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Literature references (chronological) to case studies after 2000:
Older examples of application can be found in:
#Salinity in the Nile Delta
#Integration of irrigation and drainage management | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Today most methanol is produced from methane through syngas. Trinidad and Tobago is the world's largest methanol producer, with exports mainly to the United States. The feedstock for the production of methanol comes natural gas.
The conventional route to methanol from methane passes through syngas generation by steam reforming combined (or not) with partial oxidation. Alternative ways to convert methane into methanol have also been investigated. These include:
* Methane oxidation with homogeneous catalysts in sulfuric acid media
* Methane bromination followed by hydrolysis of the obtained bromomethane
* Direct partial oxidation of methane with oxygen, including trapping of the partially oxidized product and subsequent extraction on copper and iron exchanged Zeolite (e.g. Alpha-Oxygen)
* Microbial conversion of methane
* Photochemical conversion of methane
All these synthetic routes emit the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide CO. To mitigate this, methanol can be made through ways minimizing the emission of CO. One solution is to produce it from syngas obtained by biomass gasification. For this purpose any biomass can be used including wood, wood wastes, grass, agricultural crops and their by-products, animal waste, aquatic plants and municipal waste. There is no need to use food crops as in the case of ethanol from corn, sugar cane and wheat.
:Biomass → Syngas (CO, CO, H) → CHOH
Methanol can be synthesized from carbon and hydrogen from any source, including fossil fuels and biomass. CO emitted from fossil fuel burning power plants and other industries and eventually even the CO contained in the air, can be a source of carbon. It can also be made from chemical recycling of carbon dioxide, which Carbon Recycling International has demonstrated with its first commercial scale plant. Initially the major source will be the CO rich flue gases of fossil-fuel-burning power plants or exhaust from cement and other factories. In the longer range however, considering diminishing fossil fuel resources and the effect of their utilization on Earths atmosphere, even the low concentration of atmospheric CO itself could be captured and recycled via methanol, thus supplementing natures own photosynthetic cycle. Efficient new absorbents to capture atmospheric CO are being developed, mimicking plants' ability. Chemical recycling of CO to new fuels and materials could thus become feasible, making them renewable on the human timescale.
Methanol can also be produced from CO by catalytic hydrogenation of CO with H where the hydrogen has been obtained from water electrolysis. This is the process used by Carbon Recycling International of Iceland. Methanol may also be produced through CO electrochemical reduction, if electrical power is available. The energy needed for these reactions in order to be carbon neutral would come from renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectricity and solar as well as nuclear power. In effect, all of them allow free energy to be stored in easily transportable methanol, which is made immediately from hydrogen and carbon dioxide, rather than attempting to store energy in free hydrogen.
:CO + 3H → CHOH + HO
or with electric energy
:CO +5HO + 6 e → CHOH + 6 HO
:6 HO → 3HO + 3/2 O + 6 e
:Total:
:CO +2HO + electric energy → CHOH + 3/2 O
The necessary CO would be captured from fossil fuel burning power plants and other industrial flue gases including cement factories. With diminishing fossil fuel resources and therefore CO emissions, the CO content in the air could also be used. Considering the low concentration of CO in air (0.04%) improved and economically viable technologies to absorb CO will have to be developed. For this reason, extraction of CO from water could be more feasible due to its higher concentrations in dissolved form. This would allow the chemical recycling of CO, thus mimicking nature's photosynthesis.
In large-scale renewable methanol is mainly produced of fermented biomass as well as municipal solid waste (bio-methanol) and of renewable electricity (e-Methanol). Production costs for renewable methanol currently are about 300 to US$1000/t for bio-methanol, about 800 to US$1600/t for e-Methanol of carbon dioxide of renewable sources and about 1100 to US$2400/t for e-Methanol of carbon dioxide of Direct Air Capture. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
3-Iodophenol (m-iodophenol) is an aromatic organic compound. 3-Iodophenol participates in a variety of coupling reactions in which the iodide substituent is displaced. Well cited examples include thiolate and amine nucleophiles.
3-Iodophenol can be prepared by oxidative decarboxylation of 3-iodobenzoic acid: | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In 1790, along with his colleague William Cruickshank at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, London, Crawford noted the distinctiveness of strontianite from barium minerals, and may thereby be said to be the discoverer of strontium. However, it could also be claimed that the honour should go to Humphry Davy who, in 1808, became the first to isolate the pure element. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Nucleic acid molecules have a phosphoryl (5) end and a hydroxyl (3) end. This notation follows from organic chemistry nomenclature, and can be used to define the movement of enzymes such as DNA polymerases relative to the DNA strand in a non-arbitrary manner. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Many types of tear gas and other riot control agents have been produced with effects ranging from mild tearing of the eyes to immediate vomiting and prostration. CN and CS are the most widely used and known, but around 15 different types of tear gas have been developed worldwide, e.g. adamsite or bromoacetone, CNB, and CNC. CS has become the most popular due to its strong effect. The effect of CS on a person will depend on whether it is packaged as a solution or used as an aerosol. The size of solution droplets and the size of the CS particulates after evaporation are factors determining its effect on the human body.
The chemical reacts with moisture on the skin and in the eyes, causing a burning sensation and the immediate forceful and uncontrollable shutting of the eyes. Effects usually include tears streaming from the eyes, profuse coughing, exceptional nasal discharge that is full of mucus, burning in the eyes, eyelids, nose and throat areas, disorientation, dizziness and restricted breathing. It will also burn the skin where sweaty or sunburned. In highly concentrated doses, it can also induce severe coughing and vomiting. Most of the immediate effects wear off within a few hours (such as exceptional nasal discharge and profuse coughing), although respiratory, gastrointestinal, and oral symptoms may persist for months. Excessive exposure can cause chemical burns resulting in permanent scarring.
Adults exposed to tear gas during the 2020 protests in Portland Oregon (USA) also reported menstrual changes (899; 54.5% of 1650 female respondents). Exposure to tear gas is associated with avoidable healthcare utilization. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Thermoresponsive conjugates have been exploited for the subsequent separation of proteins from a complex mixture. This method has been utilized to purify polyclonal antibodies in serum samples. This method of purification is rapid, sensitive, inexpensive and could be used to purify various types of antibodies.
Thermoresponsive conjugates can also be exploited to mediate bioactivity. One of the utilities of the method is demonstrated temperature control of biotin binding and release. Biotin binding was observed below the LCST, while above the LCST the conjugates aggregated, and the biotin binding affinity was reduced by ~20%. By changing the temperature, the recovery of the biotinylated molecules can be achieved. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
P elements are transposable elements that were discovered in Drosophila as the causative agents of genetic traits called hybrid dysgenesis. The transposon is responsible for the P trait of the P element and it is found only in wild flies. They are also found in many other eukaryotes.
The name was first suggested by evolutionary biologist Margaret Kidwell, who, together with James Kidwell and John Sved, researched hybrid dysgenesis in Drosophila. They referred to strains as P of paternal and M of maternal if they contributed to hybrid dysgenesis in this reproductive role.
The P element encodes for an enzyme known as P transposase. Unlike laboratory-bred females, wild-type females are thought also to express an inhibitor to P transposase function, produced by the very same element. This inhibitor reduces the disruption to the genome caused by the movement of P elements, allowing fertile progeny. Evidence for this comes from crosses of laboratory females (which lack the P transposase inhibitor) with wild-type males (which have P elements). In the absence of the inhibitor, the P elements can proliferate throughout the genome, disrupting many genes and often proving lethal to progeny or rendering them sterile.
P elements are commonly used as mutagenic agents in genetic experiments with Drosophila. One advantage of this approach is that the mutations are easy to locate. In hybrid dysgenesis, one strain of Drosophila mates with another strain of Drosophila, producing hybrid offspring and causing chromosomal damage known to be dysgenic. Hybrid dysgenesis requires a contribution from both parents. For example, in the P-M system, where the P strain contributes paternally and M strain contributes maternally, dysgenesis can occur. The reverse cross, with an M cytotype father and a P mother, produces normal offspring, as it crosses in a P x P or M x M manner. P male chromosomes can cause dysgenesis when crossed with an M female. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering is a weekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Chemical Society. It covers research in green chemistry, green engineering, biomass, alternative energy, and life cycle assessment. According to Journal Citation Reports, the journal has an impact factor of 8.4 in 2022. In 2023 Peter Licence (The University of Nottingham, UK) was appointed Editor-in-Chief. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
A manual or automated process injects the sample onto a catalyst in a combustion tube operated from 680 up to 950 degrees C in an oxygen rich atmosphere. The concentration of carbon dioxide generated is measured with a non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) detector.
Oxidation of the sample is complete after injection into the furnace, turning oxidizable material in the sample into gaseous form. A carbon-free carrier gas transports the CO, through a moisture trap and halide scrubbers to remove water vapor and halides from the gas stream before it reaches the detector. These substances can interfere with the detection of the CO gas. The HTCO method may be useful in those applications where difficult to oxidize compounds, or high molecular weight organics, are present as it provides almost complete oxidation of organics including solids and particulates small enough to be injected into the furnace. The major drawback of HTCO analysis is its unstable baseline resulting from the gradual accumulation of non-volatile residues within the combustion tube. These residues continuously change TOC background levels requiring continuous background correction. Because aqueous samples are injected directly into a very hot, usually quartz, furnace only small aliquots (less than 2 milliliters and usually less than 50 - 100 microliter, with a maximum of approximately 300 - 400 micro-liters under special conditions; such as repetitive injections) of sample can be handled making the methods less sensitive than chemical oxidation methods capable of digesting as much as 10 times more sample. Also, the salt content of the samples do not combust, and so therefore, gradually build a residue inside the combustion tube eventually clogging the catalyst resulting in poor peak shapes, and degraded accuracy or precision, unless appropriate maintenance procedures are followed. The catalyst should be regenerated or replaced as needed. To avoid this problem the manufacturing industry has developed several concepts, such as matrix separation, ceramic reactors, better process control or methods without catalysts. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The chain-melted state is a state of matter in which a substance, typically a metal, notably potassium, behaves both in the liquid and solid state at the same time. This is done by applying extreme pressure and temperature, causing the metal to become solid and molten simultaneously. It was confirmed to be a state of matter in 2019 by a group of researchers at the University of Edinburgh using artificial intelligence to analyse the results of subjecting potassium to high temperatures and pressure, when the potassium began exhibiting properties where it was apparently both solid and liquid. The phenomenon was observed by a group of other researchers in 2014; however, it was only thought to be a transitioning state. The chain-melted state has also been observed in other elements, such as sodium and rubidium. Some other elements, like bismuth, are also capable of being in the chain-melted state. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Although it has not yet been commercialized for clinical use clinical studies have been done on intra- and extra-oral treatments with full-thickness engineered oral mucosa.
Full-thickness engineered oral mucosa is mainly used in maxillofacial reconstructive surgery and periodontal peri-implant reconstruction. Good clinical and histological results have been obtained. For example, there is vascular ingrowth and the transplanted keratinocytes integrate well into the native epithelium. Full-thickness engineered oral mucosa has also shown good results for extra-oral applications such as urethral reconstruction, ocular surface reconstruction and eyelid reconstruction. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
A rotational vortex – a vortex that rotates in the same way as a rigid body – cannot exist indefinitely in that state except through the application of some extra force, that is not generated by the fluid motion itself. It has non-zero vorticity everywhere outside the core. Rotational vortices are also called rigid-body vortices or forced vortices.
For example, if a water bucket is spun at constant angular speed about its vertical axis, the water will eventually rotate in rigid-body fashion. The particles will then move along circles, with velocity equal to . In that case, the free surface of the water will assume a parabolic shape.
In this situation, the rigid rotating enclosure provides an extra force, namely an extra pressure gradient in the water, directed inwards, that prevents transition of the rigid-body flow to the irrotational state. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Alkaline batteries use manganese dioxide and zinc electrodes with an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. The alkaline battery gets its name from the replacement of the acidic ammonium chloride of zinc–carbon batteries with potassium hydroxide, which is an alkaline. Alkaline batteries are considerably more efficient, more environmentally friendly, and more shelf-stable than zinc–carbon batteries—five to ten years, when stored room temperature. Alkaline batteries largely replaced zinc–carbon batteries in regular use by 1990.
After an alkaline battery has been spent, or as it reaches the ends of its shelf life, the chemistry of its cells change, and hydrogen gas is generated as a byproduct. When enough pressure has been built up internally, the casing splits at the bases or side (or both), releasing manganese oxide, zinc oxide, potassium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, and manganese hydroxide.
Alkaline battery leakage can be effectively neutralized with lemon juice or distilled white vinegar. Eye protection and rubber gloves should be worn, as the potassium hydroxide electrolyte is caustic. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Irisin is a cleaved version of FNDC5. Boström and coworkers named the cleaved product irisin, after the Greek messenger goddess Iris. FNDC5 was initially discovered in 2002 by two independent groups of researchers. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Chayen holds nine patents and has launched several commercial products for protein crystallization, such as "Chayen Reddy MIP" and "Naomi's nucleant." In addition, she has won the following awards:
* Women of Outstanding Achievement for Innovation and Entrepreneurship Commendation, WISE Campaign (2012)
*Investigator of the Year, Select Biosciences Life Sciences Awards (2011)
* Innovator of the Year, CWT everywoman in Technology Awards (2011)
Chayen was the Sterling Drug Visiting Professor of Pharmacology at Yale School of Medicine in 2009. She was formerly the president of the International Organization for Biological Crystallization. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
A restriction map is a map of known restriction sites within a sequence of DNA. Restriction mapping requires the use of restriction enzymes. In molecular biology, restriction maps are used as a reference to engineer plasmids or other relatively short pieces of DNA, and sometimes for longer genomic DNA. There are other ways of mapping features on DNA for longer length DNA molecules, such as mapping by transduction.
One approach in constructing a restriction map of a DNA molecule is to sequence the whole molecule and to run the sequence through a computer program that will find the recognition sites that are present for every restriction enzyme known.
Before sequencing was automated, it would have been prohibitively expensive to sequence an entire DNA strand. To find the relative positions of restriction sites on a plasmid, a technique involving single and double restriction digests is used. Based on the sizes of the resultant DNA fragments the positions of the sites can be inferred. Restriction mapping is a very useful technique when used for determining the orientation of an insert in a cloning vector, by mapping the position of an off-center restriction site in the insert. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
A fundamental distinction in evidence-based practice is between observational studies and randomized controlled trials. Types of observational studies in epidemiology, such as the cohort study and the case-control study, provide less compelling evidence than the randomized controlled trial. In observational studies, the investigators retrospectively assess associations between the treatments given to participants and their health status, with potential for considerable errors in design and interpretation.
A randomized controlled trial can provide compelling evidence that the study treatment causes an effect on human health.
Some Phase II and most Phase III drug trials are designed as randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled.
* Randomized: Each study subject is randomly assigned to receive either the study treatment or a placebo.
* Blind: The subjects involved in the study do not know which study treatment they receive. If the study is double-blind, the researchers also do not know which treatment a subject receives. This intent is to prevent researchers from treating the two groups differently. A form of double-blind study called a "double-dummy" design allows additional insurance against bias. In this kind of study, all patients are given both placebo and active doses in alternating periods.
* Placebo-controlled: The use of a placebo (fake treatment) allows the researchers to isolate the effect of the study treatment from the placebo effect.
Clinical studies having small numbers of subjects may be "sponsored" by single researchers or a small group of researchers, and are designed to test simple questions or feasibility to expand the research for a more comprehensive randomized controlled trial.
Clinical studies can be "sponsored" (financed and organized) by academic institutions, pharmaceutical companies, government entities and even private groups. Trials are conducted for new drugs, biotechnology, diagnostic assays or medical devices to determine their safety and efficacy prior to being submitted for regulatory review that would determine market approval. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Triazenes are prepared from the N-coupling reaction between diazonium salts and primary or secondary amines. The coupling reactions are typically mild, using a base such as sodium acetate, sodium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate.
The diazonium reagents are themselves available starting from amines. For symmetrical triazenes derived from primary amines, partial diazotization gives a mixture of the original amine and its diazo derivative that then couple with each other. For example, 1,3-diphenyltriazene (PhN=N−NHPh) can be made from aniline in a one-pot reaction. For asymmetrical triazenes, for example (phenyldiazenyl)pyrrolidine (PhN=N−NCH), the diazonium salt must be pre-made.
Analogues of Tröger's base containing a symmetric pair of asymmetric triazene side-chains have been obtained similarly. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Emmerling was born in Bad Dürkheim. She studied chemistry at Albert-Ludwig University, and completed her PhD at the same institution in 2003. Her doctoral work focused on the synthesis and structural investigation of intermetallic phases and ternary oxides of the elements arsenic, antimony and bismuth in unusual valence states. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Artificial upwelling or downwelling is an approach that would change the mixing layers of the ocean. Encouraging various ocean layers to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around, offering avenues for geoengineering. Mixing may be achieved by placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to pump nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering blooms of algae, which store carbon when they grow and export carbon when they die. This produces results somewhat similar to iron fertilization. One side-effect is a short-term rise in , which limits its attractiveness.
Mixing layers involve transporting the denser and colder deep ocean water to the surface mixed layer. As the ocean temperature decreases with depth, more carbon dioxide and other compounds are able to dissolve in the deeper layers. This can be induced by reversing the oceanic carbon cycle through the use of large vertical pipes serving as ocean pumps, or a mixer array. When the nutrient rich deep ocean water is moved to the surface, algae bloom occurs, resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide due to carbon intake from phytoplankton and other photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. The transfer of heat between the layers will also cause seawater from the mixed layer to sink and absorb more carbon dioxide. This method has not gained much traction as algae bloom harms marine ecosystems by blocking sunlight and releasing harmful toxins into the ocean. The sudden increase in carbon dioxide on the surface level will also temporarily decrease the pH of the seawater, impairing the growth of coral reefs. The production of carbonic acid through the dissolution of carbon dioxide in seawater hinders marine biogenic calcification and causes major disruptions to the oceanic food chain. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Once the Velocity at every point is determined, the pressure can be determined by using one of the following formulas. All various Pressure coefficient methods produce results that are similar and are commonly used to identify regions where the results are invalid.
Pressure Coefficient is defined as:
The Isentropic Pressure Coefficient is:
The Incompressible Pressure Coefficient is:
The Second Order Pressure Coefficient is:
The Slender Body Theory Pressure Coefficient is:
The Linear Theory Pressure Coefficient is:
The Reduced Second Order Pressure Coefficient is: | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The hexalkoxyphosphazenes (especially the aryloxy species), resulting from the nucleophilic hexasubstitution of the hexachlorophosphazene P atoms, are valued for their high thermal and chemical stability and their low glass transition temperature. Certain hexalkoxyphosphazenes (such as the hexa-phenoxy derivative) have been put to commercial use as fireproof materials and high temperature lubricants. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The Center studies trends in the pharmaceutical industry, maintaining databases pertaining to investigational new drugs, approved drugs, biopharmaceuticals, fast-tracked drugs, and orphan drugs. The Center provides this information with the aim to improve the efficiency of drug development, foster innovation, and increase patient access to medicines. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has been a powerful tool in deducing the oxidation states of transition metals. Energy shifts in XAS are higher due to the higher effective nuclear charge of atoms in higher oxidations, presumably due to the higher binding energy for deeper, more core-like electrons.
Despite this being a very powerful technique, competing effects on the rising edge positions can make assignment difficult. It was initially thought that the weak, quadrupole-allowed pre-edge peak assigned as the Cu 1s to 3d transition could be used to distinguish between Cu(II) and Cu(III) with the features appearing at 8979 +/- 0.3 eV and 8981 +/- 0.5 eV, respectively. Ab initio calculations by Tomson, Wieghardt, and co-workers displayed that pre-peaks previously assigned as Cu(III) could be displayed by Cu(II) bearing complexes. Many groups have displayed that metal K-edge XAS transitions involving ligand-localised acceptor orbitals, as well as spectral shifts from change in coordination environment, can make metal K-edge analysis less predictable.
The most sussessful use of K and L-edge XAS provide valuable information on the composition of molecular orbitals and display inverted ligand fields has been done in studies that made use of computational techniques in concert with experimental techniques. This was the case of the L[Cu(S)] complexes of York, Brown, and Tolman, and the Cu(CF) by various groups including Hoffman, Overgaard, and Lancaster.
Another experimental tool used to probe ligand field inversion includes Electron paramagnetic resonance (ESR/EPR), which can provide information regarding the metal electronic configuration, the nature of the SOMO, and high resolution information on the ligands. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The guiding principles for the development of UW Solution were:
# osmotic concentration maintained by the use of metabolically inert substances like lactobionate and raffinose rather than with glucose
# Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) is used to prevent edema
# Substances are added to scavenge free radicals, along with steroids and insulin. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Multiple light scattering coupled with vertical scanning is the most widely used technique to monitor the dispersion state of a product, hence identifying and quantifying destabilization phenomena. It works on concentrated dispersions without dilution. When light is sent through the sample, it is back scattered by the particles. The backscattering intensity is directly proportional to the size and volume fraction of the dispersed phase. Therefore, local changes in concentration (sedimentation) and global changes in size (flocculation, aggregation) are detected and monitored. Of primary importance in the analysis of stability in particle suspensions is the value of the zeta potential exhibited by suspended solids. This parameter indicates the magnitude of interparticle electrostatic repulsion and is commonly analyzed to determine how the use of adsorbates and pH modification affect particle repulsion and suspension stabilization or destabilization. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Brehm and von Puttkammer published the first PEPICO study on methane in 1967. In the early works, a fixed energy light source was used, and the electron detection was carried out using retarding grids or hemispherical analyzers: the mass spectra were recorded as a function of electron energy. Tunable vacuum ultraviolet light sources were used in later setups, in which fixed, mostly zero kinetic energy electrons were detected, and the mass spectra were recorded as a function of photon energy. Detecting zero kinetic energy or threshold electrons in threshold photoelectron photoion coincidence spectroscopy, TPEPICO, has two major advantages. Firstly, no kinetic energy electrons are produced in energy ranges with poor Franck–Condon factors in the photoelectron spectrum, but threshold electrons can still be emitted via other ionization mechanisms. Secondly, threshold electrons are stationary and can be detected with higher collection efficiencies, thereby increasing signal levels.
Threshold electron detection was first based on line-of-sight, i.e. a small positive field was applied towards the electron detector, and kinetic energy electrons with perpendicular velocities are stopped by small apertures. The inherent compromise between resolution and collection efficiency was resolved by applying velocity map imaging conditions. Most recent setups offer meV or better (0.1 kJ mol) resolution both in terms of photon energy and electron kinetic energy.
The 5–20 eV (500–2000 kJ mol, λ = 250–60 nm) energy range is of prime interest in valence photoionization. Widely tunable light sources are few and far between in this energy range. The only laboratory based one is the H discharge lamp, which delivers quasi-continuous radiation up to 14 eV. The few high resolution laser setups for this energy range are not easily tunable over several eV. Currently, VUV beamlines at third generation synchrotron light sources are the brightest and most tunable photon sources for valence ionization. The first high energy resolution PEPICO experiment at a synchrotron was the pulsed-field ionization setup at the Chemical Dynamics Beamline of the Advanced Light Source. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
One of the zilches has been rediscovered. This is the zilch known as "optical chirality". This name was given by Tang and Cohen since this zilch determines the degree of chiral asymmetry in the rate of excitation of a small chiral molecule by an incident electromagnetic field.
A further physical insight of optical chirality was offered in 2012; optical chirality is to the curl or time derivative of the electromagnetic field what helicity, spin and related quantities are to the electromagnetic field itself.
The physical interpretation of all zilches for topologically non-trivial electromagnetic fields was investigated in 2018.
Since the discovery of the ten zilches in 1964, there is an important open mathematical question concerning their relation with symmetries. (Recently, the full answer to this question seems to have been found ). The question is:
What are the symmetries of the standard Maxwell action functional :
(with ,
where is the dynamical field variable) that give rise to the conservation of all zilches using Noether's theorem? Until recently, the answer to this question had been given only for the case of optical chirality by Philbin in 2013.
This open question was also emphasized by Aghapour, Andersson and Rosquist in 2020,
while these authors found the symmetries of the duality-symmetric Maxwell action underlying the conservation of all zilches. (Aghapour, Andersson and Rosquist did not find the symmetries of the standard Maxwell action, but they speculated that such symmetries should exist ).
There are also earlier works studying the conservation of zilch in the context of duality-symmetric electromagnetism, but the variational character of the corresponding symmetries was not established.
The full answer to the aforementioned question seems to have been given for the first time in 2022, where the symmetries of the standard Maxwell action underlying the conservation of all zilches were found. According to this work, there is a hidden invariance algebra of free Maxwell equations in potential form that is related to the conservation of all zilches. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Jinhua Ye is a Chinese chemist who is a professor at the National Institute for Materials Science in Tsukuba. Her research considers high-temperature superconductors for photocatalysis. She was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2016 and has been included in the Clarivate Analytics Highly Cited Researcher every year since then. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Cucurbiturils have been used by chemists for various applications, including drug delivery, asymmetric synthesis, molecular switching, and dye tuning. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
All thermal power plants produce waste heat energy as a byproduct of the useful electrical energy produced. The amount of waste heat energy equals or exceeds the amount of energy converted into useful electricity. Gas-fired power plants can achieve as much as 65% conversion efficiency, while coal and oil plants achieve around 30–49%. The waste heat produces a temperature rise in the atmosphere, which is small compared to that produced by greenhouse-gas emissions from the same power plant. Natural draft wet cooling towers at many nuclear power plants and large fossil-fuel-fired power plants use large hyperboloid chimney-like structures (as seen in the image at the right) that release the waste heat to the ambient atmosphere by the evaporation of water.
However, the mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft wet cooling towers in many large thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, fossil-fired power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, geothermal, biomass and waste-to-energy plants use fans to provide air movement upward through down coming water and are not hyperboloid chimney-like structures. The induced or forced-draft cooling towers are typically rectangular, box-like structures filled with a material that enhances the mixing of the upflowing air and the down-flowing water.
In areas with restricted water use, a dry cooling tower or directly air-cooled radiators may be necessary, since the cost or environmental consequences of obtaining make-up water for evaporative cooling would be prohibitive. These coolers have lower efficiency and higher energy consumption to drive fans, compared to a typical wet, evaporative cooling tower. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Two-dimensional separations can be carried out in gas chromatography or liquid chromatography. Various different coupling strategies have been developed to "resample" from the first column into the second. Some important hardware for two-dimensional separations are Deans' switch and Modulator, which selectively transfer the first dimension eluent to second dimension column.
The chief advantage of two-dimensional techniques is that they offer a large increase in peak capacity, without requiring extremely efficient separations in either column. (For instance, if the first column offers a peak capacity (k)of 100 for a 10-minute separation, and the second column offers a peak capacity of 5 (k) in a 5-second separation, then the combined peak capacity may approach k × k=500, with the total separation time still ~ 10 minutes). 2D separations have been applied to the analysis of gasoline and other petroleum mixtures, and more recently to protein mixtures. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
To back up their suggestion of the non-classical nature of the 2-norbornyl cation, Winstein and Trifan first used kinetic evidence of the increased reaction rate for formation of the 2-exo-norbornyl cation over the 2-endo-norbornyl cation. Other researchers investigated the reaction rate of compounds that could feature anchimeric assistance but could not undergo rearrangements as the norbornyl system could show similar trends in rate enhancement. This has been claimed by some to be definitive evidence for the non-classical picture. But not all agree. Other researchers found that cyclopentane derivatives that were structurally similar to the norbornyl system still featured enhanced reaction rates, leading them to claim that the classical norbornyl cation describes the system much better. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In addition to BLOSUM matrices, a previously developed scoring matrix can be used. This is known as a PAM. The two result in the same scoring outcome, but use differing methodologies. BLOSUM looks directly at mutations in motifs of related sequences while PAM's extrapolate evolutionary information based on closely related sequences.
Since both PAM and BLOSUM are different methods for showing the same scoring information, the two can be compared but due to the very different method of obtaining this score, a PAM100 does not equal a BLOSUM100. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Van Krevelen diagrams are graphical plots developed by
Dirk Willem van Krevelen (chemist and professor of fuel technology at the TU Delft) and used to assess the origin and maturity of kerogen and petroleum. The diagram cross-plots the hydrogen:carbon atomic ratio as a function of the oxygen:carbon atomic ratio.
Beginning around 2003, the diagrams are often used to visualize data from mass spectrometry analysis, used for mixtures other than kerogen and petroleum. For example, the diagrams have been used in one analysis of the components in Scotch whiskey. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The Cystic Fibrosis Transport Regulator (CFTR) works by binding two ATP to the A1 and A2, ATP-binding domain. This opens the CFTR channel and allows chloride ions to flow into the lungs and airway lumen. This influx of negatively charged chloride ions into the airway lumen causes sodium to move into the airway lumen to balance the negative charge. Water then moves in with the sodium to balance the osmotic pressure and ultimately leads to the thinning of mucus. In cases of Cystic Fibrosis, the CFTR is defective and only binds a single ATP, leading to the channel failing to open and preventing chloride ions from diffusing into the airway lumen. Since chloride ions cannot diffuse in, there is no movement of sodium into the airway lumen, and no need for water to move into the lumen, leading to thick mucus that clogs and infects the airway lumen. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Although no large studies showing the long term outcomes for women with hyperthecosis exist, a diagnosis of hyperthecosis may suggest an increased risk for metabolic complications of hyperlipidemia and type 2 diabetes . In postmenopausal women, hyperthecosis may also contribute to the pathogenesis of endometrial polyp, endometrial hyperplasia, and endometrioid adenocarcinoma due to the association of hyperestrinism (excess estrins in the body) and hyperthecosis. Treatment for hyperthecosis is based upon each case, but may range from pharmacological interventions to surgical. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Another theory suggests that alarm signals function to attract further predators, which fight over the prey organism, giving it a better chance of escape. Others still suggest they are a deterrent to predators, communicating the preys alertness to the predator. One such case is the western swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio'), which gives conspicuous visual tail flicks (see also aposematism, handicap principle and stotting). | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Capillary condensation in pores with r<10 nm is often difficult to describe using the Kelvin equation. This is because the Kelvin equation underestimates the size of the pore radius when working on the nanometer scale. To account for this underestimation, the idea of a statistical film thickness, t, has often been invoked. The idea centers around the fact that a very small layer of adsorbed liquid coats the capillary surface before any meniscus is formed and is thus part of the estimated pore radius. The figure to the left gives an explanation of the statistical film thickness in relation to the radius of curvature for the meniscus. This adsorbed film layer is always present; however, at large pore radii the term becomes so small compared to the radius of curvature that it can be neglected. At very small pore radii though, the film thickness becomes an important factor in accurately determining the pore radius. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Storeys research includes studies of enzyme properties, gene expression, protein phosphorylation, epigenetics, and cellular signal transduction mechanisms to seek out the basic principles of how organisms endure and flourish under extreme conditions. He is particularly known within the field of cryobiology for his studies of animals that can survive freezing, especially the frozen "frog-sicles" (Rana sylvatica) that have made his work popular with multiple TV shows and magazines. Storeys studies of the adaptations that allow frogs, insects, and other animals to survive freezing have made major advances in the understanding of how cells, tissues and organs can endure freezing. Storey was also responsible for the discovery that some turtle species are freeze tolerant: newly hatched painted turtles that spend their first winter on land (Chrysemys picta marginata & C. p. bellii). These turtles are unique as they are the only reptiles, and highest vertebrate life form, known to tolerate prolonged natural freezing of extracellular body fluids during winter hibernation. These advances may aid the development of organ cryopreservation technology. A second area of his research is metabolic rate depression - understanding the mechanisms by which some animals can reduce their metabolism and enter a state of hypometabolism or torpor that allows them to survive prolonged environmental stresses. His studies have identified molecular mechanisms that underlie metabolic arrest across phylogeny and that support phenomena including mammalian hibernation, estivation, and anoxia- and ischemia-tolerance. These studies hold key applications for medical science, particularly for preservation technologies that aim to extend the survival time of excised organs in cold or frozen storage. Additional applications include insights into hyperglycemia in metabolic syndrome and diabetes, and anoxic and ischemic damage caused by heart attack and stroke. Furthermore, Storey's lab has created several web based programs freely available for [http://www.kenstoreylab.com/research-tools/ data management, data plotting, and microRNA analysis]. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The green alga Botryococcus braunii is the subject of research into the natural production of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), an antioxidant, food additive and industrial chemical.
Phenolic acids such as protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic, vanillic, caffeic, p-coumaric and salicylic acid, cinnamic acid and hydroxybenzaldehydes such as p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillin have been isolated from in vitro culture of the freshwater green alga Spongiochloris spongiosa.
Phlorotannins, for instance eckol, are found in brown algae. Vidalenolone can be found in the tropical red alga Vidalia sp. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
EPANET provides an integrated environment for editing network input data, running hydraulic and water quality simulations, and viewing the results in a variety of formats. EPANET provides a fully equipped and extended period of hydraulic analysis that can handle systems of any size. The package also supports the simulation of spatially and temporally varying water demand, constant or variable speed pumps, and the minor head losses for bends and fittings. The modeling provides information such as flows in pipes, pressures at junctions, propagation of a contaminant, chlorine concentration, water age, and even alternative scenario analysis. This helps to compute pumping energy and cost and then model various types of valves, including shutoffs, check pressure regulating and flow control.
EPANET's water quality modeling functionality allows users to analyze the movement of a reactive or non-reactive tracer material which spreads through the network over time. It tracks the reactive material as it spreads, measuring the percentage of flow from the given nodes. The package employs the global reaction rate coefficient which can be modified on a pipe-by-pipe basis. The storage tanks can be modeled as complete mix, plug flow or two-compartment reactors.
The visual network editor of EPANET simplifies the process of building piping network models and editing their properties. These various types of data reporting visualization tools are used to assist to analyze the networks, which include the graphics views, tabular views, and special reports. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In many bacteria, both mRNAs and non-coding RNAs can be polyadenylated. This poly(A) tail promotes degradation by the degradosome, which contains two RNA-degrading enzymes: polynucleotide phosphorylase and RNase E. Polynucleotide phosphorylase binds to the 3′ end of RNAs and the 3′ extension provided by the poly(A) tail allows it to bind to the RNAs whose secondary structure would otherwise block the 3′ end. Successive rounds of polyadenylation and degradation of the 3′ end by polynucleotide phosphorylase allows the degradosome to overcome these secondary structures. The poly(A) tail can also recruit RNases that cut the RNA in two. These bacterial poly(A) tails are about 30 nucleotides long.
In as different groups as animals and trypanosomes, the mitochondria contain both stabilising and destabilising poly(A) tails. Destabilising polyadenylation targets both mRNA and noncoding RNAs. The poly(A) tails are 43 nucleotides long on average. The stabilising ones start at the stop codon, and without them the stop codon (UAA) is not complete as the genome only encodes the U or UA part. Plant mitochondria have only destabilising polyadenylation. Mitochondrial polyadenylation has never been observed in either budding or fission yeast.
While many bacteria and mitochondria have polyadenylate polymerases, they also have another type of polyadenylation, performed by polynucleotide phosphorylase itself. This enzyme is found in bacteria, mitochondria, plastids and as a constituent of the archaeal exosome (in those archaea that have an exosome). It can synthesise a 3′ extension where the vast majority of the bases are adenines. Like in bacteria, polyadenylation by polynucleotide phosphorylase promotes degradation of the RNA in plastids and likely also archaea. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In 1981, the UK banned closed uses of PCBs in new equipment, and nearly all UK PCB synthesis ceased; closed uses in existing equipment containing in excess of 5 litres of PCBs were not stopped until December 2000. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
If individuals are asked to estimate their BAC, then given accurate feedback via a breathalyzer, and this procedure is repeated a number of times during a drinking session, studies show that these individuals can learn to discriminate their BAC, to within a mean error of 9 mg/100 mL (0.009% BAC). The ability is robust to different types of alcohol, different drink quantities, and drinks with unknown levels of alcohol. Trained individuals can even drink alcoholic drinks so as to adjust or maintain their BAC at a desired level. Training the ability does not appear to require any information or procedure besides breathalyzer feedback, although most studies have provided information such as intoxication symptoms at different BAC levels. Subjects continue to retain the ability one month after training. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In 2007, research conducted by the World Health Organization, Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche and Campania Region collected data on cancer and congenital abnormalities in 196 municipalities covering the period between 1994 and 2002 found abnormally high disease incidence. These abnormal patterns may correlate to areas where there are uncontrolled waste sites. However, this work also highlighted the difficulty in determining causality and in establishing a link between increased death and malformation rates and waste disposal.
After the Senior and Mazza study, several other studies have been conducted to attempt to definitively link elevated cancer rates to waste exposure. A government-made waste-exposure index that classifies areas of the Campania region as high (5 on index) or low (1 on index) risk based on the type of wastes present in surrounding dumping sites, total waste volume greater than 10,000 cubic metres, and the likelihood of releases on water, soil and air was created. Statistically significant excess relative risks were found for several cancer types in the triangle of death, however, methods often struggle to account for lifestyle confounders such as tobacco consumption and occupation which could skew the results.
A US Navy study denied any real ill effects to on-base personnel while however advising their off-base personnel to drink bottled water citing polluted wells. The US Navy report denied any signs of nuclear waste dumping and instead related the traces of uranium to volcanic activity. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
An enkephalin is a pentapeptide involved in regulating nociception (pain sensation) in the body. The enkephalins are termed endogenous ligands, as they are internally derived and bind to the body's opioid receptors. Discovered in 1975, two forms of enkephalin have been found, one containing leucine ("leu"), and the other containing methionine ("met"). Both are products of the proenkephalin gene.
* Met-enkephalin is Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met.
* Leu-enkephalin is Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
An ICE table or RICE box or RICE chart is a tabular system of keeping track of changing concentrations in an equilibrium reaction. ICE stands for initial, change, equilibrium. It is used in chemistry to keep track of the changes in amount of substance of the reactants and also organize a set of conditions that one wants to solve with. Some sources refer to a RICE table (or box or chart) where the added R stands for the reaction to which the table refers. Others simply call it a concentration table (for the acid–base equilibrium). | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
*Glucose – 5 g/L
*Dipotassium phosphate – 5 g/L
*Proteose Peptone – 5 g/L
*Distilled water – 1000 mL
pH – 6.9 | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Emerging technologies for fecal sludge treatment include:
* Technologies that can produce a dried or carbonized solid fuel from fecal sludge include: drying, pelletizing, hydrothermal carbonization, and slow pyrolysis.
*Thermal processes which can achieve cost effectiveness by eliminating the need for separate processes. They convert the fecal sludge along with certain fractions of sewage sludge or municipal solid waste to produce energy or fuel by using certain sewage sludge treatment technologies.
* Biodiesel can be manufactured by using fats, oils and grease as feedstocks. Research by RTI International is being conducted to use fecal sludge for biodiesel production.
* Electricity can be produced by thermal processes that burn fecal and solid waste together to maintain stable combustion and the heat is used to make steam that drives generators. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Away from the ends of the pipe, the characteristics of the flow are independent of the position along the pipe. The key quantities are then the pressure drop along the pipe per unit length, , and the volumetric flow rate. The flow rate can be converted to a mean flow velocity by dividing by the wetted area of the flow (which equals the cross-sectional area of the pipe if the pipe is full of fluid).
Pressure has dimensions of energy per unit volume, therefore the pressure drop between two points must be proportional to the dynamic pressure q. We also know that pressure must be proportional to the length of the pipe between the two points as the pressure drop per unit length is a constant. To turn the relationship into a proportionality coefficient of dimensionless quantity, we can divide by the hydraulic diameter of the pipe, , which is also constant along the pipe. Therefore,
The proportionality coefficient is the dimensionless "Darcy friction factor" or "flow coefficient". This dimensionless coefficient will be a combination of geometric factors such as , the Reynolds number and (outside the laminar regime) the relative roughness of the pipe (the ratio of the roughness height to the hydraulic diameter).
Note that the dynamic pressure is not the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit volume, for the following reasons. Even in the case of laminar flow, where all the flow lines are parallel to the length of the pipe, the velocity of the fluid on the inner surface of the pipe is zero due to viscosity, and the velocity in the center of the pipe must therefore be larger than the average velocity obtained by dividing the volumetric flow rate by the wet area. The average kinetic energy then involves the root mean-square velocity, which always exceeds the mean velocity. In the case of turbulent flow, the fluid acquires random velocity components in all directions, including perpendicular to the length of the pipe, and thus turbulence contributes to the kinetic energy per unit volume but not to the average lengthwise velocity of the fluid. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Gerhard Ertl is known for determining the detailed molecular mechanisms of the catalytic synthesis of ammonia over iron (Haber Bosch process) and the catalytic oxidation of carbon monoxide over platinum (catalytic converter). During his research he discovered the important phenomenon of oscillatory reactions on platinum surfaces and, using photoelectron microscopy, was able to image for the first time, the oscillating changes in surface structure and coverage that occur during reaction.
He always used new observation techniques like low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) at the beginning of his career, later ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) and scanning tunneling microscope (STM) yielding ground breaking results.
He won the Wolf Prize in Chemistry in 1998 along with Gabor A. Somorjai of the University of California, Berkeley for "their outstanding contributions to the field of the surface science in general and for their elucidation of fundamental mechanisms of heterogeneous catalytic reactions at single crystal surface in particular."
Gerhard Ertl was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces. The award, worth SEK 10 million (US$1.7 million, £1.15 million), was announced on Ertl's 71st birthday. "I am speechless", Ertl told Associated Press from his office in Berlin. "I was not counting on this."
, Ertl has an h-index of 124 according to Scopus. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Mutations to coactivator genes leading to loss or gain of protein function have been linked to diseases and disorders such as birth defects, cancer (especially hormone dependent cancers), neurodevelopmental disorders and intellectual disability (ID), among many others. Dysregulation leading to the over- or under-expression of coactivators can detrimentally interact with many drugs (especially anti-hormone drugs) and has been implicated in cancer, fertility issues and neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. For a specific example, dysregulation of CREB-binding protein (CBP)—which acts as a coactivator for numerous transcription factors within the central nervous system (CNS), reproductive system, thymus and kidneys—has been linked to Huntington's disease, leukaemia, Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome, neurodevelopmental disorders and deficits of the immune system, hematopoiesis and skeletal muscle function. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is the DNA located in chloroplasts, which are photosynthetic organelles located within the cells of some eukaryotic organisms. Chloroplasts, like other types of plastid, contain a genome separate from that in the cell nucleus. The existence of chloroplast DNA was identified biochemically in 1959, and confirmed by electron microscopy in 1962. The discoveries that the chloroplast contains ribosomes and performs protein synthesis revealed that the chloroplast is genetically semi-autonomous. The first complete chloroplast genome sequences were published in 1986, Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) by Sugiura and colleagues and Marchantia polymorpha (liverwort) by Ozeki et al. Since then, a great number of chloroplast DNAs from various species have been sequenced. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Alastair Ian Scott married Elizabeth Wilson Walters at the University of Glasgow Memorial Chapel, on 4 March 1950. They had two children: Anne and William.
Alastair died in Texas on 18 April 2007, following a heart attack. He was survived by his wife, two children and six grandchildren.
Elizabeth died at her home in Grapevine on 13 September 2016, aged 89. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Atoms and molecules had long been theorized as the constituents of matter, and Albert Einstein published a paper in 1905 that explained how the motion that Scottish botanist Robert Brown had observed was a result of the pollen being moved by individual water molecules, making one of his first contributions to science. This explanation of Brownian motion served as convincing evidence that atoms and molecules exist, and was further verified experimentally by French physicist Jean Perrin (1870–1942) in 1908. Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926 "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter". The direction of the force of atomic bombardment is constantly changing, and at different times the particle is hit more on one side than another, leading to the seemingly random nature of the motion. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Machines converting energy contained in fuels to mechanical work or electric energy produce heat as a by-product. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In cylindrical geometries, the thickness of both the two outer layers is and the thickness of inner layer is . | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
α- and β-amylases are important in brewing beer and liquor made from sugars derived from starch. In fermentation, yeast ingests sugars and excretes ethanol. In beer and some liquors, the sugars present at the beginning of fermentation have been produced by "mashing" grains or other starch sources (such as potatoes). In traditional beer brewing, malted barley is mixed with hot water to create a "mash", which is held at a given temperature to allow the amylases in the malted grain to convert the barley's starch into sugars. Different temperatures optimize the activity of alpha or beta amylase, resulting in different mixtures of fermentable and unfermentable sugars. In selecting mash temperature and grain-to-water ratio, a brewer can change the alcohol content, mouthfeel, aroma, and flavor of the finished beer.
In some historic methods of producing alcoholic beverages, the conversion of starch to sugar starts with the brewer chewing grain to mix it with saliva. This practice continues to be practiced in home production of some traditional drinks, such as chhaang in the Himalayas, chicha in the Andes and kasiri in Brazil and Suriname. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In the 1950s, shipping costs made up 33 percent of the price of oil transported from the Persian Gulf to the United States, but due to the development of supertankers in the 1970s, the cost of shipping dropped to only 5 percent of the price of Persian oil in the US. Due to the increase in the value of crude oil during the last 30 years, the share of the shipping cost on the final cost of the delivered commodity was less than 3% in 2010. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Volatile acyl halides are lachrymatory because they can react with water at the surface of the eye producing hydrohalic and organic acids irritating to the eye. Similar problems can result if one inhales acyl halide vapors. In general, acyl halides (even non-volatile compounds such as tosyl chloride) are irritants to the eyes, skin and mucous membranes. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil, and water environments; and the effect of human activity and biological activity on these. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well as heavily relying on analytical chemistry and being related to environmental and other areas of science.
Environmental chemistry involves first understanding how the uncontaminated environment works, which chemicals in what concentrations are present naturally, and with what effects. Without this it would be impossible to accurately study the effects humans have on the environment through the release of chemicals.
Environmental chemists draw on a range of concepts from chemistry and various environmental sciences to assist in their study of what is happening to a chemical species in the environment. Important general concepts from chemistry include understanding chemical reactions and equations, solutions, units, sampling, and analytical techniques. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Long-range order characterizes physical systems in which remote portions of the same sample exhibit correlated behavior.
This can be expressed as a correlation function, namely the spin-spin correlation function:
where s is the spin quantum number and x is the distance function within the particular system.
This function is equal to unity when and decreases as the distance increases. Typically, it decays exponentially to zero at large distances, and the system is considered to be disordered. But if the correlation function decays to a constant value at large then the system is said to possess long-range order. If it decays to zero as a power of the distance then it is called quasi-long-range order (for details see Chapter 11 in the textbook cited below. See also Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless transition). Note that what constitutes a large value of is understood in the sense of asymptotics. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize for Biology or Biochemistry is an annual prize awarded by Columbia University to a researcher or group of researchers who have made an outstanding contribution in basic research in the fields of biology or biochemistry.
The prize was established at the bequest of S. Gross Horwitz and is named to honor his mother, Louisa Gross Horwitz, the daughter of trauma surgeon Samuel D. Gross. The prize was first awarded in 1967.
As of October 2018, 51 (50%) of the 101 prize recipients have subsequently been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (40) or Chemistry (11). It is regarded as one of the important precursors of a future Nobel Prize award. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Clay soils lack large pores, restricting both water and air movement. During irrigation or rain events, the limited large pore space in fine-textured soils quickly fills with water, reducing soil oxygen levels. In addition to routine application of organic matter, microorganisms and earthworms perform a crucial assist to soil tilth. As microorganisms decompose the organic matter, soil particles bind together into larger aggregates, increasing large pore space. Clay soils are more subject to soil compaction, which reduces large pore spaces. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The effects and influences of RE1/NRSE and REST/NRSF are significant in non-neuronal cells that require the repression or silencing of neuronal genes. These silencer elements also regulate the expression of genes that do not induce neuron-specific proteins and studies have shown the extensive impact these factors have in cellular processes. In Xenopus laevis, RE1/NRSE and REST/NRSF dysfunction or mutation demonstrated significant impact on neural tube, cranial ganglia, and eye development. All of these alterations can be traced to an improper patterning of the ectoderm during Xenopus development. Thus, a mutation or alteration in either the silencing region RE1/NRSE or silencer REST/NRSF factor can disrupt the proper differentiation and specification of the neuroepithelial domain and also hinder the formation of skin or ectoderm. The lack of these factors result in a decreased production of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), which translates into a deficient development of the neural crest. Hence, the effects of NRSE and NRSF are of fundamental importance for neurogenesis of the developing embryo, and also in the early stages of ectodermal patterning. Ultimately, inadequate functioning of these factors can result in aberrant neural tube, cranial ganglia, and eye development in Xenopus. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The Draupner wave (or New Year's wave) was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument. The wave was recorded in 1995 at Unit E of the Draupner platform, a gas pipeline support complex located in the North Sea about southwest from the southern tip of Norway.
The rig was built to withstand a calculated 1-in-10,000-years wave with a predicted height of and was fitted with state-of-the-art sensors, including a laser rangefinder wave recorder on the platform's underside. At 3 pm on 1 January 1995, the device recorded a rogue wave with a maximum wave height of . Peak elevation above still water level was . The reading was confirmed by the other sensors. The platform sustained minor damage in the event.
In the area, the SWH was about , so the Draupner wave was more than twice as tall and steep as its neighbors, with characteristics that fell outside any known wave model. The wave caused enormous interest in the scientific community. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In addition to the electrical potential difference, the presence of moisture is a driving factor in the ECM. If there is a sufficient film of moisture with condensation and even at low electrical voltage, the ECM can form a bridging structure between the contacts after just a few minutes.
In general, the process can be broken down into the following steps:
* Adsorption of water through condensation on the surface between the contacts (often promoted by hygroscopic ionic impurities)
* Alkalization of the water due to the applied potential difference and thus lowering of the pH value in the water film (initiates the corrosion of (contact) metallizations e.g. silver, copper, tin)
* Dissolution of the anode material (silver, copper, tin etc.)
* Migration of the metal cations to the cathode
* Reduction of the migrated cations and deposition on the cathode with the formation of a metallic dendrite
* Dendrite growth in the opposite direction, towards the anode
* Reduction of the resistance between the contacts up to a permanent short circuit
* There is also bridge formation through interaction with impurities that run from the anode to the cathode
This mechanism impairs the reliability and longevity of electronic assemblies. This means that electrochemical migration is often the focus of failure root cause analyzes as a possible trigger for malfunctions in the field. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Red mud is a side-product of the Bayer process, the principal means of refining bauxite en route to alumina. The resulting alumina is the raw material for producing aluminium by the Hall–Héroult process. A typical bauxite plant produces one to two times as much red mud as alumina. This ratio is dependent on the type of bauxite used in the refining process and the extraction conditions.
More than 60 manufacturing operations across the world use the Bayer process to make alumina from bauxite ore. Bauxite ore is mined, normally in open cast mines, and transferred to an alumina refinery for processing. The alumina is extracted using sodium hydroxide under conditions of high temperature and pressure. The insoluble part of the bauxite (the residue) is removed, giving rise to a solution of sodium aluminate, which is then seeded with an aluminium hydroxide crystal and allowed to cool which causes the remaining aluminium hydroxide to precipitate from the solution. Some of the aluminium hydroxide is used to seed the next batch, while the remainder is calcined (heated) at over 1000 °C in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to produce aluminium oxide (alumina).
The alumina content of the bauxite used is normally between 42 and 50%, but ores with a wide range of alumina contents can be used. The aluminium compound may be present as gibbsite (Al(OH)), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) or diaspore (α-AlO(OH)). The residue invariably has a high concentration of iron oxide which gives the product a characteristic red colour. A small residual amount of the sodium hydroxide used in the process remains with the residue, causing the material to have a high pH/alkalinity, normally >12. Various stages of solid/liquid separation processes recycle as much sodium hydroxide as possible from the residue back into the Bayer Process, in order to reduce production costs and make the process as efficient as possible. This also lowers the final alkalinity of the residue, making it easier and safer to handle and store. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
As with cocaine in Coca-Cola, lithium was widely marketed as one of a number of patent medicine products popular in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, and was the medicinal ingredient of a refreshment beverage. Charles Leiper Grigg, who launched his St. Louis-based company The Howdy Corporation, invented a formula for a lemon-lime soft drink in 1920. The product, originally named "Bib-Label Lithiated Lemon-Lime Soda", was launched two weeks before the Wall Street Crash of 1929. It contained the mood stabilizer lithium citrate, and was one of a number of patent medicine products popular in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Its name was soon changed to 7 Up. All American beverage makers were forced to remove lithium from beverages in 1948. Despite the ban, in 1950, the Painesville Telegraph still carried an advertisement for a lithiated lemon beverage. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The World Trade Center Health Registry was established in 2002 by ATSDR and the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene to track the long-term physical and mental health effects of the September 11 attacks. The registry contains more than 71,000 people who lived, worked, or went to school near the World Trade Center site, as well as emergency response personnel who were involved in rescue and recovery efforts. It is the largest post-disaster health registry in the United States. Researchers use the registry to study the health effects of the disaster and to develop public health recommendations for future disasters. A 2009 study based on registry data found that posttraumatic stress disorder and asthma were the two most commonly reported conditions among registry participants 5 to 6 years after the disaster. The study found that 19% of adult participants reported new posttraumatic stress symptoms, and 10% of adult participants reported developing new asthma. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Historically conventional external beam radiation therapy (2DXRT) was delivered via two-dimensional beams using kilovoltage therapy X-ray units, medical linear accelerators that generate high-energy X-rays, or with machines that were similar to a linear accelerator in appearance, but used a sealed radioactive source like the one shown above. 2DXRT mainly consists of a single beam of radiation delivered to the patient from several directions: often front or back, and both sides.
Conventional refers to the way the treatment is planned or simulated on a specially calibrated diagnostic X-ray machine known as a simulator because it recreates the linear accelerator actions (or sometimes by eye), and to the usually well-established arrangements of the radiation beams to achieve a desired plan. The aim of simulation is to accurately target or localize the volume which is to be treated. This technique is well established and is generally quick and reliable. The worry is that some high-dose treatments may be limited by the radiation toxicity capacity of healthy tissues which lie close to the target tumor volume.
An example of this problem is seen in radiation of the prostate gland, where the sensitivity of the adjacent rectum limited the dose which could be safely prescribed using 2DXRT planning to such an extent that tumor control may not be easily achievable. Prior to the invention of the CT, physicians and physicists had limited knowledge about the true radiation dosage delivered to both cancerous and healthy tissue. For this reason, 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy has become the standard treatment for almost all tumor sites. More recently other forms of imaging are used including MRI, PET, SPECT and Ultrasound. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In the old industrial area of the Ruhr District in Germany, Duisburg-Nord is a landscape park which incorporates former industrial structures and natural biodiversity. The architects Latz + Partner developed the water park which now consists of the old River Emscher, subdivided into five main sections: Klarwasserkanal (Clear Water Canal), the Emschergraben (Dyke), the Emscherrinne (Channel), the Emscherschlucht (Gorge) and the Emscherbach (Stream). The open waste water canal of the “Old Emscher” river is now fed gradually by rainwater collection through a series of barrages and water shoots. This gradual supply means that, even in lengthy dry spells, water can be supplied to the Old Emscher to replenish the oxygen levels. This has allowed the canalised river bed to become a valley with possibilities for nature development and recreation.
As a key part of the ecological objectives, much of the overgrown areas of the property were included in the plan as they were found to contain a wide diversity of flora and fauna, including threatened species from the red list. Another important theme in the development of the plan was to make the water system visible, in order to stimulate a relationship between visitors and the water. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
For an extreme example, in a tensile test a bar of steel is strained to just before the length at which it usually fractures. The load is released smoothly and the material relieves some of its strain by decreasing in length. The decrease in length is called the elastic recovery, and the result is a work-hardened steel bar. The fraction of length recovered (length recovered/original length) is equal to the yield-stress divided by the modulus of elasticity. (Here we discuss true stress in order to account for the drastic decrease in diameter in this tensile test.) The length recovered after removing a load from a material just before it breaks is equal to the length recovered after removing a load just before it enters plastic deformation.
The work-hardened steel bar has a large enough number of dislocations that the strain field interaction prevents all plastic deformation. Subsequent deformation requires a stress that varies linearly with the strain observed, the slope of the graph of stress vs. strain is the modulus of elasticity, as usual.
The work-hardened steel bar fractures when the applied stress exceeds the usual fracture stress and the strain exceeds usual fracture strain. This may be considered to be the elastic limit and the yield stress is now equal to the fracture toughness, which is much higher than a non-work-hardened steel yield stress.
The amount of plastic deformation possible is zero, which is less than the amount of plastic deformation possible for a non-work-hardened material. Thus, the ductility of the cold-worked bar is reduced.
Substantial and prolonged cavitation can also produce strain hardening. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
AGEs have been implicated in Alzheimer's Disease, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. The mechanism by which AGEs induce damage is through a process called cross-linking that causes intracellular damage and apoptosis. They form photosensitizers in the crystalline lens, which has implications for cataract development. Reduced muscle function is also associated with AGEs. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
There is an extreme constancy of the isotopic composition of igneous rocks. The mean value of δFe of terrestrial rocks is 0.00 ± 0.05‰. More precise isotopic measurements indicate that the small deviations from 0.00‰ may reflect a slight mass-dependent fractionation. This mass fractionation has been proposed to be F = 0.039 ± 0.008‰ per atomic mass unit relative to IRMM-014. There may also be slight isotopic variations in igneous rocks depending on their composition and process of formation. The average value of δFe for ultramafic igneous rocks is -0.06‰, whereas the average value of δFe for mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) is +0.03‰. Sedimentary rocks exhibit slightly larger variations in δFe, with values between -1.6‰ and +0.9‰ relative to IRMM-014. Banded iron formations δFe span the entire range observed on Earth, from -2.5‰ to +1‰. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In the species Dictyostelium discoideum, cAMP acts outside the cell as a secreted signal. The chemotactic aggregation of cells is organized by periodic waves of cAMP that propagate between cells over distances as large as several centimetres. The waves are the result of a regulated production and secretion of extracellular cAMP and a spontaneous biological oscillator that initiates the waves at centers of territories. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In theoretical chemistry, a conjugated system is a system of connected p-orbitals with delocalized electrons in a molecule, which in general lowers the overall energy of the molecule and increases stability. It is conventionally represented as having alternating single and multiple bonds. Lone pairs, radicals or carbenium ions may be part of the system, which may be cyclic, acyclic, linear or mixed. The term "conjugated" was coined in 1899 by the German chemist Johannes Thiele.
Conjugation is the overlap of one p-orbital with another across an adjacent σ bond (in transition metals, d-orbitals can be involved).
A conjugated system has a region of overlapping p-orbitals, bridging the interjacent locations that simple diagrams illustrate as not having a π bond. They allow a delocalization of π electrons across all the adjacent aligned p-orbitals.
The π electrons do not belong to a single bond or atom, but rather to a group of atoms.
Molecules containing conjugated systems of orbitals and electrons are called conjugated molecules, which have overlapping p orbitals on three or more atoms. Some simple organic conjugated molecules are 1,3-butadiene, benzene, and allylic carbocations. The largest conjugated systems are found in graphene, graphite, conductive polymers and carbon nanotubes. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
RBMK reactor fuel was used in Soviet-designed and built RBMK-type reactors. This is a low-enriched uranium oxide fuel. The fuel elements in an RBMK are 3 m long each, and two of these sit back-to-back on each fuel channel, pressure tube. Reprocessed uranium from Russian VVER reactor spent fuel is used to fabricate RBMK fuel. Following the Chernobyl accident, the enrichment of fuel was changed from 2.0% to 2.4%, to compensate for control rod modifications and the introduction of additional absorbers. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
These are made of thin strips of Permalloy, a high magnetic permeability, nickel-iron alloy, whose electrical resistance varies with a change in magnetic field. They have a well-defined axis of sensitivity, can be produced in 3-D versions and can be mass-produced as an integrated circuit. They have a response time of less than 1 microsecond and can be sampled in moving vehicles up to 1,000 times/second. They can be used in compasses that read within 1°, for which the underlying sensor must reliably resolve 0.1°. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Mustafa Babanlı (; born February 21, 1968), is an Azerbaijani scientist, Rector of the Azerbaijan State Oil and Industry University.
On September 3, 2015, Mustafa Babanli was appointed Rector of the Azerbaijan State University of Oil and Industry. He is a member of the International Association of University Presidents, serving as Regional Chair for Middle East, Caucasus & Central Asia. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids. In an emulsion, one liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase). Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, liquid biomolecular condensates, and some cutting fluids for metal working.
Two liquids can form different types of emulsions. As an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, in which the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the continuous phase. Second, they can form a water-in-oil emulsion, in which water is the dispersed phase and oil is the continuous phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a "water-in-oil-in-water" emulsion and an "oil-in-water-in-oil" emulsion.
Emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the continuous phase (sometimes referred to as the "dispersion medium") are usually assumed to be statistically distributed to produce roughly spherical droplets.
The term "emulsion" is also used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consists of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix. Nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Again, similar as for absolute permittivity, relative permittivity for lossy materials can be formulated as:
in terms of a "dielectric conductivity" σ (units S/m, siemens per meter), which "sums over all the dissipative effects of the material; it may represent an actual [[Electrical conductivity|[electrical] conductivity]] caused by migrating charge carriers and it may also refer to an energy loss associated with the dispersion of ε′ [the real-valued permittivity]" ( p. 8). Expanding the angular frequency and the electric constant , which reduces to:
where λ is the wavelength, c is the speed of light in vacuum and = 59.95849 Ω ≈ 60.0 Ω is a newly introduced constant (units ohms, or reciprocal siemens, such that σλκ = ε remains unitless). | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In solid-state physics and crystallography, a crystal structure is described by a unit cell repeating periodically over space. There are an infinite number of choices for unit cells, with different shapes and sizes, which can describe the same crystal, and different choices can be useful for different purposes.
Say that a crystal structure is described by a unit cell U. Another unit cell S is a supercell of unit cell U, if S is a cell which describes the same crystal, but has a larger volume than cell U. Many methods which use a supercell perturbate it somehow to determine properties which cannot be determined by the initial cell. For example, during phonon calculations by the small displacement method, phonon frequencies in crystals are calculated using force values on slightly displaced atoms in the supercell. Another very important example of a supercell is the conventional cell of body-centered (bcc) or face-centered (fcc) cubic crystals. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Disruption of TAD boundaries can affect the expression of nearby genes, and this can cause disease.
For example, genomic structural variants that disrupt TAD boundaries have been reported to cause developmental disorders such as human limb malformations. Additionally, several studies have provided evidence that the disruption or rearrangement of TAD boundaries can provide growth advantages to certain cancers, such as T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL), gliomas, and lung cancer. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The idea that the electrical activity generated by nervous tissue may influence the activity of surrounding nervous tissue is one that dates back to the late 19th century. Early experiments, like those by Emil du Bois-Reymond, demonstrated that the firing of a primary nerve may induce the firing of an adjacent secondary nerve (termed "secondary excitation"). This effect was not quantitatively explored, however, until experiments by Katz and Schmitt in 1940, when the two explored the electric interaction of two adjacent limb nerves of the crab Carcinus maenas. Their work demonstrated that the progression of the action potential in the active axon caused excitability changes in the inactive axon. These changes were attributed to the local currents that form the action potential. For example, the currents that caused the depolarization (excitation) of the active nerve caused a corresponding hyperpolarization (depression) of the adjacent resting fiber. Similarly, the currents that caused repolarization of the active nerve caused slight depolarization in the resting fiber. Katz and Schmitt also observed that stimulation of both nerves could cause interference effects. Simultaneous action potential firing caused interference and resulted in decreased conduction velocity, while slightly offset stimulation resulted in synchronization of the two impulses.
In 1941 Angélique Arvanitaki explored the same topic and proposed the usage of the term "ephapse" (from the Greek and meaning "to touch") to describe this phenomenon and distinguish it from synaptic transmission. Over time the term ephaptic coupling has come to be used not only in cases of electric interaction between adjacent elements, but also more generally to describe the effects induced by any field changes along the cell membrane. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Smooth muscle cells cultured from the myometrium showed no significant induction of SFRP1 mRNA in response to treatment with E2 and/or progesterone. Conversely, cells cultured from leiomyomas showed significant dose-dependent induction of SFRP1 mRNA in response to treatment with E2; however, progesterone had no effect on SFRP1 even when coapplied with E2. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Redox gradients are commonly found in the environment as functions of both space and time, particularly in soils and aquatic environments. Gradients are caused by varying physiochemical properties including availability of oxygen, soil hydrology, chemical species present, and microbial processes. Specific environments that are commonly characterized by redox gradients include waterlogged soils, wetlands, contaminant plumes, and marine pelagic and hemipelagic sediments.
The following is a list of common reactions that occur in the environment in order from oxidizing to reducing (organisms performing the reaction in parentheses):
# Aerobic respiration (aerobes: aerobic organisms)
# Denitrification (denitrifiers: denitrifying bacteria)
# Manganese reduction (Manganese reducers)
# Iron reduction (iron reducers: iron-reducing bacteria)
# Sulfate reduction (sulfate reducers: Sulfur-reducing bacteria)
# Methanogenesis (methanogens) | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In August 1960, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory can designate a measurement device using an established technological basis as a Federal Reference Method (FRM) to certify that the device has undergone a testing and analysis protocol, and can be used to monitor NAAQS compliance. Devices based on new technologies can be designated as a Federal Equivalent Method (FEM). FEMs are based on different sampling and/or analyzing technologies than FRMs, but are required to provide the same decision making quality when making NAAQS attainment determinations. Approved new methods are formally announced through publication in the Federal Register. A complete list of FRMs and FEMs is available. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
* Anandamide
* 2-Arachidonoylglycerol
* 2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether
* Oleamide
* Oleoylethanolamide
* Virodhamine
* Docosatetraenoylethanolamide
* Stearoylethanolamide
* N-Arachidonylglycine
* Arachidonoyl serotonin
* N-Arachidonoyl dopamine
* N-Acylethanolamine | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Dextroamphetamine is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy (a sleep disorder), and is sometimes prescribed for depression and obesity. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate of energy expenditure per unit time by endothermic animals at rest. It is reported in energy units per unit time ranging from watt (joule/second) to ml O/min or joule per hour per kg body mass J/(h·kg). Proper measurement requires a strict set of criteria to be met. These criteria include being in a physically and psychologically undisturbed state and being in a thermally neutral environment while in the post-absorptive state (i.e., not actively digesting food). In bradymetabolic animals, such as fish and reptiles, the equivalent term standard metabolic rate (SMR) applies. It follows the same criteria as BMR, but requires the documentation of the temperature at which the metabolic rate was measured. This makes BMR a variant of standard metabolic rate measurement that excludes the temperature data, a practice that has led to problems in defining "standard" rates of metabolism for many mammals.
Metabolism comprises the processes that the body needs to function. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy per unit of time that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are breathing, blood circulation, controlling body temperature, cell growth, brain and nerve function, and contraction of muscles. Basal metabolic rate affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 60 to 75% of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. In humans, BMR typically declines by 1–2% per decade after age 20, mostly due to loss of fat-free mass, although the variability between individuals is high. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
*"Synthesis of Jeewanu, the Protocell." Bahadur, Krishna. (In English) Ram Narain Lal Beni Prasad, New Katra, Allahabad-211002 (U.P) India. ASIN: B0007JHWU0 (1966)
*"Origin of Life: A Functional Approach." Bahadur K. and Ranganayaki S.Ram Narain Lal Beni Prasad, New Katra, Allahabad-211002(U.P), India, (1981) | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Kathlyn Ann Parker is a chemist known for her work on synthesis of compounds, especially organic compounds with biological roles. She is an elected fellow of the American Chemical Society and a recipient of the Garvan–Olin Medal in chemistry. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The technology is designed primarily for government use, specifically on equipment such as tactical vehicles, ship surfaces, and weapons. The primary objective of CIDAS is the capability to detect trace levels of chemical warfare agents on surfaces before and after personnel decontaminate the surfaces "during Detailed Equipment Decontamination (DED) operations." One component of CIDAS is an applicator that is used to show chemical agents, specifically nerve and blister agents. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Lab Tests Online (now Testing.com) is a peer-reviewed non-profit web resource about clinical laboratory testing. The site provides information on clinical lab tests as well as conditions that are managed or diagnosed by lab tests. Lab Tests Online also provides summaries of recommendations by age, feature articles on lab-related topics, and news items of patient interest. All contents are reviewed and approved by an Editorial Review Board composed of laboratory professionals before being posted to the site.
The site was launched in 2001 by the American Association for Clinical Chemistry, the scientific society for clinical laboratory science and is a collaboration with other professional societies representing the laboratory medicine community. The website is mirrored on other sites in other countries and is available via mobile apps in several countries.
In January 2021, AACC’s Lab Tests Online (labtestsonline.org) was acquired by OneCare Media. In November of 2021, LabTestsOnline.org was rebranded to Testing.com. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
SahysMod accepts four different reservoirs of which three are in the soil profile:
:s: a surface reservoir,
:r: an upper (shallow) soil reservoir or root zone,
:x: an intermediate soil reservoir or transition zone,
:q: a deep reservoir or main aquifer.
The upper soil reservoir is defined by the soil depth, from which water can evaporate or be taken up by plant roots. It can be taken equal to the root zone. It can be saturated, unsaturated, or partly saturated, depending on the water balance. All water movements in this zone are vertical, either upward or downward, depending on the water balance. (In a future version of Sahysmod, the upper soil reservoir may be divided into two equal parts to detect the trend in the vertical salinity distribution.)
The transition zone can also be saturated, unsaturated or partly saturated. All flows in this zone are horizontal, except the flow to subsurface drains, which is radial.
If a horizontal subsurface drainage system is present, this must be placed in the transition zone, which is then divided into two parts: an upper transition zone (above drain level) and a lower transition zone (below drain level).
If one wishes to distinguish an upper and lower part of the transition zone in the absence of a subsurface drainage system, one may specify in the input data a drainage system with zero intensity.
The aquifer has mainly horizontal flow. Pumped wells, if present, receive their water from the aquifer only. The flow in the aquifer is determined in dependence of spatially varying depths of the aquifer, levels of the water table, and hydraulic conductivity.
SahysMod permits the introduction of phreatic (unconfined) and semi-confined aquifers. The latter may develop a hydraulic over or under pressure below the slowly permeable top-layer (aquitard). | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In phase change cycles and engines, the working fluids are gases and liquids. The engine converts the working fluid from a gas to a liquid, from liquid to gas, or both, generating work from the fluid expansion or compression.
*Rankine cycle (classical steam engine)
*Regenerative cycle (steam engine more efficient than Rankine cycle)
*Organic Rankine cycle (Coolant changing phase in temperature ranges of ice and hot liquid water)
*Vapor to liquid cycle (drinking bird, injector, Minto wheel)
*Liquid to solid cycle (frost heaving – water changing from ice to liquid and back again can lift rock up to 60 cm.)
*Solid to gas cycle (firearms – solid propellants combust to hot gases.) | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
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