shifted. Restrictions on the trade in cultural artefacts are increasingly commonplace, as countries seek better control over their cultural heritage and the economic and educational benefits that preserving that heritage can bring. Bilateral agreements like the one forged with China in 2009 and renewed early this year present challenges but also great opportunities. To leave the bargaining table and abandon these agreements, as those who oppose them prefer, is to forfeit the leverage the US can have in this important arena.
For now, it seems we’ll have to wait another five years to know who’s right.
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The Obama administration is planning a decade-long scientific effort to examine the workings of the human brain and build a comprehensive map of its activity, seeking to do for the brain what the Human Genome Project did for genetics.
The project, which the administration has been looking to unveil as early as March, will include federal agencies, private foundations and teams of neuroscientists and nanoscientists in a concerted effort to advance the knowledge of the brain's billions of neurons and gain greater insights into perception, actions and, ultimately, consciousness.
Scientists with the highest hopes for the project also see it as a way to develop the technology essential to understanding diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, as well as to find new therapies for a variety of mental illnesses.
The project, which could ultimately cost billions of dollars, is expected to be part of the president's budget proposal next month.
The details are not final, and it is not clear how much federal money would be proposed or approved for the project or how far the research would be able to get without significant federal financing.
In his State of the Union address, President Barack Obama cited brain research as an example of how the government should "invest in the best ideas."
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Getting seafood to the dining table comes at an expense to endangered species that too often perish in the nets and on the hooks set for the fish and shellfish we eat. The incidental capture and mortality of non-target marine animals during fishing is known as bycatch, and is one of the principal threats to marine biodiversity worldwide.
Why does Bycatch occur?
Much of the fishing industry targets specific species for capture. Unfortunately, other animals become hooked or trapped when attracted to the bait or target catch, or are simply unable to avoid capture or entanglement in fishing gear. One of the most widely publicized examples of bycatch occurred during the 1970s, when thousands of dolphins perished in tuna purse seine nets in the Pacific.
Although solutions have since been implemented, bycatch is still a widespread problem in all fisheries and in all seas, sparing no group of animals—from delicate corals to massive whales.
How serious is Bycatch?
Some would argue that bycatch is an acceptable consequence of supplying the world with wild-caught seafood. However, too often the scale of mortality is so high that it threatens the very survival of species and their environments. Every year, at least 7.3 million tons of marine life are caught incidentally. In some fisheries, the percentage of bycatch far outweighs the amount of target catch. For example, for every shrimp caught by nets dragged behind trawls in the Gulf of Mexico, over four times its weight is bycatch. There are many cases illustrating the devastating impact of bycatch. In 2007, the world learned that the baiji, a freshwater porpoise found only in China’s Yangtze River, finally succumbed to decades of incidental hooking (among other causes of mortality) and is now believed to be extinct. In Mexico’s Gulf of California, the population of another porpoise known as the vaquita has been reduced to just several hundred animals, and gillnets continue to entangle and kill many every year. In the Northwest Atlantic, Canada and the US are working to ensure that the North Atlantic right whale, now numbering over 400 individuals, does not perish from fatal entanglements in fishing lines. These are not rare examples, but part of a systemic problem worldwide. Bycatch also takes a serious toll on fishermen. It results in damaged gear, reduced catches, and fishing restrictions that threaten their economic survival.
What Can Be Done About It?
The good news is that there are solutions to the threat that bycatch poses to endangered species. One approach is to reduce fishing or direct it away from hotspots of conflict between fishing operations and non-target animals. There are also fishing technologies and methods that keep the fishing industry active but that reduce bycatch to levels at which it no longer poses a threat to the survival of non-target species. The challenge is to identify the most practical solutions in collaboration with the fishing industry.
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http://www.bycatch.org/about-bycatch
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- Horses & Other Equines search results
Popular Horse and Equine Terms
Horses and other equines are available for sale from farms, ranches, and breeders. If you are looking to purchase an animal from the horse family, it is important to be familiar with the different animals available. Below are popular horse and equine terms to know if you plan to buy an animal for sale from a breeder.
Mule – Mules are bread from female horses and male donkeys. They are typically infertile, though some females can reproduce. Mules are usually smaller than horses, but stronger relative to their size with greater endurance. When a stallion breeds with a female donkey, the offspring is called a hinny.
Dressage – Dressage is an equestrian sport that focuses on intensely training horses to respond to gracefully a rider’s subtle direction.
Equines – An equine is a type of animal that belongs to the horse family, including horses, donkeys, and zebras. Animals from two different equine species can breed to form hybrids like mules, hinnies, and zebroids.
Thoroughbred – A Thoroughbred is a type of horse bread for racing. They are known to be fast and agile. In order to be registered as Thoroughbred for the purposes of racing, a horse has to be a pureblood born as a result of natural mating.
Pony – A pony is a breed of horse that only grows to a small size. Sometimes foals, or baby horses, are confused with ponies. However, a pony remains small as an adult horse, while a foal may continue to grow into a large horse.
Show Jumping – Show jumping is an equestrian sport in which horses are trained to jump hurdles of varying heights and lengths along a course.
Stable – A stable is a structure where horses are kept. They are often located at farms, equestrian schools, racing tracks, and on private property.
Horses and equine dressage are available for sale all over the world. There are many different breeds of horses, and many of these stallions and mares are trained to race and jump in shows and competitions. As you may know, horses and small foals are typically kept in stables on equestrian properties and farms. While some people ride these animals for fun and leisure, while others breed mares and thoroughbred horses to sell them. These animals require proper grooming, veterinarian care, a stable, and dressage like reins and a saddle.
There are all kinds of pony and horse breeds that people ride and care for. Since the health of these animals is important, many pony and foal owners take their horses to a vet hospital for regular check-ups and shots. As for dressage and equine supplies for these animals, some common items needed are tacks for their horseshoes, a brush for grooming their hair, reins for controlling the horse while riding, and a rope for keeping the mare or stallion secure in a stable. While some horses are domesticated animals, others are very wild. A lot depends on the breed of the animal, and how it was raised. As you may know, you can teach a horse how to wear a saddle, race around a track, and even jump over obstacles in a show.
It is not difficult to gather more facts and details pertaining to horses and equine supplies or dressage for sale. Check and see if there are dealers in your area to contact. Do additional research online to find out even more information.
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http://www.magicyellow.com/category/horses_and_other_equines/plainview_tx.html
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| 0.960008 | 742 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Bad Blood: Bullying by the Numbers
Bullying. It’s a topic that’s everywhere these days, but is it really as prevalent as the news makes it sound?
Yes it is. In fact, research shows that a majority of kids in middle school are bullied, and that the effects of bullying are lifelong.
Dr. F. Bradford Meyers, a Family Medicine physician at Dean Clinic, says these somewhat surprising statistics highlight the negative impact bullying has on students and our community:
- 1 in 7 students in grades K-12 is either a bully or a victim of a bully.
- 71 percent of students report incidents of bullying as a problem at their schools.
- 282,000 students are physically attacked in secondary schools each month.
- Those in lower grades are involved in twice as many “fights” as those in higher grades; however, there is a lower rate of violent crime in grade schools as in high schools.
- 15 percent of all school absenteeism is directly related to fears of some form of bullying.
- 90 percent of fourth through eighth grade students report being victims of bullying.
- Overall, American schools harbor approximately 2.1 million bullies and 2.7 million victims of bullying.
Beyond these startling statistics is the more frightening and concerning relationship between bullying and crime, homicide and school shootings:
- Among students, homicide perpetrators were more than twice as likely as homicide victims to have been victims of bullying.
- Bullying statistics note that revenge is the strongest motivation for school shootings.
- 87 percent of students state that shootings are motivated by a desire to “get back at those who have hurt them.”
- Harassment and bullying have been linked to 75 percent of school shooting incidents.
Dr. Meyers stresses that battling bullying is a job for everyone, not just teachers.
“We must intervene in order to work toward safer schools and more enriching learning environments for our patients and our children,” says Dr. Meyers.
How can you help? Here are four things parents, teachers and other adults can do:
- Learn to recognize the signs of bullying
- Find out what is happening with the child without worsening the situation
- Take steps to prevent bullying.
- Learn what to do when faced with an acute bullying situation.
With proper education, it is possible to make a positive impact on the lives of many children.
**Select statistics taken from The National Education Association and the online resource Make Beats Not Beatdowns.
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This is an image of the star Pollux, also called Beta Geminorum, taken by Nagano based photographer Yuugi Kitahara.
Pollux is one of the twenty brightest stars in the night sky (it is also the nearest Giant star), but today we are considering it from the standpoint of distance. Pollux is 33 light-years away from the Earth, or a bit past 10+17 meters. That also means that when you see this star as part the Constellation Gemini in the night sky (actually early morning this time of year), the beam of light you are seeing left Pollux 33 years ago–in 1977.
Think of it: that beam of light started its journey exactly at the moment Charles and Ray and the Eames Office team were making the film Powers of Ten we celebrate on this site. It took a billion seconds (33 years is about 10+9 seconds) and the trip for the twinkle you saw early this morning began right around the moment this drawing was being done:
Many readers of this blog were not even born yet. But the journey reveals something else. Though the star certainly did not change, our understanding of it did. In 1977, planets outside our Solar System were a merest speculation to human astronomers, now we know that Pollux has at least a Jupiter size planet orbiting it. (This is old news to Star Trek fans, who will remember that the episode “Who Mourns for Adonais?” took place on a planet in the Pollux system.)
One final (for now) Eamesian connection: Castor and Pollux are the twins in the constellation Gemini. They are also the names of two paintings by Ray’s mentor Hans Hofmann that once belonged to John Entenza and were displayed for a while in the Eames House. Here’s what they looked like on the wall (I believe that Pollux is the orange one):
So what is 33 years? A billion seconds? A stellar hop skip and a jump? A new generation? The loss of an old generation? Enough time for new discipline in science? 10 million viewings of a classic film? Naturally, all–and just the beginning of the list.
BTW: Here’s a cool list of other stars within 50 light-years of Earth.
AND: here is another page about Pollux the star.
We’ll finish with a closer shot of one of the Hofmann Paintings hung from the ceiling of the Eames House in the 1950s. As I said, I think it is Castor, not Pollux, but on the other hand, Castor and Pollux were twins, so may be it is close enough?
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Nuclear Science and Engineering / Volume 155 / Number 1 / January 2007 / Pages 53-73
This paper analyzes whether reactor plutonium after denaturing by increasing its isotopic content of 238Pu to 6 to 8% can be regarded as proliferation resistant. In this case the utilization of such denatured reactor plutonium would become unsuitable for a nuclear explosive device (NED) because the high-explosive lenses surrounding the plutonium would melt or their elevated temperature would lead to self-ignition. Eight different plutonium isotopic mixtures with increasing 238Pu content are analyzed, and their critical masses if surrounded by a 5-cm-thick reflector of natural uranium are determined. This allows calculation of the alpha-particle heat power generated in the plutonium sphere by 238Pu and other plutonium isotopes. Then, three levels of technology with regard to the size of such hypothetical NEDs (HNEDs) and the technological level of high explosives are defined. On the basis of material data available in the open scientific literature, the radial temperature profiles in such HNEDs of an assumed configuration are calculated, and it is found that for low-technology HNEDs the limiting temperatures are exceeded for a 238Pu content of 1.6%. For high-technology HNEDs these limiting temperatures are exceeded for a 238Pu content above ~6% or somewhat more. Such denatured plutonium can be considered as proliferation resistant, similarly as uranium with <20% 235U or <12% 233U.
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http://www.ans.org/pubs/journals/nse/a_2644
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en
| 0.889209 | 314 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Joshua Barney and the Battle of Bladensburg, War of 1812
Since the tantalizing discovery of one of the sunken ships of the Chesapeake Flotilla in 1980, Marylanders have become much more aware of the significance of the pivotal events of the "Second War for Independence" -- the War of 1812. Significantly, the sinking of the Chesapeake Flotilla and the Battle of Bladensburg occurred in Prince George's County, and the county wants everyone to know the importance of these events to our Nation's history.
The reconstruction and launching of one of the ships of the War of 1812 is making that history come alive again. Joshua Barney's Barge is more than just a replica wooden boat; it has already become a remarkable window into history, a bridge to youth, and a tri-centennial celebration project that will continue to educate and enrich the lives of people of all ages around the Chesapeake Bay region.
The Chesapeake Flotilla
The declaration of war against Great Britain in 1812 found Commodore Barney on his farm in Anne Arundel County 1. Although he had been the youngest Captain in the United States Navy, and was a genuine naval hero of the Revolutionary War, he was now in his mid- 50s. A successful shipping merchant, he was never far from the sea, and had volunteered his services to President Madison as early as 1809, asking to be "employed in any manner which might be thought conducive to the good of my country."
Eight months after President Madison declared war against Great Britain, a fleet of Royal Navy warships entered the Chesapeake and began a campaign of unrestrained warfare against the communities of the Maryland and Virginia tidewater. The U.S. Navy, blockaded in the Elizabeth River, was largely unable to provide protection for the beleaguered farms and villages of the region. After observing the unsuccessful political, legal and military actions -- and experiencing the frustration of being land-locked -- the famed naval hero and privateer commander submitted his own war plan to his powerful friends in Maryland's legislature and the War Department of the U.S. government.
The Commodore's audacious plan was all the more imperative when Rear Admiral Sir George Cockburn reappeared in Lynnhaven Bay (now Virginia Beach) in early March 1814 to carry out the instructions of Admiral Cochrane "to devastate and ravage the seaport towns." Within days, funding for the construction of a fleet of row galleys was provided, and military authority granted "to recruit men for the Chesapeake Flotilla ... to serve in the defense of the Chesapeake and its tidelands." The 55-year-old retired Commodore Joshua Barney was given a new commission as a "Captain in the Flotilla Service of the United States," signed by President James Madison on April 25, 1814. At about the same time, the sensational news was received from France that Napoleon had fallen. His defeat released thousands of Wellington's tough veterans for service elsewhere -- presumably on this side of the Atlantic.
A ship-builder as well as a fighter, Barney turned the scows and barges into gunboats, complete with cannons, and manned by 503 seamen. On May 24th he sailed with a fleet of 18 vessels which had been fitted out in Baltimore, all undermanned by approximately 20%, and began to scourge the fleet of the honorable Admiral Sir George Cockburn. His initial target was the main British naval base on Tangier Island. Admiral Cockburn was mortified to find his campaign of spoliation interrupted by the attacks of a "mosquito fleet of armed scows and barges" commanded by the redoubtable Commodore Joshua Barney.
Like all able commanders, Barney adjusted his tactics to his terrain and his strength, becoming a waterborne gadfly. Obviously he could not challenge Cockburn's heavyweights ship-for-ship. But he knew the Chesapeake: its deep water, its shoals, its numerous shallow creeks and estuaries into which he could fly for safety. So he buzzed, rather than assaulted, the enemy; waiting until a likely victim came too close to his watery sanctuaries, whereupon his flotilla, led by his appropriately named flagship, the sloop-of-war USS Scorpion, mounting eight carronades and one long gun, plus a furnace for heating shot, would sally forth to inflict damage on them. He never hoped to sink them, but he did make Sir George pay attention.
On June first the flotilla encountered the British schooner, HMS St. Lawrence and her seven boats, between the mouths of the Potomac and Patuxent Rivers near Cedar Point. The flotilla pursued, firing away, until the beleaguered schooner came under the protection of the huge 74-gun line-of-battle ship HMS Dragon. When Dragon's big guns opened up, Barney's gunboats put about and ran for shallow water with the British ship lumbering in futile pursuit. This spirited engagement was known as the Battle of Cedar Point. Because of Barney, Cock burn's hopes of renewing in 1814 the pillage of the previous year were frustrated, and instead of repeating such atrocities as he had inflicted on the town of Havre de Grace, Maryland, he was reduced to pig-sticking and tobacco-pilfering operations.
Thus began a series of darting attacks, retreats and tardy reinforcements, evident on both sides, that ultimately locked the entire Chesapeake Flotilla within the confines of the Patuxent River. But this story is not without its moments of sheer terror, true leadership, frustrations and small victories that proved the men, and their Commodore, to be some of the great American heroes of the War of 1812. "The bravery of the 500 flotillamen and marines was proven time and again as they turned back wave after wave of the numerically superior foe seeking to destroy it ..." says the introduction to Flotilla Battle for the Patuxent.
On June 7th the flotilla retreated up the Patuxent River to St. Leonard's Creek (now considered a prime boating anchorage because of its beautiful setting) and moved two miles upstream. The mouth of the creek was blockaded by two British frigates, HMS Loire of 38 guns and HMS Narcissus of 32 guns, plus the sloop-of-war, HMS Jasseur of 18 guns. For three days the British Navy launched wave after wave of assaults against the U.S. forces, often employing Congreve rockets to destroy the flotilla, but the Commodore and his men stood fast. On each occasion the British boats came up until they caught sight of Barney's flotilla, and were promptly chased off by the Americans, who took care, however, not to meddle with the larger vessels.
Colonel Wadsworth, commanding a force of American artillery on shore, offered to cooperate from the shore while Barney assailed the two frigates with the flotilla. Assisted by a force of U.S. Marines, commanded by Captain Miller, the joint attack took place most successfully on June 26th. The Loire and Narcissus were driven off, although not much dam aged, and the flotilla rowed out in triumph into the Patuxent.
Sails and Oars!
As the story goes, Commodore Joshua Barney gave this command to his men when they rowed into battle -- "Sails and oars!" meaning full speed ahead! Think about it: rowing into battle. This command was not given to get the crew to the battle site, and then conduct military activities. No: this was the command to attack -- in a row galley, with oars that are 20 feet long, and weigh 38 pounds. A seemingly impossible task, certainly full of great risk and peril, accomplished by the hands and efforts of a small but fearsome kind of flotillamen and their special kind of Commodore.
The Campaign for Washington
President Madison received word on July 1st that a fleet of transports with a large military force was about to leave Bermuda, bound to some port of the United States, probably on the Potomac. But no effective were taken to put the national capital in a state of defense. Fort Washington, on the Maryland side of the Potomac a few miles below the city, could offer some resistance to the passage of ships, but there was almost an unobstructed route through Maryland from the Chesapeake and up the Patuxent River. Commodore Barney was called to Washing ton in July for consultation with the Secretary of the Navy, William Jones, "in regard to the protection of that capital," warning Barney that "it may be a feint, to mask a real design on Baltimore."
In mid-August, arrival of a large portion of the Royal Naval fleet commanded by Admiral Cock burn, and four thousand veteran soldiers of "Wellington's Invincibles" under Major General Robert Ross, made their appearance in the Chesapeake, escalating an already desperate situation.
The District of Columbia formed a part of the Fourth Military District, in which the effective troops, under Brigadier General William H. Winder, numbered about two thousand, scattered over widely separated points, some as far away as Nor folk. A company of the Marines was at the barracks in Washington, and a company of Artillery in Fort Washington. General Winder had warned the government that imminent peril threatened and had asked for troops with which to meet it, but it seemed impossible to convince the authorities that he was right, or that any circumstances could arise that would place the capital in peril. General Winder was personally convinced that Annapolis was the real British objective, but most other military and government officials believed that Baltimore must be where the British troops were heading.
Commodore Barney moved his flotilla up the Patuxent as far as Nottingham, about 40 miles from Washington, where he reported to the Navy Department that the enemy had entered and were ascending the river. "The British are in the Patuxent," Commodore Barney wrote Navy Secretary Jones on Friday, the 19th. The Admiral, he was told, planned to destroy Barney's flotilla and "dine in Washington on Sunday." The orders of Secretary Jones were to run the flotilla as far up the river as possible, and upon the enemy landing, to destroy it and march to join General Winder.
On August 19th and 20th the British invasion forces landed at Benedict, Maryland and directed the march of their forces upon Washington on the 21st, following the Patuxent River both by water and by land. The advancing British troops numbered five thousand, including one thousand Royal Marines. Following his orders, the Commodore retreated upriver to about five miles north of Pig Point. There he landed with four hundred men, leaving about a hundred men to blow up the flotilla. On the morning of August 22nd the British were astounded to see an orderly line of American row galleys and merchant ships extending before them upriver, blown up in quick succession. More than sixteen ships of the Chesapeake Flotilla sank in the Patuxent within a few minutes.
General Winder's militia were scattered here and there, and when it became known that a large land and naval force had landed at Benedict, only a small body of men were at hand to checkmate the movement, and General Winder had slight confidence in them. The General found himself with five hundred regulars and two thousand undisciplined militia -- mostly farmers, many armed only with shot-guns. Learning on the 22nd that the British had camped the previous night at Nottingham, General Winder began to believe that they might indeed be heading for Washington rather than Baltimore or Annapolis. But he sent orders to his various military units to wait at various "half-way points," in order to ensure at least some defense at each possible objective. The General knew that a sizable British naval force was proceeding up the Potomac, and feared that they would be joined by the British troops to attack Fort Washington, an easy march directly west from Nottingham. Attacking across the bridge over the Eastern Branch of the Potomac at Bladensburg seemed a fairly remote possibility.
The General's scouts continued to report on the activities of the British, now in Upper Marlboro. One report said they were on the road to Annapolis; another that they were heading for Fort Washing-ton; another that they were again on the road to wards Bladensburg. At 10 AM the morning of August 24th, a scout came galloping in with news that the British had been marching for Bladensburg since dawn and were nearly halfway there!
The Battle of Bladensburg
Commodore Barney's little force of five hundred flotillamen proceeded by forced march to Bladensburg, accompanied by Captain Samuel Miller and 120 U.S. Marines, and five pieces of heavy artillery from his flotilla and from the Washington Navy Yard. Following were two ammunition wagons which he had hastily procured.
General Winder had drawn up his forces to cover the road for some distance west of town, on the west bank of the eastern branch of the Potomac, in a fine position to defend the bridge over which the British must pass. President Madison, Secretary of War General Armstrong, and Secretary of State James Monroe were also there, but they hindered far more than they helped by giving conflicting orders.
Arriving at 1 PM, at the same time the British had begun attacking General Winder's forward line, he arranged his artillery in battery at the center of the second line position on the west bank of the eastern branch of the Potomac. The Commodore himself directed the artillery (2 eighteens and 3 twelve-pounder ship's guns mounted on carriages), while Captain Miller of the Marines commanded the rest of the force -- 120 Marines and 370 flotillamen armed as infantry.
As at Bunker Hill, the two first attacks of the British were bloodily repulsed, chiefly by Barney's guns. By his own account, "At length the enemy made his appearance on the main road in force and in front of my battery, and on seeing us made a halt. I reserved our fire. In a few minutes the enemy again advanced, when I ordered an 18-pounder to be fired, which completely cleared the road. Shortly after, a second and a third attempt was made by the enemy to come forward, but all were destroyed. They then crossed over into an open field, and attempted to flank our right. He was met there by three 12-pounders, and Marines under Captain Miller, and my men acting as infantry, and again was totally cut up. By this time not a vestige of the American army remained, except a body of five or six hundred posted on a height on my right, from which I expected much support from their fine position."
As the British attempted their flanking movement, the Commodore ordered Captain Miller and the flotillamen-infantry to charge, while he poured a destructive fire upon their flank. The charge was executed with great celerity and determination; the veterans of the 86th and 4th -- the "King's Own Regiment" -- giving way before it, pursued by their assailants, the sailors crying out to "board `em." They were driven back to a wooded ravine 3, leaving several of their wounded officers in the hands of the Americans. Colonel William Thornton, who bravely led the attacking British column, was severely wounded, and General Ross had his horse shot under him.
It would have been well for the honor of America if all who were present on that day had behaved with the same decision and effect as Commodore Barney and his command. Their heroic resistance saved the combat at Bladensburg from being an unqualified disgrace to American arms. "It was a magnificent stand; the slightest follow-up of Barney's counterattack might have produced an American victory. As it was, the road to Washington now lay open." But while they were sustaining the credit of their country, the other troops had disappeared, and in the confusion of their retreat, the wagons containing the ammunition for the cannon and small arms had been carried off. The British light troops acting en tirailleur had, in consequence of the total absence of any support, gained positions on his flanks near enough to produce effect with their fire, and to wound and kill several of his best officers. Captain Miller had been wounded in charging the enemy; and Commodore Barney himself, after having had his horse killed under him, received a musket ball in the thigh. 4
The force of the enemy was constantly increasing, for the lack of ammunition for Barney's artillery ended the only effective resistance to the British advance. When it became evident that a reinforcing column of Virginia militia could not arrive in time to aid the gallant flotillamen, who were obstinately maintaining their position against fearful odds, and that further resistance would be useless, General Winder ordered a general retreat. The retreat order was never passed to Barney's command, but with no ammunition, flanked on the right and deserted on the left, the Commodore knew that the end had come. He ordered the guns spiked and the men to retreat. The officers and men who were able to march effected the retreat in excellent order; but the Commodore's wound rendered him unable to move, and he was made prisoner.
General Ross, who had lost nearly three hundred men before getting across the river, gave great attention and care to the wounded Commodore; he so admired the bravery of the "blue-jackets" that he paroled all the flotillamen, including the Commodore, on the spot. 5 The General ordered that he be taken at once into the city and his wounds treated.
The City of Washington presented Commodore Barney a sword, "as a testimonial of his distinguished gallantry and good conduct in the Battle of Bladensburg." The blade is inscribed, "In testimony of the intrepidity and valor of Commodore Joshua Barney, and the handful of men under his immediate command in the defense of the City of Washington on the twenty-fourth of August, 1814."
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One of the most dramatic, memorable, and ultimately baffling aspects of many witchcraft trials concern the category of the possessed, or in the terms of the time, the afflicted or bewitched. This was certainly true with Salem, where the afflicted were the major catalysts of the proceedings. Their hysterical and unnerving behavior sparked and drove the trials. The spectacle of young girls screaming, crying, choking, and convulsing in court as they accused innocent people of sending murderous specters to harm them created an enormously compelling scene. To appreciate fully the events at Salem, one must understand the fundamentals of possession, its history, and its place in the courts and in society.
In possession cases, usually female children or adolescents fell into remarkably similar and disturbing behavioral patterns. Predominant symptoms included convulsions, feelings of being pinched, bitten or pricked, loss of speech, hearing or appetite, breathing problems, hallucinations and abnormal vocalizations. This presented the sufferer's family with a truly terrifying situation. As historian Barbara Rosen writes, The sudden emergence, in a docile and amenable child, of a personality which raves,
screams, roars with laughter, utters dreadful blasphemies and cannot bear
godly utterances - or alternatively, withdraws into complete blankness - seems, even today, like the invasion of an alien being.
When faced with such symptoms with no discernable natural cause or cure, people occasionally diagnosed witchcraft. They would identify, accuse and try a witch (usually, but not always, an elderly and troublesome woman). In the belief system of the day, the witch was responsible for the affliction. To decipher these extraordinary cases, people called on doctors, clergymen and magistrates. Authors wrote Demonologies, along with new laws to judge these unusual cases. As author and professor G.S. Rousseau wrote:
Possession and the casting out of demons have existed since biblical times. In fact, employing scriptures to both understand and treat the affliction became customary. Though in the New Testament only a single or few symptoms afflicted the possessed, these behaviors merged by the medieval period to create a stereotypical persona. Cases of possession developed medical and legal implications as well. By the sixteenth century, these issues, medical, legal and religious, became thoroughly interwoven.
Genuine possession was difficult to determine. The causes and symptoms were complex, culturally specific and subject to interpretation. Multi-causal motivations on the part of both the spectators and the possessed included political, religious, or social manipulation, greed, intense spirituality, malice, frustration, or even desire for attention. Historian H. C. Eric Midelfort commented on the need to consider physical or mental illness:
There were solid medical explanations for many of the symptoms. Epilepsy, the sacred disease had been described by Hippocrates two thousand years previously, as was hysteria (a Greek word meaning `uterus') Hysteria has a long, complex, and controversial history.
The author Ilza Veith believes the ancient Egyptians described aspects of hysteria as far back as the Kahun Papyrus (around 1900 B.C.), Describing the symptoms, she writes:
The Greeks believed that the uterus of a woman with an unsatisfactory sex life could wander throughout the body, causing symptoms of hysteria. Plato writes in Timeus that the womb is an animal that desires to bear children, and When it remains barren too long after puberty it is distressed
and sorely disturbed and straying about in the body and cutting off the passages of the breath, it impedes respiration and brings the sufferer into the extremist anguish, and provokes all manner of diseases besides.
This was the same defense the physician Edward Jorden used in his description of Mary Glover sufferings three and a half millennia later (see Chapter 4). Not until the seventeenth century did the etiology of hysteria seriously turn to mental and nervous considerations (see Chapter 5, in which we will also take a longer look at the medical theories concerning possession). Without modern medical psychosomatic theory, people occasionally, under certain conditions, blamed these afflictions on witchcraft. We will examine some of the circumstances that produced accusations of witchcraft.
There was little doubt during the early modern period in Europe about the existence of witches, devils, and possessed individuals. The belief that Satan was present on earth and caused all sorts of calamities was common. Did Satan need witches as intermediaries to possess people? Could witches summon demons to do their commands? Was there a legitimate pact between them? Since the worldview of early modern Europeans contained mysterious wonders, the investigations of these sinister and supernatural relationships took on a profound importance. As G.S. Rousseau states, From the late fifteenth century, in a movement peaking in the seventeenth, authorities, ecclesiastical and secular alike, commandeered the courts to stop the epidemic spread of witchcraft, and concomitantly clamp down on the rise of hysteria it was engendering. Paradoxically, the publicity these possession trials created may have spurred the interest on.
In 1563, the Cleves physician Johanne Weyer published De praestigiis daemonum, which included several cases of demonic possession. Several cases arose in convents and many of the symptoms (appalling vocalizations, contortions, convulsions, lewd body movements, loss of appetite, etc.) were similar to cases examined later in this work. With his abundance of clinical experience, he concluded people could not cause possession, even alleged witches. Weyer did not believe in the existence of actual witches. Though people deluded themselves into believing that they had supernatural and dangerous power, they actually did not. According to Weyer, the possessed were either naturally ill, possessed by demons, lazy, taking a mixture of drugs, or were faking.
Though little read or appreciated in his own time, Weyer is highly regarded today for his compassionate and relatively modern views on mental illness and witchcraft. As a result of his focus on mental illness, he bears the title of a founder, even a father, of modern psychiatry. Other views of his are typically medieval; such as there are seven million, four hundred nine thousand, one hundred and twenty seven demons, commanded by seventy-nine princes.
In France, a succession of politically and religiously motivated show trials exploited cases of possession between 1562-1634. The instigators of these trials manipulated the possessed, usually nuns, into very dramatic and public exorcisms and trials. Trials involving possessed nuns occurred at Aix-en-Provence (1611), Lille (1613), Loudun (1634), and Louviers (1642). All resulted from accusations of witchcraft. The most famous case occurred at Loudon from 1630-34. Powerful enemies of Father Urbain Grandier accused him of bewitching the entire Ursuline convent at Loudun, including the Mother Superior. Though Grandier was well connected, his opponents conspired to stage-manage the nuns and exorcisms, forge evidence and use political influence for revenge. His adversaries had him burned alive at the stake on August 18, 1634.
One difference between the French possessions at the convents and the afflictions occurring in England and colonial America was the lurid sexual theatrics of the French nuns. They raised their habits, begged for sexual attention, used vulgar language, and made lascivious motions. At Loudon, a local doctor, Claude Quillet, considered the disorders hysteromania or even erotomania. These poor little devils of nuns, seeing themselves shut up within four walls, become madly in love, fall into a melancholic delirium, worked upon by the desires of the flesh, and in truth, what they need to be perfectly cured is a remedy of the flesh. English trials, which we will be examining in the next chapter, were much less prurient.
Though there have been many theories regarding possession by anthropologists, physicians, sociologists, historians and others, its causes are still nebulous. An all-encompassing explanation for possession does not exist, for a variety of reasons. One principal impediment is that we do not exist in a culture that takes the concept of possession for granted. Possession was one of the wonders of the time, dramatically drawing upon itself all sorts of spiritually based explanations. Cases of individual possessions were debatable, but there was no doubt of Satan's ability to possess a human being. Though we may look at cases and judge them egregious frauds, obvious expressions of neurosis or as pathetic attempts at gaining attention, our assumptions are not theirs. Many times the most intelligent, erudite and respected members of the community were critically investigating the bewitched person to see if they were dissembling. It was not something taken lightly.
According to their worldview, Satan was so powerful and zealous he would never stop trying to overthrow God's creation. The authors of the era capitalized on possessions to demonstrate their spiritual expectations. When the possessed spoke, their audience considered the message a revelation. The Greeks believed this as far back as their Sybil. People listened and endeavored to decipher any veiled meaning. A good example of this would be the Puritans of New England. Increase and Cotton Mather recorded their astonishing providences and wonders for the edification of the public (see Chapters 7 & 8). Unfortunately, this intensely spiritual vision of New England, coupled with some disastrous secular circumstances, helped set the stage for the Salem witchcraft trials.
The attempt to find meaning and purpose in possession could lead to unexpected results. Ministers could see providences when there was none. To possess a young girl would be not only easy and desirable for Satan on an individual basis, but symbolically it could be seen as what he could do to the Christian world. Once innocent, then tormented in a vicious and painful life or death struggle against a supernatural power, the possessed individual became a visible metaphor for the world. The historian James Sharpe believes people viewed possession:
There is a variety of possibilities why someone would act possessed. They could gain power and attention. As the psychologist and author Nicholas Spanos writes, Those who became demoniacs were usually individuals with little social power or status who were hemmed in by numerous social restrictions and had few sanctioned avenues for protesting their dissatisfactions or improving their lot.
In this paper, I am mainly concerned with the youthful female accusers in the following trials. We see in their patterns of behavior certain
rewards given for acting a certain way. By acting out socially improper behavior while possessed, they would not only be exempt from punishment but also actually receive additional love and attention. They would become a principal actor in a real dramatic piece, with an audience (acquaintances and family) and a possible savior (clergy, doctors or magistrates). They could create a powerfully affecting show, as long as they recognized and responded to clues consciously or unconsciously provided by the spectators.
In his book Servants of Satan, the historian Joseph Klait's description about Salem could apply to all the possessed girls in the following trials:
Throughout the medieval period, jurisdiction over witchcraft in England presided in an ecclesiastical milieu. Since the church was not allowed to harm life, limb or properties, the sentences, largely, were relatively scarce and mild (certainly in regard to the Continental Europe). Involving itself with witchcraft, the secular arm passed three Acts of Parliament, in 1542 (repealed 1547), 1563 (repealed 1604) and 1604 (repealed 1736). English accusations and punishments differed a great deal from the Continent (though Scotland was an exception). Except for the Matthew Hopkins period (1646-7), trials rarely exploded into ever-expanding accusations against neighbors. Maleficium, or causing harm by supernatural means, was the predominant witch-oriented anxiety among the English populace. This contrasts with Continental concerns, such as Devil-Worship, infant cannibalization or riding to Sabbaths on brooms. Though the educated could blend in their more Continental beliefs, presumptions of a conspiracy between witches and Satan were less prominent. Another reason why English trials did not proliferate as intensely was that torture was illegal in England (except in cases of treason). Getting a confession without torture proved quite difficult.
The Acts also allowed for lesser punishments for lesser crimes. England had a trial by jury structure, not an inquisitorial system of justice. The court could not identify a crime, initiate a trial nor decide the verdict. The judge, in theory, was to remain impartial.
The stereotypical English witch was much like the Continental version. According to the modern historians Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane, and the sixteenth-century writer Reginald Scott (among others), witches were generally older women, usually poor, unsightly and argumentative. They were social outcasts, reliant upon the good will and generosity of their neighbors for survival.
These unfortunates were not simple beggars. A system of Christian neighborly obligations promoted this cooperation. By refusing to give this charity, conflicts and tensions could ensue. The borrower may curse or mumble as they walk away. Later, misfortune might occur to the person who disregarded their communal duty. Blaming the needy neighbor for this hardship was satisfying for a variety of reasons. Perhaps the person who denied their obligation was feeling guilty. On the other hand, the person could truly believe their neighbor was a witch. Deciding upon witchcraft as the cause, the identification of the witch responsible was almost immediate. Most accusations of witchcraft were against near neighbors. Identification did not always led to directly to trial. Prosecutions, however, may not take
place for years. Gossip, tensions, suspicions and fears festered in these communities. A modern estimate states only one in three instances of bewitchment led to an indictment. Many, if not, most of the witchcraft trials began this way.
Several good examples of this occurred at Chelmsford, in Essex County between 1566 and 1589. The first Chelmsford trial (there were four) occurred a mere three years after the Act of 1563. The accusations against Mother Waterhouse, her daughter Joan and Elizabeth Francis ranged from causing a neighbor to lose her curds to murder. A twelve-year-old girl testified that after she had refused to give Joan Waterhouse some bread and cheese, a black dog with an ape's face and horns on its head came and asked her for some butter, speaking evil words. In the court's interpretation, the dog became one of Mother Waterhouse's familiars. She also had a witches' mark. The court found Joan not guilty while sentencing Elizabeth Francis to two years imprisonment. The court also had the 63-year-old widow Waterhouse hanged.
Witchcraft trials also occurred in Chelmsford 1579 and 1589. Three hangings occurred after the first one, including that of Elizabeth Francis. At
least four hangings took place after the second one, mainly on the evidence of children. All of the executed were female. All three Chelmsford trials included testimony concerning animal familiars. Therefore, the concept of children accusing older women of witchcraft and about keeping familiars, so prominent at Salem, was nothing new.
In 1582, fourteen women from St. Osyth, very near to Chelmsford, stood trial for witchcraft. Like the other trials, this one also included several features significant to English witchcraft. Crucial again to these trials are the inclusions of children's testimony and the concept of a familiar (or imp). Charged and executed for using witchcraft to murder three people in the previous two years, a midwife and white witch, Ursula Kempe, had a unique defense. She testified, though she could unwitch, she could not witch. The manipulation of her eight-year-old son into describing his mother's imps forced Kempe into readjusting her defense. Promised leniency if she confessed, Kempe did so. Her execution quickly followed.
An indirect significance of these Chelmsford area trials was the
influence they had on a nearby gentleman estate manager, Reginald Scot (1538-1599). In 1584, Scot self-published his The Discoverie of Witchcraft, a truly pioneering book in skepticism regarding witchcraft. In it, he found four categories of witches. The first two was if a person accused of being a witch was either innocent or deluding themselves. The other two categories were for poisoners or charlatans. Though there was nothing supernatural about it, the last two groups contained witches and deserved punishment, Therefore, the first two categories, the majority, did not deserve punishment. Though influential to a small number of skeptics, Scot's work had many powerful opponents. King James I may have had the book burned, and wrote his Demonology possibly in response to it. The research of several modern historians have agreed with Scot's sixteenth century observations:
In 1593, a trial occurred in Warboys, England that eerily evoked the Salem trials ninety-nine years later. It provides an ominous template of a repertoire of recognizable and socially understood behaviors that tragically came together. The unusual physical and mental symptoms, the swooning and contortions, the doctor's diagnosis of witchcraft, the spreading of the fits to other females, the ages of the accusers, the credence given to children's testimony, and their inability to see, hear or feel produced a tragic archetype for a possession trial. Nothing quite like it had occurred before. As historian D.P. Walker wrote, this is certainly a case of considerable importance, in that it was known to later demoniacs and their healers, and is the first notorious instance of possessed children and adolescents successfully hunting witches to death.
The parish of Warboys, Huntingdonshire, is seven and a half miles northeast from Huntingdon and eighty miles north of London. It is also less than forty miles east from Bury St. Edmunds, where another famous possession trial took place (see Chapter 6). A small village at the time of the trial, its population only surpassed one thousand after 1800. Today it contains 8435.5 acres with a population of 3169.
The Throckmortons moved into their Warboys manor house on September 29, 1589. They were pious, prestigious, and powerful. Members of the extended family wielded considerable influence both at the Elizabethan court as well as locally in the community. Robert Throckmorton was a close friend with Sir Henry Cromwell, one of the wealthiest commoners in England and grandfather of the renowned Oliver. This was in great contrast to the Samuels, the accused witch family. The Samuels, neighbors of the Throckmortons, were at the bottom rung of society. Impoverished, of lowly reputation, and poorly educated, they did not have the abundant resources of friends, family, and status that the Throckmortons possessed. The conflict between the families began within six weeks of the Throckmorton's arrival.
All our information about the trial comes from one widely read pamphlet, published a year after the trial. Entitled The most strange and admirable discoverie of the three Witches of Warboys, arraigned, convicted, and executed at the last Assizes at Huntington, for the bewitching of the five daughters of Robert Throckmorton Esquire, and divers other persons, with sundrie Divellish and grievous torments, it affected thinking about bewitchment for following generations. It appears to have several authors,
possibly the afflicted Throckmorton children's father, uncle, and doctor. Naturally, it presented only the Throckmortons' version of the events. The author or authors describe the original symptoms:
The parents first believed it might be falling sickness, epilepsy. When the elderly Alice Samuel came to visit, Jane accused her of being a witch. Up to this point, the parents had shown considerable restraint. Seeking a natural explanation for their child's afflictions, two respected doctors, one a physician from Cambridge, examined Jane and diagnosed witchcraft. The Throckmortons were new to the area and did not feel anyone had reason for the bewitching. The pamphlet continues:
These symptoms were considered characteristic of either hysteria or possession. Nevertheless, the frightful convulsions, the inability to see, hear or feel, and the children's sudden extreme behavior (along with the doctors' opinions) swayed the diagnosis towards witchcraft. This began a dangerous and bizarre antagonism between the powerful Throckmorton family, driven by the children's affliction, and the Samuel family, helpless yet defiant.
On February 13, 1590, the first test took place at the Throckmorton manor. In front of several members of the Throckmorton family, Alice Samuel, her daughter Agnes, and a Cicely Tyson underwent the scratch test from Jane Throckmorton. According to the folk wisdom of the time, scratching a witch reputedly alleviated the bewitched person's afflictions. This action also confirmed the witch's guilt. Jane refused to scratch Cicely (who was never mentioned again) and Agnes. Alice's presence, however, drove the child into a violent frenzy, and , presently the child s scratched with such vehemency that her nails brake into spills with the force and ernest desire that she had to revenge. Master Whittle, a friend of the Throckmortons, attempted to restrain the nine-year-old:
Throughout November, the children continued their afflictions. Speaking through the girls, the demons said they, waxed weary of Mother Samuel [and that] now ere long they would bring their Dame either to confession or confusion. The children decided upon an unconventional course of action. They convinced their parents that they felt well enough to live with Alice present (as she could not feed or communicate with her imps). Alice Samuel was forced to live at the Throckmorton's home in a type of quasi-legal house arrest. This extraordinary situation of the afflicted requiring the company of the accused witch occurred at no other trial we will examine.
The children's power over the situation became absolute. They told Alice Samuel that they shall not be well in any place except in her house, or she be brought to continue with them; and besides that, they shall have more troublesome fits than ever they had For the next three weeks, into December, the children had very many most grievous and troublesome fits; insomuch that when night came, there was never a one of them able to go to their beds alone, their legs were so full of pain and sores, besides many other griefs they had in their bodies
Robert Throckmorton realized Alice would have to live in his household. He offered John Samuel ten pounds to hire the best servant in Huntingdonshire in return for letting Alice reside at the Throckmorton manor. Samuel refused and for one day, Robert had the children live at the Samuel's small residence. John Samuel threatened to freeze and starve the children, but finally relented:
The confrontational situation had continued for three years before Alice moved in, with the children usually afflicted and Alice essentially held responsible. The stress must have been considerable. And yet the Throckmortons had yet to seek recourse to the law. Even the new living arrangements, however, proved unsatisfactory for the children. They now said Alice was feeding the imps (which only they could see) when no was looking. Their fits returned, even in Alice's presence. The adults were now fully manipulated by the whims, sufferings and imagination of their children.
Though the girls exhibited several frightening physical ailments (convulsions, great strength, etc.), they also demonstrated what could be considered childish willfulness and behavior. Refusals to listen to prayers and readings from the Bible, and stubbornness over eating habits, are actions today that may be considered childhood rebellion. One of the sisters, Elizabeth ate only if taken to a nearby picturesque pond. Elizabeth, delighteth in play; she will pick out some one body to play with her at cards, and but one only, not hearing, seeing or speaking to any other
However, there is no way to tell if this situation was a desire for attention or not. The element of feigning possession for sport also occurred at Salem. This behavior puzzled adults then as well as now. It could also be one of the reasons the Throckmorton parents spent three years investigating the cause of their children's afflictions. Skepticism concerning genuine bewitchment is characteristic of many trials.
For almost the remainder of 1592, Alice Samuel lived at the Throckmorton's in an increasingly nerve-wracking situation. Robert Throckmorton came to believe Alice could predict when the fits would occur. With the children present, and though she was very loath to foretell anything, Robert pressured her into revealing, One of them shall have three
fits (naming the child) such and such for the manner (namely, easy fits, appointing the time for their beginnings and endings); the other shall have two in like sort (the time appointed by her); and the third shall have none but be well all the day. As she had stated, the children suffered accordingly. Not surprisingly, this made Alice appear even guiltier.
Finally, the emotional stress became too much. Alice Samuel broke down and confessed on December 24, 1592 at the Throckmortons and again at church the following day. Upon hearing this, her husband and daughter forced her to retract her confession. This withdrawal angered and embarrassed Throckmorton, who took the Samuels to court. All three Samuels became suspects, which corresponded to the contemporary common belief that witchcraft ran in families. This period of adult recriminations, confessions and retractions and dramatic fits and outbursts from the children lasted until April, 1593.
The presence of specters was another feature shared by both the events at Salem and Warboys. Unlike the fear that specters produced from the girls at Salem, Joan Throckmorton spoke with her spirits as she would imaginary friends. Named Blue, Pluck, Catch, and three Smacks (who were cousins), and supposedly sent by Mrs. Samuel, they were said to control Joan's fits. On February 10th, 1593, Doctor Dorington, the rector of Warboys and Robert Throckmorton's brother in law, noticed this conversation. Apparently talking to herself, since no one else could see the spirits, she would says things such as, What doest thou say that I shall now have my fits when I shall both hear, see and know everybody? That is a new trick indeed!
On April 4, 1593, the trial took place at nearby Huntingdon. According to the pamphlet, at least five hundred people viewed the proceedings and the afflictions. The children vividly continued their fits until each Samuel stated, with slight variation, As I am a witch and did consent to the death of the Lady Cromwell, so I charge the devil to suffer Mistress Jane to come out of her fit at this present. Though John Samuel refused at first to affirm this, Judge Fenner threatened him with immediate execution. Agnes Samuel, the daughter, bravely accepted her fate. Upon hearing the Samuels' oaths, the children immediately became well. With their admission of guilt, Judge Fenner ordered them hanged on April 6th.
The significance of the Warboys case lies in the malicious creativity of the girls, the influence of the trial and the pamphlet, and its deadly outcome. The popularity of the pamphlet and the infamy of the Warboys witches inspired other cases (most notably the Gunters in 1608 - described in the following chapter). The physician and author John Cotta (described in Chapter 5), normally skeptical concerning cases of possession, believed the Warboys witches to be guilty. The historian George Kittredge calls the Warboys case the most momentous witch-trial that had ever occurred in England, partially because it demonstrably produced a deep and lasting impression on the class that made laws. He makes a strong case that the Warboys trial influenced the passage of the Witchcraft Bill of 1604.
Many symptoms similar to those the Throckmorton girls suffered afflicted other young females throughout the next century. Only a small percentage of these fell under the rubric of possession. As the historian Moira Tatem illustrates Warboys by quoting Sir Walter Scott's view of the trial, their opinions could be accurate for nearly any of the cases we will be examining:
The credulity and beliefs of parents, doctors, clergy, and magistrates would continue to be tested. Eventually, Salem would be the finale of the hangings of accused witches, based on the disturbing testimony of afflicted young girls.
Edward Jorden & the Mary Glover Case
Though the Warboys trial affected a few highly placed members of English society and may have contributed to the Witchcraft Act of 1604, the next case surpassed it in notoriety and influence. Widely known and discussed throughout London, the Mary Glover/Elizabeth Jackson case occurred in 1602. Powerful members of the English religious and political community, as well as several members of the Royal College of Physicians, opposed one another in court. Whether Elizabeth Jackson could bewitch Mary Glover became an affair of national interest. As Michael McDonald comments, Glover's spectacular fits, her accusations of witchcraft against an old woman called Elizabeth Jackson, the dramatic trial and conviction of the `witch' and Glover's eventual dispossession by a group of Puritan preachers had captured the attention of London's leading citizens, enraged the church hierarchy and alarmed the government.
Fortunately for historians, their quarrels and opinions survived in three pamphlets, all published within a year of the trial. Two of these, Dr. Steven Bradwell's Mary Glovers Late Woeful Case and John Swan's A True and Brief Report of Mary Glovers Vexation, argued that Mary Glover was bewitched. The author of the third, Dr. Edward Jorden, contended that the symptoms Mary suffered were due to suffocation of the mother (a disease similar to hysteria). The judge disagreed, convicted Jackson, and humiliated Jorden. Six months after the trial, Jorden published A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother. Though Jorden did not discuss the case specifically, he expanded upon the defense he had used.
Observed for centuries, the symptoms of suffocation of the mother included choking (with frightful throat swellings), convulsions, regularly timed fits, paralysis, and unnatural vocalizations. Theories based on a wandering womb orientation had been around for a thousand years (see Chapter 4). In the Epistle Dedicatorie of his book, Jorden described how medically explainable the symptoms were, in contrast to the supernatural:
According to Steven Bradwell, a member of the College of Physicians, it began in April 1602, when fourteen-year-old Mary Glover gossiped about her unsavory neighbor, the elderly Elizabeth Jackson (a beggar and reputed witch). The enraged Jackson shrieked horrifying curses at Glover, who left quite shaken. During the early modern period, curses were considered dangerous, especially from an alleged witch. Their angry mumblings threatened forthcoming maleficium. Not only did the person cursed often believe it might work, but the witch could have as well.
Within days, Mary began to experience several symptoms, including dumbness and blindness, throat constriction, intense fasting, frequent abdominal distortions, apparent unconsciousness, spasms, and convulsions. Mary's parents, well connected in the community, believed it at first to be a medical condition. Thomas Moundeford, President of the College of Physicians seven times, examined Mary and originally diagnosed it as an unidentified, but natural, disease. Jackson, however, boasted to several people about the illness she had brought upon the girl, saying, I thanck my God he hath heard my prayer, and stopped the mouth and tyed the tongue of one of myne enemies.
Elizabeth Jackson bragged in the household of William Glover, a relation of Mary's and a city alderman. For the next several months, family and friends staged several experiments and confrontations between Mary and Elizabeth at several residences. Like the Salem and Warboys trials, these well-attended meetings became spectacles. As Michael Macdonald writes, The house was jammed with people: pious Puritans awestruck by the evident power of Satan, more skeptical observers wanting to see for themselves whether Glover's illness was natural or supernatural and the merely curious. Experiments designed to illicit a physical response included hot pins applied to Mary's cheeks and burning paper to her hands. Mary's insensitivity confirmed affliction caused by the supernatural. A further experiment disguised Elizabeth's identity. Despite this, Mary's fits ensued. Stephen Bradwell, described Mary's symptoms in Mary Glovers Late Woeful Case:
These experiments led to a trial on December 1st, 1602. Certainly, some of these symptoms appeared naturally; others were associated with bewitchment. Other symptoms, such as the vocalized hang her, appear intentionally malicious. More experiments occurred at the trial to determine whether Mary was dissembling. A repeat of the burning test helped authenticate her possession. The experiments concerning the ability to quote scripture reappeared at Salem.
Lines misspoken from the Lord's Prayer drove Mary into convulsions. Naturally, this implied Jackson's guilt. Not only had Jackson bewitched Mary, but also these convulsions dramatically demonstrated her witchery for the courtroom. Bradwell describes the striking confrontation, along with the medical perplexities involved:
Weirus (Weyer) and the witches of Warboys appear earlier in this paper. The theories of Galen and Hippocrates are briefly described in the following chapter. These two sentences demonstrate how significant and firmly rooted this trial is in the literature of possession and the medical explanations for it.
Even with Jackson disguised and Mary blindfolded, once again, fits ensued only if Jackson was present. Though this evidence convinced others, including Bradwell and Judge Anderson, that Glover was bewitched, Jorden testified that it was suffocation of the mother.
Unlike the other trials we will examine, this one contained strong political and religious ramifications. In the other trials, everyone involved belonged to the same religion; only some were more active than others were. This one involves strained relationships between Catholics, Puritans, and Anglicans. The powerful Anglican Bishop of London, Richard Bancroft, objected to anything suggestive of Catholicism, such as exorcism. Puritans and Catholics viewed this case, among others, as a way to validate their beliefs. Mary's grandfather, executed during the Marian persecutions, provided a martyred backdrop. This religious and political quandary is far too involved for examination in this study, but suffice it to say, the trial meant more than diagnosing a fourteen-year-old's afflictions.
The doctors were deadlocked. Some thought Mary to be faking; others thought she was ill, still others believed her to be bewitched. From the bewitchment position, there could be no doubt of the illness' supernatural symptoms. In a moment reminiscent of The Exorcist, Bradwell relates:
During a rebuke to Jorden's diagnosis of Passio Hysterica (another name for suffocation of the mother), Judge Anderson stated: Divines, Phisitions, I know they are learned and wise, but to say this is naturall, and tell me neither the cause, nor the Cure of it, I care not for your Judgement: geve me a naturall reason, and a naturall remedy, or a rash for your physic.
Judge Anderson detested witchcraft and in his jury summation stated, This land is full of witches I have hanged five or six and twenty of them; there is no man here can speak more of them than myself This woman hath that property; she is full of cursing, she threatens and prophesies and still it takes effect; she must of necessity be a prophet or a witch. The jury agreed with the judge, and Jackson received the maximum sentence for a first time conviction of witchcraft under the 1563 Witchcraft Act, one year in jail and four stands at the pillory.
Though Elizabeth Jackson lost in court, it is quite possible she never served her sentence. Due to the religio-political ramifications of the trial, very powerful supporters came to her defense. Bishop Richard Bancroft commissioned several pamphlets, including Jorden's Brief Discourse, to buttress Anglican doctrines. In December 1602, Mary Glover was finally cured, during an all-day session of fasting and prayer, as ministers battled the devil in Mary. At the dramatic conclusion, she supposedly cried out with the same words her grandfather used when executed, he is come, he is come the comforter is come, O Lord thou hast delivered me. The malevolent spirit left her. Mary had symbolically gone from possessed to saintly.
Four years later, Jorden, summoned by James I, examined Anne Gunter (who alleged three female neighbors bewitched her). James had become far more skeptical concerning witches since his days in Scotland. He took pride in detecting fraudulent cases of witchcraft. Many of her symptoms were the same as the Glover case, although Gunter also vomited pins. Through a series of tests, some used earlier on Glover, Jorden concluded she was faking. Anne even met James, who offered her an indemnity if she confessed. Gunter admitted to being coached and using the Warboys pamphlet for ideas concerning possession. She confessed her father had put her up to the dangerous ruse. She herself believed she was suffering from the mother. Anne apparently married and her father received a lengthy jail sentence.
Though Jorden's book is a significant contribution in the battle against superstition, providing a reasonable, natural account for illnesses such as Glover's, the diagnosis itself floundered upon flawed anatomical theory. The concept of a wandering womb became unviable once the dissection of female cadavers became acceptable. The arrangement of muscles and organs negated any possibility of a wandering womb. Nor did many people read A Brief Discourse; in fact, Michael MacDonald calls Jorden, one of the most celebrated obscure physicians in medical history.
Jorden was a man of his times who argued against superstition and for rational, scientific explanations. Though several symptoms Jorden had to diagnose in these trials bear a resemblance to those suffered at Salem, and although Judge Anderson was an uncompromising witch hater, the verdict itself demonstrates a certain rationality and even moderation. It was possible Elizabeth Jackson served no time and mended her ways. No hysteria occurred, no attempt force a confession or implicate others took place. Reputations and households were not irredeemably ruined. Moreover, no executions followed a conviction based on the testimony of children.
The meaning and importance of this case becomes evident by comparing it with Salem. Occurring eighty years before, in London, the capital and epicenter of the British Empire, it was politicized, significant and discussed. The prevailing opinions of the King and his court influenced, but
did not control, the outcome. Some of the tests used, and many of the
symptoms Mary suffered, reappear at Salem. If we look for an increasing progression of enlightened thinking traversing though the seventeenth century, this trial reveals the error. At the very beginning of the century, a convicted witch suffered a relatively minor punishment for afflicting a child. At the end of the century, nineteen people hanged because of similar symptoms, similar beliefs, and a similar judicial system.
Medical Beliefs Concerning Hysteria and Witchcraft
At this point in the paper, it would be appropriate to discuss some of the medical theories that appear applicable to these young girls. In each case of possession we examine, a physician performed an examination. The vast majority of possible possession cases did not advance past a doctor's examination. Physicians usually found natural causes responsible for the symptoms. Doctors' opinions, however, varied greatly, especially as the century progressed.
By profiling four doctors at separate points throughout the century, we get a sense of each physician's understanding of possession. These physicians were not personally involved in witch trials. Reading their opinions provides us the opportunity to delve into a world medically and spiritually far different from our own. In our post-Freudian world, it is impossible to categorize the afflicted from a purely psychological perspective. Our inability to physically examine them leaves us with the written opinions of contemporary doctors. Nor can we truly understand the deeply religious environment that could foster such distinctive symptoms. We can establish, however, a tenuous advancement in medical theory from the supernatural to the natural, from the superstitious to the scientific, throughout the century.
Carol Karlsen describes the main symptoms of the possessed girls in New England as, strange fits, with violent, contorted body movements; prolonged trances and paralyzed limbs; difficulty in eating, breathing, seeing, hearing, and speaking; sensations of being beaten, pricked with pins, strangled or stabbed; grotesque screams and pitiful weeping, punctuated by a strange but equally unsettling calm between convulsions, when little if anything was remembered and nothing seemed amiss. These ailments are also symptomatic of the afflicted girls in England.
In the period we will be examining, not only did the specific symptoms vary case-by-case, but also the type of diagnosis varied with the type of practitioner. Apothecaries, white witches, cunning folk, surgeons, university-trained physicians, and clergy, as well as family and friends, treated illnesses. People went to whomever they trusted, whom they could afford, or who had a reputation for healing. Many thought illnesses were a punishment from God. The examination of urine, consciences, and horoscopes constituted diagnosis. The treatment could be equally as diverse.
The practice and theory of medicine progressed exponentially over the seventeenth century. This evolution, however, was uneven, chaotic, and
inchoate. The Renaissance rediscovery of classical medicine, with its emphasis on the four humors and based on the works of Galen and Hippocrates, slowly gave way to more modern theory. The iatrochemical and astrological theories of Paracelsus gained and lost popularity. Historian Leland Estes theorizes this muddled situation actually promoted witch-hunts, as the rise of the craze could be traced to the revolution in medical thinking that marched beside it so closely and that the medical revolution might very well have provided both its intellectual form and its emotional impetus. Simply put, according to Estes, as medicine gradually became more modern, the lack of a predominant and credible medical doctrine to diagnose illness made a witchcraft accusation more plausible.
Religion and medicine deeply intertwined in the causes and cures of illness. Both doctors and clergy were interested in the wellness of the soul. Treatment for disorders such as madness, epilepsy, and hysteria were applied as if a third person or a deity was involved.
A case in point would be Jorden's diagnosis of Mary Glover. Half of the physicians testifying, along with the judge, believed Mary was bewitched. Jorden and Dr. John Argent, eight times President of the College of Physicians, did not. A third person (a witch) was involved. Jorden believed, however, he found a rational, medical explanation for the disease. Based on a flawed theory of female anatomy, the premise of "suffocation of the mother" died out by the end of the century, especially after the work of Drs. Willis and Sydenham. Jorden states the choking sensation is caused by the rising of the Mother wherby it is sometimes drawn upwards or sidewards above his natural seate, compressing the neighbour parts This wandering womb concept existed for centuries. Many of the accusers in the trials we will examine experienced several symptoms of the mother, also called passio hysterica and suffocatio, a reasonable diagnosis for the time.
Even Shakespeare was aware of the disease. Though there is some disagreement as to the lines' intent, Shakespeare had King Lear (1608) state:
Thy elements below.
Doctors from Hippocrates to Freud and beyond employed the nebulous term of hysteria, with causes and cures altering with each author. In England and Colonial America during the period we are examining, a condition with some of the symptoms of hysteria could be considered caused by witchcraft. Doctors wrote pamphlets on how to distinguish natural from supernatural causes. They also argued against non-physicians as healers, such as the clergy. Their emphasis was on disseminating medical knowledge, not theological interpretations of what a troubled person's disease meant.
John Cotta (1575? -1650?)
With the publications of A Short Discoverie of the Unobserved
Dangers of Several Sorts of Ignorant and Unconsiderate Practisers of Physicke in England (1612) and The Triall of Witchcraft, showing the true Methode of the Discovery with a Confutation of Erroneous Ways (1616), the respected physician John Cotta attempted to warn the public about abuses and misunderstandings about witchcraft. He believed physicians should be the ones diagnosing witchcraft and possession. Cotta believed the touch test (used extensively at several trials, including Salem) to be a charade. Increase Mather quoted this opinion in his Cases of Conscience. Cotta stated:
Cotta examples from his own cases to press for natural causes of illness. In 1608, he treated the daughter of a nearby gentleman. She regularly had a vehement shaking and violent casting forward of her head, ending with a loud and shrill inarticulate sound of these two syllables `ipha, ipha'. Cotta decided it was a type of falling sickness, probably epilepsy or some other convulsive, but natural, disease. After a brief recovery, she
became much worse. He writes:
After this description, Cotta realized a diagnosis of witchcraft was feasible in this case. Personally, however, he believed his own experience, coupled with that of previous writers, treated such symptoms as natural. He then describes symptoms that give the appearance of witchcraft:
The significant idea to remember is that Cotta is trying to categorize witchcraft as an unlikely instrument of illness. Although Cotta firmly believes in witchcraft and the Devil, by using the diagnostic test outlined above, he decides upon natural causes in case after case. Strangely enough, more than one woman voluntarily confessed to bewitching the gentlewoman.
Even though they were dying for sorcery, he, like Weyer before him, came
to the uncommon conclusion that they deceived themselves. Unlike Weyer, Cotta states, "I grant the voluntary and uncompelled, or duly and truly evicted confession of a witch, to be sufficient condemnation of her self, and therefore justly has the law laid their blood upon their own heads, but their confession I cannot conceive sufficient eviction of the witchcraft itself... If the doctors and magistrates at Salem had Cotta's extraordinary and medically based skepticism, the conclusions could have been drastically different. The people swearing to their innocence would have a much better chance of survival than those that confessed.
Edward Drage (1637? -1669)
In 1665, Edward Drage wrote about an interesting case where mental illness appears to be involved. Mary Hall's peculiar symptoms appear to be a mixture of hysteria and possession. The excerpt is from: Daimonomageia: A Small Treatise of Sicknesses and Diseases From Witchcraft and Supernatural Causes, Never before, at least in this comprised Order, and general Manner, was he like published. Being useful to others besides Physicians.
In the end, Willis emphasized skepticism towards the supernatural. He wrote, Grant this I say, yet all kinds of Convulsions which appear prodigious, as being besides the common course of this Disease, ought not presently to be imputed to enchantments of Witches, or tricks of the Devil, for often, though appearing strange, they proceed from meer natural causes, and stand in need of no other Exorcisms for a Cure, than Remedies which are wont to be prescribed against Convulsive affects
Thomas Sydenham (1624-89)
Perhaps the finest clinician of his time, Thomas Sydenham's reputation acclaims him as the English Hippocrates. He relied upon personal diagnosis and bedside manner, without much faith in experimental theories. Like Willis, he examined hysteria, though he reasoned the cause of the disease as principally psychological. Sydenham published his influential work on hysteria, Epistolary Dissertation, in 1682. He believed it was more widespread than previously thought:
His works are free of all mention of witchcraft. Sydenham, like Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici (religion of the physician), relates his personal religious views in his short, unpublished manuscript Theologia Rationalis. He describes his views on God, called the Supream Artificer and Supream Being, as well as his opinions on evil. He ends with, Altho' yet mankind from the weakness and imperfection incident to the Low condition wherein, in the Order of Intellectual Beings he stands, is apt to be led aside into one of the two extreams of Atheism or Superstition, and consequently is liable to mistakes both in his principles and practices. Unlike Browne's Religio Medici, he does not mention Satan or witchcraft.
Throughout the seventeenth century, medical theory slowly became more rational, more scientific, less willing to consider the supernatural. This enlightened atmosphere helped to end the witch trials. In England, the last execution for witchcraft occurred in 1684. The convoluted line from Doctor Barrow's diagnosis of witchcraft in the Warboys case in 1589 to the death of Sydenham in 1689 demonstrates this advancement. Though an inherent time lag existed in disseminating medical theory to the colonies, many of these theories crossed over by the time of the Salem witch trials.
Sydenham's works, somewhat known in New England, were indirectly associated with witchcraft in Massachusetts. Reverend Thomas Thatcher, of Boston's Old South Church, wrote the first medical treatise published in America (outside of Mexico), in 1677. Entitled A brief Rule to Guide the Common People of New England how to Order Themselves and theirs in the Small Pocks or Measels, it was essentially an extract of Sydenham's work. Early in his career, Thatcher, the minister-physician of Weymouth, acting in his ministerial capacity, wrote a powerful letter of defense in 1654 for one of his parishioners, Welthean Richards, that appeared to discourage others from putting her on trial for witchcraft. He was also the second husband of the wealthy Margaret Thatcher, who figured prominently in the Salem trials. Along with Increase Mather, Thatcher was a fellow licenser of one of the first printing presses in Boston. Samuel Willard, of the Elizabeth Knapp possession case (see chapter 7), assisted and succeeded Thatcher at Old South Church. Cotton Mather had the writings of Drs. Thomas Sydenham, Thomas Willis and Thomas Browne in his library, which may have been in his possession during the Goodwin children and Salem episodes. The works of Thomas Willis resided in the libraries of several preacher-physicians who had passed away before Salem.
Doctors were, of course, present at Salem. Several, including Dr. Griggs, initially examined the girls and eventually diagnosed a supernatural cause for the their afflictions. Wait Winthrop, a well-known physician, and Bartholemew Gedney, an apothecary, were two of the seven judges. If any of these physicians had possessed the clinical astuteness, skepticism concerning the supernatural, and medical insight of Willis and Sydenham, Salem could have turned out much differently.
The Trial at Bury St. Edmunds
The intellectual stature of the participants in the 1662 trial at Bury St. Edmunds generates special interest and significance. Sir Matthew Hale, a future Chief Justice of the King's Bench, presided. Sir Thomas Browne, a famous essayist and physician, testified. Sir John Keeling, one of the three serjeants (a post secondary to the judge) and a possible coadjudicator with Hale at the trial, dissented in the decision. Keeling became Chief Justice of the King's Bench three years after the trial. Hale succeeded him in May 1671. Like the Glover case earlier, and Salem afterwards, highly educated professionals debated witchcraft's culpability in the afflictions of young girls.
Several of the features of this trial bear a remarkable resemblance to the Salem trials, which it no doubt affected. The crisis originated with Deborah (aged 9) and Elizabeth (aged 11) Pacy, the same ages of Elizabeth Parris and Abigail Williams, respectively. Their sufferings themselves are identical in many ways, to the girls at Salem. As at Salem, the afflictions spread to other girls, along with accusations of being terrorized by the witches' apparitions. As both trials progressed, adults added testimony about previous confrontations with the accused. The dénouement remained the same- hangings.
These excerpts are from sixty page pamphlet entitled: A Tryal of Witches, at the Assizes held at Bury St. Edmonds for the County of Suffolk; on the Tenth day of March 1664 (though it actually occurred in 1662). Published in London in 1682, supposedly by an unnamed spectator, it influenced important opinions at Salem. In 1693, when Cotton Mather published his Wonders of the Invisible World, he enclosed a chapter entitled A Modern Instance of Witches: Discovered and Condemned in a Trial Before That Celebrated Judge, Sir Mathew Hale. Mather begins, It may cast some Light upon the Dark things now in America, if we just give a glance upon the like things happening in Europe. We may see the Witchcrafts here most exactly resemble the Witchcrafts there; He states the trial was much considered by the Judges of New England. For the next nine pages, Mather summarized A Tryal of Witches.
Like many witchcraft trials, this one began with a confrontation between a reasonably successful member of the community denying a
request from a poorer one. Samuel Pacy, a merchant of Lowestoft, deposed that on October 10 of the previous year (1661), he quarreled with the widow Amy Denny:
Amy Duny came to this Deponents House to buy some Herrings, but being denyed she went away discontented, and presently returned again, and was denyed, and likwise the third time and was denyed as at first; and at her last going away, she went away grumbling; but what she said was not perfectly understood. But at the very same instant of time, the said Child was taken with most violent fits, feeling most extream pain in her Stomach, like the pricking of Pins, and Shreeking out in a most dreadful manner like unto a Whelp, and not like unto a sensible Creature.
This continued for three weeks. Pacy asked a neighbor, Dr. Feavor, for his opinion. Feavor, however, could not diagnose the cause of the affliction. Deborah Pacy, in her fits would cry out of Amy Duny as the cause of her Malady, and that she did affright her with Apparitions of her Person. Samuel Pacy had Amy Duny put in the stocks on October 28th. This did not end the bewitchment however, as, That within two days after speaking of the said words being the Thirtieth of October, the is younger eldest Daughter Elizabeth, fell into extream fits, insomuch, that they could not open her Mouth to give her breath, to preserve her Life without the help of a Tap which they were enforced to use
For the next two months, the children suffered other symptoms. They became lame and sore throughout their bodies. They lost their sense of speech, sight, and hearing, sometimes for days. Hearing the words Lord, Jesus and Christ brought about fits. They also believed Rose Cullender (another reputed witch), and Amy Denny, would appear before them, holding their Fists at them, threatning, That if they related either what they saw or heard, that they would Torment them Ten times more than ever they did before. The sisters also coughed up pins, and one time a Two-penny Nail with a very broad head, which Pins (amounting to Forty or more) together with the Two-penny Nail were produced in Court, with the affirmation of the said Deponent, that he was present when the said Nail was Vomited up, and also most of the Pins. Allotriophagy, the vomiting of extraordinary objects, provided a possible proof of possession.
Like the Throckmorton's at Warboys seventy years earlier and less than forty miles away, the sisters relocated to relatives in hopes of a cure. This occurred seven weeks after the initial possession, on November 30th, 1661. Their aunt, Margaret Arnold, originally believed the children to be faking. All pins were taken from the children's clothes, yet, notwithstanding all this care and circumspection of hers, the Children afterwards raised at several times at least Thirty Pins in her presence, and had most fierce and violent Fitts upon them. Bees and flies allegedly forced pins and nails into the girls' mouths. Margaret Arnold's opinion converted to a supernatural cause for the afflictions.
The children continued their fits and hallucinations at their aunt's house. An ominous event occurred when, the Younger daughter being recovered out of her Fitts, declared, That Amy Duny had been with her and that she tempted her to Drown her self; and to cut her Throat, or otherwise to Destroy her self. Here we see signs of severe stress and possible mental illness, as children stated they believed spectral images were directing them to commit suicide. Bees forced nails into their mouths, spectral images were striking and threatening them, pins and nails were vomited, and the fits were unrelenting. The Pacy's decided to take the women to court.
The trial began on March 10th, 1662. By this time, the afflictions had spread to three other girls, Ann Durrant (a maid - probably between the
ages of 16-21), Jane Bocking (14 years old) and Susan Chandler (18 years old). Deborah Pacy and Jane Bocking did not attend the trial, being too ill. Though Elizabeth, Ann, and Susan did not testify (family members spoke for them), they did affect the courtroom atmosphere. The three arrived:
In a deposition strikingly similar to that Samuel Pacy, Edmund Durrant described the afflictions of his daughter, Ann:
Though this impressed many, at least one skeptical, but unnamed, person challenged the girls' claims. Lord Cornwallis, Sir Edmund Bacon, and Serjeant Keeling tested a blindfolded Elizabeth Pacy touching Amy Denny and another woman. When Elizabeth reacted the same to both women, the Gentlemen returned, openly protesting, that they did believe the whole transaction of this business was a meer Imposture. Samuel Pacy replied, That possibly the Maid might be deceived by a suspicion that the Witch touched her when she did not.
Evidence to the contrary, this reasoning convinced the jury, which took half an hour to convict both women. The following morning, the children and parents visited Hale. The children appeared cured, And Mr. Pacy did Affirm, that within less than half an hour after the Witches were Convictd, they were all of them Restored, and slept well that Night, feeling no pain; only Susan Chandler felt a pain like pricking of Pins in her Stomach. Denny and Cullender were urged to confess, but would not. The two hanged on March 17, 1662.
Hale and Brown continued to prosper after this event. Neither man mentioned the trial in writings or letters. Hale died on December 25, 1676. Browne followed him on October 19, 1682. On the 200th anniversary of Browne's death, protests occurred objecting to a monument to be built in his honor. Some, such as respected Dr. Connolly Norman, believed Denny and Cullender also deserved the monument. Norman wrote that Denny's and Cullender's monument would provide interesting evidences of Sir Thomas's repute.
The Sir Thomas Browne statue in Norwich
In one of his greatest works, Religio Medici (1643), Browne wrote:
The trial damaged Hale's reputation as well. A deeply religious man, Hale's impartial summarization of the case to the jury could only solidify the guilty verdict. Sir Matthew Hale and Sir Thomas Browne are examples of highly intelligent people, at the apex of their respected professions, who sincerely believed in witchcraft. They were men of their times, called upon to act with reason and justice. In England, however, the ability to prosecute and execute witches was drawing to a close. For a variety of reasons, primarily judicial and intellectual, having poor, elderly, and outcast women hanged on the testimony of children was becoming problematical. As the belief in witches slowly died out, the ability to prosecute them died out even quicker.
Another consequence of this trial was its influence upon the events at Salem. Cotton Mather, like Browne in his testimony (see above), believed that the Devil could stir up and excite humors. Children and females were particularly susceptible. Describing the afflictions of Mercy Short, which followed the Salem trials, Cotton Mather wrote Another Brand Pluckt Out of the Burning. Emulating Browne's testimony, Cotton Mather wrote:
New England Possessions before Salem
English colonists arriving in America predictably brought over their fundamental beliefs and traditions concerning witchcraft. They codified their new laws based upon biblical and English precedents, specifically Parliament's 1604 statute. The colonists at Plymouth made witchcraft a capital crime in their Laws of the Colony of 1636. One clause in the General Lawes and Libertyes Concerning the Inhabitants of the Massachusetts (1641, repealed 1684) included the biblical injunction, If any man or woman be a Witch, (that is, hath or consulteth with a familiar spirit) they shall be put to death. By 1672, similar statutes were written into law in Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (1647), New Haven Colony (1656), Connecticut (1672).
Between 1647 and1663, the New England colonists executed at least fifteen people for witchcraft. The earliest execution occurred in Connecticut on May 26,1647, when Alse Young was hanged. All we know about the event is the name, date, and crime. The first instance in which accusations expanded into a witch-hunt in colonial America began in Hartford, Connecticut in 1662. Here the authorities ordered the execution of at least three, possibly four individuals, based on the accusations of a possessed individual and the testimony of a confessed witch. We will only be looking at the first case, which was in response to the possession.
Hartford, like Salem before the executions, had experienced a crisis within its religious community, though it is uncertain whether the conflicts influenced the trials. In 1659, members of the Hartford Church and nearby Wethersfield Church broke away from the their respective churches to found their own house of worship in Hadley, Massachusetts. Reverend John Whiting, who leaves us the only contemporary description of Ann Cole's possession, was ordained pastor of the original Hartford Church in 1660. The events at Hartford began two years later, with the possession of Ann Cole, whom Increase Mather called a person of real Piety and Integrity. Unlike most demoniacs, who tended to be young and single, Anne was a married woman with children (though her exact age is unknown). In the first half of 1662, Ann suffered violent convulsions and began speaking in an unnatural voice.
Though the clergy had always been involved with possession cases in England, they became even more central in Puritan New England. Two other Hartford ministers, Samuel Stone, Joseph Haynes, and Reverend Samuel Hooker of nearby Farmingham, witnessed Cole's strange behavior and later participated in the Greensmith's examination and trial. They also had a special day of prayer for her. Notable by its absence, Reverend Whiting does not mention any doctor examining Ann Cole. Her physical symptoms appeared to warrant one, and Hartford was large enough for George II to name it as the capital of Connecticut that same year (1662).
Whiting recounts how, with the devil making use of her lips Ann spoke about a company of familiars of the evil one (who) were contriving how to carry on their mischievous designs against some and especially against her (and) that they would afflict her body, spoil her name, hinder her marriage, etc According to Whiting, though she could not speak Dutch, while possessed she spoke with a Dutch accent of the hardships a Dutch neighbor was experiencing. The ministers considered this impossible, very awful and amazing. At an unspecified later date, the sight of Ann's powerful fits caused two unnamed women to also fall into fits in the public worship of God, presumably a church.
The identification of an elderly and unpopular woman as a witch fit the community's expectations in regard to the probable cause of Anne's possession. Blaming witchcraft for afflictions such as these occurred in every similar recorded case in seventeen-century New England. According to Whiting, Ann Cole accused Rebecca Greensmith of being responsible for her afflictions, a neighbor whom Whiting considered a lewd, ignorant, considerably aged woman. Whiting relates no other personal information about Greensmith, who already was in jail accused of practicing witchcraft. When questioned by Reverend Haynes, Greensmith confessed to witchcraft. She stated that the Devil had first come to her as a deer or fawn, and that witches, transformed into a variety of animals, had meetings near her house. She claimed not to have made a covenant with the Devil, though she admitted to having sexual relations with him. She also accused her husband Nathaniel of witchcraft, along with several neighborhood women. Nathaniel Greensmith denied the accusations to the end.
Whiting's account and the indictment against the Greensmiths are all the information that has survived concerning the possession of Ann Cole. Cole had accused only Rebecca Greensmith of witchcraft. We need not describe the subsequent assorted charges against Goodwives Seager, Sanford, Varlet, Ayres, and others, as the evidence is fragmentary, does not concern possession, and is beyond the scope of this paper. We know the accusations spread. We know Ayres and Varlet fled to New York, and the Greensmiths hanged for witchcraft in January 1663, along with a Mary Barnes of Farmingham. No evidence survives detailing Barnes or her crimes. We know at least two people that hanged because of the accusations of an afflicted individual and the confession of an accused witch.
We can see several characteristics of English witchcraft beliefs in this early colonial American case. According to prevalent opinions, witches held meetings, could transform themselves into animals, and had the power to possess people. Another similarity is that Ann Cole suffered the violent convulsions typical of possession cases. According to several witnesses, she spoke in a malicious manner with an unnatural voice, purporting to be that of the Devil's familiars. A further similarity is that Cole identified the witch responsible her affliction. Finally, after the hangings of the Greensmiths and Mary Barnes, Ann Cole recovered.
In a letter to Increase Mather twenty years later (December 4, 1682), Whiting describes the possession. Mather was collecting stories about the supernatural for publication and Whiting donated this remarkable (Whiting's term). Mather summarized the Cole story in his Remarkable Providences, published in 1684.
After 1663, as in England, it became difficult in the colonies to obtain a conviction for witchcraft. In fact, the next execution for witchcraft in New England did not occur until 1688.
Reverend Willard and Elizabeth Knapp
The next possession case that resembles later events at Salem involved Reverend Samuel Willard and his sixteen-year-old servant girl, Elizabeth Knapp. It lasted for nearly three months, from October 30, 1671 to January 15, 1672. Because it occurred in Willard's parsonage in Groton, Massachusetts, Willard was able to treat the experience as a type of case study of possible demonic possession. He exhibited a no-nonsense suspicion towards Knapp's behavior as well as a quality of mercy tragically missing from the magistrates at Salem. At that time, he was one of the few people in Massachusetts who had experience dealing with afflictions shown so dramatically at Salem, and he forcibly condemned the proceedings. In 1671, however, he was simply a young minister with a serious dilemma in his household.
While the possession was still going on, Willard enclosed a short manuscript entitled A Brief Account of a Strange and Unusual Providence of God Befallen to Elizabeth Knapp of Groton in a letter to Increase Mather This is the main source for the afflictions of Elizabeth Knapp. In 1684, along with a summary of Ann Cole's afflictions, Mather published a summary of Willard's experience in his Remarkable Providences.
According to Willard, Knapp's behavior began to change at the end of October 1671. She laughed, shrieked and cried at inappropriate times, and made ...many foolish and apish gestures. On November 5, a doctor prescribed medicine for the affliction. When this did not work, the diagnosis turned to the supernatural. Throughout November, ministers came from surrounding towns to fast and pray together in the Willard household in an attempt to cure Elizabeth.
On December 17, Elizabeth's behavior became extreme. Willard described how the devil appeared to be completely in control of her. She drew, her tongue out of her mouth most frightfully to an extraordinary length and greatness, contorted her body, and insulted her father and a neighbor as rogues. Speaking without moving her lips, as well as projecting a voice with her mouth closed, she railed against both Rev. Willard and God. Elizabeth barked like a dog, bleated like a sheep and threatened to murder both her family and Willard's. She also threatened suicide. She blamed several pious neighbors for bewitching her. Willard, however, refused to countenance the accusations and Knapp withdrew her allegations
Willard concluded his Brief Account by stating his intent to suspend my own judgment, and willingly leave it to the censure of those that are more learned, aged, and judicious to decide whether Knapp was truly possessed or not. He reiterated certain actions that appeared to prove that Knapp was supernaturally afflicted. Willard prudently realized he could not decide whether she was possessed or not. In the conclusion to his Brief Account, he demonstrated mercy when he wrote, charity would hope the best, love would fear the worst, but thus much is clear she is an object of pity, and I desire that all that hear of her would compassionate her forlorn
state. She is (I question not) a subject of hope, and therefore all means ought to be used for her recovery.
With no other evidence and since no one was charged, we can assume Knapp recovered. She married Samuel Scripture in 1674. She bore him six children in a marriage that lasted at least twenty-five years. Other than that, her name disappeared from the record books as she settled down to a quieter life. Willard later became a compassionate influence at the Salem proceedings, attempting to ameliorate the Court of Oyer and Terminer's uncompromising stances.
What is significant about these events is that Knapp framed her symptoms in a religiously determined way. The ministers and other spectators easily understood this as a possible case of possession, as compared to say, madness. Historians John Demos, Chadwick Hansen and Carol Karlsen, among others, have all attempted to describe the Knapp case from a psychological perspective. Knapp appears deeply unhappy with her station or experiences in life. Her father had been prosecuted for drunkenness and adultery. Elizabeth worked as a servant in other families' homes from an early, unspecified, age, even though she was an only child. The future prospects of a servant girl, especially in comparison to the respected Willard, were bleak.
Some of these themes and the same ministers who attended the Knapp exhibition will reappear at Salem. Some of the accusers (Mary Warren, Sarah Churchill and Elizabeth Hubbard) were young servant girls in much the same situation as Knapp. Willard's first-hand experience with Elizabeth Knapp gave him insights and a skepticism regarding the girls' symptoms the other spectators lacked. Willard was even cried out upon by Abigail Williams, one of the main accusers at Salem. The magistrates firmly told her she was mistaken, and Williams dropped the accusation. It is an interesting example of how the judges at Salem could influence the accusations.
Willard, willing to go outside the law to condemn the proceedings, published a small pamphlet, Some Miscellany Observations On Our Present Debates Respecting Witchcrafts, in the fall of 1692, which criticized the trials. At the time, Governor Phips had banned publishing works on witchcraft in Massachusetts. Willard used a pseudonym and falsely indicated Philadelphia instead of Boston as the city where it was published. Willard also possibly helped some of his parishioners to escape from jail. In both the Knapp case and the Salem trials, Willard wrote and preached to the community to examine itself and not simply blame witchcraft for the girls' afflictions. Though his views eventually helped end the trials, for many at Salem it was too late.
The Goodwin Children
We know about the possession of the Goodwin children mainly from Reverend Cotton Mather, Increase's son. In 1689, he published Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions. Like his father's Remarkable Providences published five years earlier, it was a collection of stories that promoted the belief that the Devil was in this world and described what had to be done, with God's grace, to defeat him. These popular works influenced opinions throughout the Bay Colony.
The first of Mather's examples of providences involves the children of Boston mason John Goodwin, who began suffering unexplainable and terrifying afflictions in the mid-summer of 1688. In contrast to the Elizabeth
Knapp case, people believed the Goodwin children when they accused their neighbor, the poor and elderly widow Glover of witchcraft. On November 16, 1688, Glover hanged on Boston Common.
An invisible horse, along with a company of unseen demons, appeared to Martha. She rode the horse and spoke with the demons. Like the Throckmorton girls at Warboys, the demons informed her about her fits. Mather relates:
About November 27, 1692 (one of the few dates Mather mentioned), two weeks after the hanging of Glover, several ministers, including Reverend Willard, gathered at the Goodwin's home for a day of prayer. Though the children were as afflicted as ever, Mather states this event broke the power of the enemy.
The Glover case clearly affected opinions at Salem four years later. In New England witchcraft cases, possession itself rarely played a prominent part. The last execution for possession-related witchcraft, other than the widow Glover, occurred at Hartford thirty years before Salem. It would appear possession cases, until that of the Goodwin children, were vanishing. Other than the three cases mentioned, Mather includes a few others in his Memorable Providences, two of which occurred in Connecticut, one involving an unnamed boy in Tocutt (probably between 1644-1677) and another with an unnamed girl in Norwich (1684 or slightly earlier). Nothing came of these. The dramatic possession of the Goodwin children, however, and the publication of these events (along with other providences) by a highly respected member of the Puritan clergy, helped create an environment that made the Salem witch trials possible.
A common misperception of the Salem witch persecutions in 1692 was that they were caused by hysterical young girls and an intolerant Puritan ministry. In this scenario, the zealous and power-hungry clergy promoted fear to maintain their fading power. Young female accusers, flush with their newly found power and influence, drove the debacle. Superstitious and frightened townspeople turned against one another to combat an external evil, only to realize later their own culpability.
This interpretation underwent drastic revisions over the years, as historians presented numerous theories to account for the tragedy at Salem. Medical explanations include ergot poisoning, hysteria or encephalitis. Other approaches suggest that social and economic rivalry between neighbors caused the accusations. The theory that members of the community actually practiced witchcraft, which produced psychosomatic disorders, found support. The most fruitful explanation is a multi-casual approach, as no single theory can account for the bizarre and alarming behavior of a few young girls and the subsequent violent reaction of the community.
As we shall see, the perplexing behavior of the afflicted girls at Salem resembled previous symptoms suffered by other victims, from the Throckmorton girls at Warboys to the Goodwin children in Boston. The convulsions, trances, and sacrilegious language bewildered and worried the pious parents throughout the century. Unlike the earlier cases, however, the hysteria at Salem spread beyond siblings into the community at large. This
disastrous development added to the fear already present in Salem, allowing the accusations to proliferate.
The essential background details of the case are well known. In the winter of 1691-2, the nine-year-old daughter of the Salem's Reverend Samuel Parris, Betty, began acting strangely. She screamed or babbled senselessly, refused to do her chores and experienced trances. Her eleven-year-old sister Abigail also began to act oddly. They barked and howled, ran around the room and hid under furniture. When their father prayed with them, the girls experienced violent convulsions. On one occasion, Betty threw a Bible across the room and on another; Abigail threw burning wood from the fireplace. By late March, neighbors Ann Putnam Jr., Elizabeth Hubbard, Mercy Lewis and Mary Walcott, all between the ages of twelve and nineteen, also became afflicted.
Parris hoped that the girls' strange behavior had natural causes. Ministers from nearby towns gathered to pray and fast at his parsonage. A doctor, sometimes identified as Dr. Griggs, could not find any natural causes for their behavior. Not being able to find any medical explanations for their afflictions, he diagnosed the children as being under the evil hand. By attributing the troubles to the supernatural, the doctor absolved himself from any inept or incorrect diagnosis. This was consistent with both religious and medical thinking of the time. Yet the afflictions spread beyond the Parris household. Within a month, by March 1692, over a dozen girls became bewitched. Gossip and fear rapidly spread throughout the community.
In some respects, Salem shared characteristics with previous trials we have examined. The first people accused were women on the periphery of society. The responses of the parents and neighbors were analogous to earlier trials. They prayed, fasted, and consulted doctors. They did not consider witchcraft responsible at first, nor did they take the law into their own hands. As described in the previous chapter, laws were on the books that covered the crime of witchcraft. The community trusted the magistrates would identify and punish those responsible for the afflictions.
As Massachusetts had been a theocracy until 1684, when its charter was revoked, the Puritan clergy still played an influential role at Salem. Though Increase Mather was in London negotiating a new charter for the colony, his son Cotton was closely involved from the beginning. So were Reverends Samuel Willard, Deodat Lawson, and John Hale. They helped the community form perceptions about witchcraft. The magistrates considered the clergy an authority on witchcraft (though they did not always accept the ministers' views). The ministers could influence, exploit, or dampen volatile circumstances. Their writings give us a window towards partial understanding of their troubled world.
As the afflictions spread throughout February, the girls found themselves compelled to identify the witch or witches responsible. They named Tituba (the Parris' slave), Sarah Osburn (a sickly old woman with a dubious reputation), and Sarah Good (an ungrateful and antagonistic beggar). Preliminary investigations began under magistrates John Hathorne and Jonathan Corwin on March 1st, 1692. Though both were experienced and well respected in the community, neither man had a legal education. They relied instead on the Biblical admonition Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live and their own personal views concerning witchcraft. They could imprison people to await trial, but could not sentence. This would have to wait until the new charter arrived from London.
The girls acted together to produce a truly terrifying courtroom environment, both at the preliminary hearings (March - May) and at the Court of Oyer and Terminer (June - October). On March 1st, 1692, Sarah Good became the first of the accused to be subjected to the girls' malicious testimony. After Good vigorously denied her complicity in the bewitchment, Judge Hathorne enlisted assistance from the girls. Ezekiel Cheever writes that Hathorne, desired the children, all of them, to look upon her and see if this were the person that had hurt them, and so they all did look upon her and said this was one of the persons that did torment them. As Hathorne and Corwin described in their summary, once the children faced Good, they became, dredfully tortred & tormented for a short space of tyme, and ye affliction and torters being over they charged sd Sarah Good againe. Yt she had then soe tortered them Althow she was personally then kept at a Considerable distance from them.
The girls reacted to the next two defendants, Sarah Osborn and Tituba, with the same hysterical behavior. Another witness at the proceedings, the Reverend John Hale, of nearby Beverly, elaborates about the symptoms in his A Modest Enquiry (1702):
Hale's citing of the Goodwin children's afflictions illustrates how the recent trial and execution were on people's minds. With the afflicted girls convulsing in front of the accused and the magistrates, Hawthorne and Corwin decided to allow a wide assortment of evidence. Finding a witch's teat was allowed (any skin abnormality, such as a scar or a birthmark, which could be considered the site where the witch's familiar suckled), along with the touch test (affliction could be cured by touching the accused witch). Other tests included reciting passages from the Bible (real witches were believed to be unable to do so) and accepting testimony about misfortunes occurring after arguments with the accused (though it may have transpired decades earlier). Spectral evidence, centered on the belief that witches could send out their spectres to afflict people, became the most controversial evidence accepted. All these tests and procedures were used before in previous trials concerning possession, though they were rapidly losing favor among English jurists. The last execution for witchcraft in England occurred six years before Salem.
Hathorne and Corwin believed God would not allow the Devil to implicate pious people, and determined all the tests to be valid. This fateful decision legitimized the accusers, who had no physical evidence to present. The accusers cooperated as a team; no one thought to separate them to check the consistency and reliability of their stories. The Reverend Deodat Lawson, a former minister of Salem Village, wrote the earliest account of trials in his A Brief and True Narrative (1692). Describing their collaboration, he wrote:
These dramatic courtroom scenes naturally created an advantageous atmosphere for the plaintiffs. This behavior struck a chord with the spectators. As historian Peter Charles Hoffer wrote, at the pretrial hearings, the girls' performance convinced in part because the roles they performed were so familiar that the audience could already visualize what it could not see, and in part because the girls had so polished their lines and their pantomime that they conveyed, even to skeptics, the existence of the invisible world.
The next examination occurred on March 21, 1692. Martha Corey, a member of the Parris' church, belittled the accusers' behavior. The girls, sitting together in the front, replayed their fits, shrieking that Corey was biting, pinching, and strangling them. They also alleged Corey kept a yellow bird as a familiar. According to Reverend Lawson's account, Corey said,
The painful marks visible on the children and their mimicking of Corey's actions convinced Hathorne and Corwin to imprison her for a later trial. Three days later, Rebecca Nurse, also a member of the church and widely respected, faced the same stressful atmosphere. All alone, ill and hard of hearing, in a crowded and noisy courtroom, Rebecca confronted her accusers. As Hathorne questioned her, the girls continued their fits, as well as mimicked Nurse's gestures. Reverend Lawson wrote that Nurse's movements:
Reverend Parris had difficulty taking notes due to the commotion. He ends his transcript with This is a true account of the sume of her examination but by reason of great noyses by the afflicted & many speakers, many things are pretermitted. The noise and chaos of the courtroom made communication difficult. Confusion on the part of the accused or
misunderstandings became a proof of guilt. Nurse was committed to prison to await her trial. The accusations spread and by May, 1692, scores of people were imprisoned for suspicion of witchcraft from these preliminary examinations. The judicial system was in a state of flux, for at the time Massachusetts had no charter. No trial could begin until the charter arrived.
Reverend Increase Mather, pastor of North Church, Boston, and one of the most respected men in the colony, returned from London on May 14, 1692, bringing with him both a new charter and a new royal governor, Sir William Phips. Phips, who made a name for himself as a military commander and a finder of sunken treasure, had been born in what is now known as Maine. Neither man knew of the panic enveloping Massachusetts.
The men Phips chose for this new Court were prominent citizens; in fact, they were all men of the Governor's Council. The chief Judge was William Stoughton, an astute politician who became acting governor in August and September when Phips went to Maine with the army. In 1694, Stoughton succeeded Phips as governor of the colony. For the time being, Hathorne and Corwin found themselves discharged.
The Court of Oyer and Terminer convened on June 2, 1692. The initial defendant was Bridget Bishop, who already had a reputation for witchcraft. At her trial, the girls again fell into fits, stating that the Bishop's spectre had bitten, pinched and choked them. The girls fell down when Bishop looked at them, and revived when she touched them. Workers had found dolls and pins in the walls of her home, a sign of witchcraft. Other spectral evidence, along with assorted rumors and Bishop's questionable reputation, doomed her.
Once one person hanged, it made it easier to convict others, even though they enjoyed better reputations. The Court of Oyer and Terminer not only managed a one hundred percent conviction rate, but also only executing those that upheld their innocence. The belief in witchcraft was so strong, and the accusations so convincing, that nineteen people were hanged and one man was crushed to death because of it. Several others died in prison. The accusations moved beyond Salem, sowing the seeds of discord to the surrounding communities, especially Andover.
By early October, with the jails overflowing and the accusations continuing to come in, Phips called an end to the Court of Oyer and Terminer. He set up a new Superior Court of Judicature to retry the jailed. Though Stoughton remained in charge, spectral evidence became inadmissible. By abandoning this significant part of the accusations, the indictments collapsed. Only three out of fifty six people indicted were convicted. Phips subsequently pardoned them. The worst episode of witch-hunting in American history was over.
Even today, there is no agreement concerning the girls' afflictions. Since Edward Jorden wrote about the subject ninety years before Salem, an increasing number of physicians evaluated possession cases as having a mental or neurological basis. This assessment, minimizing the role of the supernatural, continued to grow throughout the seventeenth century. In all probability, Doctors Willis and Sydenham, writing in the 1660's to 1680's, would not have agreed with the doctors' diagnosis of the Betty Parris and Abigail Williams. Gradually, the symptoms such as the ones experienced by the girls at Salem were diagnosed to have natural causes, be it suffocation of the mother, fraud, madness, or mental illness.
When compared to previous cases, the judges' approach towards testimony at Salem appears to differ from the way previous justices had evaluated their evidence. This mixture of religious zeal, self-assurance, gullibility, and no formal legal training aided the proliferation of accusations and eased the way to executions. For instance, the concept of spectres, with its enormous impact as evidence, could be seen as the hallucinations of a
troubled mind. The touch test also was subject to interpretation or fraud. Eighty years before Salem, John Cotta cautioned against the dangers of accepting such evidence. Increase Mather took the same view in Illustrious Providences (1684). The Return of Several Ministers Consulted, written two weeks after the hanging of Bridget Bishop on June 15, 1692, as advice for Phips from the area's ministers and signed by both Mathers, specifically argued against the use of spectral evidence. Instead, the Court took the hysterical accusations and formulaic depositions as gospel truth.
While spectral evidence and afflicted children played an important part in the Warboys case (1593), it took nearly four years and much experimentation to finally execute a three-member family. Mother Samuel, who easily fit the stereotype of a witch, had confessed, and her husband and daughter confessed after intimidation. The witch-hunt did not spread. The girls became well immediately after the hangings.
During Jorden's case (1602), the controversy surrounding Mary Glover's fits created a cause celèbre. Several members of the Royal Academy of Physicians testified against one another in court. The judge, though exceedingly biased against witches and proud of it even for the time period, could not get more than a one-year sentence for Elizabeth Jackson (which may not even have been served). Though a pamphlet war ensued, there were no more accusations.
At Bury St. Edmunds (1662), the renowned justice Lord Hale found the evidence convincing enough to send two stereotypical witches to their deaths. Here, spectral evidence combined with other proofs (witches teats, bewitching cattle) and malevolent gossip from years before to produce a guilty verdict. Yet, strong disagreement occurred between Hale and Sir John Keeling (a subordinate judge at the trial), who did not believe spectral evidence could prove guilt. Reservations such as Keeling's could have played a significant part in Salem trials, as Cotton Mather even cited them in his Wonders of the Invisible World:
Keeling's perceptive argument did not win the day at Bury St. Edmunds nor was it discussed at Salem. As described in Chapter Six, both Keeling and Hale later become Chief Justice of the King's Bench. Therefore, their legally educated disagreements over spectral evidence differed greatly from those that occurred at Salem - where the judges were politicians and merchants, not trained jurists. It is interesting to note that like Warboys, the finale at St. Bury conformed well to beliefs about executing a witch, That within less than half an hour after the Witches were convicted, they were all of them Restored
In Cotton Mather's earlier experience with the Goodwin children, the widow Glover confessed to witchcraft. Not only did she have many of the traits of a stereotypical witch, she demonstrated her technique in front of the magistrates. This case must have proved problematical to Mather, as the afflicted did not get better after the woman's execution. Though Glover supposedly gave him the names of other witches, he kept them to himself. Unlike Salem, the accusations from a confessed witch did not hold much value. The magistrates used a certain amount of restraint, as several doctors examined Glover to assess if she was mentally incompetent to stand trial.
With the exception of Salem, these trials demonstrate a tendency by the magistrates to moderate the damage and look with a critical eye to the testimony and afflictions of the possessed. Until the execution of the widow Glover in 1688, the last cases involving possessed children sending people to their deaths ended in 1662 on both sides of the Atlantic (in England at Bury St. Edmunds and New England at Hartford).
As this paper illustrates, the symptoms suffered at Salem were not so out of the ordinary (see appendix), nor was the initial response of the community, looking to doctors and ministers for cures, unusual. Salem was not alone in occurring during times of economic, social, political or religious difficulties. It was only when the afflictions spread beyond the Parris household, and accusations mushroomed with no effective way to contain it, that the scene was set for a tragedy.
Barbara Rosen, Witchcraft in England:1558-1618 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1969, 1991), 32-33.
Sandar L. Gilman, Helen King, Roy Porter, G.S. Rousseau, Elaine Showalter, Hysteria Beyond Freud, Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press, 1993), 98-99.
Nicholas P. Spanos, Multiple Identities and False Memories (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1996), 157.
Midelfort, A History of Madness in Sixteenth Century Germany (Stanford, CA.: Stanford University Press, 1999), 68.
Ilza Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1965). 1
Gilman, et. al. 3-90
Dana Becker, Through the Looking Glass: Women and Borderline Personality Disorder (Westview Press, 1997), 5.
G.S. Rousseau A Strange Pathology in Gilman, et al. Hysteria Beyond Freud, 98.
Kohl and Midelfort, ed. 163-70.
Kohl and Midelfort,ed., xxiv-xxv. Clark, 198.
George E. Ehrlich, Doctors Afield Johanne Weyer and the Witches New England Journal of Medicine, 263 (1960), 245; Jerome M. Schneck, A History of Psychiatry (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1960), 41.
Monter, Ritual, Myth and Magic, (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1983), 87-8
Brian Levack, The Witch-hunt in Early Modern Europe (New York:& London: Garland Publishing, 1987), 155.
Robin Briggs, Witches & Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft (New York: Viking, 1996), 215.
James Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness: Witchcraft in Early Modern England (Philadelphia, PA.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 210.
Nicholas Spanos, 162-3.
Joseph Klaits, Servants of Satan: The Age of the Witch Hunts (Bloomington, IN.: Indiana University Press, 1985) 125.
Elaine Breslaw, Witches of the Atlantic World, 6., Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971), 465-68.
Ronald C. Sawyer, 'Strangely handled in all her lyms' in Journal of Social History 22 (Spring, 1989), 461.
Levack, The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe, 67-8; Thomas, Decline, 458-60.
Alan Macfarlane, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: A Regional and Comparative Study (Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc., 1970), 158-9; Reginald Scot, The Discoverie of Witchcraft, (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1973, orig. 1584), 30; Keith Thomas, The Relevance Of Social Anthropology to the Historical Study of English Witchcraft in Elaine E. Breslaw, Witches of the Atlantic World, 65-71.
J.A. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern England 1550-1750 (London & New York: Longman, 1984), 78-9.
Alan C. Kors, Witchcraft in Europe 1100 - 1700, 232-35; Guilby, The Encyclopedia of Witches and Witchcraft, 54-6
Robin Briggs, Witches and Neighbors, 235.
Thomas, Decline, 548; Guilby. 286-7.
Thomas, Decline, 161.
Gaskill, Devil in the Shape of a Man: Witchcraft, Conflict and Belief in Jacobean England in Historical Research: The Bulletin of Historical Research, 142-71; Gaskill, Crime and Mentalities in Early Modern England, 54-58.
Gaskill, Crime and Mentalities in Early Modern England, 54-58.
Thomas Relevance in Breslaw, 62.
Gaskill, Crime and Mentalities in Early Modern England, 65-66.
Christine Larner, Witchcraft and Religion: The Politics of Popular Belief, (New York, NY.: Basil Blackwell, 1984), 9-10.
Thomas, Decline, 451 and 457. Gaskill, Witchcraft and Power in Early Modern England: the case of Margaret Moore in Kermode and Walker, Women, Crime and the Courts. 125; Guiley, 160.
Thomas, Decline, 444.
Macfarlane, 140., Ronald Holmes, Witchcraft in British History, 136.
Thomas, Decline, 444.
J.A. Sharpe, The Devil in East Anglia in Barry, Hester & Roberts, Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe, 250-251.
Gaskill, Crime and Mentalities, 80-88.
Holmes, 224., Gaskill, Crime and Mentalities, 82, 84.
Thomas, Decline, 452.
D.P. Walker, Unclean Spirits: Possession and exorcism in France and England in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries (University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, 1981), 50.
Ian Argall, Warboys Parish Page, http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/HUN/Warboys/ March 16, 2001.
Moira Tatem, The Witches of Warboys (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridgeshire Libraries Publications, 1993), 16-17.
Tatem, 17, 74.
Barbara Rosen, ed., The most strange and admirable discoverie of the three Witches of Warboys in Witchcraft in England 1558-1618. (Amherst, MA: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1969, 1991). 229, 240f.
Rosen, 242-3; Tatem, 17.
Tatem, 34; Rosen, 252.
Rosen, 282-3; Tatem, 16.
George Lyman Kittredge, Witchcraft in Old and New England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1929). 306-313.
Michael MacDonald, Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover Case (London & New York: Tavistock/Routledge, 1991), x.
Edward Jorden, A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London: John Windet, 1603).
Jorden in MacDonald, 4-5.
MacDonald, xi., Stuart Clark, Thinking With Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 280-282.
Thomas, Decline, 523-4.
Stephen Bradwell, Mary Glovers Late Woeful Case (no publisher, 1603) in MacDonald, 17-19.
Bradwell in MacDonald, 23-24.
Bradwell in MacDonald, 111.
Bradwell in MacDonald, 114.
Jorden in MacDonald, 29.
Barbara Rosen, Witchcraft in England, 314
John Swan, A True and Briefe Report of Mary Glovers Vexation (no publisher, 1603) in MacDonald, 47.
Sharpe, The Bewitching of Anne Gunter (New York: Routledge, 2000). xi-xii.
Sharpe, 135, 164.
Sharpe, 194, 204-5,
Thomas, Decline, 489-90.
Carol F. Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998, 1987), 232.
Ronald C. Sawyer, Strangely Handled in All Her Lyms, 471.
Norman Gevitz, 'The Devil Hath Laughed at the Physicians': Witchcraft and Medical Practice in Seventeenth-Century New England in Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 55 (January 2000), 10.
Leland L. Estes, Origins of the European Witch Craze in Journal of Social History 17 (Winter 1983) 279.
French, Roger and Wear, Andrew, The Medical Revolution of the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 3-4.
French and Wear, 2-3.
Michael MacDonald, Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover Case (London and New York: Tavistock/Routledge, 19991), xiv.
Edward Jorden, A Briefe Discourse of A Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother,(London: John Windet, 1603) in MacDonald, 5-6.
Adelman, Suffocating Mothers: Fantasies of Maternal Origin in Shakespeare's Plays (New York and London: Routledge, 1992), 300f.
Shakespeare, King Lear 2.4.56-58.
Increase Mather, Cases of Conscience in The Wonders of the Invisible World (London: John Russell Smith, 1862), 257-8.
John Cotta, The Triall of Witchcraft (London: Samuel Rand, 1616; Amsterdam and New York: Da Capo Press, 1968), 121.
Cotta, A Short Discoverie of the Unobserved Dangers of several sorts of Ignorant and inconsiderate practisers of Physicke in England (London: William Jones and Richard Boyle, 1612; New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), 62.
Cotta, Practisers, 60-1.
Cotta, Practisers, 66-67.
Cotta, Ignorant Practisers, 69-70.
Edward Drage, Daimonomageia: A Small Treatise of Sicknesses and Diseases from Witchcraft, and Supernatural Causes (London: J. Dover, 1665), 32.
Cotta, Triall, 104-06.
Thomas Willis, The London Practice of Physick (London: Thomas Baffet, 1685; New York: The Classics of Medicine Library, 1992), 297.
Ilza Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 132-33.; Willis, 297-8.
N. Koutouvidis and S.G. Marketos, The contribution of Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689) to the evolution of psychiatry, History of Psychiatry vi (1995), 517.
Willis, 299-302. Sander L. Gilman, et. al. 140.
Jerome M. Schneck, A History of Psychiatry (Springfield, IL.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1960), 53.
Kenneth Dewhurst, Dr.Thomas Sydenham(1624-1689): His Life and Original Writings (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1966), 46.; N. Koutouvidis and S.G. Marketos, The contribution of Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689) to the evolution of psychiatry, History of Psychiatry vi (1995), 517.
Dewhurst, 46.; Ilza Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1965), 140.
Patricia A. Watson, The Angelical Conjunction: The Preacher-Physicians of Colonial New England (Knoxville, The University of Tennessee Press, 1991), 42, 82.
Michael G. Hall, The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather 1639-1723 (Middletown, CT.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 135.
Otho T. Beall, Jr. and Richard H. Shryock, Cotton Mather: First Significant Figure in American Medicine (Baltimore, MD.: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1954), 61.
Gilbert Geis and Ivan Bunn, A Trial of Witches: A seventeenth-century witchcraft prosecution (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 78-80.
Geis and Bunn, 135.
Geis and Bunn, 7-8.
Geis and Bunn, 7, Rosemary Ellen Guiley The Encyclopedia of Witches and Witchcraft 2nd edition (New York, N.Y.: Checkmark Books, 1999), 40; Rossell Hope Robbins, The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1959), 66.
Cotton Mather, Wonders of the Invisible World, (London: John Russell Smith, 1862, 1693), 111.
Geis and Bunn, 216
Geis and Bunn, 217.
Geis and Bunn, 217.
Geis and Bunn, 218.
Geis and Bunn, 218.
Geis and Bunn, 219.
Geis and Bunn, 219.
Geis and Bunn, 220?
Geis and Bunn, 70-72.
Geis and Bunn, 213.
Geis and Bunn, 220.
Geis and Bunn, 221-2.
Geis and Bunn, 215-6.
Geis and Bunn, 82-3.
Geis and Bunn, 223-4.
Geis and Bunn, 224.
Geis and Bunn, 224.
Geis and Bunn, 227.
Geis and Bunn, 228.
Geis and Bunn, 165.
Geis and Bunn, 195, 199.
Geis and Bunn, 202-3.
Geis and Bunn, 203.
Sir Thomas Browne, This Special Edition of Religio Medici (Birmingham, Alabama: The Classics of Medicine Library, 1981), 78-9.
Geis and Bunn, 4-5.
Geis and Bunn, 156.
Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971), 570-583.
Carol F. Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman :Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York and London, W.W. Norton & Company, 1998, 1998) 233.
James Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness: Witchcraft in Early Modern England (Philadelphia, PA.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 226.
David D. Hall, ed. Witch-hunting in Seventeenth-Century New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991), 11.
Frederick C. Drake, Witchcraft in the American Colonies, 1647-62, American Quarterly 20 (Winter, 1968): 711.
Sanford J. Fox, Science and Justice: The Massachusetts Witchcraft Trials (Baltimore, MD.: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968), 36-7. Richard Godbeer, The Devil's Dominion: Magic and Religion in Early New England. (Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 153.
Hall, Appendix, 315-6.
John Demos, Entertaining Satan (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 341.
Mary Jeanne Anderson Jones, Congregational Commonwealth: Connecticut, 1636-1662 (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1968), 152-3.; Carol F. Karlsen, The Devil in Shape of a Woman (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998, 1987), 26.
Increase Mather, Remarkable Providences: An Essay for the Recording of Illustrious Providences (Boston: 1684) in George Lincoln Burr, ed., Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases: 1648-1706 (New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1914, 1970), 18.
Whiting in Hall, 149.
Whiting in Hall, 149.
Whiting in Hall, 149.
Darren Oldridge, The Devil in Early Modern England (Gloucestershire, Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2000), 142.
Richard Weisman, Witchcraft, Magic, and Religion in 17th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst, MA.: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1984), 66.
Whiting in Hall, 149-150.
Whiting in Hall, 147; Karlsen, 25.
Whiting in Hall, 150-1.
Increase Mather in Burr, 18f.
Whiting in Hall, 151.
Willard in Hall, 197-8.
Willard in Hall, 198.
Willard in Hall, 208.
Willard in Hall, 199. and 204-5.
Willard in Hall, 210.
Willard in Hall, 211-12.
Demos, 114.; Peter Charles Hoffer, The Salem Witchcraft Trials: A Legal History (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1997), 119.
Demos, 117-23.; Chadwick Hansen, Witchcraft at Salem (New York: George Braziller, 1969), 15-18.; Karlsen, 244-7.
Karlsen, 244-47; Demos, 128.
Demos, 120-1., 127.
Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 93.
Hall, 197-8, Mark A. Peterson, `Ordinary' Preaching and the Interpretation of the Salem Witchcraft Crisis by the Boston Clergy, Essex Institute Historical Collection 129 (1993): 99-100.
Karlsen, 7; Goodbeer, 41-2.
Thomas, Decline, 523-4
Cotton Mather in Burr, 100-101.
Cotton Mather in Burr, 99.
Cotton Mather in Hall, 268.
Mather in Burr, 101-2.
Cotton Mather, Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions (1689) in Hall, 267-8.
Chadwick Hansen, Witchcraft at Salem (New York, George Braziller, 1969), 21; Cotton Mather in Hall, 269-276.
Mather in Hall, 268-270.
Mather in Hall, 270.
Mather in Burr, 103.
Mather in Burr, 104.
Mather in Burr, 104.
Mather in Burr, 105.
Mather in Burr, 107-8.
David Harley, Explaining Salem: Calvinist Psychology and the Diagnosis of Possession, The American Historical Review 101 (April 1996), 314.
Mather in Burr, 110-1.
Mather in Burr, 112.
Mather in Burr, 112-3.
Mather in Burr, 112-3.
Mather in Burr, 117.
Mather in Burr, 118.
Mather in Burr, 120.
Mather in Burr, 120-1.
Mather in Burr, 124-6.
Hansen, 27-8.; Karlsen, 34-5.
University of Missouri - Kansas City. Cotton Mather's Memorable Providences. http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/ASA_MATH.HTM
Kenneth Silverman, The Life and Times of Cotton Mather (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 87.
Frances Hill, A Delusion of Satan: The Full Story of the Salem Witch Trials (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 20.
Goodbeer, 112-116; Mather in Burr, 137-140.
Laurie Winn Carlson, A Fever in Salem (Chicago, Ivan R. Dee, 1999), 117-8, 123-4; Karlsen, 233, 250-51; Frances Hill, A Delusion of Satan: The Full Story of the Salem Witch Trials (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 20.
Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 80-132.
Chadwick Hansen, Witchcraft at Salem (New York: George Braziller, 1969), x.,65, 72-77.
Elaine G. Breslaw, Tituba, Reluctant Witch of Salem: Devilish Indians and Puritan Fantasies (New York and London: New York University Press, 2000), 93; Hansen, 31.
Boyer and Nissenbaum, Salem Possessed, 29.
Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Salem-Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in Colonial New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), 5.
Richard B. Trask, The Devil Hath been Raised: A Documentary History of the Salem Village Witchcraft Outbreak of March 1692 ( West Kennebunk, ME: Phoenix Publishing, 1992), 4.
Reverend John Hale, A Modest Enquiry ,in George Lincoln Burr, Narratives of the Witchcraft Case 1648-1706 (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1914), 413.
Reverend Deodat Lawson, A Brief and True Narrative (Boston: Benjamin Harris, 1692) in Burr, 162;
Brian F. Le Beau, The Story of the Salem Witch Trials: We Walked in Clouds and Could Not See Our Way (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1998), 212.
Peter Charles Hoffer, Devil's Disciples: Makers of the Salem Witchcraft Trials (Baltimore, MD.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 167-8.
Lawson in Burr, 156.
Boyer and Nissenbaum, Salem-Village Witchcraft, 25.
Lawson in Burr, 159.
Emerson W. Baker and John G. Reid, The New England Knight: Sir William Phips, 1651-1695 (Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press, 1998), xi-xii.
Enders A. Robinson, The Devil Discovered: Salem Witchcraft 1692 (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1991), 229.
Le Beau, 211.
Boyer and Nissenbaum, Salem Possessed, 190.
Le Beau, 99-100.
John Cotta, The Triall of Witchcraft (London: Windet, 1616), 121.
Hoffer, 122, 249f.
Boyer and Nissenbaum, Salem-Village Witchcraft, 118; David Levin, Did the Mathers Disagree about the Salem Witchcraft Trials (Worcester, MA.: American Antiquarian Society, 1985), 21-2.
Robin Briggs, Witches and Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft (New York: Viking, 1996), 212.
Cotton Mather, Wonders of the Invisible World (London, John Russell Smith, 1862), 117.
Gilbert Geis and Ivan Bunn, A Trial Of Witches: A Seventeenth-Century Witchcraft Prosecution (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 135.
Geis and Bunn, 227.
Marc Mappen, ed. Witches and Historians ( Malabar, Fl.: Krieger Publisher, 1996), 46-7.
Allison, D.B.; Roberts MS. On Constructing the Disorder of Hysteria Journal of Medicine and Philosophy. 19 (3) Jun 1994, pg. 239-259
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Hall, David D. Witch-Hunting in Seventeenth-Century New England. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991.
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Hall, Michael G. The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather, 1639-1723. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1988.
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Klaits, Jospeph. Servants of Satan The Age of the Witch Hunts. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press 1985.
Kors, Alan Charles. Witchcraft in Europe: 1100-1700. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.
Le Beau, Brian F. The Story of the Salem Witch Trials: We Walked In Clouds and Could Not See Our Way. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1998.
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Students Use LEGO Building Blocks, Robots to Solve Energy ‘Puzzle’College of Technology uses games to inspire solutions to real-world problems
More than 100 groups of 9-to 14-year-olds from all over Texas will get together to use programmable LEGO ‘bricks’ to solve some of the most critical environmental issues during the 2007 “Power Puzzle” Challenge on Saturday, Dec. 1. The event is sponsored by the University of Houston College of Technology.
A partnership between For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology (FIRST); the Coordination of Robotics Education (CORE), through the UH College of Technology; and the LEGO Group, a privately held firm based in Denmark, the annual Lone Star FIRST LEGO League (FLL) Championship will feature the puzzling challenge at Reagan High School.
The Houston competition concludes eight weeks of research into energy management and conservation. It will feature more than 100 teams of children and mentors as they demonstrate their problem-solving skills, creative thinking, teamwork, competitive play, sportsmanship and sense of community. Groups use the blocks that have taught the fundamentals of building to children all over the world to complete assigned missions, including exploring solar panels on houses, hydro-dams, wind turbines and planting trees.
Each team’s LEGO robot is a hand-sized programmable brick, made up of LEGOs with a microprocessor inside, and is controllable through a graphics-based computer program. Groups can add wheels and different parts, such as electric motors and touch and light sensors, to make the robot move and perform different tasks to complete the challenges.
“The environment is a huge concern for everyone, including kids,” said Dean Kamen, FIRST founder. “Giving them hands-on experience that allows them to use their imaginations and creativity, in combination with science and technology, to solve a real-world problem is empowering. It captures the true spirit of FIRST LEGO League and unleashes the creative problem-solving skills today’s kids need for building a better tomorrow.”
The tournament is open to the public at no charge, and will provide concessions, including breakfast and lunch options, snacks, T-shirts and robotics gear. This year’s event is the largest FLL Competition in the state, and is one of the largest nationwide. The event also is sponsored by Jacobs Engineering, Insight Technical Solutions, NASA Johnson Space Center, Education Foundation of Harris County, Harris County Department of Education, Houston Independent School District, Clear Creek Independent School District and LEGO Education.
For more information, including sponsorship and volunteer opportunities, visit the CORE Web site at http://core.tech.uh.edu/corehome.htm.
|WHAT:||2007 Lone Star FIRST LEGO League Championship|
|WHEN:||7:45 – 4 p.m., Saturday, Dec. 1|
|WHERE:||Reagan High School
413 E. 13th St.
Houston, TX 77008
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The quintessential man of science was also convinced that there was a code in the Bible that predicted the exact date of the Second Coming.
Hebrew University/London Evening Standard
If anyone is the patron saint of modern science -- of the whole scientific outlook as we know it -- Isaac Newton would surely be that man. As James Gleick writes in his biography of Newton, "He was chief architect of the modern world. He answered the ancient philosophical riddles of light and motion, and he effectively discovered gravity. He showed how to predict the courses of heavenly bodies and so established our place in the cosmos. He made knowledge a thing of substance: quantitative and exact. He established principles, and they are called his laws." This is the standard narrative about Newton, but it's not the whole story. As much as today's scientists celebrate Newton, their reverence is matched by that of a very different group: the Seventh-Day Adventist Church.
In order to understand Newton's connection to the Adventists, the spiritual descendants of an American preacher named William Miller, we need to be more aware than people usually are about the astonishing range of Newton's interests. In 1936, a large cache of Newton's personal papers -- material that he had never published and in some cases had kept quite secret -- were offered for sale by Sotheby's, and many of them were bought by the great economist John Maynard Keynes. When he got the chance to read what he had purchased, Keynes was surprised and at times appalled. He had known about Newton's interest in alchemy, and may even have been aware that Newton believed Scripture to be full of mathematical codes -- for instance, in the proportions decreed for the construction of Solomon's Temple. But he was not quite prepared for the great man's obsession with biblical prophecy, especially the book of Daniel, a close reading of which had convinced Newton that the world would end in 2060.
Writing about his discovery some years later, Keynes commented,
In the eighteenth century and since, Newton came to be thought of as the first and greatest of the modern age of scientists, a rationalist, one who taught us to think on the lines of cold and untinctured reason.
I do not see him in this light. I do not think that any one who has pored over the contents of that box which he packed up when he finally left Cambridge in 1696 and which, though partly dispersed, have come down to us, can see him like that. Newton was not the first of the age of reason. He was the last of the magicians, the last of the Babylonians and Sumerians. ... Why do I call him a magician? Because he looked on the whole universe and all that is in it as a riddle, as a secret which could be read by applying pure thought to certain evidence, certain mystic clues which God had laid about the world to allow a sort of philosopher's treasure hunt to the esoteric brotherhood.
More particularly, Newton believed that encoded in Scripture was a perfectly specific identification -- as specific and reliable as the Inverse Square Law -- of the time of the Second Coming, or Second Advent, of Jesus Christ. And he believed he had discovered this date just as surely as he had discovered what he called "fluxions," or what we now call calculus.
In this sense Newton was one of the first great Adventists, and almost exactly one hundred years after Newton's death, William Miller in Vermont would also interpret the book of Daniel as a blueprint of the Second Advent. Miller's memoirs record his great debt to Newton, and he named one of his ten children Isaac Newton Miller. Perhaps because he lacked Newton's mathematical genius, Miller calculated Daniel's encoded message rather differently and announced that Christ would come again in 1844. When that did not happen, it constituted for Miller's followers The Great Disappointment.
But however great the disappointment, the failed prediction certainly did not bring an end to the Millerite cause: churches following his teachings continued, the largest of them today being the Seventh Day Adventists, with more than 15 million members around the world. One book on the influence of Newton's theology features a drawing from an Adventist magazine. The drawing is called "The March of the Reformers," and it portrays a procession of sages from the prophet Daniel to modern times. At the very center of the procession, holding aloft a torch of blazing light, is -- no, not William Miller, but the far greater figure of Isaac Newton.
P.S. Note to future editors of this website: please update this post accordingly in 2060 -- if you and it are still around.
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A network management system (NMS) is a set of hardware and/or software tools that allow an IT professional to supervise the individual components of a network within a larger network management framework.
Network management system components assist with:
- Network device discovery - identifying what devices are present on a network.
- Network device monitoring - monitoring at the device level to determine the health of network components and the extent to which their performance matches capacity plans and intra-enterprise service-level agreements (SLAs).
- Network performance analysis - tracking performance indicators such as bandwidth utilization, packet loss, latency, availability and uptime of routers, switches and other Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) -enabled devices.
- Intelligent notifications - configurable alerts that will respond to specific network scenarios by paging, emailing, calling or texting a network administrator.
See also: Open NMS
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The mainstream of AI research has traditionally focused on the more explicitly analytical, intellectual, nerdy aspects of human intelligence: planning, problem-solving, categorization, language understanding. Recent attempts to broaden this focus have focused mainly on creating software with perceptual and motor skills: computer vision systems, intelligent automated vehicles, and so forth. Missing almost entirely from the AI field is the more social and emotional aspects of human intelligence. Chatbots attempting the Turing test have confronted these aspects directly – going back to ELIZA, the landmark AI psychotherapist from the early 1970’s – but these bots are extremely simplistic and have little connection to the main body of work in the AI field.
I think this is a major omission, and my own view is that empathy may be one of the final frontiers of AI. My opinion as an AI researcher is that, if we can crack artificial empathy, the rest of the general-AI problem will soon follow, based on the decades of successes that have already been achieved in problem-solving, reasoning, perception, motorics, planning, cognitive architecture and other areas.
(In my own AI work, involving the Novamente Cognition Engine and the OpenCog Prime system, I’ve sought to explicitly ensure the capability for empathy via multiple coordinated design aspects – but in this blog post I’m not going to focus on that, restricting myself to more general issues.)
Why would empathy be so important for AI? After all, it’s just about human feelings, which are among the least intelligent, most primitively animal-like aspect of the human mind? Well, the human emotional system certainly has its quirks and dangers, and the wisdom of propagating these to powerful AI systems is questionable. But the basic concept of an emotion, as a high-level integrated systemic response to a situation, is critical to functioning of any intelligent system. An AI system may not have the same specific emotions as a human being – particular emotions like love, anger and so forth are manifestations of humans’ evolutionary heritage, rather than intrinsic aspects of intelligence. But it seems unlikely that an AI without any kinds of high-level integrated systemic responses (aka emotions) would be able to cope with the realities of responding to a complex dynamic world in real-time.
A closely related point is the social nature of intelligence. Human intelligence isn’t as individual as we modern Westerners often seem to think: a great percentage of our intelligence is collective and intersubjective. Cognitive psychologists have increasingly realized this in recent decades, and have started talking about “distributed cognition.” If the advocates of the “global brain” hypothesis are correct, then eventually artificial minds will synergize with human minds to form a kind of symbiotic emergent cyber-consciousness. But in order for distributed cognition to work, the minds in a society need to be able to recognize, interpret and respond to each others’ emotions. And this is where empathy comes in.
Mutual empathy binds together social networks: as we go through our lives we are perpetually embodying self-referential emotional equations like
X = I feel pain and that you feel X
Y = I feel that you feel both joy and Y
Y = I feel that you feel both joy and Y
or mutually-referential ones like
A = I feel happy that you enjoy both this music and B
B = I feel surprised that you feel A
B = I feel surprised that you feel A
These sorts of equations bind us together: as they unfold through time they constitute much of the rhythm by which our collective intelligence experiences and creates.
So empathy is important: but how does it work?
We don’t yet know for sure ... but the best current thinking is that there are two aspects to how the brain does empathy: inference and simulation. (And I do think this is a lesson for AI: in my own AI designs I deal with these aspects separately, and then address their interaction ... and I do think this is the right approach.)
Inference-wise, empathy has to do with understanding and modeling (sometimes consciously, sometimes unconsciously) what another person must be feeling, based on the cues we perceive and our background knowledge. Psychologists have mapped out transformational rules that help us do this modeling.
Simulative empathy is different: we feel what each other are feeling. A rough analogue is virtualization in computers: running Windows on a virtual machine within Linux; emulating an Activision console within Windows. Similarly, we use the same brain-systems that are used to run ourselves, to run a simulation of another person feeling what they seem to be feeling. And we do this unconsciously, at the body level: even though we don’t consciously notice that sad people have smaller pupils, our pupils automatically shrink when we see a sad person -- a physiological response that synergizes with our cognitive and emotional response to their sadness (and is the technique the lead character uses in Blade Runner to track down androids who lack human feeling). A long list of examples has been explored in the lab already, and we’ve barely scratched the surface yet: people feel disgust when they see others smell bad odor, they feel pain when they see others being pierced by a needle or get electrical shock, they sense touching when they see others being brushed, etc.
Biologists have just started to unravel the neural basis of simulative empathy, which seems to involve brain cells called mirror neurons ... which some have argued play a key role in other aspects of intelligence as well, including language learning and the emergence of the self (I wrote a speculative paper on this a couple years back).
(A mirror neuron is a neuron which fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another animal (especially one of the same species). Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of another animal, as though the observer were itself acting. These neurons have been directly observed in primates, and are believed to exist in humans and in some birds. In humans, brain activity consistent with mirror neurons has been found in the premotor cortex and the inferior parietal cortex.)
So: synergize inference and simulation, and you get the wonderful phenomenon of empathy that makes our lives so painful and joyful and rich, and to a large extent serves as the glue holding together the social superorganism.
The human capacity for empathy is, obviously, limited. This limitation is surely partly due to our limited capabilities of both inference and simulation; but, intriguingly, it might also be the case that evolution has adaptively limited the degree of our empathic-ness. Perhaps an excessive degree of empathy would have militated against our survival, in our ancestral environments?
The counterfactual world in which human empathy is dramatically more intense is difficult to accurately fathom. Perhaps, if our minds were too tightly coupled emotionally, progress would reach the stage of some ant-colony-like utopia and then halt, as further change would be too risky in terms of hurting someone else’s feelings. On the other hand, perhaps a richer and more universal empathy would cause a dramatic shift in our internal architectures, dissolving or morphing the illusion of “self” that now dominates our inner worlds, and leading to a richer way of individually/collectively existing.
One aspect of empathy that isn’t sufficiently appreciated is the way it reaches beyond the touchy-feely sides of human life: for instance it pervades the worlds of science and business as well, which is why there are still so many meetings in the world, email, Skype and WebEx notwithstanding. The main reason professionals fly across the world to hob-nob with their colleagues – in spite of the often exhausting and tedious nature of business travel (which I’ve come to know all too well myself in recent years) -- is because, right now, only face-to-face communication systematically gives enough of the right kind of information to trigger empathic response. In a face-to-face meeting, humans can link together into an empathically-joined collective mind-system, in a way that doesn’t yet happen nearly as reliably via electronically-mediated communications.
Careful study has been given to the difficulty we have empathizing with certain robots or animated characters. According to Mori’s theory of the “uncanny valley” – which has been backed up by brain imaging studies -- if a character looks very close to human, but not close enough, then people will find it disturbing rather than appealing. We can empathize more with the distorted faces of Disney cartoons or manga, than with semi-photo-realistic renditions of humans that look almost-right-but-eerily-off.
To grasp the uncanny valley viscerally, watch one of the online videos of researcher Hiroshi Ishiguro and the “geminoid” robot that is his near-physical-clone -- an extremely lifelike imitation of his own body and its contours, textures and movements. No AI is involved here: the geminoid is controlled by motion-capture apparatus that watches what Ishiguro does and transfers his movements to the robot. The imitation is amazing – until the bot starts moving. It looks close enough to human that its lack of subtle human expressiveness is disturbing. We look at it and we try to empathize, but we find we’re empathizing with a feelingless robot, and the experience is unsettling and feels “wrong.” Jamais Cascio has proposed that existly this kind of reaction may occur to transhumans with body modifications – so from that point of view among others, this phenomenon may be worth attending.
It’s interesting to contrast the case of the geminoid, though, with the experience of interacting with ELIZA, the AI psychotherapist created by Joseph Weizenbaum in 1966. In spite of having essentially no intrinsic intelligence, ELIZA managed to carry out conversations that did involve genuine empathic sharing on the part of its conversaton-partners. (I admit ELIZA didn’t do much for me even back then, but, I encountered it knowing exactly what it was and intrigued by it from a programming perspective, which surely colored the nature of my experience.)
Relatedly, some people today feel more empathy with their online friends than their real-life friends. And yet, I can’t help feel there’s something key lacking in such relationships.
One of the benefits of online social life is that one is freed from the many socio-psychological restrictions that come along with real-world interaction. Issues of body image and social status recede into the background – or become the subject of wild, free-ranging play, as in virtual worlds such as Second Life. Many people are far less shy online than in person – a phenomenon that’s particularly notable in cultures like Japan and Korea where social regulations on face-to-face communcation are stricter.
And the benefits can go far beyond overcoming shyness: for example, a fifty-year-old overweight trucker from Arkansas may be able to relate to others more genuinely in the guise of a slender, big-busted Asian girl with blue hair, a microskirt and a spiky tail... and in Second Life he can do just that.
On the other hand, there’s a certain falsity and emotional distance that comes along with all this. The reason the trucker can impersonate the Asian ingenue so effectively is precisely that the avenues for precise emotional expression are so impoverished in today’s virtual environments. So, the other fifty-year-old trucker from Arkansas whose purple furry avatar is engaged in obscene virtual acts with the Asian babe, has to fill in the gaps left by the simplistic technology – to a large extent, the babe he’s interacting with is a construct of his own mind, which improvises on the cues provided by the signals given by the first trucker.
Of course, all social interaction is constructive in this way: the woman I see when I talk to my wife is largely a construct of my own mind, and may be a different woman than I would see if I were in a different mood (even if her appearance and actions were precisely the same). But text-chat or virtual-world interactions are even more intensely constructive, which is both a plus and a minus. We gain the ability for more complete wish-fulfillment (except for wishes that are intrinsically tied to the physical ... though some people do impressively well as satisfying virtual satisfactions for physical ones), but we lose much of the potential for growing in new directions via empathically absorbing emotional experiences dramatically different from anything we would construct on our own based on scant, sketchy inputs.
It will be interesting to see how the emotional experience of virtual world use develops as the technology advances ... in time we will have the ability to toggle how much detail our avatars project, just as we can now choose whether to watch cartoons or live action films. In this way, we will be able to adjust the degree of constructive wish-fulfillment versus self-expanding experience-of-other ... and of course to fulfill different sorts of wishes than can be satisfied currently in physical or virtual realities.
As avatars become more realistic, they may encounter the uncanny valley themselves: it may be more rewarding to look at a crude, iconic representation of someone else’s face, than a representation that’s almost-there-but-not-quite ... just as with Ishiguro’s geminoids. But just as with the geminoids, the technology will get there in time.
The gaming industry wants to cross the uncanny valley by making better and better graphics. But will this suffice? Yes, a sufficiently perfected geminoid or game character will evoke as much empathy as a real human. But for a robot or game character controlled by AI software, the limitation will probably lie in subtleties of movement. Just like verbal language, the language of emotional gestures is one where it’s hard to spell out the rules exactly: we humans grok them from a combination of heredity and learning. One way to create AIs that people can empathize with will be to make the AIs themselves empathize, and reflect back to people the sorts of emotions that they perceive. Much as babies imitate adult emotions. Envision a robot or game character that watches a video-feed of your face and tailors its responses to your emotions.
Arguably, creating AIs capable of empathy has importance far beyond the creation of more convincing game characters. One of the great unanswered questions as the Singularity looms is how to increase the odds that once our AIs get massively smarter than we are, they still value our existence and our happiness. Creating AIs that empathize with humans could be part of the answer.
Predictably, AI researchers so far have done more with the inferential than the simulative side of empathic response. Selmer Bringsjord’s team at RPI got a lot of press earlier this year for an AI that controls a bot in Second Life, in a way that demonstrates a limited amount of “theory of mind”: the bot watches other characters with a view toward figuring out what they’re aware of, and uses this to predict their behavior and guide its interactions.
But Bringsjord’s bots don’t try to feel the feelings of the other bots or human-controlled avatars they interact with. The creation of AIs embodying simulative empathy seems to be getting very little attention. Rosalind Picard’s Affective Computing Lab at MIT has done some interesting work bringing emotion into AI decision processses but has stopped short of modeling simulative empathy. But I predict this is a subfield that will emerge within the next decade. In fact, it seems plausible that AI’s will one day be far more empathic than humans are – not only with each other but also with human beings. Ultimately, an AI may be able to internally simulate you better than your best human friend, and hence demonstrate a higher degree of empathy. Which will make our games more fun, our robots less eerie, and potentially help make the post-Singularity world a more human-friendly place.
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(NewsUSA) - Imagine an earless creature that can carry 20 times its body weight living with thousands of seemingly identical clones that will fight to the death when challenged. While this image could be taken right from a science-fiction thriller, it also depicts America's number one nuisance pest ? the ant!
According to a recent survey conducted by the National Pest Management Association (NPMA) and Dr. Lauren Hansen of Spokane Falls Community College and Washington State University, ant infestations are on the rise across the country. The survey found carpenter ants, odorous house ants and pavement ants to be the most prevalent species invading American homes.
Missy Henriksen, vice president of public affairs for NPMA, noted, "Many ants are nuisance pests that can contaminate food sources, but others are known to damage property. Carpenter ants, for instance, tunnel through wood, which can compromise a property's structural stability, and crazy ants can infest and destroy electronic devices. It is important homeowners take precautions to prevent against these troublesome pests."
There are approximately 700 species of ants in the United States and nearly as many ways to control them. To prevent against most of the common invaders, the best strategy is to clean. Wipe down counters, regularly remove garbage, clean up grease spills, rinse and remove empty soda cans or other recyclables and mop/sweep the floors. Homeowners should also keep food in sealed containers and keep pet food and water dishes clean. Eliminate sources of moisture in and around the home, such as leaky pipes or damp and humid basements. Finally, seal cracks and holes around the home to close entry points, trim tree branches away from the home, and make sure wood and wood products are not stored adjacent to the house.
As many homeowners can attest, when you see one ant, lots more are soon to follow. While some ant colonies house thousands of members, some super colonies have been known to be home to millions of ants. Anyone who suspects they have an ant problem should contact a pest management professional to identify the species and recommend a course of action. For more information about ants and a list of local and qualified pest professionals, visit PestWorld.org.
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|Cincinnati's Lunken Field to be Designated a National Historic Site
Original Site of the Embry-Riddle Company and Birthplace of American Airlines
September 11, 2013 – Reston, Va. – The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) will officially designate Lunken Field, Cincinnati, Ohio, as a historic aerospace site on September 14, 2013, unveiling a historic marker at a 1:30 p.m. ceremony at the airport’s Sky Galley restaurant, 262 Wilmar Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Lunken Field, now also known as Cincinnati Municipal Lunken Airport, opened in 1925 on ground purchased from the Cincinnati Polo Club. The nation’s largest municipal airport at the time, it attracted several aerospace enterprises, starting with early aviator J. Richard “Dixie” Davis, who established his barnstorming enterprise there in 1925. In 1928, several other firms established enterprises at the field – each making history.
The Lunken family, led by patriarch Eshelby Lunken, for whom the field is named, established the Aeronautical Corporation of America (Aeronca) at the site, and manufactured their C-2 Aeronca ultralight monoplane design. The C-2’s price of $1,495 is credited with helping jump-start the civil aviation industry in America.
Powel Crosley and Julius Fleischmann started the Metal Aircraft Corporation of Cincinnati at the site, which manufactured the G-2-W Flamingo, which achieved world fame when pilot Jimmy Angel crash-landed one in Venezuela, bringing Angel Falls, the world’s highest continuously flowing waterfall, to the world’s attention.
In addition, the Embry-Riddle Company established a hub of their business at Lunken Field, for passenger travel and mail services. The Embry-Riddle Company location also became the U.S. government’s first approved flight school. Embry-Riddle went on to form American Airways, which became American Airlines.
The field still serves the city of Cincinnati as a general aviation airport.
AIAA established the Historic Aerospace Sites Program in January 2000 to promote the preservation and dissemination of information about significant accomplishments made by the aerospace profession. Among the other sites recognized by the AIAA History Technical Committee are Pitcairn Field #2, Willow Grove, Penn.; Bell Aircraft’s Wheatfield, N.Y. plant; Pearson Field, Vancouver, Wash.; Bremen Airport, Bremen, Germany; Getafe Airfield, Getafe, Spain; the site of T.S.C. Lowe’s first balloon reconnaissance demonstration on the National Mall; the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory/CALSPAN Facility; the St. Petersburg (Fla.) Yacht Basin; the Honeysuckle Creek, Tidbinbilla, and Orroral Valley Tracking Stations in Australia; NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif.; and Tranquility Base on the moon. For more information about AIAA’s Historic Aerospace Sites Program, contact Emily Springer at 703.264.7533 or [email protected].
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UIGestureRecognizer is an abstract class that provides an object-oriented way to add actions to different gestures. It has been a documented class since firmware 3.2. See also: SBGestureRecognizer.
The typical code that adds a gesture recognizer is
UIGestureRecognizer* rec = [[UIGestureRecognizer alloc] initWithTarget:self action:@selector(touchChangedWithGestureRecognizer:)]; // set options for this recognizer. [view addGestureRecognizer:rec]; [rec release];
Built-in Gesture Recognizers
UITapGestureRecognizer represents the gesture that p fingers tapped the screen q times consecutively.
- Input properties: numberOfTaps (q), numberOfFingers (p)
- Output properties: location, touches
UIPinchGestureRecognizer represents the gesture that 2 fingers moving towards or away from a center point. This gesture is usually used for scaling a view.
- Input properties: scaleThreshold
- Output properties: scale, velocity, anchorPoint, transform
scaleThreshold is the critical scale the fingers must first move apart/together before this recognizer could fire.
UILongPressGestureRecognizer represents the gesture that p fingers moved/stayed on the screen continuously for T seconds. Optionally, numberOfTapsRequired may be specified to require a tap-tap/hold pattern.
- Input properties: numberOfTapsRequired, numberOfFingers (p), delay (T), allowableMovement
- Output properties: touches, centroid, startPoint
UIDragRecognizer represents the gesture that 1 or more fingers moving on the screen for a distance of d. Optionally it may also be constrained to moving only within an angle of θ ± Δθ.
- Input properties: minimumDistance (d), angle (θ), maximumDeviation (Δθ), restrictsToAngle
- Output properties: touch, startPosition, startAngle
Note that the angles are in radians.
UIPanGestureRecognizer represents the gesture that 1 or more fingers moving on the screen for a relatively large distance. This gesture is usually used for scrolling, and is used by UIScroller and UIScrollView.
- Input properties: directionalLockEnabled
- Output properties: offset, velocity, transform
UITapAndAHalfRecognizer represents the gesture that 1 finger tapped the screen q times consecutively, and then moved/stayed on the screen.
- Input properties: numberOfFullTaps (q), allowableMovement
- Output properties: touch
Note: UITapAndAHalfRecognizer is a private, undocumented class. UILongPressGestureRecognizer should be used instead; UITapAndAHalfRecognizer's numberOfFullTaps requires is equivalent to UILongPressGestureRecognizer's numberOfTapsRequired.
- Output properties: rotation, velocity
Custom Gesture Recognizers
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NEW YORK (June 21, 2010)The nations of East and Central Africa have developed a 10-year action plan to save one of humankind's closest relativesthe eastern chimpanzeefrom hunting, habitat loss, disease, and other threats, according to an announcement made today by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
The ambitious plantitled "Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: 2010-2020"calls for the conservation of 16 core areas which if protected would conserve 96% of the known populations of eastern chimpanzees.
"This effort to assess the status of eastern chimpanzees will help us to focus our conservation actions more effectively," said Dr. Andrew Plumptre, director of the Wildlife Conservation Society's Albertine Rift Program and the plan's lead author. "In the next decade, we hope to minimize the threats to these populations and the ecological and cultural diversity they support."
In one of the most wide-reaching efforts to assess the status and conservation threats to eastern chimpanzees, conservation practitioners and researchers with experience from all seven range states contributed data on sightings, nests, feeding signs, and vocalizations from the past decade; more than 22,000 GPS-located data points across their range. During a workshop in August of 2009, more than 30 experts from seven countries traveled to Kampala, Uganda to identify priorities for the conservation of the subspecies, and to develop an action plan with specific projects for their conservation. To fill in the gaps in countries currently off limits to research due to conflict, the plan authors formulated predictive models to estimate the density of chimpanzee populations in un-surveyed areas.
In the subsequent range-wide priority setting analysis, workshop participants identified 16 chimpanzee conservation units that, if successfully protected, would safeguard 96 percent of known chimpanzee populations (estimated to total some 50,000 individual animals). However, the total numbers of eastern chimpanzees across their whole range is poorly known and the models estimated that the total population may number as many as 200,000 (almost double the estimates that had been made previously).
"It is clear that we know about the distribution and abundance of only a quarter of the world population of the eastern chimpanzee", said Dr Liz Williamson, IUCN's Species Survival Commission Great Ape Coordinator, "there are large areas of the Congo basin where we know very little about this ape". The plan identifies key areas for future surveys that are likely to be of importance for chimpanzees using the models developed from the data compiled.
The plan also targets two of the greatest threats to the species illegal hunting and traffickingwith a goal of reducing both to half of current levels across most of the animal's range. Other objectives include: reducing the rate of forest loss in chimpanzee habitats; filling in knowledge gaps in chimpanzee distribution, status, and threats; improving the understanding of health risks to chimpanzee populations, including human-transmitted diseases; increasing community support for chimpanzee conservation; and securing sustainable financing for chimpanzee conservation units.
"The Plan will require considerable support from the global community approximately $315,000 per chimpanzee conservation unit, or $5 million each year but will ensure the continued survival of eastern chimpanzees in their natural habitats," said Dr. James Deutsch of the Wildlife Conservation Society's Africa Program. "The conservation of wild populations is important not only for conservation, but also for the survival of chimpanzee cultures in the region that are invaluable to helping us define our own place within the natural realm."
The eastern chimpanzee is currently classified as "Endangered" on IUCN's Red List and occurs in the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zambia. Threats to the subspecies include hunting for bushmeat, the capture of infant chimpanzees for the pet trade, the loss and fragmentation of habitat due to agriculture, mining, and other forms of human development, and disease. Chimpanzees share an estimated 98 percent of the genes with Homo sapiens. They occur in a variety of forested and forest-edge ecosystems and have been known to use tools to gather termites, crack open nuts, and other activities. Eastern chimpanzees are among the best studied of the great apes, due in large part to the work of researchers such as Jane Goodall, who started her fieldwork in Gombe Stream National Park in western Tanzania 50 years ago. The development of the Action Plan was funded by WCS through the generous support of the Arcus Foundation, a leading global philanthropic funder advancing pressing conservation and social justice issues, and the Daniel K. Thorne Foundation.
|Contact: Stephen Sautner|
Wildlife Conservation Society
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From the research of historical records either term is correct. For example, in a Website called Links: WW 1 Aviation the following were listed:
Note that the USAF Museum uses the term "Escadrille Lafayette." Next there is a report in the Lafayette Escadrille D'Arizona website:
The original Escadrille began service with the Nieuport 11, then the latest French single-seat fighter. Its upper wing spanned 24' 6', it had a gross weight of 1100 pounds and was propelled aloft by a nine-cylinder, 80hp LeRhone rotary engine. On 30 October, 1916, the first Nieuport 17's arrived. They were slightly larger, with IlOhp rotary engines. Eventually the Nieuports were replaced by more modem types, and today the Escadrille, still an active unit of the French Air Force, flies Mirage 2000 supersonic jet fighters. But it all started here! Today's Escadrille Lafayette 'd Arizona flies 87% scale Nieuport 17 replicas powered by 55-75hp Volkswagen engines. These aircraft are made of aluminum tubing covered with fabric. They are very light but strong. Empty weight is around 450 1bs. The aircraft cruise at 70mph, and stall at 35mph. Although the engines are much more modern than the originals, the performance and handling characteristics are very similar to their 1916 predecessors. We have made a few concessions to modern times for safety's sake: Brakes, steerable tailwheels, battery powered starters, and radios top the list. These and other changes allow us to fly from paved runways and perform reliably and consistently in modern formation flight in practice and at airshows.The members of the original Lafayette Escadrille came from all over the United Stated and represented all walks of life. The Escadrille Lafayette d 'Arizona has that in common with them.
The term "Lafayette Escadrille" is used in the above report. Next, in the Ayer Company Publisher ( http://www.scry.com/ayer/) catalog this book is described:
Hall, James Norman
A Narrative of Air Fighting in France James Norman Hall had no professional work experiences to prepare him for his activities during World War I. He worked as an investigator for the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, and then sailed to England in 1914 with the intention of writing poetry. The second day after England entered World War I, Hall joined a foreign brigade in the British Army and was transferred into the Air Force in December 1914. After months of training he became a member of the Lafayette Escadrille. He flew in earnest in the 1915 Champagne offensive, fought at Verdun and along the Somme, and was sent to Russia and Rumania. He flew on the Eastern Front and, among many other exploits, attempted to bomb the Kaiser at Sofia. Then he returned to Petrograd and because of the Revolution was forced to depart via Siberia. High Adventure is his story of the formation the Escadrille, French squadron N. 124. "Especially interesting are his activities on the Russian front, and the intimate glimpses of other famous aviators."
Note that the term "Lafayette Escadrille" is also used in the above book review. But in the World War 1 History Gallery Website http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/history/ww1/ea.htmwe find this:
Early in World War I, various Americans, sympathetic to the Allied cause, offered their service to France as ambulance drivers, while other of their countrymen fought in the trenches as members of the French Foreign Legion. A handful of these men were successful in transferring to the French Aviation Service prior to the end of 1915, where they were joined by several Americans who enlisted direct from civilian status. A number of these men suggested that France send to the Front a squadron composed of American rather than French pilots. After months of deliberation by the French Government, the Escadrille Americaine, designated N. 124, was formed and on April 20, 1916, it was placed on front-line duty at Luxeuil-les-Bains near Switzerland.
The Escadrille Americaine was commanded by a Frenchman, Captain Georges Thenault, and initially had seven Americans assigned as pilots -- Norman Prince, Victor Chapman, Kiffin Rockwell, James McConnell, William Thaw, Elliot Cowdin, and Bert Hall. During the succeeding twenty months the unit served on the Front, it had an additional thirty-one Americans assigned as pilots, including such legendary figures as Raoul Lufbery and Charles Dolan.
The Escadrille Americaine flew its first mission on May 13, 1916. Five days later Rockwell scored the initial victory for the unit by shooting down a German L.V.G. reconnaissance airplane. On June 23, 1916, Chapman was shot down about 10 miles north of Verdun, thus becoming the first Escadrille Americaine pilot to lose his life while engaging the enemy. The unit continued in combat in succeeding months, and as its fame grew, the German Government protested to the U.S. Government concerning the use of the "Americaine" in the title, since the U.S.A. was still neutral at that time. As a result, France changed the name to Escadrille Lafayette in December 1916.
A little more than a decade after the Wright brothers' historic flight at Kittyhawk, the demands of war transformed the airplane into a weapon of death. Made of wood, canvas and wire, these early fighters took to the air filled with gasoline, ammunition and the likelihood that too steep a dive would rip the wings to shreds. It is no wonder that the pilots of these flimsy fliers measured their life expectancy in weeks. These early pioneers of the air did not have the luxury of a parachute. Just strapping oneself into the cockpit and taking to the air was an act of bravery. Careening into a mid-air duel-to-the-death with an enemy opponent required a special courage.
Raoul Lufbery had this special courage. His flying career began in 1911 when he became mechanic for French pilot Marc Pourpe. The pair barnstormed their way through China, Japan, India, and Egypt finally landing in Paris just as war broke. Porpe joined the French Air Service while Lufbery tagged along as his mechanic. To avenge Porpe’s death at the end of 1914, Lufbery applied for pilot training and earned his wings. He joined other American pilots in the Lafayette Escadrille and scored his first kill in August 1916. By the end of 1917, Lufbery was a leading ace with 17 official kills.
With America in the war, the pilots of the Lafayette Escadrille were absorbed into the American Air Service where their valuable experience was used to train the fledgling pilots. Lufbery was assigned to the 94th Aero Squadron as a teacher and advisor. Lufbery said he never wanted to be burned -- so in his final mission his Nieuport was shot up in a dogfight and was heading down. He jumped out at 2000 feet (without a parachute since they were forbidden).
Note that the term "Lafayette Escadrille" is also used in the above excerpt. There is a movie about the Lafayette Escadrille. It is purportedly about World War 1, Nieuports and the Lafayette Escadrille The movie is not all it was "cracked up to be" as can be seen in this SYNOPSIS AND REVIEW.
Two other productions that included Nieuports and possibly the Lafayette Escadrille recently came to light: One is called "Flying Coffins" and it appeared on television during the last week of August, 1998. The other is called Four Years of Thunder and is available on videotape from the Wingspan Store (which was at http://www.wingspantv.com/wingspan/store.htm but currently is not available at that URL) Here is a synopsis of Four Years of Thunder:
(US$59.95 + S/H) (4 tapes, 60 mins. each) Toll-free phone number: 1-800-946-4772 (9:00 AM - 5:00 PM EST) or 1-888-572-8916 (after hours or on weekends).
"Four Years of Thunder is the most comprehensive depiction of World War I aerial combat ever done. Much of its footage has never been seen before; and there are many surprises including an authentic cinematic sequence of a German fighter shooting down a French aircraft. This valuable and interesting film greatly contributes to an understanding of aviation's most legendary era."
- Howard G. Fisher Director, League of W.W.I Aviation Historians
Tim Stotts, on the Nieuport Builders Mail List, says
of this video: "For anyone serious about the Lafayette Escadrille the
only real movie footage I'm aware of was shot of this squadron in May or
June 1916 when they first took possesion of their trusty Nieuport 11's.
Nearly all of the footage is taxiing and take off stuff but it's interesting
to me because it's the real thing."
You may be able to get a video of this silent classic on eBay. It won an Academy Award for Best Pictures (the first film to get one). According to a review "The aerial battle sequences which abound throughout the film still rank among the best in motion picture history."
My own opinion: Interesting,
not really the greatest aerial sequences compared with the movie "The Red
Baron." I obtained my copy on eBay -- around US $10.00.
Extremely well done. I did not realize how much film (though silent) was shot in World War I by both sides. Shows stills and silent film of Allied and German aces. Interviews still living World War I pilots from both sides. Gives a detailed biography of Baron Manfred Von Richthofen mostly through actual film clips and stills of the Baron.
It does show one Nieuport 11 -- from other research I found that the only Nieuport 11 clips seem to be of the Nieuport being propped and perhaps taking off. This film shows the Nieuport 11 being propped. Video does show balloons and planes going down and also some excerpts of video of the New York group (the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome) who owns full-size replicas of the early planes.
The video box states: "Included is WWI footage, dogfights, crashes, and the Red Baron's last flight and the controversy surrounding his death. It's all here, a source of first hand information of his story and the story of his squadron." Note that it shows film clips of Allied back-seat occupants dropping little bombs and well as using the camera (the original mission of World War I pilots -- as observers, like the American War Between the States balloonists).
I obtained my copy on eBay -- around US $10.00.
There are three sets of WW I specific simulation games.
I have them all. Here is some information on them,
Red Baron and Red Baron II
Red Baron (the original) is aimed for DOS machines. It will work in a DOS window in Windows 95 & 98 but only if you have enough conventional memory available -- may be best run using a separate boot disk (true for many DOS games).
It has rudimentary graphics (for nowadays) but works well. Has sound and you can choose your aircraft (and side!) as well as your enemy.
Red Baron II comes on CD and works with Windows 95 and 98. You can pick the Nieuport 11 as your aircraft. Nice graphics although sometimes the fields are just a mosaic of squares and rectangles. I thought that you needed to have certain joysticks to make it work but hidden in the manual was the "secret configuration" entrance -- you make a menu choice to just fly and go into a screen where you are flying then right click your mouse -- you can set up many joystick, joypad and rudder pedal combinations by brand name or just generic. I obtained this game on eBay for US $10 plus shipping.
FLYING CORPS GOLD
Flying Corps Gold is a game from Rowan Software in England and published by Empire Interactive. It tries (and does succeed for the most part) to be historically accurate with the WWI environment and with the aircraft. There are seven flyable aircraft in this game, the Nieuport 28, Spad XIII, Fokker Triplane, Albatros DIII, Sopwith Camel, Fokker DVIII and an SE5. From the cockpit, the aircraft all look alike in terms of instrumentation. The differences become evident as you glance around in flight and discover each airplane provides a different view of the surroundings.
I did not like the game -- too clunky and instrument panels looked the same. Difficult to install and run on a Win 98 machine, even with the 1998 patches. To see other reviews on it click on the following:
Bad Review: http://www.magma.ca/~bornaism/FCrev.htm
Good Review: http://www.combatsim.com/archive/htm/htm_arc2/fcgold2.htm
The Wargamer reviewed both Red
Baron II and Flying Corps Gold:
Hunt for the Red Baron
Hunt for the Red Baron (now called Master of the Skies the Red Ace) Get behind the controls of a WW1 fighter plane and take to the skies in Fiendish Games' dogfighting extravaganza - Hunt for the Red Baron. Travel to the green fields of France, hot sands of Africa and the desolate setting of a war-torn Belgium, as you take part in 25 unique, action-packed missions. Use your machine guns, rockets and bombs to eliminate enemy fighters and take out key ground targets. Fly four different fighter planes, each with their own feel and handling based on the actual planes themselves.
Pentium II 233 mhz - 32MB RAM (will work on 200 mhz machine)
File Name: baron-demo-beta.exe
Download file Size: 14.7mb
In November, 2000, Fiendish Games was bought out by Small Rockets http://www.smallrockets.com/
Hunt for the Red Baron now called Master of the Skies -- the
Download and install the demo version of The Red Ace. Play three levels for FREE!
Master of the Skies: The Red Ace
Requires: Windows 95/98, Pentium II 233, 4Mb 3D Accelerator, 32Mb Ram, Sound card
File size: 14.7Mb - takes 45.9 Mins on a 56k modem.
Full price $14.99 though demo is fully usable, just has fewer planes and options. To update you just use the online ordering form and you get a code through e-mail. Putting in that code makes your demo a fully functioning game.
I've found it easy to install and fun to play, though not as complete as Red Baron II (no Nieuport 11s).
Reviewers said: Hunt for the Red Baron features nicely developed
graphics that immerse you in the action. This is a highly
enjoyable game, especially if you're not into sophisticated flight
simulators. It requires a 3D accelerator card and DirectX drivers.
By John J. Cooper and Andrew W. Hall
Requires MSFS 5.0A+ and BAO/Apollo's Flight Shop.
This machine was the personal aircraft of Sergeant Raoul Lufbery of the famous Escadrille Lafayette, a French fighter squadron composed of U.S. pilots, during 1916. Lufbery was raised in France, but held U.S. citizenship and rose to become one of the Escadrille Lafayette's best pilots. When the United States entered the war, Lufbery transfered into the U.S. Air Service with the rank of major. He commanded the U.S. 94th Aero Squadron until his death on May 19, 1918. In his last command, he served as a mentor to both Eddie Rickenbacker and Reed Chambers. Lufbery is credited with 17 combat victories, third-highest (after Rickenbacker and Luke) of any American pilot during the war.Data on Lufbery's Nieuport is taken from a drawing of a similar Nieuport by James Goulding, reproduced in Alan Clark's Aces High (New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1973). The "Indian head" squadron insignia was scanned directly from that illustration and colored. Lufbery's plane is shown in a photograph re-produced in Aaron Norman's The Great Air War (New York, Macmillan, 1968). Lufbery's face is scanned from a photograph reproduced in that same work. Both images are credited U.S. Air Force. A third photograph, also credited to the U.S. Air Force, and showing Nieuport 17s of the Escadrille Lafayette on the flight line during the Battle of the Somme, appears in David C. Cooke's Sky Battle: 1914-1918 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970). This aircraft's serial number was provided by [email protected], who responded quickly and with documentation to an urgent and disjointed Usenet plea for assistance. Thanks.
Special thanks to John J. Cooper ([email protected]) of Ottawa, Canada, for providing the oustanding FSFS model upon which this is based. John is one of the best Flight Shop designers around. He is *the* best when it comes to recreating aircraft with natural metal finishes. He has done a series of Canadian military aircraft from the early 1960s -- look for them, and you'll see what I mean.
Freeware. No warranty.
The Flight Shop Aerodrome whose Internet link is no longer working but you can get the file at The Internet Flight Simulation Archive at IUP : http://compsimgames.miningco.com/msubiup-n.htm as the file N17.ZIP
This Flight Simulator file uses the "Escadrille Lafayette" phrase.
For those interested in reading in-depth history, here are two accounts using first-person narratives of the Escadrille Lafayette Americaine: They are quite lengthy but may be interesting to some.
From American Volunteer Airmen by James R. McConnel. Quite lengthy, but divided into five sections.
American Volunteers of the Great War by Alan Albright.
Not as lengthy but more scholarly -- has 28 (count them) footnotes!
Perhaps the best book on the pilots of the Escadrille Lafayette (and the book uses and explains both manners of writing the name) is Lafayette Escadrille Pilot Biographies. It tells who the real members are (and many who claim they are, aren't! -- there are really only 38 Americans who served ). It has a biography of each member of the Escadrille Lafayette with numerous photos. The book has much detail about the Escadrille Lafayette.
I obtained my copy at Amazon.com.
The phrase "Lafayette Escadrille" is only the Americanized version of the French phrase "Escadrille Lafayette" since in English we place the adjectives before the nouns, unlike the French. So, in keeping with the original version -- the French version, our group is called
The Escadrille Lafayette of Wrens
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with their Empedoclean associations to the universal elements. Though Plato traces the discovery of the regular convex polyhedra commonly associated with his name to Thaetetus, there is good evidence that they have been around since well before greek times. The following stone models were found in neolythic settlements and dated from 10 centuries before the greek miracle.
These belong to the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Technology collection (Oxford, U.K.) and reproduced from Keith Crichlow's book Time Stands Still. According to Coxeter other examples of such platonic models were found in etruscan sites predating the golden century by 3 centuries. Incidentally these findings are quite in line with Platonic theory which makes these eternal archetypes intrinsic to the Universal Soul.
Note: Three-dimensional displays of the platonic solids are, of course, available on the Web, either using the sublime new language HotJava (due to Jeff Ewert at Morgan Media) or the no less exciting 3D Web environments VRML or WebOOGL by the nice people of the Geometry Center at the University of Minnesota.
The Platonic solids or "archihedra" do represent, to some approximation, the five elements of the greeks in the sense that they can be labelled as mnemonics for the fields that we are able to associate with the modern version of the elemental components of the Universe, namely, fundamental particle fields. This association is discernible through most of the classical spectrum of fundamental theories and some of the early quantum models but its limitations can also be evidenced, specially when one considers the successful instances of the unification os these theories which have come to light late in the twentieth century. The path to the generalization of the Platonic assignment is obviated by the relativistic synthesis and its Minkowskian model of spacetime which suggests that one looks at the mnemonic space Platonic archiedra as 3D projections of 4D architopes which are none other but the 6 regular convex polytopes in four dimensions.
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Petrol stations could vanish in the near future as drivers start plugging their cars into their homes, a scientist has forecast.
Solar panel technology is improving at such a rate than soon motorists will be able to draw down enough power fuel their vehicles using the sun’s rays.
Keith Barnham, emeritus Professor of Physics at Imperial College, said he and his colleagues were already producing solar panels, which were three times as efficient as current models.
And they do not need to be fitted on roofs. The new materials work vertically and can be inserted into windows or made into blinds, which can be pulled down on a sunny day.
Speaking at the Hay Festival, Prof Barnham said: “Could we have an electric car powered entirely by sunlight? Yes we could.
“A typical (solar panel) system will generate enough electricity for typical mileage in a year.
“Free fuel for life from your rooftop. Even the most fervent opponents of electric cars like Jeremy Clarkson couldn’t argue with that.
“We need to spread the word that we have got the technology already, we just need to use it.”
Prof Barnham said if the UK followed Germany’s example and switched to renewable energy, bills could be reduced by more than 20 per cent.
Germany is well on its way of reaching its targets of all renewables by 2050.
“Solar panels have reduced the wholesale price of German electricity. There is a puzzle here, a mystery. How come the price has fallen but in 2011 they were only producing three per cent of the overall energy?
“It’s because the (solar panel energy) comes at exactly the right time you want it. Energy use peaks at midday when there is the most sunlight. It is the same in Britain.
“That is the time when demand is high so traditional power is at its most expensive.”
BMW predicts China as biggest electric car market
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You know when you’re eating a bunch of chips, and suddenly one falls to the ground tragically, but then you’re like, “it’s fine,” and you eat it anyways? Same. So basically, whether you thought the 5-second rule was real, or you didn’t care, I’m here to tell you that it is, in fact, legit. THANKS SCIENCE.
There is a catch though — it’s only true for dry foods. So if you drop a burrito on the ground, and there’s chicken and guac flying in every which way, you’re going to have to sacrifice that beautiful thing to the trash. According to the Discovery Science Channel's The Quick and the Curious, dry food won’t be contaminated by any harmful bacteria like E. coli and salmonella. Sure, your cookie will pick up some other bacteria, but hey, live a little!
This isn’t the first time the 5-second rule has been tested, but it’s definitely the most recent, and I welcome anyone who tells me I can eat things off the floor.
"When any food flops on the floor, small amounts of bacteria will jump aboard immediately," the video explains. "But moist foods left longer than 30 seconds collect 10 times the bacteria than those snapped up after only three."
The reason for this is because bacteria needs water to live. That means if you drop your cookie in a puddle, don’t eat it. Watch the video below for the full details on floor food and the 5-second rule.
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XML is a cross-platform, software and hardware
independent technology used for transmitting information.
It is a markup language much like HTML used to describe data.
XML is significant role in today's application development scenerio because of the following reasons :
Easy Data Identification
Neutral to the underlying architecture of the System software and the hardware
Few Applications of XML:
Refined search results
To know more about XML just click:
To know more about JAVA & XML just click:
Posted on: November 18, 2009 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles
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The Ball-Bearing electric
Further info : Great balls of fire! 'The intriguing ball-bearing motor'
This interesting but unfortunately not very
useful device produces motion from electricity without magnetism being involved. It
operates purely by thermal means, so it works on AC or DC, and the motor can rotate in
either direction, determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it
It simply consists of two ball-bearing races on a common conductive shaft,
with the outer ring of each race being connected to a high current, low voltage power
supply. An alternative construction is to fit the ballraces inside a metal tube, and mount
them on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod).
This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel.
This picture shows the motor running. There is a rectangular white label
on the right-hand flywheel, being blurred by the motion.
How does it work ?
When current passes from the outer ring of the ballrace to the inner ring
via each ball, heat is generated at the point of contact due to the increased resistance.
This localised heating causes the ball to expand in the hot area, causing a slight
elongation of the ball, pushing against the inner and outer rings of the race. If the ball
were stationary, this would cause the bearing to stiffen and sieze up, but when it's
rotating (from the initial spin), this elongation causes the ball to push itself further
round in the direction of rotation, sustaining the movement. This action happens as a
continuous process on all the balls which are in electrical contact with the inner and
What use is it ?
Nil, zilch, zero, none whatsoever, - it's totally impractical for any
real-world application. Unless you know different....
How can I make one ?
<sermon>The high currents involved mean that the motor and
wires can get VERY HOT (glowing!), so ensure there are no flammable materials nearby, and
avoid touching any part of the set-up until it has cooled. The plastic on insulated wire
can generate very unpleasant fumes when it melts, and in this application, it probably
WILL melt. Lead-acid batteries vent hydrogen when heavily discharged, which could present
an explosion hazard (you WILL get sparks when running the motor) - ensure there is
sufficient ventilation. The motor can achieve substantial speeds, up to a few thousand
RPM, so due care should be taken to protect against this mechanical hazard.
The basic materials required are two small ballraces (1/2 to 1" dia),
and a shaft that is a close fit inside them - this combination can often be salvaged from
various scrap mechanical or electromechanical equipment - printers, copiers, head
actuators from larger hard disk drives etc. They should turn freely, i.e. not be caked in
grease etc. It's important that the shaft is a very good fit inside the ballrace to ensure
a good electrical contact (if not, it may be possible to jam the shaft into the ballrace
using copper or aluminium foil).
Some sort of flywheel is usually required to give the shaft enough
momentum. If you're lucky your shaft may have a gearwheel on one end, or a thread to which
a suitable wheel may be fixed. As a rough guide, the shaft should spin for at least three
turns when given a small spin by hand. The motor pictured uses two large aluminium control
The two ballraces then need to be firmly mounted, so the shaft rotates
freely. I used a vice to hold the bearings, with pieces of fibreglass copper-clad board to
insulate the ballraces from the vice jaws and provide a convenient means of making the
connections. Fibreglass is also quite heat resistant, an important consideration in this
application! Slits filed in the copper isolate the ballraces from each other, and
connections are made by soldering to the copper. If your vice jaws aren't quite parallel
enough, put some thin card between the vice jaws and the copper-clad board to provide some
slight springiness. Take care not to distort the ballraces if a clamping mounting
method like this is used.
A very high current AC or DC power supply is required, at least several
tens of amps. A large (>100VA) low-voltage (3-12V) mains transformer is suitable, for
example a powerful automotive battery charger transformer, or 12V low-voltage lighting
transformer. Another possibility is to use a higher voltage toroidal transformer,
such as those used for audio amplifiers, and wind a secondary of 10-20 turns of thick
(>4 sq.mm cross-section) wire through the core to make a low voltage very high current
winding. Ambitious constructors might like investigate the possibilities of spot-welders
and automotive sized bearings.
Another source of a suitably high current is a lead-acid battery, either a
'gel-cell' / 'dryfit', or a conventional wet-cell battery, although larger batteries like
car batteries probably put out a bit too much current - it may be necessary to
limit the current somehow - a foot or two of fairly thick (2mm) bare steel wire (wire
hanger) might do the trick - a few headlamp bulbs wired in parallel might also work.
Remember that whatever power source you use, it is likely to be heavily
(possibly fatally) overloaded by the virtual short-circuit presented by the motor, so you
should only run for a few seconds at a time. Very heavy wiring is recommended (> 4mm
cross-section), unlike the feeble wire shown in the pictures, which starts melting after a
How do I run it?
To run the motor, first ensure the shaft rotates freely and smoothly.
Arrange the electrical connections so you can connect and (especially) disconnect the
supply very quickly. Holding one of the wires onto the transformer/battery terminal
satisfies the quick-disconnect criterion, but be VERY careful not to burn yourself -
holding the connection in pliers is a good move.
Give the motor a hand-spin, then connect the supply while the shaft is
still turning. You should see (and hear) the shaft accelerate as soon as power is applied,
possibly accompanied by a few sparks, and almost certainly a smell of 'hot metal'. Don't
run the motor for more than a few seconds at a time, and if it doesn't start immediately,
remove the power quickly to prevent siezing. The motor will reach its maximum speed fairly
quickly (depending on the flywheel size), and then start to slow as the bearings heat up
and start to sieze..
Overall view : two ballraces clamped in a
vice between two pieces of fibreglass copper-clad board, with the copper slits to isolate
the ballrace outer rings from each other. Shaft with flywheels passing through bearings.
As the shaft was not a tight fit, copper foil shims were used to improve the connection
between the shaft and the bearing inner rings.
Close-up view. The two pieces of copper-clad board
are connected together to improve the connection to the ballrace outer rings.
The copper-clad boards were stuck to the vice jaws with double-sided tape
to keep them in place when clamping the ballraces.
The following article is reproduced with permission from the April
1989 issue of Electronics and Wireless World magazine, and is
copyright 1989 Reed Business Publishing.
Great Balls of Fire!
The contents of Dr Stefan Marinov's travel-weary holdall did little to dispel the
scepticism which greeted the man and his theories during a visit to our editorial offices.
We politely listened to a rambling discourse on ball-bearing electric motors which rotated
without magnetism and provided work in defiance of energy conservation theory. Dr Marinov
unburdened himself as a man proselytising a deeply held yet widely ridiculed conviction.
The two ball races, one set into each end of a tube, didn't look to be the starting
point from which new theories are forged. Neither did the thin PVC-covered wire connecting
up to the blocks at each end of the tube supporting the ball race inner sections.
"Stefan, how much current do you need to make the races turn...
Would 5A he enough?"
"No, you need a lot more than that"
"No, Much more."
"How much more?"
"Have you got a car battery?"
"Only the one fitted in my car."
"Get it I show you...''
"Stefan, if you connect up a car battery to your machine using
those wires, the ball races will present an almost perfect short circuit and the wire wilI
vaporise in a puff of acrid smoke..."
"They get warm, sure, But I show you. where is your car?"
"In the multi-storey..."
But Dr Marinov never heard the rest of my protest. He was already down the corridor and
halfway out of the building. I headed him off at the revolving doors in the lobby.
"Stefan, the multi-story is no place to advance science,
let's see if we can borrow a battery from the motor transport department."
We set off across the road, Marinov clutching his holdall. I went upstairs to get
permission from the garage manager. When I returned, Dr. Marinov was nowhere to be seen. I
went into the garage to enquire of the duty mechanics the whereabouts of my Bulgarian
"Have you seen a foreigner with a battery fixation?"
The huddle of mechanics pointed to a figure crouched over a stack of batteries in a corner
of the garage. The figure looked up without surprise.
"I think this shouId work. Put your thumb on the hearing tube and,
when I connect up to the battery, give it a flick."
I looked doubtfully at the battery, the machine and the wires in turn.
"l'm telling you, Stefan, those wires wilI simply melt"
He didn't answer, He forced the bare ends of the wires hard against the battery terminals.
There was a shower of sparks and an eruption of smoke from the bIistering cable ends. I
gave the tube a flick. It took up a life of its own which all but had the skin off my
thumb. The tube connecting the bearing outers spun up to what must have been at least 1500
rev/min before the connecting wire, unequal to the enormous current, disintegrated.
"You see it turn?"
I looked at the burgeoning friction burn on my thumb.
I also looked at the acrid blue haze of PVC smoke which was rolling across the floor
towards the group of curious mechanics.
"Your bearing motor certainly works but I shall need a bit more
convincing about it being a net producer of energy."
Dr. Marinov simply gave me a look which suggested that all his efforts had been in
The following article is reproduced with permission from the
April 1989 issue of Electronics and Wireless World magazine, and
is copyright 1989 Reed Business Publishing.
The Intriguing ball-bearing motor
Whether or not one can accept the author's contention that it
delivers energy produced from nothing, the novel electric motor he describes certainly
deserves to be better known.
It is almost unknown that if direct or alternating current passes through the
ball-bearings of an axle, it is set in rotation. In the few papers where this effect is
discussed, the torque is explained as an electromagnetic effect. Yet the torque is due to
thermal extension of the balls in their bearings at the points of contact with the bearing
The arrangement of
the simplest ballbearing motor is given in Fig.1, where the inner races
rotate. With the same ball- bearings, a bigger torque can be obtained by rotating the
outer races. In such a case the axle must be made of two electrically insulated parts, and
the current goes through a metal cylinder connecting the outer races of both
ball-bearings. Such are the small and big ball-bearings motors presented in Fig.2.
I have established that the ball-bearing motor is not an electromagnetic motor
but a thermal engine. Here the expanding substance leading to mechanical motion is steel,
while the expanding substance in all thermal engines used by humanity is gaseous. There
is, however, another much more important difference; the motion in the conventional
thermal engine is along the direction of expansion f the heated substance, while in the
ball-bearing thermal engine it is at right angles to the direction of expansion
of the heated substance. Consequently, in gaseous thermal engines, the gas cools during
the expansion and the kinetic energy acquired by the "piston" is equal to the
heat lost by the expanding gas. This is not the case in the ball-bearing motor.
Here not the whole ball becomes hot but only that small part of it which touches the race,
at a "point contact" where the ohmic resistance is much higher than the
resistance across the ball. Only this small "contact part" of the ball dilates;
and the dilatation is very small, only a few microns. (Of course, I have not measured the
dilatation, I only presume that it is a couple of microns.) Since the balls and
the races are made of very hard steel, a slightly ellipsoidal ball produces a huge torque
when one of the races rotates with respect to the other.
Usually a push is needed to start the ball-bearing motor. However, on occasions it does
start spontaneously (with a greater probability at greater bores) because the surface of
the races is not absolutely smooth. With absolute smoothness and geometrical perfection,
spontaneous starting is impossible.
During rotation the ball's "bulge" moves from the one race to the other, the
local overheating is absorbed by the ball and the radius of the "bulge" becomes
equal to the radius of the whole ball. At the new point of contact, when current passes
and ohmic heat is produced, the radius of the contact point becomes again bigger than the
radius of the whole ball and again a driving torque appears. Thus, as a result of the
mechanical motion, the ball is not cooled; and consequently, in the ball-bearing
thermal engine, heat is not transformed into kinetic energy. The whole heat which
the current delivers remains in the metal substance of the machine and increases its
temperature, If the ohmic resistance between balls and races is the same both at
rest and in rotation, the heat produced and stored in the metal of the machine will be the
same at rest and rotation. This resistance, however, increases in rotation; but with
further increase of the velocity the increase of resistance is very slight.
I established that the hall-hearing motor produces the same amount of heat at rest and
rotation in the following manner. I measured for a definite time the temperature increase
in a calorimeter in which the motor was maintained at rest, applying a tension U and
registering the current I. Thus the resistance of the whole motor was R = U/I. Then I
started the motor and applied a tension U' such that at the new resistance R' the current
I' = U'/R' was such that UI = U'I'; i.e., in both cases I applied exactly the same
electric power. According to the energy conservation law, in both cases the temperature
increase of the calorimeter had to be the same, as in both cases the same amount of
electric energy was put in the machine.
I recorded, however, that in the second case the temperature increase of the
calorimeter was higher. Thus I concluded that in both cases the ohmic produced heat was
the same; however in the second case there was also heat coming from the friction of the
rotating ball-bearings. The temperature increase in the second case was about 8% while the
mechanical energy produced was about 10% of the input electrical energy.
One can see immediately that the baI1- bearing motor has no back tension
because there are no magnets, and the magnetic field of the current in the
"stator" cannot induce electric tension in the metal of the "rotor".
Thus the firm conclusion is to be drawn that the mechanical energy delivered by the
ball-bearing motor is produced from nothing, in a drastic contradiction to the energy
With a direct current supply, the ball- bearing motor can rotate either left
or right. Thus it cannot be an electromagnetic motor, since a DC electromagnetic
motor rotates only in one direction, with a given direction of the current. The
ball-bearing motor rotates with DC as well as with AC. With a greater current it rotates
faster. It is in teresting to note that the resistance of the ball-bearing motor depends
on the current, and for higher current it is lower. If the current doubles, say,
the applied tension increases only, say, 1.3 times. Here I wish to avoid any confusion
between the increase of resistance because of the increase of the rate of rotation, and
the decrease of resistance because of the increase of current; although,
obviously, a higher current leads to a higher rate of rotation. The torque disappears if
the ball-bearings are replaced by box-hearings. At equal applied electrical powers and
equal number and size of the balls (i.e., at equal resistance), the torque is bigger for a
ball-bearing with bigger bore. A ball-bearing with two times bigger bore has two times
bigger torque. Fig,2 shows two ball-bearing motors with a small and a
large bore which have almost equal ohmic resistances (of course, the mechanical friction
of the bigger motor is greater). By touching both motors, one can immediately feel the
difference in their torques. The bigger ball-bearing has greater number of balls and
consequently a bigger torque; however, its current (and power) consumption are higher.
Methods of improving efficiency in the ballbearing motor include the following:
- The use of balls which are harder and where a smaller amount of heat leads to larger
thermal extension. We know that normally a harder solid body has a lower coefficient of
thermal dilatation, so that one has to find the optimal solution which nature offers.
- Tighter ball-bearings have a better pushing force. However, at the same time they will
have more friction. A compromise is needed. But even if friction is very low, there is
always a maximum velocity which the motor cannot surpass. At this maximum velocity, heat
from the "bulge" cannot be absorbed by the ball, and the ball retains more or
less a spherical shape. It is obvious that the maximum velocity is higher for larger
- The driving force is higher for bigger bores, as the curvature of the races is less.
- The driving force is greater for bigger balls, as their curvature is less.
1. Milroy, R.A. Discussion, J. Appl. Mechanics, vol. 34,1967,p.525. 2.
2. Gruenberg, H. The ball bearing as a motor. Am. J. Phys., vol. 46, 1978, p.1213.
3. Weenink, M.P.H. The electromagnetic torque on axially symmetric rotating metal
cylinders and spheres.Appl. Sc. Research, vol. 37, 1981, p.171.
4. van Doom, M.J.M. The electrostatic torque on a rotating conducting sphere. Appl. Sc.
Research, vol. 40, 1983, p.327. 5. Mills, A.A. The ball-bearing electric motor. Phys.
Educ., vol. 15, 1980, p.102.
6. Marinov, S. The perpetuum mobile is discovered. Nature, vol, 317, 26 Sept. 1985, p.xii.
7. Marinov, S. The Thorny Way of Truth, Part II. East-West, Graz, ist edition 1984, 3rd
At the time of writing, Dr Marinov was at the Institue for Fundamenral Physical
Problems, Mouellenfeld- gasse 16, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
More info on Stefan Marinov : Institute
for New Energy Harold Asdpen's Energy science site
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Bibliographic record and links to related information available from the Library of Congress catalog.
Note: Contents data are machine generated based on pre-publication provided by the publisher. Contents may have variations from the printed book or be incomplete or contain other coding.
CONTENTS IN BRIEF Preface PART I STRESS AND WELLNESS Chapter 1 What is Stress? Chapter 2 The Emotional and Intellectual Basis of Stress Chapter 3 The Environmental and Occupational Basis of Stress Chapter 4 The Social and Spiritual Basis of Stress Chapter 5 The Physical Basis of Stress Chapter 6 The Effects of Stress on the Body and Mind PART II THE FIVE RS OF COPING WITH STRESS Chapter 7 Rethink: Changing the Way You View Things Chapter 8 Reduce: Finding Our Optimal Level of Stress Chapter 9 Relax: Using Relaxation Techniques to Offset the Effects of Stress Chapter 10 Release: Using Physical Activity to Dissipate the Effects of Stress Chapter 11 Reorganize: Becoming More Stress-Resistant by Improving Your Health PART III STRESS: A DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE Chapter 12 Childhood and Adolescent Stress Chapter 13 Young Adulthood: Relationships, College, and Other Challenges Chapter 14 Stress in Adulthood and Older Adulthood Epilogue: Coping with Stress in a Changing World Credits Glossary Index Detailed Table of Contents Preface PART I STRESS AND WELLNESS Chapter 1 What is Stress? Four Common Ways of Describing Stress Stress as Response Stress as Stimulus Stress as a Transaction Stress as a Holistic Health Phenomenon A New Definition of Stress Chapter 2 The Emotional and Intellectual Basis of Stress The Emotional Basis of Stress Emotions & Stress Lazarus' Stress Emotions Emotions in Japanese Psychotherapy Emotional Development and Personality Behaviorism Psychoanalytic Theory Piaget's Theory Kohlberg's Theory Maslow's Hierarchy of Need Stress and Personality Stress-Prone Personality Types Stress-Resistant Personality Types The Intellectual Basis of Stress Intelligence Life Experience Verbal and Written Communication Creativity Problem Solving Ability Emotional Intelligence Emotions, Moods, Temperament, and Disorders Five Criteria for emotional Intelligence The Convergence of Intellectual and Emotional Factors Primary Stress Appraisal Secondary Stress Appraisal Cognitive Reappraisal Chapter 3 The Environmental and Occupational Basis of Stress Our Personal Environment Environmental Stress and Strain Lighting Strain Climate Air Quality Noise Pollution Ergonomics Ergonomics in the Home Ergonomics in the Workplace Ergonomics in Action: Computer Workstations Work-Related Stress The Changing Workplace Measuring Occupational Stress The NIOSH Model of Job Stress Stressful Job Conditions Individual and Situational Factors A Transactional Model for Explaining Occupational and Environmental Stress Chapter 4 The Social and Spiritual Basis of Stress The Social Dimension: Social Support and Stress Measuring Social Support How Social Support Moderates Stress Health Effects of Social Support Life Experiences and Stress Daily Hassles and Uplifts Major Life Events and Stress Chronic Negative Social Problems Poverty Economic Uncertainty Discrimination, Prejudice and Stress Stereotypes and Stress Spirituality and Stress Religion, Faith, & Spirituality How Spirituality Moderates Stress The Health Effects of Faith, Religion, & Spirituality Spiritual Distress and Illness HOPE for Spiritual Distress Chapter 5 The Physical Basis of Stress Overview of the Major Body Systems Involved in the Stress Response Communication, Control, and Integration Transportation and Defense Support and Movement: The Muscular System Respiration, Nutrition, and Excretion Fight-or-Flight: An Alarm Reaction The Neural Axis The Peripheral Nervous System The Neuroendocrine Axis Resistance: A Chronic, Long-Term Stress Response The Physiology of Resistance The Physiology of Exhaustion A Critical Look at the General Adaptation Syndrome Chapter 6 The Effects of Stress on the Body and Mind From Stress to Disease The Medical Model Psychosomatic Model The Effects of Acute, High-Level Stress on Disease Acute Stress Effects on Physical Illness Acute Stress Effects on Psychological Illness The Effects of Chronic, Low-Level Stress on Disease Effects of Chronic Stress on Physical Illness Effects of Chronic Stress on Psychological Illness Stress and Suicide PART II THE FIVE RS OF COPING WITH STRESS Chapter 7 Rethink: Changing the Way You View Things Rethinking Your Perspective on the World Knowing What You Value Purposeful Living and Goal Setting Putting Things in their Proper Perspective Reducing Stress by Enjoying Life More Changing Perspective By Slowing the Pace of Your Life Rethinking The Way You View Stressors Becoming More Logical and Optimistic in Our Thinking Where East Meets West: Using Morita & Naikan Therapies to Rethink How we View Potential Stressors Changing Our Perspective by Rethinking Road Rage, Anger on the Highway Chapter 8 Reduce: Finding Our Optimal Level of Stress Stimulation, Demand and Stress Finding Your Optimal Level of Stimulation Categories of Stressors The Three A's of Coping Managing Your Limited Resources Managing Our Scale of Living Managing Limited Financial Resources Managing Your Limited Time Managing School, Work, and Home Space Resources Reducing Stress by Communicating More Effectively A Model for Effective Communication Building Communication Skills Reducing Stress by Learning to Say No Asserting Yourself Verbal Assertiveness: The DESC Model Chapter 9 Relax: Using Relaxation Techniques to Offset the Effects of Stress The Stressed State Compared to the Relaxed State The Stressed State: A Quick Review The Relaxed State Breathing and Relaxation Diaphragmatic Breathing to Reduce Stress Meditation Historical and Cultural Origins of Meditation Benefits of Meditation Focused and Open Meditation Visualization Creating Personal Visualization Autogenics Instructions for Performing Autogenics The Quieting Reflex and the Calming Response The Quieting Reflex The Calming Response Biofeedback How Biofeedback Works Types of Biofeedback Hobbies, Entertainment, Recreational Activities and Stress Relaxation vs. Entertainment Using Hobbies, Entertainment and Recreational Pursuits to Relax Chapter 10 Release: Using Physical Activity to Dissipate the Effects of Stress Fight-or-Flight Revisited The Health Benefits of Exercise and Physical Activity Physiological Benefits Psychological Benefits The Effects of Physical Activity on Stress Mild, Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activity The Effects of Mild Physical Activity on Stress The Effects of Moderate Physical Activity on Stress The Effects of Vigorous Physical Activity on Stress Chapter 11 Reorganize: Becoming More Stress-Resistant by Improving Your Health A Lifestyle-Based Approach to Coping Moving Toward Optimal Functioning High-Level Health and Stress Management A Two-Pronged Model for Reorganizing our Health Reorganizing the Environmental/Occupational Dimension of Health Reorganizing the Environmental Dimension of Health Reorganizing the Occupational Dimension of Health A Problem-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Occupational Dimension An Emotion-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Occupational Dimension Reorganizing the Social Dimension of Health A Problem-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Social Dimension An Emotion-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Social Dimension Reorganizing the Spiritual Dimension of Health A Problem-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Spiritual Dimension An Emotion-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Spiritual Dimension Reorganizing the Intellectual Dimension of Health A Problem-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Emotional Dimension An Emotion-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Emotional Dimension Reorganizing the Emotional Dimension of Health A Problem-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Emotional Dimension An Emotion-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Emotional Dimension Reorganizing the Physical Dimension of Health A Problem-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Physical Dimension An Emotion-Focused Approach to Strengthening the Physical Dimension Wellness and Coping PART III STRESS: A DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE Chapter 12 Childhood and Adolescent Stress Erikson's Stages of Development Infancy: Birth to 18 Months Early Childhood: 18 to 36 Months Late Childhood: 3 to 5 Years School Age: 6 to 12 Years Coping with Parenting Children Using the Five Rs Teaching Your Child to Rethink Teaching Your Child to Reduce Teaching Your Child to Relax Teaching Your Child to Release Teaching Your Child to Reorganize Erikson's Fifth Stage: Adolescence Puberty Puberty, Sex, and Stress Chronic Depression and Suicide School and Stress Social Pressures Planning for the Future Coping with Parenting Adolescents Using the Five Rs Teaching Your Adolescent to Rethink Teaching Your Adolescent to Reduce Teaching Your Adolescent to Relax Teaching Your Adolescent to Release Teaching Your Adolescent to Reorganize Chapter 13 Young Adulthood: Relationships, College, and Other Challenges The Challenges of Young Adulthood Friendship and Intimate Relationships Forming Friendships What is Intimacy? Forming Intimate Relationships Dating and Breaking Up Love College Sexual Standards Living Arrangements of College Students Intimacy, Sexuality, and Stress Sexual Victimization Sexual Harassment in College Sexually Transmitted Diseases College, Work, and Stress Academics and Stress Financial and Career-Related Stressors Paying for College ( B Head) Student Debt Working During College ( B head) Coping with the Stress of Young Adulthood by Using the Five Rs Rethink Strategies Reduce Strategies Relax Strategies Release Strategies Reorganize Strategies Chapter 14 Stress in Adulthood and Older Adulthood Erikson's Last Two Stages The Meaning of Work A Multidisciplinary Look at Work The Six Dimensions of Work Understanding Erikson's Major Developmental Task of Adulthood Using the Six Dimensions of Work Work As a Potential Stressor The Culture of Work Changing Work Status Changes in Financial Status Changes in Daily Activities ( B Head) Retirement The Meaning of Community and Living Environment Non-Age-Restricted Housing Age-Restricted Housing Other Types of Living Environments Relationships in Adulthood and Older Adulthood Single-hood Stress Associated With Being Single Cohabitation Stress Associated With Cohabitation Marriage and Long-Term Gay and Lesbian Relationships Stress Associated with Marriage and Long-Term Gay and Lesbian Relationships Divorce Stress Associated with Divorce( B head) Aging and Changing Health Status Healthy Aging and Premature Disability and Death Changing Health Status as a Source of Stress Thinking about Our Own Mortality ( B Head) Widowhood Loss, Grief, and Bereavement Stress Coping with Adulthood and Older Adulthood Stress Using the Five Rs ( A head) Rethink Strategies Reduce Strategies Relax Strategies Release Strategies Reorganize Strategies Epilogue: Coping with Stress in a Changing World Credits Glossary Index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
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Until the end of the American Revolution, the Broome County area was inhabited by Native Americans. Two main settlements were found at Onaquaga, near present-day Windsor, and Otseningo, located along the Chenango River, just north of the present-day City of Binghamton. Smaller Settlements could be found at Chugnuts, Castle Creek and the Vestal area. As part of the Iroquois Confederacy, and considered a threat to the revolutionists' efforts, the Sullivan-Clinton campaign was used to remove the Native American population. After the conclusion of the Revolution, the land was divided among many land speculators, including William Bingham, who obtained over ten thousand acres at the confluence of the Susquehanna and Chenango Rivers, and the developers of the Boston Purchase (also called Boston Town Towns) that encompassed much of northern Broome, as well as parts of Chenango, Tioga and Tompkins Counties.
William Bingham was a wealthy Philadelphia banker whose interest after the revolution was in land. Aside from this area, Bingham also owned over 500,000 acres of land in the state on Maine. Bingham envisioned a new village at the meeting of the two rivers and hired local merchant Joshua Whitney to be his land agent. Whitney was responsible for the first street plan of the village, worked to entice new settlers to the area, and became the area's first elected representative to Albany. Bingham died in 1804, never visiting the area that would bear his name. Nonetheless, Whitney continued to work diligently to build the new town. In 1806 the area was separated from Tioga County, and the new county was named after Revolutionary War veteran and then Lieutenant-Governor John Broome.
With the opening of the Erie Canal, this area, like many, sought their own canal to connect to the Erie to aid development. Finally in 1834, work began on the Chenango Canal, a 97-mile long engineering marvel which connected Binghamton in the south with Utica and the Erie Canal in the north. The first packet boat arrived in 1837 and new development followed the route of the canal. Despite the economic failure of the canal (it never made a profit), the county benefited from the arrival of new settlers and merchandise, as well as providing a means of shipping finished goods in and out of the area. Mills sprang up along the southern end of the canal, and department stores and hotels rose along the retail corridor. In 1848, the Erie railroad arrived, and the coming of the iron horse spelled the end for the canal. Within two decades the area had become a transportation hub, with north-south and east-west railroad lines and the canal. But by 1874, the Chenango Canal route was closed in Binghamton, the only remnants being a proposed expansion along the Susquehanna River that would later become part of the Vestal Parkway.
The period surrounding the Civil War saw great change for the area. Its leading politician, Daniel S. Dickinson, serve in the United States Senate from 1844-1850, and after the outbreak of the war spoke countless times in favor of the Union. The needs for munitions and other war products brought assembly-line factory work to the area, and guns and other products were developed in this region. After the end of the war, the area enjoyed the fruits of the Industrial Revolution, and new major industries opened. Stow Manufacturing relied on the invention of the flexible shaft. The lumber industry was transformed into a large furniture and wagon business. By far, however, the area was truly changed with the arrival of the first cigar manufacturing company in the 1870's. By 1890 over fifty factories were operating with five thousand people involved in the manufacture of over 100 million cigars each year. Binghamton ranked only behind New York City as the top cigar-making city in the country. Immigrants from Eastern Europe and other countries poured into the area to work in this industry, or one of the many other companies producing over two hundred different types of products by the turn of the century.
As the area's population was doubling every ten to fifteen years, so were the area's municipalities. By 1900 the county had 16 towns, six villages and one city. Binghamton had the largest population. Despite the largeness of the cigar making industry, it had all but disappeared by 1930 due to the rise in popularity of the cigarette, automation, and labor unrest. Many of the former cigar workers took solace in finding employment in the factories of the Endicott-Johnson Shoe Corporation. Begun as Lester Brothers Boot and Shoe Company in Binghamton in 1854, it moved to create its own company town, Lestershire, to the west of Binghamton. Financial problems forced the sale of the company to a creditor and fellow shoemaker, Henry B. Endicott of Massachusetts in 1890. In 1899 he made former Lester Brothers factory foreman, George F. Johnson, his partner. Johnson's Square Deal program quickly transformed the company into an industrial giant, with over 20,000 employees by the mid 1940's, and a production of 52 million pairs of shoes each year. Both Johnson and E-J's philanthropy included the donation of parks, land for churches, two libraries and the six wooden carousels still in use today.
At the same time Johnson City (formerly Lestershire) and the planned community of Endicott (incorporated in 1906) were growing, so too was a firm that started in Binghamton in 1889 as the Bundy Manufacturing Company. Involved in timer clock production, it merged with several other firms and went through a variety of names before hiring Thomas Watson, Sr. in 1914. His corporate leadership moved the company into a new era, and in 1924 he changed the name of the company to International Business Machines. IBM has since become the area's leading employer.
During the height of the Great Depression Edwin A. Link followed his dream to develop the pilot trainer, or flight simulator. Link Aviation, through its many forms has lead the world in training of pilots, and the technology has evolved into a virtual reality world of products on today's markets. Like Link, many other companies were involved in the cold war growth of the defense business. IBM, General Electric, Universal, Link and others relied heavily on those dollars, and with the ending of the cold war, many businesses saw those markets evaporating. The area hit an economic slump, which left many to believe that the "Valley of Opportunity" was gone. But resurgence based on diversity of business and slower growth has helped to bring the area moving back toward its former levels of employment and industrial strength.
Despite our rich business history, it has always been the story of our people -- the thousands of immigrants and their distinct ethnic food, costume, languages, "Gold Dome" churches, and heritage that have made this region a true melting pot. The legacy our businesses such as E-J, and our continual ethnic and business heritage make this region a strong and vibrant part of the American Culture.
Broome County FastFacts
8,130 in 1810
200,536 in 2000
Broome County History Brochure (pdf, 285k)
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Making sure your organization's website is safe, secure and running without any malicious activity under the radar is a major concern today, especially since we live in a time when website activity is not limited to humans. Bots, short for Internet robots, are programmed to execute certain commands on the Web.
Last year, cloud-based security company Incapsula conducted a bot study collecting data from thousands of websites to find out how prevalent bots are on the Internet, which ones are good or bad, and how their activity measures up to human activity. Over a 90-day period, the company collected data from a group of 20,000 sites on its network, amounting to 1.45 billion visits. Here are the punch lines from the report.
While the use of IoT technology enables retailers to better track their products from production through delivery in the supply chain, it also introduces a variety of security and data risks. ... More >>
Take a closer look at the explosion of zero-day threats and how deep learning can help organizations better protect their valuable cyber assets. ... More >>
To help improve overall cybersecurity practices, the first line of defense is often an educated user with strong password practices. ... More >>
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The Congress has traditionally placed a limit on the total amount of debt that the Department of the Treasury can issue to the public and to other federal agencies. Law-makers have enacted numerous increases to the debt limit—commonly known as the debt ceiling—some of which have been temporary but many of which have been permanent. The Treasury’s borrowing has been at the current limit since May, although it has employed a well-established toolbox of so-called extraordinary measures that allow it to borrow additional funds without breaching the debt ceiling.
On September 25, 2013, the Treasury estimated that its ability to borrow under those extraordinary measures will be exhausted no later than October 17, leaving a cash balance of approximately $30 billion. CBO currently projects that the Treasury will exhaust all of the borrowing authority created by those measures, as well as its cash balance, between October 22 and the end of the month. (It is possible, however, that the date could fall outside of that range.)
Those dates are sooner than CBO estimated earlier this month, for two reasons: Forthcoming investments in Government Account Series (GAS) securities are expected to be greater than previously anticipated because a transfer of general funds to the Highway Trust Fund is scheduled to occur in October this year (rather than in November, as occurred last year) and because deposits in the Military Retirement Fund and the Medicare-Eligible Retiree Health Care Fund are now expected to be larger than they were last year; also, receipts of corporate income taxes during the past several days fell short of CBO’s expectations.
What Is the Current Debt Limit?
The debt ceiling at the beginning of 2013 was $16.394 trillion. The No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013 (Public Law 113-3) suspended the debt ceiling from February 4, 2013, through May 18, 2013. The act also specified that the amount of borrowing in that period should be added to the previous debt limit. As a result, on May 19, the limit was reset to reflect cumulative borrowing through May 18; it now stands at $16.699 trillion.
Because the No Budget, No Pay Act did not provide additional borrowing authority above the amount of debt that had already been issued as of May 18, the Treasury has had no room to borrow under its standard operating procedures. To avoid breaching the limit, the Treasury has turned to the extraordinary measures that allow continued borrowing for a limited period.
What Makes Up the Debt Subject to Limit?
Debt subject to the statutory limit has two main components: debt held by the public and debt held by government accounts. (For more information on federal debt, see CBO's 2010 report Federal Debt and Interest Costs.) Debt held by the public consists mainly of securities that the Treasury issues to raise cash to fund the federal government’s operations and pay off maturing liabilities that tax revenues are insufficient to cover. Such debt is held by outside investors, including the Federal Reserve System. Debt held by government accounts is debt issued to the federal government’s trust funds and other federal accounts for the government’s internal transactions; it is not traded in capital markets. Of the $16.699 trillion in outstanding debt subject to limit, roughly $11.9 trillion is held by the public and about $4.8 trillion is held by government accounts.
What Extraordinary Measures Are Still Available to the Treasury?
The extraordinary measures taken by the Treasury since May 17 have consisted of suspending the issuance of new state and local government securities, disinvesting a portion of the Thrift Savings Plan G Fund, and declaring two debt issuance suspension periods, which allowed it to limit the investments of the Civil Service Retirement Fund and the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefits Fund in GAS securities.
The following measures are still available:
- Suspend the investments of the Thrift Savings Plan G Fund (which otherwise is rolled over or reinvested daily; such investments totaled $49 billion in Treasury securities as of August 31, 2013).
- Suspend the investments of the Exchange Stabilization Fund (otherwise rolled over daily; such investments totaled $23 billion as of August 31, 2013).
- Suspend the issuance of new securities to the Civil Service Retirement and Disability Fund and the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefits Fund (about $2 billion per month covered by a debt issuance suspension period; the current period ends on October 11, 2013, so the remaining amount to be suspended is approximately $1 billion through the end of that period).
- Redeem in advance securities held by the Civil Service Retirement and Disability Fund and the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefits Fund that are equal in value to benefit payments that are due in the near future. (Until October 1, 2013, the value remaining is approximately $6 billion; on that date it will fall to zero. If the debt issuance suspension period was extended beyond October 11, the value of the securities that could be redeemed early would initially be about $6 billion for any subsequent month in which the first business day was covered by the extension.)
- Replace Treasury securities subject to the debt limit with debt issued by the Federal Financing Bank, which is not subject to the limit (up to $9 billion).
Those measures provide the Treasury with additional room to borrow by limiting the amount of debt held by the public or debt held by government accounts that would otherwise be outstanding. By statute, both the Civil Service and the Postal Service funds, as well as the G Fund, will be made whole (with interest) after the debt limit has been raised. (For more information on extraordinary measures and actions taken after a debt limit increase, see Government Accountability Office, Debt Limit: Analysis of 2011–2012 Actions Taken and Effect of Delayed Increase on Borrowing Costs.)
Given the magnitude of the government’s daily cash flows and the uncertainty about the size of certain key trans-actions over the next few weeks, it is difficult to specify the precise date on which the Treasury will exhaust its extraordinary measures and lose its authority to borrow additional funds.
What Is the Regular Schedule for Cash Flows and Debt Issuance?
The amount of debt accumulated over the next few weeks will depend on the size of the cash shortfall during that period and on the magnitude of transactions between the Treasury and other parts of the federal government. The amount of cash flowing to and from the government will determine how much must be borrowed from the public and when that borrowing must occur; transactions between the Treasury and other parts of the federal government will determine the amount of debt accrued by government accounts.
Federal Cash Flows
Certain large inflows and outflows of cash from the Treasury follow a regular schedule that directly affects the amount borrowed from the public, the largest component of debt subject to limit. Typical days and amounts for sizable government expenditures are as follows (although actual disbursements can shift by a day or two in either direction if a normal payment date falls on a weekend or federal holiday):
- Payments to Medicare Advantage and Medicare Part D plans—first of the month (about $17 billion);
- Social Security benefits—third of the month (about $25 billion), with subsequent smaller payments made on three Wednesdays per month (about $12 billion each);
- Pay for active-duty members of the military and benefit payments for civil service and military retirees, veterans, and recipients of Supplemental Security Income—first of the month (about $25 billion); and
- Interest payments—around the 15th of the month and on the last day of the month (with some variation).
Deposits (mostly tax revenues) are relatively smooth throughout each month except for large payments of taxes that occur around specified dates. The largest payments come in April, when individual tax returns are due. Estimated taxes from corporations and individuals are due at four points during the year. For example, in mid September of this year, the Treasury received about $55 billion in estimated corporate taxes; it is still collecting payments of estimated individual income taxes.
Debt Issuance: Treasury Auctions
The Treasury issues numerous securities to obtain funds to pay off maturing securities and to finance government activities. Those securities, which have various maturities, are normally issued in regularly scheduled auctions (although issuance may shift by a day or two in either direction if the normal date falls on a weekend or federal holiday):
- Treasury bills (with maturities of up to 52 weeks)—each Thursday (sales in recent auctions have ranged from a total of $85 billion to $135 billion);
- Treasury notes (which are currently issued with maturities of 2 to 10 years and include inflation--protected securities)—on the 15th of the month and on the last day of the month (sales in recent auctions on the 15th have totaled about $55 billion and those on the last day of the month have totaled as much as $117 billion); and
- Treasury bonds (30-year maturity)—in the middle of the month (sales in recent auctions have ranged from $13 billion to $16 billion); 30-year inflation-protected securities are issued each February, June, and October (sales in recent auctions have ranged from $7 billion to $9 billion).
In the past few months, the Treasury has raised most of its cash through end-of-the-month auctions of notes (about $55 billion, on average) and through the intermittent issuance of cash management bills (in varying amounts).
Debt Issuance: Government Account Series Securities
Debt held by government accounts, known as GAS securities, is dominated by the transactions of a few large trust funds. When a trust fund receives cash that is not immediately needed to pay benefits or to cover the relevant program’s expenses, the Treasury credits the trust fund with that income by issuing GAS securities to the fund. The Treasury then uses the cash to finance the government’s ongoing activities. When revenues for a program financed by a trust fund fall short of expenses, the reverse happens: The Treasury redeems some of the GAS securities. The crediting and redemption of securities between the Treasury and the trust funds are intra-governmental but directly affect the amount of debt subject to limit.
On net, the amount of outstanding GAS securities tends to fluctuate very little during a month except when redemptions occur to reflect the payment of benefits for such programs as Social Security and Medicare. (The trust funds for those programs account for about two-thirds of the government’s balances in such funds.) Those redemptions of GAS securities, which reduce the amount of debt subject to limit, are normally offset by additional borrowing from the public to obtain the cash to make actual payments.
Most GAS securities pay interest in the form of additional securities on June 30 and December 31. In the past year, the interest payments due on each of those dates amounted to about $80 billion, but because of the debt ceiling, some of those intragovernmental interest payments were not invested on June 30, 2013.
What Are the Upcoming Key Dates for Treasury Cash Flows and Debt Issuance?
In the coming weeks, transactions on certain dates will have a significant influence on when the Treasury will exhaust the borrowing authority created by its extra-ordinary measures and will have insufficient cash to pay obligations as they become due.
Cash Outflows from the Treasury
- October 1—payments to Medicare Advantage and Medicare Part D plans; pay for active-duty members of the military; and benefit payments for civil service and military retirees, veterans, and recipients of Supplemental Security Income (about $42 billion, in total).
- October 3—payments of Social Security benefits (about $25 billion).
- October 9, 16, and 23—additional Social Security benefit payments (about $12 billion each time).
- October 31—payment of interest on Treasury securities (about $6 billion).
- November 1—payments of Social Security benefits (shifted from the third of the month, which falls on a Sunday); payments to Medicare Advantage and Medicare Part D plans; pay for active-duty members of the military; and benefit payments for civil service and military retirees, veterans, and recipients of Supplemental Security Income (about $67 billion).
- November 13—payments of additional Social Security benefits (about $12 billion).
- November 15—large quarterly payment of interest on Treasury securities (about $30 billion).
- Most of the benefit payments involve redeeming GAS securities from a trust fund, thereby temporarily providing additional room to borrow from the public in order to raise cash.
- In addition to these payments, government spending for its ongoing programs and activities is likely to average about $10 billion a day over the next several weeks, but can vary from one business day to the next.
Issuance of Government Account Series Securities
At the beginning of October, large investments will be made in both the Military Retirement Fund and the Medicare-Eligible Retiree Health Care Fund to account for the amortization of the unfunded liability for certain retirement benefits earned by military personnel for service before 1985 and for accrual contributions to cover the cost of future benefits for current military personnel. Those payments are expected to boost the amount of debt held by government accounts by a total of about $80 billion.
Also, in the middle of October, the Highway Trust Fund is expected to receive an intragovernmental payment from the general fund, thereby increasing debt held by government accounts by $12 billion.
Cash Inflows to the Treasury
Most inflows will be from remittances by employers of income and payroll taxes withheld from paychecks. Those remittances typically average about $7 billion per day but can vary significantly from one business day to the next.
When Are the Extraordinary Measures Expected to Run Out, and What Will Happen if the Debt Ceiling Is Not Raised After They Are Exhausted?
If the debt limit is not increased before the extraordinary measures are exhausted, the Treasury will not be authorized to issue additional debt that increases the amount outstanding. (It will be able to issue additional debt only in amounts equal to maturing debt.) That restriction would severely strain the Treasury’s ability to manage its cash and could lead to delays of payments for government activities and possibly to a default on the government’s debt obligations. (For more information on debt management challenges and the debt limit, see Government Accountability Office, Debt Limit: Delays Create Debt Management Challenges and Increase Uncertainty in the Treasury Market.) By CBO’s estimate, depending on the amount and timing of cash flows, the Treasury might be unable to fully pay its obligations anytime from October 22 on. Which of the government’s various financial obligations would be paid and which would not be paid is unclear.
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Author(s): Wright C
Abstract: This chapter looks at why learners’ grammatical competence in question formation seems to stay resistant to the best input teachers can provide, and why some learners differ so much in their rate of learning compared to others. This chapter presents data from a study of adult Mandarin L1 speakers immersed in the UK, to see how far formal linguistic rules and cognitive factors may interact to explain individual variability in rate of development in different question types. Results showed asymmetry in scores based on formal differences between subject and object questions. Evidence was also found of effects of cognitive load in processing such structures, through a correlation between slower reaction times and working memory capacity. The results of the study indicate that awareness of both formal and processing accounts can help understand how instructed learners may respond to input, and how they might develop beyond the classroom.
Notes: this is significant and original for both linguistic and psycholinguistic research paradigms - applying combination of formal generative theory and processing models of learning (including working memory constraints) to show implications for classroom practice; content already presented in AAAL colloquium (2011). Chapter splits 50/50 between theory and empirical research findings. First is a discussion of linguistic theory of wh-movement and implications for classroom and immersion settings for language learning, then a report of an empirical study of 32 participants, tracked during a year abroad. Three hypotheses were tested, using psycholinguistic tests of reaction times and working memory, and quantitative statistical analysis of results. Hyp 1: Participants will show asymmetries between object vs subject question forms on timed grammaticality judgments, measured as faster speed and greater accuracy. Hyp 2: Participants will show improvement in accuracy and reaction speed over time due to increased exposure to input in an immersion setting. Hyp 3: WM capacity is associated with variation in rates of improvement over time during immersion due to WM’s role in facilitating language learning. Hypotheses 1 significantly supported; 2 partly supported (improvements found only for speed, not accuracy), 3 not supported in positive direction for either speed or accuracy; in fact working memory capacity showed significant association with slower speeds, with implications for current interpretations of processing models and role of working memory in the learning process.
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The Brihadeswara temple is one of the most ancient and the most celebrated Hindu temple in the world. The temple is located in the city of Thanjavur that is also known as Tanjore, in the Indian province of Tamilnadu. The UNESCO has adjudged this thousand years old temple a "World Heritage Site".
Brihadeswara is the most illustrious and a brilliant example of the
Dravidian style temple architecture. The building that carries the main
sanctum is known as the 'Periya Kovil'. This stands amidst fortified
walls that were probably added in the 16th century. The 'Vimana' of the
temple is about 70 meters and is among the tallest of its kind in the
world. The 'Shikharam' (crown) of Brihadeswara temple is itself very
large and heavy (81.25 tons) and has been carved out of a single stone.
The great Tamil ruler, Rajaraja Chola I of the Chola dynasty, built the
Brihadeswara temple. Later various additions were made in the temple but
the most prominent one among these was the addition of a copper pot over
the tower by King Rajaraja Chola II. The main deity that is worshiped in
this temple is Lord Shiva. He is worshipped in the form of Lingam. This
was originally called Adavallan that meant an expert dancer. The same
name occurs in Thiruvisaipa as the name of the deity at Chidambaram. The
tower over the shrine is named Dakshina Meru after the abode of Lord
Shiva at Kailash that is also called Meru Mountain in Hindu scriptures.
Another remarkable feature of the temple is the great Nandi (stone
bull) that is established at the entrance of the temple as well as
ceiling of its enclosure that is decorated with frescoes in the typical
Thanjavur style of painting. The Nandi weighs 27 tons and is probably
the largest of its kind in the world.
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| 0.975616 | 441 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Simple Pendulum vs Compound Pendulum
Pendulums are a type of objects which displays periodic oscillatory motions. The simple pendulum is the basic form of the pendulum, which we are more familiar with, whereas the compound pendulum is an extended form of the simple pendulum. Both of these devices are very important in the understanding of fields such as classical mechanics, waves and vibrations and other related fields in physics. In this article, we are going to discuss what simple pendulum and compound pendulum are, their operation, the mathematical formulae that describe the motion of simple pendulum and compound pendulum, the applications of these two, the similarities between simple pendulum and compound pendulum, and finally the difference between simple pendulum and compound pendulum.
The simple pendulum consists of a pivot, a string and a mass. For ease of calculations, the string is assumed to be non-elastic and have zero mass, and the air viscosity on the mass is negligible. The string is pivoted, and the mass is hung by the string so that it can oscillate freely. The only forces that act on the mass are the gravitational force and the tension of the string. The motion of a simple pendulum for very small angles is said to be in the form of simple harmonic oscillations. The simple harmonic motion is defined as a motion taking the form of a = – (ω^2) x where “a” is the acceleration and “x” is the displacement from the equilibrium point. The term ω is a constant. A simple harmonic motion requires a restoring force. In this case, the restoring force is the conservative force field of gravitation. The total mechanical energy of the system is conserved. The period of oscillation is given by where l is the length of the string and g is the gravitational acceleration. If viscosity or any other damping force is present, the system is identified as a damped oscillation.
The compound pendulum, which is also known as the physical pendulum, is an extension of the simple pendulum. The physical pendulum is any rigid body that is pivoted so that it can oscillate freely. The compound pendulum has a point called the center of oscillation. This is placed at a distance L from the pivot where L is given by L = I/mR; here, m is the mass of the pendulum, I is the moment of inertia over the pivot, and R is the distance to the center of mass from the pivot. The period of oscillation for the physical pendulum is given by T = L is known as the length of gyration.
What is the difference between Simple and Compound Pendulums?
• The period and, therefore, the frequency of the simple pendulum depends only on the length of the string and the gravitational acceleration. The period and the frequency of the compound pendulum depend on the length of gyration, the moment of inertia, and the mass of the pendulum, as well as the gravitational acceleration.
• The physical pendulum is the real life scenario of the simple pendulum.
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| 0.920758 | 644 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Here is a rare color photograph from World War II. Taken 70 years ago next month, it reveals American warriors from E Company, Fifth Ranger Battalion, aboard their landing craft on Weymouth Harbor, Dorset, England. They are setting out to fight the Nazis on Omaha Beach on D-Day — June 6, 1944, one of the pivot points of the 20th century. In the foreground, they are, clockwise from far left, First Sergeant Sandy Martin, Technician Fifth Grade Joseph Markovich, Corporal John Loshiavo and Private First Class Frank Lockwood, with their Bazooka, Garand rifle, 60-mm mortar and Lucky Strikes.
Seventy years ago this week, before they boarded their vessel, these Rangers — four of perhaps 160,000 soldiers who would cross the English Channel — were penned up, away from public view, in camps policed by British officers in machine-gun towers. As they waited for their signal, soldiers of Operation Overlord hurled Army knives at playing cards nailed onto trees, played softball and, ducking into an entertainment tent, watched “Girl Crazy,” starring Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland. But their nerves were strained; sometimes they fought one another with fists. They knew the lethal odds that faced them on the Normandy beaches.
Then Martin, Markovich, Loshiavo and Lockwood were in their landing craft. One soldier insisted that these boats were designed to induce “a sense of physical discomfort, seasickness and physical degradation” so that the men would “land in such an angry condition as to bring destruction, devastation and death upon any person or thing in sight or hearing.” About 2,500 Americans were killed in the D-Day effort to make the world safe for freedom. One of them was Sandy Martin, who lies buried in the American cemetery on the bluff that looks down on Omaha Beach.
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| 0.972192 | 389 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Gods on the Roman Frontier
Thursday, July 31, 2014
CUMBRIA, ENGLAND—While digging at the ancient Roman site of Maryport, archaeologists have uncovered the remains of a large, stone circular structure in front of what dig director Ian Haynes of Newcastle University says is “the most north-westerly classical temple in the Roman world to be discovered so far,” according to Culture24. The rectangular temple dates from the second century A.D. and the circular structure associated with it was likely an impressive monument of some kind, perhaps a large, freestanding column. The ancient remains at Maryport were originally found in the late nineteenth century, and much remains to be discovered, says Haynes. The fort at Maryport was a crucial part of the Roman Empire’s border defenses for at least three centuries, and the classical temple would have been a reminder of home for the soldiers stationed on this remote north-west frontier of the vast empire, explains Nigel Mills, the heritage advisor to the Hadrian’s Wall Trust.
Pirates of the Caribbean, evidence for the oldest Irishman, Iron Age Swiss cheese, India’s cannabis frescoes, and the Silk Road route to Nepal
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| 0.93129 | 254 | 2.875 | 3 |
Scientists have reported that sunscreen may be to blame for dying coral reefs. In the January 2008 issue of Environmental Health Perspectives, it is reported that four common sunscreen ingredients activate viruses that kill an algae that feeds coral through protosynthesis. Without the algae, the coral turns white and dies.
The four chemicals in question are octinoxate, oxybenzone and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor and butylparaben. According to the scientists, nearly 4,000 to 6,000 tons of sunscreen wash off swimmers every year. Scientists at the Polytechnic University of Marche in Italy estimates 10% of coral reefs worldwide are threatened by sunscreen-induced bleaching.
To avoid possibly damaging coral reefs, scientists are recommending that sunscreen users choose a sunscreen with titanium dioxide and zinc oxide as active ingredients. They also recommend choosing a biodegradable sunscreen whose ingredients break down in seawater, many noting that consumers should be leary of waterproof sunscreen. To access the article, visit www.ehponline.org/docs/2008/10966/abstract.html.
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| 0.905871 | 225 | 3.53125 | 4 |
- aloe (n.)
- Old English alewe "fragrant resin of an East Indian tree," a Biblical usage, from Latin aloe, from Greek aloe, translating Hebrew ahalim (plural, perhaps ultimately from a Dravidian language).
The Greek word probably was chosen for resemblance of sound to the Hebrew, because the Greek and Latin words referred originally to a genus of plants with spiky flowers and bitter juice, used as a purgative drug, a sense which appeared in English late 14c. The word was then misapplied to the American agave plant in 1680s. The "true aloe" consequently is called aloe vera.
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http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aloe
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| 0.966505 | 141 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Some much-needed good news for corals in the Florida Keys: After a decade of devastating declines, populations of staghorn and elkhorn corals in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary have remained steady over the last decade.
Coral disease devastated staghorn and elkhorn corals throughout the Keys and the Caribbean starting in the late 1970s. Severe coral bleaching also contributed to significant population declines. Bleaching occurs when water temperatures rise: Corals expel the symbiotic algae that provide them with their dazzling colors and their food. When the algae are shed, the white coral skeletons are left behind.
Dwindling populations prompted the listing of staghorn and elkhorn coral as "threatened" on the Endangered Species List in 2006.
Researchers from the University of North Carolina, Wilmington have monitored the coral reef communities in the marine sanctuary since 1998. This past summer, the researchers counted and measured the corals, as well as invertebrates such as urchins and anemones, at 280 sites off the northern Keys, from Key Largo to Islamorada.
The count revealed that while populations of the iconic branching corals remain far below their historic numbers, the surviving populations of both species have not suffered further declines.
"Our estimates for population sizes for staghorn and elkhorn have remained relatively constant over the last 10 years, with millions of staghorn colonies and several hundred thousand elkhorn colonies present throughout the sanctuary," said UNC Wilmington researcher Steven Miller, principal investigator for the project. "These numbers, however, represent a small fraction of what previously existed throughout the Florida Keys."
The research also indicates that long-spined sea urchins, important grazers of seaweed that can kill off corals , also appear to be on the slow road to recovery. Disease ravaged urchins in Florida and the Caribbean in the early 1980s.
"Although long-spined sea urchin densities are almost 100 times less than their levels in the early 1980s, we have documented a slow but steady increase in their numbers and sizes," said UNC Wilmington researcher Mark Chiappone.
Urchin sizes noticeably increased in the past 20 years, and researchers anticipate that with time, increasing urchin numbers and sizes may help corals to recover on reefs with abundant seaweed cover.
This story was provided by OurAmazingPlanet, a sister site to LiveScience.
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| 0.940318 | 498 | 3.453125 | 3 |
.- On the day the Republic of South Sudan becomes the world’s newest country, Vatican spokesman Fr. Federico Lombardi, S.J., recalled Pope John Paul II’s historic visit to the troubled nation nearly 18 years ago.
“It was February 10, 1993, and John Paul II was at the end of an intense and extraordinary day in Khartoum,” Fr. Lombardi said in his weekly editorial as General Manager of Vatican Radio July 9.
“With his usual and extraordinary courage, he addressed the dramatic themes of justice and freedom in the presence of the governing authorities and was greeted with incredible enthusiasm by an immense crowd of Sudanese Catholics, for the most part displaced people from the south, fleeing from the violence of a civil war without end.”
The civil war that gripped Sudan was fought over two decades between a Muslim Arab-dominated north and a mainly Christian and animist south. It was a conflict that cost over two million lives, mainly civilians. Fr. Lombardi’s editorial quoted the words Pope John Paul II spoke that night in Sudan’s capital city of Khartoum in 1993.
“The immense suffering of millions of innocent victims impels me to voice my solidarity with the weak and defenseless,” said Pope John Paul, “who cry out to God for help, for justice, for respect for their God–given dignity as human beings, for their basic human rights, for the freedom to believe and practice their faith without fear or discrimination. I earnestly hope that my voice will reach you, Brothers and Sisters of the South.”
South Sudan’s independence is the end result of a 2005 peace agreement that began a partitioning of Sudan into two states. The split was finally ratified earlier this year in a referendum that saw over 98 percent of southern Sudanese vote for secession.
Attendees at today’s independence celebrations in South Sudan’s capital of Juba include dignitaries from around the globe, including a papal delegation sent by Pope Benedict XVI. The head of that delegation is Cardinal John Njue of Nairobi, Kenya.
Fr. Lombardi sees today’s events as a fulfillment of a hope expressed by Pope John Paul II in February 1993 when he prayed that “the Sudanese, with the freedom to choose, will succeed in finding a constitutional formula which will make it possible to overcome contradictions and struggles, with proper respect paid to the specific characteristics of each community.”
Fr. Lombardi concludes his editorial by expressing hope that the people of South Sudan can “build a future of freedom and peace” despite being “one of the poorest countries in the world” which faces “very difficult problems for its internal unity.”
“The mysterious and extraordinary vitality of the people of Sudan – which exploded that night in Khartoum before John Paul II – has not yet been exhausted, but in order to flourish, it is in need of concrete and strong international and ecclesial solidarity. We cannot let them down.”
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| 0.956942 | 641 | 2.53125 | 3 |
1/15/2014 6:21:59 AM
Two new studies led by UC San Francisco (UCSF) scientists shed new light on the nature of beta cells, the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas that are compromised in diabetes. The first suggests that some cases of diabetes may be caused when beta cells are deprived of oxygen, prompting them to revert to a less mature state that renders them incapable of producing insulin. The second study demonstrates that acinar cells, pancreatic cells that do not normally produce insulin, can be converted to functional beta cells, a potential new avenue for treating the disease.
Hey, check out all the research scientist jobs. Post your resume today!
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Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
Bromazepam is a member of the benzodiazepine family of drugs, and, like other medications in its class, it is a central nervous system depressant that is often used to treat anxiety and insomnia. Occasionally, it may be used for treating seizure disorders or muscle spasms. Benzodiazepines work by mediating inhibitory transmissions in the brain and body. They bind to the same cellular receptor sites as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory chemical, and can thereby alleviate medical conditions that involve stimulatory transmissions.
For some people, issues related to the safety of bromazepam can limit its use in treatment. Benzodiazepines can be addictive for some people, particularly those who have had drug and alcohol problems in the past. Individuals that drink alcohol on a frequent basis sometimes opt to take medications other than bromazepam, as well, because the two can be dangerous, even fatal, when combined. Some individuals may have difficulties related to coordination and memory after taking this drug, as well. Many people that must drive frequently therefore avoid using this substance because of the risk of compromising driving ability.
Certain individuals may have a risk of developing a physical dependence on bromazepam when it is taken on a daily basis, which can be distinct from a psychological addiction. Generally, people limit their daily use of this drug to periods of time lasting two to four weeks. Such limitations mean that many individuals use this benzodiazepine to treat short-term conditions, such as anxiety that can occur prior to surgery.
Most medications carry some potentially adverse effects. The side effects of bromazepam are similar to those of other benzodiazepines, and most commonly include sleepiness, dizziness, or a loss of coordination. People taking this medication usually become tolerant to these effects after a few days. Rarely, more serious events can occur among individuals using this drug, such as allergic reactions, upset stomach, or mood disturbances.
Occasionally, interactions can occur between bromazepam and other medications. Other depressant medications, such as sleeping pills, narcotic painkillers, certain antihistamine allergy medications, and muscle relaxants, can intensify the drowsiness that can sometimes result from taking benzodiazepines. Drugs that can affect the way that the liver breaks down medications, like the antacid cimetidine, or the blood pressure medication propranolol, which sometimes may intensify the potency of bromazepam. Patients experiencing previous adverse reactions should consult with a medical professional before taking this depressant.
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- Russia has maintained close ties with Syria since the 1950s
- Syria one of few states that did not condemn USSR for occupying Afghanistan
- Russia revitalized their naval facilities in Syrian port of Tartus in recent years
- Russia fears losing influence in its biggest Middle East ally if the al-Assad regime falls
Many observers point to Moscow's close ties with Damascus going back to the 1950s as a reason for Russia now acting to defend the al-Assad regime in Syria against its many internal and external opponents.
What has apparently been forgotten is that Moscow's ties with Syria have been plagued by tensions and disagreements throughout this entire period.
Underpinning the Moscow-Damascus relationship for over half a century now has been a common antipathy toward America, Israel, and the moderate Arab states. But they have also differed on many issues.
When Soviet-Syrian relations first became close during the mid-1950s, Moscow seemed to hope the then-powerful Syrian Communist Party might at least share power with the virulently anti-Israeli and anti-Western Baath Party. But the Syrian Baathists feared the communists and agreed to the 1958 merger of their country with Egypt and even accepted the leadership of the latter's ruler, Nasser, partly in order to get his help in suppressing the communists.
After Nasser helped them do this successfully, he and the Syrian Baathists fell out, and Syria withdrew from their union (officially the United Arab Republic) in 1961. Moscow restored ties with Damascus, but during the 1960s and early 1970s had much closer relations with Egypt, which had allowed the Soviet Union to build up military and naval facilities there.
Soviet-Syrian relations improved after Nasser's successor, Sadat, switched Egypt from being a Soviet ally to being an American one, and even made a separate peace with Israel. Moscow was also grateful to Syria for being one of the few Muslim states that did not condemn the USSR for invading and occupying Afghanistan.
Nevertheless, Moscow and Damascus disagreed on several issues. Although the USSR supplied arms to Syria, Damascus complained that America supplied better ones to Israel, and that this allowed Israel to best Syria on the numerous occasions when their forces clashed. Moscow responded by saying there was nothing wrong with the quality of Soviet weapons; it was the quality of the Syrian personnel operating them that was deficient.
While it broke diplomatic relations with Israel during the June 1967 Arab-Israeli War, the Soviet Union at least recognized Israel's right to exist. Syria, by contrast, did not. As a result, Syria did not cooperate even with Soviet-sponsored Arab-Israeli peace initiatives.
In addition, Moscow was not pleased about Syria's intervention in Lebanon's long civil war beginning in the mid-1970's. Moscow and Damascus often found themselves supporting different factions during it. Further, while Moscow (and many Western states) supported Iraq during the 1980-88 Iran-Iraq War, Syria -- practically alone among Arab states -- supported Iran.
Syria was not happy with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev for having improved relations with America, the West, the moderate Arab states, and even Israel. And while Russian relations with America and the West deteriorated during the Yeltsin era (1991-99), this was also a period in which Russia was largely absent from the Middle East and thus did not provide much support for Syria.
After Putin rose to power at the very end of 1999, it soon became clear that he wanted to reassert Russia's influence in the Middle East and elsewhere. Even so, Russian-Syrian relations did not improve for several years and were actually quite testy until 2005. Putin was unhappy that Syria was unwilling to repay its Soviet era debt -- some $12-13 billion -- to Moscow. Damascus was unhappy about the improvement in Russian-Israeli relations that occurred under Putin, and about Russia's refusal to sell advanced weapons that Syria wanted but Israel objected to it acquiring.
Russian-Syrian relations, though, did improve in 2005 -- the year that Syria withdrew its forces from Lebanon in response to an amazing popular uprising in that country and possibly to Syrian fear of American intervention if it did not withdraw.
Moscow and Damascus resolved the debt issue (very much in Syria's favor), Moscow began work to revitalize the use of naval facilities at the Syrian port of Tartus that the Soviet Navy had used during the late Cold War era, and the Russian oil firm, Tatneft, gained a foothold in the Syrian petroleum sector.
While the West and the Arab League have condemned President Bashar al-Assad's regime for its violent oppression of the popular unrest against it that arose in 2011, Russia (along with China) has staunchly defended Damascus in the UN Security Council and elsewhere. Many of the previous Russian-Syrian differences, though, remain -- especially ones concerning Russia's close relations with Israel and the inability of Syria to obtain certain Russian weapons systems.
Should the al-Assad regime manage to crush its internal opponents and remain in power, it is doubtful that these ongoing Russian-Syrian differences will disappear.
Moscow is not defending the al-Assad regime because it has been such a great Russian ally. What motivates the Kremlin instead is the fear that if the al-Assad regime falls, what comes next in Syria will be worse for Russia: either a pro-Western, democratic government that has no further need of Russia, or a radical, Islamist regime that is as anti-Russian as it is anti-Western.
In either case, Russia would lose influence in Syria. And since Syria is the last country in the Middle East in which it has strong influence, this means Russia will lose influence in the Middle East as a whole. Compared to this prospect, it is not surprising that Moscow prefers to see the survival of the al-Assad regime despite how difficult and uncooperative a partner for Russia it has proven itself to be.
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Palestinian culture and identity and the role of Palestinian women
|Middle East||peacewatch||top stories||documents||culture||dialog||history||Maps||donations|
Palestinian culture and identity and the role of Palestinian women
By Sai'da Nusseibeh
[Women's NGOs annual meeting-1997 ]
Good morning ladies-
Throughout ancient and modern history, the historic land that was called Palestine has been a veritable melting pot, wherein diverse people and civilizations succeeded one the other. As each civilization waned and lost its hold, its heritage was assimilated with the civilization that followed. Modern Palestinian identity has taken shape, under the influence of the various civilizations that reigned over the historic land of Palestine: Jebusites, Canaanite, Philistines, Hebrews, Amorites, Nabateans, Armenian, Persians, Greek, Romans and Arabs.
The various Semitic and non- Semitic inhabitants of Palestine were first unified ideologically through Christianity. Between the seventh and ninth centuries, when many Palestinians converted to Islam, they exchanged their various dialects for the Arabic language, the language of the Qur'an and that of the Muslim rulers.
The seed for a modern Palestinian cultural identity were sown.
Palestinian villages are ancient. They were mentioned in the Old Testament and their names are once again present in the New Testament. Many of the Palestinian Christian villagers take pride in the fact, that Jesus Christ himself had evangelized them. El-Taibeh, thirty kilometer from Jerusalem, remains a living example of the continuity expressive of the deep historic roots binding the Palestinian peasant with the Holy Land from ancient Canaanite time to the present time.
The collapse of the social structure and its effect on the role of the Palestinian women
The collapse of the Palestinian social structure did not take place overnight. Nineteenth Century international foreign policy and corresponding campaign into the Near East had deleterious economic and political effects. Napoleons Egyptian Campaign did not stop in Egypt. His armies swept through the costal plain of Palestine using Gaza as his headquarters, the French army soon occupied Jaffa, and reached all the way north to Acre, producing great destructions and disorder. Following Napoleon's demise, Palestine was in a state of total collapse. Poverty and disease spread through the Holly Land.
During the reign of terror, the era of the notorious El- Jazzar, the Ottoman ruler of Acre stunned economic growth, and suppressed any fomenting indigenous form, of self-expression.
The first immigration of the Palestinian men to the Americas started whilst they left the women behind.
The depopulation of Palestine was brought about by the depressed economic situation, the result of the political Arab/Jewish conflicts in the thirties. The violence escalated into endless battles, culminating with the loss for the Palestinian from their greater part of their land in 1948.
With the destruction and division of the country a way of life came to an abrupt end.
The depth of the scars left in the collective memory of the Palestinian psyche by the 1948 Nakbah [disaster] is very difficult to imagine. Within a brief period of time, often under the direct threat of arms, the Palestinians were terrorized out of their homeland.
Three Israeli historians wrote about the horror that happened in 1948: they are Simha Flapan, Benny Morris and Ilan Pappe.
As the final moment drew to an end, a majority left their home in haste.
The image of a distracted mother, running into a boat in Jaffa, with a pillow in her arms believing it to be her swaddled baby is a recurring theme in the mythology of the Palestinians Diaspora.
What gives the Palestinian struggle its dramatic pathos is the paradoxical position of the other victim of the Second World War, the victimized Jew, and their transformation into a vindictive Israeli victimizer.
The Role of the Palestinian women
Until the beginning of the century, patriarchal relationship of authority, and the tribal clan structure of the Arab society have restricted the development and meaningful societal participation of Palestinian women.
In farming communities, women were always responsible for a large part of the work in the field such as plowing and planting crops, taking to the cities the fruits and vegetables to sell, as well as taking full responsibility for the up-keeping of the home and raising of the children.
However important the economic role of the woman, it did not improve her social status. In cities women had a better chance at attaining education.
The first institutionalized woman forum, was established in 1921, under the name of 'The Arab Women's society in Jerusalem'
Until 1948 women's organizations work was predominantly centered on teaching or charitable issues, with some participation in the nationalistic struggle against occupation -Ottoman, British and the influx of Zionist immigration to Palestine.
After 1948 with the dispossession and displacement of the Palestinian nation, and the loss of the material basis, that sustained the patriarchal family, the need for extra income became paramount. Women as well as men had to go out to work, and education became a must for them both.
The role of women became important in the refugees camp, after many men seeking work immigrated to the surrounding countries particularly the Arabian Gulf, leaving once again the women behind and this was the second exodus.
This resulted in more destruction of the traditional clan and family structures as viable social, political and economic entities.
The new situation gave women more freedom of movement, but not the freedom of full participation in decision-making. The new situation enhanced the role of women without seriously undermining the status of men.
Many women's organizations were set up to provide services inside and out of the refugee camps and the Diaspora.
The struggle to live through the hard times that the Palestinian people were going through has denied the Palestinian women's struggle for equality and freedom [the movement of equality and freedom that their sisters in the world were slowly gaining]. The struggle remained within the boundaries of the national struggle which by necessity has taken precedence.
By the late 70's a generation of young women activists started a number of grassroots committees and movements in the West Bank and Gaza. These included volunteers work committees, trade and students unions, youth movements and centers for health education.
Politicized urban educated women worked hard at involving university students, village and camp women as well as urban poor women and workers. They also recruited intellectuals and urban middle class women in a united women's movement.
By now, society's perception of the role of the woman has improved in many ways as the result of the greater participation of women in the labor force, and the increased level of education. Women's involvement in the national struggle became more prominent but remained subservient to the patriarchal system, which governed the national movement, just as it governed the national liberation movement.
Intifada connotes the removal of unnecessary elements: shaking off pre-existing weaknesses, strengthening previous structures, constituted as a positive and in the process updating and revitalizing the system violently.
In was under the Intifada in 1987 that women were to affect a major change in their role in society. The Intifada as a social phenomenon is highly symbolic. It expresses a passionate unleashing of pent -up anger and channels the Palestinians sense of frustration.
The Intifada was a violent search for self -identity on the individual and cultural social levels. Being Palestinian, and recognizing the characteristics of our culture identity, permeates all our actions. Although it is an awesome moment of confrontation between us and history in its various discourses, the Intifada remains first and foremost a moment of self-discovery.
Palestinian women played a major role in the Uprising from the beginning. They actively participated in the demonstrations and in the stone throwing. They broke the taboos of women being physically involved in the political arena. They were beaten, imprisoned, tortured, and killed. The Palestinian home, which has been the place of seclusion and sanctity for women, became violated on daily bases by army searches and demolitions.
This brought the issue of female sexuality, from the private domain to the public sphere. Female sexuality, which is so sacred to the honor of the Arab family and clan, was threatened by the Israeli soldiers, through sexual harassment in the home and the prison. But this did not intimidate these women neither it prevented them from further participation in the struggle. On the contrary, it made them more determined to fight and this in turn accorded them a lot of respect and regard from the male population, who by now have come to depend on them, for much more than participation in the political struggle.
During the Intifada Palestinians faced curfews, that went on for days, schools and universities were shut for months, borders with Israel closed so the Palestinians workers could not get to earn a living, families went without income for months, thousands of men, young boys and women were detained imprisoned, hundreds killed injured and many expelled from their homes across the borders to Jordan.
It was a heavy burden on the Palestinian woman, who has lost children, husbands' father of other close relative/family members. Not a single Palestinian home was untouched by tragedy. Women became the guardians of the family, and took over the responsibility, previously held by men.
The grassroots committees which were formed before the uprising, now created these structures. Which sustained this uprising. Women's organizations assumed a major role in these committees and they came to the forefront helping with every aspect of daily life. They taught the children when schools were shuts, they protected the teenagers from the Israeli soldiers pretending every young one is their own child surrounding the soldiers, and they started home production to boost the economy and many other countless services.
Palestinian men were showing signs of accepting the more active role of women in the struggle and the social life;
The perception of women changed from frail creature to saviors and active members of society. The struggle of the Uprising gave women a new self-confidence and strength it advanced them from their previous situation, but it did not achieve for them great gains in their struggle for social freedom and equality. The new climate helped them to criticize in public the restriction placed on their social life.
With the end of the Intifada and the advent of the peace process the gains that the Palestinian women have achieved are being questioned and threatened. For coming out of the Israeli prison, thousands of men are again requiring their wives, daughters, and sisters to go back to the old social role. Men are afraid that these newly gained freedoms might threaten their position in the household and society.
And women? They are also afraid that they will suffer the fate of their Algerian sisters, who had a great role in the struggle against the French, yet lost all their right after liberation.
Palestinian women are theorizing about the future and are looking at issues such as class, religion and patriarchal structures. Women are hoping that the newly found Palestinian authority will be transformed into an independent democratic state in which they can translate their political activism during the uprising into social gains.
Saida Nusseibeh is a member of a prominent Palestinian family. She lives in Amman. Formerly, she lived in London, where she was active in refugee aid work and in dialog. She has helped to found dialog groups including MidEastWeb for Coexistence and has served on the board of directors of Medical Aid for Palestinians (MAP).
Main History Page
Middle East Gateway
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Sociologists have recognized that three social issues have existed since earliest times. As civilizations formed, each of them grappled with the concept of fear, shame and guilt. These are, in essence the building blocks of society. Every society has its particular ways of dealing with these issues. And each of these issues have different importance, depending on the cultural makeup of that society.
These three aspects make up the basic building blocks of worldview. It is similar to the three basic colors that an artist mixes to make all the colors of the universe. On my computer, I can mix the three primary colors to make up 64 million other colors. That's the way it is with worldview. There are many different kinds of worldview, but when carefully examined they can be better understood when looking at them in the light of man's response to guilt, shame and fear.
Sociologists have used terms like guilt-based cultures, and shame-based cultures for years now. We must be careful, however, not to try and fit each culture or worldview into one specific category such as fear based or shame based. As I stated, these building blocks are similar to an artist, creating thousands of colors from three basic primary colors. How much of each primary color is used, determines what the final color will be when the paint is mixed. In the same way, all three building blocks are present in all cultures and worldviews, but how much of each one is present, determines the actual type of culture that emerges.
Having determined this, one must also consider how people in a particular local culture react to the elements of the overall culture. As an example, when an Arab is shamed, he may react by taking revenge on the one who causes the shame, but when an oriental is shamed, he may react by committing suicide. So while individual cultures may react to sin in different way, in general terms there are great blocks of the world that have similar worldviews.
Where are the major blocks? Many western nations (Northern Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand) have cultures that contain mostly guilt-based cultural characteristics. On the other hand, much of the Middle East and Asia is made up shame-based cultures. Most of the primal religions and cultures of the world (such as tribes in the jungles of Africa, Asia, and South America) are structured around fear-based principles.
The problem comes when we want to simply classify cultures into these three basic classifications. They do not easily fit, because they are made up of blends of all three.
Thus, when analyzing a culture, one must look for the primary cultural characteristics, and then the secondary ones. As an example, many North American Native cultures are made up of elements of both shame-based and fear-based cultures. On the other hand, much of North American culture has been made up almost exclusively of guilt-based principles, although this has changed in the last two decades.
As cultures and worldviews developed over the millennia, they have gravitated towards one of these groups. This polarization has created three mega-trends in worldview. While the majority of worldviews fits into these three classifications, many cultures draw equally from two or all three worldviews.
This mixing of worldviews is especially noticeable in South America where jungle tribes with fear-based cultures come in contact with shame-based cultures originating out of southern Spain, and guilt-based cultures brought by western religion and western business.
The goal of this paper is to simply introduce the idea of guilt, shame and fear based cultures, and then to examine how the Nabataean culture fit into this picture. Along the way I will use illustrations drawn from many cultures of the world, including modern Muslim culture.
None of us lives in exactly the same culture. Culture varies from town to town, family to family and sometimes even from individual to individual. All of us are different. We are made up of different fabrics and formed by the different experiences that come into our lives on a day to day basis. Even those who try to define "American" or "Canadian" culture can only talk in vague generalizations. Americans come from all kinds of ethnic backgrounds, and have all kinds of values. Some live in middle class housing, some in cardboard boxes on the street, and some in large impressive mansions. It's hard to place categorizations and descriptions on people who are so diverse.
Despite this, however, there are some general characteristics or mega-traits that fit the majority of people in the western world. Certain basic fundamental beliefs have molded western civilization. These beliefs have laid the foundations upon which these nations are built, and from which the fabric of their society has been formed.
One of these basic foundations is their belief in right versus wrong. This understanding is so deeply ingrained in western culture, that westerners analyze almost everything from this perspective. Most western forms of entertainment are built upon 'the good guys and the bad guys.' It is so familiar to westerners that few of them question its validity. It is such an integral part of religion and society, that they often cannot imagine a world where 'right versus wrong' isn't the accepted basic underlying principle.
'Right versus wrong' is the yardstick used in their culture to measure everything else with. They talk about the rightness and wrongness of someone else's actions. They talk about things being "right for me." They are obsessed with knowing their rights and exercising them. Many western societies spend countless hours and billions of dollars debating the wrongs of society. Is homosexuality right or wrong? Is spending billions on the military right or wrong? Is possession of drugs right or wrong? How about possession of nuclear bombs, or weapons of mass destruction?
Almost every major issue the west struggles with involves an aspect of deciding whether something is right or wrong. They arrive at this basic tension in life because almost everything in western culture is plotted on a guilt/innocence line. (Innocence being something defined as being right or righteousness).
The pulls and demands of these two diametrically opposed forces dictate much of western human behavior. Guilt can plague and haunt people bringing fear and condemnation upon them. Many westerners do everything they can to avoid being guilty. Psychologists spend a great deal of their time helping people deal with all sorts of guilt complexes.
Evangelical Christians in particular, often live in circles that are governed by guilt principles based on the authority of the Bible. Outside of these circles, guilt is defined in many other ways. It can be a sense of public disapproval, being in trouble with the authorities, or not being politically correct. However guilt is defined, and to what extent it influences a culture varies widely from location to location. However, the understanding of right and wrong has been instrumental in forming much of western society.
On the other end of the spectrum, is righteousness, or innocence. This is the unspoken goal of much of western society. "I'm OK, you're OK" is the most comfortable situation for many. Many westerners express their innocence with the statement that they are as good as the next person. If this is true, then they can get about their business of pursuing happiness and pleasure within the bounds of being OK and not guilty.
Most westerners do what they can to avoid being guilty and at the same time exercise their rights. This guilt/innocence thinking is so ingrained in western society that most westerners have immediate reflexes to events that catch them off guard.
Being a westerner, I have often noticed some of the reflexes that we have developed. Have you ever noticed what happens in the swimming pool when the lifeguard blows his whistle? Almost all westerners will stop to see who is guilty, and when they realize they are innocent will resume swimming. This is a normal scenario from the western world, but it is not true in much of the eastern world. When we in the western world do something wrong, like unintentionally running a red light, we may feel guilty. This is also not necessarily true in the eastern world.
Or, how about this scenario? Imagine a classroom full of grade school kids. Suddenly, the intercom interrupts their class. Johnny is being called to the principle's office. What is the immediate reaction of the other children? In the west the immediate reaction would almost always be: "What did you do wrong?" Even western children almost always immediately assume guilt. Perhaps the school principal was going to hand out rewards, but much of western society conditions people to expect the worst, and they feel pangs of guilt.
So much of western thinking is wrapped up in guilt. Wars are justified on the basis of establishing guilt. During the opening days of the Gulf War, the American government spent many hours and millions of dollars determining if Saddam Hussein was guilty. Once they thought they had established that he was guilty of committing atrocities they had the right to take military action against him. Throughout the war, they continued to make statements about Mr. Hussein's deranged mental state and irrational actions. All of this helped justify the war. In fact, all during the history of western civilizations, wars have had to be justified, and each side identifies the other as being the 'bad guys.'
But some things are not easy to chart between right and wrong. Is a hungry child stealing food guilty? Should he be punished despite his hunger? These questions disturb us, because we feel that everything in life must fit somewhere between guilt and innocence.
In fact, western association with guilt has gone so far as to provide an avenue for people to develop guilt complexes. They feel guilt for what they have done and also guilt for what they have not done. They even feel guilt for what others have done. People who struggle with a guilt complex can even be overcome with embarrassment and feelings of guilt from the actions of others.
The flip side of guilt is innocence, righteousness, and exercising rights. As I mentioned, "I'm OK, you're OK" is an important philosophy in western culture. In order not to point a finger at people, western society continues to expand the limits of what is acceptable activity. By making homosexuality acceptable, they help thousands of people avoid feeling guilty. This alone is enough to convince many people in western society that it's OK for people to be homosexual. In fact, almost anything is tolerated as long as it doesn't hurt another person.
I have been surprised to discover that many people in our western world believe that our fixation with right and wrong is not only normal, but also the only correct way to think. They assume that anyone, who does not think in these terms, does not think rationally or logically.
In order to understand guilt-based culture, we must go back to Greek and Roman times, and examine the origin of this pattern of thinking, and discover how this has had an impact on society and religion.
The Roman Connection
The Roman Empire has come and gone, leaving us with a few ruined cities, and a wealth of stories about conquest and heroism. While most of what the Romans accomplished has disappeared, there is one facet of Roman life that has impacted the west, right down to the present. It is the Roman law, or the 'pax romana' (Roman peace) which was brought about by everyone obeying the Roman law.
Roman law introduced the concept that the law was above everyone, even the lawmakers. This idea was not totally new. The Jews under Moses understood this. Greek politicians developed a similar plan with their city-state, but with laws that were man made, not divine. The Romans, however, perfected the system, and put it into widespread use. They developed a type of democracy known as the republic. They put in place a complex legal system that required lawmakers, lawyers, and judges. This Roman system of law left a tremendous impact on western society. Even to this day, much of the western legal system is still built around the basic Roman code of law.
Western civilization today is littered with references to the Roman Empire. Much of their coins, architecture, and language have Roman roots. Legal and economic theories are so filled with Romanisms that westerners no longer see them for what they are. They have become so much a part of their mental furniture, that few people today question them. As an example, Roman law during the Roman Empire assumed that the individual's rights were granted by the state (by government) and that lawmakers can make up laws. Under Roman law, the state was supreme, and rights were granted or erased whenever lawmakers decided. This philosophy is sometimes called 'statism.' Its basic premise is that there is no law higher than the government's law.
Roman politicians were not the first to invent statism but they did such an effective job of applying it, that the Roman Empire has become the guiding star for politicians in the west. Statists see the "pax romana," the period in which Rome dominated the Mediterranean world, as the golden days of statism. The known world was "unified" and controlled by one large government. This unification was symbolized in Roman times by something known as the fasces. This was a bundle of wooden rods bound together by red-colored bands. In ancient Rome the fasces was fixed to a wooden pole, with an ax at the top or side. This symbolized the unification of the people under a single government. The ax suggested what would happen to anyone who didn't obey the government. The Roman fasces became the origin of the word fascism.
During Roman times, pax romana (the Roman peace) meant, "do as you are told, don't make waves, or you will be hauled away in chains." Roman Law was supreme. In contrast to this, there was the old way of obeying the supreme ruler. Under this system, the word of the ruler was law. With the Republic, the Romans elevated law, so that it was above the ruler. Now everyone, even the emperor of Rome had to obey the law. The law, not the ruler determined if people were innocent or guilty.
It is interesting to note, that as the early Christian church developed and grew, Roman law also had an impact on Christian theology. Since Roman law interpreted everything in the terms of right versus wrong, early Christians were deeply influenced by this thinking.
Early Church Theologians
Tertullian, the early church father who first developed a code of systematic theology, was a lawyer steeped in Roman law. Using his understanding of law, and the need for justice, guilt, and redemption, he laid the basis for Christian systematic theology, as it would develop in the west.
Tertullian was born shortly before 160 AD, into the home of a Roman centurion on duty in Carthage. He was trained in both Greek and Latin, and was very much at home in the classics. He became a proficient Roman lawyer and taught public speaking and practiced law in Rome, where he was converted to Christianity. In the years that followed he became the outstanding apologist of the Western church and the first known author of Christian systematic theology.
Basil the Great was born in 329 AD, and after completing his education in Athens he went on to practice law and teach rhetoric. In 370 AD, Basil, the lawyer, became Basil the Bishop when he was elected bishop of Caesarea. During his time as Bishop he wrote many books in defense of the deity of Christ and of the Holy Spirit. Basil's training in law and rhetoric gave him the tools he needed to speak out in defense of the church.
Next came Augustine who was born in 354 AD into the home of a Roman official in the North African town of Tagaste. He received his early education in the local school, where he learned Latin to the accompaniment of many beatings. He hated studying the Greek language so much that he never learned to use it proficiently. He was sent to school in nearby Madaura and from there went to Carthage to study rhetoric, a technique used in Roman law for debate. He then taught legal rhetoric in his hometown and Carthage until he went to Milan in 384 AD. He was converted in 386 and became a priest in 391. He returned to Africa and became a prolific writer and bishop. No other Christian after Paul has had such a wide and deep impact on the Christian world through his writings as Augustine.
Ambrose was born around 340 AD, in Gaul. When his father, the prefect of Gaul, died, the family moved to Rome where Ambrose was educated for the legal profession. Later, he was appointed civil governor over a large territory, being headquartered in Milan. Upon the death of the bishop of Milan in 374, the people unanimously wanted him to take that position. Believing this to be the call of God, he gave up his high political position, distributed his money to the poor, and became a bishop. In 374, Ambrose demonstrated his ability in the fields of church administration, preaching, and theology. But as always, his training in Roman law enforced his views of guilt and righteousness.
Have you noticed the impact that law and lawyers had on the development of the early church? This trend did not stop with the early church.
John Calvin was born in 1505 in northeastern France where his father was a respected citizen. He studied Humanistic Studies at the University of Paris, and then law at the University of Orleans, and finally at the University of Bourges. Sometime between 1532 and 1533 he converted and adopted the ideas of the reformation. The writings of John Calvin, the lawyer and theologian, have had a tremendous impact on our society.
Calvin was not alone. Arnauld Antoine the French theologian (1612-1694), studied at Calvi and Lisieux, first law, then theology. He was made a priest and doctor in 1634. Arnauld spoke out against the Jesuits and his writings added to the impact of the reformation.
There are more examples of theologians who were also lawyers, such as Martin Luther, but this list will suffice to point out that legal thought and expression had much to do with the development of the theology of the Early Church and the Reformation. Each of these church leaders continued to develop the relationship between Christianity, as it was known in the west, and the legal understanding of guilt, justice, and righteousness. These lawyers were concerned with establishing guilt, or innocence, and they brought this emphasis with them, into their theology. And so the western church that developed used this theology to build their civilizations.
In the ensuing years, new nations in the New World would be founded on the theological basis developed by these church leaders. The United States of America was founded on these principles. The American founders attempted to establish a nation built on the Roman principle of a republic, and on the early church's understanding of right and wrong.
Today, it is interesting to notice that there are many non-western sources who link guilt-based culture with Christianity. In October 1999, Isaiah Kalinowski, the Opinion Editor for the Jordan Times, wrote an article entitled "The Shame Culture that is Wabash." In this article he pointed out: "... guilt culture is due largely to Christianity. A shame culture is one in which individuals are kept from transgressing the social order by fear of public disgrace. On the other hand, in a guilt culture, one's own moral attitudes and fear of retribution in the distant future are what enforce the ethical behavior of a member of that society."
From Kalinowski's perspective, guilt-based
culture is linked to Christian theology. This is an unfortunate
misrepresentation, as the Bible was written in a shame-based setting
and speaks to all cultures and worldviews. On the other hand,
Christians, must recognize the incredible impact that guilt-based
culture has had on their history and understanding and interpretation
of the Bible.
The Eastern Scene
Christianity in the east, however, developed differently. Eastern theologians did not use Roman law as a vehicle for interpreting the gospel. Rather, the eastern world was caught up in the shame-honor relationship that was prevalent in societies scattered from the Middle East to the Far East. Eastern Orthodox theology didn't deal directly with sin, guilt, and redemption.
Chrysostom, the early church theologian for the Eastern Church, was born about 345 AD into a wealthy aristocratic family in Antioch. He was a student of the sophist Libanius who had been a friend of the Emperor Julian. This man gave him a good training in the Greek classics and rhetoric that laid the foundation for his excellent speaking ability. After his baptism in 368, he became a monk in the eastern churches. Chrysostom rose to being an outstanding preacher, even winning the acclaim of the emperor. Today we have a record of around 680 of Chrystostom's sermons and homilies and I am told that he never once preached on justification. In the end, he was banished because he spoke out so sharply against the views of the western theologians.
In the same way, Islam, which rose to prominence around 600 AD, teaches that God remains over all, and that law is in his hands, not the hands of lawmakers.
The Qur'an enforces the principle that God is overall with the story about Pharaoh and how he was shown Allah's "mightiest miracle, but he denied it and rebelled.' The Pharaoh quickly went away and summoning all his men, made to them a proclamation. 'I am your supreme Lord.' The Qur'an then tells us that Allah "Smote him," and goes on to warn, "Surely in this there is a lesson for the God fearing."
Therefore it would be unthinkable to a Muslim, that a lawmaker could make a law that is over all. This is why Islam presents both a religious and a cultural pattern for people to live by. God dictates both moral laws and civil laws.
Roman law and thinking has also impacted the way we westerner look at history. The danger comes, when we westerners take our Roman understanding of civilization and culture and apply it to those who do not have a Roman-based culture. We fruitlessly spend untold hours and incalculable amounts of energy explaining to what motivates people and shapes society, when in truth, we don't understand the real principles of the other culture.
The answer to this dilemma is quite simple. We westerners must put our Roman, guilt-based understanding of culture and history aside, and strive to understand other worldviews and their thinking. Then we need to return to our history books and discover what is happening in a society that is not pre-occupied with right and wrong, or guilt and innocence.
As we drew near to the jungle village, the sound of drums could be heard. Drawing closer, we could see people dancing and withering on the ground. A man approached us and explained that they could not go further. The village was doing a sacred rite to improve the economy and bring more trade to the area. We were escorted away and not given a chance to introduce why we had come to their village. Later we heard that a human sacrifice had been offered to the spirits that day.
In another situation we arrived in a village when a rain-making ceremony was about to begin. They were invited to watch. A black bull was led to the edge of the village where it faced the direction from where the rain would come. The animal's throat was cut and it fell over on its left side, to the delight of all. This indicated that the sacrifice was acceptable. The men then cut up the meat and cooked it. As the meat was cooking, an old man began to shout out a prayer to the spirits for rain. Soon everyone joined in. After the meat was eaten, the shouting turned into dancing. The villagers danced all afternoon until the rain came. It rained so heavily that everyone had to run for shelter. Did the rituals bring the rain? To the natives it was obvious and there was no way that we rational westerners convince them otherwise.
As these two stories illustrate, there are many people in the world today whose lives revolve around their interaction with the spiritual world. They believe that gods and spirits exist in the universe and they must live in peace with these unseen powers, either by living quietly, or by appeasing these powers.
Based on their worldview, these cultures and peoples view the universe as a place filled with gods, demons, spirits, ghosts, and ancestors. Man needs to live at peace with the powers around him, and often man lives in fear. This fear is based on a number of different things. First, man fears man. Tribal wars are endemic, with captives becoming slaves or, sometimes, a meal for cannibals. Whenever tribes encounter people from outside of their own group, they approached them with suspicion and fear.
Secondly, these people fear the supernatural. All around them events are taking place that can only be explained by the supernatural. Much like the ancient civilizations, they have developed spiritual explanations for how things work in this world. If crops fail, then specific gods or demons are responsible. If sickness comes, then other gods or demons are responsible. If a tribe fails in battle, it is because of the activity of a god or demon. Sickness is often viewed as a god reaping revenge. Everything in life, even romance, is somehow attributed to the activities of gods or demons.
The struggle that these people face is simply one of needing power. Using their voodoo, charms, and other methods, they seek to gain control over other people and over the controlling powers of the universe. The paradigm that these people live in is one of fear versus power.
At the end of the 19th century, E. B. Tylor attempted to understand the difference in thinking between Europeans and other peoples living in Africa and South America. In his writings he coined the word 'animism' from the Latin word anima for 'soul.' He saw the animistic worldview as interpreting everything from a spiritual philosophy rather than a materialistic philosophy. Many sociologists of Tylor's era saw mankind moving from an ancient worldview based on the supernatural to a modern worldview based on science and reality.
Dave Burnett states in his book Unearthly Powers, that H. W. Turner later advocated the use of the term primal religion, meaning that "these religions both anteceded the great historic religions and continue to reveal many of the basic or primary features of religion." Almost everywhere you find animists or primal religions you find people living under the influence of a fear-based culture.
Burnett goes on to state, "Power can be understood in many ways: physical, political, economic, social, and religious. The secular worldview tends to regard all power as originating from within the material world. ... In contrast, primal worldviews see such powers not only as being real within the empirical world but as having their primary origin outside the visible world."
In this way, those whose lives operate in the fear/power paradigm see themselves living in a physical world that co-exists and is influenced by unseen powers. These powers may be present in people or animals or even in inanimate objects like trees or hills. In some cultures, powers may be perceived in personal terms such as we would use for living beings. These powers are often regarded as having their own particular character, feeling, and ability to relate to others, and often, even have a will of their own. Like people, they may be angered, placated, or turned to in time of need.
Power is an important concept in fear-based cultures. In the Pacific Islands it is often called 'mana,' while the Iroquois of North America call it 'orenda,' which particularly refers to the mystic power derived from a chant. The Eskimos have the notion of 'sila,' a force watching and controlling everything. The Chinese have the concept of 'fung shui,' or the powers within the earth and sea. In folk Islam the term 'baraka' (blessing or holiness) sometimes embraces many of these concepts.
In most fear/power cultures, the main way of dealing with a power is to establish rules to protect the unwary from harm and procedures to appease those powers that are offended. These rules and procedures are generally referred to as taboo. Taboos come in the form of things like special people, forbidden or unclean foods, sacred objects, special acts or rituals, and special names. Appeasements are usually made in the form of sacrifice or dedication to the invisible powers.
These powers can take various forms, such as: ghosts, demons, ancestors who live around people, spirits in trees and rocks, and totems (clans associated with certain animals or inanimate objects.)
In order to deal with these powers, rituals are established which people believe will affect the powers around them. Rituals are performed on certain calendar dates, and at certain times in someone's life (rites of passage), or in a time of crisis.
In order to appease the powers of the universe, systems of appeasement are worked out. They vary from place to place. Some civilizations offer incense while some offer their children as sacrifices to gods. However it is done, a system of appeasement, based on fear is the norm for their worldview.
Wherever this system of appeasement comes into being, religious persons come to the forefront to control these systems. In some cases they are known as priests. In other cases they are known as witch doctors, or shamans. Whatever their title, their role is the same. They are the ones who hold power. Often they are the only ones who understand the needs of the gods or demons, and they are the ones through whom the demons or gods communicate.
In every fear-based culture, the pattern is much the same. The witch doctor, priest, or shaman controls people through the use of fear. They are very effective in their roles, and as a result, whole cultures and people groups are held in their iron grip.
As archeologists and historians have dug through the sands of time, they have uncovered temples and signs of religious activity that reflect strong fear-based elements in early civilizations. Along with this, the structure of civilizations where rulers held absolute power reflects a fear-power base for their civilization. Kings, pharaohs, and rulers held supreme authority and wielded power through the fear that they instilled in the members of their civilization. This allowed civilizations like the Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and others to conquer wide areas of their world. While we can deduce the fear-power aspect in these civilizations from ancient buildings and military records, it is much harder to detect the importance of shame and honor.
Our taxi screeched to a halt. Lying in the middle of the street was a teen-age girl, dying. She had been shot in the head four times. Just then her brother walked across the street with two policemen and stated, "There she is. I killed her because she was in an immoral situation with a man." Under the laws of the country, the young man was innocent. He had not committed murder but had preserved the honor of his family.
In another case, a girl ran away from home. Later her family learned she had married someone from another religion. They were furious. The police imprisoned the girl so that she would be protected from her family. Elderly grandmothers taunted the brother and father. "How long do we need to keep our heads to the ground in shame? Won't you do something to cleanse the shame from our tribe so we can raise our heads and live in honor once again?" The family finally agreed to pay the police a $50,000.00 guarantee that they would not hurt her and she was released into their custody. Within hours her father and brother shot her thirteen times. The entire family was pleased that honor had been restored.
The guilt/innocence perspective in which westerners live dictates much of our thinking in the west. However, not everyone in the world operates within this paradigm. As I mentioned earlier, while living in the Middle East I noticed that when the lifeguard at a swimming pool blew his whistle, the westerners all stopped to see who was guilty, but the Arabs kept right on swimming.
As I observed this and other phenomena, I began to realize that Arabs and Arab society were operating in another whole dimension. Guilt did not have the same power and influence as it did in the west. While they were aware of guilt, it didn't have the same strong connotations for them as it had for me.
If a policeman pulled me over, I immediately felt guilty, thinking that perhaps I had done something wrong. But when my Arab friends were pulled over, they didn't display any sign of guilt. They talked boldly to the policeman, and even argued loudly with him over the issues at hand.
It was only after many years of living in a Muslim culture that it started to dawn on me that the Arabs around me were not operating on a level of guilt versus innocence. Nor were they operating in a fear versus power paradigm. I had heard much about this from missionaries living in Africa but it didn't seem to apply to the Arabs of the Levant. Rather, I discovered that Arabs were living in a worldview where the predominant paradigm was shame versus honor.
Once I clued in to this, I began to explore this concept and tried to verify it on all social levels. I was amazed to discover what I found. When I would visit my friends, I would try to act correctly and they would try to act honorably, not shamefully. I was busy trying to learn the rights and wrongs of their culture, but somehow my framework of right versus wrong didn't fit what was actually happening. The secret wasn't to act rightly or wrongly in their culture. It wasn't that there was a right way and a wrong way of doing things. The underlying principle was that there was an honorable and dishonorable way of doing things.
Every part of the Muslim culture I lived in was based on honor and shame. When I visited my friends I could honor them in the way I acted. They could honor me, in the way they acted. Three cups of coffee bestowed honor on me. The first, called 'salam' (peace) was followed by 'sadaqa' (friendship), and the third cup of coffee was called 'issayf' (the sword). The meaning was clear in their culture. When I arrived I was offered a cup of coffee that represented peace between us. As we drank and talked, the cup of friendship was offered. The last cup, the sword, illustrated their willingness to protect me and stand by me. It didn't matter if I was right or wrong, they were bound by their honor to protect me.
Everywhere I moved in the Middle Eastern culture there were things that pointed to honor or shame. What chair I chose to sit in, who entered the door first, the way I expressed myself in Arabic, the very way I walked and held myself, all communicated to others around me 'my place' in the world. The cultures of the Middle East are filled with thousands of tiny nuances that communicate messages about shame and honor.
Shame is a popular topic today in western society. Shame, however is closely identified with a lack of self-esteem. Shame often stems from some form of abuse where children fail to learn trust.
This is quite different from the shame societies of the east where shame and fear of shame are used as controlling forces in people's lives. (As compared with right and wrong being used as a controlling factor.)
As western parents, we teach our children to act rightly. If they don't, we teach them that feelings of guilt are the proper response. In a shame-based culture however, children are taught to act honorably, and if they don't, feelings of shame are the proper response. But it goes farther than just feelings. Shame and honor are positions in society, just as being right (and justified) is a position in our western culture.
In the west, young people are free to act as spontaneously as they want, as long as they are within the framework of right and wrong. They can be loud, boisterous, and happy, as long as they don't break things, or abuse others. Our rule in the west is "As long as I don't hurt someone else or their property, I'm generally ok."
Young people in a Muslim setting are different. Wherever they go, they represent their families and tribes. Young people are not free to act as they want. They must always act honorably, so that the honor of their family and tribe is upheld.
If they act shamefully, then the family or tribe will react against them. Shameful deeds are covered up. If they can't be covered up, they are revenged. It is the unwritten rule of the desert. The whole concept of shameful deeds can be traced back to the early Bedouin code of practice, which existed even before Islam arrived. This code, still much in existence today, affects not only the way individuals act, but also the actions of entire nations.
As I have visited with people from other eastern countries, I have continued to explore the concept of honor and shame among these other countries. It has helped me understand and communicate with people from places such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Japan, and Korea.
In fact, I have discovered that the concept of shame and honor makes a great discussion topic. I have often asked people from shame-based cultures what are honorable or shameful acts or actions in their cultures. The discussion that follows is often highly stimulating, and usually reflects or contrasts similar attitudes right across the shame- based countries of the world.
In some cases however, there are distinct differences between cultures. As I mentioned earlier, if someone is badly shamed in an Arab culture and the shame cannot be hidden, then it is revenged, and the person responsible for the shaming is killed. In many eastern cultures, if a shame cannot be hidden, the way out is suicide. Even here, however, there are many similarities, as I have known of a number of students in Jordan committing suicide because of their poor school marks, just as happens in Japan.
In order for shame-based cultures to work, shame and honor are usually attached to something greater than the individual. Honor is almost always placed on a group. This can be the immediate family, the extended tribe, or in some cases, as large as an entire nation; as was demonstrated in Japan just previous to World War Two.
In most Middle Eastern cultures, honor is wrapped up with one's tribe. Everyone grows up within a tribal concept. If someone is from the Beni Hassan tribe, he thinks and acts, and dresses as a Beni Hassan. His actions reflect on the honor the Beni Hassan tribe. If he acts honorably, the Beni Hassan tribe is honored. If he acts shamefully, the whole tribe is shamed. If the act is vile enough, the Beni Hassan tribe will react, and execute the offender, even though he is a member of their own tribe, and perhaps even their immediate family. Thus the honor of the tribe is restored.
Many years ago an Arab soldier's gun accidentally discharged and killed his friend and companion in the army. After serving seven years, he was released on condition that he leave Jordan. He lived for nearly twenty years in the United States, but decided to return one day to see his family. When it was learned that he had returned, several young people, some of whom had not been born at the time of the killing, surrounded the house where he was and riddled his body with bullets. Their honor was restored, and shame removed.
If someone shames another tribe, tribal warfare could result, and often only the skilful intervention of a third party ends the strife. Arab lore is full of stories of how wise and skillful men have intervened in difficult situations. In fact, many national rulers gain their fame and reputation from their skills at ending tribal strife.
In the Middle East two methods are recognized. First, a skillful ruler, through diplomatic efforts and displays of great wisdom, can end disputes. Solomon's dealings with the two mothers who claimed the same baby displayed the kind of wisdom that Arabs appreciate and desire in their rulers. The second kind of ruler crushes all of the tribes and by force makes them submit to himself. Peace may then rule, but once the controlling power is removed, old animosities return. This is well illustrated in the Balkans conflict where the domination of communism brought about a measure of peace. Once freedom returned however, old conflicts and animosities flared again.
The storytellers who frequent the coffeehouses of the Middle East excel in telling stories of both kinds of rulers and heroes, especially heroes who can effectively deal with shame and restore honor. This is very different from the entertainment styles of the west, where the hero determines who is guilty, and punishes him, and right and goodness reign again. This is because in our worldview, we try to hang onto the concept that in the midst of a crooked and perverse world, right still reigns and has the upper hand. Those from a shame-based culture, on the other hand, cling to the idea of maintaining honor, in the midst of a shameful and alienated world.
For many western people it is very hard if not impossible to try and comprehend a culture that is based on shame, not right versus wrong. In most western cultures, telling the truth is right and telling lies is wrong. In the Middle East, people don't think of lies as being 'right' or 'wrong.' The question is, "Is what is being said, honorable?" If a lie protects the honor of a tribe or nation, then it is fine. If a lie is told for purely selfish reasons, then it is shameful.
Thus, in the west we debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are right or wrong. In the east, they debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are honorable or not.
Shame in Western Culture
In the past, shame has played a role in western culture. One has only to read Tolstoy's Anna Karenina, or any of Shakespeare's works to see the role that shame used to play. Shakespeare uses the word shame nine times as often as he does guilt. In time, however, our culture has changed and guilt has become much more important. Then, during the last twenty years, we have begun to move away from such a strong guilt-bases for our culture.
Why is this? I suspect that the popularity of Freud's teachings is one reason. Sociologists generally credit Freudian psychology for the removal of guilt from western culture. Since his teachings have become popular in many universities, the concept of guilt has become unpopular and guilt has been assigned to others, such as our parents. Other factors, like the lack of responsibility within modern politics have influence young people today. Nixon and Watergate, and Clinton and Lewinsky have illustrated to people today that 'right versus wrong' is not the only way to think.
During the period of 1960 to 2000 western civilization has begun a slow but steady shift away from the 'right versus wrong' paradigm. Today young people are very reluctant to label anything as right or wrong. Instead, things are assigned the label as "cool" or "not cool." In the eyes of many high school students, being cool is equivalent to being honorable. Being not cool is the equivalent of shame. I believe that this slow shift in worldview is responsible for many of the differences between boosters, boomers, busters, and Generation X'rs.
Shaming in History
Early Roman culture started out in the fear/power paradigm. Events of nature and history were interpreted within this paradigm. The worship of a pantheon of gods carried on during their whole civilization until Christianity became the state religion. When the Romans adopted the Greek pattern of placing the law above the emperor, they began to interpret events in their society on the guilt/innocence paradigm. This soon came to the forefront of their civilization, and fear/power was pushed to the back.
When the Romans conquered shame-based civilizations the people they conquered had a profound impact on their own culture. Shame was always present in Roman culture, but it slowly came more and more to the forefront and eventually into Mediterranean culture today.
In republican Rome, criminals had the doors to their houses burned as a public sign that a criminal was living there. Those who had been wronged could legally follow the criminal around, chanting and accusing him in public places.
The concept of public shaming carried on into the Middle Ages, and even into Victorian England where criminals were put into stocks. These stocks were located in public places, so that the criminal would be known and shamed before all. Pillories were rife during the Victorian age, when those who were pilloried had to endure the shame of publicly having rotten vegetables thrown at them. Branding criminals was practiced in England until the eighteenth century. Brands were often placed on the hands or face, so that the criminals would be publicly shamed wherever they went.
The major difference between east and west, however, is not the presence of the shame concept, but rather, the structure of society around either the group mentality or individualism. Eastern shame became much more powerful than western shaming activities, simply because in the east the shame rests on the person's group rather than the individual. Since many eastern society functions in a group setting, the whole group suffers rather than just the individual. If the crime is bad enough, the group itself may oust or, for a severe offense, kill the offender.
In 1999 at least twenty-five women were killed to maintain the honor of their families in the country of Jordan. Hundreds of others were killed in countries like Egypt, Sudan, Syria, and Iran.
In many countries where shame-based culture is predominant, the names of criminals and those being ousted from their families for shameful activities are publicly printed in the newspapers. In western countries we tend to isolate criminals from their surroundings, and then determine if they are guilty. Criminals are then locked away out of sight, rather than publicly shamed in stocks in the public square.
It's interesting to notice that in the Crow Indian culture in North America, mocking of some one else's inappropriate behavior effects shaming. This is sometimes called "buying-of-the-ways." If you imitate someone else's inappropriate behavior, you are buying his ways. In some cases a person actually offers money to buy someone else's inappropriate behavior. This is the ultimate shame.
In many shame-based cultures, rather than encourage others, people criticize and question others. This is seen as positive, as it keeps them from becoming too proud.
In the same way, Arabs are often quick to criticize leaders, especially elected ones, if they perceive that they are too ambitious or proud. They are sometimes publicly questioned or shamed, and often they leave public life. Even new language students discover that their neighbors are quick to point out that someone else speaks better than they do, or they are asked why they speak so poorly after being there for "a whole four months!" The criticism is often meant to keep them from being proud of how well they have done. Arabs understand that the criticism may be a compliment, but the poor westerner is often crushed.
Clash of World Views
As I mentioned earlier, there are three basic planes on which worldview, function. On each of these planes, there is a basic tension between two extremes. The three planes are:
It is possible to find all three dynamics in most cultures, but usually one or two are more dominant. Some cultures, however, operate almost entirely within one major paradigm. Secondly, cultures and worldviews are constantly shifting. The shift may be slow or fast depending on the events of history.
As an example, at the founding of the Roman Empire, the citizens of Rome operated almost entirely in a fear/power worldview, worshiping a pantheon of gods. As their civilization developed, they introduced the idea of law being higher than the emperor. In this one step they began to introduce the concept of guilt and innocence. As their civilization developed they moved almost completely away from the fear/power worldview. However, as their empire expanded they slowly introduced into it shades of the shame/honor worldview. One only has to watch the Godfather movies to see how guilt/innocence and shame/honor are the two planes that many Italians moved in during that era. Today, however, southern European culture has almost entirely lost its guilt/innocence perspective on life. Almost anything is acceptable today.
The Freudian question of why you have
so much guilt? is not the question society is asking today. Today
people are asking, "Who am I?" People are seeking to
discover who they are, and want to find an identity. Several things
· Who am I and how can I express myself?
· How can I enjoy myself?
· Am I fully exercising my rights?
· What are my options in life and am I able to choose?
Dr. James Houston of Regent College in Vancouver, Canada thinks that in our postmodern North American culture, guilt is being replaced by shame. As I mentioned earlier, the concept of something being 'cool' or 'not cool' seems to have many similarities to shame and honor-based thinking.
We must be careful here, not to try and make cultures and worldviews fit into one of the three categories: guilt, shame or fear. All cultures are made up of a mixture of all three, and individual families and even individuals in the west identify with different worldviews.
As an example, in one family you may have an individual who is a conservative Christian with strong traditional roots. This person may relate much of life to guilt/innocence thinking. A teenager in the same family may not quite see everything as so black and white and may be reluctant to accept things as being right or wrong. Rather, he or she wants to be seen as cool and desires to act and dress as cool. To be anything less would be humiliating. At the same time, a third member of the family may be into the occult, psychics and horoscopes. He or she may see life as being influenced by the stars and occultic powers. Thus, in one family, you may have people who seem to be holding three completely different worldviews.
When digging deeper, however, you may find that these people do not hold strictly to one or the other of these mega-trends, but that they have adopted some of each of them into their lives.
This can be illustrated by looking at North American native cultures. Most of these cultures are made up of a mixture of shame/honor and fear/power worldviews. One North American native I spoke to recently seemed to be torn between seeking revenge for someone who had shamed him, and wanting to pray for him in the Indian sweat lodge.
The sweat lodge and the shaman religious leaders give us clues to the fear/power worldview of the Indians. The tradition of honoring or shaming people through honor songs at tribal powwows can help us see the importance of honor and shame in their society. As I have read about Indian culture and history and as I have interacted with missionaries working among North American Indians, I have been amazed at how clearly these cultural traits are part of everyday life.
Likewise, Hinduism and Shintoism are mixtures of shame/honor and fear/power paradigms. Even Russian culture is a mixture, one part being the shame/honor worldview of the east and the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the fear/power worldview of communism.
In many cases, when guilt/innocence cultures have contacted shame/honor cultures they have clashed. As an example, the white man in North America could not understand and appreciate the North American native perspective on life. In the end, many Indians chose to die rather than face the shame of living on a reservation.
In North America in 1889, a young Paiute prophet known as Wovoka gave a message from his home in the Nevada desert. His disciples sent it to all the Indians across western America. The message from their prophet simply urged the Indians to "Dance everywhere. Keep on dancing. You must not ... do harm to anyone. You must not fight. Do right always." Soon village after village of Sioux began to perform his "Ghost Dance" with its promise of a return to old ways in a world from which whites would have been erased by a flood.
The dancing appalled and frightened whites, and they wired to Washington for protection. Army troops fanned out to round up the Ghost dancers and to settle them on reservations. Among the last to be caught was a group of about 350 Sioux under Big Foot. They were led to a military camp at Wounded Knee Creek where they set up camp under a flag of truce. An incident triggered gunfire. When the firing ended, more than 150 Indians, men, women, and children lay dead. Others fled or crawled off wounded. Chief Red Cloud said of the incident, "We had begged for life, and the white men thought we wanted theirs."
Guilt-based cultural values said that Indians must live on reservations. Fear-based cultural values said that the Ghost Dance would change the situation. Sadly, it ended with a massacre.
It is said that the Nez Perce Indians could boast that since Lewis and Clark first encountered their friendliness in Oregon country, no Nez Perce had ever killed a white man. Even when treaties were broken and settlers crowded into their lands they avoided retaliation. In 1877 they were given thirty days to move to a strange reservation in Idaho. Hoping to escape, they began an epic flight to Canada. They were caught 40 miles from the border.
In this case, shame-based cultural values clashed with guilt-based values. Being cooped up on the reservation was a terrible shame and the ultimate humiliation for Indian chiefs. Leaving the reservation was breaking the law.
In 1878 a band of northern Cheyenne left the reservation to return to their old lands "where their children could live." Overtaken by soldiers, a chief said "We do not want to fight you, but we will not go back." Clearly the shame of living on the reservation was too much for them. As they had broken the law by leaving, and now refused to return, the troops opened fire. Some Indians escaped and continued their journey. They met up with soldiers at Fort Robinson where they faced an ultimatum. "Go south or go hungry." Court records tell us what happened next. "In the midst of the dreadful winter, with the thermometer 40 degrees below zero, the Indians, including the women and children were kept for five days and nights without food or fuel, and for three days without water. At the end of that time they broke out of the barracks." Troops hunted them down. They chose death over returning to the shame and humiliation of reservation life. Today many natives still feel the sting of shame. Many have turned to the numbing effects of alcohol, and others have immersed themselves in their native religions as they seek answers to their problem of self-esteem.
Western civilizations have now turned their attention to more global issues. Global travel and trade have forced us into a position of trying to understand people from different cultures.
When researching the material for this book, I became aware of the large number of books in print in the western world that deal with the Muslim or Arab mind. These books exist not only in the religious sector but also in the political and business sectors. Westerners, for whatever reason, struggle when they encounter Arabs and other Muslims. Western businessmen struggle to know how to do business in the Muslim world. Western politicians are often confused and unprepared for the actions and reactions of Muslim leaders. Political misunderstandings and blunders have created hardships and even wars. Even Christian missionaries have not fared any better in their efforts to communicate the Christian message.
Throughout the history of Christian outreach to the Muslim peoples of the world, Christians have faced tremendous struggles in knowing how to clearly communicate the gospel message. Most of the church's efforts at communication have been received like water off a duck's back. The message is proclaimed, and the hearers are completely indifferent, sometimes resistant, and occasionally reacting with hostility.
Over the years, countless misunderstandings have developed between Christians and Muslims. Muslims often view Christians as immoral idolaters and blasphemers holding to old documents of untrustworthy heritage. Many Christians are suspicious of Muslims, viewing them as dangerous, and unpredictable. Some go as far as thinking that all Muslims are violent and oppressive.
The secular world has not fared any better. Political tensions and issues create misunderstandings on both sides. Many Muslims view western countries as expansionist and threatening. Many western nations view Muslims as terrorists, and their governments as oppressive. The average western person reacts very negatively to leaders such as Ayatollah Khomeini, Muammar al-Qaddafi and Saddam Hussein. Oil-rich Arabs are viewed as a threat to the economic stability of the west. Desperately poor and oppressed Arabs, such as the Palestinians are looked upon as terrorists. On a political level, Muslim nations and western nations have fared no better than Muslim and Christian clerics in understanding one another.
And so over the years, there has been a desire on the part of many westerners to try to understand the Arab Muslim mind. This is why there are many books and articles currently in print on the topic of the Arab mind.
Everyone realizes the importance of this topic. A St. Louis Post dispatch revealed some of the US military thinking when it stated "Pentagon Threat-Assessment Officer Major Ralph Peters believes intelligence officers must set aside their preoccupation with numbers and weaponry. Instead, he says, they must start reading books that explain human behavior and regional history."
The religious world has reacted much the same way. Theologians from all backgrounds are now crying out for a greater effort at understanding each other's view points, and for a renewed effort in accepting one another's views.
The problem of understanding one another is not easy. When we meet another person whose system of beliefs is different, we tend to interpret that system according to our own framework of understanding. It can take months and even years of living in another culture to begin to understand that culture. But not everyone reaches a point of understanding. Many westerners living in an Arab culture simply define the culture around them according to their own understanding and perspectives. They assume that the other person thinks in a similar pattern as they do. They then try to understand the culture from their own framework, based on how their own culture works. Years ago, I started out this way, but soon realized that I could not fit everything into neat packages. There was something about Arab society that I did not understand.
My wife and I entered the Arab culture when I was a twenty two year old student. At that point I had read most of the books in print about Arab culture and thought patterns. My move into Arab culture was not so much a conscious decision to understand them, as it was a conscious decision to become part of their culture. I initially concentrated on language learning and cultural adaptation. I began by living among the Arabs in the Levant. After two years, I moved to the edge of the Empty Quarter, and then, one year later, back to the Levant. Several years later, we moved to what was then the Yemen Arab Republic. A few years later we returned to the Levant, and made our home in a large urban Middle Eastern City. Then in 2000 we moved into a small village on the edge of the desert and lived among the nomadic Bedouin. We lived between the ancient city of Petra and Wadi Rumm. All in all we have spent nearly twenty years immersed in Arab culture.
I say this, not to brag of any accomplishments, but rather to point out that our personal experience with the Arab world is based on a wide variety of exposures over a long period of time. Along with our personal experience, we have cultivated friendships with foreigners and nationals living in a host of other Muslim countries, stretching from North Africa to Indonesia. During the last four years I have also lectured in many countries of the world on the topic of shame-based cultures, and have interacted with people from across Asia, as well as with First Nation people in North America.
During our years in the Middle East, I was involved in various types of employment, and I mixed with all levels of society. I have visited the marble palaces of oil-rich Arab sheiks. I have sat in the tents of the poorest Bedouin Arabs. I worked for a number of years as a liaison officer for a western organization, interacting with all levels of government in the Yemen Arab Republic. In the Levant, I worked with charities reaching out to the poor and handicapped. As a rule, we have always made our home in lower middle income neighborhoods.
And in all cases, we have tried to understand and communicate our beliefs to those around us so that they could better understand us, our religion and the society we came from.
One of my initial personal goals was to discover how the Arab mind worked. And so, with my western training ingrained in my thinking, I started asking, "What is going on now?" That seemed to be my favorite question, and for many years I was curious to know what was going on in my neighborhood, in my city and in my nation. I even wanted to know what was going on in my neighbor's head.
During all of these years, I began to notice patterns emerging. The oil-rich Arabs of the gulf, the mountain people of Yemen, the Bedouin of the desert, and the city dwellers of the Levant all held similar codes of conduct. While each region had its peculiarities, there was an overall pattern of similarity between the cultures.
These patterns, however, were not always clearly noticeable. Often there were many confusing and seemingly contradictory events. It was hard to work out what was happening, but in time, I moved on from trying to understand what was happening, to trying to understand why what was happening was happening. I refused to believe that people acted and reacted unpredictably. In fact, the longer I lived in the Arab world, the more I recognized the predictability of the Arabs. During the Gulf war years, I was in the west, and I enjoyed being able to predict certain events in the war, days and sometimes weeks before they happened. However, I found the Gulf war tremendously stressful. Watching western news, I could understand the actions and re-actions of the western nations. Having lived in the Middle East, I could understand the actions and re-actions of the Arab nations. On one side was western understanding, and on the other was Muslim understanding, and in the middle was the yawning chasm of misunderstanding. And countless millions of people paid the price with their lives, their wounds, and tremendous economic loss.
It was during this time that I began to realize how far apart western and Muslim thinking patterns really were. The west saw events and interpreted them one way. The Arabs saw events and interpreted them another way. It wasn't that one was right and the other was wrong. Thinking in terms of right versus wrong is a western thought pattern. During the Gulf war, western governments poured their resources into proving to their people that they were on the side of right, and that Saddam Hussein was on the side of wrong. Numerous instances were relayed to the western public to prove the wrongness of the Iraqis' leaders. The people of the west watched their TV's and interpreted the news according to rightness and wrongness, with the majority supporting their government's actions.
In the Middle East, the situation was less clear. Many Arab nations initially supported Saddam Hussein, and only in the face of tremendous western pressure did they start to withdraw their support. Almost all of my Arab friends told me that Saddam Hussein acted predictably and strove manfully to protect his honor and the honor of his nation. Not one of them ever discussed the rightness or the wrongness of the war.
And so, it was during the Gulf war, and in the period since then, that I seriously started to study the Arab Muslim mind, and what it was that made this mindset so different from my own. As I wrestled with Muslim thought patterns, I began to question my own culture. How did we develop our own thought patterns? Were they right? Is my own culture 'balanced' in its view of life on planet earth? During the course of history, what forces have molded my own culture? I spent many hours studying history in order to understand how events in history molded our western thinking and also Muslim thinking.
Having said this, I also realize that Islam is changing, and that western cultures around the world are putting pressure on Islamic culture to change. Islam in the west is struggling to find bridges between western cultural norms and the Muslim mindset. In my interaction with Muslim clerics in Britain and North America I have been amazed at their reinterpretation of certain verses in the Qur'an. These Muslim clerics have arrived at these new interpretations because new interpretations are necessary if Islam is to have any real impact on western guilt-based society.
In the next two sections of this paper we will look at shame and honor in Arab Muslim culture. In doing this, I will not deal with the typical parts of Muslim culture that are often addressed. I will not dwell on "how much coffee goes into the coffee cup" nor "how many times it should be served." We will not look at body language, rules of etiquette, nor the unspoken rules of the desert. These are all part of culture, and vary from setting to setting. In these chapters, however, I want to go deeper and look at the basic fundamental mindset of Muslims. I want to examine the issues that are most important to the Muslim mind, and upon which cultural rules are built.
Islam and Shame
"Arab society is a shame-based society," says Dr. Sania Hamady, an Arab scholar and one of the greatest authorities on Arab psychology. "There are three fundamentals of Arab society," she goes on to state, "shame, honor and revenge."
A few years ago, Arabs were loath to talk about their culture. Most Arab people had never interacted with outsiders to the degree that they would start to examine their own and the others' cultures. But that has changed and today you will find Arab psychologists and Arabic media speaking out about their own culture. There are a number of issues that they raise as being important to them.
Arabs have always lived in groups and they tend to do everything from a group mindset. The larger extended family makes up one's group, and the gathering of all of one's relatives makes up the tribe.
In the cultures I have moved in, Arabs have defined their relationships with others in terms of near and far. Those who are related to you by blood are near, and those from other tribes are far. People can be brought into a near relationship through marriage, or adoption. If a foreigner is adopted as a 'son of the tribe' a great honor has been placed upon him.
Arabs usually demand a high degree of conformity from those who are near to them. This conformity brings honor and social prestige and a secure place in society. The individual who conforms to the group has the advantage that all those members of his group are bound to help his interests and they will defend him unquestioningly against 'outsiders.'
From top to bottom Arab society is permeated by a system of rival relationships. This is because in the Arab value system, great value and prestige are placed on the ability to dominate others. In the constant struggle to dominate and to resist domination, the rivals of a given group quickly seize on any 'shame' to destroy the other group's influence. Isolating a target, and thereby destroying it, often achieved this, as an individual could not survive in the desert outside of the group setting. If one tribe attacks the honor of another tribe, the entire tribe will respond, in order to protect their place of honor.
Arabs fear isolation because an individual or small group can only function effectively when he or it is identified with a group or a large body that can offer protection. This fear of isolation can be attributed to the fear that the Bedouins had of being isolated and left as individuals or small groups to fend for themselves in the harsh, hostile desert environment. The isolated persons could easily be taken as a slave by other tribes and could spend the rest of their life in a low and mean position. By sticking together, individuals could offer each other protection. Thus family units and relationships became paramount in knowing whom you could trust, and who would stand by you if an outside force attacked you. Proverbs 14:28 shows similar thinking in ancient times when it states: "A large population is a king's glory, but without subjects a prince is ruined."
There are many types of shame in an Arab society. For the Arab, failure to conform is damning and leads to a place of shame in the community. This is often hard for Westerners to understand. We in the west value our individualism, but Arabs value conformity. The very meaning of Islam is to conform to the point of submission. The very object of public prayers and universal fasting is to force conformity on all. There is an Arab proverb that can be translated as "Innovation is the root of all evil." If one fails to conform, he is initially criticized, and if he refuses to conform is put in a place of shame by the community.
Shame can also be brought on by an act. Raping one's sister is considered by all as a shameful act. However, few things are considered right or wrong. Right and wrong in Islam are defined by the Qur'an. Something may be right or wrong, because the Qur'an says so. But the Qur'an doesn't provide a nice list of rights and wrongs. So Muslims often talk about society. Society dictates what is acceptable and unacceptable. If you act against society, you may be acting shamefully, but not necessarily wrongfully in God's eyes. After all, the Qur'an tells them that God created good and evil.
Muslim men use this rationalization when living in what they consider an immoral western nation. They can partake in drinking alcohol and sexual escapades, because the society they are living in doesn't define this as shameful. Something may be shameful at home, but when in different circumstances, the Arab may react differently. There is a proverb that states, "Where you are not known do what ever you like."
Beyond this, shame is not only an act against the accepted system of values, but it can also include the discovery, by outsiders, that the act has been committed. Dr. Hamady puts it this way: "He who has done a shameful deed must conceal it, for revealing one disgrace is to commit another disgrace." There is an Arab proverb that says, "A concealed shame is two thirds forgiven."
A Syrian scholar, Kazem Daghestani, tells of an Arab husband who caught his wife in bed with another man. He drew a gun and pointed it at the couple while addressing the man. 'I could kill you with one shot but I will let you go if you swear to keep secret the relationship you have had with my wife. If you ever talk about it I will kill you.' The man took that oath and left and the husband divorced his wife without divulging the cause. He was not concerned about the loss of his wife or her punishment but about his reputation. Public shaming and not the nature of the deed itself or the individual's feelings had determined his action.
The story is told of a sheik who was asleep under the palm tree when a very poor Arab saw him and stole his expensive cloak. In the morning the sheik was angry and his followers hunted down the thief and brought him to trial. When asked for an explanation, the accused said, "Yes, I did steal this cloak. I saw a man asleep under a tree, so I had sexual relations with him while he slept and then I took the cloak." The sheik immediately replied "That is not my cloak," and the thief went free.
The possibility of failure in some way also fills Arabs with dread, as failure leads to shame. So often an Arab will shrink from accepting challenges or responsibilities. However, when away from his family this can change drastically. A meek Lebanese businessman at home can become a shrewd risk taker in the middle of Africa.
When there is failure, often outside forces are blamed. Anger, resentment, and violence are focused on outside elements in order to shift the blame to them. In the case of other Orientals with similar shame/honor type cultures, failure is often focused on the individual, and, for example, a Japanese businessman may take his life when faced with tremendous shame. In an Arab situation, the Arabs will assign blame to someone else and react violently towards him.
As a result, it is very easy to unintentionally offend an Arab. The Arabs have a very detailed code of conduct, and breaking that code can result in offense. This can be as simple as pouring too much coffee, or making your visit too short.
Shame can also result when an Arab is not treated as a special case. He expects any rule to be bent to suit his convenience. He expects to be the favorite, and his friends have to constantly assure him that he counts more than others.
For example, when interviewing a number of businessmen, each interview should be conducted exactly the same length of time. Once a man accused an interviewer of spending five more minutes with the previous man. The interviewer got out of the situation by explaining that the extra time was necessary because the previous man could not express himself as eloquently and therefore took longer.
There are lots of little things in Arab culture that matter greatly. Everything in the culture has meaning and an action as simple as stretching the left hand towards a person's face, as a westerner might do in casual gesticulation, could be tantamount to telling many Arabs that he has the evil eye and that your hand was used defensively against it.
It is important to realize that shame is not attached to all of the actions that we would call wrong. While raping one's sister is a very shameful act, things like lying can be either shameful or honorable, depending on the circumstances.
Al Ghazali, the medieval Muslim theologian stated: "Know that a lie is not wrong in itself, but only because of the evil conclusions to which it leads the hearer, making him believe something that is not really the case. Ignorance sometimes is an advantage, and if a lie causes this kind of ignorance it may be allowed. It is sometimes a duty to lie... if lying and truth both lead to a good result, you must tell the truth, for a lie is forbidden in this case. If a lie is the only way to reach a good result, it is allowable. A lie is lawful when it is the only path to duty... We must lie when truth leads to unpleasant results, but tell the truth when it leads to good results."
The rule for telling the truth, or not, is bound by honor and shame. If shame can be avoided, or honor obtained; then lying is more honorable, and therefore the thing to do.
Arabic Words for Shame
The most common Arabic world for shame is 'ayb'. It is used repeatedly in child raising and usually means "Shame on you," or "That is shameful!" In most cases it is not applied to very young children, because it implies a degree of prior knowledge and instruction that should have been followed. Older children who have disobeyed or have behaved disrespectfully are usually given a lecture which begins and ends with 'ayb"
The instruction about shame is not restricted to just relatives. Almost anyone can instruct children, telling them that what they are doing is shameful, and usually the children will respond positively, not negatively. The power of the negative use of shame enforced positive reactions in people's lives. Children learn very early on that their personal behavior represents a part of the whole of family honor. Once this sense of honor is acquired, it remains with the person throughout life.
When adults relate together, shame also plays a role. Foul language is undignified and shameful. Losing your temper and shouting insults are shameful. Failing to come to the aid of a family member, or neighbor when one is able and worthy, is shameful. Failing to support family members for whom one is responsible is shameful. Gossip that could or does cause harm is shameful. Anything that adversely and unfairly affects the dignity of another person is considered shameful.
Sometimes when greeting an Arab and asking 'How are you?' one gets the answer 'mastur al-hal' or "the condition is covered." This means, everything is all right, and my family and I are not being shamed. All shame is covered.
There is also an Arab word 'hishma' which means shame or timidity and reserve, often because the person is in a lesser situation. This would strip the Arab of spontaneity and liberty of action while in the presence of someone with greater honor.
A common form of abuse among women quarrelling over reputations is "qahba ya bint l'haram (you slut, you daughter of sin)".
A man may be called a qawwad, a man who combs the streets looking for johns to bring to a prostitute. This term is perhaps the lowest form of abuse, from one man to another.
More commonly Arabs may angrily say to one another: May God make your face ugly, or May God make your face black. The inferred meaning is: May God bring shame upon you."
Calling someone a dog is a great shame, especially calling him a dog in public, since dogs eat scraps and leftovers and not the prime meat that is reserved for the honorable.
Sometimes other family members are also included in the taunt, saying that someone's mother or other family members were illegitimate.
When Shame happens
In Arab culture, shame must be avoided at all cost. If it strikes, it must be hidden. If it is exposed, then it must be avenged. At all costs, honor must be restored.
The fear of shame among Arabs is so powerful because the identification between the individual and the group is far closer than in the west. Because Arabs think in a group mindset, the importance of the group weighs heavier than the importance of an individual. If an individual is in a position of shame, he then looses his influence and power and through him his entire group will similarly suffer, perhaps to the point of destruction.
Revenge Shame can be eliminated by revenge. This is sanctioned by the Qur'an (sura Xl,173). "Believers, retaliation is decreed for you in bloodshed."
It may also be eliminated through payment by fellow kinsmen in the group, or by the public treasury. In the case of a killing, the price of the blood must be settled between whatever groups are involved.
This need for revenge is as strong today as it ever was. In Egypt in 1972, out of 1,120 cases of murder, it was found that 25 percent of the murders were based on the urge to 'wipe out shame.' 30 percent on a desire to satisfy 'wrongs' and another 30 percent on blood-revenge.
In the small country of Jordan, honor killings (killings to preserve honor) have come to public attention. The Jordanian penal code in the 1950's stated: "He who discovers his wife or one of his female relatives committing adultery and kills, wounds or injures one or both of them is exempt from any penalty." Some years later a penalty of one year imprisonment was instituted as many murders were being classified as honor killings.
In January 2000 the Jordanian government rejected a bill that would increase the punishment for someone who commits murder because of protecting the honor of the family from one year to life imprisonment. So, in the opening months of 2000, members of the royal family in Jordan joined a demonstration of young Arabs protesting the laws and attitudes about honor killings. Growing numbers of Jordanian young people are educated in the west and western thinking and culture is beginning to clash with traditional eastern thinking and culture.
In traditional Arab culture, peace is a secondary value, when compared to the degree of feelings that shame and revenge invoke. This has led to the Western impression that peace in the Arab context is merely the temporary absence of conflict.
In Arab tribal society, where Arab values originated, strife was the normal state of affairs because raiding was one of the two main supports of the economy. In the past, the ideal of permanent peace in Islam was restricted to the community of Islam and to those non-Muslims who accepted the position of protected persons and paid tribute to Islam. On the other hand, Islam instituted jihad (holy war) as the accepted relationship with non-Muslim states, and made no provision for peace with them as sovereign states. Only a truce was permissible, and that was not to last for more than ten years.
This form of thinking then influences all aspects of life. As it has commonly been stated: "There is honor within Islam, shame without."
Islam and Honor
"Honor is understood in a complex way as the absence of shame, for honor and shame are bound to one another as complementary, yet contradictory ideas." Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Islamic Values and Social Practice 1994
The other side of shame is honor, and every Arab desires and strives to be and become more honorable. The relationship between shame and honor has long been recognized by sociologists of Arab and Muslim cultures and also attributed to the generalized Mediterranean social complex.
In many cases the absence of shame conveys the idea of honor. Many times I have heard Arabs describe their families as being honorable, because they don't do or act as others might. Conforming to social mores is utmost to maintaining one's honor.
Arab storytellers tell the story of a father who is working in the hot sun with two of his sons. When he needed a drink of water, he asked the older of the boys to get him some. 'No, I will not,' the elder son replied. The father then asked his younger son who said 'Yes, certainly father.' but he did not get the water. At this point the storyteller always asks his audience, "Which is the better son?" To give the wrong answer would be shaming but the storyteller knows that his listeners will give the correct answer. The younger son is the better of the two because he had saved his father's face by not defying him.
In the west we would point out that both boys were wrong. This seems irrelevant to the Arab who does not think in terms of right and wrong, but in terms of shame and honor. To say no to your father's face would be to dishonor him. To agree with him, while in front of him, is to honor him. When Jesus told a similar story in Matthew 21:28-32, he added that the first son, who refused later, went and did what he first refused. In this way, he restored honor by obeying his father. Jesus used this illustration to show that repentance covers shame, a concept that has been adopted by western Christianity.
If there are shameful acts in the Arab culture, then what are the honorable ones? In most Muslim cultures, hospitality is one of the most important ways of showing honor. Hospitality honors the guest and covers up any shame the host may have. When you visit an Arab home, great effort is made to be hospitable. Rather than shame you, Arabs try very hard to honor you with hospitality. Everything is done to honor the guest and to present an honorable image of the Arab family.
The reverse is also true. If you don't want someone to visit you, simply talk to him or her outside your door, where everyone will see that they are not invited inside. They will immediately feel shamed and will not return to your home.
If hospitality is first, then flattery must be second in the Arab ways of honoring someone. Arabs are often quick to flatter people they suspect as being honorable. It is a way of pouring extra honor onto a person while demonstrating to others around that they are honoring that person.
Third on my list is gift giving. If you admire something in an Arab home, they will be quick to insist that you have it as a gift. Even if you do not admire something, they will offer you gifts, demonstrating their willingness to honor someone else with a gift.
As the above three demonstrate, a visit to an Arab home is full of expressions of honor. Where you sit in the room, how you are fed, what you are fed, the hospitality shown, the flattery expressed and the gifts that are offered all express various levels of honor. Moreover, the reverse is true. If someone visits your home, you are obliged to be warm and hospitable. It is even expected that you will be overly hospitable almost demanding in your insistence that your guests eat, drink and accept your gifts. You must insist that people eat your food. Small friendly fights break out over the food, and the guests must demonstrate their willingness to accept the hospitality that is shown.
There are many other ways in which honor is calculated in an Arab society:
An Arab proverb states: "Learn as much of your pedigrees as is necessary to establish your ties of kindred." Another adds: "Many a trick is worth more than a tribe."
This is the reason that Arabs strive so hard to maintain the honor of the tribe. It is the duty of the eldest son of each family to maintain the honor of the family. If someone greatly offends the tribe, he will be the one to oust them, or, in the case of irreparable damage, execute them.
No where is the honorable status of family and tribe more evident than in the differences between religious beliefs. During the Yemeni War (1962-1965), two Egyptians, a Coptic Christian and a Muslim, both members of well known and upper class families, had been lifelong friends. They were wounded in the same action, the Muslim in the arm and the Copt in the leg. Disabled, they lay awaiting treatment and removal from the battlefield. A half-empty truck arrived and picked up the Muslim, but left the Christian despite his desperate pleas for help. The truck crew had orders to collect the Muslim wounded before the Christian wounded. One word from the wounded Muslim friend could have saved the Copt. It was never uttered, and the Coptic Christian died on the field, probably slaughtered by Yemeni tribesmen.
Education bestows honor. If a man gains a doctorate degree, he receives a great deal of honor in an Arab society. It is for this reason that Arabs strive to gain high educational standing. Many poor families sacrifice almost everything and work very hard to help an elder son make it through higher education. The elder son will work hard to honor the family. In the end, his achievements will raise the entire status of the family, and ultimately of the tribe.
A young man has little status in his family until he is married. Suddenly he gains status. Once his first son is born, his status rises even farther. An Arab proverb states "A man's wife is his honor." While this sounds like a compliment, the opposite is true. If a man's honor is injured through his wife's misbehavior, swift judgement will come upon her.
Honor in the Arabic language
Language is always changing. That is why the language that a people speaks often reflects the values of the culture.
Albert Hourani, one of the greatest modern Arab scholars living in the West, has said that his people are more conscious of their language than any people in the world. This consciousness is obsessive. Language is everything to the Arab. It is a divine expression. It separates those who are near and far. It separates the educated from the uneducated. It is an art form, and for centuries was the sole medium of artistic expression. Every tribe had its poets, and their unwritten words 'flew across the desert faster than arrows', and, in the midst of outward strife and disintegration, they provided a unifying principle. Poetry gave life and currency to the idea of Arabian virtue. Based on tribal community of blood and insisting that only ties of blood were sacred, poetry became an invisible bond between diverse clans, and formed the basis of a larger sentiment. It was poetry, the ultimate Arab art form, which bound Arabs together as a people, rather than a collection of warring tribes.
When a poet appeared in an Arab family, neighboring tribes gathered together to wish the family joy. There would be feasts, and music. Men and boys would congratulate one another, for a poet was a defense to the honor of them all, a weapon to ward off insult from their good name, and a means of perpetuating their glorious deeds and of establishing their fame forever.
It is interesting to note that traditionally Arabs only wish one another joy, on three occasions: The birth of a boy, the coming to light of a poet, and the foaling of a noble mare.
The Arabic language is so powerful, that Arabs will listen intently to someone speaking well, whether he speaks the truth or not. "I lift my voice to utter lies absurd, for when I speak the truth, my hushed tones scarce are heard." Abu 'lAla, Syrian poet 973-1057
Anyone wanting to understand Arab history and culture must be a student of Arab poetry. Arab poetry is full of vainglory. The poets glorified themselves, their brilliant feats, their courage and resolution and their contempt of death. The Arab hero is defiant and boastful and when there is little to lose, he will ride off unashamed, but he will fight to the death for his women.
An example of the ideal Arab hero, is Shanfara of Azd. He was an outlaw, swift runner, and excellent poet. As a child, Shanfara was captured by the Bani Salman tribe and brought up among them. He did not learn of his origin until he was grown up. He then vowed vengeance against his captors and returned to his own tribe. He swore that he would slay a hundred men of the Beni Salman and he had slain ninety-eight when he was caught in an enemy ambush. In the struggle, one of his hands was hewn off by a sword stroke, but taking the weapon in the other, he flung it in the face of the Salman tribesman and killed him, making his score ninety-nine. He was then overpowered and slain. As his skull lay bleaching on the ground, a man of his enemies passed by and kicked it. A splinter of bone entered his foot, the wound festered and he died, thus completing Shanfara's hundred.
When guests arrive at your door, you can respond, "Itsharafna" (You honor us), and the response of the guest is "Itsharaft nehna" "We are honored."
Sharaf goes much deeper than good manners. Honor embodies the pride and dignity that a family possesses due to its longstanding good reputation in the community for producing upright men and women who behave themselves well, marry well, raise proper children, and above all, adhere to the principles and practice of their religion. An honorable family produces sons who are shariifs, and daughters who are ashraaf.
The Arabic word 'ird deals with reputation; what other people think. This reputation is more important than fact. If a man from one group approaches a woman, and is rebuffed, but later brags about it, perhaps even adding lies, the woman's group will be forced to punish her and thus themselves. The offence against 'ird becomes very serious when public notice is taken. This is why Arab women fear being alone with a man. If there are no witnesses, the man can say anything about their time together, and the woman will bear the consequences.
Arabs can have different values when it comes to 'ird. For example, one's reputation regarding the women of his tribe may outweigh his honor as a fighter. Often 'ird is used in the plural sense. Shirridna bi'irdna, a common proverb among the men means "We came away with our honor intact."
It is also interesting to note that the
Arabic word for ask and tell is exactly the same word. I don't
ask, I tell you to loan me something, because it would be unthinkable
for you to refuse me, as this would be a shame. In much the same
way, if someone has it in their power to help someone else, (especially
if they are related) they must. Not to do so would be a shame
to the whole tribe. Even if a person disagrees, the claim of the
tribe is greater than his own opinions.
What makes a person honorable? I have asked this question to many Arabs. If they are confused, then I clarify the question by asking, what makes a person honorable enough to be a sheik? What would you look for in a person, before you would vote for him to be your sheik? The answers are interesting.
Arabs have a tremendous respect for wealth. Down through history, most honorable Arab leaders have been wealthy ones. Even Mohammed, the founder of Islam, rose to a position of great wealth. The use of this wealth, to help the poor and the masses, is seen as very honorable, and is often portrayed in Arabic literature and stories. Wealth allows the leader to be hospitable and generous, two elements that are extremely useful in obliterating shame and restoring honor. A wealthy leader can throw money around, gaining respect, and covering a multitude of sins.
Arabs are keenly aware of their heritage. Some can trace their heritage back to Mohammed. Others back to great leaders. Every tribe has stories of how individuals in their tribe achieved great honor or displayed honorable characteristics. Shameful figures in the tribal background are expelled or killed in order to preserve the tribe's honorable heritage.
Arabs respect age and wisdom. Elders are listened to with respect. The language elders use is often more formal and elevated than young people are capable of. Elders are looked to for their wisdom, as they know all the old stories and can often give wise and good counsel. Elders often have more money, and may have demonstrated their wisdom in acquiring riches, or maintaining the tribal lands and tribal honor.
Certain individuals have charisma. They are good looking, have a confidence about them, and carry themselves with honor. Often they have accomplished something of note and have been able to capitalize on it. Many times they are good at communication and at politically finding honorable solutions to problems.
Arab lore is full of heroes who display tremendous physical strength. Most Arab boys are brought up to think highly of being manly and strong. Physical strength, as well as charisma and financial strength are a winning combination in Arab culture.
Many Arabs look to leaders who have formed strong alliances. Since strength and riches are often found in a group setting, someone with strong alliances can rely on the combined strengths of many groups. Many political leaders in the Arab world use their alliances with tribes and families to put them into political power.
Every Arab boy knows stories of Arab heroes who faced overwhelming odds. Whether he overcame or not is not the issue. The act of bravery, in itself, is very honorable. If one sits in an Arab coffeehouse and listens to the storytellers, or if you visit your neighbors and ask, you will hear stories of brave Arab heroes.
All Arabs belong to a group or tribe. Loyalty to the family tribe is considered paramount to maintaining honor. One does not question the correctness of the elders or tribes in front of outsiders. It is paramount that the tribe sticks together in order to survive. Once again, Arab history and folklore are full of stories of heroes who were loyal to the end.
Dr. Sania Hamady, one of the greatest authorities on Arab psychology, herself an Arab, says: "life is a fearful test, for modern Arab society is ruthless, stern and pitiless... It honors strength and has no compassion for weakness."
In Arab countries between 1948 and 1973, a mere quarter of a century, no fewer than eighty revolts occurred, most of them bloody and violent. No wonder the west has a negative view of Arabs and Islam.
Violence, in Arab history, has been part of demonstrating one's honor, and in removing shame from the tribe. "With the sword will I wash my shame away. Let God's doom bring on me what it may!" Abu Tammam, a ninth-century poet in Hamasa.
Our own History
Before we criticize Middle Eastern culture for their views on honor and shame, we must admit that our own history, only a few short hundred years ago, was rife with honor and shame. The 'high' French and German culture of the 18th and 19th century gave rise to dueling, which carried over to the gun fighters of the American west. In Europe, a culture of honor survived for many years among the military and military families. These events are often forgotten, as we tend to view history through the filter of our own experience.
Honor in an Arab society is understood, in a complex way, as the absence of shame. Honor and shame are diametrically opposed factors, and the fundamental issue that defines society. In most shame/honor-based societies, people accept that everyone has to deal with a measure of shame. The question is, "how is shame dealt with?" Few families or tribes can escape the birth of a handicapped child. The question then arises, what should be done with this child? Should the child be hidden away? Should it be killed? Should it be neglected, so that it eventually goes away? Is it more humane to quietly give it to an institution?
In some shame/honor-based cultures, Christian societies have reached out to handicapped children in crisis, attempting to rescue them from families that are reeling from the shame of having birthed such a child. Sometimes handicaps are not so easily noticed. The child grows, and becomes a part of the family fabric. Then disaster falls, when it becomes increasingly obvious that the child is deaf, or has some other handicap that was not immediately noticeable. The discovery of such handicaps can crush whole families, as they lose their place of honor in the community.
A Look at World History
Over the last three thousand years of history, great historical periods have come and gone. In the years before Christ, the world was torn apart by competing armies. The Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and others vied for power. Vast armies moved back and forth over the known world with first one and then another civilization becoming dominant. Despite their linguistic and cultural differences, most of these civilizations held a similar worldview. Gods and demons controlled their universe, and man lived in fear of these powers, and he did what he could to appease them. The first chapters of civilization on earth were in the hands of those who lived in fear-based cultures.
At the time of Christ, the guilt-based cultures had started to rise to power, and they strove to take over the known world. First Greek and then Roman armies marched across the world, seeking to subject everyone to their worldview. While their civilizations still had many fear-based qualities, their new emphasis on the law helped them develop the first great civilizations based on using guilt as a controlling factor. The millenium following the birth of Christ belonged to these guilt-based cultures. These civilizations were known as the Greek, Roman and Byzantine Empires.
In the last days of the year 999, civilization was following a clear course. The future of world politics lay with Islam. It was an unstoppable force that would eventually control much of the known world, including whatever parts of Europe they chose to occupy.
The Muslims had energy, confidence, and imagination. Their society was now far superior to that in Europe. Bernard Lewis, the renowned historian of Islam, has written that the Muslims of those days "(they) neither feared nor respected the barbarous individuals of northern and western Europe, whome they saw as uncouth primitives." Islam, at this stage was probably the most sophisticated and cosmopolitan civilization in the world.
So how did it happen, that Christian Europe and the colonies it established in America, eventually dominated the world? What started out as Islam's millennium became Europe's in the end. Islam grew until 1669, when the Ottoman Empire, after a long war, took Crete from the Venetian. That turned out to be Islam's last acquisition. Fourteen years later it became obvious that history was reversing itself. In 1683, the Ottomans, after trying to conquer Vienna for 60 days, withdrew in disarray. The fighting that followed destroyed much of their army and crippled the military wing of Islam.
A Polish man named Kulyeziski had been instrumental in defending the city, and for his efforts he was rewarded all the coffee the Turkish army left behind. Gifted in the ability to capitalize on opportunity, he opened a cafe in Vienna, and commissioned a baker to create a unique new pastry to accompany the coffee and celebrated the great victory over Islam. The baker produced a crescent shaped pastry that the Viennese could eat to celebrate their devouring of the Muslims. It was called the croissant.
From the Muslim perspective, however, Europe soon ceased to be an invasion target and became an alien force whose armies and cultures began to trespass on Arab lands. A key year in European history was 1492. The date is well known as the year when Columbus arrived in the Americas. In January of that year, however, Granada, the last Islamic city in Spain, surrendered to Christian armies. Before the year was over, Columbus had arrived in America and Europe started their great expansion westward across the Atlantic.
Islam now turned its attention to the shame-based cultures of the east, spreading as far as Indonesia and Malaysia, and deep into China. In the south, they began moving against the fear-based African cultures, spreading deep into Africa.
And so history has moved from the early civilizations that were fear-based (BC), to the rapid expansion of the guilt-based cultures (100 BC - 999 AD). During the millenium from 999 AD till 1999, shame-based cultures seem to have had the first opportunity, and then the ball was passed to the guilt-based cultures of America and Northern Europe. And now, historians from the guilt-based cultures of the world are trying to unravel the mysteries of ancient cultures. However, if they do not have a clear understanding of how those cultures worked, they can misinterpret the events and objects that they uncover.
Against this background, we want to consider the Nabataean culture. This paper will address some of the initial observations that can be made. Other papers on Nabataea.net will address specific cultural and religious issues.
The Nabataeans were descendants of Abraham through the line of Ishmael. Ishmael was known as the "son of rejection" since Abraham rejected him and chose instead the line through Isaac, (which became the Jewish nation.) In many ways, Muslims today still feel the sting of this rejection, although many millennia have passed since that event.
Today, as two thousand years ago, the cultural worldview of all of the tribes of Ishmael was primarily shame/honor based, with a small mix of fear/power. This acute awareness of their past combined with their situation up until 85 BC would have left them with a sense of being the under-dogs, which seems to have been the opinion of the civilizations around them.
From Nabataean history we can deduce that the Nabataeans elected a ruling sheik rather than living under king or tyrant. While Roman historians called this leader a king it is obvious that he always ruled by popular opinion, and was elected rather than the son of the previous ruler. This use of consensus rather than dominion points way from a fear/power paradigm.
In a shame-honor paradigm, the group is more important than the individual. The group dictates the concept of shame and honor, and each individual in the group can affect the honor or shame of the entire group.
It is obvious that Roman and Greek historians
had some trouble with understanding this concept. They referred
to the Nabataean ruler as a tyrant or king, although this term
was not used until after 85 BC when the Nabataeans started to
try and impress the west. The western historians were interested
in the fact that Nabataean rulers could be examined by their own
people. This is still a common practice among Arab sheiks today.
Since the Nabataeans were part of the eastern shame/honor paradigm, this must be read into their history if one is to understand their culture.
There were elements of Nabataean culture that would have made them a shameful in the eyes of those around them. They were seen as merchants, pirates, pimps, nomads, and camel drivers. Once they obtained control of the city of Damascus in 85 BC they went about making changes so that they could impress others with the level of their civilization.
Some of the changes that they made to
their civilization included:
· using Greek names
· minting coins
· adopt the name 'king' for their ruler
· move from riding camels to riding horses
· allow the rise of powerful merchant families which based themselves out of Roman cities
· raised the status of women to equals with men
· made great profits and publicly displayed their wealth
· built a great city (Petra) as a show piece of their civilization
· build a second great city (Bosra) as a show piece of their western civilization
· joined the Roman Empire, when allowed to enter as a noble people who could operate as powerful merchant families within the Roman structure.
In the end, after Roman annexation, the Nabataeans that were left in Nabataea struggled for honor. By 900 AD, under Moslem occupation they had slipped back to a place of shame.
Many of these aspects are explored more in Desert Life and The Price of Honor
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|The Price of Honor||Pottery|
|Honor and Shame in a Middle Eastern Setting||Writing|
|Nabataean Graffiti||The Multi-Alphabet Theory|
|Writing Chart (Arabic base)||Writing Charts (German, English)|
|The Petra Scrolls||The Cave of Letters|
|Nabataean Pantheon of Gods||Burial Practices|
|Block Gods||Nabataean Zodiac|
|Making Sense of Middle Eastern Religion||Forms of Worship|
|Deifying Leaders||Pre-Islamic Gods in Arabia|
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Chapter two Strategic human resource management John Bratton Strategic human resource management is the process of linking the human resource function with the strategic objectives of the organization in order to improve performance.‘If a global company is to function successfully, strategies at different levels need to inter-relate.’ 1‘An organization’s [human resource management] policies and practices must fit with its strategy in its competitive environment and with the immediate business conditions that it faces.’ 2 ‘The [human resources–business strategy] alignment cannot necessarily be characterized in the logical and sequential way suggested by some writers; rather, the design of an HR system is a complex and iterative process.’ 3 Chapter outline Introduction p.38 Dimensions of strategic human Strategic management p.38 resource management p.59 Strategic human resource International and comparative management p.45 strategic human resource Human resource strategy models p.49 management p.61 Evaluating strategic human resource management and models of human resources strategy p.56 Chapter objectivesAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to:1. Explain the meaning of strategic management and give an overview of its conceptual framework2. Describe the three levels of strategy formulation and comment on the links between business strategy and human resource management (HRM)3. Explain three models of human resources (HR) strategy: control, resource and integrative4. Comment on the various strategic HRM themes of the HR–performance link: re-engineering, leadership, work-based learning and trade unions5. Outline some key aspects of international and comparative HRM
38 Human Resource Management Introduction In the first chapter, we examined the theoretical debate on the nature and significance of the human resource management (HRM) model; in this chapter we explore an approach to HRM labelled strategic human resource management, or SHRM. By a strategic approach to HRM, we are referring to a managerial process requiring human resource (HR) policies and practices to be linked with the strategic objectives of the organization. Just as the term ‘human resource management’ has been contested, so too has the notion of SHRM. One aspect for debate is the lack of conceptual clarity (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000). Do, for example, the related concepts of SHRM and HR strategy relate to a process or an outcome? Over the past decade, HR researchers and practitioners have focused their attention on other important questions. First, what determines whether an organization adopts a strategic approach to HRM, and how is HR strategy formulated? Of interest is which organizations are most likely to adopt a strategic approach to HRM. Is there, for example, a positive association with a given set of external and internal characteristics or contingencies and the adoption of SHRM? Another area of interest concerns the policies and practices making up different HR strategies. Is it possible to identify a cluster or ‘bundle’ of HR practices with different strategic competitive models? Finally, much research productivity in recent years has been devoted to examining the rela- tionship between different clusters of HR practices and organizational performance. Does HR strategy really matter? For organizational practitioners who are looking for ways to gain a competitive advantage, the implication of HR strategic choices for company performance is certainly the key factor. Before, however, we look at some of the issues associated with the SHRM debate, we need first to examine the strategic management process. This chapter also examines whether it is possible to speak of different ‘models’ of HR strategy and the degree to which these types of HR strategy systematically vary between organizations. We then consider some issues associated with SHRM, including international and comparative SHRM. As for the question of whether there is a positive association between different HR strategies and organizational performance, we are of the opinion that, given the importance and volume of the research surrounding this issue, the topic warrants an extended discussion (Chapter 13). In the current chapter, we address a number of questions, some essential to our understanding of how work organizations operate in the early 21st century work and the role of HRM therein. How do ‘big’ corporate deci- sions impact on HRM? Does the evidence suggest that firms adopting different competitive strategies adopt different HR strategies? How does HRM impact on the ‘bottom line’? There is a common theme running through this chapter, much of the HR research pointing out that there are fundamental structural constraints that attest to the complexity of implementing different HRM models. Strategic management The word ‘strategy’, deriving from the Greek noun strategus, meaning ‘commander in chief’, was first used in the English language in 1656. The development and usage of the word suggests that it is composed of stratos (army) and agein (to lead). In a management context, the word ‘strategy’ has now replaced the more traditional term – ‘long-term planning’ – to denote a specific pattern of decisions and actions
Strategic Human Resource Management 39 Senior management Environment Resources Figure 2.1 The three traditional poles of a strategic plan Source: Adapted from Aktouf (1996) undertaken by the upper echelon of the organization in order to accomplish perform- ance goals. Wheelen and Hunger (1995, p. 3) define strategic management as ‘that set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance of a corporation’. Hill and Jones (2001, p. 4) take a similar view when they define strategy as ‘an action a company takes to attain superior performance’. Strategic management is considered to be a continuous activity that requires a constant adjustment of three major interdependent poles: the values of senior management, the environment, and the resources available (Figure 2.1). HRM IN PRACTICE 2.1 STRATEGY PLANNING HAS SUDDENLY GOT SEXY GORDON PITT. THE INS AND OUTS OF MANAGEMENT TOOLS. GLOBE AND MAIL, 1998, JANUARY 8In the past decade, the North statements, customer satisfac- American companies surveyed,American workplace, as those tion measurement, and total 89 per cent reported using strate-in Europe, has seen a constant quality management. In 1996, gic planning in 1996. As oneparade of management fads strategic planning, mission business observer (Pitt, 1998)and fashions. In 1993, the top statements and benchmarking commented: ‘Strategic planningthree most popular manage- were the top three management has always been around [but] itment techniques were mission techniques. Of the 409 North suddenly got sexy.’ Model of strategic management In the descriptive and prescriptive management texts, strategic management appears as a cycle in which several activities follow and feed upon one another. The strategic management process is typically broken down into five steps:
40 Human Resource Management 1. mission and goals 2. environmental analysis 3. strategic formulation 4. strategy implementation 5. strategy evaluation. Figure 2.2 illustrates how the five steps interact. At the corporate level, the strategic management process includes activities that range from appraising the organization’s current mission and goals to strategic evaluation. The first step in the strategic management model begins with senior managers eval- uating their position in relation to the organization’s current mission and goals. The mission describes the organization’s values and aspirations; it is the organization’s raison d’être and indicates the direction in which senior management is going. Goals are the desired ends sought through the actual operating procedures of the organiza- tion and typically describe short-term measurable outcomes (Daft, 2001). Environmental analysis looks at the internal organizational strengths and weak- STEP 1 Mission and goals Management philosophy Values STEP 2 Environmental analysis Internal scan External scan STEP 3 Strategic formulation Strategic choice Corporate Business Functional STEP 4 Strategy implementation Leadership Structure Control systems Human resources STEP 5 Strategy evaluation Operating performance Financial performance Figure 2.2 The strategic management model
Strategic Human Resource Management 41nesses and the external environment for opportunities and threats. The factors thatare most important to the organization’s future are referred to as strategic factors andcan be summarized by the acronym SWOT – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunitiesand Threats. Strategic formulation involves senior managers evaluating the interaction betweenstrategic factors and making strategic choices that guide managers to meet the organi-zation’s goals. Some strategies are formulated at the corporate, business and specificfunctional levels. The term ‘strategic choice’ raises the question of who makes deci-sions and why they are made (McLoughlin & Clark, 1988). The notion of strategicchoice also draws attention to strategic management as a ‘political process’ wherebydecisions and actions on issues are taken by a ‘power-dominant’ group of managerswithin the organization. Child (1972, quoted in McLoughlin & Clark, 1988, p. 41)affirms this interpretation of the decision-making process when he writes: [W]hen incorporating strategic choice in a theory of organizations, one is recognizing the operation of an essentially political process, in which constraints and opportunities are functions of the power exercised by decision-makers in the light of ideological values.In a political model of strategic management, it is necessary to consider the distribu-tion of power within the organization. According to Purcell and Ahlstrand (1994,p. 45), we must consider ‘where power lies, how it comes to be there, and how theoutcome of competing power plays and coalitions within senior managementare linked to employee relations’. The strategic choice perspective on organizationaldecision-making makes the discourse on strategy ‘more concrete’ and provides impor-tant insights into how the employment relationship is managed. Strategy implementation is an area of activity that focuses on the techniques used bymanagers to implement their strategies. In particular, it refers to activities that dealwith leadership style, the structure of the organization, the information and controlsystems, and the management of human resources (see Figure 1.2 above). Influentialmanagement consultants and academics (for example Champy, 1996; Kotter, 1996)emphasize that leadership is the most important and difficult part of the strategicimplementation process. Strategy evaluation is an activity that determines to what extent the actual changeand performance match the desired change and performance. The strategic management model depicts the five major activities as forming arational and linear process. It is, however, important to note that it is a normativemodel, that is, it shows how strategic management should be done rather thandescribing what is actually done by senior managers (Wheelen & Hunger, 1995). As wehave already noted, the notion that strategic decision-making is a political processimplies a potential gap between the theoretical model and reality.Hierarchy of strategyAnother aspect of strategic management in the multidivisional business organizationconcerns the level to which strategic issues apply. Conventional wisdom identifiesdifferent levels of strategy – a hierarchy of strategy (Figure 2.3):1. corporate2. business3. functional.
42 Human Resource Management Contextual factors Corporate-level strategy Product market Corporate management What business are we in? Capital market Labour market Business-level strategy Technology Business Business Business unit 1 unit 2 unit 3 How do we compete? Government policies European Union policies Functional-level North American strategy Free Trade Human Manu- R&D Marketing Finance Agreement resources facturing How do we support policies the business-level competitive strategy? Stakeholder interests Human resource management: philosophy, policies, programmes, practices, processes, relationships with managers, non-managers, trade unions, customers and suppliers Figure 2.3 Hierarchy of strategic decision making Corporate-level strategy Corporate-level strategy describes a corporation’s overall direction in terms of its general philosophy towards the growth and the management of its various business units. Such strategies determine the types of business a corporation wants to be involved in and what business units should be acquired, modified or sold. This strategy addresses the question, ‘What business are we in?’ Devising a strategy for a multidivisional company involves at least four types of initiative: establishing investment priorities and steering corporate resources into the most attractive business units
Strategic Human Resource Management 43 initiating actions to improve the combined performance of those business units with which the corporation first became involved finding ways to improve the synergy between related business units in order to increase performance making decisions dealing with diversification.Business-level strategyBusiness-level strategy deals with decisions and actions pertaining to each businessunit, the main objective of a business-level strategy being to make the unit morecompetitive in its marketplace. This level of strategy addresses the question, ‘How dowe compete?’ Although business-level strategy is guided by ‘upstream’, corporate-levelstrategy, business unit management must craft a strategy that is appropriate for itsown operating situation. In the 1980s, Porter (1980, 1985) made a significant contri-bution to our understanding of business strategy by formulating a framework thatdescribed three competitive strategies: cost leadership, differentiation and focus. The low-cost leadership strategy attempts to increase the organization’s marketshare by having the lowest unit cost and price compared with competitors. Thesimple alternative to cost leadership is differentiation strategy. This assumes thatmanagers distinguish their services and products from those of their competitors inthe same industry by providing distinctive levels of service, product or high qualitysuch that the customer is prepared to pay a premium price. With the focus strategy,managers focus on a specific buyer group or regional market. A market strategy canbe narrow or broad, as in the notion of niche markets being very narrow or focused.This allows the firm to choose from four generic business-level strategies – low-costleadership, differentiation, focused differentiation and focused low-cost leadership –in order to establish and exploit a competitive advantage within a particular compet-itive scope (Figure 2.4). COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Low cost Uniqueness COMPETITIVE SCOPE Broad Low-cost leadership Differentiation target e.g. Wal-Mart e.g. Tommy Hilfiger’s apparel Narrow Focused low-cost Focused differentiation target leadership e.g. Mountain Equipment e.g. Rent-A-Wreck Cars Co-operative Figure 2.4 Porter’s competitive strategies Source: Adapted from Porter (1985)
44 Human Resource Management Miles and Snow (1984) have identified four modes of strategic orientation: defenders, prospectors, analysers and reactors. Defenders are companies with a limited product line and a management focus on improving the efficiency of their existing operations. Commitment to this cost orientation makes senior managers unlikely to explore new areas. Prospectors are companies with fairly broad product lines that focus on product innovation and market opportunities. This sales orientation makes senior managers emphasize ‘creativity over efficiency’. Analysers are companies that operate in at least two different product market areas, one stable and one variable. In this situ- ation, senior managers emphasize efficiency in the stable areas and innovation in the variable areas. Reactors are companies that lack a consistent strategy–structure–culture relationship. In this reactive orientation, senior management’s responses to environ- mental changes and pressures thus tend to be piecemeal strategic adjustments. Competing companies within a single industry can choose any one of these four types of strategy and adopt a corresponding combination of structure, culture and processes consistent with that strategy in response to the environment. The different competi- tive strategies influence the ‘downstream’ functional strategies. Functional-level strategy Functional-level strategy pertains to the major functional operations within the busi- ness unit, including research and development, marketing, manufacturing, finance and HR. This strategy level is typically primarily concerned with maximizing resource productivity and addresses the question, ‘How do we support the business-level competitive strategy?’ Consistent with this, at the functional level, HRM policies and practices support the business strategy goals. These three levels of strategy – corporate, business and functional – form a hierarchy of strategy within large multidivisional corporations. In different corporations, the specific operation of the hierarchy of strategy might vary between ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ strategic planning. The top-down approach resembles a ‘cascade’ in which the ‘downstream’ strategic decisions are dependent on higher ‘upstream’ strategic decisions (Wheelen & Hunger, 1995). The bottom-up approach to strategy- making recognizes that individuals ‘deep’ within the organization might contribute to strategic planning. Mintzberg (1978) has incorporated this idea into a model of ‘emer- gent strategies’, which are unplanned responses to unforeseen circumstances by non- executive employees within the organization. Strategic management literature emphasizes that the strategies at different levels must be fully integrated. Thus: strategies at different levels need to inter-relate. The strategy at corporate level must build upon the strategies at the lower levels in the hierarchy. However, at the same time, all parts of the business have to work to accommodate the overriding corporate goals. (F.A. Maljers, Chairman of the Board of Unilever, quoted by Wheelen & Hunger, 1995, p. 20) The need to integrate business strategy and HRM strategy has received much atten- tion from the HR academic community, and it is to this discourse that we now turn.
Strategic Human Resource Management 45 HRM IN PRACTICE 2.2 SENIOR HR EXECUTIVES DECRY LACK OF STRATEGIC INPUT HR MAGAZINE, 1999, JANUARY, PP. 21–2Though many HR management cent of the respondents felt ning have a stronger under-gurus have championed the that ‘HR is never, rarely or only standing of their functionsevolving and expanding strate- sometimes’ a major part of their within the organization. ‘Theregic role of HR professionals, a companies’ overall strategy. The is a strong correlation betweenrecent report from the Confer- remaining 37 per cent did feel those companies that say HR isence Board of Canada seems to that HR plays a significant role always linked to the strategicindicate that most HR execu- in their companies’ strategic process, and how well thetives feel they aren’t very planning. According to companies’ employees under-involved with their companies’ researchers with the Confer- stand where the companystrategic plans. The recent ence Board, employees at wants to go’, says Briansurvey of 155 senior-level HR companies that encourage HR Hackett, a senior HR specialistexecutives found that 63 per participation in strategic plan- with the board. Strategic human resource management The SHRM literature is rooted in ‘manpower’ (sic) planning, but it was the work of influential management gurus (for example Ouchi, 1981; Peters & Waterman, 1982), affirming the importance of the effective management of people as a source of competitive advantage, that encouraged academics to develop frameworks empha- sizing the strategic role of the HR function (for example Beer et al., 1985; Fombrun et al., 1984) and attaching the prefix ‘strategic’ to the term ‘human resource manage- ment’. Interest among academics and practitioners in linking the strategy concept to HRM can be explained from both the ‘rational choice’ and the ‘constituency-based’ perspective. There is a managerial logic in focusing attention on people’s skills and intellectual assets to provide a major competitive advantage when technological supe- riority, even once achieved, will quickly erode (Barney, 1991; Pfeffer, 1994, 1998a). From a ‘constituency-based’ perspective, it is argued that HR academics and HR prac- titioners have embraced SHRM as a means of securing greater respect for HRM as a field of study and, in the case of HR managers, of appearing more ‘strategic’, thereby enhancing their status within organizations (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000; Pfeffer & Salancik, 1977; Powell & DiMaggio, 1991; Purcell & Ahlstrand, 1994; Whipp, 1999). ? REFLECTIVE QUESTION Why have academics and HR professionals embraced SHRM? Is there a strong busi- ness case for the strategic approach to HRM, or is it more the case that academics and HR professionals have embraced SHRM out of self-interest? What do you think of these arguments?
46 Human Resource Management Concepts and models In spite of the increasing volume of research and scholarship, the precise meaning of strategic HRM and HR strategy remains problematic. It is unclear, for example, which one of these two terms relates to an outcome or a process (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000). For Snell et al., (1996, p. 1996) ‘strategic HRM’ is an outcome: ‘as organizational systems designed to achieve sustainable competitive advantage through people’. For others, however, SHRM is viewed as a process, ‘the process of linking HR practices to business strategy’ (Ulrich, 1997, p. 89). Similarly, Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000, p. 6) describe SHRM as ‘the process by which organizations seek to link the human, social, and intellectual capital of their members to the strategic needs of the firm’. According to Ulrich (1997, p. 190) ‘HR strategy’ is the outcome: ‘the mission, vision and priorities of the HR function’. Consistent with this view, Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000, p. 5) conceptualize HR strategy as an outcome: ‘the pattern of deci- sions regarding the policies and practices associated with the HR system’. The authors go on to make a useful distinction between senior management’s ‘espoused’ HR strategy and their ‘emergent’ strategy. The espoused HR strategy refers to the pattern of HR-related decisions made but not necessarily implemented, whereas the emergent HR strategy refers to the pattern of HR-related decisions that have been applied in the workplace. Thus, ‘espoused HR strategy is the road map … and emergent HR strategy is the road actually traveled’ (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000, p. 6). Purcell (2001) has also portrayed HR strategy as ‘emerging patterns of action’ that are likely to be much more ‘intuitive’ and only ‘visible’ after the event. We begin the discussion of SHRM and HR strategy with a focus on the link between organizational strategy formulation and strategic HR formulation. A range of business– HRM links has been classified in terms of a proactive–reactive continuum (Kydd & Oppenheim, 1990) and in terms of environment–human resource strategy–business strategy linkages (Bamberger & Phillips, 1991). In the ‘proactive’ orientation, the HR professional has a seat at the strategic table and is actively engaged in strategy formu- lation. In Figure 2.3 above, the two-way arrows on the right-hand side showing both downward and upward influence on strategy depict this type of proactive model. At the other end of the continuum is the ‘reactive’ orientation, which sees the HR function as being fully subservient to corporate and business-level strategy, and organizational-level strategies as ultimately determining HR policies and practices. Once the business strategy has been determined, an HR strategy is implemented to support the chosen competitive strategy. This type of reactive orientation would be depicted in Figure 2.3 above by a one-way downward arrow from business- to func- tional-level strategy. In this sense, a HR strategy is concerned with the challenge of matching the philosophy, policies, programmes, practices and processes – the ‘five Ps’ – in a way that will stimulate and reinforce the different employee role behaviours appropriate for each competitive strategy (Schuler, 1989, 1992). The importance of the environment as a determinant of HR strategy has been incorporated into some models. Extending strategic management concepts, Bamberger and Phillips’ (1991) model depicts links between three poles: the environ- ment, human resource strategy and the business strategy (Figure 2.5). In the hierarchy of the strategic decision-making model (see Figure 2.3 above), the HR strategy is influ- enced by contextual variables such as markets, technology, national government poli- cies, European Union policies and trade unions. Purcell and Ahlstrand (1994) argue, however, that those models which incorporate contextual influences as a mediating
Strategic Human Resource Management 47 Human resource strategy Environmental influences Business strategy Figure 2.5 Environment as a mediating variable for human resource management strategies Source: Bamberger and Phillips (1991)variable of HR policies and practices tend to lack ‘precision and detail’ in terms of theprecise nature of the environment linkages, and that ‘much of the work on the link-ages has been developed at an abstract and highly generalized level’ (p. 36). In the late 1980s, Purcell made a significant contribution to research onbusiness–HRM strategy. Drawing on the literature on ‘strategic choice’ in industrialrelations (for example Kochan et al., 1986; Thurley & Wood, 1983) and using thenotion of a hierarchy of strategy, Purcell (1989) identified what he called, ‘upstream’and ‘downstream’ types of strategic decision. The upstream or ‘first-order’ strategicdecisions are concerned with the long-term direction of the corporation. If a first-order decision is made to take over another enterprise, for example a French companyacquiring a water company in southern England, a second set of considerationsapplies concerning the extent to which the new operation is to be integrated with orseparate from existing operations. These are classified as downstream or ‘second-order’, strategic decisions. Different HR strategies are called ‘third-order’ strategic deci-sions because they establish the basic parameters for managing people in theworkplace. Purcell (1989, p. 71) wrote, ‘[in theory] strategy in human resourcesmanagement is determined in the context of first-order, long-run decisions on thedirection and scope of the firm’s activities and purpose … and second-order decisionson the structure of the firm’. In a major study of HRM in multidivisional companies, Purcell and Ahlstrand(1994) argue that what actually determines HR strategy will be determined by deci-sions at all three levels and by the ability and leadership style of local managers tofollow through goals in the context of specific environmental conditions. Case studyanalysis has, however, highlighted the problematic nature of strategic choice model-building. The conception of strategic choice might exaggerate the ability of managersto make decisions and take action independent of the environmental contexts inwhich they do business (Colling, 1995). Another part of the strategic HRM debate has focused on the integration or ‘fit’ ofbusiness strategy with HR strategy. This shift in managerial thought, calling for the HRfunction to be ‘strategically integrated’, is depicted in Beer et al.’s (1984) model ofHRM. The authors espoused the need to establish a close two-way relationship or ‘fit’between the external business strategy and the elements of the internal HR strategy:
48 Human Resource Management ‘An organization’s HRM policies and practices must fit with its strategy in its compet- itive environment and with the immediate business conditions that it faces’ (Beer et al., 1984, p. 25). The concept of integration has three aspects: the linking of HR policies and practices with the strategic management process of the organization the internalization of the importance of HR on the part of line managers the integration of the workforce into the organization to foster commitment or an ‘identity of interest’ with the strategic goals. Not surprisingly, this approach to SHRM has been referred to as the ‘matching’ model. The matching model Early interest in the ‘matching’ model was evident in Devanna et al.’s (1984) work: ‘HR systems and organizational structure should be managed in a way that is congruent with organizational strategy’ (p. 37). This is close to Chandler’s (1962) distinction between strategy and structure and his often-quoted maxim that ‘structure follows strategy’. In the Devanna et al. model, HRM–strategy–structure follow and feed upon one another and are influenced by environmental forces (Figure 2.6). Similarly, the notion of ‘fit’ between an external competitive strategy and the internal HR strategy is a central tenet of the HRM model advanced by Beer et al. (1984, Political forces Economic Cultural forces Mission forces and strategy Firm Human Organization resource structure management Figure 2.6 Devanna et al.’s strategic human resource management ‘matching’ model Source: Devanna et al. (1984)
Strategic Human Resource Management 49see Figure 1.5). The authors emphasize the analysis of the linkages between the twostrategies and how each strategy provides goals and constraints for the other. Theremust be a ‘fit between competitive strategy and internal HRM strategy and a fit amongthe elements of the HRM strategy’ (Beer et al., 1984, p. 13). The relationship betweenbusiness strategy and HR strategy is said to be ‘reactive’ in the sense that HR strategyis subservient to ‘product market logic’ and the corporate strategy. The latter isassumed to be the independent variable (Boxall, 1992; Purcell & Ahlstrand, 1994). AsMiller (1987, cited in Boxall, 1992, p. 66) emphasizes, ‘HRM cannot be conceptualizedas a stand-alone corporate issue. Strategically speaking it must flow from and bedependent upon the organization’s (market oriented) corporate strategy’. There issome theorization of the link between product markets and organizational design, andapproaches to people management. Thus, for example, each Porterian competitivestrategy involves a unique set of responses from workers, or ‘needed role behaviours’,and a particular HR strategy that might generate and reinforce a unique pattern ofbehaviour (Cappelli & Singh, 1992; Schuler & Jackson, 1987). HRM is therefore seento be ‘strategic by virtue of its alignment with business strategy and its internal consis-tency (Boxall, 1996).Human resource strategy modelsThis section examines the link between organization/business strategy and HRstrategy. ‘Human resource strategies’ are here taken to mean the patterns of decisionsregarding HR policies and practices used by management to design work and select,train and develop, appraise, motivate and control workers. Studying HR strategies interms of typologies is appealing to academics because conceptual frameworks ormodels give HR researchers the ability to compare and contrast the different configu-rations or clusters of HR practices and further develop and test theory (Bamberger &Meshoulam, 2000). To appreciate the significance of ‘typologies’, it is useful to recall the work of MaxWeber. This sociologist built his theory through the use of abstractions he called ‘idealtypes’, such as ‘bureaucracy’. Weber warned, however, that these abstractions or idealtypes never actually exist in the real world; they are simply useful fictions to help usunderstand the more complex and messy realities found in work organizations. Thesame is true of HR typologies – they are abstractions that do not necessarily exist inthe workplace, but they help the student of management to understand the nature ofHR strategies. Since the early 1990s, academics have proposed at least three models to differen-tiate between ‘ideal types’ of HR strategies. The first model examined here, thecontrol-based model, is grounded in the way in which management attempts tomonitor and control employee role performance. The second model, the resource-based model, is grounded in the nature of the employer–employee exchange and,more specifically, in the set of employee attitudes, in behaviours and in the quality ofthe manager–subordinate relationship. A third approach creates an integrative modelthat combines resource-based and control-based typologies.The control-based modelThe first approach to modelling different types of HR strategy is based on the nature
50 Human Resource Management of workplace control and more specifically on managerial behaviour to direct and monitor employee role performance. According to this perspective, management structures and HR strategy are instruments and techniques to control all aspects of work to secure a high level of labour productivity and a corresponding level of prof- itability. This focus on monitoring and controlling employee behaviour as a basis for distinguishing different HR strategies has its roots in the study of ‘labour process’ by industrial sociologists. The starting point for this framework is Marx’s analysis of the capitalist labour process and what he referred to as the ‘transformation of labour power into labour’. Put simply, when organizations hire people, they have only a potential or capacity to work. To ensure that each worker exercises his or her full capacity, managers must organize the tasks, space, movement and time within which workers operate. But workers have divergent interests in terms of pace of work, rewards and job security, and engage in formal (trade unions) and informal (restrictions of output or sabotage) behaviours to counteract management job controls. Workers’ own countermanage- ment behaviour then causes managers to control and discipline the interior of the organization. In an insightful review, Thompson and McHugh (2002, p. 104) comment that, ‘control is not an end in itself, but a means to transform the capacity to work established by the wage relation into profitable production’. What alternative HR strategies have managers used to render employees and their behaviour predictable and measurable? Edwards (1979) identified successive dominant modes of control that reflect changing competitive conditions and worker resistance. An early system of individual control by employers exercising direct authority was replaced by more complex structural forms of control: bureaucratic control and technical control. Bureaucratic control includes written rules and procedures covering work. Technical control includes machinery or systems – assembly line, surveillance cameras – that set the pace of work or monitor employees’ behaviour in the work- place. Edwards also argued that managers use a ‘divide and rule’ strategy, using gender and race, to foster managerial control. Friedman (1977) structured his typology of HR strategies – direct control and respon- sible autonomy – around the notion of differing logics of control depending upon the nature of the product and labour markets. Another organizational theorist, Burawoy (1979), categorized the development of HR strategies in terms of the transition from despotic to hegemonic regimes. The former was dominated by coercive manager– subordinate relations; the latter provided an ‘industrial citizenship’ that regulated employment relations through grievance and bargaining processes. The growth of employment in new call centres has recently given rise to a renewed focus of interest on the use of technical control systems: the electronic surveillance of the operator’s role performance (Callaghan & Thompson, 2001; Sewell, 1998). The choice of HR strategy is governed by variations in organizational form (for example size, structure and age), competitive pressures on management and the stability of labour markets, mediated by the interplay of manager–subordinate rela- tions and worker resistance (Thompson & McHugh, 2002). Moreover, the variations in HR strategy are not random but reflect two management logics (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000). The first is the logic of direct, process-based control, in which the focus is on efficiency and cost containment (managers needing within this domain to monitor and control workers’ performance carefully), whereas the second is the logic of indirect outcomes-based control, in which the focus is on actual results (within this domain, managers needing to engage workers’ intellectual capital, commitment
Strategic Human Resource Management 51 and cooperation). Thus, when managing people at work, control and cooperation coexist, and the extent to which there is any ebb and flow in intensity and direction between types of control will depend upon the ‘multiple constituents’ of the manage- ment process. Implicit in this approach to managerial control is that the logic underlying an HR strategy will tend to be consistent with an organization’s competitive strategy (for example Schuler & Jackson, 1987). We are thus unlikely to find organizations adopting a Porterian cost-leadership strategy with an HR strategy grounded in an outcome-based logic. Managers will tend to adopt process-based controls when means–ends relations are certain (as is typically the case among firms adopting a cost- leadership strategy), and outcomes-based controls when means–ends are uncertain (for example differentiation strategy). These management logics result in different organizational designs and variations in HR strategy, which provide the source of inevitable structural tensions between management and employees. It is posited, therefore, that HR strategies contain inherent contradictions (Hyman, 1987; Storey, 1995; Thompson & McHugh, 2002). REFLECTIVE QUESTION? What do you think of the argument that each type of competitive strategy requires a different HR strategy? Thinking about your own work experience, reflect upon the way in which managers attempted to control your behaviour at work. Was each task closely monitored, or was the focus on actual outcome? To what extent, if at all, were different types of managerial control related to the firm’s product or service? The resource-based model This second approach to developing typologies of HR strategy is grounded in the nature of the reward–effort exchange and, more specifically, the degree to which managers view their human resources as an asset as opposed to a variable cost. Supe- rior performance through workers is underscored when advanced technology and other inanimate resources are readily available to competing firms. The sum of people’s knowledge and expertise, and social relationships, has the potential to provide non-substitutable capabilities that serve as a source of competitive advantage (Cappelli & Singh, 1992). The various perspectives on resource-based HRM models raise questions about the inextricable connection between work-related learning, the ‘mobilization of employee consent’ through learning strategies and competitive advantage. Given the upsurge of interest in resource-based models, and in particular the new workplace learning discourse, we need to examine this model in some detail. The genesis of the resource-based model can be traced back to Selznick (1957), who suggested that work organizations each possess ‘distinctive competence’ that enables them to outperform their competitors, and to Penrose (1959), who conceptualized the firm as a ‘collection of productive resources’. She distinguished between ‘physical’ and ‘human resources’, and drew attention to issues of learning, including the knowledge and experience of the management team. Moreover, Penrose emphasized what many organizational theorists take for granted – that organizations are ‘heterogeneous’ (Penrose, 1959, cited in Boxall, 1996, pp. 64–5). More recently, Barney (1991) has
52 Human Resource Management argued that ‘sustained competitive advantage’ (emphasis added) is achieved not through an analysis of a firm’s external market position but through a careful analysis of its skills and capabilities, characteristics that competitors find themselves unable to imitate. Putting it in terms of a simple SWOT analysis, the resource-based perspective emphasizes the strategic importance of exploiting internal ‘strengths’ and neutralizing internal ‘weaknesses’ (Barney, 1991). The resource-based approach exploits the distinctive competencies of a work organ- ization: its resources and capabilities. An organization’s resources can be divided into tangible (financial, technological, physical and human) and intangible (brand-name, reputation and know-how) resources. To give rise to a distinctive competency, an orga- nization’s resources must be both unique and valuable. By capabilities, we mean the collective skills possessed by the organization to coordinate effectively the resources. According to strategic management theorists, the distinction between resources and capabilities is critical to understanding what generates a distinctive competency (see, for example, Hill & Jones, 2001). It is important to recognize that a firm may not need a uniquely endowed workforce to establish a distinctive competency as long as it has managerial capabilities that no competitor possesses. This observation may explain why an organization adopts one of the control-based HR strategies. HRM WEB LINKS An increasing number of US companies are establishing ‘corporate’ universities to help to build ‘core’ competencies. Examples of US corporate universities are Intel University (www.wiche.edu/telecom/resources/sharinginformation), Dell University (www.dell.com/careers) and Motorola University (www.mot.com/MU). Barney argues that four characteristics of resources and capabilities – value, rarity, inimitability and non-substitutability – are important in sustaining competitive advantage. From this perspective, collective learning in the workplace on the part of managers and non-managers, especially on how to coordinate workers’ diverse knowl- edge and skills and integrate diverse information technology, is a strategic asset that rivals find difficult to replicate. In other words, leadership capabilities are critical to harnessing the firm’s human assets. Amit and Shoemaker (1993, p. 37) make a similar point when they emphasize the strategic importance of managers identifying, ex ante, and marshalling ‘a set of complementary and specialized resources and capabilities which are scarce, durable, not easily traded, and difficult to imitate’ in order to enable the company to earn ‘economic rent’ (profits). Figure 2.7 summarizes the relationship between resources and capabilities, strategies, and sustained competitive advantage. ? REFLECTIVE QUESTION Based upon your own work experience, or upon your studies of organizations, is continuous learning at the workplace more or less important for some organizations than others? If so, why?
Strategic Human Resource Management 53 SHAPE Firm’s resources and capabilities Sustained • Value Strategies competitive advantage • Rarity • Inimitability • Non-substitutability DEVELOP Figure 2.7 The relationship between resource endowments, strategies and sustained competitive advantage Source: Based on Barney (1991) and Hill and Jones (2001)The integrative modelBamberger and Meshoulam (2000) integrate the two main models of HR strategy, onefocusing on the strategy’s underlying logic of managerial control, the other focusingon the reward–effort exchange. Arguing that neither of the two dichotomousapproaches (control- and resource-based models) provides a framework able to encom-pass the ebb and flow of the intensity and direction of HR strategy, they build a modelthat characterizes the two main dimensions of HR strategy as involving ‘acquisitionand development’ and the ‘locus of control’. Acquisition and development are concerned with the extent to which the HR strategydevelops internal human capital as opposed to the external recruitment of humancapital. In other words, organizations can lean more towards ‘making’ their workers(high investment in training) or more towards ‘buying’ their workers from theexternal labour market (Rousseau, 1995). Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000) call thisthe ‘make-or-buy’ aspect of HR strategy. Locus of control is concerned with the degree to which HR strategy focuses on moni-toring employees’ compliance with process-based standards as opposed to developinga psychological contract that nurtures social relationships, encourages mutual trust andrespect, and controls the focus on the outcomes (ends) themselves. This strand ofthinking in HR strategy can be traced back to the ideas of Walton (1987), who made adistinction between commitment and control strategies (Hutchinson et al., 2000). AsFigure 2.8 shows, these two main dimensions of HR strategy yield four different ‘idealtypes’ of dominant HR strategy: commitment collaborative paternalistic traditional.
54 Human Resource Management Outcomes Commitment Collaborative HR strategy HR strategy Locus of workplace control Paternalistic Traditional HR strategy HR strategy Process Internal Acquisition of employees External Figure 2.8 Categorizing human resource management strategies Source: Based on Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000) The commitment HR strategy is characterized as focusing on the internal develop- ment of employees’ competencies and outcome control. In contrast, the traditional HR strategy, which parallels Bamberger and Meshoulam’s ‘secondary’ HR strategy, is viewed as focusing on the external recruitment of competencies and behavioural or process-based controls. The collaborative HR strategy, which parallels Bamberger and Meshoulam’s ‘free agent’ HR strategy, involves the organization subcontracting work to external independent experts (for example consultants or contractors), giving extensive autonomy and evaluating their performance primarily in terms of the end results. The paternalistic HR strategy offers learning opportunities and internal promo- tion to employees for their compliance with process-based control mechanisms. Each HR strategy represents a distinctive HR paradigm, or set of beliefs, values and assump- tions, that guide managers. Similar four-cell grids have been developed by Lepak and Snell (1999). Based upon emprical evidence, Bamberger and Meshoulam suggest that the HR strategies in the diagonal quandrants ‘commitment’ and ‘traditional’ are likely to be the most prevalent in (North American) work organizations. It is argued that an organization’s HR strategy is strongly related to its competitive strategy. So, for example, the traditional HR strategy (bottom right quantrant) is most likely to be adopted by management when there is certainty over how inputs are transformed into outcomes and/or when employee performance can be closely moni- tored or appraised. This dominant HR strategy is more prevalent in firms with a highly routinized transformation process, low-cost priority and stable competitive environ- ment. Under such conditions, managers use technology to control the uncertainty inherent in the labour process and insist only that workers enact the specified core standards of behaviour required to facilitate undisrupted production. Managerial behaviour in such organizations can be summed up by the managerial edict ‘You are here to work, not to think!’ Implied by this approach is a focus on process-based control in which ‘close monitoring by supervisors and efficiency wages ensure adequate work effort’ (MacDuffie, 1995, quoted by Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2002, p. 60). The use of the word ‘traditional’ to classify this HR strategy and the use of a tech- nological ‘fix’ to control workers should not be viewed as a strategy only of ‘industrial’
Strategic Human Resource Management 55 worksites. Case study research on call centres, workplaces that some organizational theorists label ‘post-industrial’, reveal systems of technical and bureacratic control that closely monitor and evaluate their operators (Sewell, 1998; Thompson & McHugh, 2002). The other dominant HR strategy, the commitment HR strategy (top left quantrant), is most likely to be found in workplaces in which management lacks a full knowledge of all aspects of the labour process and/or the ability to monitor closely or evaluate the efficacy of the worker behaviours required for executing the work (for example single- batch, high quality production, research and development, and health care profes- sionals). This typically refers to ‘knowledge work’. In such workplaces, managers must rely on employees to cope with the uncertainties inherent in the labour process and can thus only monitor and evaluate the outcomes of work. This HR strategy is associ- ated with a set of HR practices that aim to develop highly committed and flexible people, internal markets that reward commitment with promotion and a degree of job security, and a ‘participative’ leadership style that forges a commonality of interest and mobilizes consent to the organization’s goals (Hutchinson et al., 2000). In addi- tion, as others have noted, workers under such conditions do not always need to be overtly controlled because they may effectively ‘control themselves’ (Thompson, 1989; Thompson & McHugh, 2002). To develop cooperation and common interests, an effort–reward exchange based upon investment in learning, internal promotion and internal equity is typically used (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000). In addition, such workplaces ‘mobilize’ employee consent through culture strategies, including the popular notion of the ‘learning organization’. As one of us has argued elsewhere (Bratton, 2001, p. 341): For organizational controllers, workplace learning provides a compelling ideology in the twenty-first century, with an attractive metaphor for mobilizing worker commitment and sustainable competitiveness … [And] the learning organization paradigm can be construed as a more subtle way of shaping workers’ beliefs and values and behaviour. HRM IN PRACTICE 2.3 AIRLINE HOPES TO CUT COSTS, REGAIN MARKET SHARE PATRICK BRETHOUR AND KEITH MCARTHUR, GLOBE AND MAIL, 2002, APRIL 20, PP. B1, B6Air Canada unveiled its long ‘Right now, the price is already lines Ltd. Mr Smith said a newawaited discount carrier yester- low, particularly in this market,’ business model is emerging inday, but warned that customers he said, adding that prices could the airline market – as it has inshouldn’t expect fares to imme- fall over time as the new airline retailing – where lower-cost,diately be lower than those reduced expenses. no-frills service becomes thealready offered by Air Canada. Observers see the wholly norm. He said the full-serviceSteve Smith, president and chief owned subsidiary as a way for model for short flights is ‘goingexecutive officer of Zip Air Inc., Air Canada to lower labour the way of the dinosaur.’ Zipsaid the new airline is being costs and win back market is aimed at meeting that chal-created to cut Air Canada’s share it has lost in recent years lenge in the low end of thecosts – not to reduce fares. to Calgary-based WestJet Air- market, he said.
56 Human Resource Management Zip’s costs will be at least 20 called B-scale wages to Zip plane. There will also be less per cent lower than those at Air employees. ‘Air Canada gives room between seats – 32 inches Canada’s comparable mainline zip by zapping its employees. or 33 inches – although the flights, in part because Zip’s They are hurting the very seats will still have more leg employees will be making less people who have worked so room than the smallest seats money than their counterparts hard for them and for so long,’ at WestJet. The reduction, at Air Canada. Mr. Smith said she said. along with the elimination of wages will be competitive with business-class seats, will allow Zip’s competitors in the low- Zip to add 17 seats to the 100 ‘They are hurting the cost market. ‘For the employ- seats in the Boeing 737-200. very people who have ees, they have to understand (WestJet has 120 seats in its that they will be working for worked so hard for them Boeing 737-200s). zip,’ he joked. and for so long …’ The company will operate Pamela Sachs, president of Air independently of Air Canada, Canada component of the Other cost-cutting measures although it will buy mainte- Canadian Union of Public at Zip include offering snacks nance services from its parent, Employees, said the union will instead of meals, providing no as well as using the larger mount a legal challenge to Air in-flight entertainment and company’s pilots. Canada’s attempts to pay so- operating only one kind of REFLECTIVE QUESTION ? How would you describe the HR strategy at Zip Air (HRM in practice 2.3)? How does this HR strategy support the business plan? Do you think that Zip Air will be able to mobilize its employees’ competencies and commitment to achieve a competitive advantage? Evaluating strategic human resource management and models of human resources strategy A number of limitations to current research on SHRM and HR strategy have been iden- tified: the focus on strategic decision-making, the absence of internal strategies and the conceptualization of managerial control. Existing conceptualizations of SHRM are predicated upon the traditional rational perspective to managerial decision-making – definable acts of linear planning, choice and action – but critical organizational theorists have challenged these assumptions, arguing that strategic decisions are not necessarily based on the output of rational calculation. The assumption that a firm’s business-level strategy and HR system have a logical, linear relationship is questionable given the evidence that strategy formula- tion is informal, politically charged and subject to complex contingency factors (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000; Monks & McMackin, 2001; Whittington, 1993). As such, the notion of consciously aligning business strategy and HR strategy applies only to the ‘classical’ approach to strategy (Legge, 1995). Those who question the classical approach to strategic management argue that the image of the manager as a reflective planner and strategist is a myth. Managerial behaviour is more likely to be uncoordi- nated, frenetic, ad hoc and fragmented (for example Hales, 1986).
Strategic Human Resource Management 57 The political perspectives on strategic decision-making make the case that manage-rial rationality is limited by lack of information, time and ‘cognitive capacity’ as wellas that strategic management is a highly competitive process in which managersfiercely compete for resources, status and power. Within such a management milieu,strategies can signal changes in power relationships among managers (Mintzberg etal., 1998). Rather than viewing strategic choices as the outcome of rational decision-making, Johnson (1987, cited in Purcell, 1989, p. 72), among others, argues that‘Strategic decisions are characterized by the political hurly-burly of organizational lifewith a high incidence of bargaining … all within a notable lack of clarity in terms ofenvironmental influences and objectives.’ Alternatively, strategic decision-making may be conceptualized as a ‘discourse’ orbody of language-based communication that operates at different levels in the organ-ization. Thus, Hendry (2000) persuasively argues that a strategic decision takes itsmeaning from the discourse and social practice within which it is located, so a deci-sion must be not only effectively communicated, but also ‘recommunicated’ until itbecomes embodied in action. This perspective reaffirms the importance of conceptu-alizing management in terms of functions, contingencies and skills and the leader-ship competence of managers (see Figure 1.3). Whatever insights the differentperspectives afford on the strategic management process, critical organizational theo-rists have suggested that ‘strategic’ is no longer fashionable in management thoughtand discourse, having gone from ‘buzzword to boo-word’ (Thompson & McHugh,2002, p. 110). A second limitation of SHRM and HR strategy theory is the focus on the connectionbetween external market strategies and HR function. It is argued that contingencyanalysis relies exclusively on external marketing strategies (how the firm competes)and disregards the internal operational strategies (how the firm is managed) thatinfluence HR practices and performance (Purcell, 1999). In an industry in which a flex-ible, customized product range and high quality are the key to profitability, a firm canadopt a manufacturing strategy that allows, via new technology and self-managedwork teams, for far fewer people but ones who are functionally flexible, within acommitment HR strategy regime. This was the strategy at Flowpak Engineering(Bratton, 1992). Microelectronics and the use of plastic changed the firm’s manufac-turing strategy from their being a manufacturer of packaging machinery to an assem-bler. The technology and manufacturing strategy in this case became the keyintervening variable between overall business strategy and HRM. Drawing upon the work of Kelly (1985), the major limitation of a simple SHRMmodel is that it privileges only one step in the full circuit of industrial capital. To putit another way, the SHRM approach looks only at the realization of surplus valuewithin product markets rather than at complex contingent variables that constitutethe full transformation process. As Purcell (1999, p. 37) argues, ‘we need to be muchmore sensitive to processes of organizational change and avoid being trapped in thelogic of rational choice’. Another limitation of most current studies examining SHRM is the conceptualiza-tion of managerial control. The basic premise of the typologies of HR strategyapproach is that a dominant HR strategy is strongly related to a specific competitivestrategy. Thus, the commitment HR strategy is most likely to be adopted whenmanagement seek to compete in the marketplace by using a generic differentiationstrategy. This might be true, but the notion that a commitment HR strategy followsfrom a real or perceived ‘added-value’ competitive strategy is more problematic in
58 Human Resource Management practice. Moreover, it is misleading to assume that managerial behaviour is not influ- enced by the indeterminacy of the employment contract and by how to close the ‘gap’ between an employee’s potential and actual performance level. Reflecting on this problem, Colling (1995, p. 29) correctly emphasizes that ‘“added-value” [differentia- tion] strategies do not preclude or prevent the use of managerial control over employees … few companies are able to operationalize added-value programmes without cost-constraints and even fewer can do so for very long’. Others have gone beyond the ‘organizational democracy’ rhetoric and acknowledge that ‘It is utopian to think that control can be completely surrendered’ in the ‘postmodern’ work organiza- tion (Cloke & Goldsmith, 2002, p. 162). Consistent with our earlier definition of strategy – as a specific pattern of decisions and actions – managers do act strategically, and strategic patterns do emerge over a period of time (Thompson & McHugh, 2002; Watson, 1999). One strategic decision and action might, however, undermine another strategic goal. In a market downturn or recession, for example, there is a tendency for corporate management to improve profitability by downsizing and applying more demanding performance outcomes at the unit level. This pattern of action constitutes a strategy even though manifesting a disjunction between organizational design and employer–employee relations. As Purcell (1989, 1995) points out, an organization pursuing a strategy of acquisition and downsizing might ‘logically’ adopt an HR strategy that includes the compulsory lay- off of non-core employees and, for the identifiable core of employees with rare attrib- utes, a compensation system based on performance results. In practice, the resource-based approach predicts a sharp differentiation within organizations ‘between those with key competencies, knowledge and valued organizational memory, and those more easily replaced or disposed of ‘ (Purcell, 1999, p. 36). In such a case, the business strategy and HR strategy might ‘fit’, but, as Legge (1995, p. 126) points out, these HR policies and practices ‘although consistent with such a business strategy, are unlikely to generate employee commitment’ (1995, p. 126). Thus, achieving the goal of ‘close fit’ of business and HR strategy can contradict the goal of employee commitment and cooperation. It is important to emphasize that however committed a group of managers might be to a particular HR strategy (for example the commitment HR strategy), there are external conditions and internal ‘structural contradictions’ at work that will constrain management action (Boxall, 1992, 1996; Streeck, 1987). The kind of analysis explored here is nicely summed up by Hyman’s pessimistic pronouncement that ‘there is no “one best way” of managing these contradictions, only different routes to partial failure’ (1987, quoted in Thompson & McHugh, 2002, p. 108). ! STUDY TIP Read Chapter 8, Control: concepts and strategies in Thompson and McHugh’s (2002) book, Work organizations: A critical introduction, 3rd edition. Why and how do organizational theorists contest theories of management control? To what extent do variations in HR strategy reflect the fundamental tension between management’s need to control workers’ behaviour while tapping into workers’ ingenuity and cooperation?
Strategic Human Resource Management 59Dimensions of strategic human resource managementIn addition to focusing on the validity of the matching SHRM model and typologiesof HR strategy, researchers have identified a number of important themes associatedwith the notion of SHRM that are discussed briefly here and, with the exception ofleadership, more extensively in later chapters. These are: HR practices and performance (see also Chapter 13) re-engineering organizations and work (see also Chapter 4) leadership workplace learning (see also Chapter 10) trade unions (see also Chapter 12).Human resource management practices and performanceAlthough most HRM models provide no clear focus for any test of the HRM–performance link, the models tend to assume that an alignment between businessstrategy and HR strategy will improve organizational performance and competitive-ness. During the past decade, demonstrating that there is indeed a positive linkbetween particular sets or ‘bundles’ of HR practices and business performance hasbecome ‘the dominant research issue’ (Guest, 1997, p. 264). The dominant empiricalquestions on this topic ask ‘What types of performance data are available to measurethe HRM–performance link?’ and ‘Do “high-commitment-type” HRM systemsproduce above-average results compared with “control-type” systems?’ A number ofstudies (for example Baker, 1999; Betcherman et al., 1994; Guest, 1997; Hutchinsonet al., 2000; Ichniowski et al., 1996; Pfeffer, 1998a) have found that, in spite of themethodological challenges, bundles of HRM practices are positively associated withsuperior organization performance.Re-engineering and strategic human resource managementAll normative models of HRM emphasize the importance of organizational design. Aspreviously discussed, the ‘soft’ HRM model is concerned with job designs thatencourage the vertical and horizontal compression of tasks and greater workerautonomy. The redesign of work organizations has been variously labelled ‘high-performing work systems’ (HPWS), ‘business process re-engineering’ and ‘high-commitment management’. The literature emphasizes core features of this approachto organizational design and management, including a ‘flattened’ hierarchy, decen-tralized decision-making to line managers or work teams, ‘enabling’ information tech-nology, ‘strong’ leadership and a set of HR practices that make workers’ behaviourmore congruent with the organization’s culture and goals (see Champy, 1996;Hammer, 1997; Hammer & Champy, 1993).Leadership and strategic human resource managementThe concept of managerial leadership permeates and structures the theory and prac-tice of work organizations and hence how we understand SHRM. Most definitions ofmanagerial leadership reflect the assumption that it involves a process whereby anindividual exerts influence upon others in an organizational context. Within the liter-
60 Human Resource Management ature, there is a continuing debate over the alleged differences between a manager and a leader: managers develop plans whereas leaders create a vision (Kotter, 1996). Much of the leadership research and literature tends to be androcentric in nature and rarely acknowledges the limited representation of ethnic groups and women in senior lead- ership positions (Townley, 1994). The current interest in alternative leadership para- digms variously labelled ‘transformational leadership’ (Tichy & Devanna, 1986) and ‘charismatic leadership’ (Conger & Kanungo, 1988) may be explained by under- standing the prerequisites of the resource-based SHRM model. Managers are looking for a style of leadership that will develop the firm’s human endowment and, more- over, cultivate commitment, flexibility, innovation and change (Bratton et al., in press; Guest, 1987). A number of writers (for example Agashae & Bratton, 2001; Barney, 1991; Senge, 1990) make explicit links between learning, leadership and organizational change. It would seem that a key constraint on the development of a resource-based SHRM model is leadership competencies. Apparently, ‘most re-engineering failures stem from breakdowns in leadership’ (Hammer & Champy, 1993, p. 107), and the ‘engine’ that drives organizational change is ‘leadership, leadership, and still more leadership’ (Kotter, 1996, p. 32). In essence, popular leadership models extol to followers the need for working beyond the economic contract for the ‘common’ good. In contemporary parlance, the ‘transformational’ leader is empowering workers. To go beyond the rhet- oric, however, such popular leadership models shift the focus away from managerial control processes and innate power relationships towards the psychological contract and the individualization of the employment relationship. Workplace learning and strategic human resource management Within most formulations of SHRM, formal and informal work-related learning has come to represent a key lever that can help managers to achieve the substantive HRM goals of commitment, flexibility and quality (Beer et al., 1984; Keep, 1989). As such, this growing field of research occupies centre stage in the ‘soft’ resource-based SHRM model. From a managerial perspective, formal and informal learning can, it is argued, strengthen an organization’s ‘core competencies’ and thus act as a lever to sustainable competitive advantage – having the ability to learn faster than one’s competitors is of the essence here (Dixon, 1992; Kochan & Dyer, 1995). There is a growing body of work that has taken a more critical look at workplace learning. Some of these writers, for example, emphasize how workplace learning can strengthen ‘cultural control’ (Legge, 1995), strengthen the power of those at the ‘apex of the organization’ (Coopey, 1996) and be a source of conflict when linked to productivity or flexibility bargaining and job control (Bratton, 2001). (Chapter 10). Trade unions and strategic human resource management The notion of worker commitment embedded in the HRM model has led writers from both ends of the political spectrum to argue that there is a contradiction between the normative HRM model and trade unions. In the prescriptive management literature, the argument is that the collectivist culture, with its ‘them and us’ attitude, sits uncomfortably with the HRM goal of high employee commitment and the individu- alization of the employment relationship. The critical perspective also presents the HRM model as being inconsistent with traditional industrial relations, albeit for very
Strategic Human Resource Management 61 different reasons. Critics argue that ‘high-commitment’ HR strategies are designed to provide workers with a false sense of job security and to obscure underlying sources of conflict inherent in capitalist employment relations (Godard, 1994). Other scholars, taking an ‘orthodox pluralist’ perspective, have argued that trade unions and the ‘high-performance–high-commitment’ HRM model cannot only coexist but are indeed necessary if an HPWS is to succeed (see Betcherman et al., 1994; Guest, 1995; Verma, 1995). What is apparent is that this part of the SHRM debate has been strongly influenced by economic, political and legal developments in the USA and UK over the past two decades (Chapter 3). International and comparative strategic human resource management The assumption that SHRM is a strategically driven management process points to its international potentialities. The employment relationship is shaped by national systems of employment legislation and the cultural contexts in which it operates. Thus, as the world of business is becoming more globalized, variations in national regulatory systems, labour markets and institutional and cultural contexts are likely to constrain or shape any tendency towards ‘convergence’ or a ‘universal’ model of best HRM practice (Belanger et al., 1999; Clark & Pugh, 2000; Kidd et al., 2001). This section addresses aspects of the international scene to help us place the discourse on the SHRM model into a wider global context. In doing so, we make a distinction between international HRM and comparative HRM. The subject matter of the former revolves around the issues and problems associated with the globalization of capi- talism. Comparative HRM, on the other hand, focuses on providing insights into the nature of, and reasons for, differences in HR practices across national boundaries. HRM IN PRACTICE 2.4 WOMEN FIND OVERSEAS POSTINGS OUT OF REACH SHERWOOD ROSS, GLOBE AND MAIL , 2001, AUGUST 27, P. M6Female executives who want advance women in business. nity to obtain experienceplum overseas assignments are Women hold about 13 per cent abroad, even with small projects.forced to break through a ‘glass of all corporate American expa- Women who are selected ‘tendborder’ – a barrier to foreign triate posts, according to a to be younger and single andpostings that is not unlike the study done by Catalyst. That’s a that tells me employers are prob-glass ceiling that stands in the poor showing, says the New ably ruling out married womenway of promotions, experts say. York-based group. with children,’ says Virginia ‘As global assignments Authorities cite a variety of Hollis, vice-president of sales atincreasingly become prerequi- obstacles to women becoming Cigna International Expatriatesites for advancement, glass global executives. These include Benefits. Women are victimsborders may impede women’s misplaced concerns for the of ‘subtle discrimination,’ saysprogress before they even reach safety and effectiveness of Linda Stroh, a professor at thethe glass ceiling,’ says Sheilla female expatriates, as well as the Institute of Human ResourcesWellington, president of Cata- fact that some women have and Industrial Relations atlyst, an advocacy group to been given little or no opportu- Loyola University, in Chicago.
62 Human Resource Management ‘It doesn’t mean that men are Lipman-Blumen, professor of Change will not come, screening women out to work public policy and organizational though, until ‘corporate execu- abroad. It’s an unawareness that behaviour, at the University of tives at the top become very women are capable of going.’ Claremont. proactive in reaching out to Also, male executives do not women to be considered for send women abroad ‘in the mis- Women hold about [overseas] assignments,’ pre- takenly paternalistic belief that 13 per cent of all dicts Anna Lloyd, president of they are protecting them from corporate American the Committee of 200, a group environments that may be diffi- that represents more than 430 expatriate posts. cult or dangerous,’ says Jean female business executives. International human resource management The majority of international HRM research has focused on issues associated with the cross-national transfer of people, such as how to select and manage expatriate managers in international job assignments (for example Shenkar, 1995; Tung, 1988). A decade ago, it was suggested that much of this work tended to be descriptive and lacked analytical rigour (Kochan et al., 1992) but research and scholarship have made considerable progress over the past 10 years. Recent studies have recognized the importance of linking international HRM with the strategic evolution of the firm, and theoretical models of international HRM have been developed (Scullion, 2001). Inter- national HRM has been defined as ‘HRM issues, functions and policies and practices that result from the strategic activities of multinational enterprises and that impact the international concerns and goals of those enterprises’ (Scullion, 1995, p. 356). International HRM tends to emphasize the subordination of national culture and national employment practices to corporate culture and HRM practices (Boxall, 1995). The issue of transplanting Western HR practices and values into culturally diverse environments needs to be critically researched. Early 21st century capitalism, when developing international business strategy, faces the perennial difficulty of organizing the employment relationship to reduce the indeterminacy resulting from the unspec- ified nature of the employment contract (Townley, 1994). If we adopt Townley’s approach to international HRM, the role of knowledge to render people in the work- place ‘governable’ is further complicated in culturally diverse environments. For example, it behoves researchers to examine whether managers and workers in Mexico, Chile, India, Pakistan, South Africa and elsewhere will accept the underlying ideology and embrace the HRM paradigm. In addition, although there is an awareness of the importance of international HRM, further research is needed into the barriers facing women seeking international assignment – the ‘glass border’ (see HRM in practice 2.4). HRM WEB LINKS For further information on cultural diversity go to www.ciber.bus.msu.edu, www. shrm.org/diversity and www.shhrm.org/trends.
Strategic Human Resource Management 63 Comparative human resource management As with international HRM, the growth of interest in comparative HRM is linked to the globalization of business. Of considerable interest to HR academics and practi- tioners is the question of the extent to which an HR strategy that works effectively in one country and culture can be transplanted to others. Recent comparative research suggests that there are significant differences between Asian, European and North American companies with regard to HR strategies (Brewster, 2001; Kidd et al., 2001; Scullion, 2001). Drawing upon Bean’s (1985) work on comparative industrial relations, comparative HRM is defined here as a systematic method of investigation relating to two or more countries that has analytical rather than descriptive implications. On this basis, comparative HRM should involve activities that seek to explain the patterns and variations encountered in cross-national HRM rather than being simply a description of HRM institutions and HR practices in selected countries. Simple description, what can be called the ‘tourist approach’, in which ‘the reader is presented with a diverse selection of exotic ports of call and left to draw his own conclusion about their rele- vance to each other and to the traveller himself [sic]’ (Shalev, 1981, quoted by Bean, 1985, p. ii), lacks academic rigour. The case for the study of comparative HRM has been made by a number of HR scholars (for example Bean, 1985; Boxall, 1995; Clark & Pugh, 2000; Moore & Jennings, 1995). In terms of critical research, comparative HRM is relatively underdeveloped. REFLECTIVE QUESTION? Do you believe that there is increasing convergence in HR practices in (1) Europe and (2) worldwide? There is, of course, an intellectual challenge and intrinsic interest in comparative studies. They may lead to a greater understanding of the contingencies and processes that determine different approaches to managing people at work. The common assumption found in many undergraduate textbooks is that ‘best’ HR practice has ‘universal’ application, but an assumption is untenable since HRM phenomena reflect different cultural milieu (Boxall, 1995). Comparative HRM studies can provide the basis for reforms in a country’s domestic public policy by offering ‘lessons’ from offshore experience. Furthermore, they can promote a wider understanding of, and foster new insights into, HRM, either by reducing what might appear to be specific and distinctive national characteristics by providing evidence of their occurrence else- where or, equally well, by demonstrating what is unique about any set of national HR arrangements. The potential benefits of studying comparative and international HRM have been recognized by both academics and HR practitioners and thus ‘can no longer be considered a marginal area of interest’ (Clark et al., 2000, p. 17). Using comparative analysis, Brewster (1993, 1995, 2001) has examined the HRM paradigm from a European perspective. Drawing upon the data from a 3-year survey of 14 European countries, Brewster puts forward the notion of a new ‘European HRM model’ that recognizes State and trade union involvement in the regulation of the employment relationship. According to Brewster, the European HRM model has a greater potential for ‘partnership’ between labour and management because, in most European Union states, ‘the unions are not seen, and do not see themselves, as “adver- saries’’’ (Brewster, 1995, p. 323). Adopting a ‘systemic view’ of European national work
64 Human Resource Management systems, Clark and Pugh (2000) have argued that, despite economic and political pres- sures towards convergence, differences in cultural and institutional contexts continue to produce divergent employment relationships. Thus, the Dutch ‘feminine’ culture encourages the antipathy of Dutch workers towards ‘hard’ HRM whereas ‘Sweden’s strong collectivist culture counters the development of an individualistic orientation to the employment relationship’ (Clark & Pugh, 2000, p. 96). Inherent in controversies surrounding the notion of a European model, Asian model or North American model are questions of the limitations and value of cross- national generalizations in HRM (Hyman, 1994). Despite the economic and political pressures from globalization, as it is loosely called, the national diversity of HRM systems remains and is particularly sharp between the developed and the developing world (Lipsig-Mummé, 2001). Building on Tyson and Brewster’s (1991) hypothesis, we might have to acknowledge the existence of discrete HRM models both between and within nations, contingent on distinct contextual factors. We have also to recognize that those factors which maintain differences in approaches to managing the employ- ment relationship will continue, albeit with decreasing power (Clark & Pugh, 2000). It is easier to formulate questions than answers, and this section has taken the easier route rather than the more difficult, yet there is value in asking questions. Questions can stimulate reflection and increase our understanding of the HRM paradigm. Our objective has been to do both. HRM WEB LINKS For further information on comparative HRM, go to HR Global Village www.hr-global- village.org./ (Australia), www.workindex.com/ (USA), www.clc-ctc.ca (Canada) and www.travail.gouv.qc.ca/ (Quebec, Canada). Chapter summary This chapter has examined different levels of strategic management, defining strategic management as a ‘pattern of decisions and actions’ undertaken by the upper echelon of the company. Strategic decisions are concerned with change and the achievement of superior performance, and involve strategic choices. In multidivisional companies, strategy formulation takes place at three levels – corporate, business and functional – to form a hierarchy of strategic decision-making. Corporate and business-level strategies, as well as environmental pressures, dictate the choice of HR policies and practices. When reading the descriptive and prescriptive strategic management texts, there is a great temptation to be smitten by what appears to be the linear and absolute rationality of the strategic management process. We draw attention to the more critical literature that recognizes that HR strategic options are, at any given time, partially constrained by the outcomes of corporate and business decisions, the current distribution of power within the organization and the ideological values of the key decision-makers. A core assumption underlying much of the SHRM research and literature is that each of the main types of generic competitive strategy used by organizations (for example cost
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For immediate release:
WHAT: Collections Feature:
20th Century American Art
Philip Evergood, Fletcher Martin, Gene Ritchie Monahan
WHERE: Tweed Museum of Art
University of Minnesota Duluth
WHEN: October 20 – December 20, 2009
In the American Midwest of the early 1900s, new styles in art had little context or meaning. Through the 1930s, as the entire country was threatened by the economic Depression and the looming threat of WWII, regionalist scenic painting and public murals confirmed the community-building function of traditional narrative art.
What we call “modernism” in art had already been explored in Europe and Russia by 1900. Kandinsky, Duchamp, and Picasso, had shown in New York in the infamous “Armory Show” of 1913. But it took their American counterparts much longer to produce their own spin on abstraction.
American artists like Marsden Hartley, Stuart Davis, John Marin and Russian immigrant Max Weber made their mark by blending traditional subjects of place and narrative, with abstracted form. The work of these first generation American abstract experimenters directly influenced the artists of the current Tweed feature.
Philip Evergood, Gene (Genevieve) Ritchie Monahan, and Fletcher Martin have a common ability to balance humanism and spirit of place with abstraction. Martin and Evergood came to Duluth in 1954 and ‘55, respectively, as part of the UMD Summer Guest Artist Program. Martin was captivated by the industry of the Twin Ports when he painted Interstate Ore Bridge. Evergood’s rough-hewn, quirky brand of figurative, humanist art is represented by Pittsburgh Family, which contrasts the tenderness of a young family with the loud industry of a steel town.
Gene Ritchie Monahan was a well known portraitist, though she painted regional scenes like Roundhouse, West Duluth, earlier in her career, around 1930. A graduate of Denfeld High School in Duluth and the University of Minnesota, Monahan moved to New York in 1953 where she studied figurative painting and ran a gallery in Greenwich Village.
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Jesus may not have died nailed to the cross because there is no evidence that the Romans crucified prisoners two thousand years ago, a scholar has claimed.
The legend of his execution is based on the traditions of the Christian church and artistic illustrations rather than antique texts, according to theologian Gunnar Samuelsson.
He claims the Bible has been misinterpreted as there are no explicit references the use of nails or to crucifixion - only that Jesus bore a "staurus" towards Calvary which is not necessarily a cross but can also mean a "pole".
Mr Samuelsson, who has written a 400-page thesis after studying the original texts, said: "The problem is descriptions of crucifixions are remarkably absent in the antique literature.
"The sources where you would expect to find support for the established understanding of the event really don't say anything."
The ancient Greek, Latin and Hebrew literature from Homer to the first century AD describe an arsenal of suspension punishments but none mention "crosses" or "crucifixion."more - telegraph.co.uk
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We all throw stuff away—about four and a half pounds of garbage a day, according to the Environmental Protection Agency.
We’ve gotten used to hearing the three commandments of waste management: recycle, reduce, and reuse. But recently, the term “up-cycle” has come into vogue. That’s the idea that you can take waste materials and turn them into something valuable and even beautiful.
Mosaic artist Daud Abdullah up-cycles pieces of trashed pottery, tile, mirror, and glass to make public art on garbage cans in Oakland and Richmond.
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|Books & Reports|
Do you have a question?
English Language Instruction for Incarcerated Youth
Between 1983 and 1991 the percentage of Latino youth in detention increased by 84%, as compared to an 8% increase for white youth and a 46% increase for youth overall (Hamparian & Leiber, 1997). This digest discusses the issues and challenges in providing English language instruction to Latino and other linguistically and culturally diverse (LCD) incarcerated youth ages 16-24 and suggests best practices and models to provide this intervention in correctional settings.
Rationale for InstructionAlthough few studies have been conducted on this population, research suggests that education has a positive effect on the prison population in general and incarcerated youth in particular. Data on 3,200 inmates released from prisons in Maryland, Minnesota, and Ohio in 1997 and 1998 were reported in a longitudinal study (Steurer, Smith, & Tracy, 2001). Recidivism-returning to the correctional system-was 29% lower for inmates who had participated in correctional education programs than for nonparticipants. Similarly, data from the National Adult Literacy Study (NALS) indicated that the 80% recidivism rate was reduced by 20% or more when incarcerated youth were involved in reading instruction programs (U.S. Department of Education, 1992).
Issues Affecting Incarcerated Youth
Along with the general developmental and cognitive needs of adolescent youth, issues specific to incarcerated youth include the following:
Issues Specific to LCD Incarcerated Youth
Incarcerated LCD youth may face additional challenges of limited English proficiency and cultural knowledge and interrupted or inadequate education. Civil war, oppressive governments, and economic strife are motivating factors for emigration, and students who come from these backgrounds are often far behind their native-born peers in education (Collier & Thomas, 2001). In the Suffolk County (New York) Correctional Facilities, 100% of the LCD incarcerated minors had literacy levels below a fourth grade equivalent in English and 90% had literacy levels below an eighth grade level in their native Spanish (Hudson River Center, 1996). Programs for youths usually focus on GED preparation and require a level of English many LCD youths have not yet achieved.
Factors to Consider When Designing Programs
Although statistics are not available for LCD youth, some have learning disabilities that make traditional schooling frustrating. The frequency of learning disabilities among all incarcerated individuals has been estimated at between 30% and 50%, compared to 5% to 15% among the general adult population (National Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center, 1999). As with all instruction for youth and adults-especially those with low literacy levels-educational programs that tailor instruction to reflect learners' goals are more likely to be effective. Educators Collier and Thomas (2001), Egbert (1989), and Sherman (2002) suggest the following when designing programs:
Transitional ProgramsStrong transitional programs can facilitate continued success upon release from prison. In data collected from the New York State Education Department's Incarcerated Education Transition Program, a program administered in county jails since 1988, recidivism was reduced when incarcerated youth participated in a three-level program:
The number of hours of exposure to the transition program was correlated with lower recidivism, greater involvement in educational program participation, increased employment outcomes, and a greater likelihood of being engaged in family and parental responsibilities. Participation in the transition program resulted in 75% fewer repeat offenders than in the statewide comparison group (Hudson River Center, 1998).
ConclusionThe instruction that LCD youth receive in correctional facilities may be the first positive learning experience in their lives. Placing students on a path of learning and literacy development by implementing the strategies offered here can help them establish a life pattern of success.
ReferencesCollier, V. P., & Thomas, W. P. (2001). Educating linguistically and culturally diverse students in correctional settings. Journal of Correctional Education, 52(2), 68-73.
Egbert, J. L. (1989). Prison ESL: Building a foundation for teaching English in unconventional settings. English for Specific Purposes, 8(1), 51-64.
Hamparian, D., & Leiber, M. (1997). Disproportionate confinement of minority juveniles in secure facilities: 1996 National Report. Champaign, IL: Community Research Associates.
Hudson River Center for Program Development. (1996). From incarceration to productive lifestyle: Making the transition: An instructional guide for incarcerated youth education. Glenmont, NY: Author.
Hudson River Center for Program Development. (1998). Transition programs: Bridging the gap. Glenmont, NY: Author.
LoBuglio, S. (2000). Time to reframe politics and practices in correctional education. Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 2, 1-34.
National Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center. (1999). Bridges to practice: A research-based guide for literacy practitioners serving adults with learning disabilities (Guidebooks 1-5). (Available from the Academy for Educational Development, 1825 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009)
Redding, R. E. (2000). Conditions and programming for juveniles in correctional facilities (Juvenile Justice Fact Sheet). Charlottesville: University of Virginia, Institute of Law, Psychiatry, & Public Policy.
Sherman, K. (2002). Behind bars: An experiment in cross cultural training. Field Notes, 12(3), 11, 15, 17.
Steurer, S., Smith, L., & Tracy, A. (2001, September). Three state recidivism study. Lanham, MD: Correctional Education Association.
Taymans, J. M., & Corley, M. A. (2001, June). Enhancing services to inmates with learning disabilities: Systematic reform of prison literacy programs. Journal of Correctional Education, 52(2), 74-78.
U.S. Department of Education. (1992). National adult literacy survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. (Available from www.ed.gov/NCES/nadlits/overview.html)
This document was produced at the Center for Applied Linguistics (4646 40th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20016 202-362-0700) with funding from the U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED. This document is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission.
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There are 4 major types of Evaporative Emissions from the fuel system of a car, these are:
- Diurnal: Evaporation caused by the fuel tank being heated by the sun
- Running Losses: Heat from the engine and exhaust system causes fuel vaporisation
- Heat Soak: Once an engine is stopped heat from the engine and exhaust system causes fuel vaporisation
- Refuelling: there are always fuel vapours in the fuel tank, when you refuel these vapours are displaced by liquid fuel (and generally vented into the atmosphere).
The amount of Evaporative Emissions created by a fuel depends on the given fuels Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP). RVP is a measure of a fuels volatility, or put simply, how easily a fuel vaporises. In the summer you want fuel with a lower RVP to avoid losses and more specifically to avoid Vapour Lock, in the winter you want fuel with a higher RVP so that vaporisation occurs more easily when trying to start your vehicle, you want the fuel to vaporise as it’s entering the combustion chamber/cylinder so that it will burn.
Interestingly the EPA in the USA regulates the RVP of fuels sold depending on the time of year. This also occurs in other countries but I haven’t found any other references to link to.
You are asking about “leaking vapours” which means the first 3 forms of Evaporative Emissions are relevant, but we can probably discount the 4th as, aside from some methods of minimising refuelling vapour emission, these vapours are still deliberately vented to atmosphere in most/all cars so it can’t really be defined as “leaking”.
If you are interested in Refuelling Emissions Kristy Welsh did some calculations in 2008 to estimate how much Refuelling Loss would occur over a year for an “average American”, her initial answer is “about an 1/8th of a gallon”, she then goes on to multiply by a factor of 10 (just in case you think it’s way too low) and the answer is a little over a gallon or about 3.8 litres per year.
None of this answers the question of an estimate for loss from a fuel system leaking vapours and I’m afraid I can’t find anything that does answer the question. There is an EPA document here which gives a lot of the information required to answer some parts of the question, but aside from being a very a large document, it only deals with stationary Liquid Storage Tanks so does not take into account extra evaporation caused by slosh, nor does it deal with Running Losses or Heat Soak.
I don’t think Diurnal Evaporation could cause anywhere near the same losses as Refuelling. These both operate on a similar principal, the sun must heat and expand the vapour enough for it to escape from the tank through emissions control hoses. If you assume Kristy Welsh is correct with her refuel losses estimate then losses from Diurnal Evaporation should be small enough to discount, particularly when talking about measuring fuel economy.
The other two forms of loss, Running Losses and Heat Soak are much more difficult to estimate. They usually occur in what is a closed system, unless there is a leak. I’m afraid I can provide no evidence but experience that these don’t cause enough loss to be measurable when dealing with fuel economy.
If a damaged/malfunctioning EVAP valve is causing a measurable difference in fuel economy there are 2 more likely reasons for this than Evaporative Emissions
- (the less likely option) The vehicles ECU has detected a fault and has put itself into a safer mode that over-fuels the car somewhat.
- (the more likely option) The leaky valve is causing a leak in your air intake and your engine is sucking in air that has not been measured by the ECU (MAP/MAF/some other air flow measurer). The ECU puts in enough fuel for the amount of air it thinks is in the system, this isn’t enough fuel and it makes the engine run lean. Running lean makes the engine detonate (also called knock/ping/pink) This triggers a knock sensor which in turn puts the ECU into an mode where it over-fuels the engine deliberately in order to stop the knocking.
The outcome is the same, the ECU is deliberately over-fuelling the engine so as to avoid any damage being done.
Of course, this is just my opinion that’s based on a couple of facts supplied. When your mechanic replaces the EVAP valve I’m sure he (or she) will run a full diagnostics test on your vehicle and a simple fault clear will probably sort the problem out.
(I'm not an expert on any of this so please feel free to edit this answer and improve it)
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Fact Sheet - Onsite Burial (Pits, Landfills)
Burial is the placement of waste in man-made or natural excavations, such as pits or landfills. Burial is the most common onshore disposal technique used for disposing of drilling wastes (mud and cuttings). Generally, the solids are buried in the same pit (the reserve pit) used for collection and temporary storage of the waste mud and cuttings after the liquid is allowed to evaporate. Pit burial is a low-cost, low-tech method that does not require wastes to be transported away from the well site, and, therefore, is very attractive to many operators.
Burial may be the most misunderstood or misapplied disposal technique. Simply pushing the walls of the reserve pit over the drilled cuttings is generally not acceptable. The depth or placement of the burial cell is important. A moisture content limit should be established on the buried cuttings, and the chemical composition should be determined. Onsite pit burial may not be a good choice for wastes that contain high concentrations of oil, salt, biologically available metals, industrial chemicals, and other materials with harmful components that could migrate from the pit and contaminate usable water resources.
In some oil field areas, large landfills are operated to dispose of oil field wastes from multiple wells. Burial usually results in anaerobic conditions, which limits any further degradation when compared with wastes that are land-farmed or land-spread, where aerobic conditions predominate.
The use of earthen or lined pits is integral to drilling waste management. During most U.S. onshore drilling operations, the cuttings separated by the shale shaker are sent to a pit called the reserve pit located near the drill rig. The pit is generally open to the atmosphere, so it also accumulates stormwater and washwater from the rig. The strategic location of small pits near drilling sites can also help minimize spillage of waste materials. Unless site characteristics are such that no significant threat to water resources can occur, liners are generally required. Where pits must be constructed adjacent to water bodies or on sloping terrain, engineering precautions incorporated into the design will help to ensure pit integrity. Precautions should be taken to prevent disposal of chemicals, refuse, debris, or other materials not intended for pit disposal.
At the end of the drilling job, any hydrocarbon products floating on top of the pits are recovered and any free water or other liquids are collected and disposed of, usually in an injection well. The remaining cuttings are covered in place using native soils, the surface is graded to prevent water accumulation, and the area is revegetated with native species to reduce the potential for erosion and promote full recovery of the area's ecosystem. Reserve pits should be closed as soon as possible following the generally accepted closure procedures in the region.
For wastes with constituent concentrations only slightly higher than those allowed for traditional pit burial, the wastes may be blended with clean, local soil to dilute and reduce the high concentrations to acceptable levels before the waste/soil mix is buried. The objective of this approach is to incorporate wastes that meet required criteria into the soil at a level below the major rooting zone for plants but above the water table (Bansal and Sugiarto 1999). Costs for such burial depend on the volume of soil required to be mixed to bring concentrations of oil and grease to within appropriate oil and grease limits (e.g., <3% by weight), pit excavation costs, and loading/hauling costs of soils and cuttings. The average drilling waste burial costs are estimated at $7 to $8 per barrel (Bansal and Sugiarto 1999).
Landfills are used throughout the world for disposing of large volumes of municipal, industrial, and hazardous wastes. In landfills, wastes are placed in an engineered impoundment in the ground. At the end of each day or on some other cycle, the waste is covered with a layer of clean soil or some other inert cover material. Modern design standards require clay or synthetic liners, although, in some areas, unlined landfills continue to operate.
Landfills can be used for disposing of drilling wastes and other oil field wastes. In some circumstances, these are offsite commercial operations established to receive wastes from multiple operators in an oil field (e.g., the West Texas region). In other cases, oil companies with a large amount of drilling activity in an area may construct and operate private landfills. For example, TotalFinaElf designed and built a controlled landfill to dispose of inert wastes at a remote site in Libya, where other management alternatives were not readily available. At this landfill, a bottom liner overlaid by a geological barrier was developed to prevent contamination of the soil. A top liner, which is drawn over the waste during non-active periods, will be installed permanently after the landfill is closed. Two collection pits collect rainwater and subsequent leachate (Morillon et al. 2002).
Wastes suitable for burial are generally limited to solid or semi-solid, low-salt, low-hydrocarbon content inert materials, such as water-based drill cuttings. Costs for disposing of cuttings that have been stabilized prior to dilution and burial are estimated at $9-10 per barrel of waste (Bansal and Sugiarto 1999).
Factors to consider for burying drilling wastes include the following:
- Depth above and below pit. Areas with shallow groundwater are not appropriate; a pit location of at least five feet above any groundwater is recommended to prevent migration to the groundwater. The top of the burial cell should be below the rooting zone of any plants likely to grow in that area in the future (normally about three feet).
- Type of soil surrounding the pit. Low-permeability soils such as clays are preferable to high-permeability soils such as sands.
- For offsite commercial landfills, any protocols required by the facility accepting the waste (not all facilities have the same acceptance criteria).
- Prevention of runoff and leaching. Appropriate types and degree of controls to prevent runoff and leaching should be implemented. Natural barriers or manufactured liners placed between the waste material and the groundwater help control leaching.
- Appropriate monitoring requirements and limits.
- Time required to complete the burial.
- Chemical composition of the buried cuttings.
- Moisture content or condition of buried cuttings.
The advantages of onsite burial of drilling wastes include the following:
- Simple, low-cost technology for uncontaminated solid wastes.
- Limited surface area requirements.
Concerns include the following:
- Potential for groundwater contamination if burial is not done correctly or contaminated wastes are buried, and the resulting liability costs.
- Requirements for QA/QC, stabilization, and monitoring.
Bansal, K.M., and Sugiarto, 1999, "Exploration and Production Operations – Waste Management A Comparative Overview: US and Indonesia Cases," SPE54345, SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference, Jakarta, Indonesia, April 20-22.
E&P Forum, "Exploration and Production (E&P) Waste Management Guidelines," 1993, Report No. 2.58/196, London, U.K., September.
Morillon, A., J.F. Vidalie, U.S. Hamzah, S. Suripno, and E.K. Hadinoto, 2002, "Drilling and Waste Management," SPE 73931, presented at the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety, and the Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, March 20-22.
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If you type or use a computer keyboard, you can decrease your risk of carpal tunnel syndrome by making sure that you work in a "wrist neutral" position, with the wrist joint straight, not bent up or down. To help you do this, several types of office aids are available, including a cushioned wrist rest and a keyboard tray that adjusts to a position below the work surface. Newer keyboards are being developed, including ones that split the keys into left-hand and right-hand groups, and others that bend the keyboard into a tent shape. You also may need to check the position of your hand when you use a computer mouse or trackball because some experts suspect that people who use these computer accessories consistently are more likely to develop carpal tunnel syndrome. If you continue to have symptoms, you may want to have a professional check your workstation.
To prevent sports-related carpal tunnel syndrome, ask your trainer or a sports medicine physician about effective ways to support your wrist during high-risk activities.
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The Glass Menagerie Memory and the Past Quotes
How we cite our quotes: Citations follow this format: (Scene.Line). Every time a character talks counts as one line, even if what they say turns into a big long monologue.
The music seems to answer his question, while Tom thinks it over. He searches his pockets. (Scene Six stage directions.)
Williams uses music to emphasize the subjective and memory nature of the play.
"There was a Jim O'Connor we both knew in high school-[then, with effort] If that is the one that Tom is bringing to dinner-you'll have to excuse me, I won't come to the table." (6.30, Laura).
"You remember that wonderful write-up I had in The Torch?"
"It said I was bound to succeed in anything I went into!" (6.126-6.128, Jim and Laura)
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Looking for a fun writing activity that integrates well with Valentine's Day? Then look no further than Vulture Verses: Love Poems for the Unloved.
This book is a funny and fact-filled collection of "friendship notes" written to some of the most unlovable creatures one could imagine. Through her poems and accompanying facts, author Diane Lang helps us see that even bats, turkey vultures, spiders, skunks, and mosquitoes (to name but a few of the animal dignitaries) deserve some love.
Recycling is your secret task.
You eat the things that die or spoil
And make them part of growing soil.
So, though I shoo you from my plate,
You're someone I appreciate!
- The book closes with a request: "So many cards to write! So many animal friends! I may need some help. Do you know someone who is misunderstood? Will you help me write friendship notes, too?" Such a fantastic suggestion! Working in pairs or teams, students can research basic facts about other unloved animals that "scuttle, slither, buzz, and sting." Why are these creature seen as so horrible? What makes them worthy of our admiration? See if your students can write similar poems to change the loathsome to the lovable. Picture books such as Melissa Stewart's marvelous Animal Grossapedia will provide ample information and inspiration for even the most reluctant writers.
- As an additional challenge, ask students to write the above poems in the first person, as if they are the animal. They must defend themselves to humans, and justify the "bad rap" which they've been given. Students could be further challenged to write these poems without naming themselves (the animal could be identified at poem's end or in the title alone). Students can then read the poems aloud, and classmates can guess the identity of the nefarious narrator.
- What role do these animals play in other stories, whether fables, myths, or folktales? With what traits have they been branded? Have students create original fables using one of the creatures from Vulture Verses: Love Poems for the Unloved, or from their research project above. See my earlier post Animal Attractions for more ideas and suggested titles for fables.
- Diane Lang uses fantastic vocabulary in both her poems and follow-up facts. Discuss some of these words and challenge students to define them, using context clues alone. Why did the author choose these and not their simpler synonyms? If students completed any of the above activities, ask them to revisit their writing to substitute words that are more exacting and creative for those which are overused or ordinary.
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Mistletoe―Friend or Foe in the Garden
by BJ Jarvis, Pasco Cooperative Extension Service
Horticulture Agent and Director
Have you gotten caught under the mistletoe this year? Probably the last thing you were thinking about while getting your Christmas kisses is wondering where this holiday plant comes from.
While mistletoe is frequently used for holiday decorating, it is a native plant that can damage trees, especially those that are already in failing health. This usually isn't a problem in healthy trees, however. This parasite doesn’t gather water and nutrients from the soil as most plants do. Instead it penetrates the upper branches to gather its nourishment from the host plant, usually large trees and oaks such as laurel or water oaks.
Parasitic mistletoe is far more troublesome to trees than epiphytic plants that share life on other plants while doing them no harm. Epiphyte is the scientific name for plants that depend on another plant for support, but not for nourishment. Examples in Florida include ball moss and other bromeliads, lichen, orchids, and the common sphagnum moss.
Once established on a host, mistletoe grows very quickly and can live for years while the host plant is steadily weakened, potentially even dying. Pruning the mistletoe will help. Years ago in Georgia, mistletoe gatherers typically shot the parasite out of the tree. In our rapidly developing county, that may not be the best approach. Be sure to move at least 6” beyond the point of attachment (closer to the ground) for the pruning cuts, as the “roots” can penetrate far into the tree.
Those white berries make the plant attractive; but be careful as they are also toxic for children and pets when ingested. Hmm. I wonder if that is why mistletoe was hung high in doorways, keeping it well out of reach of children.
Long the symbol of peace and love and passion, hang mistletoe in the doorway as a festive decoration, but if you see it growing on your plants, head to the garden shed for the pruners.
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Cross-Section of the Universe | Space Wallpaper
About this Image
This space wallpaper of a galaxy cluster taken by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope gives a remarkable cross-section of the Universe, showing objects at different distances and stages in cosmic history. They range from cosmic near neighbors to objects seen in the early years of the Universe. The 14-hour exposure shows objects around a billion times fainter than can be seen with the naked eye. This image was released April 17, 2014.
Credit: NASA, ESA
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Asteroid eludes camera but yields secrets
Deep Space 1 managed to capture this low-quality image of asteroid Braille
By Robin Lloyd
CNN Interactive Senior Writer
August 3, 1999
Web posted at: 5:16 p.m. EDT (2116 GMT)
(CNN) -- A corkscrew-shaped asteroid that dodged a NASA spacecraft camera last week could crash into Earth four millennia from now and cause catastrophic damage, scientists said Tuesday.
Data returned from Deep Space 1's encounter with the asteroid Braille showed that its orbit will shift over time such that it could collide with Earth, said Laurence Soderblom, a U.S. Geological Survey researcher who heads up the camera team that failed to photograph the asteroid.
"It'll be driven in to a point in about 4,000 years where its oscillations will be centered on the Earth's orbit, increasing the probability that it may have near approaches to the Earth and could become the Y6K problem," Soderblom said, chuckling at his joke about the millennium computer bug.
Asteroid scientist Eileen Ryan, with New Mexico Highlands University, said the asteroid is big enough that it would make it through the Earth's atmosphere before burning up and crashing to Earth.
"Something this size, two kilometers (across), would really be a catastrophic impact on the Earth and could cause global consequences," she said. "It's tiny, but luckily we have 4,000 years to worry about it."
Soderblom and Ryan made their comments at a news conference broadcast from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. JPL oversees the $152 million Deep Space 1 project, set to conclude its primary mission in September.
After a nine-month journey, Deep Space 1 swooped on Thursday within 16 miles of Braille, flying only twice as high as a commercial jet would over Earth but traveling twice as fast as the space shuttle, said chief mission engineer Marc Rayman.
"The accuracy we achieved would be like kicking a soccer ball on the Earth and scoring a goal on the moon," Rayman said.
The mission was a test of 12 advanced, risky technologies, 11 of which functioned quite well. The spacecraft is pushed along by an ion propulsion system that achieves thrusts 10 times more powerful than conventional chemical propellants.
The failure came when Deep Space 1 tried to rely on its autonomous navigation system within hours of its encounter with Braille to locate the asteroid, correct the craft's course to pull in close and then photograph it.
The camera doubled as a navigation eye in the final hours before the encounter, Rayman said, but it lost track of Braille 70 minutes before the encounter because the asteroid was more dim than expected due to its odd shape. The camera was not sensitive enough to pick up its faint reflection.
"It's like driving your car down a dark country road," he said. "If you only glimpse your surroundings, you can't expect to reach your destination based on that information."
The mission returned some infrared and spectral data on the asteroid but not all that was hoped for.
Fifteen minutes after the encounter, the camera detected the asteroid, probably because it had a better reverse angle for reflecting sunlight, Rayman said.
"Right after the spacecraft flew past the asteroid, it switched back to its normal tracking mode and turned the spacecraft in very complex turn, and the pointing was dead on and it collected both pictures and spectra," he said.
Up to six hours before the encounter, flight engineers worked frantically to rescue the spacecraft after it unexpectedly put itself in a "safe" mode. Engineers performed a "heroic" reconfiguring of DS1's software that made possible the data that were collected later, Rayman said.
An instrument designed to detect ions near the asteroid detected none, said project scientist Robert Nelson, who compared the effort to smelling a bowling ball from 50 yards.
Artist conception of the Deep Space 1 spacecraft approaching asteroid Braille
Spectroscopic data from the encounter show that the asteroid's composition is remarkably close to that of a huge, well-known asteroid called Vesta, as well as some meteorites that have fallen to Earth and been studied in laboratories, the USGS's Soderblom said.
Vesta, thought to be the second largest identified asteroid, measures 500 km (310 miles) across -- about the size of Arizona -- and is one in a minority of asteroids with a core and crust. Most asteroids are just a jumble of minerals and rocks.
Asteroid scientist Ryan and Soderblom think Braille was knocked from Vesta but have yet to learn how the smaller rock came to have an orbit that approaches Earth while Vesta remains out in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
Images taken of Braille 13,000 to 14,000 km from the spacecraft were merged to reveal a fuzzy picture of the asteroid and engineers translated that image into a corkscrew shape.
"This is really an irregular shaped object and led to the hypothetical view of a twisted balloon you'd get at the county fair," Soderblom said.
Scientists think Braille is about 1 km wide and rotates slower on its own axis than most asteroids -- once every nine days.
"This is very exciting for understand very basic things about our solar system formation and evolution," Ryan said. "Collisions are a very common process in our solar system. This is like a giant laboratory impact model."
Flight engineers turned on Deep Space 1's ion propulsion engine Friday to push it toward comet Wilson-Harrington, which it will fly by in January 2001, continuing on past comet Borrelly several months later. NASA has yet to allocate money to pay for mission operators to oversee that fly-by and ensure that data are collected.
Wilson-Harrington intrigues scientists because it resembled a comet when first discovered in 1949 but now looks more like a dry asteroid than the a "dirty snowball."
Rayman said the two upcoming targets are brighter and better understood by scientists so it will be easier for the spacecraft's camera to detect them.
Spacecraft set for risky asteroid flyby
July 28, 1999
Scientists reduce odds of Earth-asteroid collision
July 28, 1999
NASA unveils comet mission on heels of cancellation
July 12, 1999
Meteor blasts New Zealand with sonic boom
July 8, 1999
Nanorover bound for asteroid
June 28, 1999
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Deep Space 1
Remote Agent Experiment
Note: Pages will open in a new browser window
External sites are not endorsed by CNN Interactive.
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Angiosperms vs Gymnosperms
Both angiosperms and gymnosperms are the seed bearing plants. They are the spermatophytes and differ from each other because of their derived characteristics, which is discussed in detail, in this article.
What is Gymnosperm?
Gymnosperms are seed bearing plants. The group includes conifers, cycads, ginkgo, and gnetales. The dominant plant is a sporophyte, and it is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots. Vascular and mechanical tissues are present in these plants. These are dioecious plants, and female plant bears megasporophylls, while male plant bears microsporophylls in a cone. Megasporophylls bear naked ovules, which becomes the seed after fertilization. Both male and female gametophytes are small and depend on the sporophyte. No external water is necessary for their fertilization. The seed germinates to give rise to the sporophyll.
A common example for cycads is cycas. Cycas sporophyte resembles a palm. It possesses a tap root system with secondary roots branching off. Some roots are negatively geotropic, and they are called corolloid roots. In the cortex of these roots, there are cyanobacteria living symbiotically. The stem is pillar like and bears a crown of leaves at the apex. The stem is covered with leaf scars and shows secondary thickening. There are two types of leaves. Vegetative leaves are large and pinnately compound. Young leaves show circinate vernation. Alternatively with vegetative leaves are small brown colored scale leaves. The male plant bears a male cone with microsporophylls. The female plant bears a crown of megasporophylls. The megasporophylls bear naked or exposed ovules on their lateral margin. Gymnosperms are heterosporous.
What is Angiosperm / Anthophyte?
Anthophytes are the most advanced plants in the kingdom plantae. The dominant plant is the sporophyte, which may be dioecious or monoecious. The sporophyte is highly differentiated into stem, leaves and roots with well developed vascular tissues. The xylem contains vessels and the phloem contains sieve tubes and companion cells. They possess a highly differentiated reproductive structure which is the flower. Anthophytes are heterosporous. The ovules develop within the ovary. The ovaries develop by the folding of megasporophylls. Folded megasporophylls are called carpels. When a carpel is formed the ovules are enclosed within the carpel. They have well defined mechanical tissues. There is a well developed cuticle in the terrestrial plants. No external water or internal fluids are necessary for fertilization. Therefore, spermatozoids are non-motile. The pollen tube carries male nuclei or gametes towards the ovum. In anthophytes, there is double fertilization forming a diploid embryo and a triploid endosperm. A true seed is formed within the fruit. Anthophytes are considered to be well adapted for terrestrial life because of some reasons. They have a fully developed vascular system with vessels, sieve tubes and companion cells. They have a highly differentiated plant body into roots, stems and leaves. They have well developed mechanical tissues. They possess a pollen tube to carry male gamete to the ovum. Therefore, the fertilization is not dependent on external water. They have a cuticle and seeds.
What is the difference between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms?
• In gymnosperms, a male cone is present and instead, anthophytes possess a flower.
• Microsporophylls in gymnosperms are modified to stamens in anthophytes.
• Megasporophylls of gymnosperms are modified to carpels in anthophytes.
• An archigonium is present in gymnosperm female gametophyte and no archegonia in anthophyte female gametophyte.
• Multi ciliated sperms are present in gymnosperms and in anthophytes only the nuclei are present.
• An internal fluid is required for fertilization in gymnosperms, and no water is necessary for fertilization in anthophytes.
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|Capital Orthopaedic Specialists, LLC
SMD Hospital Professional Building,
7501 Surratts Road, Suite 110
Clinton, MD 20735 USA
Shin splints are a common exercise-related problem. The term "shin splints" refers to pain along the inner edge of the shinbone (tibia).
Shin splints typically develop after physical activity. They are often associated with running. Any vigorous sports activity can bring on shin splints, especially if you are just starting a fitness program.
Simple measures can relieve the pain of shin splints. Rest, ice, and stretching often help. Taking care not to overdo your exercise routine will help prevent shin splints from coming back.
Shin splints (medial tibial stress syndrome) is an inflammation of the muscles, tendons, and bone tissue around your tibia. Pain typically occurs along the inner border of the tibia, where muscles attach to the bone.
In general, shin splints develop when the muscle and bone tissue (periosteum) in the leg become overworked by repetitive activity.
Shin splints often occur after sudden changes in physical activity. These can be changes in frequency, such as increasing the number of days you exercise each week. Changes in duration and intensity, such as running longer distances or on hills, can also cause shin splints.
Other factors that contribute to shin splints include:
- Having flat feet or abnormally rigid arches
- Exercising with improper or worn-out footwear
Runners are at highest risk for developing shin splints. Dancers and military recruits are two other groups frequently diagnosed with the condition.
The most common symptom of shin splints is pain along the border of the tibia. Mild swelling in the area may also occur.
Shin splint pain may:
- Be sharp and razor-like or dull and throbbing
- Occur both during and after exercise
- Be aggravated by touching the sore spot
After discussing your symptoms and medical history, your doctor will examine your lower leg. An accurate diagnosis is very important. Sometimes, other problems may exist that can have an impact on healing.
Your doctor may order additional imaging tests to rule out other shin problems. Several conditions can cause shin pain, including stress fractures, tendinitis, and chronic exertional compartment syndrome.
If your shin splints are not responsive to treatment, your doctor may want to make sure you do not have a stress fracture. A stress fracture is a small crack(s) in the tibia caused by stress and overuse.
Imaging tests that create pictures of anatomy help to diagnose conditions. A bone scan and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study will often show stress fractures in the tibia.
Tendons attach muscles to bones. Tendinitis occurs when tendons become inflamed. This can be painful like shin splints, especially if there is a partial tear of the involved tendon. An MRI can help diagnose tendinitis.
Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome
An uncommon condition called chronic exertional compartment syndrome causes symptoms like shin splints. Compartment syndrome is a painful condition that occurs when pressure within the muscles builds to dangerous levels. In chronic exertional compartment syndrome, this is brought on by exercise. Pain usually resolves soon after the activity stops.
The tests used to diagnose this condition involve measuring the pressure within the leg compartments before and after exercise.
Rest. Because shin splints are typically caused by overuse, standard treatment includes several weeks of rest from the activity that caused the pain. Lower impact types of aerobic activity can be substituted during your recovery, such as swimming, using a stationary bike, or an elliptical trainer.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medicines. Drugs like ibuprofen, aspirin, and naproxen reduce pain and swelling.
Ice. Use cold packs for 20 minutes at a time, several times a day. Do not apply ice directly to the skin.
Compression. Wearing an elastic compression bandage may prevent additional swelling.
Flexibility exercises. Stretching your lower leg muscles may make your shins feel better.
Supportive shoes. Wearing shoes with good cushioning during daily activities will help reduce stress in your shins.
Orthotics. People who have flat feet or recurrent problems with shin splints may benefit from orthotics. Shoe inserts can help align and stablize your foot and ankle, taking stress off of your lower leg. Orthotics can be custom-made for your foot, or purchased "off the shelf."
Return to exercise. Shin splints usually resolve with rest and the simple treatments described above. Before returning to exercise, you should be pain-free for at least 2 weeks. Keep in mind that when you return to exercise, it must be at a lower level of intensity. You should not be exercising as often as you did before, or for the same length of time.
Be sure to warm up and stretch thoroughly before you exercise. Increase training slowly. If you start to feel the same pain, stop exercising immediately. Use a cold pack and rest for a day or two. Return to training again at a lower level of intensity. Increase training even more slowly than before.
Very few people need surgery for shin splints. Surgery has been done in very severe cases that do not respond to nonsurgical treatment. It is not clear how effective surgery is, however.
There are things you can do to prevent shin splints.
Wear a proper fitting athletic shoe. To get the right fit, determine the shape of your foot using the "wet test." Step out of the shower onto a surface that will show your footprint, like a brown paper bag. If you have a flat foot, you will see an impression of your whole foot on the paper. If you have a high arch, you will only see the ball and heel of your foot. When shopping, look for athletic shoes that match your particular foot pattern.
In addition, make sure you wear shoes designed for your sport. Running long distances in court-type sneakers can contribute to shin splints.
Slowly build your fitness level. Increase the duration, intensity, and frequency of your exercise regimen gradually.
Cross train. Alternate jogging with lower impact sports like swimming or cycling.
Barefoot running. In recent years, barefoot running has gained in popularity. Many people claim it has helped to resolve shin splints. Some research indicates that barefoot running spreads out impact stresses among muscles, so that no area is overloaded. However, there is no clear evidence that barefoot running reduces the risk for any injury.
Like any significant change in your fitness regimen, a barefoot running program should be started very gradually. Begin with short distances to give your muscles and your feet time to adjust. Pushing too far, too fast can put you at risk for stress injuries. In addition, barefoot runners are at increased risk for cuts and bruises on their feet. Several brands of minimalist shoes with "toes" are available and these also require a slow working in period as your body adjusts to this different activity.
If your shin splints do not improve after rest and other methods described above, be sure to see a doctor to determine whether something else is causing your leg pain.
The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons
9400 West Higgins Road
Rosemont, IL 60018
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Article 28. Initial letters. A family-group or genus-group name or the name of a taxon above the family group is always to begin with an upper-case initial letter, and a species-group name always with a lower-case initial letter, regardless of how they were originally published.
Recommendation 28A. Initial words. A species-group name should not be put as the first word in a sentence, to avoid its beginning with an upper-case initial letter.
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By tasting a little bit of the rocks and air on Mars, NASA's robotic Phoenix lander discovered secrets about the history of water on the Red Planet over the last 4 billion years, scientists now reveal.
Phoenix was the most recent spacecraft to land on Mars and spent about five months studying the planet before the dark, icy winter of the Martian arctic damaged its solar panels in 2008. Scientists are still sifting through the wealth of Mars data that was captured by the spacecraft while it was still alive.
From that data mine, researchers discovered that the carbon dioxide in Mars' atmosphere shows evidence of recently interacting with liquid water. [Photos of water ice on Mars.]
"We think of Mars as cold and dry right now, but perhaps these findings suggest there could be things going on that we haven't observed yet, driving a more active system than we see on the face of things," said researcher Paul Niles, a planetary scientist at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston.
When combined with studies of 4-billion-year-old Martian meteorites collected on Earth, the results also suggest Mars has experienced substantial interactions between rock and cold water throughout its history.
Niles warned that it is hard to judge from the data how much water was involved in the recent interaction "You could probably get similar results with very little water, just thin films, or with oceans and seas and lakes," he said and the same uncertainly applies to Mars' past.
"That could be the result of a lot of groundwater flowing, or just thin films of water," Niles told SPACE.com, "but whatever happened, early massive hydrothermal systems were not common on Mars."
The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars is mostly derived from geologically recent volcanic eruptions, he added.
"All these results suggest that Mars is more active than we have thought," Niles said.
Isotopes tell watery tale
Niles and his colleagues used Phoenix's observations of carbon dioxide isotopes in the atmosphere to study the planet's water history. During its mission, the lander studied the isotopic composition of carbon dioxide more precisely than any other Mars probe to date.
Isotopes are versions of a chemical element that have differing numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Carbon dioxide is the major component of Mars' atmosphere, and its isotopic composition can reveal much about the geological processes that liquids and gases on the planet have been involved in, since carbon dioxide reacts readily with water and a variety of rocks there.
Phoenix gathered carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and then compared those samples with a carbon dioxide specimen, one with a known isotopic makeup, brought from Earth. By comparing the two isotopic compositions, scientists can learn more about the Martian atmosphere.
The research is detailed in the Sept. 10 issue of the journal Science.
- Gallery: Water on Mars
- Most Amazing Mars Rover Discoveries
- Better Mars Atmosphere Maps Promised By New Mission
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2.8 Cherokee women
Reprinted by permission from Tar Heel Junior Historian 23, no. 3 (Spring 1984): 2–3, copyright North Carolina Museum of History.
Long before the arrival of the white man, women enjoyed a major role in the family life, economy, and government of the Cherokee Indians. The Cherokees originally lived in villages built along the rivers of western North Carolina, northwestern South Carolina, northern Georgia, and eastern Tennessee. When white men visited these villages in the early 1700s, they were surprised by the rights and privileges of Indian women.
Perhaps most surprising to Europeans was the Cherokees’ matrilineal kinship system. In a matrilineal kinship system, a person is related only to people on his mother’s side. His relatives are those who can be traced through a woman. In this way a child is related to his mother, and through her to his brothers and sisters. He also is related to his mother’s mother (grandmother), his mother’s brothers (uncles), and his mother’s sisters (aunts). The child is not related to the father, however. The most important male relative in a child’s life is his mother’s brother. Many Europeans never figured out how this kinship system worked. Those white men who married Indian women were shocked to discover that the Cherokees did not consider them to be related to their own children, and that mothers, not fathers, had control over the children.
Europeans also were astonished that women were the heads of Cherokee households. The Cherokees lived in extended families. This means that several generations (grandmother, mother, grandchildren) lived together as one family. Such a large family needed a number of different buildings. The roomy summer house was built of bark. The tiny winter house had thick clay walls and a roof, which kept in the heat from a fire smoldering on a central hearth. The household also had corn cribs and storage sheds. All these buildings belonged to the women in the family, and daughters inherited them from their mothers. A husband lived in the household of his wife (and her mother and sisters). If a husband and wife did not get along and decided to separate, the husband went home to his mother while any children remained with the wife in her home.
The family had a small garden near their houses and cultivated a particular section of the large fields which lay outside the village. Although men helped clear the fields and plant the crops, women did most of the farming because men were usually at war during the summer. The women used stone hoes or pointed sticks to cultivate corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, and sunflowers. Old women sat on platforms in the fields and chased away any crows or raccoons that tried to raid the fields.
In the winter when men traveled hundreds of miles to hunt bears, deer, turkeys, and other game, women stayed at home. They kept the fires burning in the winter houses, made baskets, pottery, clothing, and other things the family needed, cared for the children, and performed the chores for the household.
Perhaps because women were so important in the family and in the economy, they also had a voice in government. The Cherokees made decisions only after they discussed an issue for a long time and agreed on what they should do. The council meetings at which decisions were made were open to everyone including women. Women participated actively. Sometimes they urged the men to go to war to avenge an earlier enemy attack. At other times they advised peace. Women occasionally even fought in battles beside the men. The Cherokees called these women “War Women,” and all the people respected and honored them for their bravery.
By the 1800s the Cherokees had lost their independence and had become dominated by white Americans. At this time white Americans did not believe that it was proper for women to fight wars, vote, speak in public, work outside the home, or even control their own children. The Cherokees began to imitate whites, and Cherokee women lost much of their power and prestige. In the twentieth century, all women have had to struggle to acquire many of those rights which Cherokee women once freely enjoyed.
Color Quatie’s family
The black disc in the diagram below is Quatie, a Cherokee girl. Can you figure out which of the people in the diagram belong to her family and color them in? Remember, in early Cherokee culture the family unit was traced through the wives and not the husbands. The major members in each family were the mothers, aunts, grandmothers, brothers, and uncles, not fathers. After you color your choices, draw a big circle around all the people who would live together in the same household. (Clue: This answer would include fathers.)
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The potential of the Gulf's underwater heritage surfaced
1st Meeting for the Gulf on the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Manama, Bahrain, 16-17 October 2012
This UNESCO sub-regional meeting, gathering participants from Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen, aims at discussing the development of underwater archaeology in the region, capacity-building, research, cooperation and the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.
In the Gulf Region underwater archaeological research is still developing. However the potential of this discipline is immense.
Indeed, for 90% of human existence, sea levels have been lower than present by as much as 130 m. The current sea level was only established about 6,000 years ago. As humans mainly lived close to the water, a large majority of humanity's development took place on areas that are now submerged. It is only within the past decade that there has been recognition of how important the missing data on the submerged shelf is. With the speeding up of research of submerged landscapes underwater cultural heritage comes more and more in the focus of the States of the Gulf region. As the waters of the Gulf are relatively shallow with an average at about 35 metres, it can be assumed that prior to 14,000 years ago this now submerged area was an open landscape with a supply of fresh water from Euphrates and Tigris. Realising the importance of the available data, seismic reflection surveys are now undertaken.
Of huge scientific potential is also the research of the historic maritime past of the States of the Gulf. For centuries Arab States have ruled the waves. Throughout the 7th-13th centuries they maintained a wide trade network across Asia, Africa and Europe, which made them the world's leading extensive economic power. The remains of Arab shipwrecks, as well as the wrecks of foreign ships, like for instance Portuguese ships, can be supposed to be still preserved on the seabed. In addition to these wrecks also ruins of coastal constructions and cities can be found under water, as for instance at Qa’lat Al-Bahrain.
Until now only one major shipwreck of the 9th century, the time of Arab seafaring’s glory, has been found, the Indonesian Belitung wreck. It was however destroyed in a rushed operation of cargo recovery by commercial salvagers. A major part of the available scientific information was lost. The story of this loss does serve to illustrate the need to protect underwater cultural heritage and to adopt appropriate scientific guidelines for its research and treatment, through the ratification and implementation of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.
This Convention is the leading legal instrument guiding underwater archaeology worldwide.
The Convention was adopted by UNESCO in 2001. It is the international community’s response to the destruction of submerged archaeological sites by commercial treasure-hunters and certain industrial activities. It also reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same attention to underwater cultural heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It is designed to strengthen legal protection, research, cooperation, awareness-raising and capacity-building.
The Convention aims at achieving heritage protection in the respect of high ethical and scientific standards as well as effective State cooperation. Ratifying the 2001 Convention provides several advantages to a State:
- It helps to protect underwater cultural heritage from pillaging and commercial exploitation and achieves legal safeguarding wherever a site is located.
- The Convention brings protection to the same level as the protection of land based sites and enables States Parties to adopt a common approach to preservation and ethical scientific management.
- States Parties benefit from cooperation with other States Parties in practical and legal terms.
- The Convention provides effective professional guidelines on how to intervene with and research underwater cultural heritage sites.
The Convention is accompanied by a Scientific and Technical Advisory Body, which is available to advise the States Parties. States reunite every two years in the Meeting of States Parties.
<- Back to: All News
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