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Doctors and Nurses, What They do Best?
by Carla Greene Illustrated by Leonard Kessler
Reviewed by Andy B. (age 8)
Andy B. is a student in Mrs. Kempf's 2nd Grade Class
This chapter book tells you all the ways that doctors help people. They give you shots to help you get better. Some doctors will also come to your home to visit you when you are sick. Some doctors even help other doctors by discussing patients or even when one doctor is sick and needs help. Just remember your doctor is always your friend. This book is also about nurses. A nurse is your friend too. She learns about you and all the ways she can help you. A nurse can take your pulse, use a thermometer to check your temperature, tell you how to take your medicine, and might even play games with you while you wait for the doctor. A nurse can even give you a bath in bed when your in the hospital and she will help you get ready to go home. Both doctors and nurses are good friends to have.
In my opinion this is a good book it gives you a heads up about doctors and nurses. It explains what they do for you. I wish I had read this book before I had my adnoids out it would have helped to know these things. I think this book could even help my parents learn what doctors and nurses do.
I think any age child could read this book for themselves it is very informative about what doctors and nurses do. This might even be a good book for parents to read to their children before going to the doctor or hospital. | <urn:uuid:81b38773-abc3-4cee-a6d8-9096c89be49c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://spaghettibookclub.org/review.php?review_id=6538 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982684 | 329 | 3.4375 | 3 |
When you are planning your landscape beds, you need to make a decision on whether you want to use wood mulch or rock mulch. Wood mulch needs ample amounts of nitrogen to decompose in the soil, so it robs your plants of their needed nitrogen. Also it has to be replenished frequently. Rock mulch doesn't decompose so it doesn't use valuable nitrogen from your soil. This allows you to fertilize less frequently. Landscaping with rock mulch is relatively simple and does not take much time at all to create an attractive bed.
Design your landscape bed. Use marking paint to mark the outline of your bed.
Dig a trench 3 inches deep around the entire outline of your landscape bed. The edge of the trench should be vertical on the side facing your lawn, and should slope up at a 45-degree angle toward your planting bed. This will create a barrier for your rock mulch. It will also keep the lawn from growing into the landscape bed.
Lay out your plants in their desired places in the bed. Plant them in the ground and water well to settle the soil.
Spread the rock mulch around your plants to a depth of 2 to 4 inches. Lift any leaves of the plants up and out of the way while spreading the rocks to prevent them from getting crushed under the rocks. Allow the rocks to butt up to the vertical edge of the trench you dug.
Use a leaf blower to remove any fallen leaves or other plant material every few weeks. If this plant material is allowed to decompose in your rock mulch, your rocks will eventually be buried under organic material. | <urn:uuid:78ea4d2b-9c52-4364-bb8b-4c78fa43d774> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/116873-landscape-rock-mulch.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929829 | 331 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Bread In The Making
The front cover features a drawn color illustration by Ora Walker. The illustration contains school children and their teacher walking toward the bakery's entrance. A baker in a all white outfit is holding the door open for them. At the top, the title "Bread in the Making." The back cover is filled with a drawn color illustration of red bakery trucks leaving the bakery. To the right, there is a school boy waving to the trucks. In the center, the phrase "Try New Tip-Top with that new Good Taste" is written in red, white and blue colors next to a loaf of bread. On the bottom, there is a stamp for An American Institute of Baking Publication. The inside pages tell the story of how to make bread from start to finish. Some of the steps that are explained include the mixing, bread divider, proof box, de-panning, slice and wrap, and delivery. Each step has a drawn color illustration to go along with the story. On page fifteen, there is a section for kids to write down the words that needed to be unscrambled from page fourteen. At the bottom, there are blank lines where kids can write down what bakery they visited and when.
Donor: Sliker, Shirley Brocker
Brand Name: Tip-Top Bread and Cakes
Publisher: Ward Baking Co. (New York, N.Y.)
17.5 x 24.8 cm
Copyright: This item is under copyright.
Citation: Bread In The Making. The Alan and Shirley Brocker Sliker Collection, MSS 314, Special Collections, Michigan State University Libraries. Available at http://www.lib.msu.edu/exhibits/sliker/detail.jsp?id=7195 | <urn:uuid:fa960372-37f1-4495-b2ec-b96ec5dd75e9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lib.msu.edu/exhibits/sliker/detail.jsp?id=7195 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911175 | 366 | 2.625 | 3 |
Holy Cities of the World
All the major religions of the world have cities that hold special significance to their religion. It may be the home of a religious leader, the birthplace of their god, or the location of an important temple or shrine. Many of these holy cities are important to more than one religion, which is a little more proof that we're all more alike than we are different. Let's take a look at just a few of the holiest cities in the world!
Jerusalem is the capital city of Israel. Jerusalem is considered a holy city to Jews, Muslims, and Christians alike. The city is important to Christians and Jews because many important biblical events are said to have taken place in Jerusalem (both religions believe the Old Testament). Jerusalem is also mention in the Torah, which is an important Jewish text. Christians believe Jesus was crucified in Jerusalem. Muslims believe that the Prophet Mohammed visited Jerusalem, which is why it has importance to them as well.
Even if you're not a Christian, the name Bethlehem may ring a bell since it's mentioned in so many Christmas carols. This city is very important to Christians because it is the place where Jesus was born. Bethlehem has meaning for Muslims as well since they also believe in Jesus. However, unlike Christians, Muslims do not believe that Jesus was the Messiah - they think he was one of many prophets. The city also has some significance for Jews because it is the home of David in the Old Testament. The city of Bethlehem has been caught in the middle of ongoing Israeli/Palestinian fighting, with both sides claiming the city as their own.
Lhasa is the capital of Tibet and is where you'll find the palace that used to be home to the Dali Lama - the leader of Tibetan Buddhism. The Dali Lama fled to India after China occupied Tibet in 1951. He now lives in India, near the Tibetan border. Lhasa has many shrines, temples and other places of worship, including the Jokhang Temple, which is considered to be the holiest temple in Lhasa.
Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Mecca (or Makkah) is a city in Saudi Arabia that is of major religious importance to Muslims. Mecca is the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, who converted Arabia to Islam. One of the five duties of Islam is called the Hajj, which requires all able-bodied Muslims to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. There are about one billion Muslims worldwide so the city's economy easily thrives off the constant influx of worshipers.
Varanasi is in North Central India and is a very sacred city to Hindus. It is also believed to be one of the world's oldest cities. Varanasi is on the shores of the Ganges River, which is also extremely important to Hindus. There are about 1,500 temples, shrines and other places of worship in Varanasi. Hindus believe that dying in this city allows them to enter into heaven. The city also has importance to Buddhists, who believe that Buddha began preaching just four miles outside of this city.
Related Stories :
- All About Wicca
- The Straight Goods on Islam
- Should God Be in the Pledge of Allegiance?
- More Cool Places! | <urn:uuid:c592990e-a2ed-4181-b741-80977db38cd2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kidzworld.com/article/4019-holy-cities-of-the-world | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969797 | 664 | 2.828125 | 3 |
6 Answers | Add Yours
In a world where we have laws for everything and where "old" things generally make way for "new" things, we have a Constitution which has served as the basis for all other legal and political actions in America for more than two centuries. In those several hundred years, there have been only twenty-seven amendments made to that document. That gives them a weightiness, to me, which makes every one of them supremely important. I appreciate the fact that my government has to be accountable, just as it expects me to be. This amendment assures my privacy until I give the government reason to believe I have broken trust with the law in some way.
Originally established as a limit on the power of the government and its agents in law enforcement to intrude on the private property and person without probable cause or judicial oversight was a wise move on the part of Madison and Jefferson. It would be much easier for the representative democracy we have tried to establish to degenerate into something resembling a police state.
I like this amendment because it consistently forces the government to follow a clear standard when it comes to my privacy and the idea that I am always innocent until proven guilty, and that my privacy is paramount until reasonable suspicion to suggest that guilt has been shown.
The Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution addresses search and seizure law. It is important because the framers of the constitution realized that governmental intrusions infringed on the rights of the public. In the old country laws were nonexistent in regards to privacy matters. The government had free reign to stop, search, or interrogate anyone of their choosing without any discernible reason to do so. Harassment from officials was commonplace and the average citizen had no recourse to stop unwarranted searches and seizures.
Today, the fourth amendment protects citizens from unreasonable governmental actions. For example, the issuance of a warrant must meet specific guidelines to be considered legal and they must be followed stringently to protect the law enforcement officer and the citizen.
I would say that one of the reasons the 4th Amendment is so important is that it is reflective of the Colonists' own experiences. The Colonists were outraged on many levels that British soldiers could enter their homes, seize their belongings, or search their property without any probable cause or authentic paperwork. The fact that warrant-less and groundless searches became so prevalent is one reason why the 4th Amendment strictly states that justification and authentication must accompany all searches and investigation of property and belongings. Another I would say that the 4th Amendment is important is that it represents a fundamental right of a person accused of wrongdoing in a legal sense. The 4th Amendment helps to protect their rights and their sense of entitlement, demonstrating the brilliance of the framers in understanding that freedoms and liberties mean nothing if it doesn't extend to all members of a social order, including the ones accused of criminal activity.
Yes, of course it is. Having the rights to not be searched without a warrant means a lot. If there was no fourth amendment, the police could show up at your house anytime and "look for suspicious activities/things." With this law it limits them to and forces them to have a warrant.
The first ten amendments to the constitution of USA are collectively known as 'Bill of Rights'. Out of this the fourth amendment provides protection to the citizen from unreasonable search and seizure. It states:
The right of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be searched.
The demand or need for this amendment arose out of the misuse of the provisions of writ of assistance, which was like a general search warrant used during American Revolution.
We’ve answered 327,908 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question | <urn:uuid:6a5326e2-db84-4e56-b7b2-e2df0e915c9d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-do-you-think-4th-amendment-important-395060 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966385 | 804 | 2.578125 | 3 |
This book is a study of what is—in many senses—an already well-known historical event: Julius Caesar's De Bello Gallico, or Gallic War. To think of texts as events is certainly in line with various historicist tendencies in the field of Classics in general, but it is also an approach that has come to be seen as particularly appropriate to this work. For one thing, the direct evidence for De Bello Gallico is incomparably better than that for the Gallic War fought in the 50's B.C. We have the former actually before us (though not its prior composition nor its subsequent circulation). Slightly less obviously, however, we have much better controls for the War than for the War. After a long period in which Caesar was largely taken at his word, it became popular in the middle of the last century to try to find deceptions on the evidence of Caesar's own text. It is by now notoriously difficult to confirm or refute anything Caesar says. There are few other sources for the Gallic War, and none can be shown to be substantially independent of Caesar's account. Consequently, even disagreement with Caesar may be more a sign of invention or error in the historical tradition than of independent testimony.
For the text, on the other hand, many things can be brought to bear. Not only are there a few direct testimonia to its reception, but we also have a variety of different sources for how Romans might talk about the war and about the other topics of De Bello Gallico. Here it is enough to note the existence of contemporary texts such as Cicero's oration On the Consular Provinces, which treats Caesar's conduct of the war at some length, and Posidonius' anthropology (preserved only in fragments) of the Gauls whom Caesar was both fighting and describing.
This study has two roughly equal parts. The first, "external" part looks outward and considers the kind of Roman identity postulated by Caesar's work, particularly how it is constituted in the context of various non-Roman others. Here Caesar prefigures in small but important ways the coming Imperial order, establishing a link between empire and Empire. The second, "internal" part treats Caesar's political self-fashioning and the potential ends of his writing and publishing such a work. Of particular interest here is how (and why) Caesar persuades in a work that on its surface is so lacking in argumentation. Each part comprises case studies on key topics (spatial representation, ethnography, virtus and technology, genre, the just war) that are followed by a more broadly synthetic conclusion, filling out a broader picture of the part's topic (national identity; Caesar's self-presentation) and setting these results in the context of other current scholarly work. Thus, while I focus on the single work, I hope to provide conclusions about the interaction of that work with its cultural and political environments.
The Social Life of Texts
None of the case-study topics is entirely new, and two of them (ethnography and genre) are arguably mainstays of writing on Caesar. Substantively, however, their specific conclusions are largely new and gain by combination into the two parts just described; they are mutually illuminating in ways not possible in previous (often very insightful) studies on those topics individually. Moreover, all seven chapters share a methodological coherence, and, I think, a methodological advance. The key notion here is "intertextuality," the idea that texts ultimately and necessarily take on their meanings by comparison and contrast with other texts. (The following account of intertextuality is, I think, important to ground the study as a whole and to justify several lines of argument. However, I do not introduce any special vocabulary or the like that would be necessary to the understanding of the rest of the work. Some readers might find it more useful to skip now to the next section of the Introduction, and return to this theoretical discussion after the rest of the book.)
Specific definitions and extensive theorization about "intertextuality" have taken many forms over time and across scholarly disciplines. Many of those understandings of the term are dependent on fairly specific linguistic and philosophical commitments, many of which are in turn debatable and are at any rate hardly shared by all theorists of intertextuality. I here rely mainly on three propositions that, though hardly novel, I hope will be largely uncontroversial.
The first proposition is that the meaning of words is constrained by the fact that they are common property; they are known through usage, and no stipulation can entirely free them from that history. To take an extreme example, some older dictionaries offer "holocaust" as a translation for Greek empura, "burnt sacrifice." Yet this is almost impossible for contemporary students who have heard much more about Nazi Germany than about animal sacrifice, even if the term is explained to them. Description of a ballistic missile defense system as "Star Wars" effectively conveyed the ambition of the program (by comparison to the movie's epic character), but also made it hard to avoid a sense of mockery (since the movie was overtly fictional).
The second proposition is that the reciprocity of language production and learning will produce a considerable degree of intersubjectivity among actual communities without requiring us to posit any ideal form of language. Different speakers of a language operate with slightly different rules (most obviously slightly different vocabularies), which linguists call their individual "ideolects." These ideolects arise in roughly similar circumstances; English speakers grow up hearing English sentences. Moreover, speakers implicitly compare and test their individual versions every time they attempt to communicate with others. Thus, although two different speakers almost necessarily have different primary linguistic experiences (in detail), they will over time tend to share more and more background, at least indirectly. Thus there are many different "Englishes," each material and at least potentially well-ordered as part of the neurophysiology of various speakers. To assert the existence of English in general is then shorthand for an essentially sociological claim about the potential for communication between these speakers.
A similar argument about acquisition could be made for many other kinds of cultural knowledge (e.g., greeting rituals), and that leads to the third proposition: constraint of language by shared history occurs not just at the level of words, but also at higher levels of organization. Minimally, speakers share fixed phrases, some with idiomatic ("hit the showers") or technical ("malice aforethought") meanings, others not ("animal instinct"). The phrase "this space intentionally left blank" not only comes as a unit, but also suggests the whole world of bureaucracy. Audiences recognize verse forms, so that, for instance, a reader of this stanza—
Thales' theory, to quickly review it,
Is that everything's made from a fluid.
How it's done, he'd not venture,
Though he'd say, facing censure:
Don't forget steam and ice somehow do it.
—is likely to view the information it contains with some suspicion, since the limerick form is typically used for jokes.
The verbal complexes with which I am most concerned in this book are particularly large ones, which I describe as "discourses" and (to a lesser extent) "genres." I intend "discourse" here in a fairly general way: a way of talking about some subject matter. That would include characteristic vocabulary, metaphors, themes or parameters, omissions, or procedures for assessing individual statements. A "genre" will be a pattern of associations between features of form, content, and context/occasion of verbal production. This includes both "literary" genres (e.g., epic, the novel) and nonliterary ones (newspaper story, conversation).
Both discourses and genres share a number of features. First, they have the same dual character as languages in general. For individuals, they are concrete and can (though need not) be stable. In the abstract, they are sociological fictions. All versions of "epic" are likely to be similar; no two will be exactly alike. Second, both genres and discourses can overlap and/or encompass other genres and discourses, respectively. For instance, a discourse on "war" might contain discourses on "tactics," "courage," or "divine favor." The latter might additionally be part of a discourse on "philosophy." That in turn might be cross-cut by "Stoicism," "Epicureanism," etc. Discourse and genre can also overlap/encompass each other in the same ways. War discourse would appear not only in military manuals and actual commands, but also in epic and history. Third, both are in principle subject to a producer's conscious control. It is well established that, say, an Ovid can carry out elaborate manipulations of his readers' generic expectations. Similarly, one could choose to discuss "war" in nonstandard terms. Such variation, however, is constrained by intelligibility. Too great a variation has the same effect as making up one's own words. So, for instance, I argue that Caesar's text is largely typical "war" discourse, but that it redefines one of its key terms, virtus (Chap. 3 below; contrast Chaps. 6 and 7). Here the modification depends on exploiting a contradiction already existing within the tradition. Conversely, Caesar pointedly avoids the discourse traditionally surrounding northern "barbarians" (Chaps. 2 and 4 below).
Though the term "intertextuality" has been in vogue for some time now, and is perhaps already losing favor, the idea remains underexploited, as argued by Fowler. (In fact, I suspect recognition of the gap between awareness and use has itself become something of a topos, though without producing much change.) Far the most common case in which classicists invoke the notion of intertextuality remains allusion in some passage of poetry (say, the opening phrase of the Aeneid) to an earlier passage in a similar context (say, the opening of the Odyssey). My plan is to exploit the broader range of the term in three ways, albeit with some overlap.
First, in probably the most common extension of the prototypical procedure, many of the relationships discussed here cross genre boundaries. Of course, it is legitimate, sometimes even necessary, to compare Caesar's work to that of other "historians" (though see Chap. 5 below on the sense of that term), but there is much to be gained from looking further afield to oratory, geography, surveying manuals, and others.
Second, since intertextuality is a general property of language rather than of literature, it can be just as important for prose as for poetry. Now, it is perhaps increasingly common to recognize prose influences on poetic texts; see, for example, Thomas 1988 on Vergil's use of agricultural texts in the Georgics. And historians are known to have responded to their predecessors in ways beyond mere collection of source materials. Nonetheless, both instances tend to be treated as isolated, artistic phenomena rather than as a normal feature of prose texts.
Third, and most important, I am interested here not in Caesar's reference to specific passages of specific works, but in his relationship to entire discourses. The existence of a discourse on some topic creates what might be called a "field of positions," a set of distinctions, contrasts, axes, and/or spectra with respect to which terms are defined and positions taken. Segments of Caesar's text (or any other) take on meaning by their locations in one or more of these fields. In one sense, such an appeal to a broader "interdiscursivity" is a common move. It is not, after all, entirely unlike appeals commonly made to "the (ancient) context" of a work. Yet this conventional formulation has unnecessary limitations. While not denying the theoretical possibility of multiple or multivocal intertexts, it tends to fix on one. Take, as an example of skillful application of the traditional method, the philosophical contextualization of the end of the Aeneid. Galinsky starts by detailing the diversity of ancient philosophical opinions on anger (and Vergil's incomplete adherence to any of them). Yet, in the end, the effect of Galinsky's interpretation is to downplay the "pessimistic," Stoicizing reading that Aeneas should not have lost control at the end of the poem. More generally, this kind of "contextualization" is usually used to limit meaning: "This passage must mean A, not B, because the latter is anachronistic." Modern theory would suggest that appeal to intertexts can open up readings, but not close them off.
More positively, a modern notion of intertextuality makes it easier to account for three phenomena that will be observed in the course of this study. One is a style of naturalization. A text (or passage) that is written according to the standard rules of some recognized form is more like to gain at least provisional acceptance, since it will be at least formally plausible. To give a non-Caesarian instance, consider Mader's recent (2000) reading of Josephus' Jewish War in the light of classical historiographical intertexts (primarily Thucydides). On this reading, Josephus is "concerned to dissociate the rebels from the traditions of Jewish piety [and] plays down, refracts, and filters out this religious dimension by applying the political and psychological categories of Greco-Roman historiography." That is, classical historiography favors (and leads readers to expect) certain explanatory gestures and categories of analysis. Hence, faction/stasis, demagoguery, and tyranny easily replace eschatology and religious traditionalism, without the need actually to argue for the former set of descriptions. Similarly, I here argue (Chap. 5) that Caesar's choice of the commentarius form and perhaps the appearance of "Gallic War" in its title make natural the exclusion of much contemporary material (politics back at Rome, Caesar's nonmilitary activities in Gaul). This allows him to omit much that would potentially have been controversial, and to focus on circumstances in which he is opposed by armed foreigners, maximizing sympathy for himself.
Another phenomenon is the possibility of feedback among several texts, absent a text/context distinction. For instance, the Latin literary letter took on a number of forms and self-definitions from the time of Cicero and Caesar to that of Pliny. Starting from Fronto, however, the genre began to see its origin and model in the collection of Cicero's letters. For some of these later letter-writers, the Ciceronian model must have been immediately useful, but, as far as we can tell, it ceased to become a choice. Even writers who were anti-Ciceronian in one sense or another had to deal with the "fact" that they were now writing in a Ciceronian genre. This fact was created by the accumulation of individual, increasingly constrained choices until non-Ciceronian readings were driven from the field. Moreover, Seneca's and Pliny's letters were retroactively read into this tradition. The meaning of these texts was shifted by the creation of subsequent intertexts. Conversely, I argue below (Chaps. 6 and 7) that De Bello Gallico and other generals' narratives gained authority by their mutual reinforcement.
Interdiscursivity is also important to De Bello Gallico because it creates covert argumentation. The narrator of De Bello Gallico does not make arguments. He rarely even offers explicit judgments of the sort, "This was treachery," or "Caesar's decision proved to be wise." Outside of a few speeches by characters, the text is narrative and (to a lesser extent) descriptive. It is punctuated only by rare and quite general sententiae ("sound bites"). But by their location in a field of positions created by other texts, descriptions and narratives can become argumentative.
Let me give non-Caesarian examples of both cases. Roman literature is very familiar with the embedded narrative form of the exemplum. For instance, Cicero asserts that suicide is normally a moral error, but can be correct or even an obligation for persons who have led a particularly rigorous life (Off. 1.112):
Since nature had given Cato an incredible gravity and he himself had fortified it with perpetual self-consistency and had always held to whatever course of action he had taken up, he had to die rather than look on the face of a tyrant.
Cicero here assumes that suicide is contrary to human nature and therefore wrong. But Cato, he claims, is an exceptional case because of his long history of self-consistency; he may and even must violate the normal rules with respect to suicide. Does his past life really explain this exception? Surely the serial killer is not ipso facto licensed to murder. Cicero has no philosophical argument how past life could create exceptions to more general rules. Rather, the conventions of exemplary discourse provide the justification. Cato did it, so it must be right. Sometimes, there is not only no argument, but also no explicit moral, as when Cato is also cited for rigor in making sure that his son was properly and personally enrolled in the army before joining combat with an enemy (Off. 1.37). The Roman reader of exempla knows not only that Cato's actions are normative, but that their salient aspect will have to do with moral punctiliousness.
The same is true of descriptions. So, for instance, Cicero frequently explains his enemy Piso's political success by reference to his eyebrows. Sometimes he explains that Piso's brow gave him a grave and serious appearance; sometimes he does not. General knowledge of Roman physiognomic discourse is what allows the omission; most of the audience could fill in the blanks. Similarly, when Cicero remarks that Catiline's followers wore "sails rather than togas," he has no need to fill out the syllogism: therefore they were effeminate, therefore they were politically and socially untrustworthy.
I have chosen the above examples of "covert" argumentation from overtly argumentative contexts: philosophy and oratory. We know from the broader context that these descriptions and narratives should have an argumentative point. To recover what that point is, we need to refer to other texts. (The texts we have today are, of course, just a small fraction of the oral and written discourses available to the original audience, but the mechanism is the same.) Hence we can be sure that such interdiscursivity was one means for Roman authors to generate argument. But nothing prevents the same mechanisms from working in less overtly argumentative texts.
Given that such arguments only come into being via the contact of at least two texts (or discourses), it is probably easiest to think of intertextuality in general as an element of the reading process, as part of interpretation. There are, however, two caveats that should be offered. First, the author (here Caesar) is himself a reader. Presumably, one part of deciding what is to be written is weighing, at various levels of consciousness, how it might play against various intertexts. Second, as I suggested above, knowing the language means sharing intertexts with the author to a significant extent. And to the extent that a reader is closer culturally to the author (as Roman aristocrats would have been to Caesar), they will share more. Still, perfect unanimity of readings is unlikely. It hardly needs pointing out that no two readers will have precisely the same previous experience. On the other hand, actual intention may cause potentially salient intertexts to escape an author's notice.
Caesar's famed celeritas may provide a quick example. I argue in Chapter 1 that Caesar tends to depict Gaul as a series of unconnected spatial "islands," and that this has certain consequences in the context of the more general Roman spatial imagination. One textual feature that emphasizes this depiction is the lack of detail in narrating Caesar's journeys from one point to another. This feature of the text is perfectly well motivated as an advertisement of Caesar's swiftness and decisiveness, and one could easily imagine that it was so written for precisely that reason. Yet it also plays into the scheme of division, which is otherwise visible in the text. For at least some readers, then, that lack of detail is likely to emphasize that spatial scheme even if such emphasis played no part in the author's intention.
On the whole, I am inclined to suspect that most of the effects I argue for in De Bello Gallico were part of Caesar's intention (whether that amounts to elaborate planning or just an intuition of what "sounded right"), but I will not generally be arguing in those terms. In part, this is because I do not find "intention" a useful explanatory term. Even if it were, however, my intentions in this book are ultimately historical. I am concerned with the likely or possible effects of De Bello Gallico rather than its meaning in some potentially pure sense. Thus a reader-oriented focus, though not required on general theoretical grounds, is appropriate here.
The Composition of De Bello Gallico
Many basic questions about the composition of De Bello Gallico have remained open despite extended scholarly discussion. As for the time of composition of De Bello Gallico, one camp has maintained that it was composed and circulated book by book, that is, year by year, presumably having been written in the midst of Caesar's other administrative duties in the winter after each campaigning season. The other camp holds that it was written all at once (though probably incorporating earlier material, such as dispatches to the Senate). Various specific times have been suggested, but a date between very late 52 and sometime in 50 is generally accepted. Though a few core arguments have been advanced on either side, interpretation of the evidence continues to be problematic.
Purported anachronisms and self-contradictions have been used to demonstrate unitary and serial composition, respectively. A small number of clear examples might be decisive, but surprisingly few candidates have been proposed in either direction, and none is obviously dispositive. On the one hand, for instance, Caesar refers to the near-total destruction of the Nervii in 57 (2.28.1: prope ad internecionem), but three years later he had to confront a force of (allegedly) 60,000 men led by the Nervii in their own territory (5.49.1; cf. 5.39.3, 7.75.3). There is certainly a prima facie contradiction, but, even if we ignore the question of how many actual Nervii were in the force they led, we cannot be sure that the earlier claim was not meant as hyperbole for political or literary reasons. On the other hand, some have pointed to 1.28.5, "[The Boii] to whom [the Aedui] give lands and whom they afterward accepted into the same state legal equality and freedom as themselves." The "afterward," it is alleged, refers to a time outside 58, and therefore suggests composition after the fact. Some have questioned the authenticity of the "and whom . . ." clause (see below on interpolation), but, perhaps more important, the temporal reference of that clause is still unclear. The Boii are still dependents of the Aedui early in the last book of De Bello Gallico (7.10.1), and it is only plausible that they are liberated at some point later in 52; the later references are not explicit (7.17.2, 7.75.4). Anachronism in the first book is certainly a possibility, but it could also be that the legal equality of the Boii came early, yet did not give them practical political equality.
Most readers of De Bello Gallico sense stylistic and substantive development over the course of the work. Most objectively, the quantity and importance of direct discourse grow over the second half. Additionally, Görler has argued that the narration becomes less character-focalized and more "Olympian." It is often claimed that what starts out as a commentarius ("commentary"?) becomes more like "true" history (see Chap. 5 below on questions of genre). Such stylistic development is taken to support serial composition.
Those who argue for unitary composition have two responses. One is to quibble with the premise of development. It is often possible to show that Caesar's changes in style are not entirely smooth or regular, but little has been done to shake the basic claim that many parameters vary in fairly predictable ways as the work goes on. Alternatively (and this strikes me as the more powerful argument), the developments can be seen as having literary aims. Thus, if von Albrecht (1997, 332-333) is right that the changes in direct discourse in De Bello Gallico are replayed over the course of Caesar's later Civil War commentary, it is hard to attribute either development individually to mere change over time. Mutschler has made the same argument for a number of other features. Similarly, I argue below (Chap. 3) that some kinds of "progression" in Caesar's knowledge of the Gauls are thematically significant. Moreover, since the reader of a continuous text would learn and change by virtue of the reading, Caesar might well have made adjustments to the texture of his text accordingly.
Caesar's continuator, Aulus Hirtius, makes two remarks that are sometimes taken as evidence for the composition of De Bello Gallico. Unfortunately, neither is very explicit, and the inferences conventionally drawn from them are opposed. In the prefatory letter to Book 8, he remarks to Balbus (8.pr.6) that only they really know how great a writer Caesar was: "Others know how well and correctly he wrote; we also know how easily and swiftly he finished those books." This has suggested to some that all of Books 1-7 were composed together in a fairly short period of time in 51, but obviously Hirtius could just as well be referring to the composition of individual books in, say, just a few days per year each. Later he justifies the inclusion of two different years in one book (8.48.10): "I know that Caesar produced individual commentarii of individual years. I thought I ought not to do that because nothing important happened in the next year." Now, it is possible that the individual years (singulorum annorum) to which he refers here are actual years, and so Hirtius is alluding to serial composition. However, both the construction and the general sense of the passage require that he be talking about years primarily as units of composition—separate campaigning seasons. Not only is neither passage decisive, but it is far from clear that either bears on the question at all.
Finally, advocates of unitary composition point to the absence of testimonia to the existence of the commentarii before Cicero's Brutus, from the year 46. In particular, neither Cicero's speech On the Consular Provinces (in large part about the war) nor his letters to members of Caesar's staff make explicit reference to books of De Bello Gallico appearing during the war. The facts here seem not to be in question, but the interpretation is more problematic. We have substantial evidence of regular dispatches from Gaul to keep Caesar in the public eye. Does it matter that we are not told explicitly that commentarii were involved?
To my mind, then, the question of the timing of composition of De Bello Gallico is one where we are left assessing comparative probability, not established fact. Moreover, we must keep in mind that at least some of the purported evidence (for instance, Hirtius' two statements) can only be shown to support a particular position if we presuppose that it is salient to the debate at all (unlikely in those cases). This kind of information should probably not be allowed at all in the weighing. Nonetheless, I am inclined to accept the theory of serial composition, simply because of the obvious value to Caesar in keeping the public aware of his deeds throughout the war. This historical consideration seems to me to tip the scales where the philological arguments are roughly equal and quite weak on both sides. This weakness is also the subject of one further observation. I argue in Chapter 5 that, for strategic and generic reasons, Caesar wants to give the impression (whether true or not) of writing as he goes, not just year by year, but almost line by line. (More precisely, I will suggest that the choice of genre is in part a way of advancing those strategic aims.) If this is the case, then Caesar may be deliberately writing in a fashion that would (perhaps less deliberately) neutralize internal evidence for a distinction between serial and unitary composition.
Another of the much-debated traditional questions about the composition of De Bello Gallico has to do with interpolation. All classical texts handed down in manuscript traditions are vulnerable to addition to some extent. "Corrections" can be made deliberately, or, perhaps more commonly, marginal and interlinear notes can be incorporated into the main text by an incautious scribe. In the case of De Bello Gallico, however, it has been suggested that long passages were deliberately composed and inserted in the text in (perhaps) late antiquity. There is considerable variation in just which passages are suspect, but what is essentially at issue is the authenticity of the various geographic/ethnographic excursuses throughout the work.
In part, the question arose from a hyper-skepticism common to textual critics in general in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and should perhaps simply be ignored today. Moreover, even on its own terms, the interpolation theory was never fully worked out. How and why were additional passages composed and inserted in the tradition? Take the "double" description of Gaul in 1.1 (to be treated at length in Chap. 1 below). The versions are similar enough that it is not clear why an interpolator would feel the need to insert material, but too far apart to suggest the intrusion of a marginal gloss. Contrast the case of interpolations in the legal texts that make up the Digest of Justinian. Mechanisms (including a known redaction) and a motivation (keeping law current) are clear; yet even so, scholars are much more cautious today in identifying interpolations in the Digest than they once were. Nonetheless, the idea of interpolation in De Bello Gallico may not be quite dead yet, and I make considerable use of some of the allegedly interpolated passages (especially in Chaps. 2 and 3), so it may be worthwhile to say a few words about their authenticity.
There have been both stylistic and structural arguments for interpolation. The geographic and ethnographic passages are unquestionably different from the rest of De Bello Gallico in, say, vocabulary, but these differences are simply those of content or genre, not of authorship. Any author switching from narrating battles to describing giant, kneeless elk will show changes in style. The structural argument is that these passages break up the narrative. Not only are they "interruptions" in the general sense of being descriptions in the midst of a mainly narrative text, but, it is alleged, they would leave behind a seamless narrative if they were removed. For instance, in Book 5 we read a description of Britain and its inhabitants (5.12-14) just after being told that Cassivellaunus was put in charge of the entire war effort against the Romans (5.10.9). Immediately after the excursus, we are on the battlefield, getting a description of the disposition of the British forces (5.15.1). On the one hand, it is probably true that the excursus would not be missed if it were removed. On the other hand, it is well motivated at the opening, and not hard to follow at the close. Where there is a potential problem, as at the opening of the Gallic ethnography (6.11.1), the reader is warned about what is going on. If the "digressions" are arranged so as to minimize narrative disruptions, it is not clear why that should be attributed to interpolators rather than to Caesar himself. Recall, moreover, the write-as-you-go style I suggested that Caesar had adopted in De Bello Gallico. Given that choice, Caesar would have been forced either to incorporate visible narrative breaks to provide these descriptions or to forego them altogether. The latter solution would not have been surprising, but the former is hardly so incredible that we should suspect tampering with the text instead.
The third compositional question, and a more recent one at least as a matter of overt debate, has to do with audience. Most scholars seem to have assumed an elite audience for De Bello Gallico, perhaps senators and equites for the most part. Wiseman has recently challenged this view, suggesting a popular audience not only in addition to but instead of the elite one. We would then have to imagine large-scale oral performances of De Bello Gallico. Although Wiseman has not proven his case, the question deserves consideration. The crucial, if general, passage purportedly illustrating popular interest in such works comes from Cicero (Fin. 5.52): "What about the fact that men of the lowest station, with no hope of a public career, even craftsmen take delight in history?" Wiseman reasonably argues that Cicero's off-hand tone shows that he expected the proposition to be uncontroversial, but problems remain.
First, while Cicero may be sincere, we do not know whether he was expert in popular culture. Moreover, although Cicero's historia is less ambiguous than the "history" I have used to translate it, it is not entirely clear whether in this passage it refers to the literary genre or to any knowledge of the past. This raises two questions. First, how did ordinary fans of history like their history delivered? Readings of literary historians? Plays? Art? Stories told round the campfire or hearth? All of these forms are substantially better attested than full-scale historical narrative, whether read to oneself or to a group. Second, and more fundamentally, would the audience envisioned by Cicero, even if they did have a taste for Roman history, have found De Bello Gallico satisfying, given that for them it was a narrative on current affairs? In modern American terms, are Caesar's potential audience members Civil War buffs or CNN junkies (or something in between)? The (again limited) evidence appears to argue for the former. This is not necessarily to deny political interests to the masses. Some significant (if not necessarily representative) fraction must have been keenly interested. Rather, the point is that there is no evidence that popular taste in literature and popular interest in politics had any connection.
Wiseman also finds internal evidence for a popular audience, both in the respectful treatment of soldiers in the ranks (as opposed, in some cases, to aristocratic staff officers) and in the "talismanic" repetition of the phrase populus Romanus. Yet, as Welch's careful study (1998) has shown, the officer class is on the whole treated reasonably well. As she puts it, "No legate, with the exception of the dead Sabinus, could complain about what Caesar says about him." Even the soldiers could be questioned (2.8.1-2), or publicly reprimanded if necessary (7.52). If officers are slightly more often criticized, it may well be for internal reasons. As I argue in Chapters 3 and 4 below, Roman generals traditionally distanced themselves from the worth of their troops (mostly to deny responsibility for their failures). Caesar, however, presents a picture of battle in which the soldiers are dependent on their general for their prowess. Since one of Caesar's implicit claims to distinction lies (unusually) in the virtue of the ranks, he has good reason to praise them, whoever the audience may be.
The repetition of the phrase "Roman people" raises some interesting questions. It might be suggested that the crucial word here is "Roman" rather than "people," and that Caesar is merely aligning himself with national as opposed to personal interests (cf. Chap. 5 on how many of his narrative choices are directed at a similar effect). It would probably be incautious to throw out the other word entirely, but we might inquire further as to the meaning of the phrase as a whole. If the whole nation comprises the "Senate and People of Rome," then the people are in principle everyone but the Senate, that is, a group that extends across all meaningful class (if not juridical) boundaries in Roman society. So, for instance, even on the most conservative estimates of literacy, the vast majority of the reading population of Italy would have been part of the "Roman people" in this sense. This group (literate nonsenators) could easily have had more political clout than the urban proletariat audience Wiseman imagines. They would have been better spread out throughout the voting units of the Roman assemblies. They would also have been largely well-to-do, and thus in a better position than most to go to Rome to vote. Moreover, this group may well have been not just part of the Roman populus, but the whole of what many members of the elite meant by that group. Mouritsen points out that the term could be used of any number of official and semi-official gatherings of potentially highly unrepresentative fractions of the populace. We might reasonably accept Hall's view of a substantially "middle-brow" "middle Ital[ian]" audience if we keep in mind that, due to extreme inequalities in social condition, a group in the "middle" in terms of juridical strata (senators, knights, . . . slaves) was part of a cluster of very small absolute numbers at the top of the pyramid. It is possible that Caesar had in mind a universal, or even a strictly non-elite, audience, but the evidence is not compelling. For the time being, it seems best to retain the assumption that Caesar is aiming at the top of Roman society, though perhaps at a slightly larger segment of that top than is sometimes implied.
In addition to their social location, we should also consider the level of sympathy of Caesar's target audience. This can only be inferred from internal evidence, and in particular by working back and forth between interpretation and potential audience. Thus I will be developing my answers in the course of the book. However, it may be helpful if I briefly sketch some positions here. Let me distinguish two parameters: strong commitment for or against Caesar vs. more malleable attitudes, and sympathy for Caesar vs. that for the general project of a Gallic War. Regarding the first distinction, Hall is surely right to point out that there is nothing Caesar could have written that would have won over a committed enemy like Cato. We might add that there would be just as little reason to target firm allies. I argue in Chapter 7 that Caesar has in mind a public that is not automatically committed to him, but would like to be given a reason to believe he was acting well and correctly. As for the second point, Chapter 5 below will show that Caesar was taking steps to emphasize the Gallic War (even beyond his own actions) over his personal career (beyond this war). This suggests (probably not surprisingly) a larger audience that wants to root for the Romans against the Gauls than for Caesar against his political rivals. This is not, of course, to suggest that Caesar is not trying to sell himself, only that patriotism is a crucial part of his strategy for doing so.
Reality and Representation
In the first words of this chapter I appealed to the notion of the De Bello Gallico as a historical event. Some readers will, quite reasonably, be reminded of the distinction commonly drawn today between the study of real events and the study of representations. Even if we take that distinction at face value, it is hard to apply here. On the one hand, this is a study of reality, as the production and circulation of objects—including representations—are real events. On the other, much of that history will be inferred from the character of this and other representations. Given that complication, it may be worthwhile to take a closer look at the original distinction through examination of a case whose themes will recur in the chapters below.
Diodorus reports that the Celts were very fond of wine. They drank it unmixed and in excessive quantities (5.26.3). The Greeks and Romans generally drank their wine mixed with water, so to drink it straight could be seen as just another, more indirect way of expressing barbarian excess above and beyond explicit reference to sheer quantity. Posidonius (preserved in Athenaeus) similarly claims that Celts normally drink their wine unmixed (4.152c). Both authors also stress that the wine had to be imported from Italy, or at least from Marseilles. One might expect under these circumstances that wine would be relatively more expensive in Gaul than in Greece or Italy, and this is precisely what Diodorus claims. Delighted Italian wine merchants, he says, can trade a slave for a single keramion of wine. Nor is distance necessarily the only factor in pricing. While it is probably meaningless to try to establish a "normal" ratio of wine to water in the Greco-Roman world, recorded figures tend to fall between 1:3 and 1:1. Drinking unmixed wine in full quantities would be proportionately more expensive. The combination could make wine a vastly more expensive beverage for the Gauls, and this in turn might give it the status of a luxury item, not the ordinary drink it was along the Mediterranean. In fact, Posidonius says it was served in the houses of the rich, while the poor drank wheat-beer. He also describes "gifts" of wine (along with gold and silver), apparently a means by which the elite secured the allegiance of followers (Ath. 4.154c). On these grounds, Celticists have seen wine as a "prestige good," that is, one of a set of items that "[do] not move so much along commercial lines, but along those determined by social and political relations," and especially serve as "status indicators among the elite."
Wine plays a somewhat different role in Caesar's ethnography. The Suebi reject its importation entirely. So do the Nervii, fierce among the Belgae, already the nearest of the Gauls to the Germans (BG 2.15.4, 1.1.3). In both cases this is part of a broader rejection of commerce (4.2.1, 2.15.4), and in both cases the reasoning is similar:
[The Nervii] allowed no wine or other luxury goods to be brought into their territory, because they judged that by these things their spirits were relaxed and their virtue (virtutem) lessened; they, on the other hand, were fierce folk of great virtue (virtutis). (2.15.4)
[The Suebi] do not permit wine to be imported to themselves at all, because they think that by this thing people grow soft and effeminate in putting up with labor. (4.2.6)
Drinking unmixed wine is merely barbaric; it means you are doing civilization wrong. To reject wine entirely is to reject human civilization altogether. Prohibiting wine is thus emblematic of the supposed "nomad" attempt to maintain primitive (manly) virtue intact by avoiding all civilization.
That Caesar is cribbing from himself in writing these passages, that he is talking about an item (wine) with such clear symbolic value in the ancient world, and that he is doing so in a way that lends support to his much broader argument might suggest that we read these little stories about wine as purely literary devices. Similar arguments might suggest that the accounts of wine-drinking in Diodorus and Posidonius as well are simply a (different) ethnographic trope. This is certainly possible, but let me suggest that there is at least one other plausible interpretation. The details of unmixed wine, transport difficulties, and elite consumption in Diodorus and Posidonius cohere very neatly, without either account clearly being derived from the other. Furthermore, the latter two points do not seem to have nearly the motivation in terms of broad ethnographic thematics as the first. Finally, we should keep in mind that at least Posidonius had direct experience of some of these Celtic peoples. Perhaps the story we can reconstruct from the Greek accounts is essentially true. It may then either have been completely unaffected by the tradition, or perhaps it was particularly interesting to Posidonius (and others) because of its partial implication of categories that were of standing importance to Greek culture.
What, then, of Caesar's account? Let us imagine that it, too, contains at least a kernel of truth, and that at least some of these tribes, perhaps the more remote ones (where wine was the most expensive?), actually prohibited or restricted the importation of wine. Understood, with Caesar, as the rejection of the "virtues" of civilization, this account is rightly suspect; let us instead begin with the Posidonian/Diodoran understanding of wine. If it was in fact an expensive luxury good, and perhaps one particularly symbolic for being imported, then such prohibition or restriction makes sense as a sumptuary law, a type common in Roman and other societies. Consider what we know of the contemporary Celtic political context. It is widely (though not universally) held that the century or so before the Roman conquest saw a move in Gaul from political organization based largely on "tribes" or "chiefdoms" to more state-like arrangements. Among the purported causes of this shift is increased trade with the Mediterranean area (including wine). These transformations would have
opened a new channel of access to obtaining the means necessary to operate in one of the important traditional arenas for status competition: that is, the "commensal politics" of feasting. . . . An escalation of competition played out in feasting activities was likely to have occurred between those with privileged access to the traditional forms of drink . . . and those with newly advantageous access to the exotic form.
Sumptuary legislation, whether or not literally effective, delegitimizes the "luxuries" at which it is directed by appeal to morality and/or tradition. This, in the present context, would be a sensible strategy for the old Celtic aristocracy in the face of opponents who were attempting to establish novel authoritative symbols. Such a conservative strategy seems particularly plausible among the Suebi and Nervii, who seem, archeologically, far from Roman influence.
One can then imagine Caesar grasping the truth (if that is what it is), but rejecting it so as to make the bare facts serve his immediate purposes better. Or, perhaps just as likely, it might genuinely never have occurred to Caesar that impoverished "barbarians" such as these would have felt any need for sumptuary laws as he knew them. Especially if he knew nothing but the bare fact of the regulations, the explanation he offers in De Bello Gallico may well have been the one he felt was most reasonable.
My interpretation of the Greek tradition is, of course, speculative; my reading of Caesar, doubly so. I would not claim that I was myself totally persuaded by either. Nonetheless, I think the attempt makes two important methodological points. First, recent years have seen an increased awareness of the rhetoric of ancient historians. On the whole, this must be taken as a positive development, but it has had some unfortunate side effects. In particular, it is now easy to find claims that a particular passage, because it invokes an identifiable topos, has no evidentiary value, except perhaps for the attitude of the author (particularly the case for invective or for "tyrannical" stereotypes directed at "bad emperors"). The present example suggests that, even when discourse is shaped by common topoi, those topoi may signify something other than their own presence. Second, in Chapter 1 I consider the claim that Caesar's account of Gaul was distinctive because of autopsy; he had been there, so his information was allegedly better than earlier, quasi-mythical stories. That claim can be rejected, at least as a complete explanation, on several grounds. Here we see another case where the other sources may well be closer to the truth (perhaps, admittedly, with the aid of autopsy themselves). We may even have a case where Caesar has had direct experience but has still refused (or been unable) to arrive at an interpretation that has a claim to being the better one.
It has been fashionable in the last couple of decades to speak of the "textuality of history," that is, the fact that our access to history is always textually mediated. Brunt has responded to essentially this challenge by arguing that the problem is not a new one, and furthermore, that we negotiate it successfully every day:
There is no distinction in principle between the propositions that Caesar was killed by Brutus and Cassius and that Smith has just been injured by a golf ball. . . . In ascertaining what we need to know (in the loose sense of that term applicable in daily life), we draw not only on our own perceptions but on those of others. We accept what they tell us, provided that experience has not seemed to show that they are generally mendacious, at any rate in the kind of report that is our immediate concern, or faulty in their recollections, or incapable of giving accurate accounts of their own perceptions.
It is tempting simply to say that Brunt is right. It is an old problem, and the method he suggests has long been (and must be?) the response. Yet, the question of the wine shows how many things could go wrong in a fairly ordinary exchange of understanding (whether or not they have actually gone wrong in this particular case), especially if we are translating across many centuries and between multiple cultures. Even though the processes of day-to-day and historical reconstruction are not different in principle, there are huge differences in practice; in matters near to us we have vastly more background information about the habits of our informants (and their informants and their informants . . .), as well as the opportunity to cross-check information in various ways.
The situation is actually worse than this. The hypothesis that I have advanced so far claims that in some sense the Greek version is better than Caesar's. Suppose that Caesar is "right" as well. Sumptuary legislation often lends itself to the kind of moralizing, macho language in which Caesar casts the barbarians' refusal of wine. Perhaps he has represented their original claims accurately in this respect. It might be objected that he still erred out of naivete, that he (and conceivably the Nervii and Suebi themselves) did not "really" understand what was going on. We have then (at least) two incompatible representations—one "sociological," one "moralizing"—neither of which is clearly false. The distinction between the two is not so much one of truth value, but of appropriateness to different circumstances. Actually, Brunt almost admits that this is the historian's usual dilemma, though he cannot quite bring himself to do so. Note his phrases "what we need to know" and "the kind of report that is our immediate concern." These are not epistemological categories, but pragmatic ones; the criterion here is utility, not truth. I adopt here a viewpoint that (like skepticism) questions whether language (and thought more generally) can even in principle be said to "represent" reality, but that nonetheless (unlike skepticism) does not object to the existence of a real world that could have some kind of causal relationship to language (and thought). As a result, the utility of narratives is constrained (though never absolutely) by factors other than coherence with other narratives. Thus Brunt's dismissal of "Pyrrhonists" on pragmatic grounds is valid, but not salient to the point he claims to be making. The position that his arguments seem to me actually to support (and that I myself favor) is more like Rorty's neopragmatism or Lakoff's "experiential realism." This leaves little left of the distinction between the history "of representations" and the history of anything else.
The point here is not, of course, to condemn any particular traditional historical practice (and certainly not to do so categorically); historians are good at telling stories that meet their shared needs, and there is no generalized reason to stop doing so now. In fact, historians have also been fairly good about allowing new types of story when new needs demand them—the rise of family history is an example. Rather, the point is to keep in mind that just as we ourselves work on shifting sands, so do our sources. But in the latter case, we rarely see the motion itself, only traces of its results. Hence, a more or less deductive mode of historiography cannot be uniquely valuable. Room should be made for other modes in addition, such as model-building or quasi-fictionalization. Responsible theorizing, then, calls for more histories, not fewer. | <urn:uuid:831fece6-6627-444e-90d9-d62032f16e4f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://utpress.utexas.edu/index.php/books/rigcae | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968755 | 11,032 | 3.3125 | 3 |
California Genealogy and History Archives
Orange County History
An Illustrated History of
The Lewis Publishing Company, Chicago - 1890
ORANGE County is the youngest county in California, and save San Diego County it is the most southerly. By act of Legislature, approved March 11, 1889, it was set apart from Los Angeles County on August 1, 1889. This county is about forty-four miles northwest and southeast, by some twenty-two miles wide, the greater extent having coastage throughout its entire length.
The new county comprises an area of 861 square miles, or about 610,000 acres, of which 450,000 acres is excellent, indeed choice, agricultural land, of which some 250,000 acres are already under cultivation. The population of the county is about 16,000.
In Orange County can be found soil of every class and kind found in California, and here may be cultivated every product to be grown in semi-tropical regions.
The following named are the old-time ranchos comprised within the limits of Orange County: Trabuco, Mision Vieja or La Paz, Niguel, San Joaquin, Las Bolsas, La Bolsa Chica, one-half each of Los Alamitos and Los Coyotes, San Juan Cajon de Santa Ana, Cajon de Santa Ana, a small portion of La Brea and of La Habra, Santiago de Santa Ana, Lomas de Santiago, Cañada de los Alisos, Boca de la Playa, and El Sobrante. In Anaheim Township are the ranchos: San Juan Cajon de Santa Ana, containing 31,501.99 acres, confirmed to Juan Pacifico Ontiveras; Rancho La Habra, of 6,698.57 acres, confirmed to Andres Pico, and a portion of Los Coyotes. Westminster Township is composed of the whole of Rancho Los Alamitos, containing 28,027.11 acres. Santa Ana Township contains the Rancho San Joaquin, 48,803.16 acres, confirmed to Jose Sepulveda; Santiago de Santa Ana, 62,516.57 acres, granted to Bernardo Yorba et al.; Lomas de Santiago, 47,226.61 acres, granted to Teodocia Yorba and Cañon de Santa Ana, of 13,328.53 acres, granted to Bernardo Yorba. San Juan Township contains the Trabuco, of 22,184.47 acres, the Potreros, three in number of San Juan Capistrano, aggregating 1,167.76 acres, and the Mision Vieja or La Paz, of 46.432.65 acres, all confirmed to Juan Forster; Cañada de los Aliso, 10,568.81 acres, granted to José Serrano; Niguel, 46,072 acres, M. de Jesus Garcia et al.; Boca de la Playa, 6,607 acres, granted to Emidio Vejar; Mission San Juan Capistrano, 44.56 acres, to the church; Santa Margarita, 3,616 acres (a part only), Juan Forster.
A vast quantity of water for irrigating purposes is furnished by the Santa Ana river, the Santiago creek and numerous mountain streams. What is not supplied to the tillable lands from these sources is had from artesian wells. The artesian belts cover a total area of about 50,000 acres, or about one-fifth of the land under cultivation in the county. Flowing wells are obtained at a depth of from thirty-five to fifty feet, at a cost of $100 to $1,000. There is in the county considerable moist land which does not require irrigation, which will yield, even in the dryest seasons, large crops of corn, potatoes, alfalfa, garden vegetables, feed for dairy stock, and superb pears and apples.
The chief source of water for irrigating the Santa Ana valley is the Santa Ana river, the largest stream in Southern California. The water supply of this section is highly favored by the vast area and great elevation of the mountain ranges drained by this stream, and by the conformation of the surface with regard to the bed-rock, by which is raised and made available all the seepage and undercurrents of the great upland basins. Thus is secured to this valley an amount of water certain and sufficient for all its needs, a supply not to be affected by local drouths, nor by the diversion of settlements farther up the river.
In 1877 was organized the Santa Ana Irrigation Company, whose completed works consist of more than seventy-five miles of ditches, pipes and tunnels. Their main canal is ten feet wide at the bottom, twenty-six feet at the top, and six feet deep, with a carrying capacity of 6,000 inches of water. This canal, about eight miles from its head, passes through a spur of hills in two tunnels, 900 feet long, ten feet wide, and seven feet high, and emerges at a point overlooking the whole valley. Here it divides into two branches, one of a capacity of 2,500 inches, keeping on a higher level, while the other, of 3,500 inches, plunges fifty-six feet downward to the level of the valley, to whose farthest limits it reaches. This stream of water, in reaching the lower grade, makes one of the finest water-powers in the State.
The entire length of this county is traversed by the main line of the Santa Fé system, connecting Santa Ana with Los Angeles and San Diego, and another line of this system branches from Orange and follows the Santa Ana river, connecting at Riverside with the main line from San Diego to San Bernardino.
The Southern Pacific has a branch line connecting Santa Ana with Los Angeles; also, another line which connects with the main system at Los Angeles, skirting the foothills from Tustin. It is fairly well assured that this company designs extending its line to San Diego.
The Fairview Development Company has completed a narrow-gauge road connecting Fairview with Santa Ana, its objective point being an ocean outlet at or near McFadden's landing.
A standard-gauge road is being built from McFadden's landing (Newport Pier) to the city. A considerable amount of the road-bed has been graded, and it is expected that the road will be completed within a few months.
Good unimproved land can be had for $30 to $60 per acre, while improved land sells for from $100 to $200, according to its location and the improvements upon it.
In this section "boom times" affected the farming interest, although less, perhaps, than in many other districts; and there is now a strong reaction again in favor of husbandry, as against real-estate speculation. Small tracts are growing in favor with the farmers and fruit-growers, who are giving great attention to lots of five or ten acres, well cultivated for the products for which they are especially adapted.
Walnut-growing is fast becoming one of the leading features of horticulture in Orange County. Walnuts have been planted over a a great portion of the vineyards devastated by the vine disease, and more of these trees than of any other were planted out during the past season. No less than 10,000 acres were planted to walnut trees during 1889, and it is estimated that 15,000 more acres will be planted in 1890. Orange County contains many thousands of acres particularly adapted for growing these nuts, and, as there is an unlimited demand for them at remunerative prices, it is safe to predict that this will soon become the banner walnut-producing county of the State. Not less than $50,000 worth of English walnuts from Orange County were put upon the market during the past season. Peanut-growing also is assuming important proportions, at least $16,000 worth of peanuts having been shipped hence this season.
Probably no other county has made large shipments of oranges in proportion to her size, than Orange County. It is estimated that about 45,000 boxes was this section's yield for this season.
The ravages of the vine pest has done almost incalculable damage to the grape industries for several years past; yet even under these circumstances the county has had a revenue of $100,000 from wine and brandy; and if, as it is expected, the methods already adopted prevent a recurrence of the blight, the shipments for next year from the Santa Ana valley will, probably, include 200,000 boxes of first-class raisins.
While a great portion of the lands thus devastated have been set to orange and walnut trees, very many of the vineyards have been replanted to vines. On these diseased vineyard lands also were made extensive experiments with the sugar beet, which, save in the vicinity of Anaheim, showed most satisfactory proofs of sugar and polarization. It is believed that a refinery and crushing-house will soon be established hereabouts by one of the sugar-beet companies.
A newborn industry here is the shipment of fresh vegetables to the markets of the Eastern States during the months when such staples are out of season there. The promoters of this enterprise, having secured favorable freights, purpose to establish a regular system of such shipments.
But agricultural products are not the only natural resources and elements of wealth The section is rich in minerals. Silver ore assaying $16 per ton is found in the mountains. Good seams of coal exist; and a vast deposit of Portland cement has been discovered. To exploit this, there has been organized a company with a capital of $300,000, one-third of which sum is to be expended in a plant, where 1,000 hands will be given work. This branch of the county's riches includes a mineral-paint mine, whose product is deemed superior to the imported article; and a gypsum mine, with grades ranging from the purest alabaster to the ordinary element, which after calcining becomes the plaster of Paris of commerce. Natural gas also is found within the county, and several geologists assert that a large petroleum basin begins under the outskirts of the city of Santa Ana.
There are in Orange County thirty-four school districts. The apportionment for the last school year was $59,584.57 from the respective sources.
There are in the county 4,095 school census children, for whose instruction are employed sixty-eight teachers. Most of the districts possess good buildings, with improved furniture and appliances.
There are in Santa Ana three school buildings, accommodating about 720 pupils. The largest building cost $30,000, and the other two $9,000 and $6,000 respectively.
Orange has two good school-houses, costing $8,500 and $7,800. There are here 392 school census children.
Anaheim has two fine school buildings, costing $16,000 and $7,000. The number of census children here is 546.
The Tustin school building cost about $12,000, and accommodates 267 pupils.
Most of the schools run nine to ten months yearly.
At the close of 1889, the books of the county assessor showed the following figures for the new county:
Number of acres = 420,462
Value of real estate, other than city or town lots = $4,800,706
Value of improvements thereon = 680,625
Value of city and town lots = 1,827,169
Value of personal property, exclusive of money and solvent credits = 1,168,641
Total value after equalization by State Board = 8,646,024
Railway, Santa Fé = 385,951
Railway, Southern Pacific = 238,791
Total = $18,268,269
Santa Ana is the county seat of Orange County, and the other important cities and towns are Anaheim, Orange, Tustin, and Westminster.
The officials of Orange County are as follows: Superior Judge, James W. Towner; Supervisors, William H. Spurgeon, Jacob Ross, Sheldon Littlefield, S. Armor, A. Guy Smith; District Attorney, E. E. Edwards; Sheriff, R. T. Harris; County Clerk, R. L. Wickham; Recorder and Auditor, George E. Foster; Treasurer, Dr. W. B. Wall; School Superintendent, J. P. Greeley; Tax Collector, F. C. Smythe; Deputy Revenue Collector, Richard Melrose; Public Administrator and Coroner, I. D. Mills; Engineer,—Wood.
The Orange County Medical Association was organized in the spring of 1889, shortly after the segregation of the county. It has fourteen members. The president is J. M. Lacy, M. D.; vice-president, J. R. Medlock, M. D.; secretary, J. P. Boyd, M. D., and treasurer, W. B. Wood, M. D.
The Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana was granted, under the old Spanish regime, in 1810, to one of the Yorbas, the grant comprehending about 62,000 acres. After the death of the original grantee, the land now occupied by the town site of Santa Ana fell to the share of Zenobia Yorba de Rowland, from whom it was bought by Mr. W. H. Spurgeon, who had the land surveyed and laid off in town lots in October, 1869. The growth of Santa Ana has been slow, but steady, the town being built up and supported by the resources of the surrounding country, and being the trade center of one of the finest agricultural and horticultural sections of Southern California.
Santa Ana was first incorporated June 1, 1886, as a city of the sixth class, and it was reincorporated, August, 1888, as a city of the fifth class.
This city is situated on branch lines of two great railways, the Santa Fé and the Southern Pacific. It is thirty-three miles distant from Los Angeles, forty from Riverside, forty-eight from Colton, and twenty-five from San Juan Capistrano; it is ninety miles from San Diego, eighteen from Laguna, eighteen from Long Beach, fourteen from Anaheim Landing, seven from Anaheim, seven from Westminster, four from Las Bolsas, nine from Newport Landing (which is its seaport), five from Garden Grove, three from Orange, and two miles due west from Tustin City.
Thus, it will readily be perceived, Santa Ana has superior advantages, both for residence and business purposes, from its situation with regard to the foregoing cities and towns, and from its excellent railroad facilities.
The climate of the valley is inviting. Lying about ten miles from the coast, it has a more equable temperature and a drier atmosphere than points immediately on the seaboard, while the breeze from the Pacific prevents sultriness. The mercury rarely reaches 90° in the shade during the heated season, and very rarely falls to within 10° of the freezing point.
Santa Ana is now the county seat of Orange County, with a population of some 5,000. The assessed valuation of city property for 1889 was $2,561,275. During the past year, there have been erected two business blocks costing $35,000 and $45,000, one $20,000 residence, over a dozen dwellings ranging from $2,500 to $5,000, and a great number costing from $500 to $1,000.
The city is well lighted, having both gas and electricity systems.
There is a street railway system of about six miles, and it also connects the city with Orange and Tustin. The Orange and Santa Ana line again connects with the Orange and El Modena system, thus giving Santa Ana a continuous line of about twelve miles of street railway.
There is a local telephone exchange, besides communication with Los Angeles and other neighboring points.
Almost every line of business is well represented at Santa Ana. The merchants carry good stocks, and sell at reasonable figures. The following is a list of the business houses operating in the city at the beginning of 1890: Six dry-goods shops, twelve grocery stores, two men's furnishing-goods houses, six hardware stores, five livery stables, four millinery stores: two feed and grain shops, one steam roller flouring-mill, three hotels, three restaurants, two confectioneries, five drug stores, one bazaar, eight saloons, five harness shops, two photograph galleries, two merchant tailor shops, four job printing houses, six newspapers (four weeklies and two dailies), four cigar stands, two news depots, one cigar factory, one hairdresser, two musical instrument depots, one paint and oil store, four bakeries, three shoe shops, nine real-estate offices, three dental parlors, two packing houses, four butcher shops, three clothing stores, two gun stores, two undertaking parlors, three banks, two abstract companies, three jewelry stores, one fruit and seed store, one hardware and grocery store, one general merchandise store, six blacksmith shops, one machine shop, six lodging houses, one tin store, one oil and gasoline store, two second-hand furniture stores, two sewing-machine offices, one marble works, one employment office, two lumber yards, one gas works, one Thompson & Houston electric light works, three carpenter shops, four carriage repositories, three furniture stores.
The oldest bank in Santa Ana is the Commercial Bank, incorporated in April, 1882. Its capital is $100,000, and its surplus $35,000. D. Halladay is the president and Will K. James, cashier. This house transacts a general banking business with foreign and domestic exchange and collections.
The First National Bank was organized in May, 1886; it has a paid-in capital of $150,000. Its president is William H. Spurgeon, and its cashier, M. M. Crookshank.
The bank of the Orange County Savings, Loan and Trust Company, has a capital stock of $100,000. Its president is Carey R. Smith, and its cashier C. F. Mansur.
Santa Ana Lodge, No. 124, F. & A. M., was organized October 1, 1875.
Santa Ana Lodge, No. 236. I. O. O. F., was organized October 30, 1875.
Santa Ana Lodge, 151, I. O. G. T., was organized January 19, 1878.
Santa Ana Lodge, No. 82, A. O. U. W., was organized February 27, 1879.
These were the pioneers of the fraternal organizations, which are now represented by: Santa Ana Lodge, No. 124, F. & A. M.; Santa Ana Lodge, No. 236, I. O. O. F.; Laurel Camp, No. 87, I. O. O. F.; Rebekah Degree, I. O. O. F.; Santa Ana Lodge, No. 82, A. O. U. W.; Santa Ana Lodge, No. 151, I. O G. T.; Women's Relief Corps, No. 17; Santa Ana Lodge, No. 149, Knights of Pythias; Order of Chosen Friends, Hesperian Council; Sons of Veterans, McDowell Camp No. 2.; Carpenters' Union, No. 282; Ladies' Benevolent Society of Santa Ana; Y. M. C. A.; W. C. T. U.; Y. W. C. T. U.; G. A. R., Sedgwick Post, No. 17.
The Methodist Church South was organized at Santa Ana, at the residence of W. H. Tichenal, December, 1869. A church edifice was erected in 1876, and consecrated in October of that year. It cost $2,000.
The Baptist Church was organized March, 1871. The church edifice costing $4,000, was dedicated September, 1878.
The Methodist Episcopal Church was organized in 1874.
The United Presbyterian Church was organized June 22, 1876. Its edifice was built August, 1877. It cost $2,800.
Such were the pioneer churches. It may fairly be said that Santa Ana is now a city of schools and churches. Almost every religious denomination is represented, and most of them own their own edifices.
At present there are in Santa Ana church edifices of ownership and valuation, so far as can be learned from the assessment lists, as follows: United Presbyterian, $3,000; Presbyterian, $5,000; Baptist, $5,000; Methodist Episcopal, $3;500; Methodist Episcopal South, $4,000; Adventist, $3,500; German Lutheran, $3,000; Episcopal, $6,000; Roman Catholic, $3,000; Christian, $6,000. The Congregationalists have no building.
Santa Ana has five newspapers: the Blade, daily and weekly; the Free Press, daily and weekly; the Standard, weekly; the Herald, weekly, and the Pilot, a Prohibitionist organ, weekly.
GEORGE RIDGELEY BROADBERE, editor of the Santa Ana Free Press, was born in New York city and educated at Cambridge University, England. He began the newspaper business as war correspondent while serving in the naval brigade in the Zulu war in Africa, and while there he was severely wounded. In China he did war correspondence for the London Daily News. Returning to America, he was employed on the New Orleans Picayune as reporter and traveling correspondent in Louisiana and Texas; next he was a traveling agent and correspondent for the States of the great southwest for the St. Louis Globe-Democrat; then he was on the local force of the Kansas City Times, and then going to Lawrence, Kansas, he took charge of the local pages of the Kansas Daily Tribune. In 1881 he established the Mirror at Tongawoxie, Kansas, but losing his health he was compelled to seek the high altitudes of New Mexico, where he was for some time city editor of the Albuquerque Journal; thence he came to Los Angeles and worked on the Times and the Express. As soon as it was settled beyond dispute that Orange County was to be organized, he established the Free Press at Santa Ana, the county seat, with Lester Osborn as business manager. He recently bought out Mr. Osborn and organized a stock company under the name and title of the Free Press Publishing Company, with Dr. R. F. Burgess as treasurer. The paper, both daily and weekly, is published in the Opera House block, corner of Fourth and Bush streets. Having had an experience of sixteen years in journalism, Mr. Broadbere understands thoroughly what is necessary to conduct a newspaper successfully.
He was married in Kansas, in 1880, to Miss Margaret J. Sappenfield, and their children are George Ridgley, Jr., Martin Ashley and Margaret Case.
The Blade was originally started as the Pacific Weekly Blade, at Santa Ana, then a small town in Los Angeles County, in September, 1886, by A. J. Waterhouse and W. F. X. Parker, both of whom had migrated from Dakota. The paper was started as a Republican journal, and as Mr. Waterhouse proved to be a man of more than ordinary ability the Blade forged ahead rapidly, and soon became the leading paper of the southeastern portion of Los Angeles County. In a few months Mr. Parker retired from the firm, and Mr. Waterhouse continued as sole manager until January, 1888, when he failed. The coming of the "boom" had encouraged him to start a daily, called the Morning Blade, leading him into other extravagances because of the flattering patronage extended to the daily and the rapid growth of the country. A suspension of the weekly followed, but an association of printers, with Joseph E. Tillotson as manager, carried the daily on as an evening paper, and kept it alive till June, 1889, when the material was sold at auction by the assignee, and was purchased by Victor Montgomery, a leading lawyer of Santa Ana, then the county seat of Orange, a new county formed out of Los Angeles County, and he was assisted by other leading citizens in the purchase of other mortgages resting on the material. The paper was then changed from an evening to a morning paper, and shortly afterward the Weekly Blade was resurrected, the whole being under the immediate management of W. R. McIntosh. On March 6, 1890, the Blade Publishing Company was incorporated, with a capital stock of $25,000, and was organized with a board of directors composed of three Republicans and three Democrats, the policy of the paper to be independent in politics, and as purely local as it is possible to make it. John Beatty, Jr., a leading merchant of Santa Ana, is the president of the board, Judge C. W. Humphreys, treasurer, and H. A. Peabody, a practical newspaper man, the secretary and manager. The Morning Blade and the Weekly Blade are recognized as the leading papers of the county, and both have constantly increasing circulation and advertising patronage.
HENRY A. PEABODY, manager of the Santa Ana Blade, was born in Detroit, Michigan, &larch 19, 1837; in 1847 he was a newsboy in Cincinnati, Ohio; in March, 1857, as a journeyman printer. He started from Columbia, Missouri, for California, crossing the plains, and arriving at Colusa, California, September 1, 1857, barefooted and without a coat to his back. There he hired himself out to drive an ox team, three yoke, to Petaluma, California, earning his first money in the State. About September 20 he took work in the Democrat office at Santa Rosa, California, and from that time followed his trade at Santa Rosa and in San Francisco till June, 1859, when he returned East with the intention of completing his education and studying law. The war of 1861 broke into his preconceived plan, and he entered the Confederate service, filling the positions of private, ordnance sergeant, drill-master, sergeant major lieutenant and adjutant, and captain, passing through the war, receiving but two wounds in the four years. At the close of the war he returned to California penniless, and since then has steadily followed the business of printing, during that time being foreman of the Sonora Democrat, Vallejo Daily Independent, Tulare Times, and the State printing office, and associate proprietor of the Sonoma Democrat, proprietor of the Mendocino Democrat, and now, in 1890, he is a member of the Blade Publishing Company and manager of the Morning and Weekly Blade, published at Santa Ana, Orange County, California. He has a wife, two daughters and two sons, and hopes to live twenty or thirty years longer in the service of his country.
There are in Santa Ana three fair hotels, one of which cost $65,000.
The domestic water supply is, so far as regards the central-position of the city, derived from Spurgeon's artesian well, which supplies daily about 50,000 gallons, forced by a steam pump into tanks, whence it is piped to about 100 subscribers. The rest of the city is supplied from surface water, which is to be reached by wells ten to twenty feet deep, although they mostly penetrate to the second stratum, fifty to sixty feet deep.
The city is expected to issue bonds for $50,000 for water-works at the next election.
The irrigating supply comes front the Santa Ana Valley Irrigation Company.
The municipal government of Santa Ana is in the hands of the following officials: Trustees. John Avas, President, J. R. Congdon, A. Goodwin, C. E. Gronard, M. D. Halladay; Z. B. West, City Attorney; E. Tedford, Clerk; Geo. T. Insley, City Marshal; Geo. E. Freeman, City Recorder; D. T. Brock, Assessor; Board of Education—Victor Montgomery, President; I. G. Marks, J. A. Buckingham, 1. Chandler, D. W. Swanner.
The postoffice of Santa Ana is of the second-class, the postage receipts for 1889 being about $7,400. Eight mails are received here daily. The office employs three assistants and Walter B. Tedford, Postmaster.
Following is a report of the freight shipped from Santa Ana during the first six months of 1887:
The following are the exports through the Southern Pacific warehouse at Santa Ana, for the first eleven months of 1889:
The exports of the Santa Fé are not obtainable, but it is fair to estimate that they would equal those of the Southern Pacific.
The exports via McFadden's Landing over the steamship company's line, as furnished by the Santa Ana office, sums up a total of 1,180,400 pounds, about all of which consisted of corn, barley, peanuts and wool.
By Wells, Fargo & Co's. express were shipped from the Santa Ana office during the month of November, 1889, the following articles of produce: eggs, 3,470; live poultry, 9,762; fish, 8,580; game, 540, and butter, 1,400 pounds; a total of 23,752 pounds, not including miscellaneous shipments of merchandise.
ranks as the oldest colony in California. In the year 1857, several German residents of San Francisco discussed among themselves a project whose result was the purchase by fifty persons of a tract of 1,165 acres of land, lying some twenty-eight miles southeast of Los Angeles, for which they paid $2 per acre, including sufficient water privilege to insure ample irrigation. Mr. George Hansen, of Los Angeles, was the leader in this enterprise, he choosing and buying the land, and laying it oit. There were fifty farm lots, of twenty acres each, and fifty house-lots, with fourteen additional village lots, reserved for school-houses and other necessary public buildings. The members of the company remained in San Francisco, pursuing their respective avocations, while the manager improved the colony's land by means of hired labor. A main ditch was dug, about seven miles long, to convey over the whole area the irrigating water; and also there were 450 miles of minor ditches, and twenty-five miles of feeders. On each twenty-acre lot were planted to vines eight acres, 1,000 to the acre, and some fruit trees. Each lot was fenced with willows, making five and one-quarter miles of outside, and thirty-five miles of inside fencing.
At the end of three years all the lots had been carefully cultivated, pruned and kept up; all the assessments were paid, each stockholder having expended $1,200. A division was now made of the lots, also of a cash balance on hand, sufficient to give over $100 to each shareholder. Each member of the company had now acquired at a cost of about $1,080, a farm lot of twenty acres, with some fruit trees, and 8,000 hearing vines, and also a town lot 200 x 150 feet. Now came down from San Francisco, most of the members of the Los Angeles Vineyard Society, to take possession of conveniences, secured by intelligent management and co-operation, for which, had they acted singly, they must have expended far greater sums and waited long, moreover. These men were mostly mechanics; there was not a farmer among them; yet, owing to the system and thoroughness of the arrangements, the following propositions in 1872, were truthfully made concerning them:
" [11 There was a struggle for some years, but every one had abundance to eat, a good school for his children, music and pleasant social amusements, and each was his own master.
"[2.] Only one of the original settlers has moved away, and the sheriff has never issued an execution in Anaheim.
" [3.] The property, which cost $1,080, is now worth from $5,000 to $10,000.
"[4.] There are no poor in Anaheim."
In 1860 the Vineyard Society sold out to the Anaheim Water Company; the same shareholders formed the second company, and in effect only the name was changed.
Anaheim was incorporated as a city and duly chartered February 10, 1870, but this charter was revoked March 7, 1872, owing to a misunderstanding among the officials
An act of the Legislature, approved March 18, 1878, granted a town organization and again incorporated Anaheim.
For many years the chief industry of Anaheim was wine-growing. Some idea of the extent of this manufacture may be had from the statement that one winery turned out in one year 187,000 gallons of wine, and 15,000 gallons of brandy, while there were some twenty or thirty other vineyards producing many thousands of gallons each, yearly. Within the last few years this industry has been almost paralyzed by the vine disease, which has almost destroyed the vineyards. The railways report that forty or fifty car-loads of wine are still sent out annually; but this is old wine, that is to say, wine stored from former harvests. It is considered, however, that the vine disease has spent its force, and a portion of the vineyards are being replanted, while others are being set to oranges and walnuts. It is estimated that some 4,000 acres will be planted to trees of these two sorts in 1890.
The orange crop here is already considerable. The output in 1888–'89 having been some 100 car-loads, and the export for 1889–'90 is expected to reach 150 car-loads, from which the growers will realize $75,000 to $100,000.
Other products of this section are hay, grain, all kinds of deciduous fruits, potatoes, petroleum, brea (crude asphaltum), honey, wool, walnuts, corn, dried fruit, fresh and cured meats, poultry, butter and eggs, nursery stock, cattle and hogs, cooperage, pampas plumes, and ostrich feathers. These swell the freight tonnage of produce and merchandise to about 2,000,000 pounds monthly, and bring money into the town and the district. The wool export goes out mostly from Fullerton, the winter clip amounting to about twenty car-loads. A new industry has been growing of late, in the shipment of sheep on the hoof to Kansas City and Chicago markets. Up to the close of May, 1890, thirty-two car-loads of live sheep had gone East, and enough orders were in hand to complete 100 car-loads.
The ostrich farm was established in what is known as Centralia district, six miles west of Anaheim, the farm being stocked with twenty-two ostriches imported direct from South Africa. The youth of the birds militated against the success of the enterprise at first, but that fault became corrected with the lapse of time, and when the eggs proved fertile the success of the undertaking became assured. The constant demand for ostrich feathers exceeding the supply and the high grade of the yield insured here by the unfailing supply of appropriate food, and by the suitable surroundings, bid fair to render this a most important and profitable industry.
The present population of Anaheim is about 1,300. Notwithstanding the year just passed has been the dullest known in Southern California for many years in business and real-estate transactions, Anaheim has shown more marked progress than during any other one year of her history. There has been built: A two-story brick export brewery, cost, $12,000; a three-story brick academy, cost, 20,000; two two-story brick blocks, costing $8,000 and $7,000 respectively; a one-story brick block, cost $4,000; the Methodist Church, cost $4,000; the West Anaheim school-house, cost $7,000; a packing-house, cost $1,200; nine frame business houses, aggregate cost $6,000; and twenty-two residents of various cost, aggregating $30,000.
Anaheim has a popular and progressive set of officials. The town has a good system of sidewalks, and extensive water-works; it has lately organized Wright irrigating district with bonds of $50,000; it has a good opera house that cost $16,000; a Roman Catholic Sisters' College—St. Catherine's, costing $20,000; one public school building that cost $12,000, and another, $7,000, the two accommodating 400 pupils and occupying ten teachers; also a bank with over $100,000 regular deposits. There are in the city some eighty business houses, representing almost every branch of trade, and all doing a good business. There is a commodious new postoffice, also telegraph, telephone, and express offices, one weekly and one semiweekly newspaper, a large brewery, a candy factory, a brick and lumber yard, a pork-packing house, a sausage factory, two planing and turning mills, two grist-mills and two bakeries, besides the usual complement of grocery and dry-goods shops, shoe and general merchandise stores and mechanics' shops.
The Anaheim Gazette is, except the San Diego Union, the oldest newspaper in Southern California.
Northern, on the Santa Fé line, near Anaheim, is the station for the Buena Park Milk Condensing Company, whose works have capacity sufficient to use daily the milk from 3,000 cows. The supply comes from over a large district, the radius reaching as far as Artesia. The product of this manufactory finds sale locally and in the neighboring mining districts. It is expected that there will be large foreign demand for this staple in the near future. At the same factory is prepared canned coffee, to be reduced for table use by the addition of water.
On this tract, too, is being promoted the development of an industry new to Southern California—the manufacture of molasses from sorghum cane. Last year trial work was done in this direction, with so much success that eighty acres have been planted this year to the cane. This promises to be an important industry, as the climate here develops a much better quality of cane than that grown east of the Rocky mountains, and the samples of molasses produced last year were greatly superior to the imported grades now in our local markets.
In 1870 Messrs. A. B. Chapman and Andrew Glassell purchased from the Yorba family several thousand acres of land, which they divided into small parcels and sold to actual settlers the following year. Eight ten-acre blocks were divided into town lots of 50x 150 feet each, and outside of this nucleus were laid off ten-acre farm lots, in their turn surrounded by lots of forty acres each. At intervals of one-half mile, throughout the whole tract, running from north to south and from east to west, were surveyed roads sixty feet wide.
The town, as a town, dates from about 1874. The oldest orange trees were planted in 1871, and bore in 1879 from the seed.
In the spring of 1873 many new settlers arrived at Orange, planting numerous orchards and vineyards, building a school-house, and securing the establishment of a postoffice, then named, with the town, Orange. In 1874 also came many new people, who engaged largely in the planting of citrus fruits. During this year was built a Methodist church, costing about $3,500, also a hotel, three stores, and a saloon, the last soon being starved out.
During 1875, 1876 and 1877 were made some improvements, but there was no immigration. In 1878 the existing water supply proving inadequate, a new ditch company was formed, the control remaining in the hands of those most interested, and in 1878–'79 was completed a new ditch, costing $60,000, of sufficient capacity to supply the stockholders with abundant water. Early in 1879 there were, by actual count, 80,000 orange trees and 16,000 lemon trees in this settlement. In 1880 these figures had increased to 100,000 and 20,000 respectively. The present acreage of oranges can not be stated closely, as it is impossible to obtain the figures; but it is necessarily large, since this is one of the finest points in the orange belt.
Orange is about three miles northeast of Santa Ana, at the junction of a branch of the Santa Fé with the main line, and also on the line of the Southern Pacific. The town is incorporated as in the sixth class; it is well laid out, having a plaza, with neat walks, lined with flowers, and a central fountain. An ordinance prohibits saloons inside the corporate limits. The population is 1,500 to 2,000. There are fine church buildings, the religious denominations being represented by Methodists, Presbyterians, Christians, Baptists, and German Lutherans. There is a postoffice with several mails daily, and telegraph, telephone, and express offices, two weekly newspapers, two job offices; also a public library well supplied with periodicals and newspapers, and 1,000 volumes. There is here a bank doing a prosperous business, one dry-goods shop, two general merchandise stores, three drug stores, one confectionery, one bakery, two hotels, two real-estate offices, two fruit-packing establishments, one furniture store, one bookstore, two livery stables, one hardware store, one tinshop, one shoe shop, three blacksmith shops and two barber shops.
The water supply comes from the Santa Ana river, through the canals of the Santa Ana Valley Irrigation Company, which has about seventy-five miles of distributing zanjas, with some fifty miles of private lateral ditches. This company's capital stock is $20,000, each share costing $5. One share of water-right goes with each acre, so that the enterprise purposes to cover 20,000 acres, of which some 14,000 acres are already water stocked. This company has been operating since October, 1877.
The domestic water supply is from a company having a private franchise from the corporation.
Anaheim Landing is situated in Westminster township, about four and a half miles due west from Westminster. This is a coast landing for shipping purposes, with a good wharf and warehouse on the inlet. The Anaheim Lighter Company was organized as an incorporation in 1864, to ship the produce and import the necessary supplies of this section, and all needful privileges were granted by the Legislature. Since the railway reached Anaheim, the business of that town with the Landing greatly diminished and the through line of the Santa Fé yet further affected the traffic by way of this port, yet a considerable business is done there. The population at this point is about 200.
McFadden's Landing is about twelve miles south of Santa Ana, and about a mile from the old wharf at Newport Bay. Here is constructed an "outside" wharf, 1,200 feet long, with twenty-two feet of water at extreme low tide, this being sufficient to accommodate all coast vessels. This is the most substantial wharf on the southern coast. Grading is vigorously in progress for a railway very soon to be laid between the wharf and Santa Ana. The wharf (known as Newport Pier) and the line are owned by the Newport Wharf and Lumber Company, which does thereby a large lumber business. Much of the traffic between Santa Ana valley and San Francisco goes over this road. Newport Beach, near this wharf, is a popular bathing resort, 500 to 1,000 persons camping there during the summer.
Fairview is a town located on the high mesa lands between Santa Ana and Newport Landing. This town was laid out about the time the " boom " subsided, and it has been advancing, notwithstanding the general business depression. The Fairview Development Company's narrow-gauge railway between this point and Santa Ana is designed to extend some four miles farther to Newport bay.
The water supply, both for irrigation and domestic purposes, is supplied from artesian wells, which flow a large volume of water. The flow from some of these wells is very warm, having a temperature of 90°, and it is highly impregnated with mineral substances, considered to possess valuable medicinal qualities. One or two of these wells emit a combustible gas, which has been utilized to a limited extent as fuel.
Fairview has a $12,000 hotel, a number of line store buildings, and numerous cottages and residences ranging from $1,000 to $15,000 each. Very few inferior buildings are in this town.
From the heirs of the Yorba estate, Messrs. Bacon and Johnson bought a tract of land which they sold in 1857, to Columbus Tustin and N. O. Stafford, who, dividing the tract in 1868, had each, 1,359 acres.
On his portion of the land, Mr. Tustin, in 1869, established the settlement of Tustin City, having surveyed a town site of about 100 acres, in blocks 300 feet square, divided into lots 150 x 50 feet.
Settlers soon began to congregate here, purchasing mostly small tracts of five to twenty acres, and their improvements were so effectual and valuable that Tustin to-day is one of the richest and most beautiful spots in Orange County. The homes are handsome and substantial, and the products numerous and remunerative. Indeed, Tustin may justly be called one of the garden spots of the county. This is the terminus of the foothill line of the Southern Pacific Railway. The Tustin & Santa Ana street-car line connects this town with the county seat. The population is about 1,100; voters, 202.
Corn, barley, all kinds of vegetables and many fruits, including bananas, flourish here. Tobacco is raised in small quantities, for home consumption. Alfalfa and peanuts are staple productions. The orange crop for 1889 from Tustin, is estimated at 150 car-loads.
Tustin has a $12,000 school building, a Presbyterian and an Episcopalian church, and the following fraternal societies: Tustin Lodge No. 331, I. O. O. F., and Tustin Lodge I. O. G. T.
The original township of Westminster was composed of the whole of Rancho Los Alamitos, containing 28,027.11 acres owned by the heirs of Michael Reese, who bought under the foreclosure of mortgage made by Abel Stearns, the original grantee from the Mexican government.
This land is fiat in the north and west, with rolling and mesa land in the south and southwest.
Westminster was started as a colony enterprise, in the autumn of 1871, by Rev. L. P. Webber, who selected a tract of level land, comprising about 8,000 acres, afterwards enlarged to 10,000 acres, between Anaheim and the ocean, where he endeavored to assemble settlers who would co-operate in church, school and social matters. The original tract was soon sold, mostly in farms of forty acres each. There are four school districts: Westminster, Las Bolsas, Garden Grove and Alamitos.
The water supply is the distinctive feature of Westminster, which probably has more flowing wells than any other section of the United States, of equal area. Every property-holder owns and controls his own water supply. There are in this district about 250 artesian wells, which afford an abundance of cool, pure water, sufficient for all purposes, including irrigation. Water in quantities sufficient for irrigation can be had at a depth of fifty to 200 feet. Moreover, the soil here is so damp that a large portion of the land will grow tine crops without irrigation.
The productive qualities of this land are almost marvelous; corn reaches a yield of 125 bushels to the acre, and other products are in proportion. The chief staples of produce are corn, beets, potatoes, pumpkins; sorghum, alfalfa, vegetables, and deciduous fruits; on the higher lands of the colony are grown some fine oranges. Dairying and stock-raising are profitable enterprises, and not a few Westminster people follow these avocations
In the southern portion of this colony are the celebrated peat lands.
This section is thickly populated, the land being owned mainly in small holdings. The colony has a population of some 900; the central settlement, about 450. The business houses comprise two stores of groceries and general merchandise, two blacksmith and wagon-makers' shops, one hotel, one drug-store, one feed-yard, and one saloon. There are three churches, and a good school building, with two departments. The town has a lodge of I. O. O. F., and a branch of the W. C. T. U.
The stern Presbyterian stock that first settled Westminster pledged themselves to grow no grapes, that no inducement might exist to wine-making amongst them; but outside influence has so far modified matters that grapes are now grown freely, and even a saloon is established here.
The town site of Garden Grove was selected and laid out in 1877 by A. G. Cook and Converse Howe. It is now a town of 350 to 400 population lying about four miles west of Santa Ana; it is the trade center of a fine agricultural district. The country around Garden Grove has made greater advancement in the way of increase in residence buildings during the past year than any other settlement in the county, and also there has been more land brought under cultivation than in any corresponding section. The chief products are corn, barley, fruits, citrus and deciduous, vegetables, grapes, and walnuts. Dairying, stock-raising, and the poultry business are also carried on with profit. Garden Grove has a postoffice with two daily mails, a good church, a good school-house, one hotel, one dry-goods and general merchandise store, one grocery store, one shoe shop, and one blacksmith shop.
Gospel Swamp is a tract of about 4,000 acres of damp land lying in the southerly portion of the Rancho Santa Ana. A portion of the eastern end of this tract is full of alkali; hence unfit for cultivation, but about four-fifths of the tract is of marvelous fertility. Some of the farms here have produced the enormous amount of 118 bushels of shelled corn to the acre. The Mormon Church here was organized in 1875.
San Juan Township comprises ten ranchos of old Spanish granting, constituting one of the most fertile valleys on this coast. Some of the finest walnut orchards of the State are in this section, which is especially adapted to the growth of this nut, as well as oranges and lemons. The scale bug, which so devastated many of the citrus groves of Southern California, never infested the orange trees of this valley. Here are produced abundant crops of deciduous and citrus fruits, olives, potatoes, corn, and garden vegetables. In the neighboring cañons are numerous bee ranches, whence the apiarists ship yearly a large amount of white-sage honey, the best in the market. Besides the agricultural and horticultural interests of this valley, the surrounding foothills and mountains possess considerable merit as a stock country, supporting large herds of sheep, horses, and cattle, that bring extensive revenues to their owners. Some idea of the products and possibilities of this section may be formed from the following partial statement of the shipments from Capistrano station during the past season: Beef cattle, 1,500 head; mutton sheep, 1,000 head; wool, 185,000 pounds; English walnuts, 176,250 pounds; honey, 46,000 pounds; miscellaneous, 100,000 pounds.
The town or village of San Juan Capistrano lies on the main line of the Santa Fe, some twenty-seven miles south of Santa Ana, and two miles from the Pacific ocean. This is the trade center of a large scope of country. The Mexican inhabitants, of which the population here was mostly composed until very lately, is now rapidly being replaced by Americans. This is one of the oldest settlements on the Coast, the mission here having been established in 1776. The old Mission church and buildings at present are, virtually, but a pile of ruins, having fallen into decay since the partial destruction of the edifice by earthquake, December 8, 1812. Religious services are still held here, however, and this venerable site is celebrated in song and story.
Transcribed by Kathy Sedler | <urn:uuid:45c1dec9-865f-43a9-a297-73df6d2c5c7b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cagha/history/history-orange.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965157 | 11,019 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Invasive species on public land
Invasive species threaten native biodiversity because of their ability to change and destroy habitats and ecosystems.
- They are the number one cause of native animal extinctions in Australia.
- They are the second biggest threat to river and stream areas and nationally important wetlands.
- They are the third biggest threat to threatened ecosystems.
Invasive species can also harm social and economic assets. They may affect primary industries including agriculture, forestry and fisheries. They can also affect recreation, tourism and cultural values, including sites of significance to indigenous people. Weeds alone cost the Victorian economy over $900 million each year.
Managing invasive species in Victoria
Invasive species on public land in Victoria are managed using a biosecurity approach. This approach focuses on asset-based protection measures that aim to minimise the impact of invasive species on the environment, the economy and society. The Invasive Plants and Animals Policy Framework aims to protect our native flora, fauna and primary producers from harm caused by invasive species.
The Department of Environment and Primary Industries (DEPI) plays an important role in guiding invasive species policy, legislation and government investment on public land to achieve desired outcomes for the environment.
Invasive terrestrial plants (weeds)
Many invasive plants can pose a serious threat to biodiversity by significantly impacting native flora and fauna populations. They also contribute to land and water degradation and losses in productivity.
Under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 certain plants are declared as noxious weeds in Victoria. This allows certain actions to be taken to control them.
The impact of weeds on the environment is recognised through several listings under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988:
- Introduction and spread of Spartina to Victorian estuarine environments.
- Invasion of native vegetation by 'environmental weeds'.
- Invasion of native vegetation communities by Tall Wheat-grass Lophopyrum ponticum.
Programs targeted at weed control on public land in Victoria include Otway Eden, Weeds at the Early Stage of Invasion, Glenelg Eden, Central Highlands Eden, Good Neighbour Program and Urban Fringe Weed Management Initiative.
Invasive terrestrial animals
Invasive animals can pose a serious threat to biodiversity. They contribute to the loss of native animals and farm productivity by direct predation or by disturbing or eating native vegetation, and by spreading weeds.
Under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 certain animals are declared as pest animals in Victoria. Established pest animals include foxes, rabbits, feral pigs and feral goats.
The impact of pest animals on the environment is recognised through several listings under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988:
- Degradation and loss of habitats caused by feral horses (Equus caballus).
- Predation of native wildlife by the cat (Felis catus).
- Predation of native wildlife by the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes).
- Reduction in biodiversity of native vegetation by sambar deer (Cervus unicolor).
- Reduction in biomass and biodiversity of native vegetation through grazing by the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).
- Soil degradation and reduction of biodiversity through browsing and competition by feral goats (Capra hircus).
Programs targeted at pest animal control on public land in Victoria include Southern Ark, Glenelg Ark, Grampians Ark, Central Highlands Ark, Good Neighbour Program, Urban Rabbit Control Initiative, Brown Mountain Fox Control Program, Mallee Bounceback and Large Herbivore Control Program. | <urn:uuid:9d45eabe-d2e3-41d6-83f8-2d5671c05d4d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/environment-and-wildlife/weeds-and-pests | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9038 | 730 | 3.484375 | 3 |
There are multiple metrics for work or effort needed:
- Amount of operations it takes (one operations is, for instance, one invocation of hash function or number of modular multiplication operations)
- Amount of money it takes
- Amount of memory it takes
- Amount of time it takes
- Strength in bits
Amount of operations
Usually, if amount of operations is large enough so that it cannot be done with all the energy in the solar system even if single operation consumed just one electron, it looks safe enough.
Brute forcing AES-256 bit key is too expensive in amount of operations
Amount of money
If it costs too much to build device for breaking encryption, people assume it cannot be done, or that it is prohibitingly expensive.
Excellent paper of PBKDF algorithms, including cost of breaking a key in a year.
Amount of memory
Sometimes it would be feasible for large organizations to break algorithm according to how long it takes to break it (in number of operations), but it may be that breaking the algorithm takes so much temporary space that it cannot be done, because that temporary space is no where to be found.
Question on duration for attacking Two-Key Triple-DES using all RAM ever built.
Amount of time
Various parties like Prof Arjen Lenstra make estimates how long various kinds of keys take to break, based on the best attacks currently known. These are equations based on algorithm and key length.
These estimates can be found on www.keylength.com, along side other estimates.
Strength in bits
Some parties like NIST estimate algorithm strength in bits. This is: amount of bits symmetric encryption algorithm of equivalent strength against attempt to break would have.
These estimates are based on previous, especially number of operations required.
NIST SP 800-57 Part1: Recommendation for Key Management – Part 1: General contains necessary information to convert various algorithms to bits of strength to make it easier to compare algorithms in apples-to-apples manner.
How strong algorithms we should use then?
Algorithms with strength around 56-64 bits have been typically broken. (Like RSA 768. => Don't use.)
Algorithms with strength around 80 bits typically have not been broken, but are "on edge" and therefore their use is no more recommended. (Like RSA 1024. => Avoid.).
Algorithms with strength 112 bits (like RSA 2048) or more are considered to be safe (according to NIST), until beyond 2030, as long as they are used properly (single key has life time of about 1-2 years etc.)
More exact estimate on cracking RSA can be found here: How to estimate the time needed to crack RSA encryption?. The amount of time to crack other public key crypto will be different. However, if you use key sizes which are currently recommended, as far as public knowledge on cryptography goes, work required is infeasible. | <urn:uuid:5abe3a81-da56-4334-bb98-e77c5fc1222f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://crypto.stackexchange.com/questions/12749/is-there-a-metric-term-for-work-required-to-decrypt-a-public-key | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935228 | 600 | 3.125 | 3 |
Starting in the 2014-2015 school year, Florida is moving to the Common Core State Standards. Critics say the standards, which are being adopted by most states, amount to a federal takeover of education. Local control, they say, will be lost.
Supporters note that the federal government did not create the standards and that implementation by states is voluntary.
The Common Core State Standards spell out the skills and information students should master in each grade and subject. More information is here.
Florida already had developed its own list of skills and knowledge, called the Sunshine State Standards. The Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test measured how well students measured up to those standards.
The Common Core State Standards are supposed to help U.S. students catch up with foreign education systems whose students have been outperforming American students. The Common Core State Standards also are supposed to make it easier for students in one state to compare performance against students in another state.
Florida and other states are phasing in new tests to measure the new standards. The FCAT, which was not given in all grades or in all subjects, is being phased out in favor of end-of-course tests in all subjects. Students and teachers will be evaluated based in part on results from those tests.
What do you think? Is Florida’s switch to Common Core school standards a good thing? Take our poll and/or leave a comment. | <urn:uuid:e5fb7533-0656-45b9-acd1-aeb4f60f35b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://opinionzone.blog.palmbeachpost.com/2013/06/19/is-floridas-switch-to-common-core-school-standards-a-good-thing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969847 | 282 | 2.796875 | 3 |
The earliest Chinese artifacts were found in royal tombs. These include bronzes, ceramics, and jades from the Shang and Zhou period, as well as terracotta warriors from the Qin period. Of the many rich art forms that subsequently developed in China, painting and pottery are perhaps the most important, and have reached the highest aesthetic level. Other significant art forms include sculpture, notably the Buddhist sculpture of Western China. There are also many distinctive and popular forms of Chinese decorative art.
Since inventing porcelain, China developed a huge range of potting, decorating, and glazing techniques that were imitated from Europe to Japan. Chinese ceramics led the world in aesthetic taste and technique up until the demise of the Qing dynasty.
Tang earthenware tomb figure representing a fierce warrior, with typical rough sancai (three-color) drip glaze. This was a lead-based glaze, fired at a low temperature.
Considered the highest traditional art form, Chinese painting is executed on silk or paper using a brush and inks or watercolors.
Landscape painting, associated with the scholar class, reached a highpoint in the Northern Song and Yuan periods. Huang Gongwang, a master of the Yuan, was admired for his simple calligraphic style.
Bamboo painting was a genre of the scholar class. Bamboo symbolized the scholar-gentleman who would bend but not break in the face of adversity.
As well as the traditional high art forms of painting and pottery, China has a wealth of beautiful decorative arts. Delicate carvings in lacquer, ivory and jade are popular, as are colorful cloisonné items, decorated inksticks (or cakes), snuff bottles, and fans. | <urn:uuid:4b67bcc6-a310-497f-a317-6b1880bc8c4c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chinaspree.com/china-travel-guide/discovering-china-traditional-arts.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967762 | 365 | 3.75 | 4 |
By Yokota Fritz
People in their late 40s and early 50s who excercise for half an hour at least twice a week could reduce their risk of dementia by about 50%, according to a study
reported in Lancet Neurology.
Those who are genetically prone to Alzheimer's disease could see a reduction of about 60%, it adds.
The amount of exercise that appeared to be necessary to be protective was physical activity which lasted 20-30 minutes at least twice a week and which was enough to cause breathlessness and sweating.
People are generally recommended to take moderate aerobic exercise for 20-30 minutes three to five times a week for a healthy heart and lungs.
Lancet article here
. (Registration and paid subscription required to view). | <urn:uuid:e3dbb08f-6b16-4d4d-bb25-55ef825f6a91> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cyclelicio.us/2005/10/bike-for-better-mental-health.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974471 | 153 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Alaska District Resources
This entry was originally written by Dwight A. Radford in Red Book: American State, County, and Town Sources.
Alaska does not have counties; instead there are fourteen divisions called municipalities and boroughs, and another thirteen Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Corporations (ANCSA). These twenty-seven divisions were created after statehood. Many of the original district records are deposited at the State Archives or the National Archives—Pacific Alaska Region (see page 12). The State of Alaska website has an “Alaska Division of Elections” with contact information to cities and boroughs that is updated regularly <www.gov.state.ak.us/ltgov/elections/munis.htm>. The Alaska local government municipalities and boroughs are as follows: Municipalities and Boroughs Aleutians East Borough P.O. Box 349 Sand Point, AK 99661 Incorporation Date: 1987 www.aleutianseast.org Municipality of Anchorage P.O. Box 196650 Anchorage, AK 99519–6650 Incorporation Date: 1975 www.muni.org Bristol Bay Borough P.O. Box 189 Naknek, AK 99633 Incorporation Date: 1962 www.theborough.com Denali Borough P.O. Box 480 Healy, AK 99743 www.denaliborough.govoffice.com Fairbanks North Star Borough P.O. Box 71267 Fairbanks, AK 99707 Incorporation Date: 1964 www.co.fairbanks.ak.us Haines Borough P.O. Box 1049 Haines, AK 99827 Incorporation Date: 1968 www.cityofhaines.org City and Borough of Juneau 155 S. Seward St. Juneau, AK 99801 Incorporation Date: 1970 www.juneau.org Kenai Peninsula Borough 144 N. Binkley St. Soldotna, AK 99669 Incorporation Date: 1964 www.borough.kenai.ak.us Ketchikan Gateway Borough 344 Front St. Ketchikan, AK 99901 Incorporation Date: 1963 www.borough.ketchikan.ak.us Kodiak Island Borough 710 Mill Bay Rd. Kodiak, AK 99615 Incorporation Date: 1963 www.kib.co.kodiak.ak.us Lake and Peninsula Borough P.O. Box 495 King Salmon, AK 99613 Incorporation Date: 1989 http://www.lakeandpen.com/
Matanuska-Susitna Borough 350 E. Dahlia Ave. Palmer, AK 99645 Incorporation Date: 1964 www.co.mat-su.ak.us North Slope Borough P.O. Box 69 Barrow, AK 99723 Incorporation Date: 1972 www.co.north-slope.ak.us Northwest Arctic Borough P.O. Box 1110 Kotzebue, AK 99752 Incorporation Date: 1986 www.northwestarcticborough.org City and Borough of Sitka 100 Lincoln St. Sitka, AK 99835 Incorporation Date: 1971 www.cityofsitka.com City and Borough of Yakutat P.O. Box 160 Yakutat, AK 99689 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Corporations ANCSA Regional Corporations Ahtna, Inc. P.O. Box 649 Glennallen, AK 99588 Aleut Corporation One Aleut Plaza, Ste. 300 4000 Old Seward Hwy, Ste. 300 Anchorage, AK 99503 www.aleutcorp.com Arctic Slope Regional Corporation P.O. Box 129 Barrow, AK 99723 www.asrc.com/intro.html Bering Straits Native Corporation P.O. Box 1008 Nome, AK 99762 www.beringstraits.com Bristol Bay Native Corporation 800 Cordova St,. Ste. 200 Anchorage, AK 99501-6299 www.bbnc.net Calista Corporation 301 Calista Court, Ste. A Anchorage, AK 99518-3028 www.calistacorp.com Chugach Alaska Corporation 560 E. 34th Ave. Anchorage, AK 99503 www.chugach-ak.com Cook Inlet Region, Inc. 2525 “C” St., Ste. 500 Anchorage, AK 99509-3330 www.ciri.com Doyon, Ltd. 1 Doyon Pl., Ste. 300 Fairbanks, AK 99701 www.doyon.com Koniag, Inc. 4300 B. St., Ste. 407 Anchorage, AK 99503 www.koniag.com/koniag/index.cfm NANA Corporation P.O. Box 49 Kotzebue, AK 99752 www.nana.com Sealaska Corporation One Sealaska Plaza, Ste. 400 Juneau, AK 99801 www.sealaska.com | <urn:uuid:b735b07e-2e27-42f3-b653-3fd00c05558b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ancestry.com/wiki/index.php?title=Alaska_District_Resources&oldid=812 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.666625 | 1,032 | 2.796875 | 3 |
GfK MRI’s American Kids and Parents Study has found that children’s eating habits stem directly from parental behavior.
The recent data from the multimedia research provider concludes that parents who purchase low-calorie or organic foods have children who are more likely than the average child to express healthy eating-related attitudes.
The children of these parents are 88% more likely than the average child to read nutrition labels, 47% more likely to avoid fattening foods, 37% more likely to stay away from sugary foods and 31% more likely to play sports to stay in shape.
Conversely, parents with no nutrition rules have children who are less concerned with healthy lifestyles and are 68% more likely to eat whatever they want.
GfK MRI’s 2010 American Kids Study surveyed 5,000 children aged six to 11 from households included in the company’s Survey of the American Consumer. | <urn:uuid:44fbbf54-3cda-4eba-99b0-e1c5aff4db86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kidscreen.com/2011/02/15/parental-rules-impact-kids-food-choices/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965932 | 187 | 3.03125 | 3 |
On "The Gardens of Zuņi"
"The Gardens of Zuņi," is about John Wesley Powell (1832-1902), an American geologist and ethnologist who lost his right arm at the battle of Shiloh. Powell later led a number of expeditions into the American West, worked on a scheme to classify Indian languages, and argued for careful agriculture in the dry high plains and irrigation programs in arid portions of the West. At the core of Powell's mixture of pessimism and ambition Merwin sees an exemplary American fatefulness:
Acting for all of us, Powell pursues a vision that compels us despite its temporal and spatial distance. Only his right hand, severed in the nation's fratricidal war, can still reach for the invisible virgin land we cannot forget. Our own body, lost to us and insensible, touches in an irretrievable past the virgin country that cannot be possessed.
By Cary Nelson. From W.S. Merwin: Essays on the Poetry. Ed. Cary Nelson and Ed Folsome. Copyright Š 1987 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois.
Return to W.S. Merwin | <urn:uuid:59f05256-4afb-42fd-92f0-5b3653383396> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/m_r/merwin/zuni.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916637 | 253 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Current recommendations are for all women who go into labor prior to 34 weeks gestation to be given antenatal corticosteroids (betamethasone) to help mature the baby's lungs. However, many babies born in the late preterm period - between 34 and 36 weeks gestation - require respiratory support at birth. A recently completed study asked the question, "Would neonates born at these later gestational ages also benefit from antenatal corticosteroids?"
The answer is "yes" and is detailed in "Antenatal Betamethasone for Women at Risk for Late Preterm Delivery," a study from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child and Human Development Maternal Fetal Medicine Units Network (MFMU) with co-sponsorship from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. The research was recently published in the New England Journal of Medicine.
Dwight Rouse, MD, of the Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine at Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, a Care New England hospital, a professor of obstetrics and gynecology at The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, and the Brown/Women & Infants principal investigator for the MFMU, said, "For many years, obstetric and pediatric providers have known that steroids administered in preterm labor help speed the development of the preterm baby's lungs at 34 weeks gestation or earlier. This new research has shown that these same steroids when given to women who are at risk for late preterm delivery can significantly reduce the rate of neonatal respiratory complications."
The multicenter, randomized trial involved approximately 2,800 women who were pregnant with one baby at 34 weeks to 36 weeks five days gestation and at high risk for late preterm delivery. The participants were randomly assigned to either receive two injections of betamethasone or placebo 24 hours apart. Researchers then looked at whether the infants needed respiratory treatment during the first 72 hours after delivery. 14.4 percent of babies in the placebo group required respiratory treatment as compared to 11.6 percent of the babies in the betamethasone group. Further, severe respiratory complications, including prolonged oxygen supplementation, surfactant use, mechanical ventilation, and a form of chronic lung disease in newborns called bronchopulmonary dysplasia also occurred significantly less frequently in the betamethasone group.
"This research supports the use of known medications that will allow us to help even more babies get the healthiest start at life," explained Dr. Rouse. "I am proud of our hardworking MFMU Network research team for their dedication to this project. I am also very grateful for the contribution of Women & Infants' obstetricians and midwives, who gave their ongoing support to this study and encouraged their patients - to whom I am also profoundly grateful - to participate. As a result, Women & Infants contributed more than ten percent of the patients enrolled in this large trial, more than any other participating hospital." | <urn:uuid:ba60b76c-fafd-4e24-9a96-1ad5ad68947d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/307455.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950513 | 613 | 2.515625 | 3 |
National Eating Disorder Awareness Week [February 21-27] kicks off today with different events throughout the country aimed to bring vigilance towards the issue.
Eating disorders are potentially life-threatening conditions affecting around 20 million women and 10 million men in the United States according to The National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA).
These unhealthy eating habits include Anorexia Nervosa, Binge Eating Disorder, Bulimia Nervosa, and unusual feeding behaviors. The symptoms range from extreme emotions, attitudes, and life-threatening actions surrounding weight and food issues according to the NEDA.
The goal of the NEDA this week is to put a spotlight on eating disorders reflecting their causes, dangers, and treatments. Exposing people to national statistics and resources in prevention, eating disorders will have a higher chance of early detection and intervention that can potentially save lives.
Since 2001, the NEDA has advocated for support towards individuals and families affected. The non-profit organization campaigns for prevention, improved access to quality treatment, and increased funding to better understand and treat the illness.
The official website of the NEDA provides full information of the week’s events in designated areas found here. Look out for community walks, parades, conferences, and ads promoting the cause. Also, online there is a three-minute screening application to test for possible eating disorders. Access to the quick test can be found here.
Social media is also a large platform providing information for the week’s awareness. People can simply type #NEDAwareness in their search bar on Twitter or Facebook to find the latest news and details for the cause. | <urn:uuid:8abf09fd-96d2-4af0-b2d0-df8dbf1bb2a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thesource.com/2016/02/22/spotlight-national-eating-disorders-awareness-week-nedawareness/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938442 | 336 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The days of bulky, expensive solar panels that were heavy and required harsh chemicals to produce and a lot of labor to install may be coming to an end. Scientists in Australia have been able to produce the largest ever printed solar cells using a newly developed solar cell printer. Yes, they are printing solar cells.
The cells are flexible, cheap, and made from organic plastics and materials.
According to scientist Dr Scott Watkins, printing cells on such a large scale opens up a huge range of possibilities for pilot applications:
“There are so many things we can do with cells this size[…]We can set them into advertising signage, powering lights and other interactive elements. We can even embed them into laptop cases to provide backup power for the machine inside.”
Dr. David Jones has a few more uses in mind:
“Eventually we see these being laminated to windows that line skyscrapers. By printing directly to materials like steel, we’ll also be able to embed cells onto roofing materials.”
Image: VICOSC’s new solar cell printer installed at CSIRO.
These organic solar cells differ from conventional solar panels in that they are lighter, flexible, semi-transparent, and projected to be much cheaper.
The technology and manufacturing are still in the research phase, but scientists behind the project are hopeful for it’s future use for consumers. According to one of the project’s partners, CSIRO:
“The consortium is currently only purchasing materials on a research scale. When bought on a larger scale it is anticipated that component costs will be significantly lower and that pricing around A$1/W will be achievable.”
$1 per watt? Coupled with the lowered installation costs of this lighter system, that is utterly revolutionary. With these costs, a family would be able to cleanly power their home for only a few thousand dollars.
There is also an added benefit to printing solar cells over traditional manufacturing of solar panels: factories can be much smaller, therefore also much cheaper. This will allow for the production of these cells to be more decentralized making them more accessible in the developing world and the first world alike.
Is this the breakthrough that finally kills ‘Big Oil’ and brings solar power to the world? We think they are getting close.
Here’s a short video that explains these cells:
Image credits: csiro.au | <urn:uuid:c61a67af-55c4-4bcf-a0d2-6a161449066d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://themindunleashed.org/2014/09/is-this-the-breakthrough.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951395 | 499 | 3.84375 | 4 |
SPRING HILL — Three tiny gopher tortoises were found wandering in the front parking lot at J.D. Floyd K-8 School of Environmental Science — not a particularly healthy place for young reptiles.
They were rescued and given to elementary science teacher Patrick Kirchman. His fifth-grade students looked after the little critters while a proper home could be found.
Enter middle school science teacher Chris Voigt. The environmental science teacher's classroom is far back on the school's campus in the woods. Her students have expanded the school's butterfly garden; hung birdhouses, nesting boxes and bat boxes; and built an outdoor classroom. Creating a tortoise habitat was right up their alley.
"We cleared the land first," said eighth-grader Bryanna Marcinek, 14, "and picked up all the debris off the ground."
"We took down trees by climbing them and pushing them down," said eighth-grader Jacob Wilson, 15.
"I don't think they want chain saws in school," noted classmate Natalya Davis, 13.
"They were dead trees," added classmate Colin Donohue, 13.
Once the area was prepared, the students set about making it attractive to tortoises.
"We had to build their home," said Bryanna.
"We planted lots of flowering plants," said Natalya. "We have some strawberry plants out there, too."
The plants were low to the ground, Bryanna explained, so they would be accessible for feeding. The students also built up a hill with a couple of tunnels in it — hopefully an appropriate home for the tortoises.
Christina Finucane, 13, mentioned some of the jobs involved in the project.
"Most of the time, we planted," she said, "and once in a while the girls would shovel the mulch."
One more group of students was involved, besides the fifth-graders, who looked after the tortoises, and the eighth-graders, who created the habitat. That was geography teacher Kevin McManus' sixth-graders. They built an observation deck, providing a quiet place for students to see the birds, reptiles and mammals that might benefit from all the students' labors. | <urn:uuid:85b15f60-69dd-479f-b86a-dd4344d81bba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tampabay.com/news/education/k12/jd-floyd-students-build-a-home-for-gopher-tortoise-found-on-campus/1173049 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978305 | 469 | 2.578125 | 3 |
We all know that checking our electronic devices before bed isn't ideal for a good night's sleep, but most of us do it anyway - because what better way is there to end your day than finding out what all your friends did? But now the video team over at Business Insider has investigated exactly what that behaviour is doing to our brains and bodies, and let's just say we're going to be making a much more concerted effort to keep smartphones out of the bedroom from now on.
The problem comes from the fact that your circadian rhythm, which determines when your body releases hormones, is controlled by light exposure, as psychiatrist Dan Siegel from the University of California, Los Angeles in the US tells Business Insider. So when you check your phone at night, it's sending a stream of photons right into your eyes and telling your brain not to secrete melatonin - the hormone that makes you feel tired.
That means that you're awake for longer, which, if you're anything like us, probably results in you checking your phone for longer, and by the time your brain has finally had enough, it's several hours past your desired sleep time. And when you have to wake up for work the next day. Do this consistently, and you're missing out on a few hours of sleep every night.
Now, that might not sound so bad, but as Siegel explains above, researchers are just beginning to understand why sleep is so important. Not only does getting between seven and nine hours of sleep a night let our active neurons rest, it also supports the glial cells that are crucial for cleaning up the neurotoxins that build up in our brains throughout the day. When we don't get enough sleep, these glial cells can't do their jobs, and we end up with impaired memories and attention spans.
And that's not to mention what lack of sleep is doing to your metabolism. Watch the video above to find out more about the effects of smartphone use before bed, and what you can do to mitigate them. And don't blame us next time you find yourself awake at 1am scrolling zombie-like through Facebook - you've been warned. | <urn:uuid:f193c520-fb46-4240-b015-1111093e8831> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sciencealert.com/watch-here-s-what-happens-to-your-body-when-you-check-your-smartphone-before-bed | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967469 | 436 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Readers often ask if it’s possible to love both wild birds and cats. My answer is “yes.”
But I always add that, “Cats make great indoor pets.”
Our last cat lived the good life for 17 years. Outdoors, cats kill millions of song birds and small mammals annually, and their life expectancy shortens considerably. Here’s a partial list of the risks that even part-time outdoor cats face:
— attack by dogs, other cats, raccoons, skunks, and foxes that can result in serious puncture wounds, infections, rabies, distemper, and death.
— they pick up fleas, ticks, and other parasites, which can be passed on to family members.
— cruel treatment by sadistic people; ask a local animal shelter worker how often they see cats that have been shot, stabbed, or set on fire.
— they may get lost.
— they may be stolen.
Tasty morsels, too?
A recent study published in the Journal of Wildlife Management confirms another ubiquitous danger. Coyotes find cats quite tasty.
Shannon Grubbs of the University of Arizona and Paul Kraus of the University of Montana captured, radio-collared, and tracked eight coyotes in Tucson, Arizona during the winter of 2005-2006. They report that in 19 of 36 coyote-cat interactions they observed, coyotes killed cats.
In another 45 cases where coyotes were observed eating, 42 percent of the meals were cats.
The authors concluded that outdoor cats are vulnerable to coyote predation, and that cats should be kept indoors.
Today, coyotes are no longer found only in the western states. They have expanded their range and are now found throughout the eastern U.S. All outdoor cats, even those left outdoors briefly each day, are at risk.
Trap, neuter and season?
Proponents of Trap, Neuter, and Release (TNR) programs that trap feral cats, neuter them, and then release them back into the wild should also take heed. Why bother with the expense of TNR programs only to provide tasty treats for coyotes? It’s hardly a humane solution to the feral cat problem.
Darin Schroeder, vice president of conservation advocacy for the American Bird Conservancy, advises cat lovers, “Providing an all-you-can-eat buffet for coyotes is not a sensible solution, and we urge states and communities to reject this inhumane approach to controlling the feral cat problem and to require responsible care of pets and the removal of feral cats from the wild.”
As a birder, I cringe at the number of song birds pet and feral cats kill each year. They only do what comes naturally, so I don’t fault the cats.
In one study in Wichita, Kan., for example, 34 of 41 cats killed birds. And the cat that killed more animals than any other in the study had been declawed.
In another study, six cats were presented a small live rat while eating their favorite food. All six cats stopped eating, killed the rat, then resumed the meal.
Keep them indoors
Ending this slaughter is simple — keep all cats indoors.
Many cat owners counter that they only let their cats outside for a few hours each day, that they need fresh air, or that it’s not natural for cats to be indoors. The price for fresh air can be steep — increased exposure to road traffic, predators, parasites, disease, and death.
If you must
But there is a simple solution for those who insist on some outdoor time for their cats — provide an outdoor enclosure. It not only protects birds and other wildlife from roaming cats, but it also protects cats from all the dangers posed by the outside world.
It takes some time and money, but surely valued pet cats are worth the cost and effort.
One do-it-yourself option is to enclose a portion of an existing porch with chicken wire. Provide a climbing/scratching post, a few observation platforms at different levels, and sleeping box, and cats can get fresh air, exercise, and watch the world go by.
Keeping cats indoors or in enclosures is a no-brainer. It’s best for cats, their owners, the neighbors, and the environment. | <urn:uuid:a1ad582c-fac1-4b64-a632-e9827bd4448c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.farmanddairy.com/columns/if-you-love-your-cat-youll-keep-him-indoors/12694.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942041 | 908 | 2.9375 | 3 |
November 27, 2006
New Method Enables Ultrasensitive Cellular Imaging
Investigators at Harvard Medical School have developed a new imaging technique that uses gold or silver nanoparticles to image single cells with a resolution sufficient to obtain molecular information from within the cell. This technique, the investigators note in a paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, could enable researchers to detect and study individual biomolecules in their native environment within a cell.
Katrin Kneipp, Ph.D., led this effort to develop surface-enhanced hyper-Raman scattering (SEHRS) as a means of characterizing the local biochemical environment within single cells. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy is a well-utilized technique that uses a laser to excite gold or silver surfaces, which in turn transfer energy to nearby molecules. These molecules then give off light energy of their own that can be detected and used to identify these molecules. Hyper-Raman scattering is a related technique that can, in theory, provide such molecularly detailed information but over very small volumes. However, hyper-Raman scattering has not proven applicable to biological samples because it requires the use of lasers of very high energy, which destroy such samples.
To develop SEHRS, the investigators took advantage of the unique optical properties of gold and silver nanoparticles and the sensitivity of those properties to the exact physical environment surrounding these particles when small numbers of them clump together to form nanoscale aggregates. The researchers found that when the nanoaggregates are irradiated with certain wavelengths of light from low-power lasers, these nanoparticles will trigger a strong hyper-Raman scattering effect from molecules within very small volumes surrounding the nanoparticles. The resulting light emissions can be used to identify the molecules within that small volume.
In their paper, the investigators go on to show how this technique can be used to pinpoint specific individual molecules within a cell. This application requires making gold nanoparticles labeled with a targeting agent, such as an antibody or aptamer, and a reporter molecule. When injected into a cell, the nanoparticles will bind to their target, and when irradiated with a laser, the nanoparticles will trigger an SEHRS emission characteristic of the reporter molecule.
This work is detailed in a paper titled, “Two-photon vibrational spectroscopy for biosciences based on surface-enhanced hyper-Raman scattering.” An abstract of this paper is available through PubMed. | <urn:uuid:89ad4f3d-0f00-48af-bf56-c3b668756633> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nano.cancer.gov/action/news/nanotech_news_2006-11-27b.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906423 | 506 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Aristotle and Natural Law has two central concerns: it offers an analysis of the concept of natural law and its history, focusing especially on Greek philosophy and the sophistic debates of the fifth century, and it locates Aristotle within this history as Burns understands it. The introduction sketches an account of concepts and conceptual meaning quite generally. Chapters 1 to 3 focus selectively on passages from the Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, and Rhetoric. Chapter 4 connects Burns's account of natural law with "the nature versus convention debate," and the conclusion presents Aristotle as the "founder of a distinct natural law tradition," one that departs from the conventionalism Burns associates with the sophists, but also from the Platonic and Stoic view that nature "provides a higher standard of morality or justice which the laws of human society ought to imitate and reflect" (152). Throughout, Burns is especially concerned with the "conventionalist" interpretation of Hans Kelsen and the "naturalist" interpretation of Fred Miller, Jr. He argues that although Miller is right to regard Aristotle as a natural law theorist, he is wrong to suppose that Aristotle regards the principles of natural law as a "higher, critical standard of justice which individuals might use to evaluate positive law, or the customs and conventions of the society in which they live" (96). According to Burns, Aristotle steers a middle course, offering "a sophisticated philosophical justification of the customs and traditions associated with the constitution of any polis, no matter what they might be" (105).
It is hard to see what is sophisticated in a view that endorses the content of any and all codes of civil law, and Burns does not offer a compelling argument for these claims. On its face, such a reading contradicts the main argument of the Politics, which clearly does measure political constitutions by the standard of natural justice, a point succinctly summarized by Miller's claim that "on Aristotle's view, justice in so far as it is natural serves as a normative constraint on the politician." Burns's conclusions, however, are largely unencumbered by sustained attention to Aristotle's text, and Burns is more frequently concerned to offer thumbnail sketches of broad swathes of literature from a spectrum of philosophical traditions. The introductory chapter alludes, for example, to Heidegger, Gadamer and the "hermeneutic circle," as well as to Frege, Wittgenstein and Kripke, with Kuhn and Foucault stirred breezily into the mix. Citing the later Wittgenstein, Burns suggests that there is no "closed list" of features essential to a concept and that it may not be possible "to offer a precise definition of the concept of natural law" (35). Accordingly, we are entitled to speak of "the natural law tradition despite the obvious diversity which exists in the ideas of those theorists who have, historically, employed the concept of natural law" (35). Yet this entitlement does not extend to Donald N. Schroeder, apparently, whom Burns faults, thirty pages later, for assuming "that there is just one natural law tradition" (65).
The positive core of the book is set out in Chapter 1, where Burns offers an interpretation of Nicomachean Ethics 5.7. Aristotle there distinguishes between natural (phusikon) and legal or conventional (nomikon) justice within the sphere of political justice as a whole, and he objects to those who treat the whole of political justice as merely legal or conventional. Those who defend this position do so, Aristotle observes, on the grounds that what obtains by nature is everywhere unchanging (akinêton), whereas what is just (ta dikaia) is seen to change. Though he acknowledges that what is natural is also changeable in a way (hôs), Aristotle concludes that we may nevertheless preserve a distinction between the parts of political justice that do and do not obtain by nature, and he provides an obscure but important analogy to illustrate this point: the right hand is naturally stronger than the left, but it is possible for everyone to become ambidextrous (1134b33-35).
According to Burns, Aristotle's subdivision of political justice in this passage is not intended to distinguish a sphere of political justice that is wholly natural, on the one hand, from one that is wholly conventional, on the other. Instead, each principle of political justice includes "a part which is natural and a part which is legal or conventional" (49). Burns characterizes this as a horizontal division, cutting across the sphere of political justice inasmuch as no principle of natural justice is applicable at all apart from its expression in positive civil law. The natural part of political justice embodies formal principles of natural justice (here Burns seems to forget his metaphor of horizontal bisection, treating parts of principles as principles in their own right) that forbid, e.g., murder, theft, and adultery (45). The principles of natural justice are unchangeable, Burns maintains, insofar as they have universal moral validity, and also insofar as they are actually incorporated "within the systems of political justice of all societies at all times, without exception" (61). They are changeable, on the other hand, insofar as their particular expressions in civil law may take a variety of forms.
Governing these two components of political justice, Burns argues, is Aristotle's "principle of equity," which maintains that "those who are equal in some relevant respect ought to be treated equally in (relevantly) similar circumstances" (53). So conceived, political justice comprises three "horizontal" tiers, like the layers of a cake. The middle layer includes the principles of natural justice, principles that follow deductively from the supreme principle of equity (Burns does not provide an example of such a deduction) and are true, in any case, in virtue of the meaning of the terms they employ, a view Burns attributes to Aristotle himself (48). These principles forbid absolutely action types such as murder, theft or adultery (here Burns cites EN 1107a9-14) and are incorporated, in one form or another, within the civil legislation of all societies at all times and places (here Burns cites Hegel). The principal task of legal or conventional justice, the bottom layer of the cake, is to "establish which acts are to count as acts of 'murder', 'theft' and so on" (45, 56), and, crucially, to establish "who are equals and precisely how these equals are to be treated" (63). On this account, the particular determinations of civil law control the extension and denotation of the concepts embodied by natural justice, evidently ruling some persons in and others out (70).
It is not clear how these claims hang together. Burns sometimes speaks as though the business of conventional law is to fix the content of natural law. Indeed, at one point he suggests that the principles of natural justice can only exist at all insofar as they are combined with certain principles of legal or conventional justice (62). This seems to be a metaphysical point, but it is hard to tell. The discussion is muddied considerably by Burns's simultaneous insistence that the creation of civil law is also a process ofinterpretation (Gadamer makes another appearance here, along with the hermeneutic circle). Given that "in Aristotle's opinion no positive law could possibly come into conflict with the demands that are placed upon us by [the] fundamental principle of justice" (63), and that "all such interpretations are equally legitimate when considered from the moral point of view" (70), it is not clear what is being interpreted here, or what the constraints governing such an interpretation could possibly be. After all, Burns holds that the principles of natural justice are wholly indeterminate (nonexistent?) apart from their concrete expression in civil law.
What does emerge from this discussion, however, is a clear sense of Burns's aims and methods. Burns ultimately groups Aristotle with Burke, Montesquieu, and Hegel as representatives of a conservative political tradition he finds opposed to a vaguely defined "political rationalism" and upholding, instead, whatever legal form the particular determinations of positive law may happen to take (65, 100, 174). Burns quotes Hans Kelsen approvingly on this score, agreeing that "the interpretation of natural law is the prerogative of the authorities established by positive law" and serves to "strengthen its authority" (175). Whether or not this is a coherent position (one hopes it is not Aristotle's), it is hardly an attractive synthesis of conventionalism and naturalism. It is, quite frankly, a repugnant doctrine in its own right, one that appears to license any and all forms of positive law as concrete expressions of natural justice. For all that Burns says, it appears to follow both that no principle of natural law is sufficient to establish a set of just or unjust actions in the absence of its embodiment within a particular code of positive civil law, and that any such code, at any time in place, will have the force of natural justice. This includes, as Burns makes clear, civil codes endorsing the institution of slavery (7, 90).
Subsequent chapters on the Politics and Rhetoric consist, for the most part, in a survey and dismissal of rival views. Burns's handling of Alasdair MacIntyre in Chapter 2 is typical. Burns criticizes the view, which he associates with MacIntyre, that "Aristotelian virtue ethics is an ethics without rules" (77). Though MacIntyre himself observes, in a passage Burns cites, that "natural and universal as well as conventional and local rules of justice" play a role in Aristotle's ethics, Burns does not treat this as evidence that his caricature of MacIntyre is unsubtle or unfair. He treats it, instead, as evidence that MacIntyre is either inconsistent or careless (77). On the question of rules in Aristotle's ethics, Burns's own argument is less than compelling. He notes, correctly, that according to Aristotle, "for an action to be a just action, in the fullest possible sense of the term 'just', it has not only to be appropriately motivated, by the desire to act rightly, it must also be objectively right" (78). He then concludes, without further argument, that actions counting as right in the latter, minimal sense must do so in virtue of their conformity to "some rule or law" (78). But from the fact that an action is just according to some criterion external to an agent's psychology, it surely does not follow that this criterion must be a rule or law in particular. It might, for all Burns has said, consist in conformity to the judgments of an ideally rational agent, or to externally conceived reasons that interact (à la Dancy, say) holistically. An objective criterion of right action does not, by itself, entail a commitment to a rule based-ethics.
Unfortunately, this argument is characteristic of the quality of Burns's analysis throughout. His presentation of the secondary literature is frequently uncharitable and misleading. Thus McDowell's account is "cavalier" (10), and Miller "transforms Aristotle from a conservative into a radical thinker" (7). In his chapter on the Rhetoric, Burns seriously misrepresents a claim of Irwin's, presenting the view Irwin is concerned to explore and question (that the Rhetoric is not a reliable guide to Aristotle's own views) as a position Irwin straightforwardly endorses (110). Burns alludes airily to a range of contemporary positions, such as "the doctrine which today is referred to as 'moral realism.'" (47). He does not define this doctrine for his reader. Instead, he includes six parenthetical references to realists as various as Boyd and McDowell. Where he does explain contemporary positions, it is not clear that he understands them. Moral particularism turns out to be the view (here Burns cites an anthology) that "what makes actions just or unjust is . . . solely the motivation which lies behind them" (77). "To employ the terminology of modern moral philosophy," he writes, "Kant's ethics as Hegel understood it is both 'subjectivist' and 'non-cognitivist'" (79). I don't know whether it is useful to look to Hegel's reading of Kant in order to illuminate MacIntyre's reading of Aristotle, as Burns does in this passage. It is hard to see how any view could be both non-cognitivist and subjectivist, however, since subjectivism is a species of cognitivism -- at least according to modern moral philosophers.
Despite these criticisms, two positive things may be said of the book as a whole. First, it summarizes a great deal of secondary literature that bears on questions of natural law and the natural law tradition, very broadly conceived. Second, it usefully illustrates some of the difficulties discussions of natural law tend to invite. Quite apart from the political overtones the term has acquired, and which Burns evidently embraces, a remarkable plurality of views has been made to shelter under that label. Debates about the contours of natural law run a gamut of metaethical issues, including but not limited to questions of moral epistemology, voluntarism and naturalism, universalism and particularism, the distinction between positive and natural modes of law, and the differences among natural justice, natural law, and natural right. It is not clear to me what is gained by the effort to apply, to a particular historical figure, a category that requires so much clarification on so many fronts.
Readers will have other quibbles: The language is wooden ('it is arguable that' occurs again and again, usually as a substitute for argument). Greek accents are omitted throughout, and quotations from Aristotle's Greek are unreliable in any case (e.g., the mistaken quotation and transliteration from the EN on 49-50). Burns directs his reader to "see also Gauthier and Jolif in Aristotle" or "Jackson in Aristotle" (54). This is a puzzling locution, unless 'in' is inexplicably being given its Latin sense. The book's most serious drawback, however, is simply a failure to engage with Aristotle himself. The reader earnestly wishing to check Burns's interpretive claims against Aristotle's text is liable to find, instead, a thicket of references to Hegel or Grotius or Suarez, to Kelsen or Raz or Grene, or to any number of figures from a spectrum of traditions. It is frustrating to offer such a critical verdict, especially of a book that treats an important subject. But it is hard to see how such a mass of superficial allusions, shifting conclusions, and blithe dismissals of opposing views could help to illuminate Aristotle's own conceptual framework, or bring us closer to the remote and brilliant structure of his thought.
Nature, Justice, and Rights in Aristotle's Politics (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 77.
After Virtue (University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), p. 150. | <urn:uuid:8d29525b-fa17-4d2c-acf5-15166e903718> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/31166-aristotle-and-natural-law/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949681 | 3,080 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Anastasius who was born in Dyrrachium (Albania), on the Adriatic coast,
ca. 430, was at the time of the death of Zeno (his predecessor), a sixty-one
year old usher at the imperial palace at Constantinople. Ariadne, Zeno's widow,
selected him to succeed to the throne. Only a few weeks later, she married him
but the marriage produced no children.
After Zeno's death, his brother Longinus (from Isauria) who has hoped
to become Emperor was exiled by Anastasius to Egypt and expelled other
Isaurians from Constantinople. Other non-Isaurian officials were also removed.
These actions provoked an Isaurian revolt. Although the main rebel army, led by
Longinus of Cardala, was rapidly defeated in 491 at Cotyaeum in Phrygia, it was
not until 498 that all the rebels were mopped up from their Isaurian strongholds.
The gold solidus was very popular throughout the Byzantine world and Western
Europe,but the small sized bronze coins were not very suitable as currency and were
easily lost. Therefor in 498, Anastasius reformed the money system. Anastasius
introduced a large copper coin which was valued at 40 nummia (a unit of money) and
smaller pieces of 20, 10, and 5 nummia were struck in this and later reigns. Before
these reforms, the bronze coins had no fixed value in relation to the gold.
Anastasius was a very good administrator and built up the treasury while bringing
tax relief to the people. He repealed the tax on professions which was bringing about
the ruin of many small businessmen. Any person, prostitutes included, who was engaged
in a business or profession had to pay this tax and it was universally dreaded. He also
reformed the tax on farm production, making it payable in gold instead of in agricultural
products (in kind). His careful fiscal policy left 520,000 pounds of gold in the treasury
at the time of his death.
Constantinople at that time was very intolerate regarding religions, even
amongst different sects of Christians. Anastasius did not hold true with every
element of orthodox dogma and there was frequent rioting in the streets because of this.
Anastasius died in 518 after a reign of twentyseven years. | <urn:uuid:4ac85f8e-5e92-4dce-979c-7226bf23f476> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unrv.com/emperors/anastasius.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97971 | 514 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine researcher Kathleen Barnes talks about the hygiene hypothesis, which raises the possibility that our modern sterile environment may contribute to conditions such as asthma and eczema.
Steve: Welcome to Science Talk, the more of less weekly podcast of Scientific American, posted on April 6th, 2011. I am Steve Mirsky. This week on the podcast:
Barnes: The hypothesis is that as we make the shift from dirt to sterile that you're changing the direction of your immune response. This causes diseases.
Steve: That's Kathleen Barnes. We'll hear from her, and we'll test your knowledge of some recent science in the news. Kathleen Barnes studies what's called the hygiene hypothesis at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in Baltimore. She presented some of her research at the recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D.C., after which we sat down to chat.
Steve: First, tell me what is the hygiene hypothesis, for people who haven't heard of it?
Barnes: So, the hygiene hypothesis, I guess, simply stated is this notion that as human society has morphed from developing environment, or what we consider a developing world environment, into the developed world, there have been radical changes in our environment; changes associated with the size of families, so going from many to fewer siblings. The idea being that with fewer children in the house, there's less opportunity for exposure to viruses. The idea that we move from a rural to an urban environment; that we have moved from that situation where we're exposed to microbes—one of the best examples in asthma being the idea that we're exposed to endotoxins that is a byproduct of the livestock and farms—to moving to an environment that's more sterile, where we don't have such exposures. The notion that as we move from a developing to a developed environment, we have less exposure to microbes in general. We treat every symptom with antibiotics; we've changed our gut microflora with the diets that we eat.
Steve: We use antibacterial soap and antibacterial surface cleaners in the house.
Barnes: Exactly, yeah, the idea is sterile is good. Sterile is healthy.
Steve: That's the hygiene; what's the hypothesis part?
Barnes: The hypothesis is that as we make the shift from dirt to sterile that you are changing the direction of your immune response. And so in the context of asthma, and frankly in other autoimmune diseases and diseases of inflammation, it's this imbalance from that side of our immune response that we believe evolved to protect us against things like bacteria and viruses and malarial parasites to the other side of our immune system that, frankly, when it's revved up causes diseases like allergies and some of these other diseases of inflammation. So it's really this imbalance between these two sides of our immune system, both which were designed to do something good for us; but when it's not equal, when it's imbalanced, we're going to have too much of one disease versus another.
Steve: So without the exposure to these environmental challenges, we wind up trading one set of conditions for a different set of conditions or illnesses.
Barnes: Exactly. And the whole, the notion of the epidemiological transition is that we've gone from a situation in our distant past, where we're exposed to lots of microbes—but we also, to be frank, we died from a lot of these diseases; so, it's not to romanticize our past, certainly these microbes were able to kill us and cause great consternation in city-state populations. But the idea is that some balance protects you on the one hand from some of those.
Steve: Yeah, I mean, nobody wants to go back to the days when we didn't have clean drinking water. Arguably clean drinking water is the single most important public health development in the history of humanity. And so we're not dying so much in the developed world of dysentery and other conditions of unsanitary drinking water, and we don't have to drink alcohol all day to make sure that we're not drinking dangerous liquids; but you know, dangerous in a different way and people used to die younger because they were getting infection and you would die from it. And, I mean, that still those happen today but, you know, fortunately we do have antibiotics and other things. So we're not arguing to go back to that. But we have realized that people have teased out the fact that maybe some of the now epidemic asthma rates, for example, are related to the fact that kids when they are growing up and even before they're born are not being challenged, their immune systems are not being challenged the way that we evolved.
Barnes: So I was going to throw that very example out, sort of, the classic example or the classic notion is that an individual's propensity to be more upregulated on one side of their immune system—say Th1 versus their Th2, the Th1 side being that side of our immune system that we believe evolved to protect us against things like the bacteria and the viruses and microbes; versus Th2 which served a very fundamental purpose in an environment where one was exposed to worms. But we're not exposed to worms anymore, so that side doesn't serve as much of a purpose, and we know from very sophisticated studies that infants that are born to mothers in the, sort of, with the, sort of, sterile environment, infants are born with the predisposition to be Th2 skewed. And there is a reason for that. During the neonatal period, it's important for the mother not to reject the fetus as the fetus is developing and so the mother's immune response is slightly tilted towards this Th2 to not treat the fetus as a microbe, if I can put it that bluntly.
Steve: Which is really a good thing.
Barnes: (laughter) At the time that when the infant is born, so the infant is born with a slight Th2 preference over the Th1, because that was the intrauterine environment. The thinking is that when exposed to some bacteria, some viruses, it sort of shifts this back into an equilibrium. But unfortunately in our current environment, where everything is sterile, we tend to forego breastfeeding and feed our infants formula from sterile water and so on and so forth, there are fewer siblings at home, we're not really giving these infants the chance to equalize, if you will, that immune response.
Steve: So what are some of the actual studies? What are your research interests that have confirmed that this situation exists out there?
Barnes: So, there have been a number of studies in the field of asthma, studies that have not necessarily been our own certainly include the German farming studies by Erika von Mutius and others showing that children who lived in very close proximity to livestock, and we know are exposed to lots of bacteria, for example, from the livestock are less likely to have asthma and allergies. There have been beautiful studies showing that children who go to daycare very early in life, who are therefore exposed to more rhinovirus and virus in general tend to have fewer asthma and allergies as they grow up. In our own work, we've taken a closer look at that exposure to that bacteria, the gram-negative bacteria we call endotoxin, which is ubiquitous, it's around us all the time; but it's certainly higher in some places than others and endotoxin we know doesn't just come from livestock, endotoxin comes from diesel exhaust. So there have been some various nice studies showing elevated levels of endotoxins in regions where folks live in close proximity to traffic. Right up the road in the Baltimore tunnel, there's some of the highest endotoxin levels that have ever been recorded.
Steve: How does that it get in the diesel exhaust?
Barnes: It's part of the particulate matter.
Steve: It's just picking it up from the environment and pluming it out?
Barnes: Exactly, we were interested in testing that theory that with higher levels of endotoxin, there would be lower levels of asthma and allergy. When we measure endotoxin in the tropical environment it looks very different than it does in a developed environment such as here. It's much higher and it's probably higher for a variety of reasons. In our one particular study that we've done in Barbados, folks live very close to the road, and they're exposed to very high levels of diesel exhaust, and we believe that pollution has contributed over time to an ever increasing prevalence of asthma in that society. When we measure endotoxin in the homes of these folks, it's very, very high but they have a lot of asthma and allergy, so I think that's telling us that the hygiene hypothesis is not a black and white hypothesis, that there are a lot of complexities to this. And for me personally it tells me that there are also genetic underpinnings. So it's not just about exposure to the environment, just as it's not just about having a particular mutation that puts you at risk of developing disease, but it's the interaction of those two factors—genes and environment that will probably help us have a better understanding of the Hygiene hypothesis.
Steve: It's definitely multifactorial, but when you deal with large enough populations you can start to tease out these kinds of relationships.
Barnes: Absolutely. Having the opportunity to study very large populations allows you to stratify folks based on exposure to factor A and B; allows you to stratify on not just one genetic polymorphism but many polymorphisms. So there is much to be gained from these very large population studies. And I frankly think that to get a better handle on the role of the hygiene hypothesis not just an asthma and allergic disease but any of these other complex diseases, the real key also are longitudinal studies, birth cohort studies, where we've been able to track an individual from the time he or she is born, measure various environmental exposures along the way, and then compare that to their genetic background.
Steve: So, we're not going to advise people to, oh go get the helminth worm infection, or you know, go roll around in the dirt on a farm nearby with your kids; nobody is going to advise that. So what is the practical application going to be of this kind of knowledge?
Barnes: Right, so it's very tempting, it's very tempting to come up with a conclusion that being exposed to a lot of dirt is good for your health or that being exposed to and infested with worms is good for your health. We wouldn't advocate either of those, but what I think the real value in this science really is, is if we can understand what it is about those microbes, and in the case of the parasite, what is it about the protein within the parasite that elicits this response to the parasite, either protective or conferring risk of the disease? If we could put our finger on that particular molecule we could develop better therapeutics for people. We could, you're not going to advocate giving an individual worms to cure their asthma or to cure their autoimmune disease. But you could come up with a drug that has some part of that protein that elicits this biological response and give that to the individual therapeutically.
Steve: How did you wind up working on this subject? Did you start way back in grad school? Or I don't mean way back.
Barnes: (laughter) No, you can say that because it's true.
Steve: Okay, or was it something that came along in the middle of your academic career?
Barnes: My work has really evolved truly over several decades. So as a graduate student, I was very interested, as a graduate student in medical anthropology, in differences across human populations and our response to environmental factors that confer risk of disease; and schistosomiasis was one disease I was particularly interested in.
Steve: This is a worm-borne disease.
Barnes: Schistosomiasis is a worm-borne disease; it's referred to as a helminth and it's spread to the human host through infested waters. Schistosomiasis typically doesn't carry a very high mortality rate. It can be debilitating for those individuals who can't mount an appropriate response against the worm. But my interest really started at that point in time with this interest in how and why we respond to different factors such as parasites, and truly that dovetailed in to what was a growing interest in the mid '80s of why there was an increase in asthma and allergic disease; and the hypothesis had been put forth that the IgE antibody that we all make but typically in very low quantities, had only been discovered in 1968. So, it was a relatively new immunological molecule that we knew was important in our immune system, and we knew it was very important in causing risk to asthma and other allergies like eczema and hay fever. At the same time, we began to appreciate that this IgE molecule was also protective against extracellular parasites. So, I was interested in that co-association with this molecule IgE. Over time, my research really focused more on identifying genetic determinants for asthma and allergies. I put the schistosomiasis studies aside. And then about 10 years ago, I had the opportunity to join forces with colleagues and immunologists in Brazil where schistosomiasis is still quite endemic and; in fact it's one of the last strongholds for schistosomiasis in the western hemisphere. And it just provided a really unique opportunity to test the hypothesis that some of these asthma genes that we had identified might also be important in schistosomiasis.
Steve: This is, you know, the hackneyed question, but where do you think things might be in another 10 or 15 years?
Barnes: I think that the hygiene hypothesis particularly and a sort of Darwinian approach in the way we think about medicine in general; that is how did we develop heart disease? How did we develop allergic diseases? How did we develop inflammatory bowel disease? We know as anthropologists that traditional foraging societies didn't have these diseases, and we know that it is not just because they didn't live past the age of 40. They simply didn't develop many of these complex chronic diseases that we experience now. So, I think this new way of approaching the pathology behind these different diseases is opening our minds and understanding, or elucidating new pathways that we didn't think about before. And I am very hopeful that with the better understanding of the pathologies that contribute to these diseases, with a better understanding of how a genetic mutation long ago that protected us against one disease now coincidentally causes another disease, will absolutely help us to develop better therapeutic targets; and not just treat these diseases but also predict who is going to be at greatest risk for disease. And once we know enough about all the environmental factors that go into causing a disease, we as medical folk can give better advise to patients about what they need to avoid or how they need to modify their lifestyle so that they can live longer and healthier lives.
Steve: This host-pathogen interaction is really so fascinating to study because you're dealing with this co-evolutionary situation but the rates are so different. So, we're practically standing still compared to the rates at which the pathogens get to evolve. And it's just I think, it's one of the most fascinating fields to be studying right now.
Barnes: It's indeed an exciting field, and I think it's a very important perspective that where we are now in the 21st century with the diseases we face, is such a recent moment in our human evolutionary time. And frankly that's one of the reasons why we've been particularly interested in focusing on diseases for which there is tremendous ethnic and racial disparities. Because it really isn't until very recently in time that we see the admixture, the mixing of individuals of different ancestral backgrounds. And it actually provides us a great opportunity to try to tease out at least from a genetic epidemiology perspective what mutations might have evolved that were selective or advantageous in one particular environment that individuals have carried with them as they've migrated to new parts of the world; and basically admix with other populations for which there might not have been selective advantage for having a mutation and therefore no mutation at all. And so by studying populations from a more ancient background, if I could, we believe that because our gene pool simply hasn't had enough time to change this rapidly, it's a great test tube experiment, if you will.
Steve: Natural experiment….
Barnes: A natural experiment to say, okay just yesterday in the time clock of human evolution you lived in an environment where if you have this mutation you will better off than the next guy who didn't have it, because it protected you against, for example, parasites. But now you've moved to another part of the world, and you're not exposed to those parasites anymore, but you still have that mutation that was adaptive back in that environment. Since you're not there anymore and you're exposed to new environmental factors, does that place you at risk for diseases that your ancestors wouldn't have thought about?
Steve: It's really fascinating. And we may be living in a unique window of time to do those studies, because with the mixing of all the different human population groups, in another couple of hundred years, it may be impossible to do those kinds of studies.
Barnes: So this is a really important point that right now it's a really terrific opportunity for us to try to tease out what about our human genome, based on our bio-geographical past, can we look at to try to explain why in contemporary times we have disease X. But this will change over time because with that mixture, there are simply diminishing of the benefit of having these mutations that might have been adaptive in a previous time. So yes it is a unique opportunity. And I guess I will just add to that the other opportunity, if we can call it that, is that with globalization and rapid changes in these places that we perform these studies where we are looking at more traditional ways of living and then comparing that to the way we live here in the United States, for example; so even within our Brazil study where we've studied parasitic disease, certainly the public health goal is to eradicate parasitic disease in these populations. And that is the first and foremost priority. But as that happens, we will have less and less opportunity to understand what it is about our past that brought us to where we are now in terms of these genetic polymorphisms that might have served some beneficial purpose.
Steve: Right. We're in no way saying not to try to make this situation better. We're just saying that we better do these studies now before we do accomplish what we hope to accomplish.
Barnes: Exactly. We can learn so much from our past by comparing people who live in different environments under different conditions and in different degrees of development, and I think that comes back to the hygiene hypothesis—that it is a unique opportunity to compare populations with different degrees of development to try to hone in on those specific factors that were emblematic of our past but are simply not part of our modern lifestyle.
Steve: Now it's time to play TOTALL……. Y BOGUS. Here are four science stories; only three are true. See if you know which story is TOTALL……. Y BOGUS.
Story 1: In the newest version of the popular Madden NFL football video game players can get concussions.
Story 2: The late Elizabeth Taylor probably had a FOXC2 gene mutation that affects embryonic development.
Story 3: Wind turbines are becoming a huge killer of birds, taking down some 20 million annually.
And story 4: Growing salamander embryos have been found to have algae living happily inside their tissues. While you think about those stories: Do you believe in the effectiveness of subliminal messages? I think the idea that such messages can really work has pretty much been discredited, but who knows.
Hey, you're time is up.
Story 1 is true. In the new Madden Football game, players can get concussed and will be unavailable for the remainder of the game. So as in real football the object of the game will be to give the opposing team's quarterback a concussion.
Story 2 is true. Liz Taylor probably did have the FOXC2 gene mutation which conferred upon her a double role of her famous thick eyelashes.
And story 4 is true. Growing salamander embryos have been found to harbor algae within their tissues. Researchers think the algae get nitrogen rich waste products and the salamanders get oxygen. It's a winner-winner salamander dinner situation. For more check out the April 5th episode of the daily SciAm, podcast, 60-Second Science.
All of which means that Story 3 about wind turbines killing 20 million birds annually is TOTALL……. Y BOGUS. Now what is true is that the bird death toll from turbines is significant—about 440,000 birds per year according to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and it's an issue that needs to be addressed as wind power hopefully becomes more of an energy contributor. But the real bird killer is on your couch. The American Bird Conservancy says that domestic cats kill about 250 million birds each year, a figure matched by feral cats; which means that wind turbines right now get less than a 10th of a percent as many birds as cats do.
That's it for this episode. Get your science news at www.ScientificAmerican.com, where you can check out the Daily Science Agenda, which features what you need to know now. For example: How does a 737 lose its fuselage in mid-flight? Find out at our Web site safely on the ground and follow us on Twitter, where you'll get a tweet about each new article posted to our Web site. Our Twitter handle is @sciam. For Science Talk, the podcast of Scientific American, I'm Steve Mirsky. Thanks for clicking on us. Try the Scientific American smart phone app. | <urn:uuid:6c641065-1dbf-4397-af23-2bb22e90c292> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/can-it-be-bad-to-be-too-clean-the-h-11-04-06/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974204 | 4,570 | 3.09375 | 3 |
March 24 marks World Tuberculosis Day, a day to raise awareness of this terrible disease and to push for global progress in treating TB and helping prevent its spread.
Thanks to the work of the United Nations and other partners, the world is making important strides: Between 1990 and 2012, the TB mortality rate declined by 45%. But TB is still very much a threat in the U.S. (there were nearly 10,000 reported cases in 2012) and around the world, and we have more work to do.
Here are five reasons to care about the fight against TB:
1. No country has ever eliminated TB. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 8.6 million people fell ill because of TB in 2012.
2. TB is the leading killer among people with HIV. About one in four HIV-related deaths are due to TB.
3. Women feel the greatest impact of the disease. TB is the number three cause of death among women of childbearing age. More than half a million women die of TB each year.
4. TB is a treatable disease. In 2001, the Stop TB Partnership (a public-private partnership of nearly 1,000 partners including WHO) has worked tirelessly to expand access to treatment and move us closer to a world without TB.
5. There is a lot of work to be done, but we’ve made progress and can make more. Since 1995, about 56 million TB patients have been successfully treated, saving up to 22 million lives around the world. The world is on track to achieve the Millennium Development Goal to reverse the spread of TB by 2015.
Join the fight against tuberculosis by supporting the Stop TB Partnership. You can also follow @StopTB to learn more. | <urn:uuid:3902bfc8-b5f0-4f22-b579-1c3e10289566> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://unfoundationblog.org/5-reasons-to-care-about-tuberculosis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963184 | 357 | 3.265625 | 3 |
The Scoring System Used To Evaluate The MAT
MAT, Miller Analogies Test is a standardized
widely used as a graduate admission criterion. The very fact that
colleges use MAT scores and that it has been viewed as a valid and
reliable test for over 50 years now, shows the importance of the exam.
It is a measure of how well a student can reason and analyze
relationships between terms, based on his knowledge of different
If the colleges you intend applying to ask for MAT scores, then you should understand that scoring well in it is crucial to your admission. College admission authorities are very skeptical to grant admission to candidates who do not exhibit appreciable thinking abilities. Since you cannot prepare for the test by learning concepts by rote, it is among the best possible evaluators of your abilities. Hence, colleges give great importance to MAT scores.
The MAT Scoring Process
The MAT is scored electronically. The information on the personal Score Report is the only information you have access to. You shall not know anything about the scoring process and are neither provided with the Test Booklets, nor provided with a list of questions answered correctly or otherwise. There are 120 testing items in this test, out of which 20 are not scored. These 20 items are used for testing questions for future administrations of the test. Hence, only 100 items contribute towards your test score.
Details on the Score Report
Your personal Score Report contains the
Personal Information: Your name, Social Security number or Social Insurance number appear on the report.
Scaled Score: These scores are obtained from your raw scores. The number of correctly answered questions forms the raw score. The process of converting raw scores to scaled scores is based on the performance of students comprising a norm group. The current norm group consists of first time examinees who took the test from January 1, 2004 to December 31, 2007. This method ensures that the scaled scores from different test forms and formats can be compared. The raw scores are converted to scaled scores in order to nullify the effect of any differences that exist due to the difference in the method of administration and the multiple test forms of MAT. Scaled scores range from 200 to 600 with 400 being the mean score, 200 and 600 being the lowest and highest scaled scores respectively.
Percentile for Intended Major: The norm group considered for calculating scaled scores is taken into consideration for calculating the percentile ranks as well. This percentile ranges from 1 to 99. This score represents the percentage of examinees from the norm group who scored lesser than you did and intended to take the same major as you. This score gives a clearer picture to admission authorities about your competence as compared with scaled scores which are highly personal and not comparative.
Percentile for the Total Group: This percentile also ranges from 1 to 99 and it represents the percentage of examinees who scored lesser than you did in the complete norm group. This score exhibits your overall capabilities relative to those of others.
Transcript Recipients: The reports sent to schools are called Official Transcripts. You can send up to three Official Transcripts to accredited institutions of higher education and approved fellowship/scholarship organizations. The names of all the recipients appear on the score report. If any school does not receive your Official Transcript within 6 weeks of testing, it shall be sent a replacement Official Transcript. Additional Official Transcripts for MAT test taken within the past five years can be sent to schools.
Test Date and Test Attempt: The date on which you took the test and the number of your attempts at MAT in the past five years are mentioned on the Score Report. If you do not receive the score report within 6 weeks of testing or you receive a damaged report, you can be given a second personal Score Report free of charge. You must request for the replacement Score Report within 8 weeks of testing; else, you shall have to pay a Transcript Fee.
Some Common Concerns/Queries
What is the
passing score for MAT?
There is no passing score for the MAT, nor is there such a percentile rank. Each school has its own interpretation of the scores. Moreover, each shall attach a different degree of importance to the test score. What is considered a competent score by one college need not be enough for another.
How long are MAT scores
Your scores are saved for five years by Pearson.
When can I see my score?
The score report is mailed after 10-15 days of testing. The scores cannot be received over telephone or through fax. For those who take the computer-based exam, a Preliminary Score Report is given as soon as the exam is over. This is not the official report and cannot be used for any official purpose.
Can I cancel my scores?
In case you realize that your performance is not good enough, you can choose the No Score Option. This option allows you to choose that your test not be scored and the report not be sent to anyone. Consequently, there shall be no reportable record of your MAT attempt. A blank Score Report shall be sent to you along with a Retest Admission Ticket.
Can I get my scores
You can request manual checking of your responses and recalculation of your scores. In case your scores are any different from those previously reported, your Score Verification Fee shall be reimbursed and a corrected personal Score Report and the corrected Official Transcripts shall be sent to the institutions. The request can be made within 60 days of testing only.
How will taking a
retest have an impact on my scores?
For some competitive exams, the scores of all attempts are reported either as such or as averages. Multiple attempts can alarm admission authorities as it shows a lackadaisical attitude. Scores from previous attempts are not shown for MAT and hence you can afford to take a retest without the fear of putting a bad impression on admission authorities. The increase or decrease in scores due to retesting depends on the reason for which your performance was not satisfactory in the previous attempt and how well you can prepare to overcome your shortcomings.
What Good are MAT Scores?
The utility of MAT scores can be understood from the following results obtained from different researches conducted to understand the importance of MAT.
- MAT is found to be a better predictor than GRE or undergraduate GPA for first year GPA of graduation, GPA of graduation and Comprehensive Exam Scores.
- MAT is a valid predictor of success in graduate school and professional situations.
- MAT is among the best possible measures of academic capabilities including reasoning abilities, verbal comprehension skills and analytical thinking skills.
- MAT is a cheaper and shorter test to take as compared with other standardized admission tests.
MAT measures your ability to understand relationships between two pairs of terms. Your knowledge of words and understanding of correlation between them is put to test in these questions. The results of this test are indicative of abilities of candidates to
- Solve problems
- Construct justifications
- Build arguments
Colleges use MAT results as an admission criterion for graduate courses. These results are also used by scholarship programs for assessment of candidates.
How Important is it to Score High?
Though MAT scores are seldom considered in
isolation, they form an
important admission criterion and help convince admission authorities
about your aptitude. A high score in MAT is certainly going to benefit
you. Besides improving your chances of admission, it shall show your
seriousness about education. Hard work put into any task does show in
the form of results, provided your efforts are in the right direction.
No doubt, a high undergraduate GPA and a good score in the admission
exam shall impress the admission authorities and place you in a
favorable position for admission. However, an accompanying low score in
this test shall put your case in
doubt. It might show your lackadaisical attitude towards MAT, which
shall not be appreciated by a college that asks for its scores.
The MAT is a very interesting exam to take. You do not have to learn complex concepts to appear for it. Your performance finally depends on how well you can master the technique of answering analogy questions. Maintain a positive attitude towards this exam and it shall show in your performance. | <urn:uuid:e3850fef-5cd2-411a-aa27-a916b158ae04> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.testpreppractice.net/MAT/mat-scores.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94642 | 1,672 | 2.53125 | 3 |
intra-cluster medium (ICM)
The intra-cluster medium (ICM) is a hot (tens of millions of K) and extremely tenuous, X-ray emitting gas that exists between galaxies in clusters of galaxies. In big clusters, the ICM may contain more material than all the galaxies put together (though both are out-weighed 10:1 by dark matter). One of the puzzles in astrophysics has been to explain why this gas hasn't cooled down, because of its X-ray emission, and then condensed to form more galaxies. The solution to this now seems tied to jets emitted from massive black holes that lie at the center of active galaxies at the heart of many galaxy clusters. The black holes swallow up any gas coming close to them and liberate enormous amounts of energy in the process. This energy drives very narrow outflows of gas at velocities close to the speed of light, which reheat the intra-cluster gas. Effectively, the black holes act as thermostats. As hot gas in a cluster cools, it flows to the cluster center and is consumed by the black holes inside active galaxies. Some of the energy from this process drives jets into the cluster gas further out, which heats the remaining gas and drives it away from the cluster center. As the black hole runs out of fuel, it shuts down, ready for the whole cycle to begin again.
Related categories GALAXIES
INTERSTELLAR AND INTERPLANETARY MATTER
About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact | <urn:uuid:396d8205-a8eb-4b4b-968d-cbeea2e33029> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/I/intra-cluster_medium.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918847 | 326 | 3.203125 | 3 |
I don't usually write about climate change, because there are so many gifted writers and real scientists who have websites and blogs on the topic. It was apparent to me as soon as I began to learn about it, that once begun, climate change will proceed inexorably and unstoppably, accelerating along the way in violent jolts as amplifying feedbacks kick in, with mass extinctions scattered here and there, quite likely until the entire Earth is uninhabitable. And this will probably happen much, much faster than any of the models predict, because none of them account for the amplifying feedbacks, which are far more important than the initial forcing (burning fossil fuels and enhancing the greenhouse effect). It has been a source of profound frustration to me that virtually all climate scientists shy away from this obvious and elementary conclusion, and instead prattle on about unfeasible and/or unsustainable "solutions" - and the need for more research.
Nevertheless, I am going to post some excerpts and charts from a report just released by the Global Carbon Project, which has got the climate change folks all aflutter, because it says that despite the global recession, carbon emissions have made a frightening, unanticipated jump:
"The annual growth rate of atmospheric CO2 was 2.36±0.09 ppm in 2010 (ppm = parts per million), one of the largest growth rates in the past decade. The average for the decade 2000-2009 was 1.9±0.1 ppm per year, 1.5±0.1 ppm for the decade 1990-1999, and 1.6±0.1 for the decade 1980-1989. The 2010 increase brought the atmospheric CO2 concentration to 389.6 ppm, 39% above the concentration at the start of the Industrial Revolution (about 278 ppm in 1750). The present concentration is the highest during at least the last 800,000 years."
As far as I can tell however (and I reserve the right to be wrong!), this is all based on theories and models whereas the hard, empirical fact is that the level of measurable CO2 has increased - and that is being attributed to an increase in emissions. If you read down the page a bit, you get to this:
"There is the possibility, however, that the fraction of all emissions remaining in the atmosphere has a positive trend due to changes in emissions growth rate and decline in the efficiency of natural sinks."
A decline in the efficiency of natural sinks with a spike in the level of CO2 is exactly what I would expect, and have predicted, since vegetation is dying back due to exposure to the rising level of background tropospheric ozone. Even their assumption for forestry sinks has trees with no crowns left!
I don't really like Dave Roberts, who writes about climate for Grist. I once asked him if he would consider helping sell the Climate Hawk pins, thinking he would be pleased, since he was instrumental in popularizing the term (although he did not invent it). He became indignant because I had put Joe Romm's website address around the border, which I did because I think Climate Progress is a more comprehensive and easily navigated introduction to the basics.
The entire (naive) point of designing the pins was that they might stimulate conversations with Ignorers, who might then read up on the subject ... plus, as I explained to Dave, if I could recoup my (considerable) investment producing the minimum requirement for the first line of pins, I would happily create different designs/colors/web addresses in the future. Given all the people who like to call themselves Climate Hawks, at least on the internet, I idiotically thought that they would become popular, and self-perpetuate, financially speaking, in the future.
That didn't mollify him in the slightest, and that experience became a memorable part of a learning process that taught me that one of the biggest impediments to getting the American public to understand the climate crisis is not merely professional deniers, and scientists who don't want to jeopardize their careers by being "alarmists" - but the professional climate activists themselves, for whom their petty egos and salaries are more important than cooperation to avert catastrophe.
Having said that, he has written a very good article that is unusually honest in depicting just how serious - in fact, doomed - are our prospects for escaping the worst possible outcomes. The evidence of dangerous destabilization is becoming so terrifying, I almost wonder if there's any point in worrying about dying trees. Anyway, you can click the clicky to read all about it at Grist, I'm not going to bother to reproduce any of it. I don't know Bill Hooks, who posted the following comment there, but he is quite astute, so here it is:
Dave - very well said. There are damnably few web writers of standing willing to describe our position this clearly, so I hope others will now review their self-censorship in light of your post.
That said, I note that in your post Prof. Anderson does not expose the fundamental flaw in the usual description of the 2.0C danger-threshold - namely that 2.0C would be more than enough warming for the feedbacks to take off and advance to the point of destroying the planet's habitability. In reality, the scientific literature includes data on how at least six of the seven interactive mega-feedbacks are already active and accelerating.
As you doubtless know (others may not) their acceleration is due to present warming which is actually timelagged off the 1970s level of ~335ppm of CO2 + other minor GHGs (that timelag being due to the oceans' thermal inertia). We thus have 35 to 40 years of warming "in the pipeline" as temperature rises
to reflect the ~60ppm of CO2 that we've released since the '70s to get the present ~395ppm.
We also face the loss of the "sulphate parasol" - that Hansen has shown currently deflects around half of the warming that our GHGs would provide – with that loss being due to ending our fossil fuel emissions that include sulphur. (CO2 stays in the atmosphere for over a century; sulphur falls out in
around two years, so the loss of its re-supply is the loss of the parasol).
The feedbacks are now evidently accelerating with warming off an effective 335ppm CO2, and there is no prospect of them subsiding as the effective level rises. The two pipeline warmings will be amplifying the feedbacks during the next four decades, which makes a nonsense of achieving the 2.0C target simply
by cutting GHG emissions. The doubling of warming due to the loss of the sulphate parasol is not actually necessary for this conclusion.
To put the feedbacks' present state into perspective, it needs saying that some are much more advanced than others. For instance, in 2010 the loss of albedo (due to declining snow and ice cover) was reported as already imposing a warming equivalent to about 30% of our current CO2 emissions [CO2e]
(Geophysical Letters). Also, last spring there was a report from NOAA/NSIDC showing a permafrost carbon emission by 2100 of around 100GtC [billion tonnes of carbon] (Tellus). It showed outputs of ~0.55GtC in 2020, rising to 1.6GtC /yr by 2100, but didn't give the vital fractions released as CO2 and as methane [CH4] with the latter having 33 times the GHG potency of CO2 over 100 years, and 105
times over 20 years (according to NOAA in 2009).
A very recent report (Nature) gave that proportion as 2.7% methane and 97.3% CO2. Applying this to the permafrost GtC outputs shown above, using the 20 year CO2e value of 105 (logical for a feedback dynamic) allows a rough estimate of the relevance of permafrost emissions.
At this point it should be noted that the NOAA/NSIDC report of permafrost’s 100GtC output by 2100 excluded both the inevitable acceleration of that output due to warming from those emissions, and also that due to warming from the other interactive feedbacks' acceleration. It thus seriously understates the
threat on both counts.
From this perspective it seems clear that, in combination, the interactive feedbacks are at or near the point where they will entirely swamp the natural carbon sinks (av. intake 43% of annual anthro-CO2 output) after which an overnight 100% cut of our GHG outputs would not stop their further acceleration even if there were no pipeline warmings. This doesn't reduce the necessity of agreeing an equitable
and efficient treaty to phase out GHG emissions globally; it merely demonstrates that such a treaty is not remotely sufficient to resolve the predicament that decades of corrupt nationalist inaction has imposed on us.
As the sufficient complement to the treaty, I'd suggest we also have to negotiate the mandate of a UN scientific body to accredit and supervise the objectives and the technologies of concerted international efforts for global Carbon Recovery and for targetted Albedo Restoration. (The former without the
latter is futile in being far too slow to be effective; the latter without the former would be an untenable quasi-permanent dependence on such intervention; notably, without the climate treaty both would be undermined by rising GHG outputs).
The first part of your account of where we stand has cleared away a lot of the usual prevarication and self-censorship around the subject - I really hope that in light of the above observations (which may be of little surprise to you) your next installment will go further and describe the scientific projections that
scientists themselves report professionally but seem shy of describing to the public. To put it bluntly, without that public information, we cannot possibly empower appropriate strategy to achieve changes commensurate with the threat of climate destabilization.
All the best, | <urn:uuid:0b97b983-de3a-4219-bd0f-3c6b194163fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://witsendnj.blogspot.com/2011/12/up-up-and-away.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964996 | 2,074 | 2.734375 | 3 |
How does the Fork/Join framework act under different configurations?
Just like the upcoming episode of Star Wars, there has been a lot of excitement mixed with criticism around Java 8 parallelism. The syntactic sugar of parallel streams brought some hype almost like the new lightsaber we’ve seen in the trailer. With many ways now to do parallelism in Java, we wanted to get a sense of the performance benefits and the dangers of parallel processing. After over 260 test runs, some new insights rose from the data and we wanted to share these with you in this post.
— Takipi (@takipid) January 20, 2015
ExecutorService vs. Fork/Join Framework vs. Parallel Streams
A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away…. I mean, some 10 years ago concurrency was available in Java only through 3rd party libraries. Then came Java 5 and introduced the java.util.concurrent library as part of the language, strongly influenced by Doug Lea. The ExecutorService became available and provided us a straightforward way to handle thread pools. Of course java.util.concurrent keeps evolving and in Java 7 the Fork/Join framework was introduced, building on top of the ExecutorService thread pools. With Java 8 streams, we’ve been provided an easy way to use Fork/Join that remains a bit enigmatic for many developers. Let’s find out how they compare to one another.
We’ve taken 2 tasks, one CPU-intensive and the other IO-intensive, and tested 4 different scenarios with the same basic functionality. Another important factor is the number of threads we use for each implementation, so we tested that as well. The machine we used had 8 cores available so we had variations of 4, 8, 16 and 32 threads to get a sense of the general direction the results are going. For each of the tasks, we’ve also tried a single threaded solution, which you’ll not see in the graphs since, well, it took much much longer to execute. To learn more about exactly how the tests ran you can check out the groundwork section below. Now, let’s get to it.
Indexing a 6GB file with 5.8M lines of text
In this test, we’ve generated a huge text file, and created similar implementations for the indexing procedure. Here’s what the results looked like:
** Single threaded execution: 176,267msec, or almost 3 minutes.
** Notice the graph starts at 20000 milliseconds.
1. Fewer threads will leave CPUs unutilized, too many will add overhead
The first thing you notice in the graph is the shape the results are starting to take – you can get an impression of how each implementation behaves from only these 4 data points. The tipping point here is between 8 and 16 threads, since some threads are blocking in file IO, and adding more threads than cores helped utilize them better. When 32 threads are in, performance got worse because of the additional overhead.
2. Parallel Streams are the best! Almost 1 second better than the runner up: using Fork/Join directly
Syntactic sugar aside (lambdas! we didn’t mention lambdas), we’ve seen parallel streams perform better than the Fork/Join and the ExecutorService implementations. 6GB of text indexed in 24.33 seconds. You can trust Java here to deliver the best result.
3. But… Parallel Streams also performed the worst: The only variation that went over 30 seconds
This is another reminder of how parallel streams can slow you down. Let’s say this happens on machines that already run multithreaded applications. With a smaller number of threads available, using Fork/Join directly could actually be better than going through parallel streams – a 5 second difference, which makes for about an 18% penalty when comparing these 2 together.
4. Don’t go for the default pool size with IO in the picture
When using the default pool size for Parallel Streams, the same number of cores on the machine (which is 8 here), performed almost 2 seconds worse than the 16 threads version. That’s a 7% penalty for going with the default pool size. The reason this happens is related with blocking IO threads. There’s more waiting going on, so introducing more threads lets us get more out of the CPU cores involved while other threads wait to be scheduled instead of being idle.
How do you change the default Fork/Join pool size for parallel streams? You can either change the common Fork/Join pool size using a JVM argument:
(All Fork/Join tasks are using a common static pool the size of the number of your cores by default. The benefit here is reducing resource usage by reclaiming the threads for other tasks during periods of no use.)
Or… You can use this trick and run Parallel Streams within a custom Fork/Join pool. This overrides the default use of the common Fork/Join pool and lets you use a pool you’ve set up yourself. Pretty sneaky. In the tests, we’ve used the common pool.
5. Single threaded performance was 7.25x worse than the best result
Parallelism provided a 7.25x improvement, and considering the machine had 8 cores, it got pretty close to the theoretic 8x prediction! We can attribute the rest to overhead. With that being said, even the slowest parallelism implementation we tested, which this time was parallel streams with 4 threads (30.24sec), performed 5.8x better than the single threaded solution (176.27sec).
What happens when you take IO out of the equation? Checking if a number is prime
For the next round of tests, we’ve eliminated IO altogether and examined how long it would take to determine if some really big number is prime or not. How big? 19 digits. 1,530,692,068,127,007,263, or in other words: one quintillion seventy nine quadrillion three hundred sixty four trillion thirty eight billion forty eight million three hundred five thousand thirty three. Argh, let me get some air. Anyhow, we haven’t used any optimization other than running to its square root, so we checked all even numbers even though our big number doesn’t divide by 2 just to make it process longer. Spoiler alert: it’s a prime, so each implementation ran the same number of calculations.
Here’s how it turned out:
** Single threaded execution: 118,127msec, or almost 2 minutes.
** Notice the graph starts at 20000 milliseconds
1. Smaller differences between 8 and 16 threads
Unlike the IO test, we don’t have IO calls here so the performance of 8 and 16 threads was mostly similar, except for the Fork/Join solution. We’ve actually ran a few more sets of tests to make sure we’re getting good results here because of this “anomaly” but it turned out very similar time after time. We’d be glad to hear your thoughts about this in the comment section below.
2. The best results are similar for all methods
We see that all implementations share a similar best result of around 28 seconds. No matter which way we tried to approach it, the results came out the same. This doesn’t mean that we’re indifferent to which method to use. Check out the next insight.
3. Parallel streams handle the thread overload better than other implementations
This is the more interesting part. With this test, we see again that the the top results for running 16 threads are coming from using parallel streams. Moreover, in this version, using parallel streams was a good call for all variations of thread numbers.
4. Single threaded performance was 4.2x worse than the best result
In addition, the benefit of using parallelism when running computationally intensive tasks is almost 2 times worse than the IO test with file IO. This makes sense since it’s a CPU intensive test, unlike the previous one where we could get an extra benefit from cutting down the time our cores were waiting on threads stuck with IO.
I’d recommend going to the source to learn more about when to use parallel streams and applying careful judgement anytime you do parallelism in Java. The best path to take would be running similar tests to these in a staging environment where you can try and get a better sense of what you’re up against. The factors you have to be mindful of are of course the hardware you’re running on (and the hardware you’re testing on), and the total number of threads in your application. This includes the common Fork/Join pool and code other developers on your team are working on. So try to keep those in check and get a full view of your application before adding parallelism of your own.
To run this test we’ve used an EC2 c3.2xlarge instance with 8 vCPUs and 15GB of RAM. A vCPU means there’s hyperthreading in place so in fact we have here 4 physical cores that each act as if it were 2. As far as the OS scheduler is concerned, we have 8 cores here. To try and make it as fair as we could, each implementation ran 10 times and we’ve taken the average run time of runs 2 through 9. That’s 260 test runs, phew! Another thing that was important is the processing time. We’ve chosen tasks that would take well over 20 seconds to process so the differences will be easier to spot and less affected by external factors.
The raw results are available right here, and the code is on GitHub. Please feel free to tinker around with it and let us know what kind of results you’re getting. If you have any more interesting insights or explanations for the results that we’ve missed, we’d be happy to read them and add it to the post.
This post in now in Spanish. | <urn:uuid:d35207be-886a-4889-83b9-e2e6f607206b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.takipi.com/forkjoin-framework-vs-parallel-streams-vs-executorservice-the-ultimate-benchmark/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927456 | 2,099 | 2.546875 | 3 |
A fire bike is a motorcycle used by a fire department. Several countries around the world use fire bikes, often to beat traffic congestion, and the equipment carried ranges from simple extinguishers to jet guns with hose rigs. Firefighters also use fire bikes to offer medical treatment. In the United Kingdom, fire bikes are used by some fire services in road safety awareness campaigns.
Fire bikes are used around the world.
The São Paulo Fire Department of Brazil use teams of two fire bikes to bring down first response times to fire or medical emergencies in the congested streets of São Paulo from 10–15 minutes to just 5 minutes. Their bikes are 400cc machines, and carry basic emergency medical services (EMS) equipment, tools, signalling devices, and other accessories, such as hand lights and elevator keys.
Fire bikes are used in Brunei.
Fire bikes are used in Denmark.
Fire bikes are used in Hong Kong. According to the Hong Kong Fire Services Department's website, "Fire Motorcycles (F.M.C.) are special fire appliances developed by Firexpress A/S in Denmark to provide rapid response and to carry out fire fighting operation". They are using BMWR1100RT as their fire bikes.
Fire bikes are used in Italy.
In Japan, the Tokyo Fire Department uses pairs of motorcycle units nicknamed "Quick Attackers" for fire-fighting, rescue and medical first aid treatment. The units comprise two 200cc bikes operating - a 'type T' unit is equipped with a portable impulse fire extinguishing system, while a 'type U' unit carries simple rescue equipment and fire extinguishers. As of 2001, 20 Quick Attacker teams were in service. With Japan having a long history of earthquakes, Quick Attacker units are capable of off-road response and are also used for rapid fact-finding in earthquake and other disaster zones.
Fire bikes are used in Malaysia.
Fire bikes are have been proposed for use in Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal.
The Singapore Civil Defence Force introduced fire bikes in 1998, in order to combat increasing traffic congestion which delays ordinary fire appliances, with response time being a critical factor in preventing the spread of fires in the high-rise residential blocks of the urban island state. The force operates two-man fire bike teams manned by junior officers. They are usually the first to arrive at the scene of a fire, and if necessary, will enter a premises to fight or prevent the spread of a fire. The riders are equipped with impulse guns, which can fire powerful bursts of water mist at speeds of up to 200 metres per second.
Fire bikes are used in Sweden.
Fire bikes are used in Turkey.
In the United Kingdom, the Merseyside Fire and Rescue Service has operated a number of fire bikes in different roles since 2005. In July 2010 they became the first service in the UK to deploy fire bikes specially equipped to fight fires. The two BMW R1200RT trial bikes are fitted with two 25-litre (6.6 US gal) canisters filled with water and foam and a high powered 30-metre (98 ft) long jet hose. They are to be used to combat small fires to free up main fire appliances. They are to undergo a six-month trial, with the prospect of being adopted by other forces if found to be effective. Since 2005, Merseyside had been using a fire bike to attend automated fire alarm calls in Liverpool to assess situations ahead of the arrival of main appliances, due to rising traffic congestion and because most of these automated calls are false alarms. In 2007, Merseyside also introduced two Honda quad-bikes for fire safety awareness campaigns, and possibly for operational use to fight woodland or grass fires.
A number of UK fire services also operate fire bikes not to fight fires or aid fire response times, but instead to promote safe motorcycle riding. Bikes are operated in this role by the fire services of East Sussex, West Sussex, North Wales, Kent and Northumberland. The Northumberland fire bike was later fitted with an external automatic defibrillator and trauma care kit allowing it to also be used as a response vehicle for road traffic accidents.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fire bikes.| | <urn:uuid:183c8946-460f-487a-894a-14724559e967> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mashpedia.com/Fire_bike | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943066 | 864 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Behind the buzz and beyond the hype:
Our Nanowerk-exclusive feature articles
Posted: Oct 15, 2012
Remotely activating biological materials with nanocomposites
(Nanowerk Spotlight) The heating properties of iron oxide nanoparticles have been exploited through the years for use in cancer therapy, gene regulation, and temperature responsive valves. These applications have demonstrated the versatility of iron oxide nanoparticles, but they had rarely, if ever, been used to enhance the activity of thermophilic enzymes.
Thermophilic enzymes are highly stable biomolecular systems that are excellent tools due to their thermostability and long-term activity for extended lifetime uses in the field and other applications.
Traditionally, these enzymes are heated in an oven or water bath at a specified temperature. These heating methods are not efficient and much of the heat can be lost due to diffusion limitations of the heat to the sample.
New work by researchers in the U.S. addresses the problem of remotely activating biological materials with a higher efficiency than conventional methods such as water baths or convection ovens.
"In our work, we fabricated a hydrogel in which we chemically immobilized a thermophilic dehalogenase and encapsulated iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles," Sylvia Daunert, Professor and Lucille P. Markey Chair, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Miami, explains to Nanowerk. "Previous studies have shown that these nanoparticles heat up when in the presence of an alternating magnetic field (AMF). We used the hydrogel nanocomposites in the AMF to find the field strength for optimum enzymatic activity. Additionally, we heated the hydrogel nanocomposites in a water bath at the optimal temperature for enzymatic activity."
Comparing these results, it was found that the enzyme was two times more efficient when heating in the AMF as compared to heating in a water bath in one-third of the time.
Daunert points out that this heating method is localized as compared to other heating methods. "Furthermore, by using an AMF, which is not limited by penetration depth for uses in vivo like other nanomaterials, we envision that this method could be expanded for personalized therapeutics, bioremediation, catalysis, filtering devices, separations, etc. In short, this application could be potentially applied to any system where you need to turn on and off bioactivity."
Top: Thermophilic enzymes can be encapsulated into a hydrogel network with iron oxides nanoparticles. Remote-controlled actuation is achievable by exposing the materials to an alternating magnetic field. Bottom: The activity of the enzyme is tunable dependent upon the field amplitude. (Figure: Leslie D. Knecht, University of Miami)
This work was the result of collaboration between Daunert's lab and J. Zach Hilt's group in the Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering at the University of Kentucky.
"Dr. Hilt's group used an AMF to heat the Fe3O4 nanoparticles for hyperthermia treatment in cancer patients" says Daunert. "My lab focused on recombinant proteins for biomedical and environmental analysis. The enzyme had recently been characterized in my lab and we felt it was an ideal enzyme to show the proof of concept that we could efficiently heat and activate an enzyme remotely using Fe3O4 nanoparticles."
Previous research had already shown that by combining the remote heating capabilities of magnetic nanoparticles with the stimuli responsive properties of hydrogels, multifunctional materials can be designed for targeted applications such as drug delivery or hyperthermia cancer treatment (see for instance our previous Nanowerk Spotlight: "Remote-controlled nanocomposite for on-demand drug delivery inside the body").
What is new in this work is that the responsive hydrogel nanocomposite system includes a thermophilic enzyme that can be remotely switched on or off. In their paper, the team focuses on using a thermophilic dehalogenase for remote controlled dehalogenation of samples. By encapsulating the enzyme into the hydrogel, it allows for the use of the biocatalyst through many enzymatic cycles with different substrates without the need for complicated separation and/or regeneration steps.
"Although this current work focuses on bioremediation, it can be expanded to other applications where thermophilic proteins are employed," says Daunert. "Additionally, the enzyme and nanoparticles in our work were immobilized in a hydrogel network but for future applications, various matrices can be used such as weaving the protein into textiles or incorporation into thin films."
This means that, due to the numerous available methods and chemistries used to functionalize proteins, there are many materials that can be used as platforms to incorporate both the nanoparticles and protein of interest for a variety of applications.
For instance, the scientists envision that their technique could be applied to molecular biology techniques such as using thermostable DNA polymerase for polymerase chain reaction. Remote heating may be plausible in industrial settings where thermophilic enzymes are used for processes such as hydrolysis of starches, cleavage of proteins, or use of thermophilic lipases. The benefit of using a localized heating method allows for less energy input for a greater catalytic output, which could provide cost-savings for some of these applications.
Daunert notes that the library of thermophilic organisms that are being discovered is growing. "As this number grows, the breadth of capabilities of this system can be extensive, limited only by the number and type of thermophilic proteins available. Incorporation of thermophilic enzymes into additional platforms beyond hydrogels represents an important advance for designer applications where additional experimental challenges will be met and further research will be required." | <urn:uuid:fcb9e317-e284-45ce-8863-c89535c61eae> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/spotid=26973.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933908 | 1,205 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Serine, a 16 year old female from Singapore asks on January 20, 2002,Are there any developments in the research on elastin in coronary heart disease? Is there any way in which we can prevent our bodies from losing elastin as we age? Is there any way in which we can cure deficiency in elastin in arteries?
viewed 14650 times
At this point, the link between elastin and CHD is theoretical only. Early experiments have shown that arteries deficient in elastin take a shape (thick wall, narrow center) that obstructs blood flow. We all lose elastin as we age. Further experiments will show whether this age-related loss of elastin is related to the development of coronary artery disease.
Note: All submissions are moderated prior to posting.
If you found this answer useful, please consider making a small donation to science.ca. | <urn:uuid:3a0c1ae5-783e-4155-9a3a-a1520add7a42> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.science.ca/askascientist/viewquestion.php?qID=565 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944076 | 187 | 2.65625 | 3 |
William Jackson is born in Keeseville, New York. His powerful photographs of Yellowstone helped make it the first national park.
Jackson received no formal training in photography. As a young man, he began experimenting with simple cameras, and he gradually mastered the arcane skills needed to capture images on chemically prepared glass plates. In 1866, Jackson joined a wagon train and traveled west to California, lugging along his heavy camera equipment. The awesome size and ruggedness of the western landscape sparked his imagination, and he began to focus his efforts on what would later be termed “nature photography.”
In 1871, Jackson’s ability to produce excellent images while working in primitive wilderness conditions attracted the attention of the geologist Ferdinand Hayden. Hayden convinced Jackson to join his government-sponsored expedition into the still relatively unknown wilds of the Yellowstone region in the northern Rocky Mountains. Earlier explorers of the area had returned with tales of towering geysers, vast canyons, and bubbling mud pots, but their stories and drawings of these natural wonders failed adequately to convey the beauty of Yellowstone. Hayden hoped Jackson could capture the miracles of Yellowstone on his photographic plates, so millions could enjoy the wonders seen by only a few.
During 1871 to 1872, Jackson produced hundreds of brilliant photographs of Yellowstone while traveling with the Hayden expedition. For the first time, the American public saw accurate images of the area rather than paintings or drawings. The photographs offered visual proof that Yellowstone really was home to many awesome natural wonders. Thanks in no small part to Jackson’s photos, U.S. congressmen decided the Yellowstone region should be preserved in its natural state. On March 1, 1872, Congress established 1,221,773 acres of the Yellowstone area as the world’s first national park.
After his work at Yellowstone, Jackson became one of the pioneering photographers of the American West. The magazine Harper’s Weekly commissioned him to make a popular series of photographic reports on many sections of the West. Though he was also a successful painter, his photographs were far more influential in establishing the American visual understanding of the West. | <urn:uuid:9ded915b-0ac7-43d8-abc9-0eecf576b07c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/yellowstone-photographer-william-jackson-is-born | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967793 | 433 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Skills for Youth
Assertiveness as a Strategy for Increasing Self Esteemby Pam Wilson
The following aspects of the skill are covered:
Description of the SkillOne way to increase self esteem is to become more assertive. Assertiveness is a skill that can help you have more control over what is happening in your life, which can then lead to higher self esteem.
Assertive behaviors include:
- asking for what you want or need
- saying what you are really feeling whether it's positive or negative
- saying "no" to what you don't want
Consider the following three communication styles:
You want to communicate something, but you don't express yourself, or you do so in a very timid or indirect manner that has no effect.
You communicate in a manner that hurts or offends the other person. Aggressive communication can be openly nasty (putting someone down, threatening, or pressuring) or it can be indirect (sarcasm, gossip, or saying something ugly behind someone's back).
You express your thoughts and feelings clearly and directly without intentionally hurting or disrespecting the other person.
Being passive rather than assertive can leave you feeling depressed and worthless, feeling disrespected, feeling like a "wimp," feeling that you're not in control of your life, feeling frustration, anger, and/or anxiety. Being passive can also hurt your ability to have successful relationships because you aren't able to express your feelings directly and honestly.
Being aggressive rather than assertive can cause others in your life to feel hurt, angry or disrespected, and they might respond aggressively in return. This style can also lead to poor relationships characterized by a lack of communication and high levels of conflict.
- Use assertive body language. Face the other person, stand or sit straight, don't use dismissive gestures, be sure you have a pleasant but serious facial expression, keep your voice calm and clear, not whiny or abrasive.
- Make clear, direct, requests without any hesitation or a lot of explanations. Don't invite the other person to say no.
Example: "Will you please .... ?" instead of "Would you mind ...?" or "Do you think you would be able to ...?"
- Use "I" statements. I feel (emotion) when you (behavior). I would prefer that you (alternate behavior.)
Example: "I feel disrespected when you keep interrupting me. I'd like to be able to finish making my point."
- Stay focused on what you want to change without accusing or blaming the other person.
Example: "I'd like to be able to tell you something without worrying that other people will find out my business" instead of "You're such a gossip!"
- Give someone feedback calmly and respectfully without being aggressive or judgmental.
Example: "It seems like you pull away whenever we have some kind of disagreement" instead of "You think you're so tough, but you're a wimp when it comes to this relationship."
- Take ownership of your own thoughts and feelings.
Example: "I get upset when you go through my things without my permission" instead of "You make me so mad when you go into my room and go through my stuff behind my back."
- Use the broken record technique. Keep repeating your point, using a low level, pleasant voice. Don't get pulled into arguing or trying to explain yourself.
Example: You are trying to buy a CD player that is on sale, and the sales person is trying to sell you one that is more expensive because it has state-of-the-art features, but you know you can't afford the more expensive equipment. Using the broken record, you say, "I want the CD player that's on sale." Then no matter what the clerk says, you keep repeating, "I want the one that's on sale."
Demonstration of the Skill
Before having youth practice the skill of assertiveness, model three styles of making a request. For example, ask three participants, one at a time, if you can borrow their pen or pencil, changing the style of your request each time. Pay attention to your tone of voice and body language, using them to emphasize the three different styles.
In a gruff tone of voice, say something like, "Give me your pen. I don't have a pen, and I need to borrow one" while snatching the pen out of the youth's hand.
Look nervous and softly mumble something like, "Could you, uh, could I please, uh, would you mind if I borrowed your pen, please?" while looking down at the floor.
Look the person in the eyes, smile in a non-threatening manner. In a calm, clear voice, say something like, "I need a pen for this next exercise. May I borrow yours?"
Debrief what you modeled with the group until you're sure that they can distinguish the three styles and that they're clear about assertiveness.
Behavioral Practice of the Skill
Body LanguageTo emphasize the importance of body language as a component of assertiveness, have youth assess what their body language is communicating when they are talking. Help them understand that how we say something can be more important than what we say.
- Review assertive body language:
- Make direct eye contact.
- Keep your back straight and head high (erect posture).
- Speak clearly and audibly.
- Use facial expressions and gestures that add emphasis to your words.
- Avoid passive body language: No eye contact (or indirect evasive eye contact); soft, whiny or muffled voice; cringing/or physically making yourself small (hang-dog posture); use of nervous or childish gestures.
- Avoid aggressive body language: angry staring-eye contact, loud strident voice, invading someone's personal space, pointing your finger, balling your fists, yelling, towering over others.
- Have youth form triads (small groups of three people) and take turns acting out the following situations:
- Ask a friend to loan you some money.
- Turn down a friend who wants to borrow something.
- Confront someone who told a lie about you.
- Tell someone that he/she hurt your feelings.
- Thank someone who helped you out of a jam.
- Ask someone to stop bumping into you.
- Turn down a cigarette from a friend at a party.
- Tell your partner that you are not ready to have sex.
- Tell your partner that from now on, you want to use condoms when the two of you have sex.
- Confront your partner about talking about your sex life with others at school. (You want your sex life to be personal and not shared with others.)
In the small groups, have individuals take turns being the speaker, listener, and observer. Observers will give the speakers feedback on their body language including eye contact, facial expressions, posture, tone of voice, etc.
Rehearsal and Role-playing
Using scripted role-plays* (developed with youth input), have volunteers practice being assertive in situations that are realistic for them. Have them focus on using body language to reinforce the words they are reading.
A "scripted role-play" is similar to writing a very short play. Characters are developed and assigned names or personas. A short exchange between the characters is developed and written into lines — just like the lines you might read for the script of a play or movie. Volunteers act out the role-play by reading the script. The script should be written so that it gives volunteers a good example of how an effective and realistic assertive interaction might take place.
Next have youth identify situations in which they expect a possible confrontation or when they think it will be challenging to tell someone what they're really thinking or feeling. Set up unscripted role-plays to have them practice handling those situations assertively.
Be sure to give feedback to actors after each demonstration so they can recognize what they are doing well and what they can do to be more assertive.
- Encourage youth to rehearse or role play assertive behavior over and over again until their responses become second nature. Reinforcement will increase their likelihood of communicating assertively even in stressful situations.
- Explain that assertiveness is a skill that they will continue to work on and practice throughout their lives. Some situations are harder than others so they must be patient with themselves.
- Create teachable moments by commenting on group members' behavior when you observe them being assertive, aggressive or passive. Of course, reinforce any assertive behavior in the group. Set up opportunities for individuals to "re-write the script" and re-enact the situation with group support if they've been either aggressive or passive.
- During your facilitation of these activities, ask youth how they feel about themselves after they've communicated assertively in different situations. Make the link between assertiveness and self esteem.
Pamela Wilson, MSW, is a nationally known sexuality education consultant and trainer. She has written or co-authored numerous curricula and other publications, including, When Sex is the Subject: Attitudes and Answers for Young Children and a new curriculum, Our Whole Lives: Sexuality Education for Grades 7-9. She is also featured in the sexuality education videos Raising Healthy Kids: Families Talk About Sexual Health. Pam can be reached at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:7493ff9a-1807-41c2-9a75-c15becc1c115> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://recapp.etr.org/recapp/index.cfm?fuseaction=pages.YouthSkillsDetail&PageID=105 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948997 | 1,959 | 3.515625 | 4 |
a prayer by Rabindranath Tagore
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore was an author, a poet, a lyricist, a painter. Composer of India's national anthem, Tagore published several collections of songs and poems, and established Shantiniketan - an institution blending Indian and Western methods of education where he inaugurated the Visva Bharati University, an All India Centre for culture. He was awarded the Nobel prize in Literature in 1913 for his collection of poems Gitanjali.
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls;
Where words come out from the depth of truth;
Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection;
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit;
Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever-widening thought and action---
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.
Born in Calcutta on May 7, 1861, Rabindranath was the youngest of fourteen children. His father, Debendranath Tagore, was a Sanskrit scholar and a leading member of the Brahmo Samaj. Rabindranath's early education was imparted at home. He started his writing career early : his first poem when he was barely seven; his first book of poems was published when he was seventeen.
Giving up early on formal education in England, after just seventeen months, Rabindranath spent most of his time in writing poems, plays, short stories and novels. In 1883, he got married to Mrinalini Devi. From 1891 to 1900, he published a series of works, many based on the traditional village society of contemporary Bengal. In 1891, Rabindranath went to Shileida and Sayadpur to manage his father's estates. Living among the rural poor, he became acutely sensitive to their hardships. Many of the Tagore's themes centre around village life, introduction of 'western' elements, and their natural surroundings.
Tagore was keenly aware of India's socio-political condition under British rule. He supported the Swadeshi movement and had been deeply influenced by the religious renaissance of 19th century India. Coming out strongly against orthodox ritualism he wrote,
"Leave this chanting and singing and telling of beads! Whom dost than worship in this lonely dark corner of a temple with doors all shut? Open thine eyes and see thy God is not before thee!" (Vs 11, Gitanjali)
Tragically, between 1902 and 1907, Tagore lost his wife, son and daughter. But out of his pain emerged some of his most tender work, including "Gitanjali", published in 1910. This collection of verses, translated into English by the poet himself with a foreword by W.B. Yeats, won Tagore the 1913 Nobel Prize for Literature. In 1915, Tagore was knighted by the British Empire.
But in 1919, the horror of the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre stunned Tagore and he renounced his title. Tagore remained a true patriot, supporting the national movement and writing the lyrics of the "Jana Gana Mana", which later became India's national anthem. Sadly, he passed away in 1941, six years before India became free.
Tagore's works are classics, renowned for then lyrical beauty and spiritual poignancy. He is remembered for his literary genius. In Tagore's own words, "The world speaks to me in colours, my soul answers in music". | <urn:uuid:f6e609b8-3e6d-476a-aa0d-1c3222db422c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://webspace.webring.com/people/fc/churud_geo/tagore.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978227 | 761 | 2.890625 | 3 |
A QUADRATIC is a polynomial whose highest exponent is 2.
ax² + bx + c.
The coefficient of x² is called the leading coeffieient.
Question 1. What is the standard form of a quadratic equation?
ax² + bx + c = 0.
The quadratic is on the left. 0 is on the right.
Question 2. What do we mean by a root of a quadratic?
A solution to the quadratic equation.
For example, the roots of this quadratic --
x² + 2x − 8
-- are the solutions to
x² + 2x − 8 = 0.
To find the roots, we can factor that quadratic as
(x + 4)(x − 2).
x² + 2x − 8 = 0.
−4 and 2 are the solutions to the quadratic equation. They are the roots of that quadratic.
Conversely, if the roots are a and b say, then the quadratic can be factored as
(x − a)(x − b).
Question 3. How many roots has a quadratic?
Always two. Because a quadratic (with leading coefficient 1, at least) can always be factored as (x − a)(x − b), and a, b are the two roots.
In other words, when the leading coefficient is 1, the root has the opposite sign of the number in the factor.
Problem 1. If a quadratic can be factored as (x + 3)(x − 1), then what are the two roots?
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
−3 or 1.
We say "or," because x can take only one value at a time.
Question 4. What do we mean by a double root?
The two roots are equal. The factors will be (x − a)(x − a), so that the two roots are a, a.
For example, this quadratic
x² − 12x + 36
can be factored as
(x − 6)(x − 6).
If x = 6, then each factor will be 0, and therefore the quadratic will be 0. 6 is called a double root.
When will a quadratic have a double root? When the quadratic is a perfect square trinomial.
Example 1. Solve for x: 2x² + 9x − 5.
Solution. That quadratic is factored as follows:
2x² + 9x − 5 = (2x − 1)(x + 5).
Now, it is easy to see that the second factor will be 0 when x = −5.
As for the value of x that will make
The solutions are:
Problem 2. How is it possible that the product of two factors ab = 0?
Either a = 0 or b = 0.
Solution by factoring
Problem 3. Find the roots of each quadratic by factoring.
Again, we use the conjunction "or," because x takes on only one value at a time.
Example 2. c = 0. Solve this quadratic equation:
ax² + bx = 0
Solution. Since there is no constant term: c = 0, x is a common factor:
Those are the two roots.
Problem 4. Find the roots of each quadratic.
Example 3. b = 0. Solve this quadratic equation:
ax² − c = 0.
Solution. In the case where there is no middle term, we can write:
However, if the form is the difference of two squares --
x² − 16
-- then we can factor it as:
(x + 4)(x −4).
The roots are ±4.
In fact, if the quadratic is
x² − c,
then we could factor it as:
(x + )(x − ),
so that the roots are ±.
Problem 5. Find the roots of each quadratic.
Example 4. Solve this quadratic equation:
And so an equation is solved when x is isolated on the left.
x = ± is not a solution.
Problem 6. Solve each equation for x.
Example 5. Solve this equation
Next, we can get rid of the fraction by multiplying both sides by 2. Again, 0 will not change.
Problem 7. Solve for x.
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Copyright © 2016 Lawrence Spector
Questions or comments? | <urn:uuid:0936f7fe-a630-44a8-ba1f-78759d9fa7cf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://themathpage.com/alg/quadratic-equations.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.884234 | 990 | 4.03125 | 4 |
With respect to non-irrigated corn, it is clear that the 2012 drought did in fact devastate yields in the U.S.
A report from the NOAA Drought Task Force last week about the origins of the 2012 Great Plains drought has generated considerable interest and discussion. The authors of this report concluded that the drought was largely unpredictable based on conditions even a few weeks ahead of the onset of the drought and that it was unlikely to be related to global warming. It also highlighted the devastating impact of the drought conditions on corn yields, an issue we discussed in farmdoc daily posts last summer and fall (here and here). The availability of final corn yields for 2012 provides an opportunity to provide further historical perspective on the full impact of the drought on corn yields.
The starting point for the analysis is to separate out non-irrigated and irrigated corn yields for the U.S. It is not often noted but a substantial amount of U.S. corn production is irrigated and therefore largely insulated from drought conditions. Figure 1 shows the share of U.S. corn acreage harvested for grain that is irrigated. The share was in the low single digits in the early 1960s but grew rapidly to a peak of about 13% by the mid-1990s. The share has subsequently dropped in recent years to about 10% of harvested acres. Even with the decline irrigated harvested acreage is still substantial, totaling 8.764 million acres in 2012.
Average U.S. yields for irrigated and non-irrigated corn from 1960-2012 are shown in Figure 2. The recent movement of yields is instructive. In 2011, irrigated yield was below trend due to the severe drought conditions in the Southwest (primarily Texas and Kansas) but recovered relative to trend in 2012. By comparison, non-irrigated corn yield in 2012 dropped to only 116.5 bushels, the lowest since 1993. The contrary movement of irrigated and non-irrigated corn yields relative to trend in 2012 highlights the importance of separating irrigated from non-irrigated production in years like 2012 if one wants to get a true picture of drought impacts. Put differently, the relatively high irrigated corn yield of 185 bushels in 2012 increased the overall U.S. average corn yield by almost 7 bushels (123.4 - 116.5 = 6.9). In non-drought years the increase due to irrigated production is usually closer to 3 bushels.
With this background we can turn our attention to the central question of this post. That is, just how bad was 2012 in terms of corn yield? Figure 3 shows the deviation from trend for non-irrigated corn yield since 1960. It is immediately obvious that the 2012 drought devastated non-irrigated corn yields in the U.S. The deviation below trend was 34.1 bushels, only rivaled in the last half-century by 1988 when yield dropped 33.8 bushels below trend. From this perspective, the 2012 drought was indeed the 'big one' with respect to non-irrigated corn yield.
One final issue is whether trend deviations should be computed in bushel or percentage form. If one computes percentage deviations from the non-irrigated corn trend then 2012 does not look quite as dire. The percentage deviation in 2012, -29.3%, is only the third worst of the last half-century and considerably smaller than the -44.5% shortfall in 1988. There is no obvious answer which form of deviation is correct. If one believes that the corn trend is a constant bushel increase then the linear trend presented in Figure 2 is valid. If on the other hand one believes that the corn trend yield is a constant percentage increase then a log-linear trend model (take logarithm of yield before regressing on time index) should be used. We lean here towards the linear trend formulation because the range of trend yield deviations in bushels does not expand across time as one would expect if a log-linear trend model is the better specification.
The 2012 drought in the U.S. devastated non-irrigated corn yields. Depending on the measure of trend deviation, the drop in yield relative to trend was either the worst in the last half-century or in the top three. This is an important data point with respect to the ongoing debate about the drought tolerance of U.S. corn production. Regardless whether drought tolerance has actually improved, 2012 demonstrated in rather spectacular fashion that widespread drought leads to sizable reductions in non-irrigated corn yields relative to trend. More directly, there is still no substitute for a cool, wet July in terms of U.S. corn production. | <urn:uuid:1ea5e0d4-ec09-4172-bfb3-37d452e3cdc2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://farmindustrynews.com/business/was-2012-really-devastating-us-corn-yields | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946668 | 970 | 3 | 3 |
ABSENCE = non-attendance in school, non-attendance in an individual class, or a combination of both including tardiness and early dismissals.
LAWFUL ABSENCE = the absence of a student for:
Verified Illness - When providing an excuse for illness two methods of explanation are acceptable. The first is a parental note specifying the nature of the illness i.e. headache, upset stomach, cramps, etc.) The second is an excuse from a member of the healing arts (i.e. physician, dentist, orthodontist, specialist, etc.) Any excuse after 10 parental notes requires a medical excuse form the appropriate doctor. Any parental excuses after 10 will be labeled an "unlawful" absence. These excuses must be submitted within three days upon return to school. Any excuses received after the third day will be labeled an "unlawful" absence.
UNLAWFUL ABSENCE = all other reasons for absence will be classified as unlawful.
TARDINESS = not being in one's assigned location by the time the bell to begin class has rung.
TRUANCY = being absent from a class or classes without permission or authorization. Being absent from the building during some or all of the school day without permission from an authorized school official.
SCHOOL DAY = four or more class periods. One of the primary prerequisites to a successful school year is regular attendance at school. Students who have been absent from school must bring in an excuse as required by state law within three (3) days of their returning to school. The excuse must contain the following information:
If a student does not provide an excuse within three (3) days of their return, the absence is considered unlawful. When a student acquires three (3) unlawful absences, the school district is required by law to serve notice on the parent(s)/guardian(s) and depending upon age, the student. The NEXT unlawful absence will result in charges being brought before the District Magistrate.
Any excuse after ten (10) "parental" excuses requires a medical excuse from the appropriate doctor. Any "parental" excuse received after ten (10), will be unlawful. (This same criteria is applied to being tardy to school. Detention, In-School Suspension and Saturday detention suspensions will result in repeated unlawful tardies to school.)
A student, who has ten (10) or more days of unlawful absence for a semester or twenty (20) or more days of unlawful absences in a school year, may be ineligible for credit in any course being taken. In addition such numbers of absences may make a student ineligible for promotion or graduation.
A student, parent, or guardian may request a waiver of these attendance provisions by informing the building's administration. The case shall then be reviewed by the Promotion Committee to determine if the student's absences or tardiness were legitimate. If the Committee so determines, the student may be granted a waiver. If the Committee denies the students request for a waiver, the Superintendent is the next level of appeal. Final decisions related to attendance appeals are at the discretion of the Deer Lakes Board of School Directors. Principals may upon receipt of satisfactory evidence of mental, physical or other urgent reasons excuse a student for non-attendance during a temporary period.
If there are extenuating circumstances that prohibit a student from attending school on a regular basis, please contact the building's administration.
Vacations must be approved by the building Principal at least five (5) days before leaving.
A total of 5 days of requested vacation is permissible in one school year. Additional vacation days for "special circumstances" will require the approval of the superintendent of schools.
If a student is involved in Extra-Curricular Activities, they must be in school by 8:30 am to participate that day. Exceptions to this include:
For a full list of Extra-Curricular rules and regulations, please visit the electronic version of the handbook on the Deer Lakes Web Site. | <urn:uuid:2f4905f0-cd7e-4764-b8a9-7f247b5558d3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.deerlakes.net/index.cfm?event=page.attendance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939851 | 833 | 2.75 | 3 |
Gretchen Cook-Anderson/Dolores Beasley
Feb. 4, 2005
NASA Announces Breakthrough in Understanding Ocean Health
NASA and university researchers are announcing a major breakthrough using satellites to understand the health of our oceans. WHAT:
Media Teleconference WHEN:
Thursday, Feb. 10 from 1 to 2 p.m. EST. Reporters may dial in toll free at: 888/396-9926. The passcode is PLANKTON. WHO:
Michael Behrenfeld, a former researcher at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. He will explain his new satellite technique and its importance. Behrenfeld is a researcher at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Ore.
He will explain this new technique, which opens the door to solving a problem that has stymied ocean biologists for more than a century. The technique uses satellite data to understand the health of our oceans through studying information about tiny marine plants called phytoplankton. Phytoplankton has a key role in fisheries, harmful algal blooms, and carbon dioxide uptake by oceans.
- end -
text-only version of this release
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TEXTBOOK AND SELF STUDY COURSE
THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF METABOLISM
All you need to know in order to construct metabolic maps logically instead of memorizing them
Hi, I’m Bob Chambers
Welcome to our Virtual Classroom
I am going to show you how to use “electron pushing’ to predict the product(s) of any biochemical reaction. Once you know how to do this, you can construct complicated metabolic pathways from scratch. In the process, you will learn to think logically rather than just memorizing a bunch of reactions. The principles apply to all the Life Sciences and extend far beyond the bounds of metabolism. However, metabolism is a convenient way to show you how to apply the principles.
All the tools you need are on this website, and they are FREE. There are no strings attached. This is my way of saying THANK YOU to my students and teachers.
If you think chemistry is irrelevant for modern Life Sciences, consider this argument:
In his book, “DNA. The Secret of Life”, Nobel Laureate James D. Watson. wrote,
“The essence of life is complicated chemistry and nothing more”.
It doesn’t matter whether you call it Biochemistry, Physiological Chemistry, Biological Chemistry, Chemical Biology or Molecular Biology, it’s still chemistry applied to biological systems. The emphasis may be different, but the chemistry is the same. Regardless of your specialty (Biochemistry, Physiology, Pharmacology, Microbiology, Cell Biology), you need a good background in chemistry. It doesn’t matter whether or not you use these principles directly in your work, they will influence your thinking, and that is very important.
Metabolism is the motor that runs the cell machine. It is nothing more than a large collection of connected chemical reactions, but everything you do depends on those reactions. If you want to understand how cells work, then you must understand how biochemical reactions work. You can approach this by memorizing complicated metabolic pathways. This is how biochemistry is usually taught. Alternatively, you can master the fundamental principles of chemistry that you need to approach biochemical reactions logically rather than memorizing them.
LET’S GET STARTED
Everything you need to know is in the textbook, “The Chemical Basis of Metabolism” (CBM), which can be downloaded FREE from this website.
Since we learn best by doing, this course is based on Problems Sets that will be posted weekly on this website.
Proceed as follows:
Read the Preface and Introduction.
Read Chapters 1 and 2.
Write down your answers to Problem Set 1.
It is very important that you write out you answers in detail without any additional help before you look up the answers.
Check your answers. The answers to each problem set will be posted the week after the problem set is posted.
Proceed in this manner through the 25 Problem Sets.
It is important that you write a detailed mechanism for each reaction that you consider. Don’t try to guess the answer; use “electron pushing”. Don’t skip steps. | <urn:uuid:68b8237d-3676-47ec-99e2-cb7499699ba2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biochemistrybob.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913419 | 655 | 3.234375 | 3 |
New scientific review shows vegetarian diets cause major weight loss
Controlled research trials prove diet's efficacyWASHINGTON--A scientific review in April's Nutrition Reviews shows that a vegetarian diet is highly effective for weight loss. Vegetarian populations tend to be slimmer than meat-eaters, and they experience lower rates of heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, and other life-threatening conditions linked to overweight and obesity. The new review, compiling data from 87 previous studies, shows the weight-loss effect does not depend on exercise or calorie-counting, and it occurs at a rate of approximately 1 pound per week.
Rates of obesity in the general population are skyrocketing, while in vegetarians, obesity prevalence ranges from 0 percent to 6 percent, note study authors Susan E. Berkow, Ph.D., C.N.S., and Neal D. Barnard, M.D., of the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM).
The authors found that the body weight of both male and female vegetarians is, on average, 3 percent to 20 percent lower than that of meat-eaters. Vegetarian and vegan diets have also been put to the test in clinical studies, as the review notes. The best of these clinical studies isolated the effects of diet by keeping exercise constant. The researchers found that a low-fat vegan diet leads to weight loss of about 1 pound per week, even without additional exercise or limits on portion sizes, calories, or carbohydrates.
"Our research reveals that people can enjoy unlimited portions of high-fiber foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains to achieve or maintain a healthy body weight without feeling hungry," says Dr. Berkow, the lead author.
"There is evidence that a vegan diet causes an increased calorie burn after meals, meaning plant-based foods are being used more efficiently as fuel for the body, as opposed to being stored as fat," says Dr. Barnard. Insulin sensitivity is increased by a vegan diet, allowing nutrients to more rapidly enter the cells of the body to be converted to heat rather than to fat.
Earlier this month, a team of researchers led by Tim Key of Oxford University found that meat-eaters who switched to a plant-based diet gained less weight over a period of five years. Papers reviewed by Drs. Berkow and Barnard include several published by Dr. Key and his colleagues, as well as a recent study of more than 55,000 Swedish women showing that meat-eaters are more likely to be overweight than vegetarians and vegans.
For a copy of the new paper published in Nutrition Reviews or an interview with one of the authors, please contact Jeanne S. McVey at 202-686-2210, ext. 316, or [email protected].
Founded in 1985, the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine is a nonprofit health organization that promotes preventive medicine, especially good nutrition. PCRM also conducts clinical research studies, opposes unethical human experimentation, and promotes alternatives to animal research.
Contact: Jeanne S. McVey, 202-686-2210, ext. 316
Jeanne Stuart McVey
Senior Media Relations Specialist
Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
5100 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Suite 400
Washington, D.C., 20016
cell: 415-509-1833, tel: 202-686-2210, ext. 316
Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:c28e7340-d80c-4afb-bbdc-26c0a814c908> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2006-04/pcfr-nsr033106.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93198 | 729 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
'Mental Models' is the title of a book published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., in 1983 ISBN 089859-242-9. It was edited by Dedre Gentner and Albert L. Stevens, both employees of Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc. at the time. It appeared at about the same time as a book by the same name by Philip Johnson-Laird. According to the acknowledgment of the book, it resulted from a workshop on mental models held at the University of San Diego in October of 1980, that was jointly sponsored by the Office of Naval Research and the Sloan Foundation.
Here is a listing of the chapters along with a brief descriptions for some of them.
1. Some Observations on Mental Models - Donald A. Norman, UCSD Dr. Norman describes the properties of mental models - that they can be contradictory, incomplete, superstitious, erroneous, and unstable, varying in time. So the job of system designers is to help users form an accurate and useful mental model of a system. And the job of researchers is to set up experiments to learn to understand actual mental models, even though they may be messy and incomplete.
2. Phenomenology and the Evolution of Intuition - Andrea A. diSessa, MIT
3. Surrogates and Mappings: Two Kinds of Conceptual Models for Interactive Devices - Richard M. Young, Medical Research Council, Applied Psychology Unit, Cambridge, England
4. Qualitative Reasoning About Space and Motion - Kenneth D. Forbus, MIT
5. The Role of Problem Representation in Physics - Jill H. Larkin, Carnegie Mellon University
6. Flowing Waters or Teeming Crowds:Mental Models of Electricity - Dedre Gentner, Bolt Beranek and Newman, and Donald R. Gentner, UCSD
7. Human Reasoning About a Simple Physical System - Michael D. Williams, Xerox PARC, James D. Homman, and Albert L. Stevens, Bolt Beranek and Newman
8. Assumptions and Ambiguities in Mechanistic Mental Models - Johan de Kleer and John Seely Brown, Xerox PARC
9. Understanding Micronesian Navigation - Edwin Hutchins, Navy Personnel Research and Development Center
10. Conceptual Entities - James G. Greeno, University of Pittsburgh
11. Using the Method of Fibres in Mecho to Calculate Radii of Gyration - Alan Bundy, University of Edinburgh
12. When Heat and Temperature Were One - Marianne Wiser ad Susan Carey, MIT
13. Naive Theories of Motion - Michael McCloskey, Johns Hopkins University
14. A Conceptual Model Discussed by Galileo and Used Intuitively by Physics Students - John Clement, University of Massachusetts | <urn:uuid:d6402264-2224-4e1d-b891-9ba9bf0d99eb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Mental_Models_(Gentner-Stevens_book) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.830334 | 597 | 3.09375 | 3 |
After the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami the international community stepped up its efforts on developing and building early warning systems. Japan is a leading nation with respect to expertise and implementation of both earthquake and tsunami early warning systems. The Tohoku earthquake and the subsequent tsunami that rushed towards and devastated the shores of Honshu island in Japan would have been a substantially larger disaster than it already is, were it not for the well functioning warning systems on the Japanese islands.
An early warning system consist of 4 elements: Risk Knowledge; Warning Service; Dissemination and Response Capability. An effective warning system requires continuous monitoring of our planet; on local, regional and global scales. Several global infrastructures serves various nations needs depending on their particular natural hazards challenges. While there are dedicated instrumental networks for tsunami early warnings, signals from other networks are also contributing to both the before and after analysis that goes into the warning systems.
There are whole range of geodetic observing systems are included on the list of instruments reading the earthquake and tsunami signals. In addition we have the seismic signals that perhaps is more well-known in connection with earthquakes. For a tsunami early warning system three different types of signals are monitored; seismic, geodetic and oceanographic. | <urn:uuid:ab5962dc-90a7-4589-9d87-66d854960b3a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.un-spider.org/news-en/4999/2011-03-22t123600/japan-tohoku-earthquake-and-tsunami-warnings | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95304 | 250 | 3.671875 | 4 |
From 11:00PM PDT on Friday, July 1 until 5:00AM PDT on Saturday, July 2, the Shmoop engineering elves will be making tweaks and improvements to the site. That means Shmoop will be unavailable for use during that time. Thanks for your patience!
When authors refer to other great works, people, and events, it’s usually not accidental. Put on your super-sleuth hat and figure out why.
Literature and Philosophy
William Shakespeare, Hamlet. Pip and Herbert go to see Mr. Wopsle in a production of Shakespeare's Hamlet. (31)
Mr. Wopsle buys The History of George Barnwell. He, Pip, and Mr. Pumblechook read it aloud one night (15). The play is a 1731 moral tale about a London apprentice who's ruined by associating with prostitutes. Coincidence?
Buffalo! Pip discusses Herbert's attitude toward his accumulating debts, saying, "[…] he became so deeply despondent again as to talk of buying a rifle and going to America, with a general purpose of compelling buffaloes to make his fortune." (34.5)
Herbert discusses trade in the "West Indies": "'I think I shall trade, also,' said he, putting his hands in his waistcoat pockets, 'to the West Indies, for sugar, tobacco, and rum. Also to Ceylon, especially for elephants' tusks!'" (22.76)
Herbert references the Tartars when describing Miss Havisham. "'Pooh!' said he, 'I didn't much care for it. She's a Tartar.'" (22.13)
Mrs. Joe asks Joe, "why he had not married a Negress slave at once?" (12.26). The British Parliament abolished the slave trade in 1807, and in 1834, slavery became illegal in the British colonies.
"Old Clem." An old blacksmith's song, Pip, Joe, and Orlick used to sing this song at the forge. Pip also remembers teaching Miss Havisham and Estella the words to "Old Clem." (58.3)
Handel's "The Harmonious Blacksmith." Herbert gives Pip the nickname of "Handel": "'Would you mind Handel for a familiar name? There's a charming piece of music by Handel called, 'The Harmonious Blacksmith.'" (22.35) | <urn:uuid:aea6f2d6-4b33-42fc-82e5-94993d9c53e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shmoop.com/great-expectations/allusions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940168 | 507 | 3.28125 | 3 |
9th November 2012 - A cat charity is issuing advice to owners who find themselves allergic to their pets in an effort to reduce the number of cats being put up for rehoming.
The tips coincide with Indoor Allergy Week which begins on the 12th November.
Cats Protection, which takes in and rehomes unwanted cats, says it receives hundreds of calls a year from owners wanting to give up their cat due to allergies.
The feline welfare charity said recently that the harsh economic conditions had led to the number of unwanted cats reaching an all-time high and that it was struggling to cope. It is now seeking to cut the number of animals needing new homes because their owners find they, or other family members, have developed allergies.
Pets are the second most important cause of allergy in UK homes, with 50% of children with asthma sensitised to the allergens of cats. Cat allergen is found in the animals' saliva, sweat and urine.
Animals frequently groom themselves, so the allergens coat the hair and skin cells (dander), which, when shed, spread throughout the home or other buildings. Once the saliva dries, it becomes airborne very easily.
"Ironically it’s cats’ fastidious cleanliness that may be implicated in the majority of human allergic reactions to cats," says Beth Skillings, Cats Protection’s clinical veterinary officer in a statement. "People generally assume the cat’s hair is the problem but that is not strictly speaking the case - rather it’s proteins which are spread through the coat by the cat grooming itself."
Cats Protection recommends that owners try a few simple measures to control their symptoms before deciding they can no longer live with a cat. These include:
Having hardwood floors, instead of carpets and blinds instead of curtains
Avoiding wearing woollen clothing
Designating some areas as cat-free zones, particularly bedrooms
Opening the windows for at least one hour every day and moving the litter tray and cat bed away from air vents
Regularly cleaning rooms where the cat sleeps - vacuumed rooms should be allowed to settle for 10 minutes as vacuuming stirs up allergens. Air filters may also help
Fitting plastic covers over cushions and mattresses
Grooming your cat daily, outdoors, and wiping him with a damp cloth
Washing your hands immediately after petting a cat and not rubbing your eyes
Washing your cat’s bed regularly
Using conditioning products on your cat to reduce the amount of allergen released into the environment
Keeping your cat in optimum health, with good parasite control, and seeking veterinary advice in particular for any conditions that cause him to groom or scratch more frequently
Using medications such as anti-histamine tablets or nasal spray yourself, as advised by your doctor
Cats Protection says it is full to bursting with unwanted cats and is appealing to owners to discuss allergy testing with a doctor before taking any "drastic action" to relinquish their pet, particularly as dust mites are by far the most common trigger for house-born allergies.
To provide even greater transparency and choice, we are working on a number of other cookie-related enhancements. More information | <urn:uuid:5577cea9-813e-471b-bf0f-d94c9eba03c5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.boots.com/allergies/news/20121109/cat-advice-for-allergy-week | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955791 | 660 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Entry from British & World English dictionary
(In gardening) digging of an area in parallel trenches two spits deep, burying the soil of each upper spit in the bottom of the next trench.
- The problem is that walking on earth compacts it, causing a need for deep double digging in spring to get the air back in the soil.
- Though he knows it can benefit the soil, he doesn't bother with double digging.
- Landscaping was done last summer and double digging of the beds to prepare for planting,’ she explained.
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: double dig|ging
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:0b750dbd-61b6-42b5-9412-f88787318a71> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/double-digging | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903109 | 158 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Irish Historical Mysteries: The Milesians
Ireland is a land particularly rich in myth, a source both of charm and, as indicated, sometimes also of irritation to historians seeking truth. Miranda Jane Green defines a myth as 'a symbolic story, similar to a parable, a means by which human imagination can express a concept whose meaning is too complex and profound to be conveyed by simple verbal messages'. (1) This is a benign and in its context acceptable definition of the origin legends and folk tales of ancient peoples, but we might add that in modern times a myth can also be composed of negative, tribalistic prejudices which justify exclusion of or oppression of other communities.
But it is with pre-historic and largely benign myths, and not later and more pernicious historical myths that we are concerned with at this point. Green lists the three great collections of prose tales which enshrine the best known Irish myths. Firstly there is the Mythological Cycle, including the Lebor Gabála or 'Book of Invasions' and the Dinnshenchas or 'History of Places'. Secondly, there is the Ulster Cycle, the most important stories concerning Cú Chulainn being contained in the Táin Bó Cuailnge or 'Cattle Raid of Cooley'. Thirdly, there are the tales of the Fionn Cycle, concerning Fionn Mac Cumhaill and his warrior band the Fianna.
Now there would be very few indeed willing to argue that Cú Chulainn or Fionn were real historical personages, but it would be fair to say that many if not a majority of Irish people who know of the Milesians would have an impression that they actually existed. The outlines at least of the traditional stories concerning the Milesian and other ancient invaders of Ireland are well known to most of us. According to these accounts the first successful colonisers of Ireland were the Fir Bolg, who were then conquered by the Tuatha De Dannann, who themselves were overcome by the sons of Míl, led by Eber and Eremon. The documentary sources for these stories is, as already indicated, the Lebor Gabála Érenn, commonly called the 'Book of Invasions', but more exactly translated as the 'Book of the Taking of Ireland'.
The definitive edition of the Lebor Gabála was edited by R A S MacAlister for the Irish Text Society, and published in five parts between 1938 and 1956. (2) This critical and heavily annotated edition is hard going for all but the specialist, but the general reader can also benefit by dipping into the English translation of the text. As MacAlister explains, there are five 'redactions' or versions of the text, which are found in the Book of Ballymote, the Book of Leinster and elsewhere. The Lebor Gabála is structured in ten sections, the first dealing with the Creation, the third to the seventh with the earliest invasions of Partholón, the Fir Bolg, Tuatha De Dannann and so on, the eighth describing the invasion of the sons of Míl or the Gaedil, and the ninth and tenth consisting of the Roll of Kings.
Until the late nineteenth century scholars were inclined to accept the Lebor Gabála as essentially accurate in its historical details. The first scholar to demonstrate that the invasion tales should not be taken literally was Eoin MacNeill, who established early Irish history on a scientific basis. While later scholars have taken the work he commenced some stages further, MacNeill's pioneering publications, such as Phases of Irish History and Celtic Ireland, can still be read profitably today. In contrast, John O'Hart, author of Irish Pedigrees, solemnly traced the origins of Irish families back to the Milesians, and from them to to Adam and Eve! Even today, we can find stories concerning the Milesians repeated uncritically as fact, for example, in the various surname or 'clan' histories which are sold in heraldic shops and elsewhere.
MacAlister of course approached the Lebor Gabála in the spirit of MacNeill, and in the introduction to his edition of the work, he notes that the third to sevent sections were in fact interpolated into an earlier document. This earlier document is simply a 'History of the Gaedil' based on the history of the Jews in the Old Testament. Thus Íth was stated to have espied Ireland from Breogan's Tower in Spain, just as Moses espied the Promised Land from the Summit called 'Pisgah', and there are also other parallelisms and similarities. Furthermore, the 'History of the Gaedil' was originally transmitted orally according to the methods of the Druidic schools, only being written down after many years, and then by different scribes, from which resulted the different versions. (3)
The scholar who mounted the most devastating assault on the uncritical tendency to accept myth as fact was Thomas F O'Rahilly, author of the trenchantly and entertainingly written Early Irish History and Mythology. Indeed O'Rahilly was even prepared to question some of MacNeill's findings and was more radical in his critical analysis than MacAlister. O'Rahilly posited that the Lebor Gabála was essentially a work of fiction compiled from the eighth century on by learned men seeking to reconstruct Irish history in pre-Christian times. Thus several recensions or revised editions of the work exist down to the twelfth century, with indications that there was originally a smaller, more basis work to which later authors added. This is shown by the fact that in the most primitive version, Míl had only two sons, Eber and Eremón, to which a third son, Ír, was soon added, and eventually there was a total of eight 'sons'. (4)
The principal motives of the various authors were firstly to unite the population by obliterating the memory of previous and different ethnic groups, secondly to weaken the influence of pre-Christian pagan religions by converting their gods into mere mortals, and thirdly to manufacture pedigrees into which the various dynastic groups could conveniently be fitted. Thus it is now accepted that the Tuatha De Dannann were simply pre-Christian gods converted into human form, for example, the Celtic god Lugh became a mortal king. (5)
O'Rahilly's most important conclusion is that it is really not posible to select a date at which a line can be drawn between fact and fiction in old Irish manuscripts. (6). Even the accounts of historical persons such as Colm Cille and Brian Ború blend fact and ficition, so that in short we must always maintain a cautious and critical attitudes towards sources. We have indicated that even today Ireland remains a country with a great attachment to myth, and so it is not surprising that there still can be found many unquestioning believers in the tale of the Milesians, who are blissfully unaware that it represents synthetic or artificial history and genealogy constructed in medieval times.
(1) M J Green, Celtic Myths, London 1994, page 7.
(2) R A S MacAlister Editor, Lebor Gabála Érenn: the Book of the Taking of Ireland, 5 parts, Dublin 1938-56.
(3) MacAlister Ed, Lebor Gabála, 1, pages ix-xxix.
(4) T F O'Rahilly, Early Irish History and Mythology, Dublin 1956, pages 195-96.
(5) Eoin MacNeill, Celtic Ireland, Dublin 1981 Edition, pages 43-63.
(6) O'Rahilly, Early Irish History, page 263.
Back to Irish Historical Mysteries: Contents | <urn:uuid:1cdea3f3-0feb-44ae-b977-0f5feb31c565> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://homepage.eircom.net/~seanjmurphy/irhismys/milesians.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963523 | 1,610 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Wire rope or cable is made of flexible, high grade steel which has been twisted into strands just like a normal rope. These strands are then twisted together to form a cable. There are three numbers that identify wire rope. The first is of course, the diameter. The smallest wire ropes I have worked with a 1/16 inch diameter, the largest cranes and heavy construction equipment have cables exceeding a 10 inch diameter. The second and third numbers are usually listed as a pair, such as 6x7, 6x16, or 6x19. The first number is the number of strands, while the second is the number of wires per strand. | <urn:uuid:d93356cf-f12d-4ce7-84c9-dd5e38d44a66> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://everything2.com/title/wire+rope | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956192 | 131 | 3.140625 | 3 |
The Langelier Saturation index (LSI) is an equilibrium model derived from the theoretical concept of saturation and provides an indicator of the degree of saturation of water with respect to calcium carbonate. It can be shown that the Langelier saturation index (LSI) approximates the base 10 logarithm of the calcite saturation level. The Langelier saturation level approaches the concept of saturation using pH as a main variable. The LSI can be interpreted as the pH change required to bring water to equilibrium.
Water with a Langelier saturation index of 1.0 is one pH unit above saturation. Reducing the pH by 1 unit will bring the water into equilibrium. This occurs because the portion of total alkalinity present as CO32- decreases as the pH decreases, according to the equilibria describing the dissociation of carbonic acid:
If LSI is negative: No potential to scale, the water will dissolve CaCO3
If LSI is positive: Scale can form and CaCO3 precipitation may occur
If LSI is close to zero: Borderline scale potential. Water quality or changes in temperature, or evaporation could change the index.
The LSI is probably the most widely used indicator of cooling water scale potential. It is purely an equilibrium index and deals only with the thermodynamic driving force for calcium carbonate scale formation and growth. It provides no indication of how much scale or calcium carbonate will actually precipitate to bring water to equilibrium.
It simply indicates the driving force for scale formation and growth in terms of pH as a master variable. In order to calculate the LSI, it is necessary to know the alkalinity (mg/l as CaCO3), the calcium hardness (mg/l Ca2+ as CaCO3), the total dissolved solids (mg/l TDS), the actual pH, and the temperature of the water (oC). If TDS is unknown, but conductivity is, one can estimate mg/L TDS using a conversion table such as the one presented here. LSI is defined as:
LSI = pH - pHs
pH is the measured water pH
pHs is the pH at saturation in calcite or calcium carbonate and is defined as:
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) - (C + D)
A = (Log10 [TDS] - 1) / 10
B = -13.12 x Log10 (oC + 273) + 34.55
C = Log10 [Ca2+ as CaCO3] - 0.4
D = Log10 [alkalinity as CaCO3]
Click here to see an example of a Langelier Index calculation.
However, there is some controversy concerning the correlation of these indices, and particularly the LSI, with the corrosivity of waters. While some sectors of the water management industry squarely use the indices as a measure of the corrosivity of their waters, more alert specialists, including our dear friends Paul Dillon and Bert Krisher, are very cautious as to how far one can extrapolate the indices to such usage. The Corrosion Doctors have recorded some bits of discussion held on this very topic on the NACE Corrosion Network discussion group. This discussion was held between 24 July and 27 July 2000. Click here to read more on this topic.
See also: Calcium carbonate, Carbon dioxide, Chlorination, Dissolved oxygen, Langelier calculation, Langelier index, Larson-Skold index, Oddo-Tomson index, pH, Puckorius index, Ryznar index, Scaling Indices, Stiff-Davis index, Total dissolved solids, Water corrosivity | <urn:uuid:cefc7856-2033-4a4b-9f4d-8754d41b9317> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://corrosion-doctors.org/Cooling-Water-Towers/Index-Langelier.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.898842 | 772 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Many technologists who are not also neuroscientists would like us to believe that human-like artificial intelligence—or something close to it—is right around the corner. Just a discovery or two away. Less attention is given to the actual gulf between our current knowledge and capabilities and that actual future.
We're to assume instead that it's trivial, at least in the sense that it will soon be bridged and that this bridging is inevitable. And so concepts like machine intelligence and neural networks are tossed around like sci-fi props. Luke Hewitt, a doctoral student at the MIT Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, is particularly concerned about the "unreasonable reputation" of neural networks. In a post at MIT's Thinking Machines blog, he argues that there are good reasons to be more skeptical.
Hewitt's central point is that by becoming proficient in a single task, it's very easy for a machine to seem generally intelligent, when that's not really the case.
"The ability of neural networks to learn interpretable word embeddings, say, does not remotely suggest that they are the right kind of tool for a human-level understanding of the world," Hewitt writes. "It is impressive and surprising that these general-purpose, statistical models can learn meaningful relations from text alone, without any richer perception of the world, but this may speak much more about the unexpected ease of the task itself than it does about the capacity of the models. Just as checkers can be won through tree-search, so too can many semantic relations be learned from text statistics. Both produce impressive intelligent-seeming behaviour, but neither necessarily pave the way towards true machine intelligence."
"If they have succeeded in anything superficially similar, it has been because they saw many hundreds of times more examples than any human ever needed to."
That said, Hewitt is far from a neural networking detractor. He notes that neural networking techniques—in which webs of nodes function as information processing units in ways similar to biological neurons—are immensely powerful when it comes to learning patterns from very large datasets. This is their utility in otherwise computationally prohibitive tasks like text and speech recognition. That's one of the brain's superpowers: finding meaning within relentless floods of sensory data. The brain's auditory and visual centers must take vast amounts of input in the form of waves and pixels, turn it all into data, and then capture the meaning, the statistical regularities, in that data.
"There is even recent evidence that the representations it finds are not too dissimilar from those discovered by a neural network," Hewitt notes. "I contend, deep learning may well provide a fantastic starting point for many problems in perception."
But only a starting point:
The many facets of human thought include planning towards novel goals, inferring others' goals from their actions, learning structured theories to describe the rules of the world, inventing experiments to test those theories, and learning to recognise new object kinds from just one example. Very often they involve principled inference under uncertainty from few observations. For all the accomplishments of neural networks, it must be said that they have only ever proven their worth at tasks fundamentally different from those above. If they have succeeded in anything superficially similar, it has been because they saw many hundreds of times more examples than any human ever needed to.
It's easy to get swamped by Singularity noise and science fictional grand stands against gun-toting machine intelligence, so well-reasoned AI reality checks like Hewitt's are worth spotlighting. The reality is often so, so far from the hype. Deep learning, whether it's our brains contending with floods of sensory input or algorithms reading handwriting, is necessary for intelligence, but it's not intelligence in itself. | <urn:uuid:b979b705-15ae-460c-ae97-7a0b6a0f2599> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://motherboard.vice.com/read/busting-the-hype-behind-deep-neural-networks | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95675 | 769 | 3 | 3 |
Have you heard of the Great Backyard Bird Count ? Well, it begins today, Feb. 13th and you can do it.
The GBBC is an annual four-day citizen science project in which people all over the place count the birds and submit the data. This has been going on for 17 years already and it is now worldwide. I have read that folks in 135 countries did it last year. Thus scientists can get a huge picture of bird populations all over the globe as Dick, Jane, Baby, Puff, Spot, and the Common Man gather vast quantities of data! Isn't it a terrific idea?
[The old faithful pair of Red-tailed Hawks survey their domain from pole #1922]
Now it is for you to participate this year! The GBBC is done by all kinds of people from old sobersides birders with Swarovski opticks to kids with a bird feeder in Grandmother's backyard. Don't worry if you think you're only a beginner, there is nothing hard about it, and it is truly useful.
Here's how it goes: On one or more of the four days, Feb. 13-16th this year, count the birds you see for at least 15 minutes (noting the time), make a list of number and kind, and then enter your count on the GBBC website. There is even a handy-dandy tool that will give you a checklist of likely birds for your area: printable bird tally sheets. You can have as many counts as you want, wherever you want, with a new list every time. If you can't identify every bird, you can just do the best you can. Go here to read all about it and register: Get Started.
[You may say, there are no birds in winter... well, if you look, you'll find some I daresay. This White-throated Sparrow, f'r instance. They're homesick when they first arrive here for the season. All they can say is , 'Oh, sweet Canada, Canada, Canada'). Don't want to miss it even if it is kind of drab.]
Important Notice: Even if there are really no birds at all, it is just as useful if you look for 15 minutes and submit data on how many birds there aren't.
Timothy Pigeon wants YOU to join the Great Backyard Bird Count.
Please try it? | <urn:uuid:380fabd3-2e3e-4ccd-a071-18f8e93103d2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ponderedinmyheart.typepad.com/pondered_in_my_heart/nature_notes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952121 | 499 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The cell phone chat system, JamiiX, offers a quick, cost-effective method of delivering advice and information services to rural communities.
In 2007, the South African community organisation, Impact Direct, was looking for alternative ways of counselling people with drug and substance abuse problems in the Western Cape area. At that time, people would often have to wait up to 12 months for counselling. Impact Direct wanted to provide support more promptly, so they asked the non-profit technology company, Reconstructed Living Lab (RLabs), to come up with a solution.
Marlon Parker, an information technology lecturer at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, was involved with the project from the beginning. ‘We realised that many South Africans use chat applications on their cell phones, and we thought that, since people are familiar with these applications, we could use chat as a way to provide support services.’
The RLabs team developed a secure system where people could use their favourite chat platform, such as MXit, the most popular in South Africa, to contact and ask for advice from counsellors. Such platforms do not use SMS but transfer data to the web via GPRS, 3G or even wi-fi. To test the new system, called JamiiX, they worked with ten students from a local high school.
‘Word spread from that original 10,’ says Parker, ‘and within one week 50 kids were using the platform to access counselling services. After a month, we had 100 kids and now, just over two years later, we support more than 100,000 people through JamiiX and other similar platforms. They can log on to discuss their problems with trained counsellors who have experience, often first-hand experience, with substance abuse.’
JamiiX works with most chat or instant messaging systems to which members send and receive messages back from their ‘friends’ who are also logged on at that moment. The students who took part in the drug-counselling project, for example, simply added the service to their list of contacts, similar to adding a friend in other web-based social networking sites such as Facebook. They could then use their preferred chat application to ask counsellors for advice directly, and quickly receive an answer.
Like most chat platforms, JamiiX allows subscribers to carry out more than one conversation at a time, so a counsellor can have several chat sessions open and provide support to many different people at the same time. The system helps the counsellors to manage the conversations, and it saves callers from long waits, providing them with quicker access to the services.
Another advantage of the system is that it is web-based, or in the ‘cloud’, so counsellors do not have to install the software on their individual computers or cell phones, but can log on using a web browser from anywhere in the world. Psychologists in the UK, for example, contribute expert advice to the drug counselling service.
‘Using this technology,’ says Parker, ‘we are able to deliver a virtual consultation between someone in a rural village and an expert living in the city, or even another country. Just by using a cell phone, people can access many more services than those available in the immediate environment. Low-income customers rarely have access to these kinds of services.’
Anyone using the service has to have a cell phone capable of connecting to the internet, but many low-end handsets already have that function. In fact, approximately 25 million people in South Africa already use similar chat platforms. It is also cheaper than using SMS. Sending an SMS in South Africa costs, on average, about seven eurocents, but subscribers can send up to 50,000 messages with JamiiX for the same price. This is because subscribers send their chat messages as data over the internet. The messages are usually very short and text-based which accounts for very little data being transferred.
Since JamiiX is a web-based system, anyone with access to the internet can register. An organisation, for example, that wants to provide services, registers as a ‘social exchange’ and invites people to become counsellors.
‘We are currently developing a mobile application that’s not yet available to the public,’ says Parker, ‘which would allow organisations or companies to set up a contact centre without a computer. They could run the whole exchange from a cell phone, or a combination of phone and computer.’
JamiiX has rapidly become a kind of contact centre that organisations can create quickly to provide people with information and support services. The South African National AIDS Helpline now also uses the system to deliver HIV/AIDS information to cell phones in an attempt to reach more people. Calls to the Helpline are free from landlines, but there are only about five million landlines in the country compared to more than 36 million cell phones. The service reports that, since using JamiiX, they are able to deal with more queries in two hours than they previously did in a week with the more traditional call centre set up.
The system also protects anonymity. JamiiX hosts the service, but their staff cannot access the data. All the information is encrypted and, in the case of the AIDS Helpline, only the Helpline staff can read the messages. The chat messages are not stored on the phone, which helps to protect the privacy of young people who might only have access to a parent’s cell phone.
Meanwhile, a company in Uganda is developing the system to provide customer support to people who do not have access to the internet or who cannot afford to call the usual helpline numbers. The company can now provide better information on how to use their products, and get feedback on exactly what customers want.
There are also organisations working on using JamiiX to deliver agricultural information, as the platform can also be used to send messages to a large number of people at a relatively low cost. An agricultural cooperative or NGO could, for example, send out weather information to a group of farmers. And, perhaps more importantly, farmers could use the service to ask for specific advice from trained staff at a central information centre, experts based elsewhere, or even from other local farmers who also use the system.
JamiiX also offers instant access for people who might otherwise have to travel to advice centres or agricultural cooperative headquarters in the main urban centres. When a problem occurs, farmers, for example, are often too busy dealing with it to take a long trip to the city.
The platform would initially connect a small group of farmers who could work together to provide information to others, and gradually develop the network as other people joined it. They could give rapid advice on how to deal with drought situations, or get pest control details from farmers in neighbouring countries who have experienced the same problem.
The developers also expect the platform to be used to collect information on cell phones. Organisations or companies can quickly set up a survey using JamiiX, and send it out via their preferred chat platform. Such surveys can be relatively complex, allowing for more than ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, and so can gather detailed information directly from rural areas.
Parker sees mobile apps as a great opportunity for any organisation that wants to provide information to rural areas, and farming communities in particular. The services can be developed using existing technology and with the knowledge that already exists within the community. Also there would be no need for the equipment and other expenses involved in setting up and running a call centre. Farmers can support other farmers, and can easily connect with advisors elsewhere in the country or even abroad.
‘JamiiX capitalises on the fact that there is a lack of information and services for rural communities in many countries,’ says Parker. ‘Even government-sponsored support services have trouble reaching people in very remote areas. Also, the service offers an affordable alternative to information services normally accessed via traditional telephone landlines or the internet, which can be expensive in many ACP countries.’
Reconstructed Living Lab | <urn:uuid:6c1859d9-9b0d-46e6-b49e-9bbbf4a7db92> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/The-cell-phone-call-centre | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951148 | 1,674 | 2.890625 | 3 |
SheKnows: Is the incidence of depression truly higher during the holidays or does it just seem more recognized during the holiday season?
Dr Rakesh Jain: There is no question the incidence of depression does indeed go up during the holidays, particularly between Thanksgiving and New Year. Stress, even "good stress," can impact the mind and the brain. Money stress, family stress and missing people who have passed away all contribute to this increased incidence of depression. Holiday blues is an even bigger problem for those who have underlying vulnerabilities to depression.
SheKnows: What are the differences between the holiday blues and depression?
Dr Rakesh Jain: Holiday blues are a generic term often used to describe mild, and temporary drop in moods that surround specific time periods, such a Christmas holidays. Depression, however, is a different matter. No matter what provokes it – holidays or nothing at all – the symptoms are classic: depressed mood, lack of joy in life, sleep and appetite difficulties, feelings of hopelessness, etc. In addition, for it to be major depression, it needs to be present most of the day for two weeks or longer, and cause impairment in functioning. Now, one can certainly slip from holiday blues to major depression but one condition is different from the other.
SheKnows: What about the holidays worsens depression for some and brings depression on for others?
Dr Rakesh Jain: Good question! The same vulnerabilities that create depression in people during non-holiday times also create increased risk for depression during holiday times. There are biological, psychological and social factors that play a role in the genesis of depression. During holidays, sleep can be distrusted, more alcohol can be imbibed, one misses family members who are gone even more, and financial pressures can be higher. All of these can collude to create just the right bio-psycho-social environment to create major depression.
SheKnows: How can people prevent the holiday blues?
Dr Rakesh Jain: I have two sets of advice. One, prepare for added stress that holidays inevitably bring. Pace yourself, make sure you sleep well, keep alcohol drinking to a moderate level, don't back off from your regular exercise schedule, budget your money wisely, and make sure negative thoughts about past losses don't overwhelm you. The second words of advice are that if you find yourself having even minor troubles with mood, don't procrastinate, do something about it as soon as possible.
SheKnows: In addition to seeing a mental health professional, what are some other things readers with the holidays blues or depression do?
Dr Rakesh Jain: Some things you can do would be to reach out to friends and family members who are very supportive of you – tell them you are experiencing holiday blues and ask for their support. Pace yourself, and if life is too hectic and too busy, slow down, take time for yourself; find soothing activities that work for you, and if you are not sleeping well, examine your sleep habits and make appropriate changes so that sleep is optimized. Exercise, by the way, is another very important intervention for preventing or treating holiday blues. I recommend approximately 40 to 60 minutes of exercise per day when holiday blues affect a person.
SheKnows: For people that do get depression during the holidays, will it go away once the holiday season has passed? If not, what steps do they need to take to manage their depression?
Dr Rakesh Jain: Generally speaking, holiday blues do pass once the stressful holiday season passes. However, damage to a person's and their family's life can occur, so its best not to take holiday blues lightly. If, unfortunately, it slips from holiday blues to major depression, then action is warranted. This would include seeking professional counseling. I specifically recommend a type of psychotherapy called cognitive-behavioral therapy. And if the symptoms of depression are quite significant and impairing, anti-depressants can be used to reduce the symptoms of depression. It's best to control depression as quickly as possible. Seeking professional help is entirely appropriate and warranted. Depression is damaging and needs quick control.
SheKnows: What are the most successful treatments for depression today?
Dr Rakesh Jain: Certainly psychotherapy and physical exercise have a central role in the treatment of major depression. Anti-depressants are frequently warranted. Over the last few decades, anti-depressants have improved and become better tolerated. Speed of onset is important as damage from depression increases the longer it's been present. There is now preliminary evidence that anti-depressants can be made to work faster by the addition of certain medicinal foods, particularly if there is a vitamin deficiency present. One particular medical food in the news is called Deplin, which is a vitamin, and preliminary evidence shows that in certain individuals it can hasten the speed of onset of standard anti-depressants. These are complex decisions and it's best to consult with your health care provider in order to determine which choice or choices are best for you.
SheKnows: What are some helpful resources for our readers to learn more about depression?
Dr Rakesh Jain: Thankfully a large number of high quality resources are available. Two of my favorite websites to refer people to are www.webmd.com and www.mayoclinic.com. Additionally, the National Institute of Mental Health has a free and very useful booklet on depression that people can download electronically. It can be accessed at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression/complete-index.shtml.
Dr Rakesh Jain, director of psychiatric drug research at the R/D Clinical Research Center in Lake Jackson, Texas, obtained his medical degree from the University of Calcutta and a Master of Public Health degree (MPH), from the University of Texas School of Public Health. Dr Jain has authored numerous publications, including four books. He serves on several Boards focusing on drug development and disease state education, and was recently named "Public Citizen of the Year" by the National Association of Social Workers, Gulf Coast Chapter, in recognition of community and peer education and championing of mental health issues.
And you'll see personalized content just for you whenever you click the My Feed .
SheKnows is making some changes! | <urn:uuid:d1d52e70-4344-44e4-8016-00c1bfd5c2de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sheknows.com/health-and-wellness/articles/812472/how-to-get-a-handle-on-holiday-depression | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954293 | 1,308 | 2.78125 | 3 |
diesel and AdBlue fillers in Audi Q7 TDIEnlarge Photo
It's a possibility. According to a report, two postdocs at Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland, are generating electricity with a new type of fuel-cell prototype—one that uses urea, or carbamide, a compound that's present in urine.
Over the past couple of years, several automakers have started to use a small tank of liquid urea solution, called AdBlue, to help reduce nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions—in vehicles including Bluetec versions of the Mercedes-Benz ML-Class, R-Class, and GL-Class, as well as Audi and Volkswagen's V-6-powered TDI vehicles and the BMW X5 and 335d. It's a solution that's also seen some applications in the trucking industry. But no, you can't simply pee in the tank, in those vehicles, to keep that tank topped off.
The so-called Carbamide Power System breaks urine or urea—sourced from animals or people—down into nitrogen, CO2, and water, while generating electricity.
There's no word yet on exactly how much electricity could be generated per amount of urea, or what sort of production scale is viable. But at the very least, it sounds like a new way for wastewater-treatment plants—which already separate urea from wastewater—to potentially give back to the grid and help supplement the future power demands of electric vehicles.
[INA, via Yahoo News] | <urn:uuid:77bf56ec-5fed-4133-82cb-660e3c5c439c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1048756_pee-power-could-urine-help-charge-evs | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948447 | 316 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Situated in south-east Siberia, the 3.15-million-ha Lake Baikal is the oldest (25 million years) and deepest (1,700 m) lake in the world. It contains 20% of the world's total unfrozen freshwater reserves. Baikal is home to more than 1,700 species of plants and animals, two thirds of which can be found nowhere else in the world, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996.
What are the main environmental concerns for the lake?
The ongoing operation of the Baykalsk pulp and paper mill, located directly on the shore line, bleaching paper with chlorine and discharging waste into Baikal.
The proposed construction of the world's first International Uranium Enrichment Center at an existing nuclear facility in Angarsk, 95 km from the lake's shores. After enrichment, 90 percent of the radioactive material would be left in the Lake Baikal region for storage, constituting potential danger to humans and contaminating rivers and lakes.
What have been the steps UNEP has taken to tackle the issues in the region?
In 2009-2010, UNEP, together with the Center for International Projects and Buryat Regional Institutions, implemented a 150,000 USD project on the development of specially protected areas in the Republic of Buryatia.
The main goals are to:
- promote an Information and Reference system of Buryatia’s specially protected areas;
- make recommendations on how the specially protected areas should be maintained;
- inform the public on the specially protected areas, issuing leaflets and publishing scientific magazines. | <urn:uuid:79104623-5350-410d-ae25-0c774d4ac743> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unep.org/roe/SavingLakeBaikal/tabid/54598/Default.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906627 | 336 | 3.890625 | 4 |
Traditional healing is "holistic". It does not focus on symptoms or diseases. Instead, it deals with the total individual. Different people with HIV disease may get different treatments. Healing focuses on the person, not the illness.
Certain people in each tribe are recognized as healers. They receive special teachings. Healing traditions are passed from one generation to the next through visions, stories, and dreams.
Healing does not follow written guidelines. Healers work differently with each person they help. They use their herbs, ceremony and power in the best way for each individual.
Healing might involve sweat lodges, talking circles, ceremonial smoking of tobacco, shamans, herbalism, animal spirits, or "vision quests". Each tribe uses its own techniques. The techniques by themselves are not "traditional healing." They are only steps towards becoming whole, balanced and connected.
Contact : ############ | <urn:uuid:71ec137b-d16d-4783-8a1c-5e635c5038bb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kidzworld.com/forums/friends/t/1029133-talented-traditional-healer-in-pretoria-polokwanejohannesburgdurbancapetown | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950424 | 181 | 3 | 3 |
There are chinook salmon populations in Idaho in which an occasional male stays put and matures when only 6 inches long ?that is, he's able to fertilize eggs at even that diminutive size, says Thomas P. Quinn, University of Washington professor of aquatic and fishery sciences and author of a recently released book, "The Behavior and Ecology of Pacific Salmon and Trout."
Just picture that tiny male under the belly of a 20-pound adult female that's returned to spawn, Quinn says. He's almost as likely to be a "winner" as the full-size males that are releasing their sperm in a competitive frenzy as the female deposits her eggs.
And the tiny male has avoided the harrowing journey taken by most salmon to the ocean and back, bypassing hazards such as dams, sharks and fishermen.
"In some species, all or a fraction of the individuals in some populations do not migrate to sea at all," he says. "These fish sacrifice the growing opportunities at sea for the relative safety of freshwater, and males are more inclined to remain than females. This difference is related to the fact that reproductive success in females is linked to the ability to produce numerous large eggs, hence the need for the female to be of a certain size herself.
"Small males, however, can sometimes fertilize many eggs by sneaking rather than by fighting," Quinn says in the chapter called, "Downstream Migration: To Sea or Not to Sea?" The evidence for this is in the DNA of the resulting offspring.
It should be pointed out that salmon are not "thinking this out" in any cognitive way, that there are some genetic controls at work that scientists don't fully understand, he says.
The same is true of fish that have gone to sea but don't return to their stream o f origin to spawn, instead straying to some other waterway.
The process of straying is entirely mysterious, Quinn says. Do strays identify the home stream but then go elsewhere? Do they have poorer memory or sensory capabilities and so stray out of ignorance? Or are there other factors involved?
"These strays are not merely an aberration to be ignored. Much of the present range of Pacific salmon was covered by thick glaciers some 10,000 to 15,000 years ago, so most current populations were founded by strays since then. Thus straying is just as fundamental an attribute of salmon as homing," he says.
"Perhaps the offspring should be called strays only if they are unsuccessful when it comes time to reproduce, and colonists if they are successful."
From an evolutionary perspective, a mixture of homing and straying by offspring is a way that parents can spread the risk because offspring don't spawn in the same place. One of Quinn's hypotheses is that adults spawning in less predictable streams and rivers ?ones where conditions are good some years and bad in others -?may be genetically inclined to produce more offspring that are likely to stray.
Then there are salmon like the chinook where brothers and sisters from the same parents don't mature and return from sea at the same time, a way of "straying in time" so that a given pair hasn't lost all their descendants if one year's worth is wiped out. There is undoubtedly an environmental aspect in all of these, he says. The most obvious being when conditions in the home river are so degraded that salmon move elsewhere to spawn.
Straying is just one of the traits that cause Quinn to say that salmon have chances to recover from years of declines "if we would only take our collective foot off their neck."
"A great deal of habitat from southern British Columbia to California is no longer accessible to salmon or has been altered to their detriment," he writes in the conclusio n of his book published by University Press. "However, if we write salmon off as incapable of recovery and so justify actions and inactions that harm them, we will turn our pessimism into their reality, and that would be unforgivable." | <urn:uuid:a4f71288-2f14-4732-ac0d-f4169e4d4d90> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news/To-sea-or-not-to-sea-3A-When-it-comes-to-salmon-sex--size-sometimes-doesnt-matter-595-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973467 | 817 | 3.421875 | 3 |
MSc Biological Psychology
The mutual influences of the psychological and biological fields on one another are at the centre of Biological Psychology. In Biological Psychology the ‘roots of our behaviour’ is studied, by relating all our actions, experiences and feelings to physiological, evolutionary and developmental mechanisms. Many of these mechanisms are looked at in terms of brain functioning. In addition, students learn about the application of brain imaging techniques. Biological Psychology contains three specialisations from which students can select one.
MSc Biological Psychology - Specialized in Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology is the study of the development of behaviour and cognitive functions during the life-span, from infancy to old age. In this biological specialisation, the focus is especially on understanding how the development of certain behaviours and cognitive functions relates to a persons biological constitution and the development of the brain. Students are made familiar with current developmental theories and research findings from different fields and will get acquainted with brain imaging techniques such as Electroencephalography (EEG) and Event-Related Potentials (ERP).
In this Developmental Psychologyspecialisation, students learn all about what is needed, both biologically and environmentally, to develop cognitive functions such as audition, vision, speech and language, social perception and emotion and motor functions. Both normal development and developmental disorders are important topics.
The ‘Infancy’ course gives an overview of the development of cognitive and motor functions during the first two years of human life. ‘Perception, attention and motor development’ deals with normal and abnormal development of these functions from childhood to adulthood. ‘Development of cognition and language’ provides an overview of normal and abnormal development of the higher cognitive and language functions. In the ‘Social and emotional development’ course, students deal with genetic mechanisms and social and emotional development. During the second semester, students will complete a research internship and write their thesis.
Links with Research
There is a strong link between existing research programs and themes in the Developmental Psychology specialisation. Research in the department of Neurocognition and the Biological Developmental Psychology section has a strong biological focus, trying to elucidate links between brain and behaviour during development and developmental psychopathology, making use of brain imaging methods like EEG. This biological focus is present in the theoretical part of the courses as well as in practical trainings in the master’s specialisation.
Job possibilities for developmental psychologists are broad, some examples are: researcher in an academic or health setting, teaching in an academic setting, school advisor, neuropsychologist in academic or clinical settings.
Last updated July 27, 2015 | <urn:uuid:f2a83918-4e7c-42fa-bd26-e35f2df1758a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.masterstudies.com/MSc-Psychology-Developmental-Psychology/Netherlands/FPN/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920873 | 531 | 2.546875 | 3 |
So many Scrum teams struggle with planning on every level. Whether it be creating initial stories, decomposing stories, estimating stories or breaking them down into tasks. There is a notion that planning should be easy because we are smart, but the reality is planning is just plain hard. Teams tend to focus on estimation and how it is bad, meaningless or just a waste. It leaves them begging for someone to help them learn how to plan software.
“A goal without a plan is just a wish.” – Antoine de Saint-Exupery
Why do teams find things always take longer than expected? How can they spend an hour or even a full day planning one or two weeks worth of work to only find that they missed so much of the work necessary to actually complete the work? They scratch their heads because they just can’t seem to get better at planning.
Here are a few tips change how you plan software to become more effective and efficient.
- Draw. That is right, get up to a white board and draw out your thoughts. Not everyone thinks, understands or processes information the same way. Your brain works differently when it comprehends visually and when you express yourself through writing/drawing. Open up new neural pathways to think about the problems at hand.
- Visualize the flow of how data, interaction or experience works.
- Wireframe out anything visual so that there are concrete samples of how it works.
- Ask and answer the following questions. They will help guide discussion around easy to forget or often assumed interactions.
- How do I get there?
- What do I do when I am there?
- What happens when I do it?
- What happens if it goes right?
- What happens if it goes wrong?
- Where do I go when I am done?
- Verify that all the acceptance criteria/conditions of satisfaction have been covered.
- Task the work based on the information created in the above steps
- If you are estimating time on tasks make no single task greater than 2 hours.
- Commit as a team to the results desired from executing the plan
(ProTip: Use the above as a checklist before committing to each story)
Many people feel that planning is a waste. This may be true if there is no desire to understand the outcome or the path to get there. The more value placed on having some prediction of how things will play out, the more desirable planning becomes. It is important to note that all planning is a form of prediction. Predictions are not 100% reliable, but that does not render them useless by default.
The power of the plan lies the ability to commit to executing the intended results. Not necessarily the path taken to do so.
“Unless commitment is made, there are only promises and hopes; but no plans.” – Peter Drucker
In the end. Do what you feel is right. | <urn:uuid:2206af60-5dc4-41e3-9709-faf2db405184> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://derekneighbors.com/2013/07/how-to-plan-software-six-ways-to-improve-your-scrum-planning-meeting/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939466 | 602 | 2.765625 | 3 |
This is an awesome craft for children old enough for scissors, it’s still fun with younger ones but it requires a little more prep work. If you are homeschooling and have a word wall you can use those words for your craft , and simply write the words out instead of finding them in newspaper.
- Gather your materials. You will need some newspaper or paper to write words on, some cardboard ( old cereal boxes are always handy) ,double stick tape, crayons, glue and scissors.
- Cut out your words from the newspaper, if your child is able to let them do this themselves. Help the read the words .
- If you are doing this for a toddler cut the words out and using double stick tape tape them to cardboard backing , I just used some more cardboard for this. This will allow your child to glue the words on, newspaper is easily crumpled and toddler fingers have a hard time with it. The backing will help them do it without your help, which will help prevent hearing ” I do it” and ” Me do!” .
- Draw a big W and cut it out.
- Let your child color it with crayons.
- Grab the glue – I usually dot it on then close the cap and let my son imitate me. He is learning where to put it , and soon I will open it for him , but right now we are still practicing!
- Add the words.
- After it’s dry , sit with your child and ask about the words they chose, point our letters or simple praise their fantastic work! | <urn:uuid:9a72ef14-d652-4a54-88f2-a5abf440881b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.notimeforflashcards.com/2008/09/letter-of-the-week-w-w.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937715 | 333 | 3.25 | 3 |
After over a decade of war, do only the blast walls, concrete and sandbags hold the memories of those killed?
By Saba Imtiaz
It is a quiet, wintry day in Herat, and the sons of Haji Sultan Hamidy are busy at work. There’s banter and cups of tea, visitors popping into Hamidy’s store to say hello, and a young helper is told to dust off the most familiar item in the store: hand blown glass.
There are piles of it, heaped up in boxes and on shelves, molded into cups and goblets, jars and tumblers. The aquamarine colors come to life as the dust is cleaned off. Khalid Hamidy, Haji Sultan Hamidy’s son, is all smiles and hellos, as he tosses a box of hand blown glass items into the air to show off how well it’s packed.
The elder Hamidy isn’t in the store on this day, having traveled to India for medical treatment. But his sons are continuing the family trade in his absence, taking pride in the traditions associated with it that are now being forgotten.
For seventy years, Haji Sultan Hamidy and his family have been making hand blown glass objects. Generations of Hamidy’s family, his son Khalid Hamidy says, have taken up the work. As an insurgency movement against the Communist government and Russian troops engulfed the country in the 1980s, Hamidy decided to dedicate the glasses to the memories of those fallen in war.
A decade ago, the elder Hamidy explained the ‘secret’ behind the glass to Christina Lamb, a correspondent for the UK’s Sunday Times: “Each glass is individually made,” Sultan Hamidy said at the time. “We used to say a line of poetry for each one so that it would have its own soul. You see them there in the grains of sand trapped in the glass. Then when my first son Rahim was killed by the dushman [Russians] in 1979 I whispered his name into the glass as I blew it over the flame; Then we did the same every time a son or brother or neighbor was made shaheed [martyr] but we could not keep up – you see how many glass pieces we have made but there were hundreds, thousands of dead.”
This quiet act of remembering the dead found its way to the bereaved families. “The major commanders would often come and they would take these glasses to the families whose sons had died,” Hamidy’s son, Khalid, told me when I visited the store in December.
“It is an amazing thing that this glass is all over Afghanistan now,” he said, comparing it to a national tradition of sorts.
But he admits that this ritual no longer exists.
Now Hamidy’s sons also run a small stall on the Herat airbase, selling the hand-blown glass to foreign troops serving in Afghanistan. Sales at the Herat shop have also dropped, even though more expensive copies of the glass are sold in Kabul’s antique and handicraft shops. “We make four to five hundred glasses a week,” Khalid says. “And we sell maybe four to five in a week. About five or six years ago, we would sell five to 10,000 glasses a year.”
The Hamidy’s continue to produce the glass to sell to the foreign troops and to stock their own store in Kabul. There are a few old family photos in the store of Haji Sultan Hamidy, whose photo is printed on the business cards that the Hamidy sons eagerly pass on to customers. Three people work in the store, but there aren’t any customers – not for the glass, or the jewelry and collectibles, the old Soviet currency and antique helmets that fill the Hamidy’s store. Khalid recalls, with a tinge of wistfulness, that about a decade ago a Frenchman placed an order for 10,000 glasses, which he then sold around the world in return for donations to the “poor people of Afghanistan.”
“That was the last big order,” he says.
The Hamidy family’s remembrances of an earlier conflict in Afghanistan stand in stark parallel to the lack of remembrances of the current battles in the country. While Afghanistan has been mired in conflict and war for several decades now, there is little now to remember those killed in the most recent war in Afghanistan: Operation Enduring Freedom, mounted by the U.S. and foreign troops after Sept. 11, 2001.
A transitional justice plan envisaged memorial sites and a war museum but these never came to fruition. So memories and remembrances exist in the form of anecdotes, but no one is buying the glass, as Khalid Hamidy tells me, to remember those who have been killed since 2001. As is the case in every city that has seen sustained bombings over the years, people in Kabul point out landmarks that have been bombed—once, twice, three times, more times than they can remember—and streets where it was once unsafe to travel.
Portraits of Ahmed Shah Massoud—the resistance fighter from the Northern Alliance who was killed in 2001—hang from fortified public buildings that glisten with new paint. But plans to build a memorial to Massoud have been scuttled. “I believe they got to the stage of commissioning a sculpture in the roundabout that now bears his name, a public space, but it absolutely couldn’t get through,” Michael Semple, former Deputy to the EU Special Representative for Afghanistan, told the Revealer by Skype.
After over a decade of war, do only the blast walls, concrete and sandbags hold the memories of those killed?
Perhaps memorialization is easier when the battle lines were far clearer, as they were in the 1970s and 1980s: then it was the Communists and the Soviets against Afghan fighters, known as the mujahideen. It was a war supported by the U.S., a fight that was exalted in the foreign press. But the conflict that ensued—of former Afghan fighters battling with each other, the takeover by the Afghan Taliban and the post-9/11 war by the U.S. and allied forces to oust the Taliban government—doesn’t have that same degree of clarity. This is, perhaps, reflected in the lack of memorials to those killed since 2001, while there are markers to the wars predating it.
Semple recalls the “first minor memorial” dating to the Kerala massacre in Afghanistan’s Kunar province in the spring of 1979. “For me [the massacre] holds a great significance for its part in laying the foundation of this bitter, bitter conflict. The mass summary execution of civilians was a deadly example of early Communist era revolutionary excesses,” he told the Revealer. “The first minor memorial was simply a walled garden enclosing the mound which contains a communal grave from the massacre. It is thus a cemetery dedicated to victims of the massacre and is located in the village – what I would call citizens’ space. More recently, one of the provincial governors built a small concrete ‘minar’ (pillar) as a memorial to the victims. This is located in the gubernatorial compound – government space.” Semple noted that “perhaps one of the reasons the Kerala massacre can be memorialized is that the episode is now seen as politically straightforward, a long-gone brutal communist government vs. civilians. The politics of post-1992 inter-mujahideen conflict is more difficult because some of the protagonists are still around.”
“War memorials reflect a nation’s desire to portray stability after crisis,” Manan Ahmed, a historian of South Asia told the Revealer in an email interview. “They showcase triumph or portray adversity but the message to the citizen is that the Nation has persevered, that it has endured. Hence, after 9.11, there was such intense desire to immediately begin the process of memorialization by building the new WTC [World Trade Center].”
The idea of memorialization may also emerge from the fact that the “war” has no clear winners. There is no ‘Mission Accomplished’ banner hanging on the streets of Afghanistan; many Afghans and foreigners question what the war achieved after all. That moment of clarity—as Ahmed puts it, the “perseverance” of the nation—has not arrived for Afghanistan as yet.
This may be why the only memories that exist in Afghanistan relate to the war that was clearer in its purpose and achievements: the war against the Soviets. That seems to be the driving theme behind the Jihad Museum in Herat.
A large sign proclaims why it was built: “to preserve and appreciate the attempts, sacrifices and memorials of the rightful Mujahideen […] so that our next generation may visit this historic and remarkable memorial building and will remember it for the rest of their lives.”
The “Jihad Museum”—a brainchild of Ismail Khan, a former mujahideen commander and governor of Herat province—is hoping to preserve memories of the 1980s. But it doesn’t just serve as a memorial site; it’s also as a way to cement the reputation of men like Ismail Khan on the battlefield, and in Afghanistan’s governance. Tanks rest innocuously on the lawn of the museum. The exterior is designed like a shrine, the walls inlaid with traditional blue tiles inscribed with poetry.
It’s a memorial to the war that plagued Afghanistan for a decade, a war that only springs to memory when it pops up in a Tom Hanks movie or a rerun of a Rambo installment. At the museum, glass cases hold meticulously labeled “artifacts”: “.82 mm, anti-tank bullet, fire from shoulder, made in China”, “mortar bullet, fire from cannon, made in Soviet Union”, “P2 anti-tank mine, made in Pakistan”. The curator and co-founder of the museum Syed Abdul Wahab Qatali leads visitors through the exhibits. The glass cases give way to a gallery of portraits of martyrs, painted from images and memory and lit with fluorescent bulbs.
But the museum’s biggest attraction isn’t the tanks on the lawns or the Kalashnikovs displayed in the cases. It’s the surreal 3D model reproduction of scenes of battle set in Herat against a backdrop of Herat city, a sight that is far more powerful than grainy images of the war that are sold as postcards in the streets. A guide points out models of Afghan intelligence agents arresting a man. There’s an axe-wielding men standing victoriously over the body of a fallen soldier, tanks rolling through the streets, a burqa clad woman cheering fighters from a house rooftop, a man carrying an injured fighter on his back, a woman—presumably shown to be dead—lying in the rubble of a house, designed in such vivid detail that it features ripped Suzani curtains. Signs spell out the scenes: “Subject: Place where Mujahidin defend against the Perod government for 14 years and Targhondi street is the exit Wat (sic) of Soviet union soldiers from Afghanistan.”
Other rooms in the museum house stacks of images of mujahideen leaders, photos of those killed, and images of war commanders. Images of Russian soldiers presumed missing during the war hang on one wall. A visitor at the museum – a tall, bearded man wearing sunglasses – points to one of the black-and-white photos. “This is me,” he says. The man is Bakhretdin Chakimov—now known as Sheikh Abdullah—presumed dead for 33 years until he was discovered living in Herat last year. Abdullah says he is advising the museum on the Soviet-era remnants exhibited there, and wanders off to look at more war memorabilia with a group of visitors. Chakimov’s presence underscores why it is important to remember wars: it is not just for the sake of a country’s history, but also for personal stories as it fits into the backdrop of the war in the 1980s.
But not everyone in Afghanistan has heard of the Jihad Museum’s attempts to memorialize the war, including Akbar Agha, a veteran of the Afghan jihad in the 1980s who went on to become a key Afghan Taliban leader. Agha says he did not believe in the idea of recording these events for posterity in the past, and is still vacillating on it now, even though he has recently authored his memoirs.
The reluctance to record feats on the battlefield also came from the rank and file, Agha says. “A foreign journalist wanted to cover a mujahideen front and all of the mujahideen were very angry [at this],” he tells me, during an interview at his residence in Kabul. The commanders had to explain why the journalist was there.
In Afghanistan, there were attempts to record the events of the 1980s, but Agha says he scuttled one such move. “At the end of the 1980s, there was a big shura [joint meeting] in eastern Afghanistan attended by [Jalaluddin] Haqqani and very senior people. It was a big gathering and it was meant to be photographed,” he recalls. “But I opposed it and got other people to oppose it too.”
“People didn’t like it because they wanted to carry out pure jihad. If you start talking about it, you boast about it and take away from it [the spirit],” Agha said.
Semple and Ahmed, the historian, disagree with this perspective. According to Ahmed, “I do not think attitudes to Jihad etc. are behind the non-presence [of memorials]. From friends and visitors, I have heard of many Soviet tank carcasses which were left prominently as visual reminders of that war. These “temporary” memorials function just as well, absent a politically stable country. Hence, for Afghanistan most prominently, that state of stability has never arrived. To build a monument or a memorial, you need a political and economic will.”
Semple, who has researched grave sites in Afghanistan, notes that one of the things that struck him in Afghanistan was the lack of protected graves. One village in Kunduz Province has been renamed Qatl-e-Aam, or Massacre village, in memory of a bloody assault conducted by Soviet forces in 1984. “Every single person now living there can talk you through the massacre, showing compound by compound, who was killed where,” Semple said. “Rags of colored cloth fluttering on flimsy poles in back gardens and melon fields mark some of the places where the village’s martyrs fell. But there is nothing solid. It will all pass with the next generation.”
There may just be an easier explanation than delving into the idea of religious motivation: Agha, who hasn’t visited the Jihad Museum in Herat, declares that people in Herat had the money to spend on building war memorials. “In Kandahar (where Agha led fighters), we were so poor,” he says. “All of the money was spent on guns, ammunition, tanks and we were occupied with battles. There is no evidence because we didn’t spend money on photos.”
The Hamidy family’s glass-blown tumblers and jars may be this evocative evidence. The traditions may have been muddled with the discourse on war, but Haji Sultan Hamidy’s store continues to occupy a space in Herat; and for those who take the aquamarine objects home, they serve as a subtle reminder of a war that once killed hundreds.
Saba Imtiaz is a freelance journalist in Pakistan and the author of ‘Karachi, You’re Killing Me!’ (Random House India, 2014) and No Team of Angels (First Draft Publishing, forthcoming). She reports on politics, culture, human rights and religion and is currently working on a book about the conflict in Karachi. Her work is available on her website, http://sabaimtiaz.com and she can be contacted at [email protected].
With support from the Henry R. Luce Initiative on Religion and International Affairs. | <urn:uuid:2daed184-7df3-470e-aecb-22c038ee00b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://therevealer.org/archives/19152 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965764 | 3,487 | 2.53125 | 3 |
St. Pauls History
Saint Pauls Church is one of the oldest Christian congregations in the city of Chicago. It was founded by German immigrants in a storefront on Franklin Street in 1843 and for many years was located at LaSalle and Ohio streets. The church was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, but was quickly rebuilt through the hard work and dedication of the congregation.
In 1898, St. Pauls moved to its Lincoln Park location. When fire destroyed the church building on Christmas night in 1955, members resolved to rebuild and remain in the city, reaffirming Saint Pauls commitment to serve the urban community. During the 1960s and '70s, Saint Pauls, along with all city churches, felt the impact of urban renewal and the movement of members to the suburbs. The 1,500-member congregation was reduced to approximately 500 members by 1980. There was a great deal of concern about the future of the church during those two decades, but the committed congregation worked hard to maintain the church building; retain pastoral, music, office and maintenance staff; offer education and social programs; and carry out benevolence work.
Their efforts were rewarded with renewal during the 1980s, as the congregation more than doubled in size again and chose as its motto the phrase "Making a Joyful Sound in the City." The motto reflects the history of the congregation as well as its current mission.
Why is there no apostrophe in St. Pauls? World War I (1914 - 1918) was a difficult time for all Americans of German descent, with many expressions of anti-German sentiment. Many St. Pauls young men served in the armed forces, often worrying that they might come into direct combat with a German relative. Around the country, church leaders were calling for the discontinuance of German language services. But St. Pauls chose to continue with them, even receiving a special dispensation from the federal government after agents from the Bureau of Investigation (predecessor to the FBI) attended worship services and determined that seditious sermons were not being preached in the German language at St. Pauls. However, the war did prompt one change. St. Pauls officially changed its German name to the English translation. While this was a concession to those who viewed anything German with suspicion, the church council had its little joke by not adding an apostrophe to the church's name. Since there are no apostrophes in the German language, there is no apostrophe in St. Pauls.
See the Historic Timeline section of this website for more on our history as a congregation.
Making a Joyful Sound in the City, a book by Saint Pauls Pastor Emeritius Tom Henry, tells the inspiring story of this congregation’s life in Chicago from 1843 to its 150th anniversary. Copies of this hardbound commemorative edition, which is illustrated with historical photos, are $20 each. For details, call the Church office at 773-348-3829. | <urn:uuid:4ce94a65-dbd8-4b55-9b44-a6c4816229bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.spucc.org/about-us/st-pauls-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978427 | 613 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Since 1948, when Sri Lanka became free from British rule, it has enjoyed a close and cordial relationship with Pakistan. Sri Lanka openly supported Pakistan during the Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan. During the Indo-Pak war of 1971, Colombo provided transit and refueling facilities to Pakistani war planes, knowing fully well that they will be used against India. The country also played an important role in the restoration of Pakistan to the Commonwealth.1 It was Sri Lanka’s resolve in 2009, to play cricket in Pakistan despite security warnings that helped prevent Pakistan’s isolation in the field of international cricket.2 The island’s team did face a terrorist attack in Lahore, though no player was killed or injured.
The relationship is ‘multi-faceted’3 and multi-sectoral, given their wide-ranging bilateral discussions on and cooperation in various fields including trade, education, science and technology, culture, pharmaceuticals, engineering, railways, tourism, diplomatic training and defense.4 One does not have to go too far to seek the reason for such diverse interaction. Sri Lanka does not want to look at everything through the Indian prism and Pakistan proves to be an excellent alternative. Besides, Pakistan’s closeness with China has helped Sri Lanka not only in getting aid and assistance from both the countries, but also in keeping India in check. Sri Lanka’s fear psychosis related to India go back to the mid-1940s when some Indian leaders, including Nehru, suggested a closer union between India and Ceylon (as Sri Lanka was then known), presumably with the latter as an autonomous unit within the Indian federation.5
A common strand in their relationship was highlighted by the Pakistan Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz during his visit to Sri Lanka in 2004. He said: “Our relations are rooted in antiquity, shared cultures, values and sense of common destiny. Pakistan and Sri Lanka thus needed to renew the multiple bonds of friendship.”6 However, notwithstanding the depth of their relationship, a question mark remains on the post-Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) era status of Sri Lanka-Pakistan ties.
Economic Cooperation and Free Trade Agreement
Sri Lanka and Pakistan have realised that their relations, based on mutual trust and confidence, has not been reflected in health, trade and commercial fields.7 Even before Free Trade Agreement (FTA) was signed on August 2, 2002 efforts were made by the two countries to shore up their trade. In 2004, Pakistan offered US $10 million to Sri Lanka to buy Pakistani products and signed an agreement to this effect during President Chandrika Kumaratunge’s visit to Pakistan in February 2005.8 It was agreed that Sri Lanka would import rice from and export tea to Pakistan. The latter also offered to export engineering goods, fans and air conditioners to Sri Lanka9 and agreed to provide assistance in the field of banking, telecommunications and Information Technology. As for Pakistan, it has long been keenly interested in Sri Lanka’s expertise in the textile and garments sector as well as the gem and jewellery industry.10 In 2005, an agreement to establish direct air links between Islamabad and Colombo, and Lahore and Colombo was signed as a sequel to the Free Trade Agreement (FTA); the frequency of the flights operating between Karachi and Colombo was increased from six to ten per week.11
During President Mahinda Rajapaksa’s visit to Islamabad in 2006, Sri Lanka offered another credit line of US$ 10 million to the Pakistani business community to facilitate import of products from Sri Lanka.12
A bilateral trade agreement has existed between Sri Lanka and Pakistan since 1984. However, it was during the 9th session of the Sri Lanka – Pakistan Joint Commission meeting in Colombo on May 12-13, 2005 that the two countries for the first time exchanged notes confirming to each other the completion of the domestic legal procedures for putting the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) into practice. The groundwork was thus prepared and it was made operational as of June 12, 2005. Sri Lanka became the first country in South Asia to sign a free trade pact with Pakistan. Pakistan agreed to provide 100 per cent duty concession on 206 commodities, including frozen fish, vegetables, spices, fruits/juices, polymers of vinyl chloride in primary forms, natural rubber, raw silk, tanned/crust skins, wool, some varieties of paper and board, carpet and floor covering, non-alloy aluminum, iron and steel products and toys/dolls, with immediate effect. Likewise, Sri Lanka also waived duties immediately on 102 items, which include chickpeas, dates, oranges, benzene, toluene, apparel and clothing accessories, ball bearings, penicillin/streptomycin/tetracycline and their derivative and vacuum flasks.
It was further decided to eliminate custom tariff on almost 90 per cent of products over the next five years, as also to grant tariff rate quotas (TRQs) and higher margin of tariff preferences to each other on a number of products in a bid to keep the negative list as short as possible. Both countries have agreed to a 35 per cent domestic value addition and change of tariff heading at six digit level, which will provide flexibility for Sri Lankan and Pakistani investors to source their inputs from third countries and export manufactured products to each other.13
In 2007, within two years since the signing of the Free Trade Agreement (FTA), the trade between the two countries has shown a 27 per cent increase in volume.14 An overall improvement in 2008 was noted when exports from Sri Lanka recorded a rise of 81 per cent and imports from Pakistan registered a growth of about 78 per cent.15 No wonder, the two-way trade volume reached US$ 230 million in 2005-0616 and peaked at US$ 385 million in 2008.17 Both sides, however, agreed to raise the bilateral trade figures to US$ 1 billion by 2010-11.18 Sri Lanka had also expressed its desire to benefit from the expertise of Pakistan in the field of oil exploration.19
Of late, Pakistani businessmen have begun to look at Sri Lanka for its resource markets, especially after the fall of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. Business opportunities beyond the Free Trade Agreement are being explored. The meeting of the first inter-governmental committee looked at the possibilities of including services sector within the ambit of the Free Trade Agreement.20 Besides, talks to sign a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) to broaden the scope of the Free Trade Agreement were also in its last stages, though there have been some political objections from Sri Lanka.
With India, however, no such progress in economic ties can be seen, although India has renewed its offer to revive Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) which aims at expanding cooperation in investment and services with Sri Lanka after the coming of the stable government in power. Opposition to Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (with India) in Sri Lanka is on nationalist, rather than economic grounds (Liyanage, Sumanasiri 2010, 66).21 With Pakistan however, no such ‘fear factor’ is at work in Sri Lanka. In fact, Pakistan is the only South Asian country besides India with which the island republic has a Free Trade Agreement. Although trade figures are not very impressive, the pace of improvement is noteworthy. To which “agreed” Muhemmed Aejaz, Pakistan’s Trade Counsellor in Colombo, who viewed Sri Lanka-Pakistan Free Trade Agreement (SLPFTA) as more advantageous to the Sri Lankan business community than its agreement with India (Sri Lanka-India Free Trade Agreement (SLIFTA).22 The reason for this is that although with India, Sri Lanka’s trade has reached US$ 2 billion, the balance of trade is heavily in favour of India. The Sri Lanka-Pakistan trade also tilts in favour of the latter, still their economic relationship can be seen as a two-way process in which both the partners are equally contributing towards its success. “Negative trade balance is not always negative. It should be seen in the broader context” said the Head of the Chancery of the Pakistan High Commission in Sri Lanka, Balal Akram.23 While the share of Sri Lankan exports to Pakistan has shown a big jump – from US$ 44.86 million in 2004-05 to more then US$ 71 million in 2005-06, 24 Pakistan’s exports to Sri Lanka also reached US$ 214 million in 2007-08 from US$ 97.8 million in 2003-04 after the Free Trade Agreement became effective in 2005.25 It is far more mutually beneficial than the island’s trade dealings with India in which there are huge item gaps and wide exim margins.
Given below are the two graphs sourced from the Central Bank of Sri Lanka’s Annual Report, 2005. The first graph shows an unprecedented increase in Sri Lanka’s exports to India in a period immediately following the signing of the Free Trade Agreement in 2002. However, exports figures for preceding period with India were not very encouraging. The Pakistan graph shows that the level of Sri Lanka’s exports remained consistently high even before the Free Trade Agreement in 2005. A year after the signing of the Free Trade Agreement, the volume of Sri Lanka’s exports to Pakistan registered a steep rise to US$ 71 million, generating hopes among the Sri Lankan business community from their interactions with the Pakistani counterparts.
Exports to India ($ Million)
Exports to Pakistan ($ Million)
Notwithstanding the impressive trade statistics, it is a matter of concern that some Sri Lanka’s products in which it has a natural advantage, like cotton textiles and apparels, tea and rubber, have been put on the negative lists of India and Pakistan.26 A quick look at the list of items exported to India and Pakistan shows a high concentration of vegetable oils, insulated copper products, copra and smoked sheets (natural rubber).27 This shows that the growth in bilateral trade is highly selective and not diversified.
Another aspect of Sri Lanka-Pakistan economic relationship is the sharing of the vital commercial intelligence inputs. “We have done extensive studies on commercial intelligence and are prepared to share vital information with a friendly country such as Sri Lanka”, the Director General of Pakistan’s Trade and Development Authority, Nusrat Iqbal Jamshed has said.28 With the frequent exchange of high level business delegations, Sri Lanka and Pakistan are making rapid strides to boost their bilateral economic ties.29
Sri Lanka – Pakistan Defence Ties and Military Cooperation
Sri Lanka has an excellent defence relationship with Pakistan, which provides the former with military hardware.30 During the course of Sri Lanka’s war with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, Pakistan has emerged as one of the leading small weapons suppliers to the island nation. When Pakistan Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz visited Colombo in 2004, Chandrika Kumaratunga, then the President of Sri Lanka, expressed her gratitude for the assistance her country had received in the field of defence.
The defence partnership began in 1999, when Pakistan offered a credit line (US$ 20 million) to Sri Lanka for procurement of defence equipment.31 In November 2004, both sides agreed to strengthen cooperation in this field and to review the credit line with a view to its operationalisation during a visit by the then Sri Lankan President Kumaratunga to Pakistan.32 The total purchases till December 2007 were to the tune of US$ 50 million. There was a sudden jump in the quantity of merchandise ordered in 2008 due to the escalation of the ethnic war.33 In 2008, during a meeting between Sri Lanka’s Lt. General Sarath Fonseka and his Pakistani counterpart General Ashfaq Pervez Kayani, Pakistan agreed to supply 22 Al-Khalid Main Battle Tanks (MBT) worth US$ 100 million, besides high-tech weapons.34
Fonseka’s shopping list to the Pakistani military authorities were put at US$ 65 million under which the inventory for the Lankan Air Force alone was worth US$ 40 million.35 He had further sought 250,000 rounds of 60 mm, 81 mm, 120 mm and 130 mm mortar ammunition worth US$ 25 million and 150,000 hand grenades for delivery within a month to the Sri Lankan Army.36 It was also agreed that Pakistan will send one shipload of the items needed every 10 days to bolster the Lankan military efforts to take over Kilinochchi, the administrative centre of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.37 According to Jane’s Defence Weekly, Sri Lanka had also made a plea to Pakistan to provide swift technical assistance for its T-55 Main Battle Tanks and C-130 transport aircraft.38 In 2006, in a bid to show their displeasure against the growing defence ties between Sri Lanka and Pakistan, Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam blasted a convoy carrying the Pakistani High Commissioner to Sri Lanka, Bashir Wali Mohamand, who narrowly escaped the attack.39 Four of his bodyguards were however, killed.
Media, especially in Pakistan, has attributed Sri Lankan forces’ victory over the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam to the generous Pakistani assistance and the active participation of many seasoned Pakistani air force pilots in Sri Lanka’s military operations,40 though both the countries were vehement in their denial. This is contrary to Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam’s contention that India was providing military support to Sri Lanka. Notwithstanding Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam’s false pretensions and displeasure over their growing bilateral bonhomie, in January 2009, the two countries i.e. Sri Lanka and Pakistan agreed to enhance their cooperation in the field of military training, exercises and intelligence-sharing, so as to counter terrorist threats jointly within the region.41
The governments of Sri Lanka and Pakistan also select their envoys on the basis of the relevance of their background and experience to the prevalent needs of each other’s countries. In 2006 Pakistan sent Bashir Wali Mohamand, as the envoy, keeping in mind his experience as a Director General of the Intelligence Bureau (Pakistan) when the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka was at its peak. In 2006, Pakistan selected another military man Air Marshal (retd.) Shehzad Aslam Chaudhary for the High Commissioner’s post so that he could function as hands on adviser to the Sri Lankan Air Force.42 For its part, Sri Lanka sent Air Marshal Jayalath Weerakody as the High Commissioner to Pakistan in 2009, when the tribal uprising was at its peak in Swat and other tribal areas. Such engagements have been more military than diplomatic, 43 as it was meant to help each other with intelligence and counter-intelligence operations.
Pakistan has been engaged in providing military training to Sri Lankan armed personnel at its premier defence colleges.44 Pakistan Military Academy’s intake was 48 and 50 cadets from Sri Lanka in 2007 and 2008 respectively, which is one of the largest in foreign cadets’ category.45 During a goodwill visit to Sri Lanka, the captain of Pakistan’s newly acquired Chinese-built guided-missile frigate, P.N.S. Zulfiquar, told the media that his country was training 70 Sri Lankan naval personnel annually. He said his country would be giving small frigates46 to the Sri Lankan Navy to patrol its coastlines that are prone to intrusion by Indian fishermen. The Pakistan Navy, he added, has offered several berths to the island states’ naval personnel for advanced training in its prestigious establishments, on an annual basis.47
The defence cooperation peaked during the ethnic conflict, when Pakistan supplied small arms and ammunition and provided training to Sri Lanka’s military personnel. Such interactions brought the two countries closer than ever before. N Godage, a former Sri Lankan diplomat, said during an interview that he could boldly say that Sri Lanka today remains an undivided country thanks to the military support it received from Pakistan.48
Such closeness of ties between its two neighbours has caused some concern –if not anger -- in India. On many occasions, India has tried to warn Sri Lanka on this issue. India’s former National Security Advisor, M.K.Narayanan, once said: “It is high time that Sri Lanka understood that India is the big power in the region and ought to refrain from going to Pakistan and China for weapons, as we are prepared to accommodate them within the framework of our foreign policy.49” Such concerns aside, it needs to be said that it is India’s apathetic response to Sri Lanka’s defence requirements (due to the compulsions of its own coalition politics50) that has pushed Sri Lanka towards Pakistan and China for succour. In fact, former Lt. General Fonseka had once gone on record in an interview to an Indian TV channel that his country had turned to China and Pakistan for military purchases only after New Delhi refused to supply weapons.51
The spirit of cooperation and mutual bonhomie was again reiterated during a meeting between Pakistani Prime Minister Gilani and Sri Lankan President Rajapaksa on the sidelines of the NAM summit in Egypt in 2009. The meeting was the fourth in a year. Both the sides acknowledged the fact that Sri Lanka was not only a major recipient of armed forces training from Pakistan, but was also one of the main buyers of Pakistani defence equipment.52 Pakistan’s role as a major credit supplier to Sri Lanka was also recognized; the latter utilized the facility for buying railway wagons and defence products,53 mainly from China.
Measures to promote bilateral interactions have continued to grab headlines even after the end of the ethnic conflict in May 2009. But a sudden declaration by the then Chief of Defence Staff, General Sarath Fonseka, calling off US$ 200 million arms procurement deal with China,54 as ordered by President Rajapaksa has put a question mark on the continuation of the post-war defence cooperation with China and consequently, with Pakistan. This has to be seen in a post-poll scenario, where the re-election of Rajapaksa as the President has a major role to play. His ability to balance the activities of India, China and Pakistan has been one of the major factors in his re-election, as opposed to the ‘pro-China, anti-India’ stance taken by his powerful rival, General Fonseka55 and his alliance. Despite several clandestine meetings and visits to India by General Fonseka, the alliance backing him, which also comprised ultra-Marxist JVP, remained more inclined towards China than India. Ranil Wickremasinghe-led opposition United National Party’s linkages with China are an open secret in Sri Lanka.
It is common knowledge that China is one of the biggest arms suppliers to Sri Lanka and is currently engaged in building a big harbour in Sri Lanka at Hambantota. An unnamed Indian security source is of the view that since 2007, China has encouraged Pakistan to sell weapons to Sri Lanka and to train Sri Lankan pilots to fly the Chinese fighter jets.56 Like most of India’s neighbours, Colombo has been astutely cultivating China and Pakistan over the past decades, as a counter balance to India.57 Therefore, low key defense cooperation among Sri Lanka, Pakistan and China is likely to continue with the twin motive of safeguarding their own economic interests and keeping India’s so-called “hegemonic designs” in check.
Post-war Sri Lanka-Pakistan ties – an Assessment
There is a need to have a fresh look at Sri Lanka-Pakistan ties in the new scenario, post- Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam conflict and the re-election of Rajapaksa. While the country will remember with gratitude the arms assistance it received from Pakistan and China in its hour of need, the return of peace to the island has radically shifted the focus of its needs and requirements. It no longer has any urgent need in the defence area and Sri Lanka knew how well to make its peace time choices.
In a three part interview with “The Hindu” Editor-in-chief, Rajapaksa explained Sri Lanka’s relationship with these three powers in the following words: “India was very helpful, first by understanding what was happening. We had a list and we knew what was possible and what was not. We bought the weapons from China. It was a commercial deal. China helps us and when somebody helps you, you appreciate it, don’t you? But we paid them on international terms. We were very clear about this. That is also why I stood by Pakistan. When they were isolated, I got up and defended them. Then I canvassed for India during the process of choosing the Secretary General for the Commonwealth. I always treat India as a friend. A little more than that – a relation, I would say.”58
Rajapaksa made it very clear that Sri Lanka will continue to maintain its friendship with China and Pakistan and, although its relation with India is far more than a mere bond of friendship, he would like to deal with every country on the basis of Sri Lanka’s national interests. Nevertheless, the question arises as to whether a ‘sustainable relationship’ with India can be maintained on this basis alone, given the geo-political proximity and extensive socio-cultural links between the people of the two countries. While investigating Sri Lanka’s relationship with Pakistan and China, it can be said that, as of now, only strong economic ties can bind them together, particularly after the defence aid slid down following the defeat of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.
While China with its growing maritime capability and large economic interests in the region may be able to maintain its influence, Pakistan’s ability to stand on its own in Sri Lanka is doubtful. In this context, India’s fear regarding Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) infiltrating its southern regions through Sri Lanka is not unfounded.59 However, Prof. Hassan Askari Rizvi, an independent Pakistani political and defence analyst dismisses such fears as exaggerated.60 Prof. Rizvi underlines some areas for future cooperation between Sri Lanka and Pakistan, which include telecommunication, trade and travel interaction and above all, joint measures to combat terrorism in South Asia. Besides, Sri Lanka looks at Pakistan as one of the two counterweights to India. For China, Sri Lanka’s the then foreign secretary Rohitha Bogollagama made it clear during an interview with an Indian news channel that “there can be no defence relationship with China because I see India as our immediate neighbour and a close friend. That also is a unique relationship. India has been very supportive of our efforts for seeking sustainable peace in Sri Lanka. We are quite pleased with the current defence make up of Sri Lanka.”61
India is alive to the possibilities of China and Pakistan doing more business with Sri Lanka, but India’s concerns are not just about economic relations. India is more concerned about the strategic relationship these countries are trying to have with Sri Lanka. Pakistan may be Sri Lanka’s ‘friend in need and friend in deed’62 but Sri Lanka is fully aware of the limitations of this relationship. In 2008, Pakistan failed to get a positive response from Sri Lanka when it offered a defence pact to boost military cooperation between the two countries.63 Likewise, Pakistani government officials are always critical of unfair and inadequate media coverage their country is getting in Sri Lanka as compared to India.64
Pakistan may be Sri Lanka’s ‘true friend’,65 but the island will always look towards India for support and cooperation. On being asked what Sri Lanka wants India to do in a post-war scenario, Prof Rajiva Wijesinha, former Secretary General of the now defunct Secretariat for Conducting Peace Process (SCOPP) and Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Human Rights and Disaster Management, said that Sri Lanka wants India’s support to inform international community about the real intent of Sri Lanka, which is now concentrated on peace and development after the end of the civil war (Wijesinha, Rajiva 2009). Pakistan does not have the international clout needed to convince world community about the genuineness of Sri Lanka’s model of development, as that county itself is mired in various controversies related to human rights violation and terrorism.
However, Sri Lanka is not expected to ignore China and Pakistan, and this reality even India accepts. India also recognizes that as a major world power China, up to a point is bound to have a role and influence in the region. Therefore, there is a need to give enough space to each other for carrying out their respective activities. India also is aware that while its ties with Sri Lanka will continue to be influenced by the ‘Tamil Issue’ and the ‘Tamil Nadu factor’, Sri Lanka-Pakistan/China ties are not subject to any such factor. Nevertheless, there is no justification for any apprehensions regarding Sri Lanka’s growing relationship with other countries, especially, with Pakistan. India should closely monitor the developments and do whatever is necessary to strengthen its own relationship with Sri Lanka. There is, however, no room for complacency in a fast-changing environment of the 21st century. India needs to be able to address Sri Lanka’s core concerns while ensuring its own.
- For more information, see the Sri Lanka High Commission in Pakistan website, (http://slhcpak.org/news/25-11-2007_SL_Pak.html).
- Subramanian, Nirupama. 2009. We won't allow isolation of Pakistan cricket. The Hindu: International (Chennai), March 5.
- The term 'multi-faceted' has been used in Sri Lanka and Pakistani media to describe the multi-level interaction between the two countries in various field.
- Pakistan Government, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2006. Joint Statement. Visit to Pakistan of His Excellency Mahinda Rajapaksa, President of Sri Lanka. Press Release No. 131/2006. April 1. For More Information, see Pakistan Foreign Ministry website, (http://www.mofa.gov.pk/Press_Releases/April/PR_131_06.html)
- Izzadeen, Ameen. 2006. The Love Triangle of Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. Khaleej Times Online (UAE), April 5. www.khaleejtimes.com
- The News (Karachi). 2004. Pak Initiative Based on Sincerity: PM. November 22.
- Akhlaque, Qudsia. 2005. Sri Lanka President Arrives: Four Accords to be signed. Dawn (Karachi), February 5.
- Dawn (Karachi). 2004. Pakistan and Lanka Pledge Partnership for Peace. November 23.
- Khalid, Hanif. 2005. Pakistan, Sri Lanka sign Aviation Agreement. The News (Karachi). March 12.
- Pakistan Government, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2006. Joint Statement. Visit to Pakistan of His Excellency Mahinda Rajapaksa, President of Sri Lanka. Press Release No. 131/2006. April For More Information, see Pakistan Foreign Ministry website, (http://www.mofa.gov.pk/Press_Releases/April/PR_131_06.html).
- Masood, Alaudin. 2005. Pakistan - Sri Lanka: Strengthening Trade Links. The News (Karachi), April 11.
- Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 2007. Annual Report.
- Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 2008. Annual Report.
- Ghausi, Sabihuddin. 2007. An Emerging Trade Conduit. Dawn (Karachi), August 27.
- Baabar, Mariana. 2008. Pakistan, Sri Lanka Vow to Combat Terrorism Jointly. The News (Karachi), February 1.
- Syed, Baqir Sajjad. 2008. Sri Lanka, Pakistan to expand FTA scope. Dawn (Karachi), February 1.
- Ghausi, Sabihuddin. 2007. An Emerging Trade Conduit. Dawn (Karachi), August 27.
- Ramachandran, Sudha. 2010. Diminishing Influence. Geopolitics, New Delhi.
- Ghausi, Sabihuddin. 2007. An Emerging Trade Conduit. Dawn (Karachi), August 27.
- Warushamana, Gamini. 2009. Sri Lanka - Pakistan trade: Minor hiccups, major hindrance. Sunday Observer, November 8. For more information, see (http://www.bilaterals.org/negotiations/Srilanka) accessed on March 2010.
- Ghausi, Sabihuddin. 2007. An Emerging Trade Conduit. Dawn (Karachi), August 27.
- Daily Mirror. 2009. Sri Lanka, President agree to boost multi-faceted bilateral ties. September 1.
- Yatawara, Ravindra A. 2007. Exploiting Sri Lanka's Free Trade Agreement with India and Pakistan: An Exporter's Perspective. South Asia Economic Journal 8:2. 219-247
- News Line. 2009. Pakistan to share Commercial Intelligence with Sri Lanka. August 4. Also see, (www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/Current_Affairs)
- The News. 2006. Pakistan, Sri Lanka one on Fighting Terrorism. April 1.
- Baabar, Mariana. 2008. Pakistan, Sri Lanka Vow to Combat Terrorism Jointly. The News, February 1.
- Dawn. 2004. Pakistan and Lanka Pledge Partnership for Peace. November 23.
- Thaindian News. 2008. Sri Lanka's SOS to Pakistan for urgent arms supplies. April 2.
- Sri Lanka still claim that they have not received any Al Khalid MBT from Pakistan
- Press Trust of India. Business Standard. 2009. Pakistan played major role in LTTE defeat. May 28.
- The News. 2006. Sri Lanka asking Pakistan for swift Military Assistance: Jane's. June 9.
- Ramachandran, Sudha. 2006. Had Enough? Tigers turn to Pakistan. Asia Times, August 16.
- Mir, Amir. 2009. Pakistan's crucial role in the death of Tamil Tigers. The News International, May 20. Also see, (http://thenews.com.pk) accessed February 25, 2010.
- Baabar, Mariana. 2008. Pakistan, Sri Lanka vows to combat terrorism jointly. The News, February 1.
- Tehelka. 2006. ISI uses Sri Lanka to spread violence in India- Jaffna District MP MK Shivajilingam of the Tamil National Alliance: An Interview with PC Vinoj Kumar. September 30.
- Kapila, Subhash. 2007. Sri Lanka looks to Pakistan for Military Hardware. PlainSpeak, February 3. For more information, see (http://www.boloji.com).
- The Nation. 2006. Pakistan, Sri Lanka vows to fight terror. April 2.
- Online Encyclopedia, Wikipedia. 2009. Pakistan Military Academy, Foreign Alumni.
- TamilNet. 2009. Pakistan's Navy Academy annually trains 70 SLN personnel. September 10.
- Sri Lanka Government. Sri Lanka Navy. 2009. Commanding officer of Pakistani Navy ship 'Zulfiquar' calls on Commander of the Navy. September 5. Also see, (http://www.navy.lk).
- Izadeen, Ameen. 2006. The Love Triangle of Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. Khaleej Times Online, April 5. (http://www.khaleejtimes.com)
- India's National Security Advisor Mr. M K Narayanan in an interview with the media persons in Chennai after meeting Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M Karunanidhi, May 31, 2007.
- Kapila, Subhash. 2007. Sri Lanka looks to Pakistan for Military Hardware. PlainSpeak, February 3.
- Pakistan Defence Forum. 2009. Pak. Arms, Officers helped Sri Lanka rout LTTE: Report. July 6.
- Daily Mirror. 2009. Sri Lanka President agree to boost multi-faceted bilateral ties. September 1.
- Reuters. 2009. Sri Lanka cancels $200m arms deal with China, Pak. July 16.
- Ananth, Venkat. 2009. The Fonseka factor. Pragati, December 14.
- Times Online. 2009. China spends billions in Sri Lanka to build port. May 1. (http://www.timesonline.co.uk)
- Pant, Harsh V. 2009. Shape of Sri Lanka's Future. The Japan Times Online, May 1.
- Ram, N. 2009. Rajapaksa says Indo-Lanka relations stronger then a mere friendship. The Hindu, July 8.
- Thaindian News. 2009. ISI could infiltrate through Sri Lanka: Chidambaram. February 25.
- Dr. Hassan Askari Rizvi. 2009. Email Interview by the author. December 31.
- Zee News. 2009. No defence ties with China: Sri Lanka. October 29.
- Subraminian, Nirupama. 2009. We won't allow isolation of Pakistan cricket: Colombo. The Hindu May 5.
- The Nation. 2008. Defence deal offered to Lanka. August 2.
- Izzadeen, Ameen. 2006. The Love Triangle of Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. Khaleej Times Online, April 5. (http://www.khaleejtimes.com)
- Sri Lanka Government. 2009. Pakistan felicitates Sri Lanka on 'great victory over terrorism. May 23. (http://www.defence.lk)
Published Date : 18th May, 2011 | <urn:uuid:6c329780-fc47-4911-9941-7259b92343e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vifindia.org/article/2011/may/18/Redefining-Sri-Lanka%E2%80%93Pakistan-Ties-an-Indian-Perspective | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948247 | 7,045 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Scientists at NASA are keeping close tabs on two clouds of debris from Tuesday collision between U.S. and Russian satellites to determine how much of a risk they pose to the agency?s Earth-watching spacecraft and, possibly, the Hubble Space Telescope.
The rare collision between a U.S. Iridium 33 communications satellite and the defunct Russian military communications satellite Cosmos 2251 is unprecedented, marking the first time two intact satellites orbiting Earth have accidentally crashed into and obliterated one another, NASA officials said. Their smash-up created two large clouds of space debris that are currently being tracked by the U.S. Space Surveillance Network.
The debris poses a greater risk to science satellites than to the International Space Station, which is currently home to two American astronauts and a Russian cosmonaut, since the collision occurred 490 miles (790 km) above Siberia. The space station flies in an orbit about 220 miles (354 km) above Earth.
?This is like over 400 kilometers above the station, so we do believe that some of the debris is going down through station altitude. But it?s a very, very small minority of the debris clouds,? said Nicholas Johnson, chief scientist of NASA's Orbital Debris Program Office at the Johnson Space Center in Houston. ?For robotic spacecraft at higher altitudes, the answer?s a little bit different. So one by one we?ll be looking at those.?
Earth observations satellites, such as NASA?s Aqua and Aura spacecraft in orbit 438 miles (705 km) above Earth, are particularly vulnerable - though the risk of an impact is still low - and there?s another satellite in a 497-mile (800-km) orbit just above the impact level, Johnson told SPACE.com late Wednesday. The Hubble Space Telescope orbits the Earth at about 372 miles (600 km), Johnson said.
?That?s a little bit farther away, but it?s a lot bigger too. All that matters,? Johnson said of Hubble. ?It?s about how close you are to the debris cloud and how big you are.?
It will be weeks before the U.S. Space Surveillance Network pins down an accurate count of the number of individual debris pieces created in the event, but unofficial estimates put the damage somewhere in the 500 count. The U.S. Space Surveillance Network is currently tracking more than 18,000 separate man-made objects and debris at any given time, officials with the U.S. Strategic Command said Wednesday.
?This is the first time we?ve had two intact spacecraft collide, so it is a big deal,? Johnson said. ?But you know, it?s not unexpected.?
Johnson said that some satellites fly within a few hundred meters of each other every day. Each year, there are about six instances in which old satellites and satellite parts break apart in what scientists call ?fragmentation events.? Satellite components or spent rocket stages have accidentally collided three times before in the last 20 years.
In June 1997, an unmanned Russian Progress cargo ship slammed into Russia?s Mir Space Station, damaging a solar array and radiator, and punching a hole in the ship?s hull that depressurized one of its modules. Unlike Tuesday?s collision, that Progress spacecraft was deliberately heading for Mir, where it was expected to dock in a rendezvous system test.
?This was going to happen,? Johnson said of Tuesday's accidental collision. ?There was no doubt that it was going to happen.?
Johnson said the chances of a satellite being damaged by the debris from Tuesday?s collision are admittedly low, but as the collision itself proved, such things can happen. He does not expect to see reports of many secondary impacts from the event.
He pointed out that when China intentionally destroyed one of its aging weather satellites during a 2007 anti-satellite test, the impact created a cloud of more 2,500 pieces of debris.
?We don?t know if any of them have hit any other satellite, alive or dead,? Johnson said of the Chinese test debris. ?So the odds are still very small, but they?re bigger today than they were two days ago.?
- New Video: The Iridium/Cosmos Satellite Collision
- What Happens When Satellites Fall
- The Most Memorable Space Junk That Fell to Earth | <urn:uuid:a9fe2a6c-4dad-45b8-8b59-e2f1b4d2a323> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.space.com/5540-debris-space-collision-poses-threat-satellites.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938635 | 885 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Benny Benson - Alaska's Flag
Ben "Benny" Benson was 13, a 7th grade orphan at a mission school
in Seward when he created the flag for the Territory of
Alaska in 1927. He entered a contest arranged for children in grades 7
through 12 by Alaska Territorial Governor George Parks. On a visit to the
U.S. Post Office building in 1926 he had noticed that, while there were
flags for every state displayed, the territory of Alaska had none. Update:
we have been informed that the contest was actually held by the American
Legion of Alaska. So perhaps it was at Governor Parks request.
The rules called for 8½ x 11-inch paper, color or plain ink. Each community
formed a panel to select the 10 best entries, which were then forwarded to
the final committee in Juneau.
Benson looked to the sky, choosing the Big Dipper (Ursa Major) and the
North Star for his symbols. He described his choices: "The blue field is for
the Alaska sky and the forget-me-not, an Alaska Flower. The North Star is
for the future state of Alaska, the most northerly of the union. The dipper
is for the Great Bear symbolizing strength." His sentiments are echoed in
the state song.
Benny actually drew more than one entry. One had a dogsled and two
huskies on a bright green backdrop. A second was a massive mountain rising
in front of a yellow sun. And the one that won, had the number 1867 under
the Big Dipper on a royal blue background.
Benny Benson was born in Chignik in 1913, part Russian-Aleut and part
Swedish. His father put him in an orphanage, the Jesse Lee Home in Unalaska,
at the age of 3 when his mother died. The home moved from Unalaska to
Seward in 1925.
Benson learned about his win in March 1927. “One day our teacher’s
husband came in the room and he brought a telegram,” Benson recalled in
1971. “She just looked at it and her mouth dropped open. She was speechless.
… And I darned near fell out of my seat, I guess.”
The only change that was made in his design was the removal of the
“1867.” His design was favored over about 700 entries from schoolchildren around
the state. Many of the other entries had variations on polar bears, gold
pans, the state seal, the midnight sun,
or northern lights. Until his flag
was chosen, Alaskans had flown only the U.S. flag since the territory was
purchased from Russia in 1867. The Territory of Alaska became a state in
Benson spent most of his adult life in Kodiak, where he worked for Kodiak
Airways. He had two daughters and several stepchildren and grandchildren. In
later years, Benson sewed custom, autographed Alaska flags for legislators,
dignitaries and each Miss Alaska. He later said that his greatest thrill was
the standing ovation he received at the Alaska constitutional convention. He died
of a heart attack on July 2,
1972., at the age of 58.
For his feat, Benson won a gold watch with his design engraved on the
back and $1,000 that he later used for diesel-engine repair school. The
watch he donated to the Alaska State Museum in 1963. The original flag,
made of blue silk and appliquéd gold stars, was first flown July 9, 1927.
If you visit Seward, you can find the Benny Benson Memorial at Mile 1.4
of the Seward Highway. | <urn:uuid:4e420762-99d1-4d2f-8648-1e5108c42446> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://fairbanks-alaska.com/benny-benson.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979941 | 796 | 2.78125 | 3 |
By Matt Haldane
Copper Area News
A recent push in Virginia to apportion electoral votes by district instead of relying on its current winner-take-all system in presidential elections has revived a debate that has been off and on for much of the United States’ history: What is the fairest way to elect the President of the United States?
Many American voters dislike the United States Electoral College. While few people can make sense of why the U.S. does not rely on the national popular vote to determine the president, changing the Constitution is a tough and controversial thing to do.
Smaller states have traditionally liked the idea of the Electoral College because it gives them a proportionally larger voice in the election. States with fewer people have a larger share of electoral votes per person. What has emerged, however, is tight and tense campaigning in a small number of “battle ground” or “swing” states. This has left people wondering whether Maine and Nebraska have the right idea by divvying up their votes by congressional district and giving their remaining two electoral votes, one for each senator, to the candidate who wins the state’s popular vote.
Virginia State Senator Bill Carrico might have had fairness in mind when he proposed a bill to do something similar, but concerns about a Republican power grab may have ultimately killed the bill. Michigan, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin have also considered similar bills and they, like Virginia, all have Republican governors in states that voted for President Barack Obama last November. Such an apportionment of electoral votes would have benefited Mitt Romney in states where he received no electoral votes, but in Arizona, Obama would have walked away with at least three additional votes.
An important difference in the Virginia bill compared with how Maine and Nebraska operate is that Carrico sought to give the remaining two votes to the candidate who won the most districts instead of the popular vote. That would have given Romney nine of Virginia’s 13 electoral votes. However, even if the last two votes were given to the popular vote winner, an amendment offered by Carrico before the bill was killed, Virginia still would have given seven votes to Romney and six to Obama. In fact, if the whole country operated under that system, Romney would have won the election 276 to 262, according to an estimate by political scientist Alan Abramowitz at the Center for Politics.
Completely accurate numbers for congressional district results can be hard to parse out since most states do not report those numbers for the presidential election. The numbers are not relevant to states that operate under a winner-take-all system unless, of course, someone is trying to figure out the impact of switching to a different system.
The advantage for Romney is not surprising given that rural areas tend to favor the Republican candidate. The U.S. looks very red or Republican when looking at maps color-coded by county. Counties are smaller than congressional districts and might better represent voting trends in rural areas.
Democrats, however, have a strong advantage in urban areas, where 80.7 percent of the country’s population resides, according to the 2010 census. Urbanized areas, classified by the Census Bureau as urban areas with 50,000 or more people, make up 71.2 percent of the population. A switch to the congressional district method would give rural voters a bigger advantage in the Electoral College than what they have currently.
While Arizona has had relatively slim margins in the popular vote in recent general elections, the state remains a Republican stronghold. According to The Atlantic, Phoenix is one of the few major cities to vote for Romney in 2012, joining Oklahoma City, Fort Worth and Salt Lake City. The state also has a Republican state legislature and a Republican governor. There does not seem to be much support for divvying up votes by district.
“The major complaint I hear is (voters) want it to be the popular vote,” said State Senator Barbara McGuire, a Democrat from Legislative District 8. “They’re discontent for the most part with the electoral vote process.”
McGuire was not convinced that Democrats taking away some votes in Arizona would be a net positive.
“I don’t see that there would be an advantage,” she said, adding that the decision is ultimately up to the voters. “If voters want this changed, then it’s something that they’re going to have to push for collectively.”
Ultimately, fairness is hard to gauge. Voting by district would get rid of the swing state dynamic, but it would create swing districts. There would be many more competitive districts than there are states and voters might feel like their vote matters more if the candidate they want to win just has to win their district.
Campaigning would also be altered. Presidential candidates would likely start to focus on certain districts rather than certain states. This might make gerrymandering, or manipulating redistricting to favor a certain party, even more competitive.
Arizona redistricting is handled by an independent commission, but in 2011, Governor Jan Brewer and the state senate threw out the commission leader Chairwoman Colleen Mathis for gross misconduct. By November of that year, the Arizona Supreme Court had overturned that decision, reinstating Mathis. Arizona redistricting might be less partisan than in other states as a result, but the fairness of the congressional district method remains an open question.
A study out of the Department of Statistics and Political Science at Columbia University claims that apportionment by district is actually less fair to the candidates as it reinforces a partisan bias that is statistically insignificant under our current model or a popular vote. The authors note, though, that “voters in states that strongly favor one candidate might have plenty to gain by changing to a district-based method, if their districts are suitably competitive, just as voters in competitive states might have far less impact if they live in an uncompetitive district and this change were made.”
For now, the move toward district apportionment seems to have subsided. The bill in Virginia is dead and Representative Paul Ryan has come out against any similar changes in Wisconsin. Any momentum the movement once had is gone.
It remains a rare event that the winner of the popular vote does not also get a majority of the electoral votes. McGuire said there is no movement in the Arizona Senate to change the electoral process here. She made it clear that the choice should be left to the voters, but who wants the change?
“My opinion is if it ain’t broke don’t fix it,” McGuire said. | <urn:uuid:6dc25ef1-def5-47c1-957a-3b0a62378f87> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.copperarea.com/pages/a-little-background-on-the-electoral-college-and-how-it-works/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971986 | 1,358 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Concept 32 Some DNA can jump.
Thomas Hunt Morgan's concept of genes as beads along the length of a chromosome changed little through the first half of the 20th century. Genes were seen as inviolate objects with fixed positions on the chromosomes. However, in the 1950s, Barbara McClintock showed that certain DNA fragments, termed transposons, can be activated to transpose ("jump") from one position on a chromosome to another. She hypothesized that transposition provides a means to rapidly reorganize genes in response to environmental stress.
McClintock's work was remarkable, not only for the fact that it flew in the face of prevailing dogma, but also because it was based entirely on observation of chromosomes and genetic crosses. Confirmation of her ideas had to await the discovery of the modern tools of DNA analysis. This work paved the way for the modern concept of chromosomes as dynamic, changing structures. | <urn:uuid:6530b0ee-2533-4a93-848d-e9bf1c39a528> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dnaftb.org/32/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966735 | 186 | 4.03125 | 4 |
DATA PROTECTION SERVICES
Social Engineering Testing
By now, you have probably become calloused to the barrage of phony emails from
banks and the dozens of other phishing and social engineering attacks we see on
a daily basis. However, social engineering attacks are far more intricate than those
Those emails are truly the bottom-of-the-bucket attempts by unsophisticated criminals.
But there are many other forms of social engineering attacks that are commonly being
used to gain access to critical and valuable data. Is your organization protected?
The Human Problem
The problem with good social engineering attacks is that they don’t seem like
attacks. Instead, they rely on human kindness, trust and the desire to please.
To the person being attacked, they seem like everyday types of situations – not
Consider these examples:
Social Engineering Example #1
A healthcare worker notices a USB key drive laying on a nursing
station. It has the hospital logo on it. "Must have been left here
by a doctor," they think to themselves. So they plug it into their computer
and open it up.
It looks empty to them, but what they don’t realize is that
key just deposited code on that computer that will search the hard drive and
any network drives it can find for any type of personal health information –
social security numbers, credit card numbers, billing information, etc.
Anything it finds is sent over the internet to the criminal organization who
left the USB drive at the nursing station earlier that day.
Social Engineering Example #2
An employee at a multi-office banking instituion receives a phone call from
someone identifying themselves as "Pete from IT". "Pete" asks if they
have had any problems with connectivity today and explains that they have been
receiving calls from two of the other branches in the same area. The employee
indicates that they haven’t and Pete thanks them.
Just as Pete is getting off the phone, he asks for the employee’s ID number
for reporting purposes. The employee thinks that makes sense and gladly
hands over their employee ID. "Pete" now uses that employee name and ID
to steal that employee’s identity.
These are just two examples of actual social engineering attacks that have worked
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I am grateful for the relationship I have with the team at Pervasive. When I call, I know them and, more importantly, they know me. They come up with ideas that help my business before I even get a chance to ask! | <urn:uuid:8f4b0557-5b89-4adc-9be6-67bd29f1d09c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pervasivesolutions.net/professional-services/social-engineering.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94662 | 768 | 2.5625 | 3 |
IBM scientists in Zurich, Switzerland, have taken the first ever close up view of a single molecule using atomic force microscopy. The stunning image shows in detail the anatomy of an organic molecule called a Pentacene, consisting of 22 carbon atoms and 14 hydrogen atoms. Even the atomic bonds at the molecule's periphery can be seen. This breakthrough is being reported in the August 28 issue of Science magazine. More info and video at PhysOrg.com. | <urn:uuid:68576ec5-d186-4809-82d8-b87722e010ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.coasttocoastam.com/article/molecule-anatomy-imaged-for-first-time | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.909209 | 91 | 2.984375 | 3 |
At a party last night, I explained spaced repetition and Anki to two separate groups of people. I'm really enthusiastic about Anki so I'm shooting for as many converts as I can in a twenty-four hour period.
Spaced repetition is the principle that the best time to review a fact is just before you forget it.
If spaced repetition weren't so effective, I bet the advertising industry would be far smaller. Try completing these slogans:
- I can't believe it's not butter
- Melts in your mouth, not in your hand
- Just do it
- The breakfast of champions
You haven't explicitly memorized these slogans, but I bet you'd be hard-pressed to forget them. (Most of?) you know them effortlessly because you see and hear them every now and then. The same principle underlies spaced repetition.
A spaced repetition system (SRS) is basically a program that tests you using flash cards. The major departure from an ordinary flash card program is that an SRS has a scheduler which decides when to test you on each fact. The scheduling of a fact is influenced by how well you know that fact. That's the essence of an SRS; many SRS programs have all sorts of extra functionality on top of that since they're used (and developed) by people who are humorlessly serious about learning. Like me.
I really like spaced repetition because it is rarely boring. You are never bogged down reviewing the same dozen cards that you know. With traditional flash cards, facts you know very well and facts you don't have the same precedence. Spaced repetition software tests you on facts you know well far less often than facts you don't know well yet. Unlike people, not all facts are created equal. You don't need to review every day that Boston is the capital of Massachusetts, especially if that's where you live. On the other hand, you may need to be reminded often that Regina is the capital of Saskatchewan. I sure do. Who even lives there.
Ready for another example? The kanji 雑 (miscellaneous) is pretty new to me, so I'm likely to see it again in the next day or two. On the other hand, every time I've been tested on the kanji 副 (vice-) I've gotten it correct, so I'm not going to see it again for four months. And I bet I will remember it come May. If not, Anki will adjust the card's interval accordingly.
As of this writing I have 960 cards in my deck. It would take hours to review all of them every night. Not to mention that such reviews would be boring as hell, since I know most of the facts very well. Thanks to spaced repetition knowing that I am capable of learning, I review only about 64 cards per day. That may still seem like a lot, but such a review takes only fifteen or twenty minutes a day. I'll gladly review 64 distinct cards a day over doing hundreds (thousands?) of repetitions of the same set of flash cards the night before an exam. Furthermore, SRS is designed to build memories that last longer than a semester.
Most spaced repetition systems will actually let you grade yourself based on how well you know the fact. There's obviously a large gap between struggling to recall a fact before eventually getting it and having the answer pop into your head before you even finish reading the question. You will see cards of the former type more often than cards of the latter type.
Anki is one of the best spaced repetition systems. I use it to learn Japanese. I trust Anki so much that I feel if my deck lacks a particular word, phrase, kanji, or proper name, then I do not know it.
I have recently begun to use Anki for more than just Japanese. I have a Miscellaneous deck into which I put whatever I feel is worth knowing. I learn state capitals, Canadian province capitals , and words that I am not comfortable using in a sentence or whose definitions are vague. I should also start putting in different kinds of things like maps with one country's label erased and Perl's more unusual special variables. Maybe I'll even prepare for the CPAN drinking game. :) Getting more exotic, there are people who put art into the SRS to learn more about art history, and even quotes from personal development books so that the ideas are constantly in mind, which is more likely to effect change.
I am not in school any more, but if I were, I would definitely have an Anki deck for each of my classes.
I used Anki to learn the Japanese poem Iroha. I'm not very into poetry, but Iroha is worth knowing for several reasons. It's a pangram of the (circa 1000AD) Japanese syllabary, so it immediately has Cool Points. The order of the kana in Iroha is still used in modern Japan for labeling Go boards and theater seats. I use it to practice writing all the kana.
Iroha is far too long to use only one card, so the best way to learn it (as pointed out by Study Shack) is by using eight cards, one for each line of the poem. Each card has a different line blanked out and your job is to produce the missing line. Here's what Anki's review interface looks like (with the answer revealed in the lower half):
Anki has a convenient feature called 'cloze deletion' that makes creating eight similar cards like this take only a minute.
By the way seeing the other seven lines of the poem in every card is like even more spaced repetition, for free.
Facts are not limited to a front and back. Each fact belongs to a model. The model lets you control which fields are available (including requiredness and uniqueness constraints on each field). Some models I use are Sentence (which has fields 日本語, Meaning, Readings, and Source) and Capital (Region, Capital). Models also control how cards of that model are displayed.
As you can see, you can also generate several cards from a single fact. Not only do I want to test myself to be able to produce the capital of a given region, but I also want to test myself on producing a region given just its capital city.
You can have as many fields in a model as you want, and you can generate many different types of cards for each fact. You could create eight cards based on ten fields if you were so inclined. This is powerful stuff! Anki lets you uphold the Don't Repeat Yourself principle dear to many programmers.
alert(). Providing a full web browser gives Anki basically limitless flexibility!
Anki is written in Python. Not only is its UI extensible, but the backend seems to be designed that way as well. There are a dozens of plugins that are easily available in File > Download > Shared Plugin. A lot of them offer incremental improvements, but there are two that have made Anki significantly better for me.
I've noticed a nasty corner case of spaced repetition as implemented by Anki. If you get a (usually brand new) card wrong, you'll see it again very soon, sometime within the same review. You'll probably then remember it easily thanks to short-term memory (or perhaps very fleeting long-term memory). So you mark it honestly, as a three, which schedules it for review in two or three days. By the time you review it again you'll have forgoten it. Lame.
The Learn mode plugin alleviates this problem by performing a review with much shorter intervals. Cards are scheduled only seconds and minutes in the future, rather than d until there are no more cards for review (since they'rel scheduled a few minutes into the future). This usually results in 10 or 15 reviews for each fact. Then I go back to the Anki on your iPod or iPhone. You sync with regular Anki using http over wifi; the plugin provides a web server. There's another interface if your iPod/iPhone is jailbroken - Anki Mini - with more features but I had less luck in getting it to work correctly.
The iAnki interface is much simpler than Anki's. You can't add or edit cards, or even look at your card list. You can use iAnki only to review. Despite that, iAnki is still worth having. Maybe someday they (or I!) will add lots more functionality.
When learning kanji it's really important to practice writing them out. For a while I used the air or the back of my hand. Turns out I'm way too forgiving of errors when I do that. So I really wanted a canvas directly in iAnki that I could use to grade myself properly.
I found Web Canvas which turned out to be quite good in terms of functionality and ease-of-use. I had to patch it to accept my iPod's touch gestures (which was incorporated upstream) but after that it was pretty smooth sailing. (update: I've also submitted some patches to iAnki itself). Here's what my iAnki looks like for testing a kanji:
This is asking us to produce the kanji for "frost".
Now I've written out the kanji. As fun as touchscreens are, it's really hard to demonstrate good penmanship with them. This is actually embarrassingly bad.
Finally I check the answer against what I wrote. Since I got this correct, and I recalled it effortlessly, I marked it as a four. Anki scheduled this kanji to appear again in about eight weeks.
Most importantly, Anki lets you measure your worth with graphs and statistics! This is a graph of facts I've added over the past month. The spike on the fifth is when I played Phantasy Star IV all day and added a bunch of sentences.
It also tells you how difficult each card is. So here are the cards that trouble me most. I should give them special treatment, such as cramming them for a while or something.
All of your cards are stored in a SQLite database so if Anki doesn't offer exactly the kind of information you want, you can still get at it. I used the database directly to produce a calendar of kanji I've learned. That was a little worrying; I didn't realize how few kanji I learned in November and December (compared to October). But for the same reason it was also motivating.
Anki is a wonderful program. I will use Anki and its successors for the rest of my life. It's almost too bad Anki is free software.. I would have liked to be able to retire on commission. ;)
- Yes I know I attend wild parties. :) ↩
- Similarly, writing this is boring as hell because I know all of this. But you don't. So you're welcome. As if you were even grateful to begin with... Just get out my face and click this: ↩
- Do you remember the capital of Saskatchewan? It's still Regina ↩
- I don't know. That's a useless example. I have a better one later. It lives between where you came from and where you are now. ↩
- This is the better example I was talking about. Case closed. ↩
- In ten years I'm going to happen upon this image and cry. ↩
- which owns ↩
- Quick! Capital of Saskatchewan! Go! Don't look at footnote 3 either. ↩
- Sorry about all the footnotes. I made it really easy to make them. :) ↩ | <urn:uuid:2f1b969e-88a4-40ee-8f95-419a9444bc0d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sartak.org/2010/01/on-learning.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971665 | 2,414 | 2.609375 | 3 |
'St John the Evangelist'
© David Lewis family interests
This painting was originally part of a series of portraits of Christ and his apostles, known as an Apostolado in Spanish. El Greco was the first artist in Spain to paint the theme, probably around 1600. His first Apostolado was so successful that he painted at least five more.
This St John was probably painted at the end of El Greco’s life. It has all the characteristics of his later work, including blurred facial features, free brushwork and sharp colours. It was probably ordered by a wealthy religious institution, as 13 canvases by El Greco would have been too expensive for an individual to buy. | <urn:uuid:d6d6e25e-7e62-43e4-a05e-6411ca5e5d23> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/exhibitions/collectors-eye/el-greco.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.992168 | 144 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Oregon may lose a large chunk of funding for clean water projects.
"The U.S. government surprised a lot of people [last month by] proposing that Oregon, alone among 34 coastal states, should be rejected for continued pollution-control funding because it's a laggard in controlling certain kinds of pollution along its shores," the Oregonian reported.
The state may be forced to part with "about $4 million a year in federal grant money used for stream restoration and other local watershed projects because its coastal nonpoint pollution control program has continually fallen short of federal requirements," the Statesman Journal reported.
The National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration and the EPA are in the midst of a 90-day public comment period on whether to disapprove funding for Oregon's coastal nonpoint pollution control program.
"The two agencies have found that Oregon’s program falls short in key areas. EPA and NOAA are required to make a final decision by May 15, 2014," the Columbia Basin Fish & Wildlife News Bulletin reported.
According to the state, Oregon "is committed to gaining approval of its coastal nonpoint source pollution program." State officials argued in a backgrounder that Oregon is already in the process of addressing major issues.
The Oregonian editorial board defended its home state.
The idea that Oregon is the only state struggling with pollution is "a hard thought to register if you've walked along the Gulf Coast of Texas or Louisiana, swum in waters off New Jersey or, for that matter, kayaked in sullied parts of Puget Sound," the board said.
The board argued that the state's pollution levels have improved in recent years.
"That isn't to say some mid-size and smaller streams, particularly those known not to carry fish and situated well into the Coast Range, have not been hammered by logging and other forest uses. Neither is it to say stream clarity and fish habitat haven't been fouled by silt carried by rainwater rushing away from a new construction site," the board wrote.
Nevertheless, the defunding effort is off the mark, according to the board.
"The proposal to ding Oregon follows more than a decade of fruitful collaboration by Oregon with both agencies and Oregon's federally confirmed adherence to 53 of the agencies' 56 'management measures' to ensure water quality," the board said.
Oregon has also struggled recently to maintain federal funding for algae resistance. Read more on Water Online.
Image credit: “oregon coast," © 2005 ((brian)), used under an Attribution 2.0 Generic license: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
Want to publish your opinion? | <urn:uuid:0c1ae4a1-94a6-4972-8f0b-7cd9d7aa3099> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wateronline.com/doc/polluted-waters-may-cost-oregon-federal-funding-0001?atc~c=771%20s=773%20r=001%20l=a | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952959 | 545 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Lemons are rich source of vitamin C, so can be used for the treatment of scurvy. They fight against infections and also help in production of WBCs and antibodies, which help in strengthening the immune system.
It is a good antioxidant and helps in deactivating the free radicals and prevents us from diseases like cancer and heart strokes.
Lemon helps to increase the good cholesterol level and reduces the bad cholesterol levels and helps in lowering the blood pressure.
Lemon is anti-carcinogenic and is found useful to lower the rates of prostate, colon and breast cancers. It also prevents the formation of nitrosamine in the gut.
Lemon juice in hot water helps in purifying the liver and clears the digestive system.
It a natural skin bleach, which helps in reducing the pigments and decreases the risk of chemical allergic reactions.
We always have a misconception that lemon juice increases the cold, but lemon juice is useful for the prevention of common cold.
Urinary tract infections like gonorrhea can be prevented and treated by using lemon juice.
It is also used as a topical agent to prevent the poison and pains of bites and stings of certain insects.
Lemon is used as a soothing agent when it is applied with glycerin.
Lemon juice taken with salt every morning is helpful in reducing cholesterol levels and also brings weight down.
It is a good mouthwash, as it whitens the teeth, removes plaque and strengthens the enamel.
Lemon juice is also used to prevent and cure osteoarthritis.
These are some of the numerous health benefits of lemon, but the question is how much of lemon should be consumed? This purely depends on the health and weight of the person, if you weigh less than 70 kg then it is advisable to take half of a lemon, but if you are above 70 kg, than you can consume whole lemon. For maximum benefits, it is good to take it twice a day.
The most popular citizen journalists' reports on merinews chosen automatically on the basis of views and comments | <urn:uuid:afaf13f8-7a6c-4ac9-9ffd-444ffc3f8c38> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merinews.com/article/lemon---an-alkalizing-powerfood/15876129.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938215 | 427 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Your third-grader never seems to have any homework. The 12-year-old intends to do his ''later,'' after a very important TV show. And if you check the high-school sophomore, you'll discover she's solving those algebra problems while listening to rock music or talking on the telephone.
Should parents get involved in homework? If so, to what extent?
Homework is essentially a matter between teacher and child, a means by which the students develop self-reliance, learning to work on their own and to take responsibility for their work. Although parents can certainly give a bit of help on special assignments, they defeat this purpose if they regularly insert themselves into the learning process, sitting alongside children every evening, checking each paper or doing research.
Instead, their obligation is to organize homes in a way that will make it easier for youngsters to do their work. By providing the proper atmosphere and structure, parents can at least get their children started. Much of the rest is up to them.
Here are a few tips that may help:
* Each day, set aside a definite time period for homework. Children feel secure with routine and are less likely to balk at study time if it is as predictable as meals or baths. Although some childen don't mind doing their homework right after school, most seem to need some physical activity and socializing at these hours, accepting study time more happily if it is scheduled after dinner. Whatever time is chosen, make sure it becomes a priority.
If a student never seems to have any homework or says it's completed in class each day, better check with the teacher. If students are, in fact, caught up on assignments (or if they are in a primary grade where homework is not given on a daily basis), establish the study habit anyway. Encourage them to read a library book, practice printing, or work on stamp collections - any intellectual pursuit that will help develop a pattern.
* Have a definite place for homework, preferably isolated from other family activities. Ideally, children should be able to study in their own bedrooms, equipped with desk, supplies, and a good reading lamp. In larger families or smaller living quarters, there are other options.
Dining-room or kitchen tables make good work spaces with large surfaces for papers and books. Roommates can share a long piece of fiberboard mounted on two cubes, where supplies can be stored.
Wherever the work space, have the child use it all the time. Not only can materials be nearby, thus cutting down on time spent gathering everything together, but sitting down at a familiar spot will eventually trigger a ''now it's time to study'' reaction. By contrast, a youngster who wanders aimlessly each evening, looking for a place to do a math assignment, wastes a lot of energy.
* Keep distractions to a minimum. A home cannot be completely silent, but even the most avid scholar will become discouraged if surrounded by noise and conversation.
TV and telephone calls should be off-limits during study time. If this means temporarily removing the upstairs extension phone, do it.
If teen-agers insist they study better with the radio on, be sure they keep the volume low. | <urn:uuid:0e2277f0-3ce1-43ee-8e9b-177f8fbb8cd0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.csmonitor.com/1983/1024/102415.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965477 | 654 | 3.234375 | 3 |
- Resource Centers
A difference between adult and childhood asthma was found in a study published in the Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (January 2004). The study of 80 subjects with severe asthma found that the presence of inflammatory cells called eosinophils helps determine the differences between asthma patients.This finding adds to the growing data that, instead of a single disease, asthma is a group of syndromes with different origins and biologic characteristics. Such knowledge may lead to better diagnosis and treatment of people with asthma. Lead author Sally Wenzel, MD, said, "We found that patients whose asthma began in childhood were more frequently allergic than those whose asthma began as adults, while adult-onset asthma was associated with more rapid loss of lung function." | <urn:uuid:a188b780-c6a1-440f-ba6b-913cfeb04dce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pharmacytimes.com/publications/issue/2004/2004-03/2004-03-7730 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969676 | 153 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Robinson Crusoe Theme of Wealth
As an 18th-century mariner on the high seas, Robinson Crusoe is very interested in commerce, trade, and the accumulation of wealth. After all, the whole reason that Crusoe is on the ocean in the first place is to take part in trade. He makes money in Africa and also in the sugar plantations he buys in Brazil. While a religious theme is present throughout the book, so too is the idea of Crusoe's economic individualism.
Questions About Wealth
- What does Crusoe's father say about money?
- Why does Crusoe buy slaves for his sugar plantation?
- Why does Crusoe save the money he finds on the sinking ship, even though he has no use for it at the time?
- Is wealth Crusoe's reward at the end of the novel?
Chew on This
Robinson Crusoe suggests that wealth is not as important as spiritual well-being.
In the novel, wealth is a reward for the virtuous. | <urn:uuid:e0544731-bc34-4451-addf-8ad32ce73ce8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shmoop.com/robinson-crusoe/wealth-theme.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971609 | 209 | 3.375 | 3 |
Don’t miss out. Stay Informed. Get EcoWatch’s Top News of the Day.
Many people know the issues with fracking when it comes to water and air pollution, but animals are also at risk. Two studies in the last two years, show how farm animals and aquatic life are impacted by fracking.
A study by two Cornell University researchers indicates the process of hydraulic fracturing deep shale to release natural gas may be linked to shortened lifespan and reduced or mutated reproduction in cattle—and maybe humans.
Without knowing exactly what chemicals are being used, and in what quantities, it is difficult to perform laboratory-style experiments on, say lab rats. But farm animals are captive, surrounded by electric and barbed wire fences.
And when fracking wastewater is spilled across their pasture and into their drinking water, and they start dying and birthing dead calves, one can become suspicious that there is a connection.
Which is what the Cornell researchers found during a year-long study of farm animals, based primarily on interviews with animal owners and veterinarians in six states: Colorado, Louisiana, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Texas.
“Animals can nevertheless serve as sentinels for human health impacts,” the report, Impacts of Gas Drilling on Human and Animal Health, notes. “Animals, particularly livestock, remain in a confined area and, in some cases, are continually exposed to an environmental threat.”
The report has been produced by Robert E. Oswald, a biochemist and Professor of Molecular Medicine at Cornell University, and Michelle Bamberger, a veterinarian with a master’s degree in pharmacology.
In one case, an accidental release of fracking fluids into a pasture adjacent to a drilling operation resulted in 17 cows dead within an hour. Exposure to fracking fluids running onto pastures or into streams or wells also reportedly led to pregnant cows producing stillborn calves, goats exhibiting reproductive problems and other farm animals displaying similar problems. Farmers reported effects within one to three days of animals consuming errant fracking wastewater.
“Of the seven cattle farms studied in the most detail, 50 percent of the herd, on average, was affected by death and failure of survivors to breed,” the researchers noted.
Other examples seem to confirm animal health problems after exposure to fracking wastewater. Animals exposed to it have the problems; animals separated from it—most of them, anyway, do not.
The report points out a major difference between company and non-company observers. Area residents and conservation groups look at the existing evidence and try to err on the side of “let’s be careful, here.”
According to Natural Resources Defense Council’s Amy Mall, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a peer-reviewed journal article that discusses the results of the investigation into a 2007 fracking wastewater spill in Kentucky. Fracking wastewater that was being stored in open air pits overflowed into Kentucky’s Acorn Fork Creek and left an orange-red substance, contaminating the creek with hydrochloric acid, dissolved minerals and metals, and other contaminants.
Prior to this pollution, the creek was so clean that it was designated an Outstanding State Resource Water. The Creek provides excellent habitat for the Blackside dace, a small colorful minnow protected by the Endangered Species Act (ESA) because it is a threatened species.
State and federal scientists found that the toxic fracking waste “killed virtually all aquatic wildlife in a significant portion of the fork.” The dead and distressed fish had developed gill lesions and suffered liver and spleen damage.
The lead USGS scientist in the investigation stated: “Our study is a precautionary tale of how entire populations could be put at risk even with small-scale fluid spills.”
One of the things that bothers Mall the most about this case is that the scientists had been alerted to the fish kill “by a local resident.” All spills are supposed to be reported—by the oil and gas company—to the National Response Center.
You know how companies have been telling the public for years that frack fluid is mostly water and safe ingredients that are found in your home? Many people have been saying for years that, even diluted, the frack fluid ingredients can be very harmful to health, and this case is just additional evidence. Thanks to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for enforcing the law and levying the largest fine ever for a violation of the ESA in Kentucky. While the fine was only $50,000, it is larger than many other fines paid by the oil and gas industry. Regulators should be imposing the highest penalties allowed under the law to start to create an incentive for the oil and gas industry to stop violating regulations.
Visit EcoWatch’s FRACKING page for more related news on this topic. | <urn:uuid:71fdbd00-0404-428e-8381-a460f012ac56> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ecowatch.com/2014/01/30/5-ways-fracking-hurts-animals/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946069 | 1,011 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Inflammation of the Testicle (Orchitis)
Patient Comment Read 1 Comment
Orchitis is an inflammatory condition of one or both testicles in males, generally caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
Orchitis in children most commonly occurs as a result of a viral infection.
Less commonly, orchitis can be caused by a bacterial infection. Generally speaking, most cases of bacterial orchitis occur from the progression and spread of epididymitis (inflammation of the coiled tube on the back of the testicle), either from a sexually transmitted disease (STD) or from a prostate gland/urinary tract infection. This condition is termed epididymo-orchitis.
Individuals may be at risk for non-sexually transmitted orchitis if they have not been immunized against mumps, if they get frequent urinary tract infections, if older than 45 years of age, or if they frequently have a catheter placed into their bladder.
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 4/1/2016
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Men's Health Resources
- 6 Ways to Keep Exercising Outside With Allergies
- Top Causes of Hearing Loss
- Are We Close to a Cure for Cancer? | <urn:uuid:edd600e9-5ed6-4dbb-b6b8-932f238119fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.emedicinehealth.com/inflammation_of_the_testicle_orchitis/article_em.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.866695 | 480 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Teresa González-de Cossío
- Breastfeeding in Mexico was stable, on average, but deteriorated among the poor, whereas complementary feeding improved: results from the 1999 to 2006 National Health and Nutrition SurveysTeresita González de Cossío
Research Center on Nutrition and Health, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
J Nutr 143:664-71. 2013..Mexican IYCFP indicate that public policy must protect breastfeeding while promoting the timely introduction of complementary feeding...
- Breast-feeding practices in Mexico: results from the Second National Nutrition Survey 1999Teresa Gonzalez-Cossio
Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Centro de Investigaciones en Nutricion y Salud, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
Salud Publica Mex 45:S477-89. 2003..To assess breast-feeding (BF) practices and determinants of exclusive BF (EBF) < 4 and < 6 months (mo) among women and infants < 23 mo in the NNS-1999...
- Child malnutrition in Mexico in the last two decades: prevalence using the new WHO 2006 growth standardsTeresa González-de Cossío
Centro de Investigaciones en Nutricion y Salud, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
Salud Publica Mex 51:S494-506. 2009..To describe preschool malnutrition prevalence and trends in Mexican children for the 1988, 1999 and 2006 Mexican National Nutrition Surveys using WHO-2006 standards and National Center for Health Statistics/WHO (NCHS/WHO) references...
- Energy and nutrient intake in Mexican adolescents: analysis of the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey 2006Sonia Rodríguez-Ramírez
Centro de Investigación en Nutrición y Salud, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
Salud Publica Mex 51:S551-61. 2009..To describe energy and nutrient intake and adequacy percentages in Mexican adolescents included in the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey 2006 (ENSANUT 2006) as well as the proportion of population at risk of dietary inadequacy... | <urn:uuid:1c23a36e-ef82-4aa3-9771-ea512b7d8eff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.labome.org/expert/mexico/gonzlez-de/teresa-gonz--lez-de-coss--o-412929.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.658342 | 480 | 2.796875 | 3 |
A collection of albumen photographs of 12 California Missions, taken by nineteenth-century photographer William Henry Jackson
sometime between 1885 and 1890.
One or more images of the following missions are included: San Antonio de Padua, San Carlos Borroméo de Carmel, San Diego
San Fernando Rey, San Francisco de Asís, San Gabriel Arcángel, San Juan Bautista, San Juan Capistrano, San Luis Rey, San Miguel
Santa Barbara and Santa Ines. The photographs primarily show the missions’ front façades or courtyards, both in ruins and
with slight repair work.
William Henry Jackson was born April 4, 1843, in Keeseville, New York. While growing up, Jackson taught himself how to
paint and draw; at the age of 15, he was first exposed to photography through a job he took at a local photographer's studio.
After serving in the Civil War, he went to Omaha,
Nebraska, to help run a photography studio with his brothers.
In 1869, Jackson was approached by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden, the head of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories,
who asked Jackson to join his team. Jackson did so, and
for the next seven years took photographs of hot springs, geysers, and mineral formations in the territory that is now Yellowstone
National Park. After this project, Jackson began to take
photographs of landmarks along the Union Pacific Railroad to sell to tourists.
At some point between 1885 and 1890, Jackson traveled to California and took photographs of the California missions, which
were then in ruins and being viewed in a romantic light as part
of California's mythic past. To cater to tourists, Jackson photographed most, if not all, of the missions and sold them to
the steady stream of sightseers.
At the age of 81, Jackson swapped photography for painting, focusing on the development of the American West as his subjects.
He died on June 30, 1942, in New York City at the age of 99.
39 albumen photographs 17.8 x 23.5 cm. (7 x 9 ¼ in.), on mounts measuring 20 x 25.5 cm. (8 x 10 in.)
The Huntington Library does not require that researchers request permission to quote from or publish images of this material,
nor does it charge fees for such activities. The responsibility for identifying the copyright holder, if there is one, and
obtaining necessary permissions rests with the researcher.
Open to qualified researchers by prior application through the Reader Services Department. For more information, contact Reader | <urn:uuid:db8ba26b-2f67-4e7f-b15e-8fcc3b7ed8b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8251jwh/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934574 | 542 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
August 27, 1997
Explanation: A lunar eclipse can be viewed in a leisurely fashion. Visible to anyone on the night side of planet Earth (weather permitting), totality often lasts an hour or so as the moon glides through the Earth's shadow. But a solar eclipse is more fleeting. Totality can last a few minutes only for those fortunate enough to stand in the path of the Moon's shadow as it races across the Earth's surface. For the April 29, 1995 annular solar eclipse, photographer Olivier Staiger was standing in Macara, Ecuador under partially cloudy skies. Just before the maximum annular eclipse phase he recorded this dramatic moment as a bird flew near the sun. Very accurate predictions of eclipses have long been possible. The next solar eclipse will occur on September 2 and be visible from Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica. The next lunar eclipse on September 16 will be visible from the Eastern Hemisphere.
Authors & editors:
NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply.
A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC
&: Michigan Tech. U. | <urn:uuid:c15ad7d0-2763-4863-8566-9f1624343f30> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.phy.mtu.edu/apod/ap970827.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.909578 | 257 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Debating Eighth-Grade Graduations
Download MP3 (Right-click or option-click the link.)
This is the VOA Special English EDUCATION REPORT.
In the United States, middle school is the period between elementary school and eighth grade. Often this is a difficult period of change for children. If all goes well, four years later, they are high school graduates.
Graduation is a term traditionally connected with high school or college. Yet there are even kindergartens and preschools that hold "graduations." These might be mostly for fun. But some people are concerned about the popularity of eighth-grade graduations.
Some families may have trouble paying for costly celebrations organized by parents or schools. Yet they may feel social pressure to take part.
The same criticism has been made for years about high school graduations and senior proms. A prom, short for promenade, is a formal dance.
But critics say that, more importantly, eighth-grade graduations may send the wrong message -- that an eighth-grade education is enough. They are concerned especially about poor communities where many people never finish high school.
The subject has even entered the presidential campaign. Democratic candidate Barack Obama talked about it in a recent speech at a Chicago church. The senator from Illinois said children should be expected to finish high school and college. He reminded people "you're supposed to graduate from eighth grade."
"Let's not have a huge party," he said, "let's just give them a handshake."
A growing number of middle school administrators seem to agree. They are making changes. For example, instead of graduation, some schools now call it a promotion ceremony.
James Williams is the superintendent of public schools in Buffalo, New York. He is urging the schools in his district to hold "moving up" ceremonies at the end of eighth grade. Families would celebrate that students are moving up to the next level of their education.
The school chief says graduation from high school should be the goal. And the ceremony then, he says, should be an important, special and serious event in students' lives.
But some parents in schools that are trying to limit eighth-grade graduations say administrators are overreacting. They say graduation ceremonies are a good way to celebrate success in school. And they say the recognition might make some students more likely to complete their education.
And that's the VOA Special English EDUCATION REPORT, written by Nancy Steinbach. I'm Steve Ember. | <urn:uuid:f800c780-3de1-48c6-aa5b-757d1c0c5628> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.manythings.org/voa/0/12498.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968218 | 511 | 2.65625 | 3 |
View A Video on Air Cylinders - A Quick Introduction
Air cylinders, which are also known as compressed air cylinders and
pneumatic cylinders, are pneumatic tools that use the force of
compressed air to move things. They are among the most common pneumatic
tools and are used in food processing and packaging, metal working,
automotive manufacturing, mining, textile production and many other
Every air cylinder is composed of a piston, end covers and a cylinder barrel with at least one air inlet. As compressed air is directed into the cylinder, it pushes the piston along the cylinder's length. The cylinder can be connected to a protruding rod or other structure, which is itself connected to the object that is intended to be moved. There are two categories into which all air cylinders fit. In single acting cylinders, a single inlet allows compressed air in, which moves the piston. A spring behind the piston pushes the piston back when the compressed air is evacuated. In double acting cylinders, two inlets, one on either side of the piston, allow compressed air in and out, pushing the piston back and forth. Valves control the flow of compressed air to the cylinder in both configurations. Other cylinder construction varieties include rotary cylinders, cable cylinders and rodless cylinders, all of which are alternatives to rod-equipped cylinders. Stainless steel and brass are among the most common cylinder construction materials. Compact cylinders, miniature air cylinders and small air cylinders are gaining prominence among manufacturers as microtechnology development operations require access to them; air cylinders are available in sizes as small as 2.5 mm in diameter to 1,000 mm in diameter.
Air cylinders function as actuators in pneumatic systems; an actuator is any mechanism that supplies or transmits controlled energy as part of a mechanical process. Many mechanical processes require access to an actuation method that is reliable, makes no use of harmful chemicals and that is available in many configurations. Different applications call for different air cylinder configurations. The single acting cylinder is able to perform an operating motion in one direction. Pressurized air is introduced on one side of a piston, which causes the piston to move. A spring on the other side of the piston supplies the return force after the pressurized air is released. Single acting cylinders require approximately half the amount of air used by a double acting cylinder for a single operating cycle. A double acting pneumatic cylinder is capable of powered motion in two directions. When a cylinder is pushed out in one direction, compressed air moves it back in the other direction. Air lines running into both ends of the cylinder supply the compressed air. Within these two main configuration categories, there are many specialized configurations available.
Cable cylinders have elongated housing, two rollers and a cable that extends from one end of the cylinder to the other. The yoke, which is the load-bearing surface, is suspended by the cable and moves its attached load as the cable moves back and forth. Rotary cylinders differ from typical air cylinders because they allow revolving motion instead of linear motion. They are typically housed in a circular enclosure in which impellers turn around an axis when pushed by a stream of compressed air. The load-bearing carriage is attached to the axis, which turns in circles both clockwise and counter clockwise. Rodless cylinders are made of long barrels formed with a vertical slot that allow the piston to connect to a load-bearing carriage. They can use mechanical or magnetic coupling to convey force, usually to a body that moves along the length of the cylinder. Each of these configurations varies in size and in load-bearing capacity. The smallest varieties are used in the processing of very small electronics, and the largest are used in heavy-duty industrial processes. A cylinder's composition also depends on its intended application. Stainless steel, for example, is chosen for cylinders that will sustain heavy loads and be subject to harsh conditions.
Choosing an air cylinder for a pneumatic system can be a difficult task. ISO 6432-compliant cylinders all conform to the same dimensions from manufacturer to manufacturer, but not all air cylinder producers make compliant cylinders. If two non-ISO-certified cylinders from different manufacturers are compared, they can have the same bore dimensions, but their stroke length and other dimensions may differ. Because so many of the processes in which air cylinders are used require extreme precision, every air cylinder must be carefully chosen to ensure proper and safe operation. Cylinders should be chosen for their ability to move the greatest load at the lowest acceptable velocity with the minimum available pressure. Cylinder mounting hardware, which includes noses, blocks, pivots and other equipment, is chosen based on the size, force and function of the cylinder. Optional components that help to improve cylinder performance or prevent problems include cushions, bumpers, stop tubes, dual pistons, flow controls, position-sensing switches and position feedback sensors. Carefully chosen air cylinders can be great assets to their users; they are effective, environmentally friendly and available in enough configurations to suit the needs of most industries.
Air Cylinder Manufacturers - Cylinders & Valves, Inc.
Air Cylinder Manufacturers - Cylinders & Valves, Inc.
Air Cylinder Manufacturers - Humphrey Products Company
Air Cylinder Manufacturers - Clippard Instrument Laboratory, Inc.
Air Cylinder Manufacturers - Cylinders & Valves, Inc.
Air Cylinder Manufacturers - M & M Rogness Equipment Company
Types of Air Cylinders
have adjustable stops at one or both ends to restrict the amount of
Brass cylinders are pneumatic actuators built of specific copper alloys that resist corrosion and wear and allow use in a number of harsh industrial environments.
Cable cylinders are pneumatic devices that utilize pressure differentials to convert compressed air energy into mechanical energy in order to facilitate lateral movement of a cable or wire and all attached loads.
are flat barrels with round edges and T-slots for sensors along the
entire length of the barrel on three sides. Clean profile cylinders
are used in applications that require ease of cleaning and good hygiene
as the clean, square line design prevents the collection of dust and
also called "short stroke cylinders," are cylinders whose
overall dimensions at zero stroke are minute compared to the typical
cushioned cylinders. These low-profile cylinders are used in applications
in which there is not enough space for a standard length cylinder, as
they can lock or move short distances, even in limited spaces.
power from compressed air into mechanical power.
Double acting cylindershave air lines that provide pressure to both ends of the cylinder,
supplying motion in two directions. The flow of compressed air is controlled
have one piston, and the piston rod extends from both ends of the cylinder.
also called "microcylinders," are small, rectangular, single-acting
air cylinders in which the springs are housed inside enlarged piston
rods. Miniature air cylinders operate in reverse motion and are easy to
install. They offer a range of interchangeable mounting brackets, which attach
to the cylinder ends to provide versatility and adaptability and can
be powered by plant air.
have two or more boxes and pistons combined or stacked in the
are double-acting cylinders that consist of two cylinders with the same
diameter. Multiple-position cylinders provide three or more end positions,
as opposed to the normal two provided by other double-acting cylinders.
are cylinders in which the piston rod, ram or plunger and the relative
rotation of the cylinder housing and piston are set.
have shorter lengths and larger diameters than other cylinders.
are comprised of a piston, a lower and upper port and an expansion chamber.
are similar to single acting air cylinders, but
the port is located on the opposite end in order to provide power on
the retraction (or "pull") stroke.
are encased in a rectangular, box-shaped frame.
Rodless cylinders have a barrel that is formed with a longitudinal
slot, permitting the connection of the piston to the mounting carriage.
A hardened band pneumatically seals the cylinder, while
a second band on the exterior closes the slot and prevents
contamination to the interior of the cylinder; a system of slide rails
divides the two bands in the pressure-free zone between the two piston
seals, which allows movement of the mounting carriage.
Rotary cylinders are pneumatic actuators that utilize pressure differentials, converting compressed air energy into mechanical energy, which is manipulated to facilitate rotational movement.
have only one piston, and the piston rod extends from only one end.
Single acting cylinders have air pressure that supplies motion and force from one side of the
piston flange and a spring that provides the return force after pressure
release. Single-acting air cylinders utilize about half the amount of
compressed air, which is controlled by valves, required by double-acting
air cylinders for a single operating motion.
Small air cylinders are compact pneumatic actuators precision-built to maximize productivity within a limited amount of space.
are cylinders in which the cylinder body encases the piston.
are suitable for harsh environments in which they will be rigorously
cleaned for hygienic reasons or exposed to corrosive forces. Stainless
steel cylinders are often referred to as "throwaway," as
they are irreparable, and therefore, the cheapest of all cylinders.
consist of two or more cylinders with linked piston assemblies.
are held together by exterior tie rods and are usually in a rectangular
consist of a series of twin-cylinder slide units and feature side-by-side
twin cylinders in one body and two piston rods connected with a mounting
plate. This design guarantees precise guiding compared to a typical
cylinder and applies double the force of a cylinder of the same height.
Air Cylinder Terms
A device that converts fluid power into mechanical power. An actuator
may be a cylinder or a fluid motor.
- The amount
of compressed air that is consumed by a pneumatic cylinder. The energy
of the air is converted into power output and exhausted into the atmosphere
on the reversal of the piston stroke.
- Device used
in a pneumatic power system to supply the compressed air.
- A circumferentially
corrugated cylinder that is flexible and thin-walled and may have integral
ends that axially contract or expand when under changing pressure.
- The inside diameter of
the cylinder tube.
- A term referring
to a tightly closing valve seat that prevents the leakage of visible gas
- On the working
side of the piston, the maximum volume of the cylinder from which the
piston displacement volume per stroke is subtracted. Typically, clearance
is expressed as a percentage of the displacement volume.
- A cylinder mounting
- Air that is
at any level of pressure greater than the prevailing atmospheric pressure.
- The connecting
assembly used to translate circular motion to linear motion from the crankcase
and connecting rod to the cylinder head and piston rod.
- A device
in a cylinder that enables the control of movement by restricting the
flow at the outlet, stopping the movement of the piston rod.
- Also referred to
as a "linear motor," it is a device that converts pneumatic
power into linear (in a line) or reciprocating (back-and-forth) motion.
- The driving
force (i.e. the piston power) generated in the cylinder that is a function
of the piston diameter, the working air pressure and resistance caused
A valve that controls the flow of air in a particular direction.
- A situation in which
the valve remains partially open after popping until the pressure further
- A device through which
air is passed in order to separate suspended contaminants. The life of
cylinders and valves is lengthened by using filters.
- A liquid or gas.
- Power conveyed
and maintained by the use of a pressurized fluid.
- A mounting device for
- A device that, when attached
to a safety or safety relief valve, prohibits its opening at the set pressure.
(http://www.iqsdirectory.com/linear-actuators) - A
device that creates mechanical force in a linear manner.
- A designation
describing the position of a valve when it is resting (non-activated).
- A designation
describing the resting position (non-activated) of a valve.
- The sliding piece that
is put into motion by pneumatic pressure. Typically, pistons consist of
a short cylinder fitted inside a cylindrical tube in which it moves in
by opposing forces, operating pressure, inside diameter, length of air
line between control valve and cylinder and size of control valve. The
piston velocity may also be affected by the installation of any quick-exhaust
or throttle valve.
- The use of
a gas, usually air, to transmit, convert or store power.
-The external or internal
terminus of the valve on an air cylinder.
- The relationship
between the surface area of a piston and air pressure of an air cylinder.
- The sum of gauge and atmospheric pressures, which will vary with
- A device that provides
control of the operating pressure of the compressed air system. Regulators
allow working pressure of the system to be adjusted from the minimum to
the maximum at the prop.
- A storage area for
air that, when located near the prop, prevents air starvation.
- A coil of wire, usually in cylindrical form, that is used as
a switch or control for the valve of an air cylinder. When solenoids
a current, they act like a magnet, drawing a moveable core into the coil
as the current flows.
- A device that controls
the flow of air in an air cylinder. | <urn:uuid:73fcfb33-575f-4a70-85a3-35776445d866> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.iqsdirectory.com/air-cylinders/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911814 | 2,887 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Been trying for the past week to get this done. Ive come to a conclusion but theres no way of knowing its correct as I didn't get an answer key. Anyway, heres the question, followed by what Ive done. Thanks.
Consider the precipitation titration of 12.5 ml of a solution that is 0.2 M
in KI and a solution that is 0.05 M in AgN03. Calculate the concentration
of I- and thus Ag+ in solution after the addition of 15.0 mL, 25.0 mL, 50.0
mL and 65.0 mL of the AgN03 solution.
Use these data to construct a titration curve, plotting pAg against volume
of AgN03 solution added.
(Ksp for AgI = 8.3 x 1 0-17)
So what I've done:
The equation is:
KI + AgNO3 -> AgI + KNO3
I first get the starting volume of AgNO3 using volume1 x moles 1 = volume2 x moles2 and I get 50 ml of AgNO3 to start with.
I then get the amount of moles for each solution of AgNO3:
at 50ml - 1.5x10^21
at 65ml - 3.045x10^22
at 75ml - 2.25x10^21
and the other 2 solutions....
Now that I have this information, how do I calculate the concentration of I- and Ag+ ions in AgI?
Its been confusion for me for ages! Thanks to anyone that helps. | <urn:uuid:04462143-339a-4360-8eb6-e359db1ede53> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chemicalforums.com/index.php?topic=41643.0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.884892 | 339 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The Brothers Island Lighthouse is New Zealand’s only rock station. Extremely isolated and desolate, the Brothers Islands are situated on the western side of Cook Strait.
Location: latitude 41°06' south, longitude 174°26' east
Elevation: 79 metres above sea level
Construction: wooden tower
Tower height: 12 metres
Light configuration: modern rotating beacon
Light flash character: white light flashing on every 10 seconds
Power source: batteries charged by solar panels
Range: 19 nautical miles (35 kilometres)
Date light first lit: 1877
The Brothers Island Lighthouse, built in 1877, replaced the light on Mana Island, which sailors often confused with the light at Pencarrow Head.
The lighthouse was built on the larger of the two islands. The tower was built on the highest tip to provide all round visibility of the light.
The island is an extremely isolated and desolate rock, which made building the lighthouse a challenge. There was not enough soil for the workmen to pitch their tents. They were forced to build huts for their accommodation. There was no drinking water on the island and all water, food and supplies had to be shipped in. It took 60 days to land the first shipment of building supplies because of gales and rough seas.
Brothers Island was the last manned lighthouse in New Zealand.
The light began operation with oil-powered illumination in September 1877. It was converted to diesel-generated electricity in 1954.
The station was automated and the last keepers were withdrawn in 1990.
The original light beacon has now been replaced with a 50 watt tungsten halogen beacon which is powered from batteries that are charged by solar panels.
The light is monitored remotely from Maritime New Zealand’s Wellington office.
High resolution image [JPG: 1.07Mb]
Brothers Island was the least popular of all New Zealand’s manned lighthouses. New Zealand’s only rock station, it was notorious for sending keepers ”rock happy” because of the isolation.
This station was deemed unsuitable for women and children because of the hazardous landing and the confined living conditions.
Keepers were completely dependent on the mainland for their supplies, including water. Even when supplies arrived unsoiled, by the third month the meals had become very limited.
The letter books to the Marine Department, written by the keepers, are full of complaints about the poor quality of the supplies.
Despite the difficult living conditions, some keepers enjoyed the peacefulness of life at the Brothers. For many it was a good training ground for a life in the lighthouse service.
Originally the island was manned by four keepers but this was later reduced to three and then finally two. When the keepers were not rostered out to the Island, they would work at the marine department in Wellington.
Brothers Island Lighthouse is inaccessible to the public. The island is now a restricted-access wildlife sanctuary administered by the Department of Conservation. It is home to tuatara and numerous other endangered species. | <urn:uuid:b7be4d5d-2872-43d8-b6b4-b88da02f5514> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.maritimenz.govt.nz/Commercial/Shipping-safety/Aids-to-navigation/Lighthouses-of-NZ/Brothers-island-lighthouse.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972722 | 637 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Kalash or Kalasha is a coconut circled by mango leaves on a pot and is an important accompaniment in various rituals in Hindu religion. A kalasha when filled with water, rice or other grains is known as ‘Purnakumbha.’
The pot for the Kalasha can be made of clay, brass or copper. Nowadays a pot made of any metal is used. Mango leaves are arranged in the mouth of the pot. A coconut – outer green covering removed – is placed over the mouth of the pot. The neck of the pot is tied with a white, yellow or red colored thread or cloth. Some people draw a swastika on the side of the pot. Depending on their artistic skill, some draw various designs using natural products. Today, various designer types of pots are used as Kalasha.
The Kalasha symbolically represents creation. The vacant pot, symbolizes earth, and the water filled symbolizes the primordial water from which life began on earth. Life began in water and nothing can exist in this world without water.
In Hindu Mythology, Lord Vishnu reclines on the ocean and a lotus with the creator Brahma emerges from Him. This indicates that life began in water.
The mango leaves represent the life forms. And coconut a product from the life forms is again filled with water symbolically representing endless cycle and the single thread that runs in all of us.
When devas and asuras churned the ocean to obtain the immortality nectar, it is said that the nectar appeared in a kalasha. Thus it also symbolizes immortality. The water in the kalasha is also used during the consecration of temples and is known as kumbabhisheka and it involves pouring water from several kalashas.
A kalasha is an important accompaniment in Hindu rituals conducted during housewarming or Grihapravesa, wedding, while receiving important dignitaries, during festive occasions and as a welcome sign at the entrance of houses. | <urn:uuid:4c56a586-0928-476a-9185-5bb0a1a72cb4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hindu-blog.com/2007/06/kalash-or-kalasha-symbol-in-hinduism.html?showComment=1268750341967 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958092 | 415 | 2.75 | 3 |
HOUSTON AND AUSTIN TURNPIKE COMPANY
HOUSTON AND AUSTIN TURNPIKE COMPANY. The Houston and Austin Turnpike Company was chartered by the Congress of the Republic of Texas on January 15, 1841, to lay out a road from Austin to Houston. Capital stock of $125,000 was to be divided into 625 shares, with the seven directors to own at least five shares each. Tolls were allowed on condition that the toll gates be at least forty miles apart. The work was to start within twelve months and be completed in five years. The road was to start at Houston, to cross the Brazos River within five miles of San Felipe de Austin, and to continue from the river on the most practical route to Austin. This initial turnpike company was followed by the chartering of some fifty such companies between 1841 and 1905.
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The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, "Houston and Austin Turnpike Company," accessed June 24, 2016, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/erh01.
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Politicians frequently claim energy-efficiency regulations reduce pollution, but the government’s own estimates confirm that the environmental benefits are negligible and are often outweighed by the societal costs they impose.
So says Ted Gayer, co-director of economic studies at the Brooking Institution, a liberal think tank. Speaking before the Subcommittee on Energy and Power of the House Energy and Commerce Committee, Gayer claimed regulators have deviated from well-established principles of cost-benefit analysis to justify expensive energy efficiency regulations by asserting that consumers and companies are making “irrational purchase choices.” To make the math work, regulators claim consumers benefit from government mandates that restrict choice.
Gayer says the one-size-fits-all philosophy of energy efficiency mandates ignore the substantial diversity of preferences, financial resources, and personal situations that consumers and firms must align to make their decisions. Interestingly, Gayer also says that energy efficiency mandates do not promote conservation. They lower the cost of using an appliance, reversing some of the energy savings.
For example, he says, an energy efficiency standard for air conditioners increases the incentive to run the air conditioners longer. Moreoever, energy efficiency standards apply only to new products, which can create incentives for consumers and firms to retain older (and thus less energy-efficient) products.
All in all, Gayer says government regulators behave as though they are better at judging how consumers should spend money on appliances and vehicles than are consumers themselves. And many regulations cost more than they save, Gayer says. "(Researcher) Kip Viscusi and I examined a number of recent government regulations that mandate energy efficiency standards for vehicles and appliances," says Gayer. "Despite the fact that these regulations are frequently touted as pollution-reducing initiatives, the agencies’ own estimates confirm that the environmental benefits are negligible and are often dwarfed by the societal costs they impose. In order to justify these expensive regulations, the agencies assert that consumers and firms are making irrational purchase choices and that they therefore benefit if product choices are restricted to those that meet the agencies’ mandated standards."
Dismissing consumer preferences as irrational is a significant departure from traditional economic thinking, says Gayer. "By claiming regulatory benefits from the correction of so-called 'consumer irrationality,' agencies are shifting regulatory priorities from the important goal of reducing the harm individuals impose on others (through pollution) towards the nebulous and unsupported goal of reducing harm individuals cause to themselves by purchasing purportedly uneconomic products," said Gayer. "This shift from environmental protection to consumer protection results in a host of costly regulations that are far less effective than a government policy that simply sets a price for pollution. It also establishes a dangerous precedent: If agencies can justify regulations on the unsubstantiated premise that consumers and firms (but not regulators) are irrational, then they can justify the expansive use of regulatory powers to control and constrain virtually all choices consumers and firms make." | <urn:uuid:85cb9e7a-27c8-41fd-8f69-c16a9f86830f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://machinedesign.com/news/congress-told-energy-efficiency-regulations-dont-address-environmental-problems | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94388 | 599 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Book IV. Chapter II. Section 3
Principles of Political Economy with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy
Book IV, Chapter II
Influence of the Progress of Industry and Population on Values and Prices
§1. The changes which the progress of industry causes or presupposes in the circumstances of production, are necessarily attended with changes in the values of commodities.
The permanent values of all things which are neither under a natural nor under an artificial monopoly, depend, as we have seen, on their cost of production. But the increasing power which mankind are constantly acquiring over nature, increases more and more the efficiency of human exertion, or, in other words, diminishes cost of production. All inventions by which a greater quantity of any commodity can be produced with the same labour, or the same quantity with less labour, or which abridge the process, so that the capital employed needs not be advanced for so long a time, lessen the cost of production of the commodity. As, however, value is relative; if inventions and improvements in production were made in all commodities, and all in the same degree, there would be no alteration in values. Things would continue to exchange for each other at the same rates as before; and mankind would obtain a greater quantity of all things in return for their labour and abstinence, without having that greater abundance measured and declared (as it is when it affects only one thing) by the diminished exchange value of the commodity.
As for prices, in these circumstances they would be affected or not, according as the improvements in production did or did not extend to the precious metals. If the materials of money were an exception to the general diminution of cost of production, the values of all other things would fall in relation to money, that is, there would be a fall of general prices throughout the world. But if money, like other things, and in the same degree as other things, were obtained in greater abundance and cheapness, prices would be no more affected than values would: and there would be no visible sign in the state of the markets, of any of the changes which had taken place; except that there would be (if people continued to labour as much as before) a greater quantity of all sorts of commodities, circulated at the same prices by a greater quantity of money.
Improvements in production are not the only circumstance accompanying the progress of industry which tends to diminish the cost of producing, or at least of obtaining, commodities. Another circumstance is the increase of intercourse between different parts of the world. As commerce extends, and the ignorant attempts to restrain it by tariffs become obsolete, commodities tend more and more to be produced in the places in which their production can be carried on at the least expense of labour and capital to mankind. As civilization spreads, and security of person and property becomes established, in parts of the world which have not hitherto had that advantage, the productive capabilities of those places are called into fuller activity, for the benefit both of their own inhabitants and of foreigners. The ignorance and misgovernment in which many of the regions most favoured by nature are still grovelling, afford work, probably, for many generations before those countries will be raised even to the present level of the most civilized parts of Europe. Much will also depend on the increasing migration of labour and capital to unoccupied parts of the earth, of which the soil, climate, and situation are found, by the ample means of exploration now possessed, to promise not only a large return to industry, but great facilities of producing commodities suited to the markets of old countries. Much as the collective industry of the earth is likely to be increased in efficiency by the extension of science and of the industrial arts, a still more active source of increased cheapness of production will be found, probably, for some time to come, in the gradually unfolding consequences of Free Trade, and in the increasing scale on which Emigration and Colonization will be carried on.
From the causes now enumerated, unless counteracted by others, the progress of things enables a country to obtain at less and less of real cost, not only its own productions but those of foreign countries. Indeed, whatever diminishes the cost of its own productions, when of an exportable character, enables it, as we have already seen, to obtain its imports at less real cost.
§2. But is it the fact, that these tendencies are not counteracted? Has the progress of wealth and industry no effect in regard to cost of production, but to diminish it? Are no causes of an opposite character brought into operation by the same progress, sufficient in some cases not only to neutralize, but to overcome the former, and convert the descending movement of cost of production into an ascending movement? We are already aware that there are such causes, and that, in the case of the most important classes of commodities, food and materials, there is a tendency diametrically opposite to that of which we have been speaking. The cost of production of these commodities tends to increase.
This is not a property inherent in the commodities themselves. If population were stationary, and the produce of the earth never needed to be augmented in quantity, there would be no cause for greater cost of production. Mankind would, on the contrary, have the full benefit of all improvements in agriculture, or in the arts subsidiary to it, and there would be no difference, in this respect, between the products of agriculture and those of manufactures.*3 The only products of industry which, if population did not increase, would be liable to a real increase of cost of production, are those which, depending on a material which is not renewed, are either wholly or partially exhaustible; such as coal, and most if not all metals; for even iron, the most abundant as well as most useful of metallic products, which forms an ingredient of most minerals and of almost all rocks, is susceptible of exhaustion so far as regards its richest and most tractable ores.
When, however, population increases, as it has never yet failed to do when the increase of industry and of the means of subsistence made room for it, the demand for most of the productions of the earth, and particularly for food, increases in a corresponding proportion. And then comes into effect that fundamental law of production from the soil, on which we have so frequently had occasion to expatiate; the law, that increased labour, in any given state of agricultural skill, is attended with a less than proportional increase of produce. The cost of production of the fruits of the earth increases, cæteris paribus,with every increase of the demand.
No tendency of a like kind exists with respect to manufactured articles. The tendency is in the contrary direction. The larger the scale on which manufacturing operations are carried on, the more cheaply they can in general be performed. Mr. Senior has gone the length of enunciating as an inherent law of manufacturing industry, that in it increased production takes place at a smaller cost, while in agricultural industry increased production takes place at a greater cost. I cannot think, however, that even in manufactures, increased cheapness follows increased production by anything amounting to a law. It is a probable and usual, but not a necessary, consequence.
As manufactures, however, depend for their materials either upon agriculture, or mining, or the spontaneous produce of the earth, manufacturing industry is subject, in respect of one of its essentials, to the same law as agriculture. But the crude material generally forms so small a portion of the total cost, that any tendency which may exist to a progressive increase in that single item, is much over-balanced by the diminution continually taking place in all the other elements; to which diminution it is impossible at present to assign any limit.
The tendency, then, being to a perpetual increase of the productive power of labour in manufactures, while in agriculture and mining there is a conflict between two tendencies, the one towards an increase of productive power, the other towards a diminution of it, the cost of production being lessened by every improvement in the processes, and augmented by every addition to population; it follows that the exchange values of manufactured articles, compared with the products of agriculture and of mines, have, as population and industry advance, a certain and decided tendency to fall. Money being a product of mines, it may also be laid down as a rule, that manufactured articles tend, as society advances, to fall in money price. The industrial history of modern nations, especially during the last hundred years, fully bears out this assertion.
§3. Whether agricultural produce increases in absolute as well as comparative cost of production, depends on the conflict of the two antagonist agencies, increase of population, and improvement in agricultural skill. In some, perhaps in most, states of society, (looking at the whole surface of the earth,) both agricultural skill and population are either stationary, or increase very slowly, and the cost of production of food, therefore, is nearly stationary. In a society which is advancing in wealth, population generally increases faster than agricultural skill, and food consequently tends to become more costly; but there are times when a strong impulse sets in towards agricultural improvement. Such an impulse has shown itself in Great Britain during the last twenty or thirty*4 years. In England and Scotland agricultural skill has of late increased considerably faster than population, insomuch that food and other agricultural produce, notwithstanding the increase of people, can be grown at less cost than they were thirty years ago:*5 and the abolition of the Corn Laws has given an additional stimulus to the spirit of improvement. In some other countries, and particularly in France, the improvement of agriculture gains ground still more decidedly upon population, because though agriculture, except in a few provinces, advances slowly, population advances still more slowly, and even with increasing slowness; its growth being kept down, not by poverty, which is diminishing, but by prudence.
Which of the two conflicting agencies is gaining upon the other at any particular time, might be conjectured with tolerable accuracy from the money price of agricultural produce (supposing bullion not to vary materially in value), provided a sufficient number of years could be taken, to form an average independent of the fluctuations of seasons. This, however, is hardly practicable, since Mr. Tooke has shown that even so long a period as half a century may include a much greater proportion of abundant and a smaller of deficient seasons than is properly due to it. A mere average, therefore, might lead to conclusions only the more misleading, for their deceptive semblance of accuracy. There would be less danger of error in taking the average of only a small number of years, and correcting it by a conjectural allowance for the character of the seasons, than in trusting to a longer average without any such correction. It is hardly necessary to add, that in founding conclusions on quoted prices, allowance must also be made as far as possible for any changes in the general exchange value of the precious metals.*6 *7
§4. Thus far, of the effect of the progress of society on the permanent or average values and prices of commodities. It remains to be considered in what manner the same progress affects their fluctuations. Concerning the answer to this question there can be no doubt. It tends in a very high degree to diminish them.
In poor and backward societies, as in the East, and in Europe during the Middle Ages, extraordinary differences in the price of the same commodity might exist in places not very distant from each other, because the want of roads and canals, the imperfection of marine navigation, and the insecurity of communications generally, prevented things from being transported from the places where they were cheap to those where they were dear. The things most liable to fluctuations in value, those directly influenced by the seasons, and especially food, were seldom carried to any great distances. Each locality depended, as a general rule, on its own produce and that of its immediate neighbourhood. In most years, accordingly, there was, in some part or other of any large country, a real dearth. Almost every season must be unpropitious to some among the many soils and climates to be found in an extensive tract of country; but as the same season is also in general more than ordinarily favourable to others, it is only occasionally that the aggregate produce of the whole country is deficient, and even then in a less degree than that of many separate portions; while a deficiency at all considerable, extending to the whole world, is a thing almost unknown. In modern times, therefore, there is only dearth, where there formerly would have been famine, and sufficiency everywhere when anciently there would have been scarcity in some places and superfluity in others.
The same change has taken place with respect to all other articles of commerce. The safety and cheapness of communications, which enable a deficiency in one place to be supplied from the surplus of another, at a moderate or even a small advance on the ordinary price, render the fluctuations of prices much less extreme than formerly. This effect is much promoted by the existence of large capitals, belonging to what are called speculative merchants, whose business it is to buy goods in order to resell them at a profit.
These dealers naturally buying things when they are cheapest, and storing them up to be brought again into the market when the price has become unusually high; the tendency of their operations is to equalize price, or at least to moderate its inequalities. The prices of things are neither so much depressed at one time, nor so much raised at another, as they would be if speculative dealers did not exist.
Speculators, therefore, have a highly useful office in the economy of society; and (contrary to common opinion) the most useful portion of the class are those who speculate in commodities affected by the vicissitudes of seasons. If there were no corn-dealers, not only would the price of corn be liable to variations much more extreme than at present, but in a deficient season the necessary supplies might not be forthcoming at all. Unless there were speculators in corn, or unless, in default of dealers, the farmers became speculators, the price in a season of abundance would fall without any limit or check, except the wasteful consumption that would invariably follow. That any part of the surplus of one year remains to supply the deficiency of another, is owing either to farmers who withhold corn from the market, or to dealers who buy it when at the cheapest and lay it up in store.
§5. Among persons who have not much considered the subject, there is a notion that the gains of speculators are often made by causing an artificial scarcity; that they create a high price by their own purchases, and then profit by it. This may easily be shown to be fallacious. If a corn-dealer makes purchases on speculation, and produces a rise, when there is neither at the time nor afterwards any cause for a rise of price except his own proceedings; he no doubt appears to grow richer as long as his purchases continue, because he is a holder of an article which is quoted at a higher and higher price: but this apparent gain only seems within his reach so long as he does not attempt to realize it. If he has bought, for instance, a million of quarters, and by withholding them from the market, has raised the price ten shillings a quarter; just so much as the price has been raised by withdrawing a million quarters, will it be lowered by bringing them back, and the best that he can hope is that he will lose nothing except interest and his expenses. If by a gradual and cautious sale he is able to realize, on some portion of his stores, a part of the increased price, so also he will undoubtedly have had to pay a part of that price on some portion of his purchases. He runs considerable risk of incurring a still greater loss; for the temporary high price is very likely to have tempted others, who had no share in causing it, and who might otherwise not have found their way to his market at all, to bring their corn there, and intercept a part of the advantage. So that instead of profiting by a scarcity caused by himself, he is by no means unlikely, after buying in an average market, to be forced to sell in a superabundant one.
As an individual speculator cannot gain by a rise of price solely of his own creating, so neither can a number of speculators gain collectively by a rise which their operations have artificially produced. Some among a number of speculators may gain, by superior judgment or good fortune*8 in selecting the time for realizing, but they make this gain at the expense, not of the consumer, but of the other speculators who are less judicious. They, in fact, convert to their own benefit the high price produced by the speculations of the others, leaving to these the loss resulting from the recoil. It is not to be denied, therefore, that speculators may enrich themselves by other people's loss. But it is by the losses of other speculators. As much must have been lost by one set of dealers as is gained by another set.
When a speculation in a commodity proves profitable to the speculators as a body, it is because, in the interval between their buying and reselling, the price rises from some cause independent of them, their only connexion with it consisting in having foreseen it. In this case, their purchases make the price begin to rise sooner than it otherwise would do, thus spreading the privation of the consumers over a longer period, but mitigating it at the time of its greatest height: evidently to the general advantage. In this, however, it is assumed that they have not overrated the rise which they looked forward to. For it often happens that speculative purchases are made in the expectation of some increase of demand, or deficiency of supply, which after all does not occur, or not to the extent which the speculator expected. In that case the speculation, instead of moderating fluctuation, has caused a fluctuation of price which otherwise would not have happened, or aggravated one which would. But in that case, the speculation is a losing one, to the speculators collectively, however much some individuals may gain by it. All that part of the rise of price by which it exceeds what there are independent grounds for, cannot give to the speculators as a body any benefit, since the price is as much depressed by their sales as it was raised by their purchases; and while they gain nothing by it, they lose, not only their trouble and expenses, but almost always much more, through the effects incident to the artificial rise of price, in checking consumption, and bringing forward supplies from unforeseen quarters. The operations, therefore, of speculative dealers, are useful to the public whenever profitable to themselves; and though they are sometimes injurious to the public, by heightening the fluctuations which their more usual office is to alleviate, yet whenever this happens the speculators are the greatest losers. The interest, in short, of the speculators as a body, coincides with the interest of the public; and as they can only fail to serve the public interest in proportion as they miss their own, the best way to promote the one is to leave them to pursue the other in perfect freedom.
I do not deny that speculators may aggravate a local scarcity. In collecting corn from the villages to supply the towns, they make the dearth penetrate into nooks and corners which might otherwise have escaped from bearing their share of it. To buy and resell in the same place, tends to alleviate scarcity; to buy in one place and resell in another, may increase it in the former of the two places, but relieves it in the latter, where the price is higher, and which, therefore, by the very supposition, is likely to be suffering more. And these sufferings always fall hardest on the poorest consumers, since the rich, by outbidding, can obtain their accustomed supply undiminished if they choose. To no persons, therefore, are the operations of corn-dealers on the whole so beneficial as to the poor. Accidentally and exceptionally, the poor may suffer from them: it might sometimes be more advantageous to the rural poor to have corn cheap in winter, when they are entirely dependent on it, even if the consequence were a dearth in spring, when they can perhaps obtain partial substitutes. But there are no substitutes, procurable at that season, which serve in any great degree to replace bread-corn as the chief article of food: if there were, its price would fall in the spring, instead of continuing, as it always does, to rise till the approach of harvest.
There is an opposition of immediate interest, at the moment of sale, between the dealer in corn and the consumer, as there always is between the seller and the buyer: and a time of dearth being that in which the speculator makes his largest profits, he is an object of dislike and jealousy at that time, to those who are suffering while he is gaining. It is an error, however, to suppose that the corn-dealer's business affords him any extraordinary profit: he makes his gains not constantly, but at particular times, and they must therefore occasionally be great, but the chances of profit in a business in which there is so much competition, cannot on the whole be greater than in other employments. A year of scarcity, in which great gains are made by corn-dealers, rarely comes to an end without a recoil which places many of them in the list of bankrupts. There have been few more promising seasons for corn-dealers than the year 1847, and seldom was there a greater break-up among the speculators than in the autumn of that year. The chances of failure, in this most precarious trade, are a set-off against great occasional profits. If the corn-dealer were to sell his stores, during a dearth, at a lower price than that which the competition of the consumers assigns to him, he would make a sacrifice, to charity or philanthropy, of the fair profits of his employment, which may be quite as reasonably required from any other person of equal means. His business being a useful one, it is the interest of the public that the ordinary motives should exist for carrying it on, and that neither law nor opinion should prevent an operation beneficial to the public from being attended with as much private advantage as is compatible with full and free competition.
It appears, then, that the fluctuations of values and prices arising from variations of supply, or from alterations in real (as distinguished from speculative) demand, may be expected to become more moderate as society advances. With regard to those which arise from miscalculation, and especially from the alterations of undue expansion and excessive contraction of credit, which occupy so conspicuous a place among commercial phenomena, the same thing cannot be affirmed with equal confidence. Such vicissitudes, beginning with irrational speculation and ending with a commercial crisis, have not hitherto become either less frequent or less violent with the growth of capital and extension of industry. Rather they may be said to have become more so: in consequence, as is often said, of increased competition; but, as I prefer to say, of a low rate of profits and interest, which makes capitalists dissatisfied with the ordinary course of safe mercantile gains.*9 The connexion of this low rate of profit with the advance of population and accumulation, is one of the points to be illustrated in the ensuing chapters.
Notes for this chapter
[The following passage of the original (1848) text was omitted in the 5th ed. (1862): "The former, indeed, so far as present foresight can extend, does not seem to be susceptible to improved processes to so great a degree as some branches of manufacture; but inventions may be in reserve for the future which may invert this relation."]
Book IV. Chapter II. Section 3
[The "fifteen or twenty" of the 1st ed. (1848) was replaced in the 6th ed. (1865) by "twenty or twenty-five," and in the 7th (1871) by "twenty or thirty."]
[Written in 1848.]
A still better criterion, perhaps, than that suggested in the text, would be the increase or diminution of the amount of the labourer's wages estimated in agricultural produce.
[See Appendix X. Prices in the 19th Century.]
Book IV. Chapter II. Section 5
["Or good fortune" added in 3rd ed. (1852).]
[See Appendix Y. Commercial Cycles.]
Book IV. Chapter III. Section 4
End of Notes
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BOND HILL: ORIGIN AND TRANSFORMATION OF A 19TH CENTURY CINCINNATI METRO-SUBURB
Through a synthesis of primary source records, this study explores the origin of the Bond Hill neighborhood of Cincinnati, Ohio, and the motivation of its developers in the Reconstruction Era (1865-1880). The suburban history reveals the role of teetotalers, cooperatives, building associations, railroads, and radical utopians in the founding of a commuter suburb on unincorporated land at the junction of several important transportation routes. The role of the cooperative founder, Henry Watkin, is especially documented. In less detail, this thesis provides a complete survey of the history of the Bond Hill area, from the post-Colonial period, through annexation in 1903, and till the late 1980s. Recommendations for the currently operating Bond Hill Community Council are included in the conclusions. (This study was presented as a thesis in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Community Planning (MCP) at the School of Planning, College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning (DAAP), University of Cincinnati, June 11, 2004).
School:University of Cincinnati
School Location:USA - Ohio
Source Type:Master's Thesis
Keywords:bond hill millcreek township suburb suburban history metropolitan commuter railroad intra urban young men s mercantile library cincinnati hamilton county ohio nineteenth century communitarian henry watkin lafcadio hearn cooperative
Date of Publication:01/01/2004 | <urn:uuid:930c03d9-8bdd-422c-91fa-1b0b87bae390> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.openthesis.org/documents/Bond-hill-origin-transformation-19th-534149.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.883715 | 321 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Persons using assistive technology might not be able to fully access information in this file. For assistance, please send e-mail to: [email protected]. Type 508 Accommodation and the title of the report in the subject line of e-mail.
Viral Gastroenteritis Associated with Eating Oysters -- Louisiana, December 1996-January 1997
Viral gastroenteritis outbreaks caused by caliciviruses (i.e., Norwalk-like viruses or small round-structured viruses) have been associated with eating contaminated shellfish, particularly oysters (Crassostrea virginica) (1-3). This report describes the findings of the investigation of an outbreak of oyster-associated viral gastroenteritis in Louisiana during the 1996-97 winter season and implicates sewage from oyster harvesting vessels as the probable cause of contaminated oysters.
On December 30, 1996, the Louisiana Office of Public Health (LOPH) was notified about a cluster of six persons who had onset of gastroenteritis after eating raw oysters on December 25. During December 30, 1996-January 3, 1997, three additional clusters were identified. In all four clusters, ill persons had eaten oysters harvested from Louisiana waterways. LOPH notified all state epidemiologists in the United States about the apparent association of gastroenteritis with eating oysters and requested reports of suspected cases.
A case of gastroenteritis was defined as three or more watery stools or vomiting within a 24-hour period, with onset during December 15-January 9. A cluster of oyster-related cases was defined as a group of three or more persons who had shared a common meal, at least one of whom had eaten oysters and at least one of whom developed gastroenteritis. Sixty clusters comprising 493 persons were reported from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi, and all were included in the subsequent traceback investigation. Of the 60 clusters, data were included in the descriptive analysis of the illness only for those 34 clusters for whom all persons in a cluster could be interviewed. The 34 clusters comprised 290 persons who completed interviews and were included in the descriptive analysis; 271 of 290 persons supplied information on oyster consumption.
Onsets of illness occurred during December 21-January 7 (Figure_1). Of the 290 persons interviewed, 179 (62%) had symptoms that met the case definition. The most common symptoms were diarrhea (83%), abdominal cramps (78%), vomiting (58%), headache (50%), and fever (50%). The median incubation period was 38 hours (range: 8-90 hours), and the median duration of illness was 2 days (range: 1-14 days). The median age of case-patients was 42 years (range: 14-83 years), and 111 (62%) were male. The number of reported cases peaked during December 31-January 5 (Figure_1); the harvest dates of subsequently implicated oysters ranged from December 15 to January 1. Of 201 persons who ate raw oysters, 153 (76%) became ill, compared with 13 (19%) of 70 persons who did not eat raw oysters (risk ratio=4.0). Small round-structured viruses were found by direct electron microscopy in fecal specimens from eight of 11 ill persons. Sequence analysis of nucleic acid from eight specimens representing six clusters demonstrated three unique genetic sequences that corresponded with oysters harvested from three separate harvest sites. Small round-structured viruses were detected in oysters, but genetic sequencing could not be conducted.
The LOPH traced oysters eaten by ill persons to retailers, wholesalers, and harvesters. Restaurants and seafood markets were inspected to observe handling and storage of shellfish, and tags that identified the date and site of harvesting and the harvester's identification number were obtained from purchasers and retailers of sacks that were definitely or possibly implicated. Retailer records were cross- referenced with records from wholesalers and harvesters to establish the accuracy of information about harvester and site of harvest. Oysters associated with the 60 clusters were traced to 26 retailers, 11 wholesalers, and 20 harvesters. Records from several wholesalers did not agree with the information on the oyster sack tag.
As of February 15 (6 weeks after notification of the outbreak), LOPH, despite repeated attempts, had been successful in completing interviews with only three of 20 harvesters about the date and specific location of harvesting of potentially contaminated oysters. However, with the assistance of Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 12 additional harvesters were interviewed. Of eight oyster harvesting boats inspected, seven had inadequate sewage collection and disposal systems.
Testing by the LOPH Molluscan Shellfish Program determined that a toxic algal bloom, which causes paralytic shellfish poisoning, was present in Louisiana's northeastern waterways beginning November 13, 1996; these findings prompted LOPH to close these waterways that day and required harvesters to move to southeastern harvest sites. In addition, on November 15, a freshwater diversion was opened to decrease the salinity and eliminate the algal bloom in the northeastern waters; the diversion also decreased the salinity in the southeastern waters.
On January 3, 1997, LOPH mandated an emergency closure of eight waterways with suspected contamination southeast of the Mississippi River, and on January 6, LOPH recalled oysters harvested from these sites after December 22, 1996. On January 23, 1997, harvesting was permitted to resume, and no additional cases of oyster-associated gastroenteritis were reported.
Reported by: TA Farley, MD, L McFarland, PhD, Epidemiology Section, Louisiana Dept of Health and Hospitals. M Estes, K Schwab, Baylor Univ, Dept of Virology, Houston, Texas. Viral Gastroenteritis Section, Respiratory and Enteric Viruses Br, Div of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases; Div of Applied Public Health Training (proposed), Epidemiology Program Office, CDC.
Editorial Note: Caliciviruses are small single-stranded RNA viruses that cause acute gastroenteritis characterized by vomiting and/or diarrhea (4). The viruses are difficult to detect, requiring relatively sophisticated molecular methods to identify the virus in fecal specimens and in oysters. There is no reliable marker for indicating presence of the virus in oyster harvesting waters.
This report represents the third oyster-related gastroenteritis outbreak attributed to calicivirus in Louisiana since 1993. An outbreak in 1993 accounted for cases of illness in 73 persons in Louisiana and approximately 130 persons in other states (5) who had consumed oysters from Louisiana. In that outbreak, a harvester with a high level of immunoglobulin A to Norwalk virus reported having been ill before the outbreak and admitted to dumping sewage directly into harvest waters. The findings of the investigation of that outbreak suggested that one ill harvester could contaminate large quantities of oysters in a relatively large oyster bed (6). An oyster-associated outbreak in 1996 was attributed to a malfunctioning sewage disposal system on an oil rig on which some workers had been ill with Norwalk-like gastroenteritis (LOPH, unpublished data, 1997). However, harvesters dumping feces overboard could not be excluded as an additional source of oyster contamination. In both outbreaks, recommendations focused on proper sewage disposal and its regulation.
In this outbreak, the link to the large number of wholesalers and retailers suggests that the oyster contamination preceded distribution and probably occurred in the oyster beds. In addition, harvest sites were 12-15 miles from the nearest community sewage outlet, recreational boating was infrequent in December, commercial boating traffic was infrequent because of the shallow depth of the water, and all oil rigs were considered to have had adequate sewage facilities. The only known source of caliciviruses, such as that implicated in this outbreak, is feces from ill persons. Therefore, based on these considerations, the probable source of human sewage found in the implicated waterways was oyster harvesters, who admitted to routinely discharging their sewage overboard, despite recent recommendations in Louisiana for proper sewage collection and disposal (6; LOPH, unpublished data, 1997).
In previous outbreak investigations, molecular tracebacks generally identified a single strain from a single source. A distinguishing feature of this outbreak was its protracted duration and involvement of three geographically separate harvest sites, each associated with a unique strain of calicivirus. These characteristics suggest a contributory role for different oyster harvesters who were concurrently infected with genetically distinct strains of calicivirus, and each of whom dumped their sewage in different waterways, possibly when environmental conditions (e.g., low water temperatures and decreased salinity) facilitated contamination of oysters with calici- viruses.
Findings in this investigation underscore some of the inadequacies in both the current sewage-disposal practices of oyster harvesting vessels and the oyster tagging system designed to reduce the risk for and magnitude of oyster-associated gastroenteritis outbreaks. Oyster-related outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis probably will continue unless seafood regulators and the oyster industry develop, adopt, and enforce standards for the proper disposal of human sewage from oyster harvesting vessels. Traceback investigations of oysters in outbreaks such as this are difficult because of the prevalence of mislabeling in wholesalers' records and on oyster tags and because harvest identification numbers cannot be consistently traced to harvesters. In this investigation, the inability to accurately trace many of the contaminated oysters hampered efforts to contain the outbreak and prevent recurrences and caused a recall of more products than may have been necessary.
Prevention of oyster-related outbreaks of gastroenteritis requires intensified efforts to 1) develop and enforce laws for appropriate sewage containers on oyster harvesting boats with dump-pumpout stations at docks, 2) educate workers in the oyster industry about the consequences of improper sewage disposal, 3) improve record- keeping by oyster harvesters, wholesalers, and retailers to enhance the reliability of traceback investigations, and 4) further assess the relation between environmental conditions and contamination of oysters.
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Ecological alert! Seas and lakes are filling up with polyethylene microbeads from cosmetic products. Environmentalists deplore the fact that we are caring for our skin but neglecting the planet. The cosmetics industry is looking for non-contaminant alternatives to the ubiquitous plastic particles.
Microbeads are minuscule particles of polyethylene that “scrape" the skin to clean or exfoliate it. They are present in many cosmetics, especially in exfoliating scrubs, gels and soaps, where they gradually started, many years ago, to replace other abrasive materials such as ground pumice, apricot or peach powder or almond or walnut shells – all ingredients that were more natural and biodegradable. But in addition, coloured microbeads also fade our wrinkles and are in makeup, lipstick, etc. One way or the other, the cosmetic today that does not include microbeads is rare.
Aside from being inexpensive as ingredients, plastic microbeads have important stability and duration characteristics from the perspective of the formulation of cosmetics.
Remember that a bottle of facial cleanser may contain 300,000 microbeads that easily end up in rivers and oceans because treatment plants are not always capable of recycling them. The oceans are filling up with plastic waste, and microbeads also pollute, even though they are virtually invisible. In fact, no one yet knows exactly how these products with miniscule diameters might alter the balance of different ecosystems.
But everything comes to an end and it seems that that the end for polyethylene microbeads is near. Pressure from conservation organizations like 5 Gyres has already led major industries in the sector to stop using them or to undertake not to include them in their formulas from a few years hence.
Companies are now looking for alternatives to polyethylene. For example, several teams are investigating the development of new types of microbeads from "biopolyesters", produced by bacteria and rapidly biodegraded by microorganisms that abound in the sea. So far researchers have managed to develop particles of different sizes and colours. Soon we will have them in our toothpaste. | <urn:uuid:fe2fb61a-0442-4a02-bfae-0f4763812051> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thehealthyskinblog.org/cosmetics-polluting-rivers-and-seas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953974 | 451 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Back to Home Page or Contents or Egyptian Mythology or Article Index
Atum (or Tem or Tum) was an early god of Heliopolis, and a predynastic sun-deity. The Heliopolitan theologians interpreted his name to mean the "complete one." A reference to their belief that Atum created himself out of the waters of Nun, either through the effort of his own will power or by uttering his own name, which was the power of the spoken word. He also was called Neb-er-djer, "Lord to the Limit" or Universal God.
He was founder of the Heliopolitan Ennead, and was called Bull of the Ennead, a reference to his cult animal, the bull Mnevis. Sometimes Atum was thought to have originated as a serpent in Nun, and to be destined to return to that form; but through his identification with Re, serpents became his enemies. At times he was represented with an head of an ichneumon, because once when a serpent attacked him, he turned himself into an ichneumon to devour it.
More commonly, however, he s represented as a bearded man, usually aged and tottering to the western horizon as the setting sun. Because he is seen as the creator of the gods and men, and hence of the divine order of heaven and on earth, he was called Lord of the Two Lands and as such was depicted as wearing the pschent, the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, and bearing an ankh scepter, the sign of life and symbol of royal authority.
Originally Atum was androgynous, and as Iusau the sole parent of the first divine couple, Shu and Tefnet; but he was later given two wives, Iusau and Nebhet Hotep. A.G.H.
Grimal, Pierre, Larousse World Mythology, Secaucus,
New Jersey, Chartwell Books, 1965, pp. 30-31
Ions, Veronuca, Egyptian Mythology, Feltham, Middlesex, Hamlyn Publishing Group, Ltd., 1968. p. 40 | <urn:uuid:47e97211-8125-4432-aa8e-562168e6786d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.themystica.com/mythical-folk/articles/atum.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982653 | 449 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Urban Harvest: Fall foliage makes its appearance in Houston area
Updated 11:40 am, Saturday, November 3, 2012
Texas is well known for many things, but fall foliage color is not one of them. Conditions need to be right for those few trees that provide fall color to give us an impressive display. Our recent run of sunny days and cool nights may give us the color we hope for, just not when we expect it.
Normally, our show of fall color starts in mid-December, just in time for the winter holidays. Those with the responsibility for raking the lawn know that this task could last until spring when new foliage pushes off the old.
Some horticultural sleuthing is required to keep us on a seasonal track.
A closer inspection of what's growing in our gardens and along our neighborhood streets will uncover a number of traditional plants that signal fall is in the air, even when that air is 80-plus degrees Fahrenheit. Most are perfect candidates for the Thanksgiving centerpiece or even Thanksgiving dinner.
American Beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) is a large, native, deciduous shrub that grows up to 6 feet. Large clusters of vibrant purple berries that are edible but may cause upset stomach, appear along the stems through fall and winter. Its foliage is rather coarse, so it best used as a background plant. Chinese Beautyberry stays compact to 3 feet, and the foliage has a finer texture.
Barbados Cherry (Malpighia glabra) is a large shrub or small tree, usually evergreen, growing 15 to 20 feet. It blooms most of the growing season with small, pale pink flowers and begins to produce marble-sized, bright-red fruit from late summer though early winter, and will tolerate full sun to dappled shade. A dwarf variety, which grows to 4 feet, is available.
Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) is a low growing shrub that is semi-deciduous. Abundant clusters of inedible purple-pink berries appear in the fall and are persistent all winter. It grows best in part shade with good drainage and good air circulation.
Hollies (Ilex spp.) are traditional favorites for their display of bright red berries (not edible). This genus includes many species that often have several varieties. They range in size from dwarf shrubs to large trees. One of the less traditional but most dramatic is the native Ilex decidua (Possumhaw or Deciduous Yaupon). When this small tree loses its leaves in late December it exposes hundreds of small red berries that are persistent until the birds or holiday decorators discover them. It grows in part-shade or full sun but produces more berries when it receives at least a half-day of sun.
Antique roses (Rosa spp.) at least some varieties, display fruit in the fall called hips which have high vitamin C content and are used to make jellies and teas. The hips appear in different sizes and shades of orange and red, depending on the variety. Katy Road Pink, Old Blush, Ballerina, Danaë, Moonlight, Penelope, Chestnut Rose, and Jeanne d'Arc are a few varieties that are sure to provide an impressive display of colorful hips.
Chili Pequin (Capsicum annuum var. aviculare) is a small shrub to 2 feet and requires full sun for best fruit production. In most Houston winters it remains an evergreen shrub. It is almost always in flower and produces small, red, hot peppers that are edible if you have a cast-iron stomach. The variety "Firecracker" has slightly larger fruit that starts out purple, turns to orange, then to red.
Citrus (Citrus spp.) fruit ripen from September to January. Not only are they colorful additions to the garden, but they provide fruit for your household or for sharing with friends during the holidays. The small, evergreen trees bear flowers in spring and periodically through summer; their light clean fragrance permeates the garden. There are many varieties that need little or no protection during a typical Houston winter. Satsumas and Kumquats are the most cold tolerant, withstanding temperatures in the high teens, even in a container.
Persimmon (Diospyros spp.) is one of a few easy to grow fruit trees in Houston. Depending on species, the fruit begin to turn color in late summer to early fall. The tree's foliage begins to drop at the same time leaving a stunning display of orange orbs.
Mexican Sycamore (Platanus mexicana) is a large deciduous tree that grows to more than 100 feet. Dark gray bark peels off in plates to expose a white under-bark. Unlike the American Sycamore, the Mexican Sycamore is not prone to the development of Anthracnose, which causes premature defoliation in late summer.
Pineapple Guava (Feijoa sellowiana) is a large evergreen shrub often used as a small tree. Its bark is smooth and a rich cinnamon color. Flowers appear in late spring and have edible petals. The fruit ripen in early fall and have a taste of mixed tropical fruits.
River Birch (Betula nigra) is an upright deciduous tree that grows up to 40 feet. The tan bark peels back to expose a red-brown inner bark. Young stems are copper colored.
Texas Persimmon (Diospyros texana) is a small evergreen tree that grows to 25 feet. The light-gray bark peels off in thin, irregular strips to expose a white under-bark. The fruit of the female plant ripen in late summer and its taste is likened to a prune. They are a favorite of jelly makers as well as many birds and other wildlife.
Suzy Fischer is a registered Landscape Architect and principal of Fischer Schalles, a landscape design/build firm. Contact her at [email protected]. This column is produced by Urban Harvest. Learn about gardening classes, community gardens and orchards, farmers' markets and more at www.urbanharvest.org. | <urn:uuid:beb5bbe8-18b3-4373-91f1-a3f8005169fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chron.com/homes/real-estate-resource/article/Urban-Harvest-Fall-foliage-makes-its-appearance-4003630.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935104 | 1,305 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Spring has sprung and it is time to take on that outdoor project you've been meaning to do. Maybe it is a new in-ground sprinkler system or a long-awaited deck. Whatever the home improvement project, remember to protect the trees in your yard during construction.
Shade trees, especially those that are established, are valuable assets in the landscape. Excavating can sever roots and change the original grade of the soil. Vehicles and other heavy equipment can severely compact soil and damage trunks and limbs. All of these can weaken the tree and lead to decline. For this reason, it is important to identify any trees that will be impacted before construction begins and decide which should be preserved.
Trees that are diseased or are otherwise in poor health might not survive the construction process and might not be worth saving. Tolerance for construction-related disturbances differs depending on species and overall health. A certified arborist can help homeowners decide which trees are good candidates for preservation.
Establish a "tree protection zone," or TPZ, that will preserve the majority of roots that directly influence tree health. A good rule of thumb is to create a zone around the tree that extends 1 ½ feet from the trunk for every inch in diameter of the trunk. Measure trunk diameter 4 ½ feet off the ground. For example, the TPZ radius for a tree with a trunk diameter of 12 inches would be 18 feet.
Construction fencing can be used to define the TPZ. This area should be avoided when grading, trenching, operating vehicles and equipment and storing materials. When in the planning stage, make sure all parties involved in the construction process are aware of the protection zone.
The tree also will need to be carefully monitored during construction. Even with a TPZ in place, the tree could still be under stress for the duration of construction and after. Make sure it receives regular water and that it is checked frequently for insect or disease problems. Many pests are opportunistic and are attracted to stressed or weakened trees.
Taking the proper precautions to protect trees before beginning a new construction project is key to making sure they will survive and thrive once the project is complete. Establish and clearly define a tree protection zone, so all parties involved in the construction process are aware of the area to be safeguarded. This will ensure that trees can provide many more years of shade and beauty to the landscape once the project is complete.
Colorado State University Extension in the City and County of Broomfield provides unbiased, research-based information about 4-H youth development, family and consumer issues, gardening, horticulture and natural resources. As part of a nationwide system, Extension brings the research and resources of the university to the community. The Broomfield County Extension office is at 1 DesCombes Drive, Broomfield, 80020. For information, call 720-887-2286. | <urn:uuid:fd17cf76-cd29-40b0-82d8-1c38094993ca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.broomfieldenterprise.com/home-life/ci_25637075/broomfield-enterprise-gardening-april-27-carefully-consider-trees?source=rss | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944215 | 584 | 2.734375 | 3 |
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Diaper Rash Learning Center
The best way to deal with the common ailment of diaper rash is good prevention . Keep a baby's diaper area clean, cool and dry. See the Diaper Rash Learning Center's Causes section to learn more about how to keep your baby comfortable. Should you use disposable or cloth diapers?
- History and Physical Exam
- Skin Examination
- Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Skin Test
- Diaper Rash Topical Soothing Agents
- Changing diaper often
- Keep Skin Dry
Diaper rash is an inflammation of the skin on a baby's bottom, caused by excessive exposure to a soiled diaper. Skin on the genitals,...
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If you have a toddler at home, then you know that toddlers tend to be experts when it comes to ear-splitting noises. Whining, shrieking, repeating the same word a zillion times at top volume…you may sometimes find yourself wondering how such an adorable little person can make such a headache-inducing racket! 🙂
Here’s another drive-you-up-the-wall noise you may have started hearing lately: the sound of your toddler grinding her teeth in her sleep. The sound of grinding teeth is an awful one, to be sure, but for some toddlers, it amounts to more than an obnoxious noise — it’s a persistent problem that may have you starting to worry.
This article will explain the causes and symptoms of toddler teeth grinding and clenching as well as ways to treat it and how to deal with the problem at home.
Facts About Toddler Teeth Grinding and Clenching
The problem of teeth grinding (known as “bruxism”) is a fairly common one among toddlers and preschoolers. The Journal of Dentistry for Children estimates that about 38% of toddlers grind or clench their teeth. Most toddlers tend to grind their teeth at night, and the problem usually begins around age 3 (although it can begin much earlier, even as early as 1!)
For most toddlers, this habit is short-lived; the vast majority will outgrow it by age 6. However, some toddlers will continue the problem later into childhood, and a small percentage will continue to grind their teeth at night as teens and adults.
Causes of Toddler Teeth Grinding and Clenching
There’s no established cause of teeth grinding; rather, research done over the years points to an array of possible causes. Some are physical, and others are psychological.
Physical causes of toddler teeth grinding include:
- Pain, either from an illness, like an ear infection, or from teething. Teeth grinding is a way that some toddlers cope with the pain in their sleep.
- Improper alignment of the top and bottom teeth (called “malocclusion”).
- Medical issues. These can be everything from dehydration and nutritional deficiencies to allergies and even pinworms!
Psychological causes of toddler teeth grinding are stress and anxiety. For toddlers, this stress can be caused by things like the birth of a new sibling, moving to a new house, weaning from breastfeeding, a change in schedule, etc.
How Toddler Teeth Grinding and Clenching Affects Sleep
It seems like so many things can keep a toddler from sleeping well, doesn’t it? Sleep regressions can affect a toddler’s sleep; so can sleep disorders like (like sleep apnea). And we can add teeth grinding to the list of things that may keep a toddler awake!
Teeth grinding can disrupt sleep and cause your toddler to wake frequently at night. The noise itself can be so loud, it’ll wake your toddler (or even the people in the next room!) And your toddler’s teeth grinding may cause her to have frequent dull headaches or jaw pain, which may disturb both her nighttime sleep and her naps.
Treating Toddler Teeth Grinding and Clenching
Generally, toddler teeth grinding or clenching isn’t considered a serious problem and doesn’t usually require treatment (since the majority of toddlers outgrow this problem before their permanent teeth come in).
However, if you’re concerned that your toddler’s teeth grinding is serious, take him to see a dentist. The dentist will be able to evaluate if the teeth grinding is causing any major problems like worn enamel or fractures in the teeth. If necessary, the dentist may prescribe a custom-fitted mouth guard for your toddler to wear at night.
Dealing With Your Toddler’s Teeth Grinding and Clenching At Home
A dentist probably won’t consider your toddler’s teeth grinding or clenching serious enough to treat, but that doesn’t mean it isn’t causing problems at home! So what can you do to help your toddler’s teeth grinding?
First, try to establish the cause of the teeth grinding or clenching. If the problem is physical, treat it as best you can (if the problem is mild) or consider taking your toddler to his pediatrician if you suspect something serious, like an illness or a nutritional deficiency. Pain caused by teething or mild illness can be treated with children’s Tylenol. And if your toddler’s teeth grinding or clenching is causing him to have headaches or jaw pain, those can be treated with children’s pain reliever, too.
If you suspect that the teeth grinding is related to stress or anxiety, do what you can to help your toddler relax. Work on establishing a calming bedtime routine, complete with a warm bath, relaxing music, bedtime stories, etc. This can do wonders to help relax your toddler right before she falls asleep.
If your toddler is anxious about something specific, talk through her feelings with her (if she’s old enough to talk) and do your best to provide reassurance. This can be hard with a young toddler, but even repeating what your toddler says back to her (so that she knows you understand) and then repeating a calming phrase like “It’s okay, mommy’s here” again and again can help to ease a toddler’s anxiety. “Toddlerspeak” is an excellent way to communicate with even a younger toddler.
There’s no “cure” for toddler teeth grinding and, unfortunately, no way to prevent it from happening (aside from doing what you can to keep your toddler relaxed!) Like so many other things, your toddler’s teeth grinding is probably a phase that will more than likely pass with time and just needs to be “waited out”. If your parenting instincts are telling you it’s more serious than that, however, follow your gut and seek medical help.
Does your toddler grind his teeth at night? What tips do you have on dealing with teeth grinding?
Please be sure to pick up your FREE copy of Toddler Sleep Secrets, our e-Book offering tips to help your toddler sleep better. For those persistent nighttime struggles, check out The 3-Step System to Help Your Baby Sleep (babies) or The 5-Step System to Better Toddler Sleep (toddlers). Using a unique approach and practical tools for success, our e-books help you and your baby sleep through the night and nap better. For those looking for a more customized solution for your unique situation with support along the way, please consider one-on-one baby and toddler sleep consultations, where you will receive a Personalized Sleep Plan™ you can feel good about! Sometimes it’s not that you can’t make a plan. Sometimes you’re just too tired to. | <urn:uuid:7bc97669-fa50-4bac-97bd-ee0cbdf1a83d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.babysleepsite.com/toddlers/toddler-sleep-teeth-grinding-clenching/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939895 | 1,461 | 2.703125 | 3 |
A Design Tool Used to Quantitatively Evaluate Student Projects
1987) A Design Tool Used to Quantitatively Evaluate Student Projects. Technical Report TR-87-27, Computer Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. (
In the last decade, the field of Computer Science has undergone a revolution. It has started the move from a mysterious art form to a detailed science. The vehicle for this progress has been the rising popularity of the field of Software Engineering. This innovative area of computer science has brought about a number of changes in the way we think of, and work with, the development of software. Due to this renovation, a field that started with little or no design techniques and unstructured, unreliable software has progressed to a point where a plethora of techniques exist to improve the quality of a program design as well as that of the resultant software. The popularity of structured design and coding techniques prove that there is widespread belief that the overall product produced using these ideas is somehow better, and statistics seem to indicate that this belief is true. Until recently, however, there existed no technique for quantitatively showing one program better than its functional equivalent. In the past few years, the use of software quality metrics seems to indicate that such a comparison is not only possible, but is also valid. The advent of Software Engineering has demanded that most universities offer a Software Engineering course which entails a "Real-World" group project. Students participating in the class design a system using a program design language (PDL). Other students then write code from the design and finally the design team integrates the modules into a working system. For a complete description of the class see [HENS83] and [TOMJ87].
|Item Type:||Departmental Technical Report|
|Subjects:||Computer Science > Historical Collection(Till Dec 2001)|
|Deposited By:||User autouser|
|Deposited On:||10 December 2005| | <urn:uuid:50fbe94b-3559-4281-b935-53494680ae59> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eprints.cs.vt.edu/archive/00000074/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924473 | 398 | 2.90625 | 3 |
For more information view our fact sheets: http://epa.gov/sandy/factsheets.html
Levels of dissolved oxygen were above 5 milligrams per liter, which are generally accepted as being protective of estuarine life.
By Mary Malloy
A state of emergency was declared for some homes in East Rockaway and Baldwin last week, according to Nassau County Health Commissioner Dr. Lawrence Eisenstein, to “help eliminate threats to public health and safety for those residents affected by sewage main ruptures.”
Residents of Bay Park and Baldwin, who lost many of their possessions in Hurricane Sandy and have been suffering through a lack of heat, electricity and hot water in the weeks since, have had their problems compounded by partially treated sewage bubbling up into their homes and streets from the Bay Park Sewage Treatment Plant, which processes 65 million gallons of sewage per day — 40 percent of the county’s sewage.
“It’s just disgusting,” said one resident of West Boulevard in Bay Park. “You can see it’s not just water or mud … it has feces floating in it.” Residents stood watching in disbelief as water rose from somewhere underground on Nov. 15, causing a stench and what many called unhealthy living conditions.
According to Michael Martino, a spokesman for the Nassau County Department of Public Works, there is no longer any sewage coming up from manholes. “Recently, a manhole had water infiltration associated with the high tide,” Martino said, “not sewage.”
The storm devastated some of the county’s infrastructure, Martino said, including the Bay Park plant, which was hit with a nine-foot tidal surge. “The seawater inundated many parts of the plant and submerged critical pieces of equipment in saltwater, rendering them inoperable,” he said. “As a result, normal operation of the plant ceased.”
Since then, Martino explained, sewage has been partially treated with chlorine. “The federal, state and county critical response team is now working tirelessly to provide a comprehensive repair of the facility,” he said. “Initial assessments indicate that replacement parts must be engineered, manufactured and replaced. The assessment process is ongoing, and plans will be updated as they become available.”
Martino added that new methods of disposal are being studied. (In September, Nassau County Executive Ed Mangano announced that the county will spend nearly $100,000 to study new ways to treat wastewater at the Bay Park plant and the feasibility of building an sewage outfall pipe that would extend into the Atlantic Ocean.)
What happens now?
Under the state of emergency declaration, affected homes can be cleaned out and decontaminated. The sewer main breaches occurred at Barnes Avenue, in Baldwin, and North Boulevard, in East Rockaway.
Eisenstein and Mangano, along with representatives from the Environmental Protection Agency and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, visited the residents who were impacted, assured them that the county would help address their health concerns.
An environmental hygienist was to be made available for site assessments of homes in the affected areas, and a remediation company was slated to provide cleanup and decontamination services at no cost to homeowners.
Along with robo calls to residents, county Department of Health spokeswoman Mary Ellen Laurain said, department staff planned to go door to door to advise residents who may have come in contact with the sewage. Additionally, the department recommended the following steps for cleaning up areas contaminated by sewage:
n Remove children and pets from the affected area.
n To properly dispose of sewage, wear rubber gloves and boots, and use soap and water followed by disinfecting solution comprising 9 parts water, 1 part household bleach.
n Wash clothing worn during cleanup or discard in heavy-duty garbage bags for pickup.
For more information, residents may call (516) 573-9635. | <urn:uuid:04eaa1b0-c941-4c67-9f3f-c15311fa1282> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://liherald.com/fivetowns/stories/Mangano-issues-state-of-emergency-for-Bay-Park-Baldwin,44510?page=2&content_source= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9625 | 820 | 2.578125 | 3 |
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