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Log reduction is a measure of how thoroughly a decontamination process reduces the concentration of a contaminant.
It is defined as the common logarithm of the ratio of the levels of contamination before and after the process, so an increment of 1 corresponds to a reduction in concentration by a factor of 10.
In general, an -log reduction means that the concentration of remaining contaminants is only times that of the original. So for example, a 0-log reduction is no reduction at all, while a 1-log reduction corresponds to a reduction of 90 percent from the original concentration, and a 2-log reduction corresponds to a reduction of 99 percent from the original concentration. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Step 1: We take layer 1 as x, and layer 2 as y. By our assumptions in this case, { }.
Step 2: We take the result from step 1 as the value for new x [ x is old x+y; (-x) is old y+x ], and the value for layer 3 as new y.
<math>T_{x+y} = \frac {T_x T_y}{1-R_{(-x)} R_y} = \frac {(0.912)(0.96)}{1-(0.0361)(0.04)} =0.877 = T_{123}
Dahm has shown that for this special case, the total amount of light absorbed by the interior of the sheet (considering surface remission) is the same as that absorbed in a single trip (independent of surface remission). This is borne out by the calculations.
The decadic absorbance () of the sheet is given by: | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Adsorption/bio-oxidation process was invented in the mid-1970s by Botho Böhnke, a professor of the RWTH Aachen University. It was based on the finding made by the German engineer Karl Imhoff in the 1950s. Imhoff stated that the treatment efficiency of 60–80 percent could be achieved in highly loaded activated sludge basins.
In 1977 Böhnke published his first article on adsorption/bio-oxidation process. The same year the patent was issued. Extensive research of the following years, conducted by Böhnke together with Bernd and Andreas Diering, ended up in 1985 with the establishment of the company Dr.-Ing. Bernd Diering GmbH. The same year, the AB-process was for the first time applied in a full-scale at the Krefeld, Germany sewage treatment plant (800 000 P.E.). In 1990, 19 full scale installations existed in Western Germany alone. Further application of the process in Europe was hindered by the tightening of the effluent discharge requirements with respect to nitrogen and phosphorus. The process came into notice in 2000 again due to the increased interest in energy recovery from wastewater. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The degree of ionization (also known as ionization yield in the literature) refers to the proportion of neutral particles, such as those in a gas or aqueous solution, that are ionized. For electrolytes, it could be understood as a capacity of acid/base to ionize itself. A low degree of ionization is sometimes called partially ionized (also weakly ionized), and a high degree of ionization as fully ionized. However, the term fully ionized is also used to describe an ion that has no electrons left.
Ionization refers to the process whereby an atom or molecule loses one or several electrons from its atomic orbital, or conversely gains an additional one, from an incoming free electron (electron attachment). In both cases, the atom or molecule ceases to be a neutral particle and becomes a charge carrier. If the species has lost one or several electrons, it becomes positively charged and is called a positive ion, or cation. On the contrary, if the species has gained one or several additional electrons, it becomes negatively charged and is called a negative ion, or anion. Individual free electrons and ions in a plasma have very short lives typically inferior to the microsecond, as ionization and recombination, excitation and relaxation are collective continuous processes. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Here a linear shear in the velocity is introduced.
where is the small parameter. The governing equation is
Then the solution to first-order approximation is | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Lecture 1: A Candle: The Flame - Its Sources - Structure - Mobility - Brightness
Lecture 2: Brightness of the Flame - Air necessary for Combustion - Production of Water
Lecture 3: Products: Water from the Combustion - Nature of Water - A Compound - Hydrogen
Lecture 4: Hydrogen in the Candle - Burns into Water - The Other Part of Water - Oxygen
Lecture 5: Oxygen present in the Air - Nature of the Atmosphere - Its Properties - Other Products from the Candle - Carbonic Acid - Its Properties
Lecture 6: Carbon or Charcoal - Coal Gas Respiration and its Analogy to the Burning of a Candle - Conclusion | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
He briefly taught physical chemistry at the London University before moving to Pakistan. Upon his return, he joined the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) and took the professorship of nuclear chemistry at the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH). Subsequently, he joined the clandestine atomic bomb project's chemistry section led by fellow chemist Iqbal Hussain Qureshi.
Munir Ahmad Khan, chairman PAEC, had him partially take over the "R-Labs" at PAEC to engage research in chemical explosives. Initially, the research was concentrated towards development of the HMX, a non-toxic explosive that was produced as a by-product of the RDX process. In the 1970s, he founded the Metallurgical Laboratory (ML) where he also moved majority of the staff to undertake research in metallurgy. He then led a team of chemists who supervised the physical conversion of UF into solid metal before coating and machining the metal. During this time, he also led the research on using chemical and metallurgical industrial techniques and reduction furnaces to produce metal from the Highly enriched uranium. Due to the sensitivity of the project and concerns of fellow theorist Dr. AQ Khan, the program was moved to KRL in the 1980s. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
QS is important to plant-pathogen interactions, and their study has also contributed to the QS field more generally. The first X-ray crystallography results for some of the key proteins were those of Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii in maize/corn and Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a crop pathogen with a wider range of hosts. These interactions are facilitated by quorum-sensing molecules and play a major role in maintaining the pathogenicity of bacteria towards other hosts, such as humans. This mechanism can be understood by looking at the effects of N-Acyl homoserine lactone (AHL), one of the quorum sensing-signaling molecules in gram-negative bacteria, on plants. The model organism used is Arabidopsis thaliana. Further insights reveal that AHLs influence plant immune responses and can alter plant hormone levels, thereby affecting plant growth and susceptibility to infection. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing innovative strategies to combat plant diseases and improve agricultural productivity. Researchers have also noted that certain plants can degrade these signaling molecules, potentially as a defensive strategy to disrupt bacterial communication. This interplay between bacterial signaling and plant responses suggests a complex co-evolutionary relationship that could be exploited to enhance crop resistance to bacterial pathogens.
The role of AHLs having long carbon-chains (C12, C14), which have an unknown receptor mechanism, is less well understood than AHLs having short carbon-chains (C4, C6, C8), which are perceived by the G protein-coupled receptor. A phenomenon called "AHL priming", which is a dependent signalling pathway, enhanced our knowledge of long-chain AHLs. The role of quorum-sensing molecules was better explained according to three categories: host physiology–based impact of quorum sensing molecules; ecological effects; and cellular signaling. Calcium signalling and calmodulin have a large role in short-chain AHLs response in Arabidopsis. Research was also conducted on barley and the crop called yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus') that reveals the AHLs determining the detoxification enzymes called GST were found less in yam bean.
Quorum sensing-based regulatory systems are necessary to plant-disease-causing bacteria. Looking towards developing new strategies based on plant-associated microbiomes, the aim of further study is to improve the quantity and quality of the food supply. Further research into this inter-kingdom communication also enhances the possibility of learning about quorum sensing in humans.This exploration could open new avenues for managing microbial communities in agricultural settings, potentially leading to the development of more sustainable farming practices that leverage natural microbial processes to boost crop resilience and productivity. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The 1917 synthesis by Robinson is considered a classic in total synthesis due to its simplicity and biomimetic approach. Tropinone is a bicyclic molecule, but the reactants used in its preparation are fairly simple: succinaldehyde, methylamine and acetonedicarboxylic acid (or even acetone). The synthesis is a good example of a biomimetic reaction or biogenetic-type synthesis because biosynthesis makes use of the same building blocks. It also demonstrates a tandem reaction in a one-pot synthesis. Furthermore, the yield of the synthesis was 17% and with subsequent improvements exceeded 90%.
This reaction is described as an intramolecular "double Mannich reaction" for obvious reasons. It is not unique in this regard, as others have also attempted it in piperidine synthesis.
In place of acetone, acetonedicarboxylic acid is known as the "synthetic equivalent" the 1,3-dicarboxylic acid groups are so-called "activating groups" to facilitate the ring forming reactions. The calcium salt is there as a "buffer" as it is claimed that higher yields are possible if the reaction is conducted at "physiological pH". | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The story of ledeburite begins in the late 19th century when Adolf Ledebur, a pioneering German metallurgist, embarked on a journey to unravel the complexities of steel microstructures. In 1882, Ledebur identified a distinct microconstituent in high-carbon steels, characterized by its unique lamellar structure. This discovery marked the birth of ledeburite, named in honor of the scientist whose keen observations laid the foundation for understanding the intricate world within steel. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Attempts to prepare some carboxylate complexes, especially for electrophilic metals, often gives oxo derivatives. Examples include the oxo-acetates of Fe(III), Mn(III), and Cr(III).
Metal acetates are common catalysts or precatalysts. Particularly useful are the ethylhexanoates and related metallic soaps. These lipophilic complexes are used as catalysts in oxidation reactions, e.g. oil drying agents. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
A packed scrubber consists of a tower with packing material inside. This packing material can be in the shape of saddles, rings, or some highly specialized shapes designed to maximize the contact area between the dirty gas and liquid. Packed towers typically operate at much lower pressure drops than venturi scrubbers and are therefore cheaper to operate. They also typically offer higher removal efficiency. The drawback is that they have a greater tendency to plug up if particles are present in excess in the exhaust air stream. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Interleukin 34 (IL-34) is a protein belonging to a group of cytokines called interleukins. It was originally identified in humans, by large scale screening of secreted proteins; chimpanzee, murine, rat and chicken interleukin 34 orthologs have also been found. The protein is composed of 241 amino acids, 39 kilodaltons in mass, and forms homodimers. IL-34 increases growth or survival of immune cells known as monocytes; it elicits its activity by binding the Colony stimulating factor 1 receptor.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of human IL-34 is most abundant in spleen but occurs in several other tissues: thymus, liver, small intestine, colon, prostate gland, lung, heart, brain, kidney, testes, and ovary. The discovery of IL-34 protein in the red pulp of the spleen suggests involvement in growth and development of myeloid cells, consistent with its activity on monocytes. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Makemake exhibits methane, large amounts of ethane and tholins, as well as smaller amounts of ethylene, acetylene and high-mass alkanes may be present, most likely created by photolysis of methane by solar radiation. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model analyzes social implications that affect attitudes and decision making pertaining to clinical trials. People who hold a higher stake or interest in the treatment provided in a clinical trial showed a greater likelihood of seeking information about clinical trials. Cancer patients reported more optimistic attitudes towards clinical trials than the general population. Having a more optimistic outlook on clinical trials also leads to greater likelihood of enrolling. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
While at first the chemical garden may appear to be primarily a toy, some serious work has been done on the subject. For instance, this chemistry is related to the setting of Portland cement, the formation of hydrothermal vents, and during the corrosion of steel surfaces on which insoluble tubes can be formed.
The nature of the growth of the insoluble silicate tubes formed within chemical gardens is also useful in understanding classes of related behavior seen in fluids separated by membranes. In various ways, the growth of the silicate tubes resembles the growth of spikes or blobs of ice extruded above the freezing surface of still water, the patterns of growth of gum drying as it drips from wounds in trees such as Eucalyptus, and the way molten wax forms twig-like growths, either dripping from a candle, or floating up through cool water. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
:V09IA01 Technetium (Tc) antiCarcinoEmbryonicAntigen antibody
:V09IA02 Technetium (Tc) antimelanoma antibody
:V09IA03 Technetium (Tc) pentavalent succimer
:V09IA04 Technetium (Tc) votumumab
:V09IA05 Technetium (Tc) depreotide
:V09IA06 Technetium (Tc) arcitumomab
:V09IA07 Technetium (Tc) hynic-octreotide
:V09IA08 Technetium (Tc) etarfolatide
:V09IA09 Technetium (Tc) tilmanocept
:V09IA10 Technetium (99mTc) trofolastat chloride | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Rokushō is used to treat a number of metals, including raw natural copper, which holds impurities, purified copper, and copper alloy mixes with two to five metals, to produce irogane metals, including: shakudō, an alloy of copper and gold, which becomes black to dark blue-violet; shibuichi, an alloy of fine silver and copper (in a higher percentage than sterling), which turns grey to misty aquamarine or other shades of blue to green; kuromido which becomes dark coppery black.
Rokushō was generally used to patinate all types of mokume-gane ("wood grain metal") as well.
Although other patination agents can be used on these metals, some artisans prefer the rich colors achieved with traditional rokushō in the niiro process.
These metals are becoming increasingly popular in high-end artistic jewelry, especially in bi-metals (a layer of the alloy fused to another metal such as sterling). Because rokushō has a dramatically different effect on sterling silver than on the alloys typically fused to it in bi-metals, a common technique in art jewelry is to engrave through the alloy layer in a pattern to reveal the silver underneath prior to patination. This provides a rich contrast in color, highlighting the pattern. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The eIF4E subunit of eIF4F is an important target of mTOR signaling through the eIF4E binding protein (4E-BP). Phosphorylation of 4E-BPs by mTOR prevents their binding to eIF4E, freeing eIF4E to bind eIF4G and participate in translation initiation. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Contraindications of drospirenone include renal impairment or chronic kidney disease, adrenal insufficiency, presence or history of cervical cancer or other progestogen-sensitive cancers, benign or malignant liver tumors or hepatic impairment, undiagnosed abnormal uterine bleeding, and hyperkalemia (high potassium levels). Renal impairment, hepatic impairment, and adrenal insufficiency are contraindicated because they increase exposure to drospirenone and/or increase the risk of hyperkalemia with drospirenone. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Levels of care classify health care into categories of chronology, priority, or intensity, as follows:
* Urgent care handles health issues that need to be handled today but are not necessarily emergencies; the urgent care venue can send a patient to the emergency care level if it turns out to be needed.
** In the United States (and possibly various other countries), urgent care centers also serve another function as their other main purpose: U.S. primary care practices have evolved in recent decades into a configuration whereby urgent care centers provide portions of primary care that cannot wait a month, because getting an appointment with the primary care practitioner is often subject to a waitlist of 2 to 8 weeks.
* Emergency care handles medical emergencies and is a first point of contact or intake for less serious problems, which can be referred to other levels of care as appropriate.
* Intensive care, also called critical care, is care for extremely ill or injured patients. It thus requires high resource intensity, knowledge, and skill, as well as quick decision making.
* Ambulatory care is care provided on an outpatient basis. Typically patients can walk into and out of the clinic under their own power (hence "ambulatory"), usually on the same day.
* Home care is care at home, including care from providers (such as physicians, nurses, and home health aides) making house calls, care from caregivers such as family members, and patient self-care.
* Primary care is meant to be the main kind of care in general, and ideally a medical home that unifies care across referred providers.
* Secondary care is care provided by medical specialists and other health professionals who generally do not have first contact with patients, for example, cardiologists, urologists and dermatologists. A patient reaches secondary care as a next step from primary care, typically by provider referral although sometimes by patient self-initiative.
* Tertiary care is specialized consultative care, usually for inpatients and on referral from a primary or secondary health professional, in a facility that has personnel and facilities for advanced medical investigation and treatment, such as a tertiary referral hospital.
* Follow-up care is additional care during or after convalescence. Aftercare is generally synonymous with follow-up care.
* End-of-life care is care near the end of one's life. It often includes the following:
** Palliative care is supportive care, most especially (but not necessarily) near the end of life.
** Hospice care is palliative care very near the end of life when cure is very unlikely. Its main goal is comfort, both physical and mental. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Worldwide, iodine deficiency affects two billion people and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disability. Mental disability is a result which occurs primarily when babies or small children are rendered hypothyroidic by a lack of dietary iodine (new hypothyroidism in adults may cause temporary mental slowing, but not permanent damage).
In areas where there is little iodine in the diet, typically remote inland areas and semi-arid equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten, iodine deficiency also gives rise to hypothyroidism, the most serious symptoms of which are epidemic goitre (swelling of the thyroid gland), extreme fatigue, mental slowing, depression, weight gain, and low basal body temperatures.
The addition of iodine to table salt (so-called iodized salt) has largely eliminated the most severe consequences of iodine deficiency in wealthier nations, but deficiency remains a serious public health problem in the developing world. Iodine deficiency is also a problem in certain areas of Europe; in Germany, an estimated one billion dollars in healthcare costs is spent each year in combating and treating iodine deficiency. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
One of the major goals of chemistry is the study of material transformations where chemical kinetics plays an important role. Scientists during the 19th century stated macroscopic chemical processes consist of many elementary chemical reactions that are themselves simply a series of encounters between atomic or molecular species. In order to understand the time dependence of chemical reactions, chemical kineticists have traditionally focused on sorting out all of the elementary chemical reactions involved in a macroscopic chemical process and determining their respective rates.
Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius studied this phenomenon during the late 1880s, and stated the relations between reactive molecular encounters and rates of reactions (formulated in terms of activation energies).
Other scientists at the time also stated a chemical reaction is fundamentally a mechanical event, involving the rearrangement of atoms and molecules
during a collision. Although these initial theoretical studies were only qualitative, they heralded a new era in the field of chemical kinetics; allowing the prediction of the dynamical course of a chemical reaction.
In the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, with the development of many sophisticated experimental techniques, it became possible to study the dynamics of elementary chemical reactions in the laboratory. Such as the analysis of the threshold operating conditions of a chemical laser or the spectra obtained using various linear or non-linear laser spectroscopic techniques.
Professors Lees research focused on the possibility to control the energies of the reagents, and to understand the dependence of chemical reactivity on molecular orientation, among other studies related to the nature of reaction intermediates, decay dynamics, and identifying complex reaction mechanisms. To do so, Professor Lee used a breakthrough laboratory technique at the time, called the "crossed molecular beams technique", where the information derived from the measurements of angular and velocity distributions allowed him and his team to understand the dynamics of elementary chemical reactions. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Applications for thermometric titrimetry are drawn from the major groupings, namely:
* Acid–base titration
* Redox titration
* Precipitation titration
* Complexometric titration
Because the sensor does not interact electrically or electrochemically with the solution, electrical conductance of the titrating medium is not a pre-requisite for a determination. Titrations may be carried out in completely non-conducting, non-polar media if required. Further, titrations may be carried out in turbid solutions or even suspensions of solids, and titrations where precipitates are reaction products can be contemplated. The range of possible thermometric titration applications far exceeds the actual experience of this writer, and the reader will be referred to the appropriate literature in some instances. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The electric effect can be classified into two types, namely the +E effect and the -E effect. This classification is based on the direction of electron pair transfer. When the attacking reagent is electrophile, the +E effect is generally observed and π-electrons are transferred to the positively charged atom. When the attacking reagent is a nucleophile, there is generally an -E effect, where π electrons are transferred to atoms to which the attacking reagent will not bind. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
If the superspots are located at simple fractions of the vectors of the reciprocal lattice of the substructure, e.g., at q=(½,0,0), the resulting broken symmetry is a multiple of the unit cell along that axis. Such a modulation is called a commensurate superstructure. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Drag reducing agents can be broadly classified under the following four categories – Polymers, Solid-particle suspensions, Biological additives, and Surfactants. These agents are made out of high molecular weight polymers or micellar systems. The polymers help with drag reduction by decreasing turbulence in the oil lines. This allows for oil to be pumped through at lower pressures, saving energy and money. Although these drag reducing agents are mostly used in oil lines, there is research being done to see how helpful polymers could be in reducing drag in veins and arteries. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Phosphoric monoester hydrolases (or phosphomonoesterases) are enzymes that catalyse the hydrolysis of O-P bonds by nucleophilic attack of phosphorus by cysteine residues or coordinated metal ions.
They are categorized with the EC number 3.1.3.
Examples include:
* acid phosphatase
* alkaline phosphatase
* fructose-bisphosphatase
* glucose-6-phosphatase
* phosphofructokinase-2
* phosphoprotein phosphatase
* calcineurin
* 6-phytase | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The first step in the investigation of archaeometallurgical slag is the identification and macro-analysis of slag in the field. Physical properties of slag such as shape, colour, porosity and even smell are used to make a primary classification to ensure representative samples from slag heaps are obtained for future micro-analysis.
For example, tap slag usually has a wrinkled upper face and a flat lower face due to contact with soil.
Furthermore, the macro-analysis of slag heaps can prove an estimated total weight which in turn can be used to determine the scale of production at a particular smelting location. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
While Indium-115 is very slightly radioactive, its half life is longer than the age of the universe and indeed a typical sample of Indium on earth will contain more of this "unstable" isotope than of "stable" Indium-113. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Quite parallel to the santonin to lumisantonin example is the rearrangement of 4,4-diphenylcyclohexadienone<Ref Name=Schuster2/> Here the n-pi* triplet excited state undergoes the same beta-beta bonding. This is followed by intersystem crossing (i.e. ISC) to form the singlet ground state which is seen to be a zwitterion. The final step is the rearrangement to the bicyclic photoproduct. The reaction is termed the type A cyclohexadienone rearrangement. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In 2005, Myriad Genetics reported the results of its Phase II clinical trial of Flurizan; it was the largest ever Alzheimers drug treatment trial using R-flurbiprofen. Patients were split into three treatment groups, receiving placebo, 400 or 800 mg R-flurbiprofen twice daily for a year. Result from this trial showed that the drug was well tolerated, and positive trends were observed with the 800 mg twice-daily dose in patients with mild Alzheimers disease. A subgroup of patients that were diagnosed with mild disease, and had high plasma drug levels had significantly less decline in two primary behavioral outcomes (Activities of Daily Living scale (ADCS-ADL) and Global Function (CDR-SB)). Approximately 80 patients enrolled in the optional follow-on study showed continuing benefits with R-flurbiprofen, with increasing positive trends over this period for all primary outcomes after 24 months. On March 5, 2007 Myriad reported final results of the two-year trial, showing that 42% of those 80 patients showed improvement or no decline in one or more of the three primary endpoints of cognition, global function and activities of daily living, compared to a typical 10% of patients on placebo.
A Phase III clinical study evaluated 800 mg R-flurbiprofen twice-daily versus placebo for 18 months exclusively in 1800 patients with mild Alzheimers disease. This second trial concluded in February 2008 with results reported in the summer. After Phase III testing, which included nearly 1,700 patients with mild Alzheimers disease treated for 18 months with either Flurizan or placebo, Myrial Genetics concluded that the drug did not improve thinking ability or the ability of patients to carry out daily activities significantly more than those patients with placebo. Peter Meldrum, the chief executive of Myriad, announced on June 30, 2008, that the company will no longer be developing Flurizan. Prior to this termination, Myriad had sold distribution rights in the European Union to Lundbeck for an initial payment of $100 million, which Lundbeck has indicated it will now take as a write-down. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The number average molecular weight for a polymer sample is given by the following equation:
where:<br />
is a calibration constant,<br />
is the bridge imbalance output voltage,<br />
is the polymer-solvent solution concentration
It is necessary to calibrate a vapor phase osmometer and it is important to note that K is found for a particular solvent, operational temperature, and type of commercial apparatus. A calibration can be carried out using a standard of known molecular weight. Some possible solvents for VPO include toluene, tetrahydrofuran, or chloroform. Once the experiment is performed, concentration and output voltage data can be graphed on a plot of (ΔV/c) versus c. The plot can be extrapolated to the y-axis in order to obtain the limit of (ΔV/c) as c approaches zero. The equation above can then be used to calculate K. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Polyfluorene is a polymer with formula , consisting of fluorene units linked in a linear chain — specifically, at carbon atoms 2 and 7 in the standard fluorene numbering. It can also be described as a chain of benzene rings linked in para positions (a polyparaphenylene) with an extra methylene bridge connecting every pair of rings.
The two benzene rings in each unit make polyfluorene an aromatic hydrocarbon, specifically conjugated polymer, and give it notable optical and electrical properties, such as efficient photoluminescence.
When spoken about as a class, polyfluorenes are derivatives of this polymer, obtained by replacing some of the hydrogen atoms by other chemical groups, and/or by substituting other monomers for some fluorene units. These polymers are being investigated for possible use in light-emitting diodes, field-effect transistors, plastic solar cells, and other organic electronic applications. They stand out among other luminescent conjugated polymers because the wavelength of their light output can be tuned through the entire visible spectrum by appropriate choice of the substituents. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
A rock hyrax midden is a stratified accumulation of fecal pellets and a brown amber-like a urinary product known as hyraceum excreted by the rock hyrax and closely related species.
Hyrax middens form very slowly (ranging from ~5 years to >1000 years for 1 mm of hyraceum accumulation), over long periods of time, with many spanning tens of thousands of years and some dating as far back as ~70,000 years. Hyrax middens contain a diverse range of paleoenvironmental proxies, including fossil pollen and stable carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen isotopes. Combined with the antiquity of hyrax middens, and the often-continuous nature of their deposition, hyrax middens have become a valuable means of reconstructing past environmental and climate change
Rock hyraxes are known to use communal latrines. These sites are often found in sheltered locations, where the threat of predation is limited, and middens form when they are protected from the elements. At well-protected sites, it may accumulate in deposits in excess of a meter thick and several meters across. The thickness of hyrax middens depends on the nature of the shelter and the regional climate history and geology. Hyraceum shows hygroscopic properties and periods of increased precipitation or elevated ambient humidity will destroy existing middens, while more arid periods allow their development/preservation. Thicker formations tend to occur in shallow shelters that during more arid periods, presumably provided sufficient shelter from rainfall for substantial midden accumulations, but under wetter conditions no longer provide adequate protection, resulting in the removal of the more soluble components of the midden. At poorly protected sites in arid regions hyrax urine leaves a white, calcium carbonate precipitate on the rocks. Varying degrees of protection result in varying degrees of midden preservation. Small overhangs, vertical fractures in cap rocks, and groundwater flow along weakness in the shelter’s architecture may lead to midden degradation if rainfall exceeds a certain amount and/or intensity. The thickest middens have been found at sites composed of massive, horizontally bedded rock such as granite and quartzites with between ~30 and 480 mm of annual rainfall. In more humid environments (>800 mm mean annual rainfall), there is little to no evidence of hyraceum accumulation, and middens typically resemble piles of compost, as the masticated plant material in the pellets rapidly decomposes. Hyraceum-rich middens do not typically form in coastal situations, despite the presence of hyraxes, and it is considered that the ambient humidity of the air and the occurrence of coastal fogs preclude midden development | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Human immunodeficiency virus is a viral infection that targets the lymph nodes. HIV binds to the immune CD4 cell and reverse transcriptase alters the host cell genome to allow integration of the viral DNA via integrase. The virus replicates using the host cell's machinery and then leaves the cell to infect additional cells via budding. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In (supersonic) molecular beams temperatures are very low (usually less than 5 K). At these low temperatures Van der Waals (vdW) molecules are stable and can be investigated by microwave, far-infrared spectroscopy and other modes of spectroscopy.
Also in cold equilibrium gases vdW molecules are formed, albeit in small, temperature dependent concentrations. Rotational and vibrational transitions in vdW molecules have been observed in gases, mainly by UV and IR spectroscopy.
Van der Waals molecules are usually very non-rigid and different versions are separated by low energy barriers, so that tunneling splittings, observable in far-infrared spectra, are relatively large.
Thus, in the far-infrared one may observe intermolecular vibrations, rotations, and tunneling motions of Van der Waals molecules.
The VRT spectroscopic study of Van der Waals molecules is one of the most direct routes to the understanding of intermolecular forces. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
An example of the Grignard reaction is a key step in the (non-stereoselective) industrial production of Tamoxifen (currently used for the treatment of estrogen receptor positive breast cancer in women): | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The pterobranchia mitochondrial code (translation table 24) is a genetic code used by the mitochondrial genome of Rhabdopleura compacta (Pterobranchia). The Pterobranchia are one of the two groups in the Hemichordata which together with the Echinodermata and Chordata form the three major lineages of deuterostomes. AUA translates to isoleucine in Rhabdopleura as it does in the Echinodermata and Enteropneusta while AUA encodes methionine in the Chordata. The assignment of AGG to lysine is not found elsewhere in deuterostome mitochondria but it occurs in some taxa of Arthropoda. This code shares with many other mitochondrial codes the reassignment of the UGA STOP to tryptophan, and AGG and AGA to an amino acid other than arginine. The initiation codons in Rhabdopleura compacta are ATG and GTG.
Code 24 is very similar to the mitochondrial code 33 for the Pterobranchia. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Germanns first scholarly publications reported his undergraduate electrochemistry research under the direction of Frank Curry Mathers (1881–1973). His M.Sc. research at Wisconsin was with Joseph Howard Mathews (1881–1970). His Sc.D. thesis was published as Albert-F.-O. Germann, Révision de la densité de loxygène, contribution à la détermination de la densité lair à Genève, thèse no. 514 (Genève: Imprimerie Albert Κündig, 1913, 63 pp.); Journal de Chimie physique,' vol. 12 (1914), pp. 66–108.
Germann was on the chemistry faculties of Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio (1913–1921), Stanford University, Palo Alto, California (1921–1925), and Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana (1926–1927).
At Western Reserve, he extended his doctoral research, and then began cryoscopic studies of non-aqueous systems involving boron trifluoride or phosgene. Five students conducted these experiments. Harold Simmons Booth (1891–1953) had already completed his doctoral program at Cornell University. In September 1920, Booth became a member of the Western Reserve chemistry faculty, and was to have a distinguished career as an inorganic chemist at Western Reserve. He served as department chair. He was Editor-in-Chief of the inaugural volume (in 1939) of Inorganic Syntheses, a prestigious series that continues. He was promoted to Hurlbut Professor of Chemistry in 1947. Vernon Jersey (1898–1984) had received the A.B. in chemistry from Western Reserve in 1920, and had begun graduate research with Germann on phosgene. He studied solutions of phosgene and chlorine, obtaining cryoscopic evidence for ten different compounds, including chlorine octaphosgenate. Jersey's interests evolved into biochemistry, and he earned a Ph.D. in 1935 from Western Reserve. He then joined with Germann to form Nutritional Research Associates, Inc. Wendell Phillips was beginning his senior year, and would be awarded the A.B. degree in 1921. Leland Roy Smith had received the A.B. degree in 1920, and was beginning graduate studies at Western Reserve; he received the A.M. in 1921, and received the A.M. degree from Harvard University in 1923. Marion Cleaveland (1898–1975) had received the B.A. in chemistry in 1920, and would be awarded the M.A. in 1921. She pursued doctoral studies at Columbia University from 1926 to 1928, receiving the Ph.D. Except for her time at Columbia, she taught at Western Reserve from 1921 to 1946.
At Stanford, Germann focused on phosgene as a liquid solvent. His goal was to develop a solvent-system definition of acids and bases that would apply to compounds dissolved in solvents such as phosgene.
In 1925, Germann became research director of Laboratory Products Company. Brothers William Otto Frohring (1893–1959) and Paul R. Frohring (1903–1998) "did groundbreaking laboratory work at the Laboratory Products Co. in Cleveland that produced the first ready-prepared infant formula." Recognizing that the infant-food field was becoming crowded, the Frohring brothers began to diversify research and operations. Germann was recruited to lead the company into specialty biochemicals.
Germann was granted a year leave to take an active role in Lutheranizing a faltering Valparaiso University. He became professor of chemistry at Valparaiso, head of the department of chemistry, and acting dean of the school of pharmacy. Germann was acting president of Valparaiso University from May to September, 1927. During that time, the school of pharmacy was accepted as a member of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, and judged to be conforming to the Association's standards.
Back in Cleveland at Laboratory Products Company, Germann assembled his own research group. The specialty biochemical carotene was prominent in his plans. His associates were Vernon Jersey, Robert John Cross (1884–1955), Otto Ungnade (1883–1963), and Harold Barnett (1903–1956). They intended to capitalize on the vitamin revolution. Germann, Jersey, Cross, and Ungnade founded Nutritional Research Associates, Inc. in 1935 with Albert Germann President. They established research and production facilities in South Whitley, Indiana, for extraction, purification, and stabilization of Vitamin A from carrots and Vitamin E from wheat germ. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Isotopic ratio relative to the mass of the tracer element in each component;
where, and are the molecular weight of each isotopic expression of the substrate and product. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The monolayer formation time or monolayer time is the length of time required, on average, for a surface to be covered by an adsorbate, such as oxygen sticking to fresh aluminum. If the adsorbate has a unity sticking coefficient, so that every molecule which reaches the surface sticks to it without re-evaporating, then the monolayer time is very roughly:
where t is the time and P is the pressure. It takes about 1 second for a surface to be covered at a pressure of 300 µPa (2×10 Torr). | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Hu Hongwen (; 16 March 1925 – 19 May 2016) was a Chinese organic chemist, educator and an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). He was known as the Chief editor of Chinese higher education textbook Organic Chemistry.
Hu died on 19 May 2016 at the age of 91 in Nanjing. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Commonly referred to as STD (Submarine Tailings Disposal) or DSTD (Deep Sea Tailings Disposal). Tailings can be conveyed using a pipeline then discharged so as to eventually descend into the depths. Practically, it is not an ideal method, as the close proximity to off-shelf depths is rare. When STD is used, the depth of discharge is often what would be considered shallow, and extensive damage to the seafloor can result due to covering by the tailings product. It is also critical to control the density and temperature of the tailings product, to prevent it from travelling long distances, or even floating to the surface.
This method is used by the gold mine on Lihir Island; its waste disposal has been viewed by environmentalists as highly damaging, while the owners claim that it is not harmful. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
When a liquid drop strikes a wet solid surface (a surface covered with a thin layer of liquid that exceeds the height of surface roughness), either spreading or splashing will occur. If the velocity is below a critical value, the liquid will spread on the surface, similar to deposition described above. If the velocity exceeds the critical velocity, splashing will occur and shock wave can be generated. Splashing on thin fluid films occurs in the form of a corona, similar to that seen for dry solid surfaces. Under proper conditions, droplet hitting a liquid interface can also display a superhydrophobic-like bouncing, characterized by the contact time, spreading dynamics and restitution coefficient independent of the underlying liquid properties. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Not only volume crystals can be imaged by topography, but also crystalline layers on a foreign substrate. For very thin layers, the scattering volume and thus the diffracted intensities are very low. In these cases, topographic imaging is therefore a rather demanding task, unless incident beams with very high intensities are available. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
There are two electroacoustic effects that are widely used for characterizing zeta potential: colloid vibration current and electric sonic amplitude. There are commercially available instruments that exploit these effects for measuring dynamic electrophoretic mobility, which depends on zeta potential.
Electroacoustic techniques have the advantage of being able to perform measurements in intact samples, without dilution. Published and well-verified theories allow such measurements at volume fractions up to 50%. Calculation of zeta potential from the dynamic electrophoretic mobility requires information on the densities for particles and liquid. In addition, for larger particles exceeding roughly 300 nm in size information on the particle size required as well. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The versatile chemistry of elemental sulfur is largely due to catenation. In the native state, sulfur exists as S molecules. On heating these rings open and link together giving rise to increasingly long chains, as evidenced by the progressive increase in viscosity as the chains lengthen. Also, sulfur polycations, sulfur polyanions (polysulfides) and lower sulfur oxides are all known. Furthermore, selenium and tellurium show variants of these structural motifs. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
* Chemistry courses of the École Polytechnique, Vol.1&2
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=1FAIAAAAIAAJ Lessons of Physics], Faculty of Sciences in Paris, (November 6, 1827, March 18, 1828) | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Collapsing can or can crusher experiment is a demonstration of an aluminum can being crushed by atmospheric pressure. Due to the low pressure inside a can as compared to the pressure outside, the pressure outside exerts a force on the can causing the can to collapse. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
A number of research programmes are currently underway focused on rogue waves, including:
* In the course of Project MaxWave, researchers from the GKSS Research Centre, using data collected by ESA satellites, identified a large number of radar signatures that have been portrayed as evidence for rogue waves. Further research is underway to develop better methods of translating the radar echoes into sea surface elevation, but at present this technique is not proven.
* The Australian National University, working in collaboration with Hamburg University of Technology and the University of Turin, have been conducting experiments in nonlinear dynamics to try to explain so-called rogue or killer waves. The "Lego Pirate" video has been widely used and quoted to describe what they call "super rogue waves", which their research suggests can be up to five times bigger than the other waves around them.
* The European Space Agency continues to do research into rogue waves by radar satellite.
* United States Naval Research Laboratory, the science arm of the Navy and Marine Corps published results of their modelling work in 2015.
* Massachusetts Institute of Technology research in this field is ongoing. Two researchers there partially supported by the Naval Engineering Education Consortium have considered the problem of short-term prediction of rare, extreme water waves and have developed and published their research on an effective predictive tool of about 25 wave periods. This tool can give ships and their crews a two- to three-minute warning of potentially catastrophic impact allowing crew some time to shut down essential operations on a ship (or offshore platform). The authors cite landing on an aircraft carrier as a prime example.
* The University of Colorado and the University of Stellenbosch
* Kyoto University
* Swinburne University of Technology in Australia recently published work on the probabilities of rogue waves.
* The University of Oxford Department of Engineering Science published a comprehensive review of the science of rogue waves in 2014. In 2019, A team from the Universities of Oxford and Edinburgh recreated the Draupner wave in a lab.
* University of Western Australia
* Tallinn University of Technology in Estonia
* Extreme Seas Project funded by the EU.
* At Umeå University in Sweden, a research group in August 2006 showed that normal stochastic wind-driven waves can suddenly give rise to monster waves. The nonlinear evolution of the instabilities was investigated by means of direct simulations of the time-dependent system of nonlinear equations.
* The Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory did research in 2002, which dispelled the long-held contentions that rogue waves were of rare occurrence.
* The University of Oslo has conducted research into crossing sea state and rogue wave probability during the Prestige accident; nonlinear wind-waves, their modification by tidal currents, and application to Norwegian coastal waters; general analysis of realistic ocean waves; modelling of currents and waves for sea structures and extreme wave events; rapid computations of steep surface waves in three dimensions, and comparison with experiments; and very large internal waves in the ocean.
* The National Oceanography Centre in the United Kingdom
* Scripps Institute of Oceanography in the United States
* Ritmare project in Italy.
* University of Copenhagen and University of Victoria | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Tuberculostearic acid (D-10-Methylstearic acid) is a saturated fatty acid that is known to be produced by Mycobacterium spp. and two species of Streptomyces. It is formed from the precursor oleic acid (a monounsaturated fatty acid). After oleic acid is esterified to a phospholipid, S-adenosyl-methionine donates a methyl group to the double bond of oleic acid. This methylation reaction forms the intermediate 10-methylene-octadecanoyal. Successive reduction of the residue, with NADPH as a cofactor, results in 10-methylstearic acid | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Phenol extraction is a processing technology used to prepare phenols as raw materials, compounds or additives for industrial wood processing and for chemical industries.
Extraction can be performed using different solvents. There is a risk that polyphenol oxidase (PPO) degrades the phenolic content of the sample therefore there is a need to use PPO inhibitors like potassium dithionite (KSO) or to perform experiment using liquid nitrogen or to boil the sample for a few seconds (blanching) to inactivate the enzyme. Further fractionation of the extract can be achieved using solid phase extraction columns, and may lead to isolation of individual compounds.
The recovery of natural phenols from biomass residue is part of biorefining. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Modern lung ventilators are able to generate three basic wave forms of flow: squared waveform, descending waveform, and sinusoidal waveform. A square waveform pattern is found on most mechanical ventilators, old and new, and achieves a constant flow.
During the inspiration phase, the flow rate rises to a predetermined level and remains constant, thus giving the appearance of a square wave form. This produces the shortest inspiratory time compared to other flow patterns. A decelerating flow waveform pattern, also known as descending ramp, achieves the highest level of flow at the start of a breath, when patient flow demand is often greatest. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Unit cell parameters (a,b,c,α,β,γ) can be computed from the final relaxed positions of the ions. In a NaCl calculation, the final position of the Na ion might be (0,0,0) in picometer Cartesian coordinates and the final position of the Cl ion might be (282,282,282). From this, we see that the lattice constant would be 584 pm. For non-orthorhombic systems, the determination of cell parameters might be more complicated, but many ab-initio numerical packages have utilities to make this calculation simpler.
Once the lattice cell parameters are known, patterns for single crystal or powder diffraction can be readily predicted via Bragg's Law. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Let the length scales be normalized with the plate length and the velocity scale by the free-stream velocity ; then the only parameter in the problem is the Reynolds number . Let the origin of the coordinate system be located at the trailing edge of the plate. Further let be the non-dimensional velocity components, be the non-dimensional pressure field and be the non-dimensional stream function such that and . For shortness of notation, let us introduce the small parameter . The coordinate for horizontal interaction and for the three decks can then be defined by
As (or ), the solution should approach the asymptotic behaviour of the Blasius solution, which is given by
where is the Blasisus function which satisfies subjected to . As (or ), the solution should approach the asymptotic behaviour of the Goldsteins near wake, which is given by
where and . The Goldstein's inner wake solution is not needed here. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
familial Mediterranean fever - farnesol dehydrogenase - Fat storage-inducing transmembrane protein 2 - FDC-SP - FHIPEP protein family - fibroblasts - fluorescence in situ hybridization -fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis - footprinting - formylmethanofuran dehydrogenase - Fragile site, folic acid type, rare, fra(2)(q13) - Fragile X syndrome - frameshift mutation - fructose 5-dehydrogenase - fucoidanase - fungal fruit body lectin family - fusion protein - | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Gemperline completed both undergraduate and graduate studies at Cleveland State University (CSU), graduating with a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry in 1978 and a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry in 1982. His dissertation was titled, "The Design of the Laboratory Network DISNET."
In 2014 CSU recognized Gemperline as a distinguished alumnus. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Tritium (hydrogen-3) is a very low beta energy emitter that can be used to label proteins, nucleic acids, drugs and almost any organic biomolecule. The maximum theoretical specific activity of tritium is . However, there is often more than one tritium atom per molecule: for example, tritiated UTP is sold by most suppliers with carbons 5 and 6 each bonded to a tritium atom.
For tritium detection, liquid scintillation counters have been classically employed, in which the energy of a tritium decay is transferred to a scintillant molecule in solution which in turn gives off photons whose intensity and spectrum can be measured by a photomultiplier array. The efficiency of this process is 4–50%, depending on the scintillation cocktail used.
The measurements are typically expressed in counts per minute (CPM) or disintegrations per minute (DPM). Alternatively, a solid-state, tritium-specific phosphor screen can be used together with a phosphorimager to measure and simultaneously image the radiotracer. Measurements/images are digital in nature and can be expressed in intensity or densitometry units within a region of interest (ROI). | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Gene guns are mostly used with plant cells. However, there is much potential use in humans and other animals as well. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) is another conducting polymer that is being investigated for coating an electrode surface. Some benefits of PEDOT over PPy is that it is more stable to oxidation and more conductive; however PPy is much cheaper. As with PPy, PEDOT has been shown to decrease the electrical impedance. In one article, a PEDOT coating was electrochemically deposited on to gold recording electrodes. The results showed that impedance of the electrode decreased significantly when the PEDOT coating was added. The unmodified gold electrodes had an impedance of 500–1000 kΩ, while the modified gold electrode with the PEDOT coating had an impedance of 3–6 kΩ. The paper also showed that the interaction between the polymer and neurons improved the stability and durability of the electrode. The study concluded that by adding a conductive polymer the impedance of the electrode system decreased, which increased the charge transfer making a more effective electrode. The ease and control of electrochemically depositing conducting coatings onto electrode surfaces makes it a very attractive surface modification for neural electrodes. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Foodomics greatly helps the scientists in an area of food science and nutrition to gain a better access to data, which is used to analyze the effects of food on human health, etc. It is believed to be another step towards better understanding of development and application of technology and food. Moreover, the study of foodomics leads to other omics sub-disciplines, including nutrigenomics which is the integration of the study of nutrition, gene and omics. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The second phase, from 2025 to 2035, will be to apply the new technologies and infrastructure to generate a complete set of pharmacological modulators for > 90% of the ~20,000 proteins encoded by the genome. “Target 2035” sounds ambitious, but its concept and practicality is on firm ground based on a number of pilot studies, which revealed the following success parameters:
* Collaborate with the pharmaceutical sector to access unparalleled expertise, experience, materials, and logistics
* Establish clear and quantitative quality criteria for the output (target chemical tool profiles) to provide focus
* Organize the project around protein families – it is the most efficient, practical and scientifically sound way to divide this large project into teams
* Establish clear open science principles to eliminate or reduce conflicts of interest, to reduce legal encumbrances, and to encourage participation by the community. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Critics argue that the technique is inaccurate for comparison of closely related species, as any attempt to measure differences between orthologous sequences between organisms is overwhelmed by the hybridization of paralogous sequences within an organism's genome. DNA sequencing and computational comparisons of sequences is now generally the method for determining genetic distance, although the technique is still used in microbiology to help identify bacteria. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
In high-density oligonucleotide SNP arrays, hundreds of thousands of probes are arrayed on a small chip, allowing for many SNPs to be interrogated simultaneously. Because SNP alleles only differ in one nucleotide and because it is difficult to achieve optimal hybridization conditions for all probes on the array, the target DNA has the potential to hybridize to mismatched probes. This is addressed somewhat by using several redundant probes to interrogate each SNP. Probes are designed to have the SNP site in several different locations as well as containing mismatches to the SNP allele. By comparing the differential amount of hybridization of the target DNA to each of these redundant probes, it is possible to determine specific homozygous and heterozygous alleles. Although oligonucleotide microarrays have a comparatively lower specificity and sensitivity, the scale of SNPs that can be interrogated is a major benefit. The Affymetrix Human SNP 5.0 GeneChip performs a genome-wide assay that can genotype over 500,000 human SNPs (Affymetrix 2007).. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
The results of glycol adsorption, cation exchange capacity, X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis, and chemical tests all give data that may be used for quantitative estimations. After the quantities of organic matter, carbonates, free oxides, and nonclay minerals have been determined, the percentages of clay minerals are estimated using the appropriate glycol adsorption, cation exchange capacity, K20, and DTA data. The amount of illite is estimated from the K20 content since this is the only clay mineral containing potassium. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Born in Accrington, Lancashire, England, on 9 March 1941, Halton was the only child of John Henry Halton and Mary (May) Halton (née Robinson). He contracted bovine tuberculosis as a young child and consequently missed two years of his early education. Later he attended St Josephs College, Blackpool, and St Josephs Academy, Blackheath. After winning a state scholarship, Halton studied chemistry at the University of Southampton, graduating BSc(Hons) in 1963. He went on to complete a PhD supervised by Richard Cookson at the same institution in 1966. His two-part thesis was titled Part I: Addition reactions of a methyleneaziridine. Part II: Conformational aspects of cyclotriveratrylene derivatives.
Halton moved to Wellington, New Zealand, in 1968, and married Margaret Leach in 1970. The couple went on to have two children. In 1980, Halton became a naturalised New Zealander. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Accepted nomenclature is to designate the number of components of the rotaxane in brackets as a prefix. Therefore, the a rotaxane consisting of a single dumbbell-shaped axial molecule with a single macrocycle around its shaft is called a [2]rotaxane, and two cyanostar molecules around the central phosphate group of dialkylphosphate is a [3]rotaxane. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Cram described the interior of the container compound as the inner phase in which radically different reactivity was observed. He used a hemicarcerand to isolate highly unstable, antiaromatic cyclobutadiene at room temperature. The hemicarcerand stabilizes guests within its cavity by preventing their reaction with other molecules. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Deuterium is most commonly used in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR) in the following way. NMR ordinarily requires compounds of interest to be analyzed as dissolved in solution. Because of deuterium's nuclear spin properties which differ from the light hydrogen usually present in organic molecules, NMR spectra of hydrogen/protium are highly differentiable from that of deuterium, and in practice deuterium is not "seen" by an NMR instrument tuned for light-hydrogen. Deuterated solvents (including heavy water, but also compounds like deuterated chloroform, CDCl) are therefore routinely used in NMR spectroscopy, in order to allow only the light-hydrogen spectra of the compound of interest to be measured, without solvent-signal interference.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can also be used to obtain information about the deuteron's environment in isotopically labelled samples (Deuterium NMR). For example, the configuration of hydrocarbon chains in lipid bilayers can be quantified using solid state deuterium NMR with deuterium-labelled lipid molecules.
Deuterium NMR spectra are especially informative in the solid state because of its relatively small quadrupole moment in comparison with those of bigger quadrupolar nuclei such as chlorine-35, for example. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Persons are generally warned not to enter or drink water from algal blooms, or let their pets swim in the water since many pets have died from algal blooms. In at least one case, people began getting sick before warnings were issued. There is no treatment available for animals, including livestock cattle, if they drink from algal blooms where such toxins are present. Pets are advised to be kept away from algal blooms to avoid contact.
In some locations visitors have been warned not to even touch the water. Boaters have been told that toxins in the water can be inhaled from the spray from wind or waves. Ocean beaches, lakes and rivers have been closed due to algal blooms. After a dog died in 2015 from swimming in a bloom in California's Russian River, officials likewise posted warnings for parts of the river. Boiling the water at home before drinking does not remove the toxins.
In August 2014 the city of Toledo, Ohio advised its 500,000 residents to not drink tap water as the high toxin level from an algal bloom in western Lake Erie had affected their water treatment plant's ability to treat the water to a safe level. The emergency required using bottled water for all normal uses except showering, which seriously affected public services and commercial businesses. The bloom returned in 2015 and was forecast again for the summer of 2016.
In 2004, a bloom in Kisumu Bay, which is the drinking water source for 500,000 people in Kisumu, Kenya, suffered from similar water contamination. In China, water was cut off to residents in 2007 due to an algal bloom in its third largest lake, which forced 2 million people to use bottled water. A smaller water shut-down in China affected 15,000 residents two years later at a different location. Australia in 2016 also had to cut off water to farmers.
Alan Steinman of Grand Valley State University has explained that among the major causes for the algal blooms in general, and Lake Erie specifically, is because blue-green algae thrive with high nutrients, along with warm and calm water. Lake Erie is more prone to blooms because it has a high nutrient level and is shallow, which causes it to warm up more quickly during the summer.
Symptoms from drinking toxic water can show up within a few hours after exposure. They can include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, or trigger headaches and gastrointestinal problems. Although rare, liver toxicity can cause death. Those symptoms can then lead to dehydration, another major concern. In high concentrations, the toxins in the algal waters when simply touched can cause skin rashes, irritate the eyes, nose, mouth or throat. Those with suspected symptoms are told to call a doctor if symptoms persist or they can't hold down fluids after 24 hours.
In studies at the population level bloom coverage has been significantly related to the risk of non-alcoholic liver disease death. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In in vivo gene therapy, a vector (typically, a virus) is introduced to the patient, which then achieves the desired biological effect by passing the genetic material (e.g. for a missing protein) into the patients cells. In ex vivo gene therapies, such as CAR-T therapeutics, the patients own cells (autologous) or healthy donor cells (allogeneic) are modified outside the body (hence, ex vivo) using a vector to express a particular protein, such as a chimeric antigen receptor.
In vivo gene therapy is seen as simpler, since it does not require the harvesting of mitotic cells. However, ex vivo gene therapies are better tolerated and less associated with severe immune responses. The death of Jesse Gelsinger in a trial of an adenovirus-vectored treatment for ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency due to a systemic inflammatory reaction led to a temporary halt on gene therapy trials across the United States. , in vivo and ex vivo therapeutics are both seen as safe. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
It is a less explosive alternative to diazomethane for the methylation of carboxylic acids. It also reacts with alcohols to give methyl ethers, where diazomethane may not.
It has also been employed widely in tandem with GC-MS for the analysis of various carboxylic compounds which are ubiquitous in nature. The fact that the reaction is rapid and occurs readily makes it attractive. However, it can form artifacts which complicate spectral interpretation. Such artifacts are usually the trimethylsilylmethyl esters, RCOCHSiMe, formed when insufficient methanol is present. Acid-catalysed methanolysis is necessary to achieve near-quantitative yields of the desired methyl esters, RCOMe.
The compound is a reagent in the Doyle-Kirmse reaction with allyl sulfides and allyl amines. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
A suitable plant species for SCV roofs consist of the following features: drought tolerant, minimal root structure, minimal height, ability to form a vegetative mat, non-rangy, heat tolerant, frost tolerant, and the ability to adapt to a non-traditional soil media. Plant species that have extensive root system and tend to be rangy can puncture waterproofing elements or grow into unwanted areas causing mold and mildew. Water, high nutrient, and shade-dependent plants are not suitable for SCV roofs and should be avoided and can lead to expensive failures.
Some of the most successful SCV roof plant species are in the families Crassulaceae and Aizoaceae, which are CAM plants. A plant that uses the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) as an adaptation for arid conditions. CO entering the stomata during the night is converted into organic acids, which release CO for the Calvin Cycle during the day, when the stomata are closed. CAM plants often show xerophytic features, such as thick, reduced leaves with a low surface-area-to-volume ratio, thick cuticle, and stomata sunken into pits.
Green roofs in the northern continental United States rely on sedums which are in the family Crassulaceae. Most varieties of Sedums are not appropriate for humid, subtropical climates and experience root rot and disease problems due to high temperatures and humidity levels. However, two Sedum cultivars, ‘Lemon Coral’ and’ Florida Friendly Gold’ are currently being researched at the University of Florida and appear to be adapting to the humid, subtropical climate of Gainesville, Florida.
Example SCV roof plant palette | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
It was long assumed that the midbody was simply a structural part of cytokinesis, and was totally degraded with the completion of mitosis. However, it is now understood that post-abscission, the midbody is converted into an endosome-like signalling molecule, and can be internalised by nearby cells.
This endosome is marked by MKLP1, and can persist for up to 48 hours once internalised into another cell. It is coated in Actin, which is slowly degraded by the internalising cell. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
From 1989 to 1995, Grasselli Brown worked as a distinguished visiting professor and director of research enhancement at her alma mater, Ohio University. She has also served as a chair of the board of trustees, chair of the Ohio Board of Regents, a Foundation Board trustee for nine years, and a member of the Cutler Scholars Board of governors.
She has served on numerous committees and boards such as the National Science Foundation Advisory Committee for Analytic Chemistry (1982–1984), the Energy Research Advisory Board of the U.S. Department of Energy (1987–1989), the visiting committee of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (1988–1991), and the Smithsonian Institution's exhibition advisory board (1990–1994). She chaired the U.S. National Committee of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry from 1992 to 1995.
Grasselli Brown edited the international journal, Vibrational Spectroscopy. She is a member of the American Chemical Society, Coblentz Society, Federation of Analytical Chemistry and Spectroscopy Societies, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. She was the president of the Society for Applied Spectroscopy in 1970. She is active in promoting womens careers as a member of the International Womens Forum and National Research Council's Committee on Women in Science and Engineering. She is an avid supporter of women in the workplace and defends part-time work for women, equal salaries, and corporate child-care facilities.
Grasselli Brown has given over a hundred talks at scientific conferences, one hundred seminars for graduate students, and over five hundred lectures to the general public. She continues to be widely requested as a speaker and consultant on industrial and environmental problems. She travels to Eastern Europe to teach the use of spectroscopy for soil, air, and water pollution issues. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Synthetic hydrocarbons can be produced in chemical reactions between carbon dioxide, which can be captured from power plants or the air, and hydrogen. The fuel, often referred to as electrofuel, stores the energy that was used in the production of the hydrogen.
Hydrogen fuel is typically prepared by the electrolysis of water in a power to gas process. To minimize emissions, the electricity is produced using a low-emission energy source such as wind, solar, or nuclear power.
Through the Sabatier reaction methane can then be produced which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants (as a synthetic natural gas), transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating.
There are a few more fuels that can be created using hydrogen. Formic acid for example can be made by reacting the hydrogen with . Formic acid combined with can form isobutanol.
Methanol can be made from a chemical reaction of a carbon-dioxide molecule with three hydrogen molecules to produce methanol and water. The stored energy can be recovered by burning the methanol in a combustion engine, releasing carbon dioxide, water, and heat. Methane can be produced in a similar reaction. Special precautions against methane leaks are important since methane is nearly 100 times as potent as CO, regarding the 20-year global warming potential. More energy can be used to combine methanol or methane into larger hydrocarbon fuel molecules.
Researchers have also suggested using methanol to produce dimethyl ether. This fuel could be used as a substitute for diesel fuel due to its ability to self ignite under high pressure and temperature. It is already being used in some areas for heating and energy generation. It is nontoxic, but must be stored under pressure. Larger hydrocarbons and ethanol can also be produced from carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
All synthetic hydrocarbons are generally produced at temperatures of 200–300 °C, and at pressures of 20 to 50 bar. Catalysts are usually used to improve the efficiency of the reaction and create the desired type of hydrocarbon fuel. Such reactions are exothermic and use about 3 mol of hydrogen per mole of carbon dioxide involved. They also produce large amounts of water as a byproduct. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The School of Chemical Science or SOCHEM is a Chemistry and Technical education school in Indore, India. SOCHEM is a University Teaching Department of Devi Ahilya University. The institute is situated in the Takshila Campus of Devi Ahilya University. It was founded in 1972.
The institution provides post graduate and Ph.D. level courses in its campus. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Diphenylamine was discovered by A. W. Hofmann in 1864 amongst the products of dry distillation of aniline dyes; it was first purposefully synthesized through deamination of a mix of aniline and its salts by a group of French chemists two years later.
In 1872, diphenylamine was suggested as a means to detect nitrous acid in sulfuric acid due to its blue coloration in the presence of oxidizing agents. By 1875, it was also being used to detect nitrites and nitrates in drinking water. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
A solar neutrino is a neutrino originating from nuclear fusion in the Sun's core, and is the most common type of neutrino passing through any source observed on Earth at any particular moment. Neutrinos are elementary particles with extremely small rest mass and a neutral electric charge. They only interact with matter via the weak interaction and gravity, making their detection very difficult. This has led to the now-resolved solar neutrino problem. Much is now known about solar neutrinos, but the research in this field is ongoing. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Glycoazodyes (or GADs) are a family of "naturalised" synthetic dyes, so called because they are the conjugation of common commercial azo dyes with a sugar through a "linker". This principle is summarised in the scheme below. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of a nucleus, and the sum of the masses of the nucleons of which it is composed. The mass defect is determined by calculating three quantities. These are: the actual mass of the nucleus, the composition of the nucleus (number of protons and of neutrons), and the masses of a proton and of a neutron. This is then followed by converting the mass defect into energy. This quantity is the nuclear binding energy, however it must be expressed as energy per mole of atoms or as energy per nucleon. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Main routes that can lead to human exposure to the toxic effects of bracken fern include ingestion of the plant (particularly the croziers and young fronds), inhalation of the airborne spores, consumption of the milk and meat of affected animals, and drinking ptaquiloside contaminated water. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In organic chemistry, "sulfide" usually refers to the linkage C–S–C, although the term thioether is less ambiguous. For example, the thioether dimethyl sulfide is CH–S–CH. Polyphenylene sulfide (see below) has the empirical formula CHS. Occasionally, the term sulfide refers to molecules containing the –SH functional group. For example, methyl sulfide can mean CH–SH. The preferred descriptor for such SH-containing compounds is thiol or mercaptan, i.e. methanethiol, or methyl mercaptan. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
As of 2011, the long-acting agent tadalafil is licensed for the treatment of urinary symptoms resulting from benign prostatic hyperplasia. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
On the periodic table, homologous elements share many electrochemical properties and appear in the same group (column) of the table. For example, all noble gases are colorless, monatomic gases with very low reactivity. These similarities are due to similar structure in their outer shells of valence electrons. Mendeleev used the prefix eka- for an unknown element below a known one in the same group. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Born in Feilding on 23 April 1931, Malcolm was educated at Feilding Agricultural High School. He then studied at Canterbury University College, graduating Master of Science with first-class honours in 1954. He was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Memorial Scholarship, and completed doctoral studies at the University of Manchester in 1956.
In 1958, Malcolm married Sheila Mary Wilson, and the couple went on to have four children.
After a short period as an assistant lecturer at the University of Manchester in 1956–57, Malcolm returned to New Zealand. He was appointed as a lecturer in chemistry at the University of Otago in 1958, rising to the rank of reader. In 1969, he was appointed as professor of physical chemistry at Massey University, and was the first professor of chemistry at that institution. He later served as dean of science from 1984 to 1994. Following his retirement in 1995, he was conferred the title of professor emeritus. Malcolm was elected a Fellow of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry (NZIC) in 1966, and served as president of the NZIC in 1977.
Malcolm died in Palmerston North on 11 August 2019. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
In enzymatic labeling, a DNA construct is first formed, using a gene and the DNA of a fluorescent protein. After transcription, a hybrid RNA + fluorescent is formed. The object of interest is attached to an enzyme that can recognize this hybrid DNA. Usually fluorescein is used as the fluorophore. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Under anoxic conditions, the mechanism for corrosion requires a substitute for oxygen as the oxidizing agent in the redox reaction. For abiotic anaerobic corrosion, that substitute is the hydrogen ion produced in the dissociation of water and the proceeding reduction of the hydrogen ions into diatomic hydrogen gas. The anodic half-reaction involves the oxidation of a metal in aqueous solution into a metal hydroxide. A common reaction that represents this process is the transformation of solid iron in steel into ferrous hydroxide as visualized in the following overall redox reaction.
The ferrous hydroxide may be oxidized further by additional hydrogen ions in water to form the mineral magnetite (FeO) in the process called the Schikorr reaction.
In general, the anaerobic corrosion of metals, such as iron and copper, occur at very slow rates. However, when in chloride-containing aqueous environments, the rate increases because of the introduction of new mechanisms with the addition of a chloride anions. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
* For burner fuel, Concarbon provides an approximation of the tendency of the fuel to form deposits in vaporizing pot-type and sleeve-type burners.
* For diesel fuel, Concarbon correlates approximately with combustion chamber deposits, provided that alkyl nitrates are absent, or if present, that the test is performed on the base fuel without additive.
*For motor oil, Concarbon was once regarded as indicative of the amount of carbonaceous deposits the oil would form in the combustion chamber of an engine. This is now considered to be of doubtful significance due to the presence of additives in many oils.
* For gas oil, Concarbon provides a useful correlation in the manufacture of gas there from.
* For delayed cokers, the Concarbon of the feed correlates positively to the amount of coke that will be produced.
* For fluid catalytic cracking units, the Concarbon of the feed can be used to estimate the feed's coke-forming tendency. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
There are three types of shrinkage: shrinkage of the liquid, solidification shrinkage and patternmakers shrinkage. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because more material is flowing into the mold behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals are less dense as a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically increases. Patternmakers shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is cooled from the solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to thermal contraction. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Miray Bekbölet completed a B.S. with high distinction in chemistry and physics at Ege University in 1973. In 1979, she earned a Ph.D. in food sciences at Ege University. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
His most-cited publications, according to Google Scholar are:
*Lukinavičius, G., K. Umezawa, N. Olivier, A. Honigmann, G. Yang, T. Plass, V. Mueller, L. Reymond, I. R. Corrêa, Z.-G. Luo, C. Schultz, E. A. Lemke, P. Heppenstall, C. Eggeling, S. Manley and K. Johnsson (2013). [https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.1546 A near-infrared fluorophore for live-cell super-resolution microscopy of cellular proteins]. Nature Chemistry 5(2): 132-139. (cited 837 times)
*Lukinavičius, G., L. Reymond, E. D’Este, A. Masharina, F. Göttfert, H. Ta, A. Güther, M. Fournier, S. Rizzo, H. Waldmann, C. Blaukopf, C. Sommer, D. W. Gerlich, H.-D. Arndt, S. W. Hell and K. Johnsson (2014). [https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2972 Fluorogenic probes for live-cell imaging of the cytoskeleton]. Nature Methods 11(7):731-3. (cited 817 times)
*Dalhoff C., G. Lukinavičius, S. Klimašauskas and E. Weinhold (2006). [https://doi.org/10.1038/nchembio754 Direct transfer of extended groups from synthetic cofactors by DNA methyltransferases]. Nature Chemical Biology 2, 31-2. (cited 252 times)
*Lukinavičius, G., C. Blaukopf, E. Pershagen, A. Schena, L. Reymond, E. Derivery, M. Gonzalez-Gaitan, E. D’Este, S. W. Hell, D. W. Gerlich and Kai Johnsson (2015). [https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9497 SiR–Hoechst is a far-red DNA stain for live-cell nanoscopy]. Nature Communications 6, 8497. (Cited 276 times)
*Liutkevičiūtė, Z., G. Lukinavičius, V. Masevičius, D. Daujotytė and S. Klimašauskas (2009). [https://doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.172 Cytosine-5-methyltransferases add aldehydes to DNA]. Nature Chemical Biology 5, 400-402. (cited 173 times) | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Since 2000, light scattering systems have been used for biomedical applications such as the study of cellular morphology as well as the diagnosis of dysplasia. Variations in scattering distributions as a function of angle or wavelength have been used to deduce information regarding the size of cells and subcellular objects such as nuclei and organelles. These size measurements can then be used diagnostically to detect tissue changes—including neoplastic changes (those leading to cancer).
Light scattering spectroscopy has been used to detect dysplasia in the colon, bladder, cervix, and esophagus of human patients. Light scattering has also been used to detect Barrett's esophagus, a metaplastic condition with a high probability of leading to dysplasia.
However, in contrast with a/LCI, these techniques all rely on total intensity based measurements, which lack the ability to provide results as a function of depth in the tissue. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Nanoaluminum, or ultra fine grain (UFG) aluminum, powders are a key component of most nano-thermitic materials. A method for producing this material is the dynamic gas-phase condensation method, pioneered by Wayne Danen and Steve Son at Los Alamos National Laboratory. A variant of the method is being used at the Indian Head Division of the Naval Surface Warfare Center. Another method for production is electrothermal synthesis, developed by NovaCentrix, which uses a pulsed plasma arc to vaporize the aluminum. The powders made by the dynamic gas-phase condensation and the electrothermal synthesis processes are indistinguishable. A critical aspect of the production is the ability to produce particles of sizes in the tens of nano-meter range, as well as with a limited distribution of particle sizes. In 2002, the production of nano-sized aluminum particles required considerable effort, and commercial sources for the material were limited.
An application of the sol-gel method, developed by Randall Simpson, Alexander Gash and others at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, can be used to make the actual mixtures of nano-structured composite energetic materials. Depending on the process, MICs of different density can be produced. Highly porous and uniform products can be achieved by super-critical extraction. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The reaction of an acid in water solvent is often described as a dissociation
where HA is a proton acid such as acetic acid, CHCOOH. The double arrow means that this is an equilibrium process, with dissociation and recombination occurring at the same time. This implies that the acid dissociation constant
However a more explicit description is provided by the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, which specifies that the proton H+ does not exist as such in solution but is instead accepted by (bonded to) a water molecule to form the hydronium ion HO.
The reaction can therefore be written as
and better described as an ionization or formation of ions (for the case when HA has no net charge). The equilibrium constant is then
where is not included because in dilute solution the solvent is essentially a pure liquid with a thermodynamic activity of one.
K is variously named a dissociation constant, an acid ionization constant, an acidity constant or an ionization constant. It serves as an indicator of the acid strength: stronger acids have a higher K value (and a lower pK value). | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
The Walden reductor is a reduction column filled with metallic silver
which can be used to reduce a metal ion in aqueous solution to a lower oxidation state. It can be used e.g. to reduce UO to U. The method is named after George H. Walden, who developed it jointly with a Ph.D. student, Sylvan M. Edmonds, at Columbia University. | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
Entrainment is the transport of fluid across an interface between two bodies of fluid by a shear-induced turbulent flux. Entrainment is important in turbulent jets, plumes, and gravity currents, and is an ongoing topic of research. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose – either a therapeutic (treat, augment, repair, or replace a tissue function of the body) or a diagnostic one. The corresponding field of study, called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering, is about fifty years old. It has experienced steady growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
A biomaterial is different from a biological material, such as bone, that is produced by a biological system. However, "biomaterial" and "biological material" are often used interchangeably. Further, the word "bioterial" has been proposed as a potential alternate word for biologically-produced materials such as bone, or fungal biocomposites. Additionally, care should be exercised in defining a biomaterial as biocompatible, since it is application-specific. A biomaterial that is biocompatible or suitable for one application may not be biocompatible in another. | 1 | Applied and Interdisciplinary Chemistry |
Evaluating () in and using the relation between the isothermal compressibility and the structure factor at the origin yields the compressibility equation: | 0 | Theoretical and Fundamental Chemistry |
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