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+{"metadata":{"id":"0033e862d1bb6a833c99caaeaf5d1a2b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bbb8a49b-907f-489f-9dd1-d0c6437bef02/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"","keywords":["Climate change","Agriculture","Resilience","Business","Profitability","Risks"],"chapters":[{"head":"About the authors","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Peter Steward is an PhD ecologist (University of Leeds) and CIFOR-ICRAF associate scientist for the CCAFS Evidence for Resilience Agriculture (ERA) project. He has a breadth of scientific experience in areas such as agricultural and conservation ecology, measurement of biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services, human wildlife conflict, agronomic trials for sustainable agriculture, crop-climate suitability modelling, advanced meta-analysis, agricultural ontologies and concept schemes, niche modelling, and prediction of outcome performance using machine learning."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Nictor Namoi is a research fellow at CIFOR-ICRAF in Nairobi, Kenya. He has worked extensively on ERA and on measurement of greenhouse gas emissions from soils. He has a Master of Science from the University of Nairobi and is currently pursuing a doctorate degree in sustainable farming systems. "}]},{"head":"Megan","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Food production drives climate change. Agricultural production alone contributes nearly a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions [1] and accounts for 80-86% of whole food system emissions [2], [3]. At the same time, agriculture, and particularly smallholder 1 tropical agriculture, which produces 30-34% of the world's food supply on 28-31% of the total agricultural land [4], is more vulnerable to climate impacts than any other sector. As climate change progresses, increasingly high temperatures, unpredictable precipitation, and extreme events will make it even more difficult for these farmers to produce food in sustainable, economically viable ways [5]. In eastern Africa, for example, maize production could decline by as much as 45% by the end of the century under the status quo [6]. Transformation of conventional agricultural production systems is needed [7], [8]; agriculture can no longer simply produce food; it must also protect the natural resources on which it relies and promote human and economic development. Balancing these outcomes in the face of climate change has become the challenge of the century [9]."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) includes any farm-or landscape-level agricultural practice or technology, whether traditional or innovative, that builds in adaptation to weather variability and climate change while sustainably increasing food productivity and, where possible, supporting mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions [10]. Many field-level management technologies are climate-smart, ranging from drought-resistant seed varieties to improved livestock feeds, and from integrated soil and water management to agroforestry. The effectiveness of CSA practices across time scales and agroecological zones is supported by abundant scientific evidence. That said, the most effective suite of CSA practices for any given farm will vary with crop type, geography, and cultures, among many other factors [11]- [13]."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Moving toward CSA practices is part of the transformation needed to maintain/increase agricultural productivity in environmentally sustainable and economically viable ways [11]. Yet in spite of the seemingly apparent advantages of CSA [12]- [15], the move toward an agricultural transformation is largely unrealized, despite hundreds of millions of US dollars in public funding invested in evidence generation and knowledge creation. This is exacerbated by the fact that CSA is not a silver bullet, but rather a suite of potential interventions that must be tailored to each farm's unique circumstances. As such, the barriers to change are myriad and frequently unique to each individual farm [16]- [19]."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"Ultimately, the adoption of CSA practices sits with farmers, and relies on smart information (relevant and timely) that leads to smart decisions (carefully weighing risks). Like most private sector enterprises, farmers manage resources to optimize performance and meet objectives. For tropical smallholders, the vast majority of whom live in poverty, objectives tend to focus on immediate needs, not medium-to long-term investments. These farmers frequently understand the benefits of CSA in terms of maximizing profits, minimizing potential losses, stabilizing production, minimizing costs, and diversifying outputs, and simply lack secure access to land, labor, and capital to do so without putting their families' immediate wellbeing at risk."},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"This represents a clear opportunity to stimulate adoption and investment through private sector approaches, and there has indeed been a recent shift toward the same [20], [21]. Nevertheless, most key actors in the space remain uninformed or wary of the economics of agricultural transformations. This ultimately hinders the mainstreaming of productive, climate-resilient, low-emissions agriculture. The first step toward effectively supporting and fostering this new approach is to establish the business case for climate-smart investments."},{"index":6,"size":144,"text":"Business cases are widely applied in various fields, including financial planning and forecasting, project management, enterprise, and compliance reporting. They are developed to quantify impacts, provide analysis to support and justify selection of specific options and create impetus to take action. In the context of agricultural development, a business case allows investors at different levels-governments, development partners, the private sector and farmers-to anticipate the profitability, riskiness, and societal value of investments in order to strategically allocate resources for optimum impact. The business case for CSA can be particularly highimpact in the context of small-holder farmers, who rely heavily on climate, have limited access to lucrative markets, and tend to be more risk-averse, inhibiting their adoption of climate-smart technologies. Laying out how CSA can be good for farm businesses can have a transformative role for more than 500 million farmers that practice small-scale agriculture worldwide."},{"index":7,"size":135,"text":"The scientific community can have an important contribution in the way farm profitability and risk information is communicated, leveraging knowledge from different disciplines and existing farm datasets. In this paper, we present a framework for establishing the business case for CSA, distilling key elements that help highlight CSA as an attractive business model for investors at all levels. To date, few, if any, research efforts have systematically aggregated and communicated the potential profitability of climate-smart investments in practical information ready to be used by the investment community. This paper fills this gap; it draws on agricultural management and economics literature and practice to highlight relevant approaches to assessing benefits, costs, and risks associated with climate-smart investments and suggests a frame for organizing these ideas in a succinct, \"marketable\" format to be used by non-scientific audiences."},{"index":8,"size":45,"text":"It also highlights opportunities to leverage existing data for generating new analyses and actionable messages. By doing so, the framework is intended to guide investors, development practitioners and researchers as they seek to create viable business models for de-risking agriculture and take CSA to scale."},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"We first present a guiding framework for establishing the business case for climate-smart investments, including detailed accounts of the scope, data types, and methods for data compilation, aggregation, and analysis. Rather than offering a checklist of themes and indicators that a business case for CSA should contain, the framework lays out key considerations for analyzing smallholder farm profitability from several angles. The extent to which these considerations are included in any given business case will depend on its specific objectives."},{"index":10,"size":65,"text":"Second, we illustrate key methodological insights and lessons learned from implementing the framework using data from the Evidence for Resilience Agriculture (ERA) 2 database. Finally, we offer lessons learned from this effort. This working paper is the first of its kind, and we hope it will further catalyze the ongoing dialogue between farmers, scientists, practitioners, and investors and inform the transition to a climate-smart future."}]},{"head":"Setting the scope","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Clearly articulating the boundaries of the business case (what is in and out of the scope) helps guide the selection of relevant data required for carrying out subsequent analyses. There are many dimensions to take into account in the scope setting stage. These may refer to the type of farming system considered, the type(s) of investment(s) analyzed, and thematic areas, among others."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"In general, as the degree of specificity of a business case increases, so does the amount of information, analysis capacity and effort required. As such, the case specificity should be aligned with the scope of the assessment, the degree of detail required for the investment decision, and with the availability of relevant accurate data. For example, a business case for CSA may be designed around broader categories of practices/technologies (e.g., crop management, soil management, agroforestry) or specific practices/technologies (e.g., crop rotations, improved varieties, use of organic fertilizer, etc.); it may also offer granular information that adds context-specificity (e.g., rotating maize with cowpea, alleycropping maize and Gliricidia trees, drought tolerant varieties, etc.). Likewise, a business case may disaggregate information by agroecological zone (AEZ 3 ) to compare performance or account for variations across distinct land, soil, and climate characteristics. While higher levels of aggregation create value to investors who seek to obtain swift snapshots of investment performance in general, more granular information can offer deeper insights into the particularities, the why and the how of investment performance."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"A business case for CSA looks at investment opportunities from different themes (or subject matters), depending on their relevance for the CSA practice/technology and the investor's objective(s). Specific themes are relevant to specific investors and uses (See Tables 1-2). The themes selected will inform the variables to use in the analysis and may include farm profitability and risks, such as total expenditures, net returns, cost variability, and yields, among others, allowing investors to evaluate the associated opportunities and liabilities. The business case may also expand its thematic scope, and include a focus on areas of critical importance to society and the environment, such as the sustainable development goals (SDGs) [22],"},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"specifically those referring to poverty reduction, food security, nutrition, biodiversity protection, and land restoration, among others. This approach is particularly important for understanding the underlying causes of risks, as it helps identify farmers' capabilities and capacities, which, in turn, create risks of different types and degrees."}]},{"head":"Data","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"A critical condition for developing a business case for CSA is data availability and quality."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Sufficient and reliable information is a prerequisite to showcasing a compelling story and to designing holistic approaches to risk management. Availability of time-series data is critical for exploring how reliable or consistent technology or practice outcomes are between growing seasons. This can be measured, for example, using statistics such as yield stability (a proxy for production risks). If yields are unstable over time this suggests that production is susceptible to environmental stresses or shocks such as bad weather (droughts, high temperatures, storms, etc.)"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"or pest and diseases. As such producers may require capacity to absorb losses in the bad years, this often very difficult for low income households."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Additionally, having temporally explicit data is improves the quality of economic statistics when synthesized from multiple publications. For example, cost-benefit ratio calculation combines both benefit (income, employment, etc.) and cost (variable costs, fixed costs, etc.) data;"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"matching the denominator and numerator for time of observation will reduces nuisance variance increasing the signal to noise ratio and providing stronger comparisons and conclusions."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"The quality of data reported is also critical for ensuring value (relevance, usefulness) of the business case. Good quality data can help investors take informed decisions. Quality may refer to aspects of data accuracy, relevance, completeness, and consistency. For instance, when multiple investment cases (practices/technologies) are considered, the data needs to be consistently reported across investments, otherwise investments cannot be compared."},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"Tables 1 and 2  indicator selection may include: (i) relevance, meaning that it needs to meet the data needs of a certain user group (farm, service provider, policy-maker, etc.), (ii) specificity, meaning that the indicator addresses a dimension of a CSA investment rather than any farm practice; (iii) feasibility, defined as reasonable and affordable data collection; (iv) credibility, meaning that the indicator upholds scientific standards and is trusted by scientists and practitioners; and (v) usefulness, meaning that the indicator captures information that moves investments forward."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"Indicators presented in Tables 1-2 are not mutually exclusive. Rather, they synergistically build a depth of perspective by analyzing overlapping sets of variables from different angles and degrees of specificity. For instance, Net Present Value (NPV) is based on estimates of investment costs, discount rates 4 , and projected returns, and thus does not account for unforeseen expenditures. Returns on Investment (ROI) offers a slightly different perspective by considering total costs but without accounting for the time period when the costs and benefits will occur."},{"index":9,"size":85,"text":"Similarly, there is no agreed upon method for integrating these indicators into an overall evaluation of potential farm profits and risks. Rather, they are meant to be leveraged to create a multi-dimensional model of the potential economic performance, risks, and barriers of a CSA intervention. 4 Discounting is important because the value of benefits and costs now are not the same as benefits and costs in the future and because, in many investment cases, benefits occur in the future, while costs occur at the beginning."}]},{"head":"Economic performance","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Farmers are private actors keen on maximizing profits with available resources. They seek to anticipate the costs and benefits of various agricultural management options and choose the most viable one(s) in terms of their needs. Having economic and financial information can help farmers make more informed decisions on e.g., minimum sale prices required to cover variable costs or make additional investments. For credit and insurance service providers, such information can provide valuable insights into actual farming risks; in the absence of this information, service providers tend to overestimate the riskiness of agricultural endeavors. Data on real risk enables service providers to tailor products to farmers' needs (e.g., small, frequent cash advances) as well as their own. For extension workers, farm data supports strategic use of resources to maximize the impact of productivity programming. Farm data also enable policymakers to consider how to tailor e.g. price and market regulations to benefit smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"A common way to quantify the monetary value and estimate the profitability of agricultural investments is a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) [23]- [25]. CBAs calculate the net economic effects of agricultural investments with and without the investment (not before and after an intervention). A CBA can be carried out at different stages of an intervention, including ex-ante (to guide design and implementation), medium-term (for monitoring progress) and ex-post (to quantify results, successes, and failures). Key indicators included in a CBA are NPV and Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), explained in Table 1. CBAs have recently been used to estimate the profitability of various soil and water technologies across Africa, Central America, and Asia [26], [27]. When resources for conducting CBAs are limited or when the scope, there are alternative options to look at the riskiness and profitability of an investment, such as costs, margins or social returns on investments (SROI), as illustrated in Table 1. • Cost borne by investors independent of the level of production. FCs are related to the operation of the business and may include rent, taxes, telephone, depreciation 5 , among others. • FC typically represent 6o% of total costs in agricultural enterprises and are more common for commercial farmers."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Sum of all fixed costs divided by total land area (in ha)"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Should be interpreted in conjunction with the farm revenue."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"• When FCs equal gross margins (see below), the breakeven point is reached, meaning that there are no profits and no losses. • Year 1 often has high FCs due to initial investments in materials, equipment, etc. but are offset by benefits in subsequent years. • Higher FCs in the production stage means more business risk, especially when revenues are hard to anticipate (volatile prices)."}]},{"head":"Variable cost (VC) (value per ha)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"• Cost that varies with production, i.e., it increases when production goes up and decrease when production falls. Total VC = cost to make product x nr. of units produced"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Should to be interpreted in conjunction with the farm revenue."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Business losses occur when gross profits are lower than VCs."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• Decisions on VCs (e.g., input use) influence profitability."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"• In general, an investor seeks to change the cost structure and turn some of the VCs into one-time costs. However, in reality, farmers decide on input use way ahead of having information on yields, product quality and prices, which makes VC optimization difficult."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Labor cost (LC) (value per ha or per activity)"},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"• Cost of labor engaged in the farm activities required by the investment. This includes both family and hired labor. • The change in output when an additional unit of a given input or factor of production (e.g., labor, capital, natural resources) is added and all other factors are held constant. • RoFP helps estimate the optimum input efficiency."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"For returns to labor (RoL): RoL = (Total income -VC)/ Total labor days)"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"• Needs to be interpreted closely with the initial investment costs."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"• Even if some farm investments may be attractive in terms of yield per unit of labor/land, this requires farmers to make an initial investment ahead of reaping the benefits, which is not always attractive for farmers lacking the initial capital."},{"index":11,"size":10,"text":"Gross income (GI) (or value of output) (value per ha)"},{"index":12,"size":96,"text":"• Sum of all cash (derived from product sales) and non-cash returns (product consumed in the household or stored). • GI can be determined irrespective of the amount of the product that is being sold, consumed or stored. However, insights into amount of product consumed/stored or of byproduct can provide a deeper understanding of the farm's sources of income. • GI is different for annual and perennial crop systems. GI = yield x farmgate price (the first selling point) When the farmgate price is unknown, this is typically replaced with information on transportation or marketing costs."},{"index":13,"size":41,"text":"• GI is used as an estimate of farm income but not of profitability (as it does not include insights on costs). • GI is typically used as basis for further calculations of other farmlevel financial indicators (see below Gross Margins)"},{"index":14,"size":13,"text":"Gross margin (GM) 6  (value per ha, per worker or per person day)"},{"index":15,"size":9,"text":"• The difference between gross farm income and VCs."},{"index":16,"size":14,"text":"• GM is not equal to profit, as it does not account for FC."},{"index":17,"size":32,"text":"• However, it is still a relevant and easy to use tool, as its calculations are straightforward and allows valuing nonpurchased inputs such as family labor, manure, draft power, etc. (variable costs)."}]},{"head":"GM = GI -VC","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"• GM is an indication of the production and economic efficiency of the farm enterprise. Positive GM indicates profitability. An increase in GM means an increase in profit, as FCs do not vary with production. • GM is a planning tool particularly relevant for smallholder farmers (whose FCs are minimal) and for comparing performance of different practices and technologies or two different investments with similar fixed cost structures and similar unit basis (e.g., hectare, labor)."}]},{"head":"Net returns (NR) (net income) (value per ha)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• Accounts for total costs (TC), including FCs (depreciation, permanent labor, and other farm operating costs) NR = GR -TC , where TC= total costs (sum of all FCs and VCs)"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• An indication of investment profitability and riskiness."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Negative net returns indicate losses. Consecutive years of losses suggest the net income is insufficient to cover expenditures."}]},{"head":"Cash flow (CF) (or liquidity) (value)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"• The amount of cash and assets available to pay for costs in the future. Liquidity is particularly important to farmers for running daily farm operations. • Inflow and outflow of cash varies throughout the year, which is why cash flow analyses need to be considered monthly or quarterly. • Unlike profitability, which typically focuses on business success on the long run, liquidity indicates the ease with which short-term financial obligations can be met. CF = Cash inflows -cash outflows , where cash inflows = money received from the sale of farm produce; cash outflows = money paid out for inputs and materials"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• CF does not equal profitability. It is an indication that a farm investment may/may not be viable as it does not generate sufficient cash to cover needs."}]},{"head":"Returns on investment (ROI) (ratio)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"• A cash flow measure that evaluates the financial value (or the benefits) the farmer receives relative to investment cost over a given period of time. It is expressed as a ratio between the gain (or loss) and the total costs (TC) associated with the investment."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Multiple formulas: ROI = NR / TC or %ROI = (Total benefits -TC) / TC"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"• ROI is typically correlated with risks, meaning that higher returns attract higher possible risks. • A positive ROI suggests profitability, while negative values indicate net loss (costs exceeding gains). • However, for the smallholder farmer, higher ROI does not necessarily mean a viable investment option if the benefits are"},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"• ROI does not account for the factor of time, which stymies comparison between investments with different amounts of time to recover the costs. Therefore, when making comparisons of investments under different time periods, investors opt for the annualized ROI (AROI). • ROI is a purely financial metric and does not account for social or environmental benefits and costs. A common alternative is the Social Return on Investment (SROI) [28], [29], which shows the value of each dollar invested to the individual and society."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"reaped on the long run. Therefore, ROI is usually interpreted in conjunction with other metrics, such as payback period (See below)."}]},{"head":"Payback period (PP) (number)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• The length of time required for an investment to pay for itself (or to recoup money invested), expressed in numbers of days, weeks, months, seasons, years."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"PP = Initial investment / Net cash flow per period"},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"• In uncertain contexts (climate, market, socio-political), investments with shorter PPs are usually more attractive to smallholders, while longer PPs are riskier. • PP allows investors to make quick judgements on an investment, but it does not account for the time-value of money (i.e., the point in time when benefits may occur)."}]},{"head":"Net present value (NPV) (number)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"• A cash flow measure often used as a component of a CBA, representing the multiple-year sum of the discounted net economic effects (value of benefits -value of costs). • NPV shows the economic viability of the investment (how much the investment will earn in present value terms) when the private/social discount rate factored is included. • Unlike ROI, it accounts for the time-value of money (i.e., when the benefits and costs occur), allowing comparisons against investment options."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":", where: NR = net returns (or cash flow) expected to be received in each period; i = the required rate of return per period (or the discount rate); n = the number of periods during which the investment is expected to operate and generate cash inflows."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"• Values above 0 indicate that, when the effect of time is included in the calculation of the value of money, the projected earnings (i.e., benefits) exceed anticipated costs. • A negative NPV indicates net loss."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Like ROI, the metric should be interpreted together with other measures of economic riskiness, such as costs or payback period."}]},{"head":"Benefit-cost ratio (BCR) (ratio)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"• Indicator used in CBA, revealing the overall value for money of an investment. It is calculated as the ratio between the benefits discounted over time (revenue, additional yield, labor savings, reduced soil erosion, etc.) and the costs of the investment discounted over time (e.g., equipment, land, depreciation, water loss, etc.)."}]},{"head":"BCR = PV(B) / PV(C) , where: PV= Present value B= Benefits C= Costs","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• A BCR greater than 1 indicates that benefits outweigh costs."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"• Costs and benefits occur at different times of the investment and typically follow a pattern in which costs are higher in the early phase of the investment and benefits are higher in the later phases. • Ratios may be misleading when comparing two investments with different costs and costs structures."}]},{"head":"Risks","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"One way to define risk is to describe or quantify poor, variable, or uncertain outcomes. Farming under climate change is an uncertain business, as is farming in a politically unstable environment or for highly price-volatile food markets. Negative agricultural outcomes also result from pests and diseases, inadequate marketing infrastructure, financial constraints, insufficient support services, and socio-cultural dynamics. Farmers nearly always grapple with multiple simultaneous risks, some of which are of greater priority or impact than others. The type and degree of risks that comes with an intervention and farmers' degree of risk aversion often heavily influence farm choices [30]- [32]."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Historically, peer-reviewed literature has identified five categories of agricultural risks [33]:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"▪ production (manifested through yield reductions or instability due to weather, climate, pests, diseases, soil salinity, etc.);"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"▪ market (associated with uncertain prices, costs, and inadequate market access due to variable yields, energy prices, international trade, etc.);"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"▪ institutional (related to distortionary or unpredictable changes in policies, regulations, or informal institutions, such as trading negotiations);"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"▪ financial (associated with lack of credit or changing credit conditions, increasing or variable interest rates, etc.);"},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"▪ personal (relate to the individual and can be manifested through injuries from using machinery, illness or death from diseases, including diseases transmitted from livestock)."},{"index":8,"size":120,"text":"Production risks are documented in 66% of studies; market risks are examined in 13%, and the remaining the categories each appear in 2% of the relevant literature. About 15% of studies analyzed two or more types of risk. The preponderance of production risk analyses is unsurprising. Production risks are almost always ranked as most important by smallholder farmers [33], [34]. Importantly, it is also the one they can address directly, whether through informal strategies such as income diversification, management practices, etc., or through formal strategies such as subsidies, insurance, and credit. Compared to other types of risks (such as institutional, personal, financial), production risks are also relatively more straightforward to quantify and obtain data for (See section on Data sources)."},{"index":9,"size":170,"text":"Production risks are more broadly underpinned by factors outside the farmers' control, including climate hazards (e.g. droughts and heat waves), biological factors (e.g., pests and diseases), financial constraints (e.g., a lack of credit services, and market limitations (e.g., lack of improved seed). Whilst the mean performance of an \"improved\" practice or technology vs a control may be positive for an outcome, it is important to consider how variable this outcome is. Farmers may have minimum acceptable thresholds for seasonal yields that relate to their short-term household needs; if an improved practice is more productive on average, but this is associated with increased variability, the chance of not meeting a minimum threshold for any given year could increase (compared to business as usual). This may be unacceptable for the potential adopter. Time-series yield data allows to empirically explore how risky adopting a practice or technology is. Table 2 details two methods that can be used to explore production risks: 1) lower confidence limit (LCL) and 2) Relative Yield Stability Ratio (CVR)."}]},{"head":"Table 2. Examples of proxies for production risks [35]-[38]","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Indicator Definition Calculation/ Formula Interpretation/ Use Lower confidence limit (LCL)"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• Probability that the technology will give a yield below the minimum acceptable yield. Calculated over a period of at least three years."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"Risk (confidence interval) = (\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC5B − (\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC51.\uD835\uDC53. = \uD835\uDC5B − 1, \uD835\uDC5D) (\uD835\uDF0E)/\uD835\uDC5B Where there appear to be overall production benefits for an improve practice, but they appear variable in time or space we can assess if climate is likely to be the driver. Climate hazards can be specified for individual crops via the scientific literature and/or through direct engagement with stakeholders; for example, a farmer might define a hazard as a hot dry spell of more than There are many ways to categorize barriers. Much of the literature focusing on CSA uptake has placed great emphasis on economic barriers [39]. These are tightly linked to the economic performance of the practices/technologies and farmers' short-term priorities and include, among others: high costs (during initial stages and/or implementation of practice), transaction costs (e.g., monetary/non-monetary costs for negotiating prices with a trader), long pay-back periods, uncertain returns, high costs to benefit ratio, etc. Other types of adoption factors discussed in the literature include [14], [40]- [43]:"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"▪ household characteristics (e.g., gender, age, household size, education, farming experience, access to credit/subsidies/safety nets),"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"▪ farm characteristics (e.g., farm size, cropland area, number of livestock, etc.),"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"▪ knowledge and information (market and price information, availability of climate information services, capacity to interpret and use information, access to radio, mobile phone ownership, etc.),"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"▪ institutions (e.g., policies and incentives favorable for smallholder production and commercialization, inter-sectoral coordination, trust in institutions, etc.)"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"▪ markets (e.g., distance to markets, road network, etc.)"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"▪ social and cultural norms (e.g., demand for certain farm products)."}]},{"head":"Data sources","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"A business case for CSA typically begins with a standard farm budget, or enterprise budget (EB). An EB includes estimates of income (returns), costs (variable, fixed, and total), and profits (e.g., net returns) associated with a farm investment over a specific time period, ideally multiple years. While EBs are standard in developed economies, tropical smallholder operations that maintain EBs are the exception, not the rule."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"An EB can be constructed using available literature (see case studies below). Analyzing existing datasets to provide new insights can significantly reduce research costs and maximize the benefits of previous data collection efforts. Nevertheless, some countries and development contexts are better studied than others [45]. Additionally, many potentially promising technologies remain significantly underexplored (such as post-harvest technologies), and some outcomes are rarely analyzed and reported (such as socio-cultural outcomes and institutional risks). The structure of farm budgets varies widely, and studies report economic data inconsistently."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Collecting EB primary data is substantially more time-and cost-intensive than leveraging existing data. However, it also facilitates greater control over the populations and samples selected (e.g., the most vulnerable farmers in a dry area), the types of data collected, the methods used to measure variables, etc. In many settings, multi-disciplinary and cross-sectoral collaboration will be crucial to obtaining robust data and insights into the multiple facets of farm profitability and risks."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Several opportunities also exist for constructing EBs as part of a larger development program, targeting financial literacy for individual farmers, farmer groups, and cooperatives. Concepts such as accurate recordkeeping, transparency, budgeting, investment, savings, and bank services are critical for any small business or organization. One example for building farm literacy is the \"leaky bucket\" model used in asset-based community development approaches [46]. In many countries, digital solutions can support and enable financial literacy learning, good financial practices, and access to financial services 8 ."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Various tools and extension materials support financial literacy and EB development. FAO's booklet series aimed at agricultural field workers in farmer trainings provide step-by-step guides of establishing cash flow and savings, explain profitability, financial record keeping, how to manage risks and how to use financial instruments [47]. The Michigan State's Crop Budget"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Estimator [48] requires access to Microsoft Excel and facilitates farm management decisions."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"Other examples include the Penn State Extension EB templates [49], or the AgriSETA guide to farm budgets and practical farm information systems [50]. The Handbook on Agricultural"},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Production Costs Statistics provides detailed guidelines on collecting, compiling and reporting farm data, including information on survey costs [51]."},{"index":9,"size":111,"text":"Once an EB is established, risk data is used to build out the business case. Quantitative and qualitative farmer surveys and field experiments will provide the bulk of the necessary production and personal risk data, including farmers' attitudes, responses, and preventative strategies. Market risks are largely quantified using agricultural price data, while financial and institutional risk identification and quantification requires an understanding of the banking/financial environment and the policy/regulatory context. Context-specific insights into barriers to CSA uptake are preferably collected through farm surveys or qualitative interviews but where resources lack and the scope of the assessment is broader, the business case can draw on the literature available on agricultural technology uptake."}]},{"head":"Case studies: Applying the framework in Kenya and Malawi","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The business case reports for Kenya and Malawi were developed as part of a collaboration between the United States Department of Agriculture-Foreign Agriculture Service (USDA-FAS) and World Agroforestry (ICRAF) to present to decision makers in Kenya and Malawi."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The two briefs distill critical information on the benefits, costs, and risks associated with different agricultural management options common to the maize-mixed systems in the two countries from a smallholder farmer's perspective. 9 The reports are available on CG Space CSA practice treatment [52]. Data extracted from ERA included study variables (study code, author, publication year), practice variables (theme, practice name, production system, control and treatment descriptions, varieties used), and outcomes (means, control and treatment results, and percent change). All monetary values were converted to 2010 US$."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Risk data included crop yields and minimum and average acceptable values according to smallholder farmers. Risks were expressed in terms of potential for yields below the mean control (0.5). Risk was calculated for a unique practice 11 within a site 12 . For CVR, data from multiple studies were combined [35]. For LCL risk, the same method as above was not feasible."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Instead, when combining data, we took the weighted mean of all the LCL values for a practice in ERA. An observation was weighted as:"},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"2 * \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC60 ) /\uD835\uDC41. \uD835\uDC42\uD835\uDC4F\uD835\uDC60. \uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC66 10 For a full list, see https://era.ccafs.cgiar.org/query/app/. 11 A unique practice has everything held the same other than the experimental practice (with some pragmatic exceptions, e.g. in no-till papers it is acceptable to substitute physical for chemical weeding)."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Basically, an observation was upweighted if it came from a study with lots of replication and downweighted according to the number of other observations contributed by the same study for that practice (e.g., different levels of fertilizer application or different types of manure added)."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"The economic indicators VC, GM, and GR were identified as most relevant for the scope of this business case given the availability of data. NPV, BCR and PP, although highly valuable, were rarely and inconsistently reported, and were thus excluded from these business cases. Reward was calculated as the ratio between VC and GR. Barriers data was primarily qualitative, and thus were presented as narratives."},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"Data from ERA were aggregated at both the study (across years and observations) and dataset (across studies) levels to enable multi-scale analyses. Hence, the business cases represent the average performance of the technologies from multiple studies over multiple timeframes and agroecological zones. Aggregation carries the risk of obscuring details and introducing subjectivity bias [53], but also allows for the synthesis of large volumes of data into practical messages for diverse consumers. "}]},{"head":"Findings","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Detailed findings can be identified in the business case reports. Here, we distill key insights, in order to showcase the value of the information delivered by such succinct analyses. Table 4 presents sample on economic performance of different farm management practices in Malawi."},{"index":2,"size":328,"text":"On average, soil management technologies perform among the best of all major practice categories included in the analysis, as a result of relatively small increases in VCs (otherwise required for herbicide, sprayers and gear for weed control) compared to farmers' practice and of significant growth in gross returns. Relatively low increased costs combined with high relative returns generates the ability for farmers to generate gross margins of up to 50% more than business as usual (BAU).  Accordingly, agroforestry prunings and crop diversification options (intercropping, crop rotations) bring high rewards (higher benefits compared to costs) and have the potential to reduce production risks by up to 29%. However, the benefits and costs vary greatly with types of crops, trees, management practice and agro-climatic conditions, details that this figure does not capture. In areas with poor soils and inadequate replenishment of plant nutrients, the combination of crops, trees and mineral fertilizer has more potential to decrease maize production risks compared to sole maize planting or maize fertilized with tree prunings; however, rewards are not as attractive, due to the high price of fertilizer and tree seeds.  The business cases reports support investors in anticipating the profitability, risks, opportunities, and barriers of diverse farm operations. They further illustrate the potential value of existing datasets to uncover new insights into agricultural investment feasibility from a smallholder farmer perspective. Nevertheless, caution is warranted when interpreting and applying business case results. The performance values presented in the two case studies do not provide definitive, unifying, or globally relevant conclusions. Rather, they demonstrate what farmers and investors could expect, on average, from an intervention under comparable conditions. In reality, farmers may not strictly follow a best practice, and most farmers do not implement and monitor practices as meticulously as researchers conducting controlled experiments do [54]. Even in controlled experiments, there is significant variation between and within studies. Hence, business cases are best considered initial insights into which opportunities warrant additional consideration in a particular setting."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"More than ten years of research and practice suggest that CSA is a viable approach to transforming the agricultural sector. Ultimately, the adoption of CSA practices sits with the private sector, and particularly farmers. Insight into the economic performance, risks, and barriers of these practices is necessary in order to demonstrate their utility in meeting the goals of enterprise. To date, existing datasets have been primarily used to advocate for solutionsoriented research, development programs, and, to a lesser extent, policy. There remains tremendous opportunity to expand the utility of existing data to establish business cases for CSA interventions. Business cases can be tailored to the user and broadly applied to everything from mixed crop-livestock systems to energy management. This working paper puts forth a general framework for assessing the business case for CSA from a smallholder farmer's perspective."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The protocol can be tailored to the unique business needs of any given situation and should be seen as an initial insight into which opportunities warrant further attention."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Andreea C . Nowak is a research associate at the International Center for Forestry Research-World Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF) based in Colombia. She conducts research on agriculture and climate change and is interested in innovation and science-communication techniques that bring data to life and help create meaningful, decision-oriented narratives. She holds an MSc in International Development and Management and a BA in Political Science. "},{"text":" Mayzelle is a full-time freelance science writer. She has worked extensively in information communication technologies for agricultural development, national climate change programmatic planning, grant writing, and crop-livestock integrated systems. She holds degrees in International Agricultural Development and Soils and Biogeochemistry. Hannah Kamau is a research associate at CIFOR-ICRAF in Nairobi, Kenya. She works on County climate-smart adaptation planning and ERA. Christine Lamanna is a climate change ecologist with CIFOR-ICRAF in Nairobi, Kenya. She works primarily on climate change adaptation options for smallholder farmers in Africa. Todd Rosenstock is a senior scientist with CIFOR-ICRAF based in Nairobi, Kenya. He investigates how smallholder farmers affect climate and vice versa. Methods development for monitoring social and environmental change are integral themes of his current work. He coleads the CCAFS Low Emission Development SAMPLES among other programs. Todd is particularly interested in finding ways to link science with policy and programming. Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................ Setting the scope ....................................................................................................................... Data .......................................................................................................................................... Economic performance ........................................................................................................ Risks ..................................................................................................................................... Barriers ................................................................................................................................. Data sources ............................................................................................................................. Case studies: Applying the framework in Kenya and Malawi ................................................. Data ...................................................................................................................................... Findings ................................................................................................................................ Conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................ References ................................................................................................................................ "},{"text":" present a selection of proxies for investment profitability and riskiness in the context of CSA, with examples of how each has most often been used. The lists are nonexhaustive. Any given business case would use the most relevant proxies based on the particular context and taking into account aspects data availability and quality. Additional criteria for "},{"text":"Box 1 ▪▪▪▪▪▪▪ Evidence for Resilient Agriculture (ERA) database: criteria for data extraction and data quality assuranceIn ERA data are screened and extracted according to the following criteria: There must be a practice vs a control; They must have a location; These should be co-located as reasonable given the spatial scale at which a practice or technology is applied; ▪ Data must be from a peer-reviewed publication. Even so, data is still checked for errors during in extraction and authors contacted in case of unusual outcomes; Only primary data is collected (no modelled outcomes are included in ERA); Practice and outcome definitions much match the ERA concept scheme. Classification is first based on practices or outcome descriptions (rather than only on author naming), so as to avoid issues with inconsistent use of terminology; Extreme outliers >3 interquartile range distance from the mean are excluded from the data. Data should come from a realistic setting (data extrapolated from laboratory or plot-trials are not accepted); During data extraction a range of validation methods are employed to minimize the chance of transcription errors. Data from a publication are quality controlled at least once and by someone different to the person who performed the extraction. After extraction further validation logic is automated in R to search for potential errors. These are then screened and corrected, as necessary. As such fidelity to the original data is very high and the quality of these data as good as can be obtained for the context. "},{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 reports data on risks and rewards associated with different farm management practices in Kenya. Risk analysis considered crop yields and minimum and average acceptable values for smallholder farmers. Risks are expressed as the possibility of yielding lower than the mean control value (0.5). Negative values indicate a lower risk to farmers compared to BAU. Rewards are expressed as BCR. Positive BCR indicates economic benefits for farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 1 Figure1also highlights that nutrient management practices produce mixed results, with maize under a combination of reduced tillage, mulch and inorganic fertilizer, being riskier compared to maize under conventional tillage practices and no fertilizer, but still viable from an economic point of view. Such trade-offs between production/food security and income/resilience outcomes are not exceptional, but characteristic to farm landscapes. Generating and sharing knowledge about the performance of management options can help farmers take more informed, context-tailored decisions. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Risks and rewards associated with select agricultural practices in Kenya "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Examples of proxies for economic performance and farm profitability, organized by their level of complexity (from simpler to more complex)  Indicator Definition and relevance to CSA investments Calculation/ common formula Interpretation/ use IndicatorDefinition and relevance to CSA investmentsCalculation/ common formulaInterpretation/ use Fixed cost    Fixed cost (FC)    (FC) (value per ha)    (value per ha)  "},{"text":"• VCs include inputs purchased, seasonal labor, fuel, livestock feed, vaccines, etc. • VCs typically represent 4o% of total costs in agricultural enterprises. • Most costs incurred by smallholder farmers are VCs.  "},{"text":" .g., DSSAT and APSIM) or niche modelling using machine learning methods can estimate how climate hazards (and climate change) will affect crop production (e.g., quantity, quality7 , and stability of yields across time).Agricultural risk management in general and CSA adoption in particular is conditioned by the wider context of human and social development, defined by variables such as education or degree of access to technology, markets, information, and finance, among others. Where broader societal conditions are underdeveloped or nonexistent (i.e., farmers access to technology is low or there is poor market information available), investment in CSA become less attractive (if not impossible) to smallholder farmers. Therefore, a discussion on the business case for CSA is not only about the extent to which CSA helps address different types of risks and achieve positive outcomes, but also about how \"adoptable\" the CSA investment is, from a (smallholder) farmer perspective. Barriers are drivers of risk (See Table3); failure to identify and eliminate barriers can lead to the failure of the investment. Technology adoption studies and models can add valuable context to business cases, particularly where they address farmers' cultural preferences. Barriers Barriers 10 days after maize seeds germinate. Geo-spatial climate resources such as CHIRPS, CHIRTS, 10 days after maize seeds germinate. Geo-spatial climate resources such as CHIRPS, CHIRTS, POWER, TERRACLIM or AFRICLIM can then be used to assess if a hazard occurred for a POWER, TERRACLIM or AFRICLIM can then be used to assess if a hazard occurred for a  "},{"text":" Economic performance: highlights costs and returns of agricultural technologies to help investors anticipate eventual economic gains and losses from the CSA investment(s).While the list of themes and related indicators is by no means exhaustive, particularly given the narrow scope of the business cases, it provides users with entry-points for holistically understanding the investment viability and effectively allocating resources. The scope included only the agricultural technologies considered relevant for addressing key maize-based system challenges in Kenya and Malawi: agroforestry, soil, crop, or nutrient management practices implemented at farm-or field-level.Economic performance, risks, and barriers data were extracted from peer-reviewed studies included in the ERA database (Box 1). The selected studies (27 from Kenya and 7 form Malawi 10 ) were published between 1970 and 2013 and reported primary data from farms, fields, and households, and included both a control (BAU, conventional farm practice, or baseline) and ▪ ▪ Risks: reveals the degree of riskiness of the CSA investment, considering production ▪ ▪ Risks: reveals the degree of riskiness of the CSA investment, considering production factors that may affect investor's' interest in adopting and maintaining the technology factors that may affect investor's' interest in adopting and maintaining the technology over time over time ▪ Barriers: flags potential caveats and highlights additional investments required to create ▪ Barriers: flags potential caveats and highlights additional investments required to create favorable conditions for adoption, maintenance and scaling of the technology. favorable conditions for adoption, maintenance and scaling of the technology. (Kenya: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/109031 Malawi: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/109030). (Kenya: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/109031 Malawi: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/109030). Four themes underpin the business cases, each reflecting key considerations for investment Four themes underpin the business cases, each reflecting key considerations for investment planning, prioritization, and management: planning, prioritization, and management: ▪ Context: sets the scope of the business case, highlighting key facts regarding the ▪ Context: sets the scope of the business case, highlighting key facts regarding the application domain for each practice/technology, such as agro-environmental, climate and application domain for each practice/technology, such as agro-environmental, climate and food security conditions, among others. food security conditions, among others.  "},{"text":"Table 4 Average economic performance of selected agricultural technologies for maize in Malawi. Values for \"Improved practice\" are expressed in USD/ha (2010 US$). \"Percent change\" refers to change from farmer (conventional) practice. Yellow color suggests negative outcomes (losses), greens suggests positive outcomes (light green increases up to 50%, dark green more than 50%).  VARIABLE COSTS GROSS RETURNS GROSS MARGINS VARIABLE COSTSGROSS RETURNSGROSS MARGINS  Improved Percent Improved Percent Improved Percent ImprovedPercentImprovedPercentImprovedPercent  practice change practice change practice change practicechangepracticechangepracticechange AGROFORESTRY (ALL) 72 37% 450 1% 377 -3% AGROFORESTRY (ALL)7237%4501%377-3% Alleycropping (Tephrosia vogelii + Improved Maize Variety) 72 37% 450 1% 377 -3% Alleycropping (Tephrosia vogelii + Improved Maize Variety)7237%4501%377-3% SOIL MANAGEMENT (ALL) 372 19% 1235 29% 634 47% SOIL MANAGEMENT (ALL)37219%123529%63447% Intercropping (Maize/Bean) 318 15% 2499 13% 281 53% Intercropping (Maize/Bean)31815%249913%28153% Intercropping + Mulch (Maize-Cowpea; Maize-Pigeon pea) 509 10% 1217 3% 710 -1% Intercropping + Mulch (Maize-Cowpea; Maize-Pigeon pea)50910%12173%710-1% Crop Rotations (Maize/Groundnut; Maize/Groundnut/Pigeon pea) 100 84% 731 63% 631 38% Crop Rotations (Maize/Groundnut; Maize/Groundnut/Pigeon pea)10084%73163%63138% Mulch + Intercropping + Green Manure (Maize-Pigeon pea) 364 -12% 956 -1% 698 27% Mulch + Intercropping + Green Manure (Maize-Pigeon pea)364-12%956-1%69827% Reduced Tillage + Mulch 439 6% 1069 39% 659 54% Reduced Tillage + Mulch4396%106939%65954% Reduced Tillage + Mulch +       Reduced Tillage + Mulch + Intercropping (Cowpea, Pigeon 509 23% 1217 46% 762 57% Intercropping (Cowpea, Pigeon50923%121746%76257% pea)       pea) Reduced Tillage + Mulch + Intercropping + Green Manure 364 7% 956 40% 698 105% Reduced Tillage + Mulch + Intercropping + Green Manure3647%95640%698105% NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (ALL) 62 55% 472 49% 300 61% NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (ALL)6255%47249%30061% Green Manure (Maize/Mucuna; Maize/Groundnut/Pigeon pea) 74 36% 490 -5% 416 -9% Green Manure (Maize/Mucuna; Maize/Groundnut/Pigeon pea)7436%490-5%416-9% Inorganic Fertilizer 35 35% 239 60% 274 56% Inorganic Fertilizer3535%23960%27456% Inorganic Fertilizer + Intercropping (Maize-Bean) 35 No data 124 142% 159 210% Inorganic Fertilizer + Intercropping (Maize-Bean)35No data124142%159210% Inorganic Fertilizer + Improved Maize Varieties 105 94% 454 -1% 349 -14% Inorganic Fertilizer + Improved Maize Varieties10594%454-1%349-14%  "}],"sieverID":"2bba1d62-eb97-412f-be3d-12c622af1ff0","abstract":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0044caf0470daefce4d7f35670b47e76","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f07ec53-81bd-4dce-8089-32383b87e4c5/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Projections of rapidly rising surface temperatures over Africa under low mitigation","keywords":["hybrid season","drought thresholds","agroclimatic monitoring","Sahel","global warming"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"According to recent global warming perspectives, increased heating may not cause droughts but it is expected that when droughts occur they are likely to set in quicker and be more intense [1]. What if the often discussed recovery of Sahel rainfall [2][3][4][5]7] is attributable to an increased frequency of intense rain events while the spatio-temporal distribution is similar to drought conditions? Such hybrid-mixed dry and wet features-rainy conditions would be more challenging to food security. Even if seasonal average rainfall amounts are recovering from the previous drought years, the distribution of rain events and associated maximum and minimum temperature extremes [8] determine the success or failure of local smallholder farming systems."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"However, the use of areal agro-meteorological monitoring metrics does not depict these potential risk factors. On the one hand, the adhoc drought monitoring metrics, based on rainfall and other variables, are proven sensitive to mathematical formulations and the baseline period used to establish the reference climatology [1,2]. On the other hand, seamless predictions are hampered by large uncertainties resulting from limited information concerning the future of El-Niño Southern-Oscillations (ENSO) [1], the possible combined effects of oceans warming [5,9], anthropogenic aerosols and atmospheric greenhouse-gases (GHGs) forcing on the natural variability of rainfall [10,11]. The need arises to investigate new standards for agroclimatic drought (flood) monitoring, and provide regional perspectives for predictions."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"In the Sahel, adequate monitoring metrics need to include rainfall timing (i.e., principal season of occurrence, delays in the start of the rainy season, occurrence of rains in relation to sensitive crop growth stages), the distribution of rain events (i.e. rainfall intensity, number of rainfall events) and the spatial coverage [12][13][14]. Other factors such as high diurnal temperature ranges, high wind speeds, low relative humidity, high evapotranspiration and soil moisture depletion, often associated with drought conditions, may increase the severity of the event. In this paper, we define a new basis for drought identification by reconciling observational datasets. We further investigate how both oceans basin warming and the regional dynamic features in the low-to-mid level atmosphere are involved in triggering droughts and hybrid rainy seasons. These hybrid rainy seasons are considered as a new threat to rain-fed farming systems that calls on the use of novel climate information services for food security in the region."}]},{"head":"Data and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data sets 2.1.1. In situ and gridded data","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"The Sahel is defined here as the sub-Saharan region that stretches from the western coasts of Senegal in West Africa to the North-Eastern edges of the Sudan and Ethiopia in East Africa between 10 to 20°N. The rainy season of this region is dominated by the West African monsoon which is confined between May to October with June-September explaining the most important amount of the seasonal totals. Observed station data (In-situ data), including daily rainfall, maximum and minimum temperature and other variables, were contributed by the meteorological services and agencies of the West African countries to www.wascal.org and www.agrhymet.ne following specific data sharing policies. In this assessment, 112 rainfall recording stations have quality controlled daily time series from 1950 to 2010. Among these 112 stations, there are 65 primary synoptic stations that provide also daily minimum and maximum temperatures from 1960 to 2012. They are well spread across 10-20°N and 16°W-20°E and the majority fall within the region where average annual rainfall is between 200 mm to little less than 1100 mm (supplementary figure 1). All historical data sets of rainfall and temperatures are used to compute some agroclimatic indices. This in situ data is reconciled with three other open source gridded data sets to extract the cluster of spatially coherent, synchronous and persistently dry seasons irrespective of baseline climatology (see methods)."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Monthly precipitation data sets of NOAA's Precipitation Reconstruction over Land (CPC-P/L), CRU.TS3.21, and GPCC v6 are processed on a regular 0.5°×0.5°grid based on world-wide station records. CRU.TS3.21 daily temperature range (DTR) data are also used. CRU.TS3.21 data are available from http:// badc.nerc.ac.uk/browse/badc/cru/data/cru_ts/cru_ ts_3.21/data. The gridded data has longer time series than the in situ data set. We extracted only the longest common time series to all data sets (i.e. 1960-2010) for the consensus analyses (figure 1). Monthly Extended Reconstructed Sea Surface Temperature (ERSSTv4) dataset is available on global 2°×2°grids, surface pressure and U-V wind components are taken from NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis 1 on a 2.5°×2.5°grids, model-calculated soil moisture depth (CPC Soil moisture) is on a 0.5°×0.5°grid and NOAA's top of atmosphere Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) dataset comes from a 1°×1°grid (1979-2012). CPC-P/L, GPCC, CPC soil moisture, ERSSTv4 and NCEP/ NCAR Reanalysis 1 data sets are provided by the NOAA/OAR/ESRL PSD, Boulder, Colorado, USA, from their Web site at http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/ psd/."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agroclimatic monitoring indices","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":248,"text":"The seasonal and intra-seasonal agro-climatic indices are defined based on the combination of in situ data, gridded data and crop model simulations (supplementary tables 1 and 2). From the daily in situ data, we define the date of the first efficient rainfall as the day after May 1 when 20 mm totaled over 1 to 3 days is not followed by a dry spell 20 days in the next 30 days. The cessation date is the day after September 1 when soil water content is 0.05 mm mm −1 [6,13]. The soil water content criterion is based on a simple water balance model for which the average potential soil evaporation per day is taken as 5 mm d -1 and storage limit as 100 mm. For the crop simulations, we used the Decision Support System for Agrotechnological Transfer version 6 (DSSATv4.6) cropping system model [32], calibrated and tested for some millet, maize and cowpea cultivars. It was calibrated for pearl millet cultivars (HKP, Souna 3, Zatib), cowpea cultivars (IT98k-205-8 and IT98K-503-1) using experimental data collected at AGRHYMET (Niamey) in 2002-2003 (detailed descriptions of the experiments are provided in Salack et al [6]), at Bambey station (Senegal) in 1996-1997 and 2008-2009 for cowpea (detailed descriptions of experiments are found in Belko et al [16]). The CERES and CROPGRO modules of DSSATv4.6 are calibrated and tested using both onfarm surveys and field trials conducted at and around experimental stations of Bambey (Senegal), Kano (Nigeria), Niamey (Niger) and Sarria (Burkina Faso)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The sensitivity tests simulations are described in supplementary note 2. Using DSSATv4.6 [32], we define the planting date as the first day between April 1 and July 31 when at least 40% soil moisture in the top 20 cm depth is reached, daily minimum temperature does not drop below 11 °C for millet and cowpea cultivars (below 8 °C for maize) and maximum temperature does not exceed 35 °C [6]. Post-floral dry spells are consecutive dry days observed fifty days after planting date. For agronomic reasons a dry day is defined as the day when cumulated rainfall is <1 mm d −1 [13] and intense rainfall is the 95th percentile of the 6 month block daily rainfall."}]},{"head":"Areal classification of dry seasons","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Due to differences in data assimilation methods, interpolation techniques and the number of stations involved, rainfall information provided by gridded data sets of different global data centers vary significantly [1,17] (supplementary figure 2). To work around this discrepancy, spatially coherent, synchronous and persistently dry seasons are extracted from the consensus of both meteorological station data   group of dry (wet) seasons to be formed based on the most persistently negative (positive) trend of the index, irrespective of baseline climatology. This baseline sampling embeds the long term trends and variability found in historical rainfall assessments over this region namely wet, dry and recovery [2,3,6]. In the case of the 6 month (May-October) seasonal rainfall amount, we choose the threshold −0.25 as the number of standard deviations from the mean at which a year is considered abnormally dry over the region in order to approximately match the intensity of abnormally dry years in the case of other monitoring indices [18,19] and ensure a minimum spatial coherence of identified dry spells [14]. The spatial extent (SE) of a drought event is measured from the anomaly index synchronous over M stations:"},{"index":2,"size":222,"text":"For every baseline period b, SE i indicates the seasonal area coverage of synchronized drought over the region. All SE time series are clustered using an agglomerative hierarchical clustering technic based on pairwise Euclidean distance between individual baseline values. The number of classes is chosen, from the dendrogram of classes, at the maximum branching gap below which the interclass differences are statistically significant at the 5% level according to a 'pooled variance' two-tailed t test. Three clusters of rainy seasons are hereby identified. The drought cluster (DtC) is composed of years with a precipitation deficit of at least −0.25 standard deviation and at least 50% area coverage (figure 1). The seasons with a precipitation deficit of at least −0.25 standard deviation and an area coverage less than 25% are considered 'locally dry' but with a regional scale wet index. They form the wet cluster (WtC). We define a consensus amongst the observational data sets when a season is found dry (wet) in all data sets. Years which do not fall within the DtC (WtC) category are considered intermediate (INT). The sensitivity of the SE i index was tested over the entire region, by sampling country-by-country catchment (to test the sensitivity of change in number of stations per sample) , and by gridding the in situ data on regular 0.5°×0.5°, 1°×1°and 2°×2°grids respectively."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"For further analyses, we also consider SST anomalies (SSTAs) for the Niño 3.4 region (5°N-5°S, 120-170°W). We computed the November-December-January running average SSTAs taken from ERSST v4 for which El-Niño (La-Niña) are defined according to the thresholds given by NOAA-Climate Prediction Center [15]: weak El-Niño (La-Niña) when the anomalies fall between 0.5°and 0.9°(−0.5°and −0.9°), moderate between 1.0°and 1.4°(−1.0 and −1.4 anomaly), strong between 1.5 and 1.9 and very strong when the anomalies are 2.0 (−2.0). As found earlier, years in which the north Atlantic is warmer than the global tropical oceans the Sahel will receive abundant rains as a result of increased moisture supplied in monsoon flows [5,9,21]. Here, the new seasonal predictability index we are suggesting consists of subtracting the north Atlantic (10-75°N, 75°W-15°E) from the global SST before computing the anomalies by subtracting the average climatology from the time series. Other oceanic basins SSTAs analyzed during the June-September season include subtropical north Atlantic (sub_NATL, 10-40°N, 15-75°W"},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"), the extra-tropical north hemispheric Atlantic (NH_NATL, 30-75°N, 15-75°W), the Mediterranean sea (MEDIT, 0-35°E, 30-44°N), the equatorial Atlantic (Eq_ATL, 5 S-5°N, 40°W-15°E), the South Atlantic (SH_ATL, 10 s-0°N, 20°W-10°E) and the Eastern Equatorial Indian ocean (Eq_IND, 15°S-15°N, 50-90°E) (figures 3(c)-(d) and supplementary figure 5)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seasonal droughts, SST warming and regional atmospheric circulation nexus","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":273,"text":"The rainy seasons of the DtC are characterized by higher rainfall deficit with larger spatial variance which is also visible in the seasonal cycles (supplementary figure 3), including late onset and shorter durations of the cropping season (figure 2). Long dry spells after planting and during the flowering phase of rain-fed crops are the key hazards that determine the failure of rain-fed farming systems [6,13,14]. The soil moisture deficits added to low soil fertility, high temperatures and evaporation rates increase the rate of agroclimatic risks inherent to seasonal droughts. Further analyses reveal also a significant inverse co-variability of DTR, rainy days and rainfall amount which is enhanced during extreme droughts (supplementary figures 4(a)-(b)). All over the Sahel, dry seasons exhibit larger amplitude of DTR anomalies compared to wet years as a result of seasonal fluctuations in moisture fluxes and radiative heating (supplementary figures 4(c)-(d)). The strong relationship between DTR, rainy days and rainfall amount makes DTR anomalies useful to detect drought flags such as intra-seasonal spells, the subseasonal heat stress and can also determine onset/ cessation of cropping season in the Sahel. Table 1 summarizes the threshold values which combination, during the life cycle of staple field crops, strains their growth, development and production, if optimum crop management measures are not applied by the farmer. These average values are estimated from the seasons of the DtC and constitute the critical limits for most cropping systems to be sustained over larger portions of the Sahel region. We also believe that any environmental variable drawn from the DtC cluster can be considered as reference baseline threshold useful in monitoring and early warning under climate change."},{"index":2,"size":232,"text":"The Sahel is a remote ENSO-sensitive tropical region and usually, droughts cover more than twice the land area in years of a strong versus weak El-Niño Table 1. Threshold values characterizing seasonal droughts in the Sahel and their percent difference with 1991-2013 time series. The parameters l and s sp are the area average and spatial distribution offset (standard deviation). The positive (negative) sign is an increase (decrease). and reduces the meridional temperature gradient over the continent. This situation coincides with a dipole in the Atlantic Ocean with negative SSTAs north of 10°N, positive south and in the equatorial Indian Ocean. As the Sahel dries, the intensity of the Indian monsoon also reduces [20]. The weakening of the tropical divergent circulations (i.e. the Walker and local Hadley circulations) causes changes in energetic maintenance of the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) [24,25]. The African Easterly Jet (AEJ) becomes more enhanced and extended (figure 3(g)), suppressing convective activities in the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). A weaker TEJ aligned with an enhanced AEJ, and a southward-shift of the ITCZ result in a reduced frequency of westward propagating mesoscale convective systems (MCS) [25]. These MCS contribute the majority of rainfall events in the Sahel [26]. Late onset and extreme dry spells are experienced in such dry seasons and the energy thresholds needed to supply moisture into the ITCZ and trigger deep convection are met late July [14]."}]},{"head":"Index","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"When ENSO signal is weak or neutral (no ENSO, herewith), drought may occur as well. In this case, there is a shallow generalized warming of the tropical oceans and deep convection is observed over the Eastern Latine America which contributes to weaken the sub-tropical high pressure center at its northerly position in the south Atlantic (figures 3(d)-(f)). This reduces the strength of the penetrating cross-equatorial south-westerlies causing the shallow low-levels moisture inflow [22,23]. In the North Atlantic, the sub-tropical basin becomes warmer than the extra-tropical North Atlantic basin (NH_NATL). The negative SSTAs in the NH_NATL and the Mediterranean Sea (MEDIT) are associated with positive surface pressure anomalies of the subtropical high pressure belt including its Libya-Egypt eastern extension. This creates a strong and consistent inflow of northeasterly winds over the Sahel preventing further migration of the rain-belt [22,25]. These particular atmospheric patterns found in the seasons of the drought cluster (DtC) are reversed or absent in the wet cluster (WtC) (supplementary figures 5(a)-(f) and supplementary figure 6)."}]},{"head":"Explaining the post-1990 hybrid rainy seasons","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"From the consensus of all data sets, only five (six) seasons of the DtC (WtC) fall within the period post-1990 (including the year 1990) (figure 1). Ten dry seasons encountered in this assessment are categorized as intermediate (INT) with an area coverage in the interval ] [ 25%; 50% . The comparative analysis of the 1991-2012 periods with DtC seasons shows a similarity of distribution of rainfall events even though a higher rainfall amount is recorded (table 1). This confirms that the rainfall distribution exhibits drought characteristics and the recovery of average rainfall amounts is explained by an increase of intense rainfall and wet spells [6,7]. The spatial variability of these parameters is relatively homogenous over the region as opposed to DtC (table 1). In this mixed dry/wet sub-seasonal characteristics of rainy seasons, farm planning becomes difficult."},{"index":2,"size":266,"text":"The ENSO signal in the seasons of the INT cluster is weak-to-moderate El-niño (except for 1997 which was classified as very strong El-niño year) [15]. The June-to-September regional low-to-mid level circulation patterns of the INT (post-1990) are stationary relative to those found in dry years of weak-to-neutral El-Niño signal (figures 4(a) and (b)). In contrast there is a top-to-bottom asymmetric wind speeds in the INT (pre-1990) in which the TEJ is strong coinciding with much warmer sub-tropical north Atlantic and south Atlantic (figures 4(c) and (d)). The warming of these basins has a combined positive effect of raising the thresholds for deep convection to occur by increasing moisture supply to the monsoon flow [5,9,21]. With the strong TEJ, the upper-level divergence is enhanced [24,25], sustaining thereby a relatively strong Hadley cell circulation over the region that counter balances the large scale subsidence imposed by weak-to-moderate El-Nino [20]. However, in the post-1990 INT types of drought, the TEJ becomes weak. The AEJ is relatively enhanced with extended core and its vertical axis aligning with that of the TEJ like in the case of 1983 described by Nichoson [25]. Similarly to DtC (no ENSO) situations, shallow warming occurs in the north Atlantic but much in the MEDIT. A warmer MEDIT enhances moisture content in the lower troposphere that is advected southwards into the Sahel by the low-level mean flow across the eastern Sahara [27]. These basin warmings and the regional-to-sub-regional atmospheric circulation features make the INT droughts not wide spread droughts like the DtC category but tend to be mixed dry and wet seasons i.e. hybrid rainy seasons."},{"index":3,"size":232,"text":"Years since 1970s are believed to include anthropogenic climate change signature with the indirect GHGs forcing-induced SSTAs which caused past droughts in the Sahel [5]. With the increasing global warming, tropical oceans are also warming [9] and temperatures in most parts of the Sahel increased in the recent years [4,5,8,10]. While most of the atmospheric large scale and sub-regional scale drivers of rainfall such as the Sahara Heat Low have become more enhanced [4,21], recent climate model experiments suggest a direct influence of higher levels of  Pre-1990Pre- (1965Pre- , 1968Pre- , 1970Pre- , 1974Pre- , 1976Pre- -77, 1979Pre- , 1980Pre- -81, 1988-89) -89) and Post-1990Post- (1991Post- , 1995Post- -97, 2000Post- , 2004Post- -05, 2004Post- -07, 2009)). The dashed thick iso-line is the −10 m s −1 contour of DtC (no ENSO). In GHGs in the atmosphere as the main cause of this recovery in rainfall amounts [10], with an additional role for surface air temperatures [4,10,21]. Although, these climate model results need further investigations to better established the direct influence of GHG on the long term climate of the Sahel [5,28], the rapidly increasing air pollution might have also affected the regional climate [11]. Like the seasonal rainfall totals, MCS sizes, organization and intensity have also increased slightly after the mid-1980s [26]. The combination of the aforementioned factors with the upper wind patterns will most likely lead to increasing hybrid rainy seasons."}]},{"head":"Discussion and recommendations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"The recent partial recovery of annual rainfall amounts fluctuating around the long-term mean with an increase in extreme rainfall events, indicate an intensification of the hydrological cycle [5]. The local climate is drier in the sense of persistent dry spells compared to the 1950s-1960s [14], while at the same time there is an increased probability of floods [7,8]. The statistical significance levels of this recovery, for the years after 1990 (including its features of high variability), have been demonstrated [2,3,[5][6][7]. However, the processbased assessments needed to explain and hypothesize on plausible future trends are lacking [28]. The recent model-based arguments provided by Dong and Sutton [10], stating that green-house gases forcing has the most important role in this recovery, are to be taken with caution because of the internal errors inherent to single model results [5,28]. In this paper, we bring forth additional process-based arguments provided by observations consensus and reanalysis data. The post-1990 recovery in the Sahel is dominated by hybrid rainy seasons explained by the combined effects of Ocean basins warming and the asymmetric regional low-to-mid-level atmospheric winds pattern. All atmospheric features displayed on figures 3 and 4 (and supplementary figures 5 and 6) have been rated statistically significant (only features significant at 95% confidence level according to a pulled-variance Student t-test were highlighted for surface pressure, wind, and SSTAs). Therefore, these results add value to hypotheses proven by previous other works concerning the importance of the internal variability of the regional climate [4,9,11,21,26,28]."},{"index":2,"size":253,"text":"For a variety of agricultural practices, many risk factors are inherent to hybrid rainy seasons which are only observable from on-farm surveys and experiments. The erratic distribution of events leads to higher rates of re-planting, post-flowering water stress of up-land crops, flooding and water-logging of lowland cereals. The potential depletion of arable land and micronutrients due to water erosion is higher as a result of intense rainfall events. The increase in temperatures leads to heat stress, increased crop water demand, increased respiration rate, suppressed floral development, hastening crop maturity and reduce productivity [6]. The drought thresholds presented here are useful for agroclimatic monitoring better than some areal drought metrics based on rainfall and other variables which tend to be relatively sensitive to certain mathematical formulations, the variables used to compute them, or the baseline period used to establish the reference climatology. If droughts were to occur [1,29] or hybrid rainy seasons remain the dividends of the natural climate variability in this region, the profiling analysis of drought thresholds will improve the operational monitoring and early warning services for water management and farming systems. With the consistent relationship between seasonal droughts and DTR anomalies, the use of DTR will improve the monitoring of hybrid rainy seasons (i.e. DTR as a proxy variable beside rainfall amount and number of rainy days). Under global warming, we recommend the use seasons belonging to the DtC and their associated threshold values as the new standards for early detection of agroclimatic extremes to complement the existing areal monitoring indices."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"In all Sahel countries, there is a limited availability of high quality, real-time in situ data because the density of local observation networks is mostly low [17,30], some crucial atmospheric variables are less observed [11], and data collection and transmission are done manually with many outdated equipment. Our other recommendation is that longer term programs, supporting climate information services, should include infrastructural improvement of the hydro-climate observation networks but also the services value chain must include climate field schools and response farming [6,31] to translate the seasonal rainfall variability into farming options that will spur smallholder farming system to build resilience. This will improve the quality of local climate information, its use by farmers and the availability of real-time in situ data, improve seamless predictions, and enable transboundary data sharing policies amongst countries so that global data centers can also improve their products for the region. We urgently advocate that the national adaptation programs of action, in countries of the Sahel, address hydro-climate observation networks and agroclimatic extension services."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( in situ data, 1960-2010) and the aforementioned gridded data sets (1960-2012) for the Sahel region. Our main hypothesis is that the rainy season at each station can have a spatially uniform component shared simultaneously with several other stations in the region. We write the individual j station (grid point) time series of the seasonal agro-climatic indices as I ij b where i denotes the year (i=1K N), and b={1960-2010, 1961-1990, 1971-2000, 1981-2010, 1991-2010} denotes the baseline period "},{"text":" with l ij b as the zero mean and unit variance anomaly, x jb and s jb are the mean and inter-annual standard deviation for baseline b at station j, ( j=1KM). The sampling of the baseline takes into account the sensitivity of the anomaly to baseline climatology shown by Trenberth et al[1]. It enables composite "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Classification of dry/wet seasons from different data sets. The clusters of dry seasons with area coverage from the in situ data and gridded data sets CRU-TS3.21, CPC-Prec/L and GPCC v6. The consensus years of strong and very strong El-Niño (La-Niña) years [15] are underlined. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Agro-climatic indices comparison between drought and wet clusters. The percent difference is given by the number between boxes ( ** ) is statistically significant at 95% confidence level according to a pulled-variance Student t-test. The boxes and whiskers denote the spatial distribution across the Sahel. The horizontal segment inside boxes: median and whiskers: minimum/maximum. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Average June-September anomalies and atmospheric wind profile in drought clusters (DtC) of strong/very strong ENSO (strg ENSO), weak/neutral ENSO years (no ENSO). Only statistically significant features are drawn. The black rectangle determines the Sahel. Factors in (a)-(f) include Sea Surface temperature anomaly (SSTA), Top-of-atmosphere-Out-going Longwave Radiation anomaly (OLRA), Surface Pressure anomaly (Pres.) & 925 hPa wind anomaly. Westerly and southerly directions indicate positive anomalies. Only vectors for which at least one component is larger than 1.5 m s −1 are plotted. The u-wind anomalies in (g)-(j) are relative to 1981-2010 climatology. Above 700 hPa, positive (negative) u-wind anomalies represent weakened (strengthened) easterly wind. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. (Continued.) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Average June-September atmospheric wind profiles and SSTAs in oceanic basins of INT drought cluster.Pre-1990Pre-  (1965Pre- ,  1968Pre- , 1970Pre- , 1974Pre- , 1976Pre- -77, 1979Pre- , 1980Pre- -81, 1988-89) -89)  andPost-1990Post-  (1991Post- , 1995Post- -97, 2000Post- , 2004Post- -05, 2004Post- -07, 2009)). The dashed thick iso-line is the −10 m s −1 contour of DtC (no ENSO). In(a) and (b), the solid and dashed u-wind anomaly profiles are relative to DtC (strg ENSO) & DtC (no ENSO) respectively. Panel (c) and (d) the box plot show SSTAs spread across months in each basin. The latter include the sub-tropical north Atlantic (sub_NATL), the extra-tropical north hemispheric Atlantic (NH_NATL), the Mediterranean sea (MEDIT), the equatorial Atlantic (Eq_ATL), the South Atlantic (SH_ATL) and the Equatorial Eastern Indian ocean (Eq_IND). "},{"text":" Figure 4. Average June-September atmospheric wind profiles and SSTAs in oceanic basins of INT drought cluster.Pre-1990Pre-  (1965Pre- ,  1968Pre- , 1970Pre- , 1974Pre- , 1976Pre- -77, 1979Pre- , 1980Pre- -81, 1988-89) -89)  andPost-1990Post-  (1991Post- , 1995Post- -97, 2000Post- , 2004Post- -05, 2004Post- -07, 2009)). The dashed thick iso-line is the −10 m s −1 contour of DtC (no ENSO). In(a) and (b), the solid and dashed u-wind anomaly profiles are relative to DtC (strg ENSO) & DtC (no ENSO) respectively. Panel (c) and (d) the box plot show SSTAs spread across months in each basin. The latter include the sub-tropical north Atlantic (sub_NATL), the extra-tropical north hemispheric Atlantic (NH_NATL), the Mediterranean sea (MEDIT), the equatorial Atlantic (Eq_ATL), the South Atlantic (SH_ATL) and the Equatorial Eastern Indian ocean (Eq_IND). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. (Continued.) "}],"sieverID":"9f866f9d-4de3-4a25-bb36-5430ab462ea5","abstract":"Robust features of future climate change impacts on sorghum yields in West Africa B Sultan, K Guan, M Kouressy et al.Changing water availability during the African maize-growing season, 1979-2010    "}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0085ec132b515340cad58bb4ac7da817","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/5006/2540293341e0f6fecb92f34769519d36.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Flagship 1: Sustainable Aquaculture • Cluster 1: Fish breeds and genetics • Cluster 2: Fish health, nutrition and feeds (Aquatic Animal Health • Cluster 3: Aquaculture systems Flagship 2: Sustainable Small Scale Fisheries • Cluster 1: Resilient coastal fisheries • Cluster 2: Fish in multifunctional landscapes • Cluster 3: Fish in regional food systems Cross Cutting Themes • Youth • Capacity Development • Climate Change • Gender • COVID-19","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"1. Genomic tools to improve aquatic genetic resources management, with applications in speeding genetic improvement, identifying biodiversity and genetic exchange were developed (SNP markers for carps and tilapia). 2. GIFT and Abbassa strain high quality genome sequences were completed. These show mixing with other species and will aid mapping of useful genes in future."}]},{"head":"FISH Hidden Gems 19 th November 2021","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Cluster 1: Fish breeds and genetics"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Contact Point: Vishnumurthy Mohan Chadag, Principal Scientist, Sustainable Aquaculture, WorldFish ([email protected])"},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"3. Significant findings on fish disease and genetic interactions can be applied to inform future fish breeding programs, including disease resistance traits, such as to TiLV. 4. Training modules on epidemiological survey and fish sampling developed on the learn.ink platform can become powerful self-learning tools and can be widely used by research/academic institutions 5. Prototype of a package for collection/processing/sequencing of disease samples for rapid genomic detection of aquaculture pathogens developed in a Lab-in-a-backpack formatcould be a game changer for pond side diagnostics and designing alternate disease management strategies such as treatment and prevention through simple autogenous vaccines based on sequence information. 6. Fish/water microbiomes, AMU/AMR, autogenous vaccines, multiple pathogen detection systems (multipath) for tilapia, carp and catfish have promise for future impact by providing cost-effective local disease control solutions."},{"index":4,"size":264,"text":"Contact Point: Rodrigue Yossa, Scientist (Fish Feeds & Nutrition), WorldFish ([email protected]) 7. Dietary methionine requirement (0.80% of the diet) of 15th & 17th generations of GIFT strain is 60% higher than that of juvenile conventional Nile tilapia reported by Nguyen and Allen Davis (2009). Results suggest that the improved GIFT strain might have a methionine or total sulfur amino acids requirement higher than the conventional strainresults indicate a need to update nutrient requirements data for GIFT through further research Contact Point: Cristiano Rossignoli, Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning (MEL) and Impact Assessment Research Leader, WorldFish ([email protected]) 8. Extension and financial service apps: 1. Smartphone apps for aquaculture extension (Myanmar); and 2. Digital finance services and marketing apps (Bangladesh). 9. Satellite image and other digital services integration. 10. Better Management Practices, with implications for the environment, and social and economic inclusion. 11. Data collection frameworks and analytic tools provide a strong foundation for policy/investment influenceincluding a strong relation with foresight modelling. Scientist, Resilient Small Scale Fisheries, WorldFish ([email protected]) 15. Water and carbon footprints as a way to demonstrate relative impact of fisheries in a landscape/agri-food system context 16. EAT Lancet recommendations to be applied to multifunctional landscape design, management and governance, connecting landscapes to healthy and nutritious diets 17. Decision Support System tool for rice-fish systems 18. An inventory of innovations, and pathway forward, in integrated rice-fish systems (ACIAR / OneCGIAR) Contact Point: Fiona Simmance, Scientist, Resilient Small Scale Fisheries, WorldFish ([email protected]) 19. Nutrition module for FishBase can now be widely used to assess nutrient contributions of fisheries and applied to new nutrition sensitive policy development."}]},{"head":"Cross Cutting","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Contact Point: Indika Arulingam, Research Officer, IWMI ([email protected]); Likimyelesh Nigussie, Research Officer, IWMI ([email protected]) 20. FISH research on youth has highlighted the importance of engaging with youth as equal actors in the fish agrifood system. Other research areas that need more attention in future: (i) arrangements that allow young people to access productive resources, including land and water rights, processing resources, financial support and markets; and (ii) arrangements for inter-generational and intra-generational learning: curricula development, apprenticeships, peer-peer networks. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Flagship 2 : Sustainable Small Scale FisheriesContact Point: Pip Cohen, Research Program Leader -Resilient Small Scale Fisheries, WorldFish ([email protected]) Contact Point: Alexander Tilley, Senior Scientist, Resilient Small Scale Fisheries, WorldFish ([email protected]) 12. Integrating fisheries and aquaculture open-source digital systems to approach food systems research. 13. Use of artificial intelligence and cybernetics to leverage catch and effort data to empirically test management success. 14. Assessing the outcomes of co-management investments in the Pacific, and distilling innovations for optimizing fisheries co-management through long time series data. Contact Point: Matthew McCartney, Research Group Leader -Sustainable Water Infrastructure and Ecosystems, IWMI ([email protected]); Mark Dubois, Officer in Charge (Cambodia), WorldFish ([email protected]); Sarah Freed, Cluster 2: Fish health, nutrition and feeds (Aquatic Animal Health) Cluster 2: Fish health, nutrition and feeds (Sustainable fish feed resources) "},{"text":" Contact Point: Anton Immink, ThinkAqua (Consultant) ([email protected]) 21. Over 200 outputs in the FISH repository of specific value in vocational training programsmanuals, videos, practical tools, BMP leafletsare now collated and can be put into use. 22. 20 capacity development partners have been actively using the outputs to support training with small-scale producers and young people entering the sector, giving FISH outputs a strong future purpose.Contact Point: Essam Mohammed, Global Lead, Climate and Environmental Sustainability, WorldFish ([email protected]) 23. Beyond diagnostics, there are several 'opportunities' to accelerate climate resilience of fisheries and aquaculture dependent communities, such as seaweed farming in Bangladesh [growing seaweed is simpler, the equipment is less expensive, and the seaweed species require no feed, they grow fast, absorb carbon and are easy to harvest.] B:C = 11 and 12 24. Using the data from FISH to strengthen an inventory of GHG mitigation opportunities and put aquatic food systems on the right trajectory towards a more sustainable and equitable future. This will include exploring GHG mitigation opportunities through reducing waste and loss.Contact Point: Cynthia McDougall, Gender Lead, SEI ([email protected]) "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"7d8b676e-80a2-465f-b5c4-1176af7cb379","abstract":"FISH) is a multi-partner research for development program during 2017-2021 designed to answer the overarching research question \"How can we optimize the contributions of aquaculture and small-scale fisheries to reduce poverty and improve food and nutrition security, while enhancing environmental sustainability?\". FISH research teams were requested during November 2021 to identify areas of promising research and innovation that have emerged during the FISH program, beyond the major innovation packages already highlighted. The following provides these \"hidden gems\", reproduced here as potential future research and innovation investments, within or outside the CGIAR. Contact points are provided to approach for further details."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"009b4871ce66ddaa8d536296c7cc2f79","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f87429c-6014-43a2-9198-41c7ac07c067/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"ADD Agriculture Development Division, Malawi AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Planning for ESA Project activities for the year 2018-2019 was guided by the Africa RISING -ESA Project Management recommendations that sought to minimize duplication of activities, promote cross-site technology transfers, better operationalize cross-cutting and integration/systems research, and streamline resource allocation. This would also allow the conduct of research activities outside the original research sites so as to allow the formation of active arrangements with development partners in their areas of operation. For a start, activity mergers are operational between sites in Babati and Kongwa/Kiteto for livestock, and between Zambia and Malawi for conservation agriculture (CA) and its associated technologies. Systems research is being considered at household/farm level with household representations from across the sites in Tanzania. One example of expanding to new sites is presented with 2 research activities being conducted in Karatu district, to allow partnership with the development partner Islands of Peace (IoP), which has shown interest and invested in scaling Africa RISING technologies in postharvest management and improved vegetables with their associated good agricultural practices (GAP). (Details under Output 5 Section)."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"Main achievements for this reporting period are in having achieved progress in the experiments that are addressing Outcomes 1 and 2 (Productivity and Natural resource integrity). These are (i) performance of new resilient legume and cereal varieties in three sub-ecologies of the semi-arid districts in central Tanzania, (ii) planned trials under increasing pigeonpea productivity and 4 under climate-smart technology in all 3 agro-ecological zones (AEZ) of Babati, (iii) investigations into the medium to long-term impacts of SI technologies (improved soil fertility management, improved germplasm, crop combinations, nutrient and water management) on crop productivity on multi-locational field sites and baby trials in Malawi, (iv) establishment of the drought resilient Gliricidia intercrop rainout shelter experiments in Kongwa, (v) integrating in situ rainwater harvesting technologies with other GAP in Kongwa and Kiteto, (vi) establishing clustered CA long term on-farm trials in 16 target communities of Malawi and eastern Zambia, and (vi) establishment of CA long-term on-station trials at Msekera Research Station. Natural resource integrity trials were generally designed to generate long-term data while productivity trials have tended to address manipulation of crop arrangements in space and time to identify optimal conditions. Models such as APSIM and LandPKS are being introduced to utilize these data for assessments of validated technologies and predictions of their impact on sustainable intensification."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Development of tools to generate data on socio-economic studies was another main activity during this reporting period. Implementation of the studies is scheduled for the next period. Most of the studies on postharvest, nutrition, and livestock are dependent upon products from activities of Outcomes 1 and 2 and will be implemented during the next reporting period. However, the post-harvest team conducted baseline analysis of the physico-chemical and technological properties of popular varieties of common bean and maize cultivated by farmers in Karatu district of Tanzania. This was part of the higher objective of examining the nutritional changes that take place when crop products are stored in hermetic containers as claimed by farmers to whom IoP is scaling these technologies. This is an example of a paradigm shift in addressing research, dubbed Research-in-Development (R-in-D)."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"The ESA-wide geo-referenced sites are shown where Africa RISING was implementing either research activities or technology dissemination during the reporting period (Fig. 1). "}]},{"head":"Implemented work and achievements per research outcome","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Outcome 1. Productivity, diversity, and income of crop-livestock systems in selected agroecologies enhanced under climate variability"}]},{"head":"Deploying new crop varieties for diverse crop-livestock systems","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Evaluation of performance of superior crop varieties under different agro-ecological conditions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"The 2018-2019 cropping season provided an optimal environment in which to test the resilience of Africa RISING varieties of groundnut, sorghum, pearl millet and pigeonpea, newly released or in the pipeline, individually or under intercrop arrangements. Experiments were established during January 2019 in 7 villages of Kongwa (Moleti, Mlali, Laikala, Manyusi), Kiteto (Njoro, Kiperesa) and Iringa (Igula) districts of Tanzania with different agro-ecologies (Table 1). Mlali and Manyusi villages represent high potential; Njoro and Kiperesa have moderate potential; and Laikala, Moleti, and Igula have low potential. Data collection is underway on various aspects of crop performance. Field observations show that for groundnut, the Spanish material (i.e., ICGV-SMs 05650, 03519) tested in all the environments stood out better compared to the Virginia material (i.e., ICGV-SM 02724), especially in the highly stressed environments of Laikala and Njoro (Fig. 2). All varieties performed well in Chitego and Mlali villages with high potential. Pigeonpea was better adapted in general across three test environments -stressed, moderately stressed, and areas with high potential."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"At issue this cropping season was also the evaluation of proposed cropping patterns, especially inter-crops, for the adaptability of the new crop varieties under 3 environments (high potential, moderate potential, and stressed) common in Kongwa, Kiteto, and Iringa. Field observations show that medium-duration pigeonpea (Ilonga 14 M1 and Ilonga 14 M2 and short-duration groundnut (Spanish) are best suited to these environments. The medium-duration pigeonpea appears affected by severe shading, especially when intercropped with fast growing maize varieties."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Protocols for data collection from the mother trials for the parameterization of APSIM model have been developed. Data on soils, crop and weather are being generated (Fig. 3), aimed at predicting the long-term implications of integrating improved germplasm of cereals and legumes with improved agronomy as well as cereal-legume intercrops and rotations in different agro-ecologies.   "}]},{"head":"Maize","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Twelve new elite maize hybrids with early to intermediate maturity and drought tolerance that were identified from the previous variety selection experiments (see Report, March-September 2018) have been planted at sites in 3 districts of Tanzania: Kongwa (2 sites), Iringa (4), and Kiteto (1), to further validate their performance and adaptability under semi-arid conditions. Also, information is being collected on the type of maize varieties being grown by farmers in the neighboring fields at each experimental site. This is to answer the question of crop/variety diversity."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"A performance analysis for last year's data on Genotype x Environment (GxE) interaction (Fig. 4) and stability of the hybrids shows that GxE interactions at each site were not significant while the selected hybrids are stable at all testing sites. A follow-up analysis will be done on GxE interactions between 2018 and 2019 growing seasons to understand seasonal variability and impact on hybrid performance. The 2018 cropping season had good and well distributed rainfall; the 2019 cropping season has experienced a prolonged dry spell after planting. "}]},{"head":"Pathways for improving access to seeds of modern and traditional crop varieties","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Improving access to seeds A series of meetings were held in Kongwa district of Tanzania to study power relationships and how these influence access to agro-innovations and knowledge. Discussions were held with various stakeholder groups of suppliers of technology -researchers, users of technologies, farm households, agro-dealers, and grain traders as well as local policymakers -at village and district level. The key messages coming out from the preliminary analyses are as follows: (i) Researchers are viewed by technology users as not being fully in touch with farmers' needs, and (ii) Agrodealers are a necessary evil, being a major link to input and output markets. "}]},{"head":"Consolidating availability of quality","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Enhancing resilience adaptation through cereal/legume cropping systems","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":265,"text":"Mbili-mbili and other maize and legume intercrop configurations in Babati, Tanzania All the planned activities have been accomplished relating to initiation of 6 mother trials of crop configurations, including Mbili-mbili intercropping (Table 2; Fig. 5). Soil samples to be used in BNF quantification were also collected. Collection of the associated data is in progress, i.e., leaf chlorophyll, soil temperature, moisture, and radiation. Training of farmers hosting the baby trials and input distribution was also carried out in the three eco-zones with the aim of getting household experience on some of the introduced technologies. Many farmers in 2 of the 3 ecozones have initiated Mbili-mbili technology in the baby trials. However, the performance of the trials, especially for beans, has been affected by the current on-season drought. The presence of insufficient soil moisture has also delayed field operations, e.g., topdressing maize with fertilizer.  Leaf chlorophyll data have been measured for two vegetative growth stages, V6 and V8 (vegetative stages where the sequence of the 6 th and 8 th leaf collars is visible). In general, there is significantly lower leaf chlorophyll for maize planted at 2 seeds per hill compared to 1 plant per hill (Table 3). Although the systems usually have similar yields (the expectation), there may be some stresses when several maize seeds are planted on the same hill. Research inputs (seeds and fertilizer) were provided to 49 farmers who had been mobilized to run baby trials in their fields (Table 4). All farmers planted maize except those in Laikala where sorghum was the test crop because maize is not suitable for this agroecology.  "}]},{"head":"Using biopesticides to manage pests of vegetables","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"The use of screen houses and a biopesticide (Metarhizium anisopliae) in controlling Bemisia tabaci and Tuta absoluta on solanaceous vegetables is being validated in Bermi, Matufa, and Shaurimoyo villages of Babati district in Tanzania. Damaged screen houses that were used for the completed irrigation studies were repaired for this purpose and nurseries were established for raising vegetable seedlings for the study. Insects and diseased crop samples inside and outside the screen houses were identified for their control during the experiment to be planned appropriately. The insects identified on site were T. absoluta, grasshoppers, thrips, and whiteflies; the diseases were Wilting in sweet pepper and Blight in tomato. No varieties are resistant to T. absoluta and inoculation using M. anisopliae is being evaluated as a viable option."}]},{"head":"Outcome 2. Natural resource integrity and resilience to climate change enhanced for the target communities and agroecologies","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Land use suitability mapping","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Mapping agro-climatic zones A map of agro-climatic zones (ACZ) of the ESA region was produced using monthly time series of gridded climate layers from TerraClimate database. The input included the monthly precipitation, actual evapotranspiration, minimum temperature (Tmin), maximum temperature (Tmax), and digital elevation model (DEM). The climate layers had a spatial resolution of 4.5 km and monthly temporal resolution covered the period 1981 to 2017; therefore, the time series for each input variable had 444 layers. The long-term monthly time series facilitated the capture of fine-scale climate variability. The dimensions of the time series variables were reduced using principle components analysis. Optimal number of clusters was determined using internal and external cluster validation statistics before the K means algorithm was applied to delineate 150 distinct ACZ (Fig. 7)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"The map of ACZ produced is an improvement on existing maps that were defined from coarse spatial and temporal resolution datasets. Long-term monthly time series data (37 years) were used to produce the ACZ, therefore ensuring that both spatial and temporal variability are utilized. This contrasts with the widely used method of delineating zones from long-term averages of climate data that mask the extreme values (minimum or maximum) that have a significant effect on climate variability. The refined map of ACZ is expected to improve spatial targeting of agricultural technological options and other climate-dependent activities.  1007/s00704-018-2712-1). Maps on trends and variability of rainfall will be used as input to delineate recommendation domains for CA practices."},{"index":3,"size":190,"text":"Gridded layers of chemical properties in soils that were obtained from ISRIC World Soil Database were extractable Aluminum, Boron, Calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Manganese, Sodium, Zinc, total Nitrogen and Cation Exchange Capacity. The values for these soil chemical properties were aggregated for 0-30 cm of soil depth. Variables in soil physical characteristics were pH, bulk density, root zone depth, clay, sand, and sand content, and soil texture. These physical properties were originally mapped at 6 standard depths in cm (0-5, 5-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-100, and 100-200). To ensure similarity with the chemical properties the grid layers for the first 3 standard depths in cm (0-5, 5-15, 15-30) were averaged to produce one grid layer representing the respective variables. Except for the root zone depth, the original resolution of the grid for soil variables was 250 m x 250 m. The root zone depth layer was resampled from an original grid of 1 km x 1 km to 250 m x 250 m so as to match other soil variables. All processed biophysical layers will be input to a spatially explicit model to predict maize yields obtained by using CA practices."}]},{"head":"Climate-smart land management technologies","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"On-station CA long-term trials in Zambia Africa RISING is maintaining a long-term trial of CA at Msekera Research Station in the Eastern Province of Zambia that has been running since 2011 (Fig. 8) and is co-funding 4 other trials in collaboration with CRS (Green Manure Cover Crop intercropping; pigeonpea ratooning; CA component; and Gliricidia intercropping)."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"All established trials were visited on 14 February 2019 with the Provincial Coordinator of Agriculture, Eastern Province, Zambia. The results of these trials will be invaluable in the recommendation of CA and GMCC systems and will be used to influence the decision-making on a newly funded EU project where CIMMYT is a key partner. In 2 sites of the sampled areas (Kawalala in Sinda, Zambia, and Mwansambo in Nkhotakota, Central Malawi) adoption of CA systems has reached the tipping point -more than 50% of farmers are regularly using CA systems and practices in their maize and (to a certain extent) in soybean and groundnut fields. They have also expanded this to other crops and areas and grow groundnut, cowpea, and soybean under this system profitably and effectively. "}]},{"head":"Socio-economic studies on CA systems in Zambia and Malawi","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"A socio-economic tool has been developed to study the impact both at household and community level of sustainable intensification technologies on labor distribution, food and nutritional security, and income in all the target communities. The study will be conducted during May. The tool also assesses the implication of these improved livelihood changes on gender dynamics, particularly with regard to labor distribution and decision-making. The tool has so far been ethically cleared by the CIMMYT Internal Ethical Clearance Committee."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Integrating water micro-catchments, weather-informed varieties, and slow-release nutrient fertilizers Four trials (Fig. 10) were initiated during January 2019, 2 in Sabilo village and 2 in Gallapo village of Babati district. The trials related to climate-smart approaches including micro-catchments, planting of weather-informed varieties, and utilization potential of slow release N fertilizer."},{"index":3,"size":319,"text":"Collection is ongoing of the associated data, i.e., leaf chlorophyll, soil temperature, and moisture using time domain reflectometry and moisture access tubes. Choice of fields included a school where good agronomy and research approaches are being introduced early to the pupils (Fig. 11). As in the legume productivity trials, leaf chlorophyll data have been measured for two growth stages, V6 and V8. Here, there are no significant differences in leaf chlorophyll for maize across the different treatments. Top dressing has not yet been done (due to the drought) so effects of normal controlled release urea are not noticeable, and water harvesting microcatchments have not yet played a major role.  In situ water harvesting practices: Tied ridges Follow-on field trials were established in farmers' fields in Mlali, Moleti, and Sagara villages to determine the effect of integrating in-situ rain water harvesting and fertilizer micro-dosing on crop productivity, water, and nutrient use efficiency (Fig. 13). This was after collection and analysis of surface soil samples from host farmers' fields to establish the general fertility status (Table 5). Apart from MO3 which was sandy-loam, all other soils were sandy-clay-loams, and low in carbon and nitrogen. There was a prolonged dry spell in the district after planting (Fig. 12) and emergency crop height measurements at 55 days after planting (DAP) did not show treatment differences between conventional farmer practices, annual tied ridging, and residual tied ridging. Infiltration rates were also not different. This implies that both tied ridging practices will need a minimal amount of precipitation to allow functional structural moisture storage. Such observations provide for the need to establish the operational boundary conditions of any given technology for effective application.   ---------% ------------mg/kg soil -------------- In situ water harvesting practices: Rip tillage The weather conditions reported for the tied ridging study had a similar impact on the rip tillage study. There were no significant treatment differences during the early growth stages (Fig. 13). "}]},{"head":"Opportunities for enhancing water resource use through irrigation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The study was brought to completion that had rolled out the Smart Agricultural Resources Optimization System (SAROS) within 2 communities in Babati district with 4 women farmers in Gallapo village each with 2 farm trials (making a total of 8 trials) and another 4 farmers in Seloto village each with 2 farm trials (making a total of 8 trials). This study generated data on soil moisture, irrigation, and rainfall trends (Fig 14), water use efficiency, and productivity of vegetable varieties both inside and outside a screen house as well as the associated cost-benefit analysis around water and labor savings for out-of-season vegetables (sweet pepper and tomato). Data analysis to gauge the effect on sustainability used the formula below to generate the standardized spider-gram plot (Fig. 15), which shows a substantial shift in all the SI domains after the introduction of vegetables."}]},{"head":"\uD835\uDC42\uD835\uDC4F\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC63\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC59 \uD835\uDC63\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC52 − \uD835\uDC40\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC61ℎ\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC60ℎ\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC51 \uD835\uDC40\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC61ℎ\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC60ℎ\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC51 − \uD835\uDC40\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC61ℎ\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC60ℎ\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC51","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The technology protocols and training manual for the micro-irrigation kit were shared with local partners on the ground for continued follow-up. The data and information generated from this work are being used to refine the draft manuscript which can be accessed at: http://africarising-wiki.net/File:SAROS_Draft_Technical_Journal_Paper.pdf"},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"A key observation emerging from this study was that the use of vegetable residues or the harnessing of damaged fruit to feed the poultry and small ruminants provided further dividends that had not been valued in the economic assessment. In this case, the damaged fruit and residues both accounted for about 16% of the total biomass produced. This highlights the need to have interventions that provide closed loops with little or no waste of the by-products for maximum benefit of the target beneficiaries.  "}]},{"head":"Integration of fodder trees and grass forages in dryland farming","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Assessment of long-term land rehabilitation effects of contour farming on crop yields and production of fodder and fuelwood is being implemented on farmer Moshi Maile's farm sites as a case study. The contour structures were installed 5 years ago. Maize (variety Staha) was planted in January 2019. Soil samples were collected for nutrient analysis (Table 6) and already show some positive differences (e.g., in organic carbon and Bray-1 P) when compared with those samples taken from adjacent non-contour fields. Estimation of the reduction in soil loss by contours will be done at the end of the growing season. Data are also being collected on fodder and fuelwood production and input costs to allow assessment of multiple benefits and economic analysis.  -------% --------mg/kg soil ------------Cmol (+)/kg -------- "}]},{"head":"Collection of weather-support data","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The automated weather stations were serviced in the 2 AEZ of Babati, Tanzania for monthly data collection (Fig. 16). Between December 2018 and March 2019, one automated weather station was installed at Mlali village in Kongwa district and one more at Njoro village in Kiteto district. "}]},{"head":"Outcome 3. Food and feed safety, nutritional quality, and income security of target smallholder families improved equitably (within households)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Nutritional messaging"}]},{"head":"Impact of nutritional messaging on household nutrition","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"A study was initiated in Karatu district to determine the impact of nutritional messaging on farmers' nutritional knowledge, attitudes, practices, and household nutritional status. Preparation of a baseline questionnaire is in progress and briefing was conducted with participating farmer groups in 8 villages; control farmer groups were identified."}]},{"head":"Packaging and delivery of postharvest technologies","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Drudgery and mechanization of maize shelling: a gender perspective Data from 2017 in a survey in Tanzania (Babati, Kongwa, and Kiteto districts) were validated through semi-structured interviews with 18 key informants (shelling entrepreneurs, agrodealers, extension officers, government agencies, manufacturers, and representatives of farmer groups). The qualitative data collected in December 2018 and January 2019 have been transcribed and are being evaluated with Atlas.ti in preparation for a publication."}]},{"head":"Validating the effect of handling and storage methods on produce quality and consumer acceptability","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"A baseline analysis was accomplished of the physico-chemical and technological properties of popular varieties of common bean and maize cultivated by farmers in Karatu district of Tanzania. It is part of the higher objective of examining the nutritional changes that take place when grains, especially legumes, are stored in hermetic containers as claimed by farmers to whom IoP, a development partner, is scaling these technologies (Fig. 17). "}]},{"head":"Common beans","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Three varieties were identified (Fig. 18) based on differences in preference and characteristics reported by farmers, which show that there is a broad spectrum of attributes that consumers are keen to assess (Table 7).  -Less yielding (500-900 kg/acre)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"-Higher yield than YR but lower than PS. -Performs well even under low soil fertility."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"-Performs poorly under low soil fertility compared to PS."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"-Performs better than YR but worse than PS."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"-Matures earlier than YR and YO (80 days)."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"-Takes longer in the field than PS (90 days)."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"-"}]},{"head":"Postharvest and Nutrition","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"-Harder; does not break easily during threshing."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"-Breaks more readily during threshing than PS."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"-Breaks less than YR but more than PS."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"-Less susceptible to insect attack during storage."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"-More susceptible to insect attack during storage than PS."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"-More resistant to insect damage than YR but less than PS. -Color is more stable during storage."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"-Color changes to yellowbrown during storage."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"-Colour more stable than YR. -Takes longer to cook (60-80 min)."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"-Cooks faster (40 min); saves on fuel for cooking."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"-Longer cooking time than YR but shorter than PS (50-60 min). -More stable cooked quality; good gravy quality."},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"-Cooked beans develop unpleasant smell when left overnight."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"-Cooked beans develop bad smell when left overnight just like YR. -Causes flatulence."},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"-Causes less flatulence than PS."},{"index":14,"size":7,"text":"-Less flatulence just like YR. -Superior taste."},{"index":15,"size":4,"text":"-Less tasty than PS."},{"index":16,"size":4,"text":"-Less tasty than YR."}]},{"head":"Economic","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"-Lower prices in the market."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"-Higher market value than PS by 160 -200% -Higher price than PS by 120 -160% depending on location. -Less in demand by traders (In a typical season only 10% of traders ask for or buy it)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"-Higher demand compared to PS (In a typical season only 70% of traders ask for or buy it)."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"-Higher demand by traders than for PS (In a typical season 20% of traders ask for or buy it)."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"The nutritional composition of the beans (Table 8) shows similarities in fat, protein, and phytate contents. Crude fiber was significantly higher in the yellow-oval variety while total ash was lowest in the purple-speckled variety. With respect to cooking properties (data not shown), whole grain flours of the three beans had similar gelatinization, pasting, and retrogradation properties although isolated starches showed some differences. "}]},{"head":"Maize","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Many varieties are cultivated by farmers within one district, including a mixture of hybrids, traditional and open-pollinated varieties (Table 9). This presents an interesting \"scaling\" question: how does one successfully penetrate such a farming society with an improved and validated variety? There are clear nutritional differences between the varieties (Fig. 19) but the choice of variety is also likely to be seen from the context of yield alongside other characteristics such as drought tolerance and resistance to pests and diseases, etc. (Table 9). Table 9. Attributes of farmer-preferred maize varieties in Karatu district."}]},{"head":"Variety Description (source) Hybrid 614","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Top-cross hybrid, white dent grains, large ears, high yielding (10 t/ha at alt. > 1500 masl); tolerant to maize weevil; late maturing (160-210 days) (Lyimo et al. 2014)."}]},{"head":"DK 8031","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Early maturing hybrid (3 months); good tolerance to drought and diseases; short stature-less prone to lodging; good yield potential; excellent grain qualities; excellent milling qualities (www.monsantoafrica.com)."}]},{"head":"DK 9089","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Early/medium maturing hybrid (115-120 days); yield potential 10 t/ha; good tolerance to disease and cob rots); flint type grain and highly poundable (monsantoafrica.com)."}]},{"head":"Seedco 403","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Early maturing (90-110 days) white hybrid, yield potential 5-6 t/ha; semi-flint grain texture; drought resistant; tolerant to maize streak virus; resistant to cob rots; hard dense grains (http://www.seedcogroup.com/tz)."}]},{"head":"Seedco 513","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Medium maturing (125-130 days) white hybrid, yield potential 8-8.7 t/ha; good for medium to low altitude zones that have enough rainfall; good resistance to foliar diseases, good tolerance of heat and drought stress; sweet in roasting; good variety for green market (http://www.seedcogroup.com/tz)."}]},{"head":"DK 8053","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Medium maturing; flint type with strong grain quality; good tolerance of diseases; good husk cover; good taste (monsantoafrica.com)."}]},{"head":"Meru Hybrid 513","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Nitrogen-use efficient variety; good harvest with small amounts of fertilizer; resistant to drought; yield potential 3-4 t/ha; early maturing (100-110 days) (http://www.meruagro.com)."}]},{"head":"Panna","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"A medium altitude hybrid, white flint. Yield potential of 7.5 t/ha (Lyimo et al. 2014)."}]},{"head":"Situka","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Early-maturing open-pollinated variety; yield potential 4-5 t/ha; tolerant to drought and low soil fertility-yields well even under low nitrogen conditions (Suba Agro; http://www.subaagro.com)."}]},{"head":"Ukiriguru Composite A","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A medium altitude open-pollinated variety, white flint grain, yield potential of 7.5 t/ha (Lyimo et al. 2014)."}]},{"head":"Staha (composite)","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Low altitude open-pollinated variety, white flint/dent grain, tolerant to maize streak, moderate yields 6.5 t/ha (Lyimo et al. 2014)."}]},{"head":"Mehh local","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Mixed colored (purple, white), flint (personal observation)."}]},{"head":"Meru H623","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Hybrid maturing in 120-140 days; yield potential 3-4 t/ha, suitable for wet, lower mid-altitude agro-ecologies; good harvest in areas with low amount of rainfall (http://www.meruagro.com). "}]},{"head":"Outcome 4. Functionality of input and output markets and other institutions to deliver demand-driven sustainable intensification research products improved","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Deploying mechanisms that inform farmers about dynamic market needs"}]},{"head":"Exploring ICTs for linking farmers to markets","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"This reporting period highlights one major achievement in the form updating the MWANGA platform database with Southern Highland farmers and the modalities on platform management. The Android Platform is now functional that hosts educative videos and links partners in the Southern Highlands into the database with the Manyara Region farmers. We have brought 11,146 farmers into the platform that can be tracked by phone contact. An additional 24,707 farmers do not have phone contact."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Value chain analysis for QPM maize and groundnut seeds Survey tools have been developed in preparation for the studies to be implemented during May and July 2019."}]},{"head":"Outcome 5. Partnerships for the scaling of sustainable intensification research products and innovations","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Use of farm trial data to apply crop simulation models and assess technology performance","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"FarmDESIGN MSc student Joseph Kimisha from WUR applied this model to explore trade-offs and synergies for sustainable intensification of smallholder farms in Tanzania. The findings are given in the following thesis abstract."}]},{"head":"Thesis title: A participatory model-based exploration of trade-offs and synergies for sustainable intensification of smallholder farms in Tanzania.","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":361,"text":"Mixed farming systems in Kongwa and Kiteto districts in Tanzania are experiencing the effects of climate variability and change and a scarcity of farming land due to population growth. The area is affected by soil erosion and prolonged drought periods which lower crop and animal production. As a result, poverty and insecurity of food and nutrition are caused for most farmers. For improving the situation, Africa RISING program introduced the intercrop of maize (Meru Hb 513) and pigeonpea, monocrops of tomato, traditional African Nightshade amaranths, and Gliricidia. The study involved field visits, surveys, and a participatory workshop focused on interactive simulation modeling (FarmDESIGN) and tested the performance of interventions in low (SFS), medium (MFS) and large (LFS) farms. Effects were analyzed of the interventions on trade-offs and synergies among indicators for socio-economic, nutritional, and environmental farmer objectives. Here we found that the operating profit and vitamin A yield could be improved for SFS and LFS (but not MFS) farms, either with or without interventions. Improvements in soil organic matter (SOM) balance and household (HH) leisure time decreased when interventions were introduced, due to the strong trade-offs between operating profits and SOM balance, and between operating profits and HH leisure time. For example, the adoption of tomato fetches more profits, but it is labo-intensive. A synergy existed between operating profits and vitamin A yield. In MFS and LFS, the tomato crop was adopted by the model as an alternative crop for income generation; in SFS, the intercrop of maize and pigeonpea, and African Nightshade was adopted for better SOM balance and vitamin A yield. The number of large ruminants was slightly increased to increase production of milk, meat, and manure in the farm. The model's participatory approach was fulfilled in this study by farmers' involvement in interactive simulation modeling, freedom to ask for and make suggestions and selection of preferred alternative farm configurations based on their objectives With the help of model results, we concluded that adoption of interventions depend on the farm level in terms of resource endowments and the model was an effective tool for assessing the performance of interventions and redesign of farms for sustainable intensification of farming systems."}]},{"head":"Establishing levels of utilization of SI agricultural technologies and associated benefits","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Embedding Panel Survey studies into the Scikit environment In Malawi, the Panel Surveys track progress being made by farmers in adopting SI technologies."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"The surveys are data-intensive and require an innovative data handling system. To respond to this challenge, work has started on migrating from surveys with paper-based questionnaires to phone/tablet-based electronic surveys Concurrently training has started on the use of the Land-Potential Knowledge System (LandPKS) application (https://landpotential.org/) for the rapid evaluation of soils in fields of Africa RISING's beneficiary and non-beneficiary farmers. LandPKS provides quick assessments of local soils and environments and guides the matching of locally appropriate technologies and knowledge needed in sustainable land management. Details on these activities will be reported in the next reporting period."}]},{"head":"Leveraging existing initiatives to support and encourage technology delivery","index":45,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Partnership with Strengthening Agricultural and Nutrition Extension (SANE) Project -Malawi","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Africa RISING is collaborating with the Strengthening Agricultural and Nutrition Extension (SANE) Project through holding joint field days and training. By mid-March, 3 joint field days had been held in Linthipe, Nsanama, and Nyambi Extension Planning Areas (EPAs). The field days also involved district staff from the Department of Agriculture Extension Services (DAES). SANE strengthens the capacity of DAES to mobilize and work with service providers to deliver agricultural and nutritional extension and advisory services more effectively and in a coordinated manner in the Feed the Future Zone of Influence. Africa RISING is thus providing appropriate technologies to the DAES-SANE network that has a wider reach beyond Africa RISING's intervention districts. The SANE project is engaging with 7 different extension platforms, potentially reaching thousands of farmers across the districts."}]},{"head":"Partnership with IoP in Tanzania to scale postharvest management technologies","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Beginning July 2018, Africa RISING consolidated partnership with IoP, a Belgian NGO with the mission of promoting sustainable family farming and responsible food systems in Karatu district of Tanzania. The objective of the partnership is to contribute to food and nutrition security through improved practices for the handling, processing, and storage of the harvested produce where the Lead research partner is IITA. The partnership transfers validated technologies to farmers, processors, and other stakeholders for improved postharvest management to reduce food losses and wastage, increase food safety, enhance nutrition, and raise the quality of produce. A total of 192 farmers and 21 extension workers in 8 villages were trained on improved postharvest management practices. In 8 villages 39 demonstrations of household storage (involving 2 commodities, maize and common bean, and 4 types of storage devices) were set-up in farmers' own stores. These activities covered 16 producer organizations. Research support is validating farmers' concerns on the effects of these technologies on quality and consumer acceptability. This is reported under Outcome 3."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Partnership with IoP in Tanzania to scale improved vegetable varieties and management practices Africa RISING is again partnering with IoP in taking improved vegetable management technologies to scale plus associated GAP, as follows; (i) improved tomato varieties, (ii) improved African Nightshade varieties, and (iii) improved Ethiopian mustard varieties. The Lead research partner, WorldVeg, has conducted meetings to raise awareness, trained IDP staff in management on nurseries that will be used to raise seedlings for the demonstrations (Fig. 20) and, together with IoP, identified 64 farmers to host the demonstrations. "}]},{"head":"Partnership with Catholic Relief Services (CRS) in Zambia for scaling green manure cover crops (GMCCs)","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"The leading research partner, CIMMYT, supports the scaling activities of CRS through the provision of technical knowledge and building of expertise around GMCCs. In previous years, this has been through sharing reports, presentations, and discussion tools. This year Africa RISING has involved the Senior Agriculture Officers and the Provincial Agriculture Coordinators in field tours to expose them to new GMCC strategies and technologies. These mainstreaming activities will be likely to continue. A newly funded project from EU will take on some of the preliminary work on GMCCs and agro-forestry to scale these technologies further. Also, technical knowledge has been included into the programming of a large GCF project where CRS is a Lead designer which will support scaling on GMCCs in the future. Data on how many farmers have been reached so far by CRS will be available in the next progress report as the CRS database was not up to date during the current reporting period. Given privacy regulations, requestors of restricted program datasets on Dataverse will be given prior notice of the fact that personal information will be shared with the data provider, IFPRI Dataverse administrator, and Africa RISING project managers. Filling out the DUA implies that they agree to and abide by the present Africa RISING Data Management Plan and privacy policy."}]},{"head":"Partnership with","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The completed DUA and details such as the requested datasets and research purpose will automatically be saved in a Google Sheets spreadsheet for subsequent review by the M&E team, project managers, and data owners. If the data owner approves the request after reviewing the completed DUA, access to the dataset will be granted by the M&E team and it will be the requester's responsibility to download the dataset from the website. The spreadsheet will also document cases and reasons for data request denials, if any. "}]},{"head":"Lessons learned","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Farmers have been enthusiastic about the new trial designs for increasing productivity of pigeonpea and beans. In addition, establishment of beans in Gallapo eco-zone is more effective if done in March than in January so as to evade the long dry spell in February as a result of changing weather patterns. Farmers testing doubled-up legumes planted pigeonpea and waited to plant beans in that system later on when beans have better success in performance."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Scaling and adoption of CA systems in Malawi and Zambia has been variable in the different intervention areas and its adoption was dependent on many socio-economic and socio-cultural factors. In Mwansambo, Nkhotakota District, Central Malawi where CIMMYT and TLC have been promoting manual CA systems since 2005 we have seen large-scale adoption in both maize and groundnut systems. CA has become mainstream amongst smallholder farmers integrating trees, drought tolerant seeds, and different rotational systems on a regular basis. The recipe for success was the persistence of both research and extension services in staying in that community for a long time; as well as in projecting sound agronomic and sustainable intensification practices that improve both productivity and profitability while protecting the environment. In addition, an inspiring, hard-working extension officer and receptive farmers were critical in this success."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"In Kawalala Camp, Sinda District, Eastern Zambia, ripline seeding CA with animal traction has become a dominant farming system with large-scale adoption of maize and soybean rotations in 2018/2019. The recipe of success in this agriculture camp was the presence of village-based volunteer farmers, who helped the Governmental extension service of Zambia to spread knowledge about CA systems, a readily developing market for soybean in the province, favorable cropping seasons for CA, and some Lead-farmers who evaluated CA systems in a mother and baby trial. As in Mwansambo, persistence in the promotion of CA for more than 7 years was one critical component that should be highlighted."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"The partnership with IoP not only improved the ability of Africa RISING to reach out to farmers and extension staff but also improved research and scaling efforts by providing baseline data on the characteristics of farmers as well as the postharvest challenges which the farmers need to have addressed."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"In Malawi, our experience implementing Africa RISING activities in various communities strongly points to testimonials from fellow farmers as being persuasive in reaching out to a proportion of farmers who often show indifference to extension messages when they are presented by local extension staff or researchers. The focus during field days is, therefore, to get Africa RISING's beneficiary farmers to give narratives of their stepwise progress through Africa RISING technologies."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"• Operationalizing the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework: An interview with Vara Prasad (5 March 2019) • Exploring farmers' willingness to pay for small-scale maize shelling machines in Tanzania The overall conclusion is that there is no evidence of linkages between adoption of sustainable intensification practices (such as CA and agroforestry) and landscape-level environmental objectives in terms of climate change mitigation, forest protection, and wildlife conservation."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"There is theoretical and empirical evidence that agriculture can have negative implications on wildlife when promoted in areas where human-wildlife conflict is likely. However, the cause is related to the encouragement of agricultural activities in sensitive areas more generally, not the promotion of sustainable intensification, or CA specifically."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"The final report of the project can be accessed here: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/101407"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Present locations of research (green diamond) and scaling (red triangle) sites in ESA. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Reactions of groundnut, pigeonpea, and sorghum to high levels of water stress. Varietal differences in reaction can be seen in groundnut and pigeonpea. Photo credit: Wills Munthali/ICRISAT. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Data collection on chlorophyll and crop biomass. Photo credit: Patrick Okori/ICRISAT. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. A Genotype x Environment biplot analysis for the hybrids tested during the 2018 cropping season. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Photos (a) and (b) showing mbili-mbili at different growth stages. For clarity, between every double maize row is a row of pigeonpea showing very small plants, followed by a row of beans with bigger plants and another row of pigeonpea (Photo (a). Photo (c) shows doubled-up legume technology (foreground) and the usual cereal-legume intercropping (background) in Sabilo village, Babati. Photo credit: Job Kihara/CIAT. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. An installed rainout shelter. These are designed to reduce by 50% the amount of rain reaching the crop. Photo credit: Anthony Kimaro/ICRAF. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Refined map of the 150 agro-climatic zones in East and Southern Africa. The key to the zones is explained in the box on the right of the map. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. A well-established Gliricidia/groundnut -maize rotation at Msekera Research Station, Eastern Zambia. Photo credit: Christian Thierfelder/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Maize-pigeonpea/groundnut doubled-up legume system in Lemu, Southern Malawi (left); participants of a field day in Mwansambo, Central Malawi (right). Photo credit: Christian Thierfelder/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Different varieties of beans were tested for intercropping in a climate-smart agriculture trial in Sabilo (left and center) without or with (right) micro-catchments for in-situ water harvesting. Photo credit: Job Kihara/CIAT. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Capacity building through early introduction of GAP to pupils of a school that hosts climatesmart agriculture trials in Gallapo. Photo credit: Job Kihara/CIAT. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Graph of cumulative rainfall at representative study sites during 2018/2019 cropping season in Kongwa. The dry spell started from about mid-January and continued through February and March. Inset: Photo of an established field trial at Moleti Village in January 2019. Photo credit: Mawazo Shitindi/ SUA. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. The prolonged drought at the Kongwa and Kiteto sites in Tanzania did not allow treatment effects to be revealed during the early crop phases. This photo was taken during late March 2019 at a site in Kiperesa village. Photo credit: Elid Kongola/TARI Hombolo. "},{"text":"Figure 14 . Figure 14. Dynamic trends between soil moisture variations outside and inside the screenhouse, rainfall, and irrigation cycles for both Seloto and Galapo. "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Applying the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF) analysis to the vegetable sweet pepper performance under irrigation. "},{"text":"Figure 16 . Figure 16. Weather station servicing in Babati during February 2019 (left) and capacity building in servicing and data downloading in Kongwa and Kiteto during March 2019 (right). Fed Kizito/IITA. "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. Demonstration sites (AR -IoP) for scaling postharvest management technologies by the Africa RISING -IoP partnership in Karatu district of Tanzania. "},{"text":"Figure 18 . Figure 18. Appearance of the three popular common bean varieties cultivated by farmers in Karatu. Photo credit: Christopher Mutungi/IITA. "},{"text":"Figure 19 . Figure 19. Visualization diagram showing key nutrient loading of popular maize varieties on normalized scale. Meru Hybrid 513 would be recommended for high protein and mineral content.Other attributes of the variety are nitrogen-use efficiency, good harvest with small amounts of fertilizer, resistance to drought, and early maturing (100-110 days). The yield potential (3-4 t/ha) is, however, relatively low compared to other hybrids. "},{"text":"Figure 20 . Figure 20. Demonstration of soil sterilization for raising healthy vegetable seedlings. Photo credit: Justus Ochieng/WorldVeg. "},{"text":"( 4 March 2019) • Economic analysis of fertilizer options for maize production in Tanzania (3 March 2019) • Sustainably intensified futures for diverse smallholder farm and household types using FarmDESIGN, Q Methodology and FarmMATCH (26 February 2019) • Integrating gender analysis into the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (21 February 2019) • SI toolkit helps researchers assess the sustainability of their innovations (20 February 2019) • Productivity potential and nutrition quality of quality protein maize hybrids in central Tanzania (18 February 2019) • Delivering climbing and drought-tolerant bush beans in different soil conditions in Malawi (14 February 2019) • Research on conservation agriculture and associated practices in eastern Zambia (7 February 2019) • Improved technologies for mitigating post-harvest food loss (5 February 2019) • Returns to improved storage and potential impacts on household food security and income: evidence from Tanzania (22 January 2019) population growth, as opposed to low yields and/or land abandonment. Charcoal production is driven by urban population growth and energy demand. At the provincial level there are different patterns. Charcoal production dominates in Lusaka Province throughout the 50-year simulation time, primarily because of growing urban demand. By contrast, agricultural expansion dominates in Eastern Province until about 2045, at which point charcoal production becomes the dominant driver of deforestation. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Technology × Location description of the mother experiments of legume/cereal variety evaluation. Agroecology District Village Technologies Crops Intercrop Combinations Agroecology DistrictVillageTechnologies CropsIntercrop Combinations Low   Sorghum, pearl millet, Pigeonpea + sorghum; LowSorghum, pearl millet,Pigeonpea + sorghum; potential Iringa Igula groundnut pigeonpea + pearl millet potentialIringaIgulagroundnutpigeonpea + pearl millet    Sorghum, pearl millet, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Sorghum, pearl millet,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kingwa Igula groundnut pigeonpea + pearl millet KingwaIgulagroundnutpigeonpea + pearl millet    Sorghum, pearl millet, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Sorghum, pearl millet,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kingwa Moleti groundnut pigeonpea + pearl millet KingwaMoletigroundnutpigeonpea + pearl millet    Sorghum, pearl millet, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Sorghum, pearl millet,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kongwa Moleti groundnut pigeonpea + pearl millet KongwaMoletigroundnutpigeonpea + pearl millet    Sorghum, pearl millet, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Sorghum, pearl millet,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kongwa Laikala groundnut pigeonpea + pearl millet KongwaLaikalagroundnutpigeonpea + pearl millet    Sorghum, pearl millet, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Sorghum, pearl millet,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kongwa Laikala groundnut pigeonpea + pearl millet KongwaLaikalagroundnutpigeonpea + pearl millet Moderate   Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; ModeratePigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum; potential Kiteteo Njoro sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut potentialKiteteoNjorosorghumpigeonpea + groundnut    Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Pigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kiteto Njoro sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut KitetoNjorosorghumpigeonpea + groundnut    Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Pigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kiteto Kiperesa sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut KitetoKiperesasorghumpigeonpea + groundnut    Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Pigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kiteto Kiperesa sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut KitetoKiperesasorghumpigeonpea + groundnut High   Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; HighPigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum; potential Kongwa Manusis sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut potentialKongwaManusissorghumpigeonpea + groundnut    Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Pigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kongwa Manyusi sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut KongwaManyusisorghumpigeonpea + groundnut    Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Pigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kongwa Malali sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut KongwaMalalisorghumpigeonpea + groundnut    Pigeonpea, groundnut, Pigeonpea + sorghum; Pigeonpea, groundnut,Pigeonpea + sorghum;  Kongwa Mlali sorghum pigeonpea + groundnut KongwaMlalisorghumpigeonpea + groundnut  "},{"text":"legume seeds through production of Quality Declared Seeds (QDS) In Malawi, availability was consolidated of quality soybean and groundnut seeds through a network of 300 seed producers who each received 20 kg of foundation seeds during the 2017/18 cropping season. About 46 t of QDS were distributed to over 4000 baby farmers at 10 kg for each farmer during December 2018. Groundnut seeds were stored in shell until just about planting time. This resulted in seed viability of nearly 100%, largely surpassing the viability of commercial seeds that originate from agro-dealers. During 2019, researchers are continuing to work with this nucleus group of seed producers for scaling the seed systems which invariably integrate good agronomy. Data on this activity will be available for the next reporting period.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Initiated mother trials and specific planting dates in Babati, Tanzania. Village Farmer code Planting date VillageFarmer codePlanting date Sabilo Farmer 1 9/1/2019 SabiloFarmer 19/1/2019 Sabilo Farmer 2 9/1/2019 SabiloFarmer 29/1/2019 Liroda Farmer 3 12/1/2019 LirodaFarmer 312/1/2019 Liroda Farmer 4 12/1/2019 LirodaFarmer 412/1/2019 Gallapo Farmer 5 24/1/2019 GallapoFarmer 524/1/2019 Gallapo Farmer 6 24/1/2019 GallapoFarmer 624/1/2019  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Effects of treatments on leaf chlorophyll under legume productivity trials in Babati during V6 growth stage in 2019 season. SPAD = Soil-Plant Analyses Development. Treatments Treatments  "},{"text":"Gliricidia intercropping strategies tested for drought resilience  An experiment in drought resilience has been established at Manyusi village, Kongwa district, An experiment in drought resilience has been established at Manyusi village, Kongwa district, Tanzania. This experiment builds on the previous work that evaluated crop yields under Tanzania. This experiment builds on the previous work that evaluated crop yields under Gliricidia-based doubled-up legume systems (Okori et al. 2017-Transforming Key Production Gliricidia-based doubled-up legume systems (Okori et al. 2017-Transforming Key Production Systems: Maize Mixed East and Southern Africa: Kongwa and Kiteto Technical Report to IITA). It Systems: Maize Mixed East and Southern Africa: Kongwa and Kiteto Technical Report to IITA). It employs a split-split plot design with 3 replications to test the effects of intercropping (maize x employs a split-split plot design with 3 replications to test the effects of intercropping (maize x pigeonpea x G. sepium), fertilizer (15 kg P/ha; 30 kg N/ha) and rainout shelters (Fig. 6) on the pigeonpea x G. sepium), fertilizer (15 kg P/ha; 30 kg N/ha) and rainout shelters (Fig. 6) on the resilience of G. sepium-based cropping systems. The construction of rainout shelters is partly resilience of G. sepium-based cropping systems. The construction of rainout shelters is partly funded by the Building Capacity for Resilient Food Security (BCRFS) Project supported by USDA funded by the Building Capacity for Resilient Food Security (BCRFS) Project supported by USDA and the University of California (Davis). Plot management, data collection, and processing (e.g., and the University of California (Davis). Plot management, data collection, and processing (e.g., soil moisture, light and leaf area index) are being undertaken and will be presented in the next soil moisture, light and leaf area index) are being undertaken and will be presented in the next report. report.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Farmers host baby trials for validation of G. sepium-based technologies during 2019. Village Female Male Total VillageFemaleMaleTotal Molet 2 8 10 Molet2810 Laikala 17 7 24 Laikala17724 Mlali 0 15 15 Mlali01515  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Selected chemical properties of soils in Mlali, Moleti, and Sagara villages. Village Site pH W Total N O.C Olsen P Bray1 P SO 4 -S Exchangeable Bases Ca Mg Na K VillageSitepH WTotal NO.COlsen PBray1 PSO 4 -SExchangeable Bases Ca Mg NaK    -       -  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Selected chemical characteristics of surface soils on farmer Maile's farm from contourprotected (CP) fields and those from the adjacent non-protected fields (CN). The contours were established during 2014. Plot/contour ID pHw Total N OC Bray-1 P SO 4 -S Exch. Bases (Cmol kg -1 ) Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na + K + Plot/contour IDpHw Total NOCBray-1 P SO 4 -SExch. Bases (Cmol kg -1 ) Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na +K +  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Farmer perceptions of the popular common bean varieties. Characteristic Purple speckled bean Yellow colored, round shaped Yellow colored, oval shaped CharacteristicPurple speckled beanYellow colored, round shapedYellow colored, oval shaped  variety (PS) variety (YR) variety (YO) variety (PS)variety (YR)variety (YO) Productivity -High yielding   Productivity-High yielding  (800-1400   (800-1400  kg/acre).   kg/acre).  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Baseline proximate composition and phytate contents (g/100 g dmb) of popular bean varieties. Variety Crude protein Crude fat Crude fiber Total ash CHO Phytate Variety Crude proteinCrude fatCrude fiberTotal ashCHOPhytate PS 22.66a 1.57a 4.83c 3.62b 67.32 2.18a PS22.66a1.57a4.83c3.62b67.322.18a YO 23.18a 1.60a 5.70a 3.86a 67.28 2.32a YO23.18a1.60a5.70a3.86a67.282.32a YR 22.22a 1.69a 5.25b 4.01a 66.83 2.22a YR22.22a1.69a5.25b4.01a66.832.22a  (p = 0.066) (p = 0.258) (p < 0.001) (p < 0.001)  (p = 0.449) (p = 0.066)(p = 0.258)(p < 0.001)(p < 0.001)(p = 0.449) Values down the same column followed by same letters are not significantly different (P > 0.05). dmb = Values down the same column followed by same letters are not significantly different (P > 0.05). dmb = dry matter basis; CHO = carbohydrate.     dry matter basis; CHO = carbohydrate.  "},{"text":"Total Landcare (TLC) in Malawi for scaling CA practices Since 2005, CIMMYT and TLC have built a strong linkage between research and development on promoting CA systems to smallholder farmers in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. TLC is actively involved in organizing field tours to CA demonstrations and research trials, as well as features which were broadcast on national radio and Zodiac. Data from TLC show that more than 200,000 farmers are practicing different kinds of CA systems as a result of this long-term engagement. With extra support from the Royal Norwegian Embassy, CIMMYT and TLC are moving into smallholder mechanization; the piloting of 2-wheel tractors has been established in Mzimba and will continue to be expanded in future if further funding can be available. Partnership with Esoko: Digital Solutions for Agriculture Partnership with Esoko: Digital Solutions for Agriculture During this reporting cycle, Africa RISING has successfully engaged with development partner During this reporting cycle, Africa RISING has successfully engaged with development partner Esoko, to take the MWANGA platform forward, to ensure accurate representation for Tanzania's Esoko, to take the MWANGA platform forward, to ensure accurate representation for Tanzania's Southern Highlands farmers (see Outcome 4 Section). Southern Highlands farmers (see Outcome 4 Section).  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Indirect research or development support partnerships, or partners with initiated discussions on future collaboration. Initiated update of the BTTT including verification of the current information on the project beneficiaries, those who dropped out, and new beneficiaries. • Identified and presented data quality gaps to the researchers in their 2018 AR monitoring data actuals and targets for 2019-2021. The gaps included data mismatch, disaggregation problems, and absence of target values for 2019 and 2021. Support on FtF data quality assurance will be provided during the M&E support visits to their research sites. • Reviewed and integrated the IITA ESA M&E Framework with the FtF indicators and developed a tool to track progress against baseline and targets since 2016. Some indicators are missing in the baseline and actual values for some years. Together with the IITA M&E Team we are checking the historical records to obtain these values. Conclusion of this work is expected by the end of May. • Interacted with researchers working in Karatu and Babati and specified the technologies that are already delivered to the development partner (IoP) for scaling up. The monitoring indicators, data collection, and reporting requirements were explained as well as the definition of adoption and spill-over effects and the way to track them (http://africa-rising-wiki.net/IOPmeeting). Research Partner Partner role ResearchPartnerPartner role institution   institution CIAT Meru Agro Supply of improved seeds CIATMeru AgroSupply of improved seeds  Minjingu Fertiliser Company Supply of Minjingu NAFAKA fertilizer Minjingu Fertiliser CompanySupply of Minjingu NAFAKA fertilizer WorldVeg Mboga na Matunda and Tanzania Discussing potential scaling of improved varieties WorldVegMboga na Matunda and TanzaniaDiscussing potential scaling of improved varieties  Horticultural Association (TAHA) in Zanzibar Horticultural Association (TAHA)in Zanzibar IITA SIL: Geospatial Consortium Partner in developing a new method of clustering IITASIL: Geospatial ConsortiumPartner in developing a new method of clustering   multivariate time series-gridded data multivariate time series-gridded data TARI Hombolo World Food Program and Farmer Ongoing discussions for scaling Fanya juu and in- TARI HomboloWorld Food Program and FarmerOngoing discussions for scaling Fanya juu and in-  managed Natural Regeneration Project situ rainwater harvesting technologies managed Natural Regeneration Projectsitu rainwater harvesting technologies  "},{"text":"Program-level M&E and data management activities relevant for ESA • Following the changes in FtF indicator reporting outlined in the 2018 FtF Indicator Handbook 1 , AR has identified a new/modified set of FtF indicators and compiled data on targets for the new/modified indicators for 2019-2021 as well as achievements for FY2018 which were subsequently submitted to the donor through the FtF Monitoring System (FtFMS). • Delivered a one-day program-level training on program monitoring data requirements and data management that was attended by researchers from across program target countries. The training was conducted in October 2018 in Ghana and covered topics including different data requirements for project monitoring; data management through the program repository platform -Dataverse; and various online and offline tools for project monitoring. • Revised program data management plan (approved in October 2014) to reflect updates made to the program data repository platform and to address other suggestions from AR partners. Updated data management plan can be accessed here: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/100536/ar_dmplan. pdf?sequence=1 pdf?sequence=1 &isAllowed=y &isAllowed=y • Management of program-generated data (uploading of data and supporting • Management of program-generated data (uploading of data and supporting documentation as well as monitoring of data requests) through the program repository documentation as well as monitoring of data requests) through the program repository platform -Dataverse accessible here: platform -Dataverse accessible here: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/AfricaRISING https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/AfricaRISING • Embedded an online data user agreement (DUA) form in Dataverse using Google Form • Embedded an online data user agreement (DUA) form in Dataverse using Google Form which is accessible here. which is accessible here. https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScX1L9cZGCKBJmpgRKrKI2hlvfKHo7Wj8BH https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScX1L9cZGCKBJmpgRKrKI2hlvfKHo7Wj8BH 446sn4ithlwiEA/viewform . 446sn4ithlwiEA/viewform .  "}],"sieverID":"d89dd6d1-437f-46b9-a7d8-4215513391ec","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"010bcad63532e08974b765ca5f5190af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/176e9e15-e3f5-4fd0-a298-d3b2822bce2e/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"The effect of participation in the Ugandan National Agricultural Advisory Services on willingness to pay for extension services","keywords":["choice experiment","willingness to pay","extension services","Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture in Uganda","National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) JEL classification: O13","Q12","Q16","Q18 O13","Q12","Q16","Q18"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"In 2001, the Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture established Uganda's National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) and by the end of the financial year 2007/2008 NAADS was operating in all Districts across Uganda (MAAIF/ MFPED, 2000). The program is a pioneer in sub-Saharan Africa, a demand-driven public-private system working to promote and develop farmer organizations and empower farmers to seek and secure advisory services. It is designed to make farmers not only users but clients of the extension services, which in theory should improve the responsiveness, accountability and impact of the program. The agricultural extension system in many countries is a bi-directional linkage, disseminating technology and information to the farmer's field and in turn receiving information and results from the field to inform and drive national research priorities (Agbamu, 2000). The varying returns to extension access that have been observed (Gautam, 2000;Kidd et al., 2000;Anderson & Feder, 2007) and the inconclusive findings of the adoption literature on the effectiveness of extension services (Beckford, 2002;Chirwa, 2005) call into question the role and viability of the system. While the poverty-reducing potential of extension services is high (Kidd, 2001), Horna et al. (2007) suggest that these services are nevertheless often ineffective at increasing farmers' welfare. However, the initial assessment of the trail-blazing Districts (those participating from 2001/02) suggests that NAADS is having a beneficial effect in the sub-counties where it operates (Danida, 2005;Scanagri, 2005;Benin et al., 2007). The NAADS has, since 2007/08, included all Districts in Uganda. This paper provides an updated evaluation of the impact of NAADS on farmers' welfare and examines the effect, if any, that the program has had on their technology adoption decisions."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Agricultural extension systems are expensive and potentially fiscally unsustainable (Purcell & Anderson, 1997;Horna et al., 2007), and with increasing draws on central government budgets they need to prove their value and realize effective outputs if they are to achieve political support. In the past, measuring the value for money and effectiveness of extension services relied on easy-to-measure input factors, i.e. number of visits, rather than realized output effects (Anderson & Feder, 2007). Private sector involvement is expected to increase the efficiency and sustainability of service provision. For viable private funding and provision, such services require a strategy for private sector involvement. Client contributions could provide the key to this. In addition, fee based advice is likely to increase the accountability of the system and ensure that client preferences would be more closely adhered to, which has been shown to be important in implementing successful change (James, 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":226,"text":"Information that farmers obtain from the extension services enhances human capital and may be characterized as a production input, in the same way as land and labor. It is therefore likely that there is a market for extension advice. Those who receive the services could be asked to pay some of the costs, as happens in the UK. Agricultural extension may also give farmers more than just agricultural information, for example about using mosquito nets. These additional benefits carry wider positive externalities, such as reducing national health costs. Likewise, extension information directly relevant to agricultural production delivers wider economic benefits in terms of food security, food quality, and economic empowerment and development. These positive externalities suggest that those receiving the advice are not the only beneficiaries and therefore they should not bear the full cost of the services. The Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture aims for NAADS to be 50% public funded and 50% client funded after 25 years of operation, as in the case of the Netherlands extension service (MAAIF/MFPED, 2000). The expectation is therefore that farmers will be increasingly able and willing to contribute to the cost of the services they receive, thus reducing the burden on the state budget. The aim of the study this paper describes was therefore to establish farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for the services provided by NAADS."},{"index":4,"size":219,"text":"We used a stated preference technique, the choice experiment, to establish the WTP for extension services in a sample of nine sub-counties in Uganda, i.e. a sample was taken from each stratum, each stratum being a sub-county. Choice experiments have previously been used to assess individuals' attitudes to genetically modified crops and Indian farmers' preferences for organic farming and to evaluate cattle breeds in Kenya (Hu et al., 2004;Hope et al., 2006;Ruto et al., 2008;Birol et al., 2009). Choice experiments are widely used in the non-market valuation literature to provide WTP estimates for wetlands, climate mitigation measures and energy investments, among others (Kimenju et al., 2005;Bergmann et al., 2006;Ladenburg & Dubgaard, 2007;Yoo et al., 2008;Do & Bennett, 2009). The choice experiment has previously been used in Uganda to value the welfare benefits of nature based tourism (Naidoo & Adamowicz, 2005) and to measure the willingness of farmers to adapt to climate change (James, 2010). A number of studies have used stated preference techniques to investigate farmers' willingness to pay for information and extension services (Holloway & Ehui, 2001;Ajayi, 2006;Horna et al., 2007;Singh & Narain, 2008); however, this is the first study to use the choice experiment technique for this purpose. All prior studies report that farmers are willing to make a monetary contribution in order to receive extension advice."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"In this paper we first explain the theoretical background to choice experiments and describe the study area and sampling procedure. Next we describe the construction of the experiment."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"We then analyze the livelihood survey findings and the results from the choice experiment and discuss the effect that NAADS participation has had on farmers and their decisions. In concluding we make some policy recommendations. Lancaster (1966) proposed that consumers derived utility from the attributes of a commodity rather than from the commodity itself. Random utility theory (Manski, 1977), when applied to Lancaster's (1966) 'new consumer theory', assumes that consumers act rationally to maximize their utility from a set of viable choices. A researcher can only observe the actual choices individuals make when they are confronted by a real or imaginary choice and cannot observe the true utility   "}]},{"head":"Theoretical background","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discrete choice models","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"accounts for the differences that arise from unobserved variation in individual preferences. In this framework the probability that individual n chooses alternative i   ni P is the probability that the true utility of alternative i is greater than that of the other j alternatives available: = Prob ( )"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Preferences for the attributes of the choice alternatives can be estimated by adjusting the preferences for those attributes in a model of discrete choice behavior until the choice probabilities predicted by the choice model match the observed choice data as closely as possible."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"In this study farmers in Uganda were asked to choose between alternative farming systems. The alternatives were portrayed as varying sets of attributes relevant to this study. Individuals' relative preferences for, or aversions to, each attribute and its associated levels could then be quantified by estimating a multinomial logit model of the preference structure determined from the choices made by respondents."}]},{"head":"Multinomial logit model","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The multinomial logit (MNL) model provides a simple parameterization of choice probabilities within the random utility framework. The IIA (independence of irrelevant alternatives) assumption inherent in the MNL model assumes homogenous preferences (McFadden, 1974). Choices are therefore assumed to be affected only by the levels of the attributes present in the alternatives   for 1"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"and not by the individual characteristics of respondents. In the MNL model, the probability of individual n choosing alternative i (McFadden, 1974;Train, 2003) is"},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"where β is the vector of preference parameters for the attributes of the alternatives, which are assumed to be constant across individuals. The β parameters identify the relative preferences of each of the attributes, so for this reason this investigation reports the β parameters. An MNL model can thus provide a statistically reliable portrayal of observed choice behavior when respondents' taste preferences are relatively homogeneous, or when taste preferences vary systematically with sociodemographic characteristics observable by the analyst (see Windle & Rolfe, 2005;Birol & Villalba, 2006;Zander & Drucker, 2008)."}]},{"head":"Willingness to pay estimates","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"When the preference parameters of the non-monetary attributes and the preference parameters of the fee attribute are both significant a marginal WTP can be calculated. The marginal WTP for a particular attribute is the ratio of the parameter estimate to that of the fee attribute:"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"where WTP MNL is the willingness to pay a fee for the MNL model, i  is the parameter expressing the preference for a marginal increase in the level of the attribute for which the fee is to be paid and Cost  expresses the marginal aversion to an increase in the fee."}]},{"head":"Monte Carlo analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"The standard difference of means analysis used in a number of choice experiment studies to investigate respondents' sociodemographic characteristics was considered inappropriate for this model, because different models are estimated for each NAADS classification, leading to difference across multiple groups. The Monte Carlo analysis used here assumes that there are no differences between the groups and that the population is normally distributed. The population mean and standard deviation are calculated for each indicator and simulations are then repeated 10,000 times to obtain the group means. The means indicate whether the observed differences between the groups are statistically significantly different from the population mean: each group is directly compared to the expected population mean and distribution rather than the groups being compared to each other's mean values. The Monte Carlo analysis allows for a clear difference in means, since a single test statistic is used to determine significance versus the population mean. The difference (if significant) can thus be attributed to group membership and therefore to length of NAADS participation."}]},{"head":"Choice experiment design","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":308,"text":"The respondents were presented with choice profiles depicting two new farming systems, each described in terms of five attributes. In line with the aims of this paper, two extension related attributes (frequency of extension visits and cost of each visit) and two crop related attributes (number of crops grown and number of new crops) were included in the profile. In addition a risk attribute was included (the number of years in six for which there is a risk of a bad year occurring), because the perceived risk associated with different farming systems has been shown to influence individuals' choice (Marra et al., 2003;Gray, 2005;Bandiera & Rasul, 2006;Horna et al., 2007;Singh & Narain, 2008). The first four attributes were specified over three levels and the final attribute over six levels (Table 1). In line with the literature, the choice attributes were selected by sector experts from a number of different research organizations. The experimental design used corresponds to the recommendations made by Wattage et al. (2005) and Yoo et al. (2008). The experiment used a balanced orthogonal main effects only background design. Disregarding interaction terms was considered appropriate to reduce sample numbers; this is compatible with general principles discussed in Louviere et al. (2000) and Hensher et al. (2005). A fractional factorial set of 18 choice profiles was compiled and blocked using a sixth orthogonal blocking variable. A standard 'plus one' generator ( 1111) was used on the first four attributes, to produce the second farming system to be represented on the choice cards. The risk of bad years was a six-level attribute and therefore generators 10, 01 and 11 were used to provide the second farming system. This procedure is in accordance with recommendations by Burgess and Street (2007). As a consequence of the presence of the sixlevel attribute, the full choice set totaled 54 paired choice profiles."}]},{"head":"The effect of participation in the Ugandan National Agricultural Advisory Service on willingness to pay for extension services Table 1: Attributes and levels used in the choice experiment","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Attribute","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"On each choice card respondents were presented with two profiles, labeled 'farming system A' and 'farming system B' (Figure 1). In accordance with experimental design requirements and investigations by Haaijer et al. (2001) an opt-out option was included on each card, worded as 'I do not like farming system A or B'. Respondents were requested to make one choice from the three options presented to them on each card. The objective of the experiment was to measure individual preferences for the various attributes, so the respondents were given no contextual statement. Before proceeding, enumerators described the experimental procedure to ensure that the respondents understood what was required of them. Seven choice sets were presented to each of the respondents; an orthogonal block of six plus a repeated choice set to check for consistency. Nine respondents were therefore needed to complete one full set of choice profiles. Local experienced enumerators administered the experiment and the accompanying livelihood survey. Attribute levels (see Table 1) were depicted pictorially on the cards and also described verbally by the enumerators (Figure 1). The enumerators ensured that the respondents understood each choice profile before they made their choices."}]},{"head":"The sample","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The choice experiment and livelihood survey were conducted in October and November 2008 in nine sub-counties across six Districts of Uganda. 1 Sub-counties were chosen on the basis of NAADS participation and development domains as defined by Ruecker et al. (2003). A random sample of farmers were interviewed at a central meeting location in each area (school, community centre or sub-county office). This made it possible for more than 21 repeats of the full choice set to be completed. A total of 1182 useable responses were recorded, with 0.5% of the sample being rejected because of inconsistent responses. Of the sample, 39% were characterized as long-term NAADS participants (becoming participants by the close of the financial year 2002/03), 18% as medium-term (becoming participants in the financial year 2005/06) and 43% as short-term (becoming participants in the financial year 2007/08)."}]},{"head":"Discussion of results","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary of choice experiment results","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":254,"text":"The MNL models for short-, medium-and long-term NAADS participants provided a statistically good portrayal of each group's decision-making structures (Table 2). Each model passed the Hausman test for IIA at greater than the 5% level. The pseudo-R 2 of each model sits comfortably within the good fit range suggested by Louviere et al. (2000), with models for short-and long-term participants approaching the top end of this range. Likewise, standard tests for comparing different models, AIC-2, BIC and pseudo-R 2 , suggested that the MNL model was likely to be the most suitable and the assumption of homogeneous preferences could therefore be considered appropriate. Respondents' verbal reasoning and anecdotal evidence of choice behavior supported the preference structures observed in the MNL models. Crop diversity had no significant influence in the choice decisions of both short-and mediumterm NAADS participants, but it did have a positive and significant influence in the decisions made by long-term NAADS participants. The number of new crops had a significant positive influence in the choice decisions of all the respondents. The frequency of extension visits was only significant in long-term NAADS participants' choices. Using the associated significant cost attribute, a WTP for extension services of UGX380 (US$0.20 at US$1=UGX1900) was established. All the respondents who took part in the experiment reacted in a consistent way to the risks associated with each farming system. Preference results show that on average respondents were risk averse, and more averse to the risk of consecutive bad years than to the same number of separate bad years."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"This rest of this section discusses individuals' willingness to pay for NAADS visits and the effect at the farm level of NAADS participation, highlighting key evidence from the literature, the choice experiment, the wider livelihood survey and the Monte Carlo analysis (Table 3). Notes: a = significantly higher observed occurrence than simulation estimate at 5% level, b = significantly lower observed occurrence than simulation estimate at 5% level"}]},{"head":"Willingness to pay for extension services","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"The WTP of US$0.20 identified by the choice experiment in this paper corroborates findings by Gautam (2000), Holloway and Ehui (2001), Ajayi (2006) and Horna et al. (2007), who all indicate that farmers across Africa are willing to pay for extension service visits. Holloway and Ehui (2001) use a transactions cost model to show that Ethiopian livestock farmers have a positive WTP for extension advice at US$0.075 per visit, and Horna et al. (2007) find that farmers in Benin and Nigeria have an average WTP for on-farm visits of US$0.149 per visit. Ajayi (2006), however, reports a WTP from Nigeria of US$3.10, which is significantly higher than that found for Uganda in this paper. This is surprising, given the notably lower WTP finding by Horna et al. (2007) for the same country and the fact that the Nigerian extension services are of poorer quality than those supplied by NAADS in Uganda. The apparent overvaluation by Ajayi (2006) may be attributed to the methods used in the study, as contingent valuation tends to over-value a good when compared to other preference methods or market based analysis used in the above studies. The WTP finding in the present study of US$0.20 is slightly higher than that reported in the other WTP literature. This WTP for extension services by the users, although low in comparison to the total extension budget (Akroyd & Smith, 2007), could make a significant contribution to the total amount spent on agriculture in the country."},{"index":2,"size":254,"text":"Willingness to pay has been shown to vary with extension service quality. For example, the extension system in Malawi is considered inefficient and this is likely to be why Chirwa (2005) finds it to have no effect on adoption decisions. Gautam (2000) suggests that a deterioration in the extension services in Kenya has reduced information access and contributed to a decline in agricultural productivity. The choice experiment demonstrated that short-term NAADS participants were not willing to pay for extension visits, which suggests that the perceived quality of extension services may affect a respondent's WTP for those services. Monte Carlo analysis of the livelihood data collected (Table 3) suggests those who were willing to pay for NAADS (long-term NAADS participants) perceived the quality of the information provide by NAADS as being significantly higher than those who were not willing to pay for the advice. Significantly greater numbers of long-term NAADS participants believed that the information and assistance received from extension agents improved their farming techniques, increased their yields and increased their incomes. This indicates a marked increase in belief and trust in information provided by NAADS on the part of those with a longer history of NAADS participation. This may be because the program is demanddriven and therefore more reactive to individual needs and likely to carry greater returns. It suggests that time is required for individuals to perceive the higher quality of advice to instill a WTP and therefore initial free access will eventually lead to individuals becoming willing to pay for the advice."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"The perception evidence from the livelihood survey also suggests that longer NAADS association may have a strong welfare improving effect. Analysis of actual income data (Table 3) supports this proposition, showing that long-term NAADS participants did have significantly higher incomes in poor, favorable and average production years than short-term NAADS participants. This suggests that once the benefits of the 'free' system have been developed and demonstrated to farmers they will be better off and more willing and able to pay for extension services. This welfare improving effect suggests that the key targets of the NAADS program should be the poorer sections of society and not those who already have some capabilities."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Our choice experiment established that a willingness to pay exists among those with greater experience of and trust in the NAADS. We also demonstrated that participation in the NAADS has a welfare improving effect. The following section looks at the impacts at the farm level and consequently where the welfare improvements may come from."}]},{"head":"Adoption of new crops","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"The positive preference for new crops identified during the analysis of the choice experiment was supported by anecdotal evidence obtained during the livelihood survey. For example, farmers in Mijjunnwa sub-county remarked that they could 'learn about the possibilities of other crops' or 'gain more experience', and a farmer in Kasongi said he could 'test the market and see if it is good'. Likewise, Monte Carlo analysis showed that fewer long-term NAADS participants also grew food crops such as maize and significantly lower numbers of short-term NAADS participants grew coffee. Evidence from other Uganda-based studies supports these findings. James (2010), using a stated preference method, found that farmers in Uganda were willing to change their methods if opportunities were available. Revealed preference results from Grisley (1994) showed that in practice farmers are willing to experiment with new crops."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Analysis of the full livelihood survey revealed more detail about the process used by respondents to introduce new crop varieties. Twenty percent of the sample said they would act on advice and introduce a new crop without first undertaking a trial period. Forty-two percent said they would trial the method first by using small test plots, then consider slowly introducing the new crop more widely to their farm. Thirty-one percent said they would skip the small test plots stage and convert a portion of their farm to trial the new crop."},{"index":3,"size":418,"text":"Evidence is mixed regarding the effect of extension access on adoption intensity. Teklewold et al. (2006) find it has no effect on adoption intensity, whereas Baidu-Forson (1999) shows that it increases adoption intensity. Duflo et al. (2007) also show that follow-up information is critical in determining the continued use of a technology after a trial. More long-term than short-term NAADS participants wanted to increase the amount of information and advice they received on their farms, demonstrating a perceived value in the information from the NAADS. This, together with only long-term NAADS participants being willing to pay for advice, suggests that information and advice are important to those who perceive it to be of good quality and offering a positive cost-benefit return. If the crop fails for the 20% who do not trial, then it is likely that these farmers will not risk trying another experimental crop and will continue to grow crops with lower potential productivity and value and thus be trapped in a poverty cycle. The failure to trial the crop may make these individuals more susceptible to poor advice. Conversely, if these farmers are those who perceive the quality of information to be high and are most likely to be willing to pay for extension advice, their future perceptions will deteriorate and their willingness to pay will be severely reduced if their crop fails for controllable reasons such as lack of inputs, problem identification or poor implementation. WCC-3 (2009) highlights the need for information to come from a trusted source, with community experts agreeing that communities will tend to more fully implement advice from sources in which they have high levels of trust. To increase the adoption of the new crop varieties, it is important that during the trial phase (or first planting for those who skip the trial phase), follow-up information and support are provided from a trusted source. Trust in the information provided by NAADS was higher the longer the participation; longer participation was also shown to increase the demand for information from the program. NAADS can thus be considered a good channel for information dissemination because it is seen as a trusted source and NAADS access is therefore likely to increase the adoption of new crops. The evidence presented in this section suggests that longer NAADS association may increase actual new crop adoption, thereby potentially increasing productivity and income. This suggests that the effect of accessing NAADS advice is cost beneficial and thus the advice could be supplied, in time, through private channels."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"A factor described as significant by farmers in their crop choice is what their neighbors grow."},{"index":5,"size":148,"text":"Respondents saw neighbors as a trusted source of information, indicating that this could be a strategy to reduce the learning cost associated with adoption and increase information associated with their farming system options. The formation of farmers' associations has been shown to increase the flow of information and, according to the livelihood survey, these associations carry a high level of trust. This suggests that farmer associations are a vital channel for information dissemination in Uganda. The Monte Carlo analysis showed that longer participation in NAADS significantly increased the level of membership of farmer associations, which means that information is likely to be spread to members of associations that do not have direct NAADS access. This suggests there is a positive multiplier effect associated with those individuals who do access the NAADS services and therefore these individuals should not be expected to pay the full cost of the services."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"This section has shown that some farmers are willing to pay for the NAADS and that NAADS is potentially a good channel for providing trusted information to the farm level and thus increasing adoption."}]},{"head":"Effect of NAADS participation on risk and vulnerability","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The perceived risk associated with the adoption of a new farming system has been shown as important in farmers' adoption decisions (Marra et al., 2003) and was therefore included as an attribute in the choice experiment. Access to extension services also potentially reduces the individual's vulnerability to a range of risks by increasing market access and input supply, improving credit access and identifying disease, all of which were highlighted by respondents in the livelihood survey as barriers to the adoption of new technologies. There is some evidence from the choice experiment that longer NAADS participation increased the willingness to use more complex farming systems, proxied by crop diversity. Choice experiment evidence does not, however, suggest that longer NAADS participation changed individuals' willingness to take on different or higher risks."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The adoption of new methods and higher technology levels is generally associated with reductions in the risk and vulnerability of farm systems. Evidence that access to extension advice about technology adoption may reduce risk vulnerability is mixed: Baidu-Forson (1999), Beckford (2002) and Awotide et al. (2004) find it to be significant, whereas Chirwa (2005) and Amsalu and De Graaff (2007) report the effect of extension access as insignificant. Data from the livelihood survey and Monte Carlo analysis in this paper allow some insights into the specific role of NAADS in reducing risk and vulnerability within the farming system."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"The Monte Carlo analysis of the livelihood survey data collected in Uganda about individuals' farm systems strongly suggests that longer NAADS participation was linked to higher technology levels on farms, since the long-term participants reported higher use of chemical fertilizer and irrigation on their farms than the other two groups (Table 3). Using these technologies helps to buffer a farm against nutrient loss and drought and increases yields and reduces the farm's vulnerability to shocks. Longer NAADS participation is also associated with higher levels of adaptation to perceived climate changes, which suggests a greater level of flexibility in the farming system and consequently a reduction in vulnerability."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"The reduction in vulnerability is a significant benefit associated with NAADS participation and could explain the welfare improving effect of NAADS identified in Section 5.2 above. If this is perceived by farmers, then it is likely that those who are willing to pay for NAADS consider the protection against farm vulnerability to be cost beneficial. This also suggests that the NAADS should target those who are most vulnerable: the reduction in vulnerability and increase in trust and adaptation will then be likely to feed through to a potential willingness to pay on the part of all the NAADS participants."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"This paper used a choice experiment model to assess farmers' willingness to pay for agricultural extension services and adopt new crop varieties, and the nature of the risks they are willing to bear. The multinomial logit model for short-, medium-and long-term participants in NAADS (43%, 18% and 39% of the total sample, respectively) provided a statistically sound portrayal of individuals' preferences."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Length of NAADS participation is shown to affect the willingness to pay for the services and this paper has offered a number of insights into the effects at the farm level that may contribute to this. The analysis of the choice experiment results demonstrated that there exists a willingness to pay a small amount (UGX380 = US$0.20) for the services offered by NAADS. The study further demonstrates that willingness to pay is closely linked to NAADS association over time and is likely be affected by the perceived quality of the services."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"NAADS was designed to respond more effectively to the needs of farmers and help improve their livelihoods. The perception of respondents was that this is being done. Crucially, income data analysis suggested that NAADS does, over time, improve individuals' welfare. This welfare improvement is likely to be sustained, as NAADS was also shown to reduce vulnerability at the farm level; longer participation was associated with increased technology use and greater flexibility in adapting to change."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Farmers in the sample were in favor of introducing new crops on their farms, and the majority said they would run some form of trial before introducing them. They recognized that support during the initial introduction stages needs to be provided by a trusted information source."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"The analysis suggested that NAADS information is trusted by those with experience of the program and that this trust increases over time. The quality of the information provided by NAADS was considered higher by those who had been participants longer and this fed through to NAADS being considered a good channel for information dissemination. It was also associated with increased access to other information channels such as farmers' associations. A further key information channel was farmer's neighbors. This suggests that the NAADS advice accessed by farmers has high potential multiplier effects through farmers' local business and social networks."},{"index":6,"size":109,"text":"NAADS appears to have a positive cost-benefit return at the farm level, which suggests that farmers may be willing to pay for the services. However, the significant multiplier effects mean that those accessing the information are also increasing the information available to others and therefore should not be asked to pay the full economic cost of the service. The data suggest that there is a need to first introduce a 'free' service targeted at the poor and vulnerable, so that farmers' vulnerability is reduced. It is likely that these farmers will then perceive a benefit from the service and this will feed through into a general willingness to pay."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"While this issue requires further country-and topic-specific research, the preferences identified in this paper support the view that the previously widespread failure to increase agricultural productivity in Uganda is due to a failure of the institutions responsible for the research, distribution and dissemination of agricultural technologies and information. A dynamic and effective extension service can serve to increase farmers' awareness of options and address the science-practice gaps. Although there remain issues to be addressed, the preference results here suggest that the farmer-NAADS relationship is cost beneficial at the farm level, improves the participants' welfare and develops over time."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" on offer. This means that the researcher must construct a choice model by estimating the representative utility   ni V , which depends on the levels of the various attributes present in alternative i   i x and the characteristics of the individual making the choice "},{"text":" number of years in a 1 in 6 bad years Base level = 0 AfJARE Vol 6 No 1 Philip AS James, James CR Smart, Julian Smith, MT Bulling, Fen D Beed, David Luwandagga period of 6 that a farming system risks having a shillings (UGX) = one US dollar (USD) "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Example of choice card used in the Ugandan choice experiment survey "},{"text":"Table 2 : Parameter estimates for the MNL models for recent, late and early NAADS participants Choice model Short-term NAADS participants Medium-term NAADS participants Long-term NAADS participants Attribute Parameter Std err. Sig. Parameter Std err.  Sig. Sig. Std err. Std err. Parameter Parameter Sig. Sig.  "},{"text":"Table 3 : 10,000 run Monte Carlo simulation results  Factor Short-term Medium-term Long-term FactorShort-termMedium-termLong-term  NAADS NAADS NAADS NAADSNAADSNAADS  participants participants participants participantsparticipantsparticipants WTP for NAADS US$0 US$0 US$0.20 WTP for NAADSUS$0US$0US$0.20 Visited once a month or more 35% b 61% 80% a Visited once a month or more35% b61%80% a Farmer group members 44% b 67% 78% a Farmer group members44% b67%78% a Able to borrow 31% 36% 42% Able to borrow31%36%42% Strongly agree extension visits 35% b 61% 80% a Strongly agree extension visits35% b61%80% a improved farm techniques    improved farm techniques Strongly agree extension visits 9% b 22% 35% a Strongly agree extension visits9% b22%35% a improved yields    improved yields Strongly agree extension visits 8% b 25% 39% a Strongly agree extension visits8% b25%39% a improved income    improved income Average income group 7.9 b 7.2 27.2 a Average income group7.9 b7.227.2 a Poor year income group 5.1 b 4.7 15.8 a Poor year income group5.1 b4.715.8 a Favourable year income group 10.7 9.8 27.5 a Favourable year income group10.79.827.5 a Numbers using chemical fertilizer 15% b 28% 31% a Numbers using chemical fertilizer 15% b28%31% a Numbers using irrigation 24% 25% 40% a Numbers using irrigation24%25%40% a Coffee grown 25% b 69% a 34% Coffee grown25% b69% a34% Maize grown 86% a 78% 53% b Maize grown86% a78%53% b Low level only adaptation 34% b 61% 51% Low level only adaptation34% b61%51% measures -perceived rainfall    measures -perceived rainfall change    change No changes made to perceived 34% a 19% 16% b No changes made to perceived34% a19%16% b changes in rainfall    changes in rainfall  "}],"sieverID":"85f6dbb3-03de-495e-a62e-277d0aa988b8","abstract":"Uganda's National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS), established in 2001, is a demand-driven extension program for developing farmer organizations and improving farmer production and welfare. The program is expected to be 50% client funded after 25 years. However, varying returns to extension services and inconclusive evidence about their effectiveness suggest that farmers may not be willing to pay for these services. Using a choice experiment, this study found that longer participation in NAADS increased farmers' willingness to pay and that NAADS had a cost beneficial effect at farm level. The findings suggest that farmers are willing to pay for extension advice (US$0.20, which is higher than that found for most other African extension systems) if they see they are given good information, though they should not be asked to pay the full cost. Longer association with NAADS promoted the adoption of new crops, reduced the vulnerability of farms by increasing technology adoption and improved farmer welfare."}

data/part_5/014aa484733bd8897c964af5b0c25e82.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"014aa484733bd8897c964af5b0c25e82","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a297f06f-eff7-4257-a8c8-667cc54e9490/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #4021 Contributing Projects: • P1882 -Build up breeding and grain yield phenotyping capacity in Pakistan to identify and release new varieties • P1943 -Wheat Productivity Enhancement Project (WPEP) in Pakistan","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"6fdeed7e-0bd3-4d56-b403-566dbcd41a4b","abstract":""}

data/part_5/023b96e7c9885c6d5f4b64181da81f2c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"023b96e7c9885c6d5f4b64181da81f2c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b8773bb-cb2f-4efe-9c4c-410025625b92/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The gift, made to help Americans recover from the terrorist attacks on New York City's World Trade Center towers, made headlines. Famously hard-boiled New Yorkers broke down. 'I've been so supported by the many e-mails and calls and expressions of love from around the world,' said Maureen Esposito, who lost her husband, Joe, in the attacks. 'It really matters that these folks sent us something so tangible. I guess cows are just better than e-mail sometimes.'"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The gift was belated because news of the September 11 attacks had not reached the Maasai community until Kimeli Naiyomah, a Maasai medical student in the US and witness to the attacks, went home nine months later and told the story to his community, most of whom have never seen a multi-storied building."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"If the gift was unexpected, the gift-givers were virtually unknown to Manhattanites."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"One of the world's greatest cattle-keeping cultures, the Maasai of eastern Africa live in severe material hardship. Cattle are the most precious gift they can bestow. How, the world pondered, could America-land of material wealth-respond to the Maasai gift in kind? America, it turns out, already is."},{"index":5,"size":158,"text":"Along with more than 70 other nations and aid organisations of the North and South belonging to the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the United States is funding research on the lands and livestock livelihoods of Maasai and other livestock-dependent peoples. This research is changing mindsets as well as minds about how tropical pastoral ecosystems should be developed to benefit all their stakeholders. Those changes are enhancing livelihoods among Maasai and other livestock keepers. The results of this research are as unexpected as the gift of cows to America. In the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, for example-traditional home to the Maasai and last refuge of the greatest diversity of big mammals on earth-wildlife is best conserved not by excluding traditional Maasai use of the lands outside East Africa's game parks but rather by including pastoralists and their domesticated animals. Research has shown that low to moderate levels of traditional human settlements attract multiple species of wildlife around them."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Scientists at the CGIAR-supported Nairobi-based International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), working with Kenyan, non-governmental and international organisations, hypothesise that the Maasai human-livestock settlements promote wildlife congregations by providing game animals with safety and nutritional benefits. This recent science discovery of people-livestock-wildlife synergism challenges a basic and long-held tenet of global conservation practice, which is, to save the wildlife you must keep the local people and their domestic stock out."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Few old-school environmentalists are ready to hear that the optimal way to protect the remaining wildlife populations of the Serengeti and Maasai Mara game reserves is to enhance the livestock livelihoods of the Maasai living on adjacent lands. New-school environmentalists, however, are listening to, and working with, the scientists and pastoralists."},{"index":8,"size":117,"text":"Robin Reid, an ILRI ecologist heading this research, says the scientific findings indicate that pastoral land use may maintain or enhance biodiversity. 'This enrichment has a long history in this region-some 3.6 million years of hominids living side-by-side with wildlife. Indeed, production systems integrating domesticated and wild animals appear to be more productive than either livestock or wildlife systems alone, at least in East Africa.' What are the implications of this finding? For one, conservation policies that exclude traditional pastoral human use of wildlife-rich rangelands may inadvertently be impoverishing the very lands they were instituted to protect. 'Conservation of biodiversity by exclusion of local people', says Reid, 'turns out to be not only immoral but also ineffective'."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"The products of this research are showing pastoralists and policymakers the trade-offs in their actions. Research is allowing both groups to anticipate and manage rapid changes in land use for the benefit of all-local people and wild life and lands as well as the national economies of developing countries."},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"Funding by America and other nations is thus rationalising and accelerating efforts to protect some of the most spectacular big mammal wildlife populations on earth-along with the pastoral keepers of these rich ecosystems."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"Tangible gifts, it appears, are travelling in all directions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"19b80134-4c85-469f-bbb3-bee8b2d4b30d","abstract":"Two months ago, in June, a pastoral community living in a remote corner of Kenya gave the citizens of Manhattan 14 cows."}

data/part_5/025e22c7c0a48205748a31aa75facbbe.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"025e22c7c0a48205748a31aa75facbbe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95650496-7a9f-4747-9db5-ea725c833764/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"\"Uganda pig genetics\"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background -motivation to project","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"During the varied assessments, many stakeholders expressed interest in:"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":" an evidence base on the most appropriate pig breed-type for the local production systems / environments  access to breeding pigs of known breed-type, high genetic quality"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Background -current state of knowledge  The most appropriate pig genetics for improved productivity and profitability of the Ugandan smallholder pig enterprises"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Activity 2 : Design, with stakeholders, a genetic improvement strategy for the smallhold pig sector  To produce pigs which meet the needs and preferences of their women and men keepers and other value chain actors, as well as market demand Approach to breeding program design 1) derive the breeding goal; 2) assess the state of current breeding strategies, capacities and infrastructure; 3) prepare the breeding plan, with attention to supportive institutional arrangements, public and private sector involvement, and sustainability; 4) plan implementation and ongoing monitoring and refinement Stakeholder owned and driven From: http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G2311  To allow pig-keepers to confidently access the breed-types they desire  Approach:  Registration scheme will be developed and pilot-tested  Led by NAGRC&DB -mandated via the Animal Breeding Act of 2001 to register and certify all animal breeds, breeders and breeding centers Activity 3: Develop, with stakeholders, a scheme for registration of suppliers of pigs of known breed-type Activity 4: Capacity building of women and men pig keepers, as well as other stakeholders  Capacity building activities:  Training workshops for smallhold pig keepers and other stakeholder such as village boar keepers, artificial insemination service providers, and extension agents  Project students  Further dissemination activities:  Media, including newspaper and radio  The existing multi-stakeholder platforms -local & national  Policy briefs and discussions. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Sustainable intensification of the pig value chain in Uganda -for improved rural livelihoods and enhanced food security  This project Example results trade-off  This project Example results trade-off analysis: dairy cattle Senegal  analysis: dairy cattle Senegal Organisation Type of data -2015  OrganisationType of data -2015 NAGRC&DB Partners Breed  International Livestock Research Institute Data on Camborough herd for last 2-3 years. Herd comprises 30-40 sows Zebu Zebu Zebu x Zebu x Zebu x Management level (*) * ** Guzerat Guzerat Bos  National Animal Genetic Resources Centre & Databank (NAGRC & Zebu x High Bos Bos * ** Taurus Taurus Taurus DB), Uganda ** *** **** (Camborough 22), 6 boars (PIC terminal sire line).  University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Austria Breed preference -male / female famers +/+ +/+ +/+ +/+ +++/+++ +++/+++ ++/+ NAGRC&DB Partners Breed  International Livestock Research Institute Data on Camborough herd for last 2-3 years. Herd comprises 30-40 sows Zebu Zebu Zebu x Zebu x Zebu x Management level (*) * ** Guzerat Guzerat Bos  National Animal Genetic Resources Centre & Databank (NAGRC & Zebu x High Bos Bos * ** Taurus Taurus Taurus DB), Uganda ** *** **** (Camborough 22), 6 boars (PIC terminal sire line).  University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Austria Breed preference -male / female famers +/+ +/+ +/+ +/+ +++/+++ +++/+++ ++/+ KCCA Duration Productivity (liters milk / annum) Data on LW/LR crossbreeding herd for July 2017 to July 2020 175 568 223 640 508 1,315 1,422 KCCA Duration Productivity (liters milk / annum)Data on LW/LR crossbreeding herd for July 2017 to July 2020 175 568 223 640 5081,3151,422 last 2 years. Herd comprises 20 sows Austrian Development Agency 60,235 142,041 65,384 186,670 236,028 479,525 407,441 (LW), 4 boars (LR) Livestock CRP Environmental sustainability Donors Profitability (CFA / annum/cow) (GHG EI, kg CO 2 eq/kg protein) 338 190 307 165 188 110 108 last 2 years. Herd comprises 20 sows Austrian Development Agency 60,235 142,041 65,384 186,670 236,028 479,525 407,441 (LW), 4 boars (LR) Livestock CRP Environmental sustainability Donors Profitability (CFA / annum/cow) (GHG EI, kg CO 2 eq/kg protein) 338 190 307 165 188 110 108 Objective Food quality (milk protein/fat) For milk protein -no difference between breed-types To increase the productivity and profitability of the Ugandan smallholder For milk fat -variation between breed-types, but changing trend on parity Objective Food quality (milk protein/fat)For milk protein -no difference between breed-types To increase the productivity and profitability of the Ugandan smallholder For milk fat -variation between breed-types, but changing trend on parity Food safety (aflatoxins) pig enterprises, through use of the most appropriate pig genetics ++++ +++ ++++ +++ +++ ++ + Food safety (aflatoxins)pig enterprises, through use of the most appropriate pig genetics ++++ +++ ++++ +++ +++ +++  "}],"sieverID":"6bbb3a8b-f488-4624-bb83-ed7773599ac1","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0270f9cbb4edb467bfa54289b918e21c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0270f9cbb4edb467bfa54289b918e21c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a6fc56a5-f8eb-4320-ad08-3475d3b5e587/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Safeguarding Livelihoods in the GaMampa Wetlands in the Limpopo River Basin","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome Stories","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Wetlands play a key role in supporting local livelihoods. They provide multiple services, supplying water on one hand and controlling floods on the other hand. Wetlands mitigate water pollution, and they are a source of biodiversity. Wetlands often have enough water to sustain crop production even during drought periods, helping to ensure food security for households that are largely dependent on them."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"The main source of degradation has been identified as the encroachment of agriculture into many of the wetland areas in the Limpopo River Basin. Long-lasting efforts towards sustainable management and conservation of wetlands cannot focus on conservation alone; it requires that farmers are taken on board as co-managers of the resource."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"To tackle this problem a better understanding of the linkages and feedback between different components of wetland systems is needed. The wetlands-based livelihoods in the Limpopo River Basin Project1 assessed wetland capacity to continue delivering ecosystem services under different wetland resource use scenarios. This was done through three major outputs: the framework for the inventory, the WETSYS trade-off model, and the development of guidelines for sustainable management."}]},{"head":"HIGHLIGHTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Government officials have committed to supporting the GaMampa and were still involved with the community more than a year after field project activities ended With support of the Landcare Unit, Limpopo Department of Agriculture, the community obtained funding from UNDP to assist them in continuing to manage their wetland resources ✓ ✓"}]},{"head":"Partner of","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Supported by field surveys, discussions with the community and capacity development activities, the project designed generic guidelines for wetland ecosystem management that can be used to guide government decisions regarding sustainable use and management of wetlands. The guidelines provide practical and field-tested management solutions that help ensure that livelihood benefits are not derived at the cost of ecosystem services."}]},{"head":"Assessing trade-offs in GaMampa","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The project developed and applied a trade-offs based framework for making decisions about allocations of wetland resources to specific uses, including agriculture. Integrated trade-offs models such as WETSYS can provide an innovative approach for assessing the costs and benefits of the different uses of wetlands. A modeling exercise in the GaMampa wetland, South Africa, helped the local community and other stakeholders who rely on natural wetland products for their income better understand the trade-offs involved in clearing reeds for preparing new areas for cropping."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Most of the natural resources harvested from the wetland contribute in-kind to household subsistence and food security. Economic evaluation estimated that the contribution of the GaMampa wetland to the livelihoods of the local communities can potentially amount to USD 211 per household per year. This far exceeds the cash income currently derived from the wetland, which is only USD 35 per household per year. The trade-offs analysis in the GaMampa wetland was undertaken at the local level."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The choice of management options was informed by field surveys and discussions with the community. Recommended wetland management options for GaMampa include:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"(1) rehabilitation of the irrigation scheme;"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"(2) introduction of crops more adapted to the wetland environment and reduction of artificial drainage;"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"(3) development of ecotourism and;"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"(4) imposing controls on wetland resource use."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"Other modelling tools will be needed to assess the cumulative impacts of small wetlands use in order to be able to scale the research findings up to the catchment level."}]},{"head":"Forging partnerships for continued focus","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Although there is no guarantee that public officials will remain committed to supporting changes and needs in GaMampa, they were still involved with the community more than a year after field project activities ended. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Matthew McCartney GaMampa wetlands  concerns are incorporated into  concerns are incorporated into program management decisions.  program management decisions. With support of the Landcare Unit,  With support of the Landcare Unit, Limpopo Department of Agriculture, \"Making optimal Limpopo Department of Agriculture,\"Making optimal the community has obtained financial support from UNDP to assist them in continuing to manage their wetland resources. use of wetland resources and managing them sustainably need not be the community has obtained financial support from UNDP to assist them in continuing to manage their wetland resources.use of wetland resources and managing them sustainably need not be After the completion of the project, mutually exclusive. After the completion of the project,mutually exclusive. other projects built on the concept of  other projects built on the concept of trade-offs analysis. For instance, the A project supported by trade-offs analysis. For instance, theA project supported by EU supported WETwin project, the CGIAR Challenge EU supported WETwin project,the CGIAR Challenge which aims to enhance the role of wetlands in basin-scale integrated water resources management (IWRM). Program on Water and Food (CPWF) sought to find out how.\" which aims to enhance the role of wetlands in basin-scale integrated water resources management (IWRM).Program on Water and Food (CPWF) sought to find out how.\" Engaging  Engaging government officials responsible  government officials responsible for natural resource management  for natural resource management (NRM) helps ensure that local  (NRM) helps ensure that local  "}],"sieverID":"35a46121-ab6e-46b0-bfab-529e4114e62f","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"029674b7495a04237409677f4420a51c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1720/PriorityTech1702.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The methodology for ranking and selecting technologies was developed in a workshop where research partners from all the nine participating countries agreed to adopt five criteria for prioritizing pro-poor aquaculture and fishing technologies. These criteria and their corresponding indicators were applied using a systematic procedure. Each criterion was assigned a weight according to its relevance in a country, and scores were obtained for each criterion indicator. The technology score was computed as a weighted average of indicator and criterion scores, and then used to rank the technologies."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"THE PRiORiTiZiNG CRiTERiA ARE AS fOLLOWS:"},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"• Production Efficiency. Applying technology generally increases production yield and returns. New fishing gear technology should increase the catch made with the same effort, and postharvest technology should reduce losses during processing. The adopted technology should increase profitability and post adequate rates of return for any additional investments."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"• Food and Nutrition Security. This is defined as all household groups having access to adequate food, including fish. An important goal is to provide cheap protein to a growing population. The desired technology should make fish and fisheries products more widely available and affordable for the poor. The corresponding indicators are the retail price and consumption share (by value) of fish species produced under the given technology."},{"index":5,"size":182,"text":"• Employment Generation. in designing aquaculture and fisheries technologies, an important consideration is the generation of employment opportunities for the rural poor. inefficient labor markets keep the poor chronically underemployed, and self-employment is stymied by lack of capital. Women suffer discrimination despite being the breadwinners in many poor communities and great assets to the fishery industry, especially in seafood processing. The corresponding indicators for this criterion are labor factor shares in the total cost, the number of jobs generated per unit, and women's employment as a percentage of the total labor requirement. • Acceptability by the Poor. A fishery technology must gain wide acceptance and support from the general community to succeed. inequitable access to capital means the poor typically cannot afford technologies requiring costly investment. To ease adoption, technology should be simple and compatible with local natural resource endowments. The indicators under this criterion are the technology's investment requirements and simplicity or ease of adoption; the natural resource endowment of the area; and the social, cultural and legal acceptability of the technology as perceived by poor fish farmers, fishers and processors."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"in each of the nine participating countries, participants in national workshops were presented with research findings that included profiles of fishing and aquaculture technologies, policy and institutional perspectives, socioeconomic profiles of fisher and fish-farmer communities, and projections of fish demand-supply. The workshops then devised national action plans. The value of each plan, aside from its actual content, is its initiation of a national constituency and its provision of a blueprint for effective planning and policymaking."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"POLiCY RECOMMENDATiON 1: Develop appropriate aquaculture technologies"},{"index":8,"size":122,"text":"Growth in the supply of fish from aquaculture is sought through improving productivity, to be achieved through research investment, and -to close the efficiency gaps that plague small-scale, low-intensity fish -extension services and technical support. To prevent unacceptable consumption of environmental services, with consequences for the poor who depend on them most, and to ensure sustainability, aquaculture must be mainstreamed into watershed and coastal zone planning. Delivering the of aquaculture growth to prioritizing commodities consumed by them and technologies adopted by enterprises operated by or employing the poor. At the same time, these commodities should have a bright market outlook to ensure economic viability and return on investment. Carp aquaculture and systems of integrated aquaculture and agriculture rate highly in both regards."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"Depending on the country, other species may also be on the list of priorities."},{"index":10,"size":115,"text":"Maintaining sustainability and minimizing environmental damage from fisheries growth is a key concern. On this score, low-value freshwater aquaculture rates well relative to other capture and culture systems. While brackishwater and marine aquaculture systems offer high economic returns, particularly in foreign exchange earnings, they pose significant environmental challenges and, as currently practiced, are beyond the reach of many of the poor, who can rarely afford the investment required. in most countries, these systems are therefore rated beneath low-value aquaculture as pro-poor and sustainable technologies. They nevertheless have their place in development strategies, and participating countries strive to reorganize them to encourage greater participation by small entrepreneurs, poor rural workers and organizations of poor fish farmers."},{"index":11,"size":102,"text":"POLiCY RECOMMENDATiON 2: Rationalize capture fisheries Offshore capture fisheries are the only ones targeted for significant increases in fishing effort, investment and production. This reflects the expectation that the poor will benefit through jobs on offshore vessels and in linked activities onshore, such as handling fish at landing sites and in processing. inshore, or coastal, capture fisheries require capacity and employment reduction with better resource management and conservation. Aquaculture, processing and tourism can absorb some exiting fishers, but many will find their best options outside of fisheries altogether and will need micro-financial services, training programs and other support to successfully change careers."},{"index":12,"size":53,"text":"for the remaining fishers, stronger and more effective management measures are required. Management options vary from decentralization and co-management to centralized, command-and-control administration, but the bottom line is to improve the formulation and enforcement of fishing rules. Promoting the use of such small-scale gear as gill nets and hook-and-line tackle benefits poor fishers."},{"index":13,"size":59,"text":"inland fisheries are impor tant for their significant contribution to the subsistence and livelihoods of the rural poor. Establishing community organizations for managing common areas, as well as investments in appropriate systems to enhance and enrich stocks, are promising means of delivering benefits to the poor, particularly in countries with large inland fisheries, reservoir areas and seasonally flooded lands."},{"index":14,"size":109,"text":"POLiCY RECOMMENDATiON 3: Enhance the fish supply and value chain fish production exists in the wider economic context of a supply and value chain beginning with input supply and extending through postharvest services, processing and marketing. As constraints to growth lie at both ends of this chain, focusing only on fish production would likely yield low or even negative returns on investment. On the input side, a major constraint is the limited availability of high-quality fish seed, which calls for hatchery and broodstock programs. The lack of affordable credit for poor farmers and fishers warrants the establishment of credit schemes and other microfinancial services, such as savings and insurance."},{"index":15,"size":72,"text":"At the other end of the chain, traditional postharvest practices are wasteful and result in finished products of poor quality. investment is needed in postharvest facilities, training fishers and processors, and building up processing enterprises to meet higher quality standards. inefficiencies and limited competition in marketing need to be addressed. The Worldfish Center All rights reserved. This brief may be reproduced without the permission of, but with acknowledgment to, The Worldfish Center."}]},{"head":"Printed on 100% recycled paper","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Price policies, particularly on tariffs for imports, may require reconsideration. Tariff reforms may harm some fish subsectors but be beneficial on the whole to food security and sector growth. CONCLUSiON: from capture fisheries to aquaculture All nine participating countries recognize that capture fisheries have reached or are approaching their production limits. Significant expansion in production to meet growing demand and widen livelihood opportunities can be sought only in aquaculture, but this can only be achieved through mainstreaming aquaculture into watershed and coastal zone plans. for capture fisheries, especially in marine inshore areas, the emphasis is on sustaining the productivity of natural stocks through prudent management."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"The Worldfish Center is a leader and innovator in developing and refining aquaculture technologies, first in South and Southeast Asia and the Pacific, and increasingly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Worldfish combines its expertise in aquaculture with continuing research on capture fisheries -offshore, inshore and inland -to help stakeholders benefit from an optimal balance of aquaculture and capture fisheries."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" partnership • excellence • growth | www.worldfishcenter.org Worldfish policy briefs present current issues on fisheries and aquaculture with a course for action outlined. These briefs serve as an impetus for action and of Worldfish research. This policy brief was written as part of the project \"Strategies and options for increasing and sustaining fisheries and aquaculture production to benefit poor households\" implemented by The Worldfish Center in collaboration with the governments of Bangladesh, China, india, indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam, and supported by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Consultative Group on international Agricultural Research (CGiAR).Source: The Worldfish Center. 2005. Strategies and options for increasing and sustaining fisheries and aquaculture production to benefit poorer households in Asia. Project completion report to Asian Development Bank for ADB-RETA 5945 (Chapter 10, pp. 182-211), Penang, Malaysia. 235 pp. The WorldFish center PO Box 500 GPO, 10670 Penang, Malaysia Tel: +(60-4) 626 1606 fax: +(60-4) 626 5530 Email: [email protected] © 2007 "}],"sieverID":"61b960ca-9cdc-4e88-9bf2-9245943656b2","abstract":"Develop appropriate aquaculture technologies by improving productivity through investment in research, extension and technical support.• Rationalize capture fisheries by reducing capacity in inshore fisheries, establishing community organizations to manage inland fisheries, and promoting the sustainable expansion of offshore fisheries.• Enhance the fish supply and value chain by making high-quality fish seed and financial services available to poor farmers and fishers, building up postharvest processing enterprises to higher quality standards, and reforming tariff and price policies.• Build the necessary institutions to expand extension and research; rationalize policies on land and water use; organize poor fishers, farmers and processors; and engender regional collaboration in natural resource management and trade."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03365c7faf1d7a6da925f7476aebcca0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3dee8f19-45e3-4fa6-9d84-60a2027f0c3b/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Drone Awareness Workshop Report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Workshop background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The workshop took place at the GKVK Kuvempu Auditorium and drew a diverse audience of around 400 attendees, including university heads, heads of departments, scheme heads, faculty members, research staff, scientists, agriculture graduates, and the Vice-Chancellor. Out of 400 individuals, approximately 100 were female and 300 were male. Additionally, the age range of the students who participated in the program was between 20 and 23 years old."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"The workshop commenced with a cordial welcome extended by KB Umesh, Director of Research, who expressed heartfelt gratitude to the industry experts and attendees for their invaluable participation. N.B. Prakash, Dean (Agriculture), along with KB Umesh, officially inaugurated the event by activating the drones, symbolizing the commencement of the workshop."}]},{"head":"Main plenary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The main plenary session in the first half of the day proceeded with expert speakers sharing their views and knowledge of the applications of UAVs in the agriculture sector. Gaurav Nath, CEO of Clearskies, Dinesh Nayar, Head of Strategy at Clearskies, Ritesh Kumar Singh, Operations Head of IoTech World Aviation, and Akshatha Annaiah, DI Consultant, took the stage in the workshop to share their expertise on various aspects of drone technology, the challenges faced on how to build a drone ecosystem & also spread light on rules & regulations of drones in India."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Introduction DI aims to overcome challenges such as the digital divide, inadequate information and limited capabilities that prevent the inclusive transformation of agrifood systems via the adoption of digital innovations. In this context, DI collaborated with Clearskies Learning & Research Pvt. Ltd to conduct a oneday 'Drone Awareness Workshop' for agriculture engineering students & research staff hosted at the UAS on 27 June 2023. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"338bd86e-7e56-451c-b365-f6d485c44fe3","abstract":"This publication has been prepared as an output of CGIAR Research Initiative on Digital Innovation, which researches pathways to accelerate the transformation towards sustainable and inclusive agrifood systems by generating research-based evidence and innovative digital solutions. This publication has not been independently peer-reviewed. Any opinions expressed here belong to the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by CGIAR. In line with principles defined in CGIAR's Open and"}

data/part_5/034e3f37c20beb974c0ef66256984e05.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"034e3f37c20beb974c0ef66256984e05","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/884da8ea-8963-4de0-bc86-57849b7bf3e7/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Gender differentiation on the determinants and intensity of adoption of Purdue improved cowpea storage (PICS) bags in Northern Nigeria","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Nigeria is a sub-Saharan African country with an agrarian economy; seventy per cent (70%) of the population lives in rural areas and depends on agriculture for a living [1]. The livelihoods of most Nigerians depend on their ability to produce and market agricultural products [2]. In Nigeria, cowpea is one of the most important commercial agricultural products and nutritional legumes, grown chiefly by Northern Nigerian farmers because of its high protein content, affordable cost, and increasing demand for humans and animals [3]. However, this crucial cereal is prone to spoilage due to poor postharvest handling and storage. The cowpea bruchid weevil has been reported to destroy more than 25% of cowpea poorly stored [4]. To relieve the challenges of cowpea producers, improved hermetic storage technology using triple-layer PICS bags was put in place by Larry Murdock and colleagues [5], and this novel technology was reported cost-effective and scale-neutral and had a social and financial impact on adopters with an average net cash flow from cowpea storage in PICS bags of $10.81/100 kg bag and $39.27 per adopter [6]."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"Cowpea provides food and fodder and also improves soil fertility [7]. It is the primary source of plant protein, vitamins, and feeds for livestock, and because of this, it is often referred to as the poor man's meat [8]. Cowpea is also an important trade commodity in Nigeria. It is ascertained that cowpea contains 25% protein and 60 % carbohydrate [2]. However, the production of cowpea depends on the cultural behaviour of farmers. In African traditional society and Northern Nigeria especially, men are usually considered breadwinners in households, but it has been noticed that women play a crucial role in sustaining the family [6]. Ref. [9] reported that women provide about 60-80% of the food in most developing countries, which makes them responsible for half of the world's food production. However, their contribution is always overshadowed and attributed to men. Women usually embark on non-remunerated activities such as domestic work, caregiving, daycare, preparation of meals, etc., which undervalue their contribution and impact, thereby overlooking their impact [10]. However, studies on agricultural production and storage of cowpea in West Africa (Burkina-Faso, Niger and Nigeria) are sparse and limited to Ref. [6], who reported an average of 46% of hermetic storage by women. Therefore, the impact of PICS bag adoption by gender will give an insight into women's contribution to adoption."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"This paper aims to determine the factors that would encourage the adoption and intensity of hermetic storage technology by gender. The study will enlighten the factors affecting the adoption of PICS by gender."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of the study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"This study was conducted in three geopolitical zones of Northern Nigeria: North East, North West, and North Central [11]. In each zone, two States were selected Gombe and Bauchi in the North East zone, Kano and Kaduna in the North West zone, and Plateau and Niger in the North Central zone (Fig. 1). Agro-ecologically, Northern Nigeria is Sudan and Sahel savannah. Cowpea is known to be the staple food in the area."}]},{"head":"Data collection methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Socioeconomic data (Schooling, age, year of farming experience, household size, farm size, household dependency ratio, access to Fig. 1. Map of the study area. credit, contact with extension agent, membership of an association, and information on PICS) was obtained from household heads via a semi-questionnaire. Enumerators used the local language (Hausa) to administer the questionnaires. Recruitment and training of ten (10) enumerators were done for two days on data collection methods and related topics. The researcher supervised the enumerators closely during the process. Respondents were told their information would be treated confidentiality, and research objectives were explained before the interview."}]},{"head":"Sampling procedure and sample size","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"The research was conducted in some selected Northern Nigeria States because of PICS farmers' availability. A combination of purposive and multistage sampling procedures was employed for the study. The first stage in the sampling procedure involved the purposive selection of two states from each of the three agroecological zones of Northern Nigeria based on the concentration and availability of female cowpea farmers and PICS bag users. The states selected were listed above. Stage II involved the purposive selection of at least five (5) Local government areas (LGAs) from each State where PICS bags were widely used. Stage III involved a purposive selection of communities based on the abundance of female cowpea farmers. In the last stage, based on a list provided by the IITA Kano station, 20% of male and female small-scale cowpea farmers were randomly selected using numbers on Microsoft Office Excel. Participants in PICS training who used the bag for at least one year were classified as the treatment group. In contrast, farmers who were non-participants in the PICS demonstration/training and were not using the bag were classified as a control group."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"These random selections resulted in 299 PICS bag users, comprising 138 men and 161 women. The control group respondents were selected from non-PICS villages (i.e., villages where PICS demonstration/training was not carried out) from the same LGAs, which are similar in characteristics to the villages where PICS demonstration was carried out. These villages were identified and randomly selected, resulting in 299 respondents, including females (161) and males (138) in the treatment and control groups. Therefore, the total sample size of respondents was 598 cowpea farmers."}]},{"head":"Data analysis methods","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (percentage, frequency, mean), binary logistic, and Tobit regression models through Stata 15 software."}]},{"head":"Double hurdle model (DHM) specification","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The double hurdle model was used to measure factors influencing the probability and intensity of adopting PICS bags. The doublehurdle model is a parametric generalization of the Tobit model, as reported by Refs. [12][13][14][15]."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The double-hurdle model is applied so that both hurdles (the decision for adoption and intensity of adoption) have associated equations, incorporating the effects of the farmer's characteristics and circumstances."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"The double hurdle assumes that households make two sequential decisions about adopting and intensity of use of technology. The household's socioeconomic characteristics condition each hurdle in the model (Table 1). A different latent variable is used to model each decision process. The first decision variable (Z) takes the value 1 for farmers who have adopted PICS bags and takes the value zero for otherwise."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"However, the expected utility of adopting a technology (Z i *) is latent. The first hurdle is the adoption decision equation estimated by using a Logit model given as [12][13][14][15]: "},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"where, Z i * = latent variable that takes the value of 1 if the farmer adopts PICS bag and 0 otherwise, X ′ 1i = vector of explanatory variables (farmers/farm specific characteristics, institutional and technology specific characteristics) that influences adoption choice, β i = vector of parameters and u i = independently distributed error term."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"The second hurdle of the double-hurdle model involves an outcome equation which uses a truncated model to determine the intensity of adoption measured in terms of the proportion of cowpea stored in PICS bags. Therefore, the second hurdle uses observations only from those cowpea farmers who indicated a positive value on the use of PICS bags. The truncated model is expressed as follows [12][13][14][15] "},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"where, Y i = observed response on the proportion of cowpea stored in PICS bags, X i = vector of explanatory variables, β = vector of parameter estimates, v i = error term."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"The observed value of the proportion of cowpea stored in PICS bags is therefore expressed as [12][13][14][15]:"},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"The error terms of the two decision models (adoption and intensity of adoption models) are distributed as follows [12][13][14][15]:"},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"Therefore the empirical model used to estimate the level and of intensity of adoption is given below [16]:"},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"β 0 is constant, β 1 − β 12 is logistic regression coefficients and μ i is the error term that is assumed to be normally distributed with mean zero and constant variance [16]."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characteristics of farmers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The average age of a farmer was 43 and 41 years for female and male farmers, respectively (Table 2). The average household size was approximately eight (8) persons per household for both female and male farmers. The dependency ratio was 1.08 and 1.19 for female and male responding households. About 70% of female and male responding households have at least primary education. However, the highest mean years of schooling was ten (10) years in female responding households, whereas for males, it was nine (9) years of schooling. This suggests that farmers can read and write comfortably and assimilate a good knowledge of adoption technology."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"The average farming experience, however, did not vary widely among the groups, as the variation was between 23 years for female farmers and approximately 25 years for male farmers. The average for all the groups was approximately 24 years, implying that the farmers have many farming experiences. The average farm size in the surveyed area ranges from 1.78 ha in female households to 2.17 ha in male households, thus showing minimal disparities (0.39) in farm sizes among farming households. This suggests that both sexes have access to farmland."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The percentage of extension visits was greater than 50 for female and male farming households, respectively (Table 2). The average number of years spent in an association was five years for females and three years for males. Table 2 reveals that most (above 88%) of the treatment (both female and male farmers) got information about PICS bags."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"The analysis showed that households that obtained credit for farming purposes were higher among female households in the surveyed areas. Overall, very few farm households (32.5%) could obtain credit in that year; this might be due to insecurity in the study area."}]},{"head":"Determinants of farmers decision to adopt PICS bags","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"The result of the estimated double-hurdle model is presented in Table 3. The double hurdle was justified because some factors that influenced the farmers' decisions to adopt PICS bags were not the same factors that influenced the intensity of adoption of PICS bags by gender. The Logit model was estimated to identify the factors influencing the decision to adopt PICS bags (first hurdle). The results reveal that six and five factors significantly influence farmers' decision to adopt PICS bags by female and male farmers, respectively. These factors are the farmer's age, awareness of the technology, access to extension contact, information about PICS bags, source of information from other farmers and radio, cowpea output, cowpea income, and non-available bags. The Log-Likelihood ratio (LR) of − 71.69 and − 58.97 of the estimated Logit model for Female and Male farmers, respectively, were significant (p < 0.01), and this indicates the joint significance of the explanatory variables included in the model."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The estimated coefficient of farmer's age in explaining the probability of adopting PICS bags technology was positive and significant (p < 0.050) for female respondents. This indicates that the age increment of farmers enhances their likelihood of adoption. This result contradicts the findings of [15], who suggested that younger people are more likely to take up new technology than older farmers. The result of this study may be because aged farmers are likely to acquire knowledge and experience over time compared to younger farmers."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The coefficient of awareness was significant and positive for female farmers (p < 0.10) and pooled (p < 0.05). The result revealed that female households' awareness of PICS bags was higher than males. This indicates that awareness is a tool for PICS bag dissemination. Our study agrees with the findings of [17]; who reported that awareness was an essential factor influencing individual behaviour to adopt PICS technology."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"The estimated coefficient of the visit of the extension agent has a positive and significant influence on the adoption of PICS bags for female and male farmers and pooled data at p < 0.01, p < 0.05, and p < 0.01, respectively. This means the likelihood of adoption increases when a farmer has contact with an extension agent. A significant positive effect of extension agents on PICS technology was reported by Refs. [18,19] on improved bread-wheat technologies."},{"index":5,"size":134,"text":"The coefficient sources of information on PICS bags from other farmers and radio were significant (p < 0.01) for both female and male farmers. The adoption of the PICS bags by female farmers has increased over time due to continued awareness. This is consistent with the critical role played by farmers in disseminating information to their folks [20]. The radio source was significant (p < 0.05) and positive for male farmers only. The radio broadcast was a significant source of information on PICS technology available to the farmers. The availability of reliable information sources will enhance the communication process by adopting improved technologies (PICS bags). This implies that male farmers have a higher and greater chance to listen to the radio broadcast. Radio is a valuable source of information on improved agricultural technologies [21]."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"The estimated coefficient of cowpea income was significant (p < 0.05) and positive for male and pooled data. This implies that as the income of the households increased by 1, the likelihood of using PICS bag technology increased by 0.004 factors. It suggests that as cowpea income increases, the probability of adopting PICS bags increases as income makes it possible to meet the financial obligation in technology used. In this case, male farmers receive more income than female farmers. This corroborates with [17,22]."},{"index":7,"size":104,"text":"The estimated coefficient of bags non-available was negatively significant (p < 0.01) for female male farmers and pooled data. Everything being equal, it implies that the probability of PICS bags being available increased by 2.67 for female and 3.57 for male farmers; as the availability of PICS bag supply at the harvesting time increased, farmers' use of PICS bags enhanced. The scarcity of PICS bag vendors, disconnection in information flow, and supply chain of PICS bags is the prominent constraint farmers face in the study area. The lack of local availability of the bags was often the reason for not using PICS bags [18]."},{"index":8,"size":69,"text":"The estimated coefficient for the output was positive and significantly (p < 0.10) influenced the farmer's decision to adopt female farmers. The results revealed that female-headed households were 55% more likely to use PICS bags than male-headed households. Farmers with higher output are likely to adopt the PICS bags, purchasing more bags to store their produce, increasing the probability of adoption. This corroborates with the findings of Refs. [6,17]."},{"index":9,"size":138,"text":"Factors determining the extent of adoption of PICS bags were estimated using the truncated regression model, as shown in Table 3. The results revealed some variation in the Logit and truncated regression models, justifying the double hurdle. This implies that the factors that influenced the farmers' decision to adopt PICS bags were not the same factors that influenced the farmers' intensity of adoption. Education was positive and significantly (p < 0.01) related to adoption intensity for female farmers; educated female farmers (17.5%) were more likely to use PICS bags than males. This implies that education plays a critical role for farmers by enabling them to identify the problem of postharvest loss and to change into practice the knowledge and skills acquired for the use and adoption of PICS. This is in line with the result by Ref. [23]."},{"index":10,"size":60,"text":"The coefficient of the quantity of output store was positive and highly significant (p < 0.01) to adoption intensity for female farmers. This implies that female farmers had a 35.6% added advantage in storage over male farmers. That is, the more cowpeas increased by the female farmer, the higher the adoption intensity of PICS bags. This is consistent with [6]."},{"index":11,"size":57,"text":"Bags' non-availability was significant (p < 0.01) to the adoption intensity of PICS bags for female farmers. This implies that if bags are made available, the intensity of adoption of PICS bags will increase drastically in female-headed households by 43.8% more than in male households. This agrees with [6], who documented that farmers complained of unavailable bags."},{"index":12,"size":64,"text":"The coefficient of cowpea income was found to impact PICS technology adoption for male farmers positively. It indicates that maleheaded households had a 20% increase in cowpea income than female-headed households. Households with a high cowpea income are likely to adopt PICS bags. This result corroborates that of [24], who reported a variation in earnings from farming as a ratio of household monthly income."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"This study assessed gender differentiation on the determinants and intensity of adoption of Purdue-improved cowpea storage (PICS) bags in northern Nigeria. A combination of purposive and multistage sampling procedures was employed for the study. Adopting PICS bag technology by cowpea farming households was instrumental in female farmers. Several significant variables explained the adoption of the PICS technology including age, awareness, extension contact, information sources, radio source, cowpea income and bags unavailable. Thus, there is a need to increase awareness and training of farmers and make the bags available across the study area at an affordable price. Therefore, policymakers should implement methods to motivate female farmers to adopt this technology further."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Description of variables used in the logit regression model. Variables Description VariablesDescription  "},{"text":"Table 2 Socio-demographic characteristics of farmers surveyed. N.N. Ndaghu et al.       N.N. Ndaghu et al. Variables Female  Male  Pooled  VariablesFemaleMalePooled  Treatment Control Treatment Control Female Male TreatmentControlTreatmentControlFemaleMale N 161 161 138 138 322 276 N161161138138322276 Age (years) 44.3 41.4 42.2 39.5 42.8 40.9 Age (years)44.341.442.239.542.840.9 Household size (number) 7.9 8 8.3 7.3 8 7.8 Household size (number)7.988.37.387.8 Dependency Ratio 1.07 1.08 1.21 1.16 1.08 1.19 Dependency Ratio1.071.081.211.161.081.19 Years of schooling 10.5 9.7 9.5 8.6 10.1 9.1 Years of schooling10.59.79.58.610.19.1 Farming Experience (years) 24.2 21 26.8 23.3 22.8 25 Farming Experience (years)24.22126.823.322.825 Farm size (hectare) 1.96 1.59 2.19 2.16 1.78 2.17 Farm size (hectare)1.961.592.192.161.782.17 Extension Contact 75.2 27.3 71.7 33.3 51.2 52.5 Extension Contact75.227.371.733.351.252.5 Membership of Association 72 70.2 74.6 61.6 71.1 68.1 Membership of Association7270.274.661.671.168.1 Information on PICS 88.2 6.8 91.3 8 47.5 49.6 Information on PICS88.26.891.3847.549.6 Access to credit 45.3 52.2 13 19.6 48.8 16.3 Access to credit45.352.21319.648.816.3  "},{"text":"Table 3 Double-hurdle estimates of determinants and intensity of adoption of PICS bags. Variables FEMALE  MALE  POOLED  VariablesFEMALEMALEPOOLED  Logit model Truncated model Logit model Truncated model Logit model Truncated model Logit modelTruncated modelLogit modelTruncated modelLogit modelTruncated model Age (years) 0.05 (2.4)** 1.8 (0.95) 0.04 (1.12) 13.6 (0.53) 0.39 (2.52)** 6.8 (0.95) Age (years)0.05 (2.4)**1.8 (0.95)0.04 (1.12)13.6 (0.53)0.39 (2.52)**6.8 (0.95) Education (years) 0.26 (0.49) 87.5 (1.75)** 0.18 (0.29) 414.9 (0.69) 0.28 (0.73) 271.1 (1.36) Education (years)0.26 (0.49)87.5 (1.75)**0.18 (0.29)414.9 (0.69)0.28 (0.73)271.1 (1.36) Household size (number) − 0.008 (− 0.18) − 6.3 (− 1.61) − 0.014 (− 0.20) − 51.7 (− 0.82) − 0.015 (− 0.39) − 23.6 (− 1.36) Household size (number)− 0.008 (− 0.18)− 6.3 (− 1.61)− 0.014 (− 0.20)− 51.7 (− 0.82)− 0.015 (− 0.39)− 23.6 (− 1.36) Association (yes, no) − 0.006 (− 0.06) − 9.1 (− 0.21) − 0.037 (− 0.45) − 0.009 (− 0.45) − 0.03 (0.42) − 8.1 (− 1.68)** Association (yes, no)− 0.006 (− 0.06)− 9.1 (− 0.21)− 0.037 (− 0.45)− 0.009 (− 0.45)− 0.03 (0.42)− 8.1 (− 1.68)** Awareness (yes, no) 1.43 (1.66)* - 1.03 (1.29) 6.6 (0.62) 1.16 (2.04)** 3.9 (0.61) Awareness (yes, no)1.43 (1.66)*-1.03 (1.29)6.6 (0.62)1.16 (2.04)**3.9 (0.61) Extension contact (yes, no) 1.31 (2.65)*** 27.1 (0.49) 1.36 (2.56)** 21.1 (0.36) 1.28 (3.65)*** 30.9 (0.58) Extension contact (yes, no)1.31 (2.65)***27.1 (0.49)1.36 (2.56)**21.1 (0.36)1.28 (3.65)***30.9 (0.58) Other farmers (yes, no) 3.62 (5.75)*** − 14.1 (− 0.22) 3.85 (5.74)*** 3.1 (− 0.77) 3.74 (8.37)*** − 5.5 (− 0.7) Other farmers (yes, no)3.62 (5.75)***− 14.1 (− 0.22)3.85 (5.74)***3.1 (− 0.77)3.74 (8.37)***− 5.5 (− 0.7) Radio source (yes, no) 0.63 (0.80) − 11.1 (− 0.22) 1.45 (2.03)** 13.1 (0.21) 1.08 (2.10)** − 18.3 (− 0.54) Radio source (yes, no)0.63 (0.80)− 11.1 (− 0.22)1.45 (2.03)**13.1 (0.21)1.08 (2.10)**− 18.3 (− 0.54) Cowpea Income (amount) 0.29 (0.52) 0.0002 (1.31) 1.45 (2.27)** 0.004 (2.0)** 0.94 (2.33)** 0.001 (3.19)*** Cowpea Income (amount)0.29 (0.52)0.0002 (1.31)1.45 (2.27)**0.004 (2.0)**0.94 (2.33)**0.001 (3.19)*** Output (yes, no) 0.55 (1.82)* 31.3 (3.56)*** 0.03 (0.17) 44.8 (1.27) 0.20 (1.22) 39.8 (2.77)*** Output (yes, no)0.55 (1.82)*31.3 (3.56)***0.03 (0.17)44.8 (1.27)0.20 (1.22)39.8 (2.77)*** Other methods (yes, no) 0.34 (0.57) 19.6 (0.28) 0.68 (0.99) 17.6 (0.99) 0.53 (1.21) 17.9 (0.87) Other methods (yes, no)0.34 (0.57)19.6 (0.28)0.68 (0.99)17.6 (0.99)0.53 (1.21)17.9 (0.87) Bags non-available (yes, no) − 2.67 (− 3.67)*** − 15.3 (− 4.38)*** − 3.57 (− 3.13)*** − 42.1 (− 1.04) − 3.02 (− 4.97)*** − 39.7 (− 2.74)*** Bags non-available (yes, no)− 2.67 (− 3.67)***− 15.3 (− 4.38)***− 3.57 (− 3.13)***− 42.1 (− 1.04)− 3.02 (− 4.97)***− 39.7 (− 2.74)*** Constant 6.07 (3.61)*** − 123.9 (− 0.9) 5.39 (3.21)*** − 529.5 (− 0.92) 5.40 (4.73)*** − 929.4 (− 0.99) Constant6.07 (3.61)***− 123.9 (− 0.9)5.39 (3.21)***− 529.5 (− 0.92)5.40 (4.73)***− 929.4 (− 0.99) N 322 157 276 134 598 291 N322157276134598291 LR Chi (12) Prob > Chi 2 Pseudo R 2 300.21 0.0000 0.6768 54.73 0.000 261.91 0.0000 0.6895 6.85 0.867 555.89 0.0000 0.6751 26.52 0.0091 LR Chi (12) Prob > Chi 2 Pseudo R 2300.21 0.0000 0.676854.73 0.000261.91 0.0000 0.68956.85 0.867555.89 0.0000 0.675126.52 0.0091 Log likelihood − 71.69 − 1012.9 − 58.967 − 924.72 − 133.78 − 1967.79 Log likelihood− 71.69− 1012.9− 58.967− 924.72− 133.78− 1967.79 Sigma  207.7 (11.4)***  969.8 (3.46)***  602.6 (6.86)*** Sigma207.7 (11.4)***969.8 (3.46)***602.6 (6.86)***  "}],"sieverID":"9422dbe5-1946-4f39-9b75-19ccad3506ec","abstract":"Postharvest and storage of agricultural produce such as cowpea remains a significant challenge in sub-Sahara Africa. This study assessed gender differentiation on the determinants and intensity of adoption of Purdue-improved cowpea storage (PICS) bags in northern Nigeria. Primary data was collected via a well-questionnaire from Kano, Kaduna, Gombe, Bauchi, Plateau, and the Niger States. Each State was purposively selected based on the concentration and availability of female PICS bag users. From the sampling frame 2989, 20% of male and female small-scale cowpea farmers were randomly selected, totalling 598 cowpea farmers. Descriptive and double-hurdle regression models were used. The result of the socioeconomic analysis indicated that farmers' mean age was 42 years, with an average of 8 persons per household and a dependency ratio of 1.19. Years of schooling were 10 with a farming experience of 25 years and 2.17 ha as the average farm size. Results of the Logit model in males were significant for (extension contact, PICS information from other farmers and radio sources, and cowpea income, bags non-available) and for females (age, awareness, extension contact, PICS information from other farmers and radio source, bags non-available). The truncated regression model was significant in males (cowpea income) and females (education, output, and bags non-available). Adopting PICS bag technology by cowpea farming households enhanced female farmers' adoption. Therefore, policymakers should implement methods to motivate female farmers to adopt this technology further."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03aeebb786f29fb9981fd11a65254152","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a08f4af4-3c9b-47e2-8615-06bfab86f7d8/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Performance▪▪ Sows are good mothers and have large litter sizes and high milk production. ▪ The pigs usually have sound legs and feet and live long lives. ▪ Piglets are fast growing. ▪ They are an efficient feed utilizer but must be fed well. ▪ Carcass quality is good, carcasses are lean. ▪ A mature sow weighs between 200 kg and 300 kg and a mature boar weighs between 250 kg and 350 kg.Use This is a good breed to keep as a sow if they are properly managed with good housing, health-care and feeding. ▪ Landrace sows are usually crossed to Landrace or Large White boars. ▪ Sows that are already a cross of Landrace and Large White can be crossed to Duroc boars.Pig breed factsheet for Uganda: Landrace breed of pig, English / June 2022 (Photo credit: Silar, https://bit.ly/3H9mV5i) "}],"sieverID":"7c64da23-b017-4bfe-bd25-76e5e35a4072","abstract":"Characteristics ▪ Have white skin and white hair but can have black spots. ▪ Long body and lean carcasses. ▪ Snout is long, and the head tapers towards the snout. ▪ Large ears droop forwards almost covering the eyes. ▪ Has deep flanks and lacks the wrinkles and excess fat found in some other breeds."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03b9d73507ca322035ad250bb067badc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Water_Policy_Briefs/PDF/wpb05.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Building High-Performance Water Management Institutions","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Research and academic institutions have a special place in our society. They are a force for positive change because they have the time, resources and mandates to examine tomorrow's questions and issues today. They help shape and update the thinking of society's leaders and policy makers, and so set the country's future directions. This is the theory."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"In practice, many institutions have become outdated. Or, due to a lack of focus and the wrong combination of professional skills, they no longer deliver useful perspectives or insights. Unfortunately, very few of today's organizations are \"highperformance\" knowledge institutions with reputations for creative research, innovation or advancing the frontiers of knowledge. Fewer still think \"ahead of the curve, \" and make plans to exploit future opportunities or cope with future problemsthis issue is critical in the water sector."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Research from many developing countries confirms that the root cause of their water problems is a scarcity of institutional innovative capacity-in equal measure with a scarcity of water for irrigation. The result, fortunately, is investment in specialized research and capacity-building institutions of quality and excellence. But, as India's experience shows, more than just financial capital is needed."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"During the 1970s and the 1980s, the World Bank and USAID invested heavily in creating more than a dozen State-Level Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMIs). Infrastructure and facilities were superb, and things ran smoothly until their funding ended. Many WALMIs were then taken over by state irrigation departments, and received core funding fully, or mostly from state governments."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"But these governments are increasingly short of funds. This is unfortunate for the WALMIs, and other High-performance water management institutions have strong resourcegeneration strategies. Training and research institutions in the government sector are generally the first to suffer budget cuts. When resources decline, barely covering salaries and overheads, core infrastructure, such as the library, computers and labs, is sacrificed. Dejected professionals leave. New ones cannot be attracted. The institution is left with clerks and ministerial staff. This is a common pathology of decline. The result? A lowperformance knowledge institution."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"So, if it is not simply to become part of a government department, a new institution needs to be designed to stand on its own feet from the start."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"A good design/launch and good operative practices constitute the winning combination when building high-performance knowledge institutions (figure 1)."},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"Research has identified six parts of the design/ launch process critical to building high-performance knowledge institutions (figure 2, outer circle), and the best operative practices found in these high fliers (figure 2, inner circle)."}]},{"head":"Design and Launch of High-Performance Knowledge Institutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Governments, NGOs and international organizations should consider six critical areas when designing or relaunching knowledge institutions."}]},{"head":"Managing the Design and Launch","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Design and launch are critical because they shape public perceptions of the institution and its relevance. These determine what researchers and funding an institution attracts. Put simply, the way an institution is perceived in 15 years' time depends on how it projects itself at its launch. Traditions are then created which, years later, are sources of vitality in high-performance knowledge institutions, and of decay in mediocre ones."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"So, first-class management is essential from the very beginning."}]},{"head":"Concept-the Founding Vision","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Institutions of excellence begin with bold concepts and great purposes. These inspire the staff long after founders move on. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), for example, was created as \"a center A poor launch and poor operative practices contribute to the underachievement of many of the 30 Indian institutions assessed. And although a good launch can ensure success in the short and medium term, poor operative practices commonly cause a decline in performance later on. Institutional performance was rated \"high\" if an institution a) had survived for a long period without compromising its missions and goals, b) was perceived as having intrinsic value/usefulness by professionals in the field and by interested members of the public, and c) sets the standards for, and leads in, its particular field."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"for research that would radiate to the rest of the country standards as high as any to be encountered anywhere. \""},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"So, the mandate of institutions should not be limited to dealing only with problems relevant at the time of their launch. Their concepts should be \"ageless, \" adapting to the new challenges to society, as they arise."}]},{"head":"Governance-the Role of the Board","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The Boards of high-performance knowledge institutions have key traits in common. They are autonomous and their members are interested, wellrespected and regularly renewed. Members are selected from a cross-section of stakeholder groups, and often include persons eminent in their field. Such Boards are active. Meeting regularly, they shepherd and oversee the activities of the institution and step in swiftly when there is any threat to the institute."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Boards that consist entirely of staff seconded from government departments, who often have little interest in their role, are unlikely to shape a high-performance knowledge institution (WALMIs and IMTIs suffer this problem)."}]},{"head":"Effective Leadership-Directors","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Good directors are selected by the Board. Long-term tenure and operational freedom are crucial here. In the formative years, these leaders establish norms of self-regulation, standards of individual and institutional performance, and collective leadership cultures. These prepare an institution for leadership changes."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Model directors generally view their leadership role as a lifetime's work. They reflect on successes and failures, have great \"entrepreneurial energy, \" and nurture many productive linkages."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"If a directorship is held as an additional duty (as in many SIRDs and the Gandhi Labour Institute), or if there is a high turnover of directors (WALMI, Gujarat,"}]},{"head":"Critical Linkages-Relationships with Other Organizations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Constructive relationships with the government are vital. High-flying, autonomous institutions benefit from having one or two key government members on the Board. Other successful institutes are governmentsponsored, but have a dynamic, fully autonomous Board and some financial independence (e.g., Center for Environment Education (CEE), which gains much funding from projects and publications)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Also, links with internationally recognized organizations benefit some high-performance knowledge institutions in terms of staff training. The Indian Institute of Management (IIMA), Ahmedabad, for example, is linked to the Harvard Business School."}]},{"head":"Figure 2. Hallmark areas of high-performance knowledge institutions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The quality of an institution's launch and the vision projected to the outside world at this critical phase is a common characteristic of high-potential knowledge institutions."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"had 15 directors in 12 years) leadership becomes ineffective."}]},{"head":"Funding and Resource-Generation Strategies","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"High-performance knowledge institutions have strong resource-generation strategies. Institutions need to be designed to be self-supporting from the very beginning. Fee charging is critical then, even if funding is available during the early years."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Lessons can be learned from successful nongovernment-funded organizations outside India (see box). An innovative, successful model is provided by the Institute of Rural Management, (IRMA) Anand. There, grants from donors have established infrastructure and covered staff development, while five years of core funding from the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has ensured a solid launch. A generous endowment from the NDDB gave IRMA autonomy and security. Interest from the endowment covered 50-60% of operating costs, but service fees and project grants generated the rest of the budget."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"One reason is that institutions make a positive effort to allow their faculty to do work that is meaningful and exciting, whilst still covering their costs. The researchers get their professional kicks from undertaking what interesting and relevant research is available to them."}]},{"head":"Best Operative Practices","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Operative practices that set high-performing institutions apart from low-performers are summarized in table 1. The following are some examples of innovative, effective practices used by high-performance institutions in India."}]},{"head":"Faculty Selection and Development","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"High-performing knowledge institutions recruit the best talent available. They realize that members of their professional staff (whose quality, productivity, creativity and commitment determine the impact of the institution) are their prime capital. So, they use Visiting Fellow programs-to attract young scholars."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• High-salaried senior-professor cadres-to attract senior academics • Masters' programs with scholarships-to attract bright students"}]},{"head":"Successful and Self-Sufficient","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Two model institutions show that it is possible for research institutions to be self-funding and produce a nonstop stream of quality research products. UK's Institute for Development Studies (IDS) and Overseas Development Institute (ODI) use innovative, output-driven systems."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Systems revolve around the \"Researcher Work Day,\" which is charged for at a rate that includes the salary of the researcher and support staff, plus overheads. Researchers/research groups have to bring in funding equivalent to a minimum number of these Work Days per year. This ensures that support staff are kept to a minimum, providing high-quality support to the researchers who earn their salaries."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Senior researchers command high daily rates (e.g., US $750/ day), but they must demonstrate that they can deliver quality research/training products on time. This promotes excellence."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Yet, the researchers working within these institutes do not require strong financial incentives. Researchers' pay often follows standard UK university scales. Their annual increments and growth prospects are also similar. Why then are researchers willing to work so hard for relatively little financial rewards?"},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"High-performing knowledge institutions recruit the best talent available. This research shows that the critical differences between high-performance knowledge institutions (HPKI) and others hinges on operative practices in seven distinct areas. The areas are things that high performance institutions do differently from the rest. Members of this class seem to adopt a uniform or coherent set of operative practices in all these areas. Other institutions use best operative practices in some but not all areas. In low-performing institutions, operative practices in most or all areas are problematic and different from those found in HPKI class. WALMI actually needs to be relaunched, with a new mandate and with considerably more autonomy. This is viable, if phased in and properly managed. Over three years, alternative 2 could be used as a stepping stone to smooth the eventual relaunch. This phase would include"}]},{"head":"Core Portfolio of Products and Services","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• introducing 6-7 eminent, nongovernmental Board members"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• electing the Board's Vice Chairman from among its nongovernmental members"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• progressively decreasing governmental funding"},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"• gradually disengaging from the Irrigation Department Relaunched, the new WALMI's objectives would be considerably broadened, to address 15 years of change in waterpolicy needs. Its mandate would include groundwater irrigation and domestic and industrial supply, as well as canal irrigation. Also, the movement towards nongovernmental autonomy would continue."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"WALMI's fee-paying client base would expand to include NGOs, industry, municipalities and aid agencies as well as the Irrigation Department and the state government. And WALMI would emerge as a self-financing, nongovernmental, academic institution of excellence. This approach is an example of how to transform a bureaucracy into an institution. Immediate privatization or bringing in a high-level professional leader and new operative practices is not enough. There is a need to wipe the slate clean-from Board to management. Removing government staff, creating a new Board with a nongovernmental official as Chair, and requiring that the Board recreates itself every three years are vital. Finally, a diversified funding plan is essential."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"High-quality institutions attract funds, but they do not allow donations to compromise their principles."}]},{"head":"Infrastructure","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Infrastructure may be modest, but it is efficiently used. This enhances the impact of the institution's work."}]},{"head":"Funding and Resource Generation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"High-quality institutions attract funds, but they do not allow donations to compromise their principles. They strike a balance between too much core funding (causing complacency and inertia) and too little (causing \"projectitis, \" as staff work to acquire short-term funds). They charge \"nontrivial\"/high prices for services and products. This promotes quality and excellence."}]},{"head":"Organizational Culture","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Pride and teamwork are fostered by"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• monthly meetings of the entire group where all staff (technical and nontechnical) share innovative ideas and present their work-inprogress • participatory decision making, to allocate work and projects to staff members"}]},{"head":"Management and Operations","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"High-performance institutions maintain traditions of faculty governance, freedom, group work, peerreview and rigor by "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" good la u n c h, goo d o p e ratin g p r a c t ic e s go od laun ch, poor op er at in g p ra c ti c e s p oo r launch, p o o r o p er at ing pra ct ic es p o o r la u n c h , g o o d o p e ra ti n g pr ac ti c , such as the Irrigation Management Training Institutes (IMTs) and the State Institutes of Rural Developments (SIRDs). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 1. Design/launch and operative practices affect institutional performance "},{"text":"Operative Practices in High-and Low-Performing Institutions Area Operative Practices in HPKI Class Operative Practices in the Rest of the Institutions  1a. Faculty Selection Open search; merit and suitability-based; Deputation from Departments; heavy reliance 1a. Faculty SelectionOpen search; merit and suitability-based;Deputation from Departments; heavy reliance Procedure  on guest faculty Procedureon guest faculty 1.b Accent on Faculty High and continuous Low and/or initially temporary 1.b Accent on FacultyHigh and continuousLow and/or initially temporary Competence Development   Competence Development 1.c Reward Structure and Competitive in academia; merit and Linked to govt; time-scale-based; little or no 1.c Reward Structure andCompetitive in academia; merit andLinked to govt; time-scale-based; little or no Growth time-scale-based growth; substantial linkage between performance and rewards; Growthtime-scale-based growth; substantiallinkage between performance and rewards;  non-pecuniary rewards uncompetitive and limited range of rewards non-pecuniary rewardsuncompetitive and limited range of rewards 2. Portfolio of Products and Well-defined core portfolio creates Commonly, core portfolio of recurring 2. Portfolio of Products andWell-defined core portfolio createsCommonly, core portfolio of recurring Services powerful synergy; recurring feature; involve products/services with joint ownership by all Servicespowerful synergy; recurring feature; involveproducts/services with joint ownership by all  all staff who share responsibility for its staff missing; institutional output is equal to all staff who share responsibility for itsstaff missing; institutional output is equal to  quality and relevance; prestige-products; (or less than) the sum of individual outputs; quality and relevance; prestige-products;(or less than) the sum of individual outputs;  represents the core competencies of the if a core product portfolio does exist, its represents the core competencies of theif a core product portfolio does exist, its  Institution; draw out the best in the indifferent quality becomes the bane of the Institution; draw out the best in theindifferent quality becomes the bane of the  Institution; institutional excellence institution Institution; institutional excellenceinstitution  identified with quality of the portfolio  identified with quality of the portfolio 3. Organizational Design Relatively flat, nonhierarchical, matrix-type; Hierarchical; bureaucratic and authority- 3. Organizational DesignRelatively flat, nonhierarchical, matrix-type;Hierarchical; bureaucratic and authority-  power with professionals; promote multi- oriented; power with administrators; unable to power with professionals; promote multi-oriented; power with administrators; unable to  disciplinarity; performance-oriented adapt to performance needs disciplinarity; performance-orientedadapt to performance needs 4. Infrastructure and Support Good or excellent; well-used, well-maintained, Poor, Good or Excellent; often underutilized 4. Infrastructure and SupportGood or excellent; well-used, well-maintained, Poor, Good or Excellent; often underutilized Services adapted to changing needs and poorly maintained Servicesadapted to changing needsand poorly maintained 5a. Pattern of Resource Resource generation without goal- Mostly core grants; projectitis; goal- 5a. Pattern of ResourceResource generation without goal-Mostly core grants; projectitis; goal- Generation displacement; core grants, project grants compromise Generationdisplacement; core grants, project grantscompromise  and fees  and fees 5b. Level of Resource Availability Moderate to plentiful Inadequate, moderate or plentiful. 5b. Level of Resource Availability Moderate to plentifulInadequate, moderate or plentiful. 6. Organizational Culture Democratic; stress on self-regulation, Authoritarian, restrictive, discouraging 6. Organizational CultureDemocratic; stress on self-regulation,Authoritarian, restrictive, discouraging  creativity, excellence & internality of locus of creativity and innovation; externality of focus creativity, excellence & internality of locus ofcreativity and innovation; externality of focus  control of control controlof control 7. Management and Systems oriented towards Organizational Rule-bound, target-oriented, low activity level; 7. Management andSystems oriented towards OrganizationalRule-bound, target-oriented, low activity level; Operations Performance and Impact; high activity-level; insensitive to final impact of its work, to client OperationsPerformance and Impact; high activity-level;insensitive to final impact of its work, to client  sensitive to client feedback; strategic approach feedback sensitive to client feedback; strategic approach feedback  "},{"text":" Portfolios include educational programs, training products, research and other knowledge products. Examples of such prestige products includeInvestment has given WALMI a high-quality infrastructure. Yet it has still not achieved its full potential. A governmentcommissioned study identified three ways to reorganize WALMI into a first-rate knowledge institution: It would provide the center with a little more autonomy, but would provide fewer outputs and prove more expensive in the long term. Papering to cover the cracks, which have appeared in WALMI's institutional structure, is not really a solution.  3. Organizational Design CASE STUDY: WALMI Gujarat 3. Organizational Design CASE STUDY: WALMI Gujarat  Effective designs already implemented include From Bureaucracy to Institution? Effective designs already implemented include From Bureaucracy to Institution?  • rotation of program leadership between junior and • rotation of program leadership between junior and  senior staff members senior staff members • a renowned Training-of-Trainers program • encouraging cross-disciplinary work and • a renowned Training-of-Trainers program• encouraging cross-disciplinary work and • high-impact annual environmental reports information flows • high-impact annual environmental reportsinformation flows • a popular fortnightly magazine • farming out support services to allow high ratios of • Alternative 1: Marginal Changes • a popular fortnightly magazine• farming out support services to allow high ratios of • Alternative 1: Marginal Changes  professionals to support staff • Alternative 2: Restructuring professionals to support staff • Alternative 2: Restructuring  • Alternative 3: Relaunching • Alternative 3: Relaunching  Making changes to WALMI's staffing policy (alternative 1) Making changes to WALMI's staffing policy (alternative 1)  is the simplest option. is the simplest option.  "}],"sieverID":"f53770a4-77c5-4b30-be2f-27b986b7ba89","abstract":"Many Indian water management institutions are failing to live up to their original promise. By allowing these institutions to stagnate, we risk the loss of a vitally important tool for research and policy making. Recent research has identified traits that set high-performance institutions apart from those failing to deliver. By applying these concepts to lower performance institutions, India can make good its initial investments and create world-class institutions for research, policy formation and development."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03f91bf455722f473cb5b4f4db853676","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f78e52ff-6849-4c91-bf8c-4dc9d5c11c6a/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Land-use conflicts between biodiversity conservation and extractive industries in the Peruvian Andes Authors","keywords":["Mineral mining concessions","Timber concessions","Hydrocarbon concessions","Protected areas","Endemic species"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":272,"text":"The continued expansion of destructive land-use systems throughout tropical regions is the predominant cause of species extinctions (Haddad et al. 2015;Newbold et al. 2015). Fueled by global demands for agricultural commodities, timber and other natural resources, the world's remaining natural ecosystems are increasingly being threatened and exploited by human populations (Rands et al. 2010). Widespread land-cover changes resulting from unplanned agricultural encroachment, illegal timber harvesting and the concomitant development of informal roads represent an important share of the net contribution to tropical habitat degradation (Hosonuma et al. 2012). Many of these land management practices take place in a rapid and uncontrolled fashion, and are driven by a myriad of institutional, socioeconomic and cultural factors that vary in time and space (Lambin et al. 2001;Geist and Lambin 2002;Nelson et al. 2005). Effectively regulating these rampant land-use and land-cover change processes through legislation and other types of government intervention is often difficult (Angelsen 2010;DeFries et al. 2010). In contrast, the geographical expansion of authorized extractive industries usually results directly from the intentions of and decision making by governments (Kohl and Farthing 2012;Ferreira et al. 2014). Most of the world's tropical forests and other natural assets are owned by national governments (FAO 2010). Yet, in the attempt to stimulate economic growth, governments are often strongly inclined to transfer long-term resource exploration and exploitation rights to large corporations through lucrative deals. Given that extractive industry regulations unambiguously favor the interests of private companies over the environment (Gordon and Webber 2008), the privatization of resource extraction rights is commonly associated with increased pollution levels, land-cover change, and other forms of environmental degradation (Bakker 2007;Wang and Chen 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":313,"text":"As a megadiverse country with an agriculture and resources based economy, Peru faces the challenge to parallel the preservation of natural landscapes with sustained economic growth and prosperity. Peru's mining and hydrocarbon sectors contributed to over 13% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 (INEI 2018), while the areas for metal and fossil fuel exploration continue to expand sharply under current levels of investment (Bebbington and Bury 2009;Cuba et al. 2014). Not all concessions become active mines or oil wells, however, resource exploration operations are equally linked to ecological deterioration. In the case of hydrocarbon exploration for example, there is deforestation related to the construction of the basecamp, sub-basecamps, heliports and the clearing of hundreds of kilometers of seismic survey lines, which concurrently opens up areas for agriculture, logging and hunting activities. Further disturbances are caused by exploratory drilling, the influx of numerous crew workers, and the detonation of thousands of seismic explosions (Finer and Orta-Martínez 2010;Harfoot et al. 2018). During the exploitation phase, impacts on biodiversity are usually more severe, causing conversion, degradation and pollution at extraction sites (Finer et al. 2008;Harfoot et al. 2018). Similarly, environmental degradation caused by metal exploration and exploitation in Peru has been related to large-scale deforestation (Asner et al. 2013), water pollution (Bebbington and Williams 2008), bioaccumulation of heavy metals in trophic chains (Bianchini et al. 2015), and socioenvironmental conflict (Bebbington and Bury 2009). In contrast, Peru's timber industry contributes significantly less to the economy (approximately 1% of the Peruvian GDP (FAO 2009)). Yet, the extent of logging concessions has increased significantly as a result of forestry reforms, now covering more than 10% of Peru's forested areas (Salo and Toivonen 2009). Although concessions are supposed to foster sustainable logging practices, in Peru they have been found to enable widespread illegal timber extraction (Finer et al. 2014), which could greatly undermine species conservation and management efforts."},{"index":3,"size":249,"text":"While multiple studies on the expansion of extractive industries in Peru and beyond have examined their potential impact on protected areas (Finer et al. 2008), indigenous territories (Cuba et al. 2014) and forest cover (Elmes et al. 2014), it has been less common to link the location of exploration and/or extraction sites to the geographical distribution of species. Yet, there is urgency to generate knowledge in this regard, since the extent of resource concessions is rapidly expanding while biodiversity continues to degrade at alarming rates. Here, we determine the potential impacts of the mining, hydrocarbon and timber industries on endemic species in the Peruvian Tropical Andes, which is considered one of the world's most critical regions for biodiversity conservation (Myers et al. 2000). We focus on endemic species, as their conservation can only be achieved within the Tropical Andes. Further, we focus on vertebrate species as comprehensive data on the geographical range distribution of plant and invertebrate species is largely unavailable. Following previous studies (Armendáriz-Villegas et al. 2015;Harfoot et al. 2018), we first assess the geographical overlap between the location of concessions and protected areas. Conversely, while protected areas form the single most important biodiversity conservation strategy in the Tropical Andes (Jørgensen et al. 2011), their location is often not in agreement with important ecological features (Rodrigues et al. 2004;Venter et al. 2014). Hence, we additionally determine to what extent the distribution of individual endemic species as well as the location of endemic species hotspots overlap with current concessions."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The study area (Figure 1) includes Peru's Tropical Andes biodiversity hotspot (Mittermeier et al. 2004) and all forested areas along the eastern flank of the Tropical Andes between approximately 500 and 3000 m.a.s.l. (Bax and Francesconi 2018), which are known to harbor many narrow ranged endemic species (Young et al. 2011). This area is located between coordinates 3°4′37 South, 77°56′4 West, 18°2′54 South and 69°47′1 West, and corresponds to about 500,000 km 2 ."}]},{"head":"Data collection and preprocessing","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Following Cuba et al. (2014), we used the distribution of legal concessions as indicator for the presence of extractive industry activities. Illicit resource extraction, such as the artisanal goldmining operations in Madre de Dios (Asner et al. 2013) were not considered in this study. Furthermore, other industrialized land claims such as agricultural concessions were not considered, as spatially explicit data were unavailable. Spatial datasets on mineral mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions were collected from the responsible authorities in Peru (MINAGRI 2017;INGEMMET 2018;PeruPetro 2018). In addition, we collected spatial data on national, regional and private protected areas along with their buffer areas from MINAM (2018), and Important Bird Areas (IBAs) from BirdLife International (2018a)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Geographical range maps for extant vertebrate species (mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles) in Peru were gathered from IUCN (2017) and BirdLife International and Handbook of the Birds of the World (2016). We mapped in ArcGIS version 10.1 (ESRI 2010) the geographical range of species present in the Tropical Andes, and selected all species whose ranges were at least 90% within the Tropical Andes. This yielded a dataset of 392 vertebrate species endemic or nearly endemic to Peru's Tropical Andes."},{"index":3,"size":294,"text":"Range maps tend to overestimate the presence of species, by covering areas that represent unsuitable habitat (Rodrigues 2011). Consequently, to increase our understanding of the geographical distribution of species, we refined the range maps based on species' elevation and habitat requirements, following Ocampo-Peñuela et al. (2016) and Li and Pimm (2016). Speciesspecific habitat and elevation information was obtained from the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2016) and BirdLife International (2018b). We buffered the original range maps by a distance of 10 km to reduce potential errors from digitization and georeferencing procedures (Jenkins et al. 2011). Then, we removed all areas beyond species' reported elevational limits using the ASTER 30m Global Digital Elevation Model V2. Elevational limits were rounded to hundreds as it facilitated the systemization of GIS procedures (upper limits were rounded upwards and lower limits were rounded downwards, e.g. the elevation range 970-2130 was rounded to 900-2200 m.a.s.l.). When a single elevation instead of a range was reported, we buffered the elevational value by 100 m on both sides and rounded to the nearest hundred (e.g. the elevation value of 625 was buffered and rounded to a range of 500-700 m.a.s.l.). Finally, we refined the range maps based on species' habitat requirements using a land cover layer produced by Peru's Ministry of the Environment (MINAM 2015). This layer, which consists of 75 land-cover types, was produced based on Landsat 5 TM satellite imagery from 2011 at 30m spatial resolution, in conjunction with RapidEye and Google Earth imagery at approximately 5m spatial resolution. We merged the land-cover types into 7 generalized classes (forest, grassland, shrubland, wetland, agriculture, urban areas and water bodies) and removed all areas that were deemed unsuitable for species' existence according to the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2016) and BirdLife International (2018b)."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Based on the refined species-specific range maps, we mapped endemic species richness at 5 km 2 resolution using the Hawths Tools ArcGIS extension version 3.27 (Beyer 2004). This resulted in a layer displaying the location of endemic species hotspots in the Peruvian Tropical Andes."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"We carried out three overlay analyses to determine the spatial congruence between extractive industries (mineral mining, hydrocarbon and logging), and the distribution of protected areas, endemic species hotspots and individual endemic species. First, to examine potential conflicts between the location and extent of extractive industry activities, and areas assigned for conservation, we overlaid the protected area layer with the industry concessions layer, and calculated the degree of overlap in ArcGIS. Second, we overlaid the industry concessions layer with the endemic species hotspots layer to determine to what extent extractive industry activities coincide with areas of high endemism. Third, we overlaid the industry concessions layer with the refined species-specific geographical range maps to examine the distribution of individual species within concession areas. Species were categorized according to their IUCN Red List status, and binned into 10 categories, ranging from 0% distributional overlap to >90% overlap with concessions."}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":359,"text":"Species geographical range maps were refined based on their altitudinal and habitat requirements as reported by IUCN and BirdLife International. Of the 394 endemic or nearly endemic species considered in this study, the geographical range of two species (Colostethus poecilonotus and Dipsas schunkii) were beyond reported elevation boundaries, while six species (Erythrolamprus problematicus, Hyloxalus leucophaeus, Pristimantis pardalinus, Pristimantis sternothylax, Psychrophrynella usurpator and Telmatobius hockingi) occured beyond reported elevation boundaries in conjuntion with habitat requirements, reducing the final dataset to 386 species. The total extent of mineral mining concessions, timber concessions and hydrocarbon concessions within the Peruvian Tropical Andes corresponds to 19%, 2% and 6% of the area respectively, with an aggregated overlap coverage of 26% (Figure 1a). Out of the five conservation area types considered (Figure 1b), the presence of concessions is most extensive within regional protected areas (34% of the total area), followed by buffer zones (25%) (Figure 2). National protected areas are least overlapped by concessions (6%). The richest areas in terms of endemic species correspond to cloud forest ecosystems at elevations between 1600-3600 m.a.s.l. (Figure 1c). Sixteen percent of areas containing a high number of endemic species (41-54 per 5km 2 ), overlap with concessions (Figure 3). Overlaps with mining concessions are most prominent, which agrees with their higher overall extent compared to the other types of concessions, as reflected in figure 1a. At the individual species level, the geographical distribution of 47 endemic species, which corresponds to 12% of all species considered, overlaps by more than 50% with concessions (Figure 4). Out of these, 21 species (or 5% of all species) have a distribution range that overlaps by more than 90% with concessions (Figure 4; Table 1). Most of these species occur within the departments of San Martín, Amazonas and Cajamarca located in the north of Peru, have little remaining habitat that is suitable for their existence (<100 km 2 ), and are classified by the IUCN Red List as \"data deficient\". Furthermore, four species are currently listed as threatened (corresponding to the \"endangered\" and \"critically endangered\" categories), while another four species are listed as nonthreatened (corresponding to the \"least concern\" and \"near threatened\" categories).  "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"The Tropical Andes region is a widely recognized priority for conservation efforts, given that its exceptional endemic plant and vertebrate species diversity is confronted by high rates of anthropogenic disturbance (Myers et al. 2000;Brooks et al. 2006). Massive species extinctions in the Tropical Andes are projected under current climate change and habitat conversion scenarios (Brooks et al. 2002;Malcolm et al. 2006). While many of these pressures on biodiversity have proven to be very difficult to mitigate (Jordan et al. 2015), planning and management of industry driven extractive activities is a rather top-down process which takes place under government approval and supervision. This allows for more control over the spatial and temporal allocation of exploration and extraction operations. Nonetheless, ecological considerations may not be properly addressed or have the same weight as potential financial gains from natural resource extraction, which often results in land appropriation for human enterprise irrespective of the spatial distribution of biodiversity across Tropical Andean landscapes."},{"index":2,"size":213,"text":"This study shows that more than a quarter of Peru's Tropical Andes has been leased to mineral mining, timber and hydrocarbon companies. Some of these concessions pose a direct threat to biodiversity, as they are spatially congruent with high endemic species richness and areas reserved for conservation. Regional protected areas show the most extensive overlap; for instance the Cordillera Escalera reserve located in the northeast is almost entirely overlaid with a hydrocarbon concession. Also the buffer zones located around protected areas, which are of great importance for sustained ecological health (Laurance et al. 2012), show considerable overlap with concessions. The problem not only lays in the fact that concessions are being granted in areas that are supposed to be protected, but extractive industries have often been found to drive habitat change far beyond operational lease boundaries. Sonter et al. (2017) show that mining related deforestation takes place up to 70 km from concession areas, at a rate 12 times greater than within mining concessions alone. Likewise, Finer et al. (2014) show that Peru's timber concession system facilitates illicit logging both within and outside authorized areas. This suggests that impacts on biodiversity induced by resource extraction are not restricted to permitted locations, but potentially extend further into conservation areas and epicenters of species endemism."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"In their assessment, Bax and Francesconi (2019) exposed severe conservation gaps in Peru's Tropical Andes protected area system, showing that less than 2% of all endemic mammal, bird, amphibian and reptile species are adequately contained within existing reserves. Alarmingly, the present analysis demonstrates that 5% of all endemic species have geographical distributions that overlap by more than 90% with concession areas. Meanwhile, some of these species display narrow and severely fragmented distributions across suitable habitat areas. This reflects additional threats to their survival, as both species' geographical distribution and fragmentation are recognized as prime correlates of extinction risk (Di Marco et al. 2014;Crooks et al. 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":175,"text":"The outcomes of this study bring forward two recommendations for improved biodiversity management in relation to extractive industry expansion. First, from a conservation planning point of view, it is argued that species subjected to high levels of anthropogenic disturbance, but currently not assessed as threatened based on their Red List status, may require proactive conservation actions to prevent them from becoming threatened or extinct in the future (Baruch-Mordo et al. 2013;Peters et al. 2015). This is particularly true for small-ranged endemic species, which are by definition more susceptible to habitat disturbance and degradation (Myers 2003). Our results show that thirteen endemic species listed as data deficient, and four species listed as non-threatened overlap by more than 90% with concession areas. Although this poses a substantial threat to their long-term survival, they are less likely to be supported through conservation actions. Spatially explicit data regarding the presence of extractive industry activities provides practical information for identifying potential pressures on species, which could be used to enhance extinction risk assessment and the development of precautionary conservation strategies."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"Second, as per ecosystem management and natural resource planning from a government perspective, it is recommended to explicitly consider the range distribution of endemic species along with their remaining habitat in resource concession designation processes. While environmental impact assessment (EIA) authorization is legally required for the approval of new projects and expansion of existing projects, it typically fails to thoroughly assess long-term and cumulative impacts on biodiversity associated with resource exploration and extraction operations (Finer et al. 2008). In addition, the hydrocarbon, logging and mining companies contract the firms to carry out the EIA, which generates an evident conflict of interests (Finer et al. 2008;Delgado and Romero 2016)."},{"index":6,"size":218,"text":"Likewise, within the context of Peru's Ecological and Economic Zoning (EEZ) activities, in which regional governments have been designated to define suitable areas for economic activities and conservation, the incorporation of sustainable and efficient resource concession areas should be an integral part of land-use planning. Conversely, in some cases EEZ has been reported to be inadequate for balancing and mediating competing interests in relation to territorial development and conservation of natural resources. Bebbington and Bury (2009) report that concessions have been granted in places irrespective of ecological zoning plans, which evidently undermines effective biodiversity conservation. Furthermore, Jeronimo et al. (2015) show that within gold mining areas in the Cajamarca region in the north of Peru, the EEZ process failed to accommodate the range of economic and ecological values attached to potential mining sites. Instead, EEZ was employed as a strategy to influence the expansion of mining areas (Gustafsson 2017), leading to controversies and extensive conflict between an anti-mining coalition lead by the regional government of Cajamarca, and a pro-mining coalition lead by the central government. This touches upon some of the limitations of current land-use policies and related institutions in Peru (Gustafsson and Scurrah, In press), and emphasizes the need for the development of improved planning strategies and environmental impact assessments that are unbiased toward any given sector."},{"index":7,"size":141,"text":"In addition to spatial planning methods such as EEZ, the temporal scale and significance of extractive industry related impacts on species needs to be considered in land-use planning processes (Papadimitriou and Mairota 1996). This involves a better alignment of the land change trends and processes associated with different types of concession areas (see Scullion et al. 2014), and the time scales in which they operate, to prevent irreversible damages. For instance, current hydrocarbon concessions are subjected to exploration and exploitation activities for at least 30 years (in the case of natural gas) or 40 years (in the case of oil) (Finer and Orta-Martínez 2010). Impacts on biodiversity as a result of these activities are likely to occur within shorter periods, implying that current time scales used in land-use planning are not adjusted to the ecological systems in which they are applied."},{"index":8,"size":170,"text":"Consequently, to reduce conflict between ecological and economic development objectives in coupled human-environment systems, enhanced spatial-temporal planning of resource concessions is needed. Specific attention is required for the potential impacts on endemic species. In this regard, subnational planning authorities and environmental agencies have a key role to play, but they have been found to lack the political power, resources and strategic abilities to enforce sound land-use planning strategies (Gustafsson and Scurrah, In press). By contrast, planning agencies such as the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MINEM) and the Ministry of Economy and Finance (MEF) are more powerful in the sense of having greater access to resources, political influence and technical capacities, but it has been observed they are more likely to prioritize economic interests rather than environmental conservation objectives (Jeronimo et al. 2015). Given these institutional constraints, adequately enforcing sustainable land-use planning to address the current species loss crisis in the Peruvian Andes will be one of Peru's most pressing natural resources and territorial governance challenges in the coming decades."},{"index":9,"size":48,"text":"Young, B., Young, K.R., Josse, C., 2011. Vulnerability of tropical Andean ecosystems to climate change, in: Herzog, S.K., Martínez, R., Jørgensen, P.M.,Tiessen, H. (Eds.), Climate change and biodiversity in the tropical Andes. Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research and Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment, pp. 170-181. "}]},{"head":"Land-use conflicts between biodiversity conservation and extractive industries in the Peruvian Andes","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig 1 . Fig 1. a) Distribution of mineral mining concessions, timber concessions and hydrocarbon concessions. b) Distribution of conservation areas. c) Endemic species richness. "},{"text":"Fig 2 . Fig 2. Overlap between mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions and different types of conservation areas within Peru's Tropical Andes. Numbers in parenthesis correspond to the total coverage of each conservation area type. A matrix of the overlaps (in km 2 and %) between different types of concessions and conservation areas is provided in appendix A. "},{"text":"Fig 3 . Fig 3. Overlap between mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions, and endemic species richness within Peru's Tropical Andes. A matrix of the overlaps (in km 2 and %) between different types of concessions and endemic species richness is provided in appendix A. "},{"text":"Fig 4 . Fig 4. Number of species whose distributions coincide with mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions in Peru's Tropical Andes, according to IUCN Red List status: DD = data deficient, LC = least concern, NT = near threatened, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered, CR = critically endangered. A matrix of the overlaps (in km 2 and %) between different types of concessions and individual endemic species is provided in appendix A. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Species with >90% of their distribution within current mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions. Scientific name Taxa Red List Location Refined Distribution in Scientific nameTaxaRed ListLocationRefinedDistribution in   status*  distribution (km 2 ) concessions (%) status*distribution (km 2 )concessions (%) Allobates ornatus Amphibian DD San Martín 50 99 Allobates ornatusAmphibianDDSan Martín5099 Anomalepis aspinosus Retile DD Amazonas / Cajamarca 1513 91 Anomalepis aspinosusRetileDDAmazonas / Cajamarca 151391 Cochranella croceopodes Amphibian DD San Martín 282 99 Cochranella croceopodesAmphibianDDSan Martín28299 Enyalioides rudolfarndti Retile LC Huánuco 6 99 Enyalioides rudolfarndtiRetileLCHuánuco699 Espadarana fernandoi Amphibian EN San Martín 46 98 Espadarana fernandoiAmphibianENSan Martín4698 Hyloxalus eleutherodactylus Amphibian DD San Martín 16 100 Hyloxalus eleutherodactylus AmphibianDDSan Martín16100 Hyloxalus spilotogaster Amphibian DD Amazonas 14 90 Hyloxalus spilotogasterAmphibianDDAmazonas1490 Incaspiza watkinsi Bird NT Amazonas / Cajamarca 795 100 Incaspiza watkinsiBirdNTAmazonas / Cajamarca 795100 Melanopareia maranonica Bird NT Amazonas / Cajamarca 903 99 Melanopareia maranonicaBirdNTAmazonas / Cajamarca 90399 Nymphargus chancas Amphibian DD San Martín 73 99 Nymphargus chancasAmphibianDDSan Martín7399 Pristimantis avicuporum Amphibian DD Amazonas 51 91 Pristimantis avicuporumAmphibianDDAmazonas5191 Pristimantis chimu Amphibian DD Cajamarca <1 100 Pristimantis chimuAmphibianDDCajamarca<1100 Pristimantis karcharias Amphibian DD Amazonas <1 100 Pristimantis karchariasAmphibianDDAmazonas<1100 Pristimantis pinguis Amphibian DD Cajamarca 443 94 Pristimantis pinguisAmphibianDDCajamarca44394 Pristimantis simonsii Amphibian CR Cajamarca 1 90 Pristimantis simonsiiAmphibianCRCajamarca190  "},{"text":"Table A1 . Overlap between mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions and different types of conservation areas in the Peruvian Tropical Andes.   APPENDIX A    APPENDIX A Conservation area type Total area Overlap with Overlap with Overlap with Total Total Conservation area typeTotal areaOverlap withOverlap withOverlap withTotalTotal  (km 2 ) mineral mining hydrocarbon timber overlap overlap (km 2 )mineral mininghydrocarbontimberoverlapoverlap   concessions in concessions in concessions in (km 2 )* (%)* concessions inconcessions inconcessions in(km 2 )*(%)*   km 2 (%) km 2 (%) km 2 (%)   km 2 (%)km 2 (%)km 2 (%) National PAs 65382 607 (0.9) 3106 (4.8) 10 (0.0) 3694 5.7 National PAs65382607 (0.9)3106 (4.8)10 (0.0)36945.7 Regional PAs 4240 88 (2.1) 1363 (32.1) 0 (0.0) 1450 34.2 Regional PAs424088 (2.1)1363 (32.1)0 (0.0)145034.2 Private PAs 2701 221 (8.2) 48 (1.8) 0 (0.0) 269 10 Private PAs2701221 (8.2)48 (1.8)0 (0.0)26910 Buffer zones 58012 4260 (7.3) 6693 (11.5) 4099 (7.1) 14741 25.4 Buffer zones580124260 (7.3)6693 (11.5)4099 (7.1)1474125.4 IBAs 95876 4139 (4.3) 7369 (7.7) 576 (0.6) 11630 12.1 IBAs958764139 (4.3)7369 (7.7)576 (0.6)1163012.1 * overlap between concessions is aggregated      * overlap between concessions is aggregated  "},{"text":"Table A2 . Overlap between mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions, and endemic species richness in the Peruvian Tropical Andes. Number of species Total area Overlap with Overlap with Overlap with Total Total Number of speciesTotal areaOverlap withOverlap withOverlap withTotalTotal  (km 2 ) mineral mining hydrocarbon timber overlap overlap (km 2 )mineral mininghydrocarbontimberoverlapoverlap   concessions in concessions in concessions in (km 2 )* (%)* concessions inconcessions inconcessions in(km 2 )*(%)*   km 2 (%) km 2 (%) km 2 (%)   km 2 (%)km 2 (%)km 2 (%) 0 -3 203949 44609 (21.9) 5511 (2.7) 1685 (0.8) 50127 24.6 0 -320394944609 (21.9)5511 (2.7)1685 (0.8)5012724.6 4 -8 107953 23997 (22.2) 7854 (7.3) 3581 (3.3) 35089 32.5 4 -810795323997 (22.2)7854 (7.3)3581 (3.3)3508932.5 9 -15 50770 7533 (14.8) 5456 (10.7) 1395 (2.7) 13889 27.4 9 -15507707533 (14.8)5456 (10.7)1395 (2.7)1388927.4 16 -22 20454 1137 (5.6) 1040 (5.1) 700 (3.4) 2783 13.6 16 -22204541137 (5.6)1040 (5.1)700 (3.4)278313.6 23 -28 14946 717 (4.8) 458 (3.1) 268 (1.8) 1434 9.6 23 -2814946717 (4.8)458 (3.1)268 (1.8)14349.6 29 -34 13115 962 (7.3) 94 (0.7) 243 (1.9) 1301 9.9 29 -3413115962 (7.3)94 (0.7)243 (1.9)13019.9 35 -40 7448 622 (8.3) 127 (1.7) 40 (0.5) 790 10.6 35 -407448622 (8.3)127 (1.7)40 (0.5)79010.6 41 -54 2659 344 (12.9) 101 (3.8) 0 (0.0) 427 16.0 41 -542659344 (12.9)101 (3.8)0 (0.0)42716.0 Anthropogenically disturbed areas 82355 13270 (16.1) 9652 (11.7) 1736 (2.1) 22740 27.6 Anthropogenically disturbed areas8235513270 (16.1)9652 (11.7)1736 (2.1)2274027.6 Total 503647 93189 (18.5) 30292 (6.0) 9648 (1.9) 130480 25.9 Total50364793189 (18.5)30292 (6.0)9648 (1.9)13048025.9 * overlap between concessions is aggregated      * overlap between concessions is aggregated  "},{"text":"Appendix1 Click here to download Table: 7Appendix1_Extraxtive_R.docxTable A3 . Overlap between mining, hydrocarbon and logging concessions, and individual endemic species in the Peruvian Tropical Andes. Marmosops juninensis Stenocercus huancabambae 2678.47 922.27 182.03 (6.8) 77.01 (8.4) 655.35 (24.5) 279.15 (30.3) 69.78 (2.6) 0.00 (0.0) 846.49 326.98 31.6 35.5 Marmosops juninensis Stenocercus huancabambae2678.47 922.27182.03 (6.8) 77.01 (8.4)655.35 (24.5) 279.15 (30.3)69.78 (2.6) 0.00 (0.0)846.49 326.9831.6 35.5 Scientific name Melanopareia maranonica Stenocercus melanopygus Microlophus stolzmanni Stenocercus orientalis Refined geographic 902.98 3449.87 5858.25 805.29 Overlap with mineral mining 124.57 (13.8) 1461.86 (42.4) 691.50 (11.8) 187.42 (23.3) Overlap with hydrocarbon 895.61 (99.2) 0.00 (0.0) 1578.68 (26.9) 118.29 (14.7) Overlap with timber 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) Total overlap 896.38 1461.86 2116.06 304.24 99.3 42.4 Total overlap 36.1 37.8 Scientific name Melanopareia maranonica Stenocercus melanopygus Microlophus stolzmanni Stenocercus orientalisRefined geographic 902.98 3449.87 5858.25 805.29Overlap with mineral mining 124.57 (13.8) 1461.86 (42.4) 691.50 (11.8) 187.42 (23.3)Overlap with hydrocarbon 895.61 (99.2) 0.00 (0.0) 1578.68 (26.9) 118.29 (14.7)Overlap with timber 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)Total overlap 896.38 1461.86 2116.06 304.2499.3 42.4 Total overlap 36.1 37.8 Nannophryne cophotis Stenocercus torquatus Aglaeactis aliciae Nannophryne corynetes Taphrolesbia griseiventris range (km 2 ) 6481.19 987.67 274.13 275.99 5194.36 concessions in km 2 (%) 3190.91 (49.2) 40.25 (4.1) 192.47 (70.2) 116.48 (42.2) 1756.50 (33.8) concessions in km 2 (%) 0.00 (0.0) 539.34 (54.6) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) concessions in 0.00 (0.0) 40.24 (4.1) km 2 (%) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) (km 2 )* 3190.91 594.97 192.47 116.48 1756.5 (%)* 49.2 60.2 70.2 42.2 33.8 Nannophryne cophotis Stenocercus torquatus Aglaeactis aliciae Nannophryne corynetes Taphrolesbia griseiventrisrange (km 2 ) 6481.19 987.67 274.13 275.99 5194.36concessions in km 2 (%) 3190.91 (49.2) 40.25 (4.1) 192.47 (70.2) 116.48 (42.2) 1756.50 (33.8)concessions in km 2 (%) 0.00 (0.0) 539.34 (54.6) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)concessions in 0.00 (0.0) 40.24 (4.1) km 2 (%) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)(km 2 )* 3190.91 594.97 192.47 116.48 1756.5(%)* 49.2 60.2 70.2 42.2 33.8 Allobates alessandroi Nymphargus chancas Telmatobius brevipes 1523.75 73.47 5531.58 532.50 (34.9) 0.00 (0.0) 2767.49 (50) 0.00 (0.0) 72.73 (99) 0.00 (0.0) 47.96 (3.1) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 540.75 72.73 2767.49 35.5 99.0 50.0 Allobates alessandroi Nymphargus chancas Telmatobius brevipes1523.75 73.47 5531.58532.50 (34.9) 0.00 (0.0) 2767.49 (50)0.00 (0.0) 72.73 (99) 0.00 (0.0)47.96 (3.1) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)540.75 72.73 2767.4935.5 99.0 50.0 Allobates ornatus Oreobates saxatilis Telmatobius carrillae 50.48 175.38 4565.75 0.00 (0.0) 0.22 (0.1) 2069.41 (45.3) 49.79 (98.6) 140.32 (80) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 6.98 (4.0) 0.00 (0.0) 49.79 145.28 2069.41 98.6 82.8 45.3 Allobates ornatus Oreobates saxatilis Telmatobius carrillae50.48 175.38 4565.750.00 (0.0) 0.22 (0.1) 2069.41 (45.3)49.79 (98.6) 140.32 (80) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 6.98 (4.0) 0.00 (0.0)49.79 145.28 2069.4198.6 82.8 45.3 Ameerega bassleri Oreotrochilus stolzmanni Telmatobius colanensis 5718.09 17938.52 29.83 10.36 (0.2) 6282.75 (35) 0.00 (0.0) 2169.37 (37.9) 0.00 (0.0) 13.34 (44.7) 170.52 (3.0) 0.05 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 2321.9 6282.75 13.34 40.6 35.0 44.7 Ameerega bassleri Oreotrochilus stolzmanni Telmatobius colanensis5718.09 17938.52 29.8310.36 (0.2) 6282.75 (35) 0.00 (0.0)2169.37 (37.9) 0.00 (0.0) 13.34 (44.7)170.52 (3.0) 0.05 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)2321.9 6282.75 13.3440.6 35.0 44.7 Ameerega planipaleae Osteocephalus leoniae Telmatobius macrostomus 2.11 7215.32 7275.33 0.00 (0.0) 19.80 (0.3) 2188.08 (30.1) 0.65 (30.7) 1023.97 (14.2) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 1769.23 (24.5) 0.20 (0.0) 0.65 2590.18 2188.08 30.7 35.9 30.1 Ameerega planipaleae Osteocephalus leoniae Telmatobius macrostomus2.11 7215.32 7275.330.00 (0.0) 19.80 (0.3) 2188.08 (30.1)0.65 (30.7) 1023.97 (14.2) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 1769.23 (24.5) 0.20 (0.0)0.65 2590.18 2188.0830.7 35.9 30.1 Amphisbaena polygrammica Oxyrhopus erdisii Telmatobius thompsoni 8380.21 33413.06 6.93 738.65 (8.8) 108.46 (0.3) 5.91 (85.2) 3218.55 (38.4) 9461.85 (28.3) 0.00 (0.0) 183.15 (2.2) 1269.75 (3.8) 0.00 (0.0) 3932.71 10138.56 30.3 46.9 5.91 85.2 Amphisbaena polygrammica Oxyrhopus erdisii Telmatobius thompsoni8380.21 33413.06 6.93738.65 (8.8) 108.46 (0.3) 5.91 (85.2)3218.55 (38.4) 9461.85 (28.3) 0.00 (0.0)183.15 (2.2) 1269.75 (3.8) 0.00 (0.0)3932.71 10138.56 30.3 46.9 5.91 85.2 Anomalepis aspinosus Oxyrhopus marcapatae Thamnophilus shumbae 1512.51 1764.62 4620.49 124.98 (8.3) 423.38 (24) 242 (5.2) 1380.89 (91.3) 0.00 (0.0) 1454.51 (31.5) 0.00 (0.0) 143.36 (8.1) 0.00 (0.0) 1380.89 544.88 1543.43 91.3 30.9 33.4 Anomalepis aspinosus Oxyrhopus marcapatae Thamnophilus shumbae1512.51 1764.62 4620.49124.98 (8.3) 423.38 (24) 242 (5.2)1380.89 (91.3) 0.00 (0.0) 1454.51 (31.5)0.00 (0.0) 143.36 (8.1) 0.00 (0.0)1380.89 544.88 1543.4391.3 30.9 33.4 Arremon nigriceps Petracola labioocularis Thlypopsis inornata 481.14 0.04 2173.34 75.77 (15.7) 0.00 (0.0) 141.87 (6.5) 151.86 (31.6) 0.01 (34.5) 1138.84 (52.4) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 198.88 0.01 1165.23 41.3 34.5 53.6 Arremon nigriceps Petracola labioocularis Thlypopsis inornata481.14 0.04 2173.3475.77 (15.7) 0.00 (0.0) 141.87 (6.5)151.86 (31.6) 0.01 (34.5) 1138.84 (52.4)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)198.88 0.01 1165.2341.3 34.5 53.6 Asthenes usheri Phacellodomus dorsalis Truebella skoptes 2985.71 2713.26 17.07 1141.38 (38.2) 1013.04 (37.3) 10.76 (63.1) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 1141.38 1013.04 10.76 38.2 37.3 63.1 Asthenes usheri Phacellodomus dorsalis Truebella skoptes2985.71 2713.26 17.071141.38 (38.2) 1013.04 (37.3) 10.76 (63.1)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)1141.38 1013.04 10.7638.2 37.3 63.1 Atelopus dimorphus Phrynopus bufoides Turdus maranonicus 53.35 158.70 7630.23 0.00 (0.0) 79.68 (50.2) 829.79 (10.9) 8.52 (16) 0.00 (0.0) 1664.51 (21.8) 29.33 (55) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 30.74 79.68 2335.56 57.6 50.2 30.6 Atelopus dimorphus Phrynopus bufoides Turdus maranonicus53.35 158.70 7630.230.00 (0.0) 79.68 (50.2) 829.79 (10.9)8.52 (16) 0.00 (0.0) 1664.51 (21.8)29.33 (55) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)30.74 79.68 2335.5657.6 50.2 30.6 Atelopus erythropus Phrynopus pesantesi 169.42 97.95 89.86 (53) 62.33 (63.6) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 89.86 62.33 53.0 63.6 Atelopus erythropus Phrynopus pesantesi169.42 97.9589.86 (53) 62.33 (63.6)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)89.86 62.3353.0 63.6 Atelopus reticulatus Polychrus peruvianus 60.98 2899.41 0.00 (0.0) 204.84 (7.1) 33 (54.1) 1421.94 (49) 23.22 (38.1) 0.00 (0.0) 42.01 1481.52 68.9 51.1 Atelopus reticulatus Polychrus peruvianus60.98 2899.410.00 (0.0) 204.84 (7.1)33 (54.1) 1421.94 (49)23.22 (38.1) 0.00 (0.0)42.01 1481.5268.9 51.1 Bachia barbouri Pristimantis ardalonychus 2474.08 2173.59 168.64 (6.8) 4.84 (0.2) 2009.50 (81.2) 1090.10 (50.2) 0.00 (0.0) 0.10 (0.0) 2010.51 1094.95 81.3 50.4 Bachia barbouri Pristimantis ardalonychus2474.08 2173.59168.64 (6.8) 4.84 (0.2)2009.50 (81.2) 1090.10 (50.2)0.00 (0.0) 0.10 (0.0)2010.51 1094.9581.3 50.4 Bachia intermedia Pristimantis avicuporum 2052.82 50.60 147.42 (7.2) 0.00 (0.0) 1820.73 (88.7) 45.93 (90.8) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 1820.73 45.93 88.7 90.8 Bachia intermedia Pristimantis avicuporum2052.82 50.60147.42 (7.2) 0.00 (0.0)1820.73 (88.7) 45.93 (90.8)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)1820.73 45.9388.7 90.8 Callicebus oenanthe Pristimantis chimu 3406.21 0.31 4.64 (0.1) 0.31 (100.0) 681.16 (20) 0.00 (0.0) 579.02 (17) 0.00 (0.0) 1263.1 0.31 37.1 100 Callicebus oenanthe Pristimantis chimu3406.21 0.314.64 (0.1) 0.31 (100.0)681.16 (20) 0.00 (0.0)579.02 (17) 0.00 (0.0)1263.1 0.3137.1 100 Cochranella croceopodes Pristimantis cruciocularis 281.96 638.44 0.00 (0.0) 90.27 (14.1) 278.21 (98.7) 88.54 (13.9) 0.00 (0.0) 66.17 (10.4) 278.21 244.46 98.7 38.3 Cochranella croceopodes Pristimantis cruciocularis281.96 638.440.00 (0.0) 90.27 (14.1)278.21 (98.7) 88.54 (13.9)0.00 (0.0) 66.17 (10.4)278.21 244.4698.7 38.3 Enyalioides rudolfarndti Pristimantis cuneirostris 5.86 31.98 0.04 (0.7) 0.00 (0.0) 5.76 (98.3) 23.68 (74.1) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 5.81 23.68 99.0 74.1 Enyalioides rudolfarndti Pristimantis cuneirostris5.86 31.980.04 (0.7) 0.00 (0.0)5.76 (98.3) 23.68 (74.1)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)5.81 23.6899.0 74.1 Espadarana fernandoi Pristimantis karcharias 46.35 0.50 0.00 (0.0) 0.37 (73.6) 45.61 (98.4) 0.26 (51.3) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 45.61 0.5 98.4 100.0 Espadarana fernandoi Pristimantis karcharias46.35 0.500.00 (0.0) 0.37 (73.6)45.61 (98.4) 0.26 (51.3)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)45.61 0.598.4 100.0 Eubucco glaucogularis Pristimantis lirellus 13360.68 493.80 423.87 (3.2) 1.40 (0.3) 4087.03 (30.6) 435.50 (88.2) 523.92 (3.9) 0.00 (0.0) 4719.8 436.9 35.3 88.5 Eubucco glaucogularis Pristimantis lirellus13360.68 493.80423.87 (3.2) 1.40 (0.3)4087.03 (30.6) 435.50 (88.2)523.92 (3.9) 0.00 (0.0)4719.8 436.935.3 88.5 Euspondylus caideni Pristimantis petrobardus 43.58 199.43 16.17 (37.1) 83.03 (41.6) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 16.17 83.03 37.1 41.6 Euspondylus caideni Pristimantis petrobardus43.58 199.4316.17 (37.1) 83.03 (41.6)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)16.17 83.0337.1 41.6 Euspondylus josyi Pristimantis phalaroinguinis 12.23 150.86 4.82 (39.4) 47.11 (31.2) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 4.82 47.11 39.4 31.2 Euspondylus josyi Pristimantis phalaroinguinis12.23 150.864.82 (39.4) 47.11 (31.2)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)4.82 47.1139.4 31.2 Euspondylus oreades Pristimantis pinguis 21.11 443.27 9.67 (45.8) 415.27 (93.7) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 9.67 415.27 45.8 93.7 Euspondylus oreades Pristimantis pinguis21.11 443.279.67 (45.8) 415.27 (93.7)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)9.67 415.2745.8 93.7 Gastrotheca atympana Pristimantis seorsus 6.38 0.24 2.10 (32.8) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.21 (86.4) 0.00 (0.0) 0.02 (9.7) 2.1 0.21 32.8 86.4 Gastrotheca atympana Pristimantis seorsus6.38 0.242.10 (32.8) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.21 (86.4)0.00 (0.0) 0.02 (9.7)2.1 0.2132.8 86.4 Gastrotheca griswoldi Pristimantis simonsii 3942.89 1.19 1365.99 (34.6) 1.08 (90) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 1365.99 1.08 34.6 90.0 Gastrotheca griswoldi Pristimantis simonsii3942.89 1.191365.99 (34.6) 1.08 (90)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)1365.99 1.0834.6 90.0 Gastrotheca peruana Pristimantis tanyrhynchus 17194.68 0.44 8598.50 (50) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.34 (78.5) 0.00 (0.0) 0.13 (30.7) 8598.5 0.35 50.0 80.6 Gastrotheca peruana Pristimantis tanyrhynchus17194.68 0.448598.50 (50) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.34 (78.5)0.00 (0.0) 0.13 (30.7)8598.5 0.3550.0 80.6 Geositta saxicolina Pristimantis vilcabambae 32712.02 0.32 11829.46 (36.2) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.27 (83.9) 0.00 (0.0) 0.01 (2.2) 11829.46 36.2 0.27 83.9 Geositta saxicolina Pristimantis vilcabambae32712.02 0.3211829.46 (36.2) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.27 (83.9)0.00 (0.0) 0.01 (2.2)11829.46 36.2 0.27 83.9 Gonatodes atricucullaris Pseudogonatodes barbouri 438.67 61.69 14.31 (3.3) 8.01 (13) 347.97 (79.3) 60.85 (98.6) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 347.97 60.85 79.3 98.6 Gonatodes atricucullaris Pseudogonatodes barbouri438.67 61.6914.31 (3.3) 8.01 (13)347.97 (79.3) 60.85 (98.6)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)347.97 60.8579.3 98.6 Grallaria andicolus Psychrophrynella boettgeri 60096.61 0.30 18175.13 (30.2) 2.04 (0.0) 0.28 (93.1) 0.00 (0.0) 8.56 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 18175.13 30.2 0.28 93.1 Grallaria andicolus Psychrophrynella boettgeri60096.61 0.3018175.13 (30.2) 2.04 (0.0) 0.28 (93.1) 0.00 (0.0)8.56 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)18175.13 30.2 0.28 93.1 Grallaria capitalis Punomys kofordi 4578.60 643.98 215.67 (4.7) 239.07 (37.1) 1029.55 (22.5) 0.00 (0.0) 266.29 (5.8) 0.00 (0.0) 1384.2 239.07 30.2 37.1 Grallaria capitalis Punomys kofordi4578.60 643.98215.67 (4.7) 239.07 (37.1)1029.55 (22.5) 0.00 (0.0)266.29 (5.8) 0.00 (0.0)1384.2 239.0730.2 37.1 Hyloxalus eleutherodactylus Ramphocelus melanogaster 16.05 30141.99 0.02 (0.1) 195.56 (0.6) 16.05 (100.0) 5419.17 (18) 0.00 (0.0) 4737.56 (15.7) 16.05 9857.1 100.0 32.7 Hyloxalus eleutherodactylus Ramphocelus melanogaster16.05 30141.990.02 (0.1) 195.56 (0.6)16.05 (100.0) 5419.17 (18)0.00 (0.0) 4737.56 (15.7)16.05 9857.1100.0 32.7 Hyloxalus spilotogaster Rhinella iserni 14.43 2616.98 0.00 (0.0) 0.95 (0.0) 13.03 (90.3) 1806.96 (69) 0.00 (0.0) 93.19 (3.6) 13.03 1836.08 90.3 70.2 Hyloxalus spilotogaster Rhinella iserni14.43 2616.980.00 (0.0) 0.95 (0.0)13.03 (90.3) 1806.96 (69)0.00 (0.0) 93.19 (3.6)13.03 1836.0890.3 70.2 Incaspiza watkinsi Rhinella vellardi 794.78 137.36 68.25 (8.6) 19.11 (13.9) 794.53 (100.0) 125.96 (91.7) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 794.53 126.03 100 91.8 Incaspiza watkinsi Rhinella vellardi794.78 137.3668.25 (8.6) 19.11 (13.9)794.53 (100.0) 125.96 (91.7)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)794.53 126.03100 91.8 Liolaemus ortizii Rhipidomys modicus 36.84 30555.90 12.69 (34.4) 179.66 (0.6) 0.00 (0.0) 5410.30 (17.7) 0.00 (0.0) 4469.75 (14.6) 12.69 9577.46 34.4 31.3 Liolaemus ortizii Rhipidomys modicus36.84 30555.9012.69 (34.4) 179.66 (0.6)0.00 (0.0) 5410.30 (17.7)0.00 (0.0) 4469.75 (14.6)12.69 9577.4634.4 31.3 Liolaemus pachacutec Rhipidomys ochrogaster 5062.40 237.11 1930.57 (38.1) 87.31 (36.8) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 1930.57 87.31 38.1 36.8 Liolaemus pachacutec Rhipidomys ochrogaster5062.40 237.111930.57 (38.1) 87.31 (36.8)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)1930.57 87.3138.1 36.8 Liolaemus polystictus Riama laudahnae 947.35 0.43 288.10 (30.4) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.43 (100.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.43 (100.0) 288.1 0.43 30.4 100.0 Liolaemus polystictus Riama laudahnae947.35 0.43288.10 (30.4) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.43 (100.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.43 (100.0)288.1 0.4330.4 100.0 Liolaemus robustus Rulyrana saxiscandens 2868.52 189.25 1097.65 (38.3) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 189.25 (100.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 1097.65 189.25 38.3 100.0 Liolaemus robustus Rulyrana saxiscandens2868.52 189.251097.65 (38.3) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 189.25 (100.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)1097.65 189.2538.3 100.0 Liolaemus thomasi Rulyrana tangarana 444.21 212.37 299.81 (67.5) 0.16 (0.1) 0.00 (0.0) 209.40 (98.6) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 299.81 209.56 67.5 98.7 Liolaemus thomasi Rulyrana tangarana444.21 212.37299.81 (67.5) 0.16 (0.1)0.00 (0.0) 209.40 (98.6)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)299.81 209.5667.5 98.7 Liolaemus walkeri Scytalopus affinis 4147.04 6821.94 1427.49 (34.4) 3677.78 (53.9) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 1427.49 3677.78 34.4 53.9 Liolaemus walkeri Scytalopus affinis4147.04 6821.941427.49 (34.4) 3677.78 (53.9)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0)1427.49 3677.7834.4 53.9 Scytalopus unicolor 1572.67 667.73 (42.5) 0.00 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) 667.73 42.5 Scytalopus unicolor1572.67667.73 (42.5)0.00 (0.0)0.00 (0.0)667.7342.5  "}],"sieverID":"0fff1677-eb19-4f1f-ac7c-792ce6e29a70","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

data/part_5/043a2b415d270279008cf35a5927a419.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"043a2b415d270279008cf35a5927a419","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e3bac0ca-9f41-4c98-9ca6-8668fe5d1444/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Cassava Research and Development in Eastern and Southern Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Cassava is the major root crop in eastern and southern Africa. It is an important source of calories for the inhabitants of such countries as Uganda, Malawi, and Mozambique. It may also be the best alternative for overcoming the food scarcities caused by frequent droughts in the region."}]},{"head":"A research network for cassava","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The history of cassava research in eastern and southern Africa dates back to the I 940s, when Storey and Nichols carried out research on interspecific hybridization."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"During the last 5 years, a research and development network of cassava-producing countries in the region has been working actively to provide a base for the sustainable development of the crop. Known as the Eastern and Southern African Root Crop Research Network (ESARRN), the network is responsible for integrating cassava research efforts at a regional level (Figure I). It relies on technical support from lIT A and the International Potato Center (CIP in Spanish), Equally, several countries wilhin !he nelwork have assumed !he responsibility for developing lechnological packages for cropping syslems, poslharvesl processing, and inlegrated pesl manage• menL Nalional programs are also com• milled 10 developing an effeclive syslem of mulliplicalion and distribulion of planling maleria\\."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"Through Ihe concerted action of liT A and CIAT, 14,000 bolanical seeds of cassava were laken 10 Malawi in 1992 from CIAT. These seeds came from progenilors adapled 10 the Latin American highlands. In 1993, a similar shipment will be sent to the Ugandan Narnulonge Research Station. The first step of the prograrn--<OStablishing multiplication fields called Primary Centers-will be to plant 120 hectares. By late 1992,45 ha in 10 sites had already been established, using cassava varieties released by Malawian institutions. llle multiplicalory effects of this effort will mean that farmers will have enough healthy material to plant 600 ha in cassava. Zimbabwe. The effects of the severe 1991-1992 drought were particularly dramatic in Zimbabwe. which had 10 import maize not only from neighboring countries, but also from the Americas. Maize had always been Zimbabwc 's most important crop. Normally, the country produces enough to feed its population and large callie herds, to supply domestic starch needs, and to export to other African countries."}]},{"head":"Evolution of national cassava programs","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Various","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Unli~e in other countries of the region, cassava is not a traditional crop in Zimbabwe. The recent drought, however, at • tracted governmental auention to its potential as a partial substitute for maize as food security and for use by the industrial and livestock sectors (Figure 3)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"In June 1991, • workshop on cassava as a commercial crop for fodder, food, chemicals, and liquid fuels was held in BUlawayo. Organized by the Biomass Users Network, the workshop was attended by representatives of the industrial. agricultural. and governmental sectors. In Harare, April 1992, a \"Special Experts Meeting on Cassava Development in Zimbabwe\" was held. during which a Cassava Development Programme for Zimbabwe was created. Of high priority is introducing elite germplasm that is potentially adapted to semi-arid zones and the sublropics and resistant to mites and the African cassava mosaic virus . Botanical seed, from CIA T and liT A and in vitro pl.ntlelS from liT A will be introduced in mid-1993 ."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Mozambique. Cassava is an important food crop for Mozambique. Despite the prolonged dry seasons that affect large areas of the country and the difficulties faced by farmers in times of connic~ cassava continues to be an escape from famine and depressed social conditions (Figure 4). opponune was the decision taken by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) to give high priority to cassava in its research agenda."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"In Africa, as in Latin America and Asia, countries need opponunities to use the enonnous quantity of natural resources available to trigger their development."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Once more, cassava can prove that, if treated as a commercial crop and not just as a staple for household food security, it can help alleviate many serious problems confronted by developing countries in the tropics ."}]},{"head":"and leaves, without causing necrosis or","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"other visible symptoms as do pathogenic fungi . But they affect the crop's production and vigor by either drastically diminishing plant development and yield or stimulating them, depending on the"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" African governments are increasing their effons to develop the crop in their respective territories. Three examples follow: Malawi. The 1991-1992 drought devastated southern Africa, giving rise to an active campaign by the Malawian Government to intensify the country's production of cassava and sweet potato (Figure 2) Associations of either crop with maize dominlte the landscape, lO guarantee food security. Cassava is now ranked as the second most important crop-after maize-for rescarch support. Previously, it was considered only as a minor food crop. As a result of these changes, demand for cassava planting material increased considerably. Consequently, the National Root Crops Commodity Team (NRCT) is working toward fortifying the national programs' long-term capacity to multiply and supply farmers with hcalthy planting material. Collaborating with the NRCT are the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), liT AlESARRN, and ClP. This work is being supported by the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistanee (OFDAlUSAlD) and the Malawian Government. Activities include varietal selection, development of effective protocols for propagation and development, problem diagnosis, and information transfer to seed producers. "},{"text":"Flpre 2 A M.I.wian fanner diACUs~ hil c.assa .... crop with. JC~bll( . "},{"text":" Since then. a professional from the Agricultural Development Authority attended a training course on root crops at ITT A', headquarters in lbadan, Nigeria. Likewise. Zimbabwean institutions. the Commonwealth Science Council (U.K.), .nd IITA organized a training course on the methods of determining cyanide potential. The Biomass Users Network, sponsored by the Commonwealth Science Council and the Rockefeller Foundation, has already begun a seed multiplication program in some areas of the country. "},{"text":"Figure 3 .Figure 4 . Figure 3. A dry-season cassava crop near Harare, Zimbabwe . "},{"text":" Country members of the Eastern and Southern African Rooc Crop Research Network (ESARRN) .   Cassava newsletter. Vol. 17 No. 2. August 1993 Cassava newsletter. Vol. 17 No. 2. August 1993  Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea Vol. 17 No. 2 Au ..... 1993 ISSN 0259•3688  Red Sea Vol. 17 No. 2 Au ..... 1993 ISSN 0259•3688Red Sea Produced by erAT's Cassava Prolram and   Produced by erAT's Cassava Prolram and Communic8lions Unit, and )ITA's Rooc lind   Communic8lions Unit, and )ITA's Rooc lind Tuber Improvement Program   Tuber Improvement Program Coatrlbuton to this ....   Coatrlbuton to this .... Marcia C. IA. Porto and R.obertAsied~, OATs   Marcia C. IA. Porto and R.obertAsied~, OATs Cassava Program, SIaIiODed at UTA, lbadan.   Cassava Program, SIaIiODed at UTA, lbadan. Nigeria; and IITA's ROO( and Tuber Im-   Nigeria; and IITA's ROO( and Tuber Im- provement Program, respectively .   provement Program, respectively .  Atlantic Ocean  Atlantic Ocean Robt'rt Asiedll.IITA• 5 ROO( and Tubc.rlmprove-   Robt'rt Asiedll.IITA• 5 ROO( and Tubc.rlmprove- menl Program   menl Program Reittluudt Howdu. CIATs Cassava Program.   Reittluudt Howdu. CIATs Cassava Program. Sl81ioned in Bangkok. Thailand Marcia C. M. Porto, CIA Ts Cassava Program, stationed alIITA, lbadan. Nigeria Patricia Crllz.. erAT's Information Unit assistance from national governments, and financing from Ihe Uniled Siaies Agency for Imernalional Development varieties and introductions from interna-tional cenlers such as UTA and CIA T. Elile germplasm is distribuled every Sl81ioned in Bangkok. Thailand Marcia C. M. Porto, CIA Ts Cassava Program, stationed alIITA, lbadan. Nigeria Patricia Crllz.. erAT's Information Unitassistance from national governments, and financing from Ihe Uniled Siaies Agency for Imernalional Developmentvarieties and introductions from interna-tional cenlers such as UTA and CIA T. Elile germplasm is distribuled every Ana LMcla tk Roman, CIATs Communica- (USAID) and the Canadian Inlerna- year among Ihe nelwork' s members. Ana LMcla tk Roman, CIATs Communica-(USAID) and the Canadian Inlerna-year among Ihe nelwork' s members. tions Unit tional DeveJopmenl Research Cenlre  tions Unittional DeveJopmenl Research Cenlre The CASSAVA MWSItttH is also available in (IDRC).  The CASSAVA MWSItttH is also available in(IDRC). Spanish as YUCA boIett:. iaronnJItivo at   Spanish as YUCA boIett:. iaronnJItivo at CIAT, and in French as MANIoc, bultttin One of ESARRN's oulslanding  CIAT, and in French as MANIoc, bultttinOne of ESARRN's oulslanding d'inl'ormation at liT A. Subscription is fme to achievements, in recent years, was to  d'inl'ormation at liT A. Subscription is fme toachievements, in recent years, was to those involved in cassava research and develop-ment Iransfer eJile cassava populations 10 dif-ferent counIries of !he region. Several  those involved in cassava research and develop-mentIransfer eJile cassava populations 10 dif-ferent counIries of !he region. Several The contents of CASSAVA HWSklter may be lines had been evaluated in mulli-  The contents of CASSAVA HWSklter may belines had been evaluated in mulli- reproduced if the source is cited. localional trials, logelher wilh local  reproduced if the source is cited.localional trials, logelher wilh local Contributions may be sent to any member of germplasm from nalional programs.  Contributions may be sent to any member ofgermplasm from nalional programs. the Editorial Committee. Please use simple Countries such as Rwanda and Zambia  the Editorial Committee. Please use simpleCountries such as Rwanda and Zambia language and a muimum of six pages (typed and double-spaced), preferably accompanied by illustrations. For photographs, please send have produced improved lines Ihal offer excellenl resislance 10 peslS and  language and a muimum of six pages (typed and double-spaced), preferably accompanied by illustrations. For photographs, please sendhave produced improved lines Ihal offer excellenl resislance 10 peslS and slides orblack-and-white prints of good quality. diseases, good qualily rOOIS, and high  slides orblack-and-white prints of good quality.diseases, good qualily rOOIS, and high  yields. They are derived from local  yields. They are derived from local  "}],"sieverID":"d95af31b-9a64-4b76-bba7-4ef1a23c257a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04f9ec47ccc8dff51546697208bdf51e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f73e737-b1dc-433a-8035-3b6e6e8b3a28/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"Scoping study report on potential existing value chains in the North-West region of Tunisia Scoping report ICARDA Team","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of tables","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The objective of this report is to analyze potential value chains in the north-west of Tunisia that are favorable to upgrade to Agro ecological principles. Based on previous results of development projects led by ICRADA, two regions were chosen Siliana and Kef. The first task of this work was to build some knowledge about the descriptive statistics on both regions on the most practiced value chains. The second task was to meet the community, to identify and co design, which value chain can integrate the Agroecological principles in a participatory approach. In this context four focus group discussions were organized one in kef and three in Siliana. This report is organized in two sections: Section 1 provides an overview of the descriptive national statistics on kef and Siliana governorates. Section 2 presents the results obtained from the focus group discussion conducted at the living labs level."}]},{"head":"Descriptive national statistics on kef and Siliana governorates 1.1.General characteristics on Kef governorate","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Located in the north-west of the country, Kef governorate is an area between Tunisia and the Maghreb countries along the Algerian border, it covers an area of 5,081 square kilometers, representing 3.2% of the national area and about 30.7% of the northwest region (Figure1). The Kef governorate has a population of around 243,156 according to the 2014 census (2.2% of the country's total population). This population is also more rural (43.5%) than the Tunisian population as a whole with an average of 32.2% (RGPH, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The agricultural and fishing labour force represents about 14.6% of the total labour force (ODNO, 2017).Kef represents 10% of the national cereal production, 3.4% of milk and about 7% of red meat (ODNO, 2020)which makes the region an important contributor to national food security. The semi-arid climate of western and southwestern Kef is particularly dry. Annual precipitation is estimated to range between 300 and 600 mm (ODNO Kef, 2020), providing water to several dams, including the Meleg Dam and the Tessa river."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Kef governorate is a traditional agricultural region, starting from an extensive system integrating large crops and small ruminants, with an extension of the irrigated areas counting today around 16 600 ha. Four main plant speculations are practiced: cereals, olive trees, fruit trees, vegetable crops, which vary in terms of allocation from one delegation to another (Table 1, See Annex 1 for value chain mapping in Kef). Concerning animal production, the livestock sector has a strategic position in the regional economy by contributing to the coverage of 70% of the governorate's needs in meat and milk products. Three major animal speculations are developed in the governorate: ruminant breeding (sheep, goats and cattle), poultry breeding and beekeeping (Table 2, See Annex 1 for value chain mapping in Kef). "}]},{"head":"General characteristics on Siliana governorate","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"The governorate of Siliana is located in the region of the upper Tell of the north-west of Tunisia. It is bounded by 7 governorates (Beja, Jendouba, Kef, Sidi Bouzid, Kasserine, Kairouan and Zaghouan), making it an area of passage between the North-West and the center of the country (Figure 2). Siliana covers a total area of 4,642 km², representing 2.8% of the country's surface area and 28% of the total area of the North-West region. Its population is 223,087, among them 57%are rural. The agricultural labour force represents 27.2% of the total labour force (INS, 2014). The governorate is characterized by a continental climate distinguished by fluctuating temperatures and frequent winds with an average annual rainfall of 500 mm in the heights and 300 mm in the plains (Table 3). There is a large cereal plantation in the north of the governorate while in the center and south there are small trees, cereal or fodder farms based mainly on mountain farming and extensive livestock farming.Four main plant speculations are practiced: cereals, olive trees, fruit trees, fodder and vegetable crops, which vary in terms of allocation from one delegation to another (Table 3, See Annex 2 for value chain mapping in Siliana)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The irrigated perimeters in the governorate of Siliana cover a total area of 18707ha, including 61% of public irrigated perimeters and 39% of private irrigated perimeters (ODNO, Siliana 2020)."}]},{"head":"Table 3. Main agricultural speculation in Siliana region in 2020 (in Ha)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Source: CRDA Siliana, ODNO, 2020"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Livestock farming plays a strategic role in the regional economy by helping to meet the governorate's needs for meat and milk products. Two major animal speculations are developed in the governorate: small ruminants (sheep, goats and cattle) and beekeeping (Table 4, See Annex 2 for value chain mapping in Siliana). "}]},{"head":"Value chain selection at the living labs level","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"After a first focus on the national descriptive data concerning the two regions of the project, the second step was to deepen our knowledge about the value chains practiced in these regions by meeting the communities. For this purpose, 4 focus group discussions(FGD) were organized: ➢ The first FGD was organized on the 5th October 2022 at SERS, el Kef with a local farmer association (GDA Rural women in el SERS); A visioning approach was done in collaboration with CIRAD. ➢ Then three FGDs were organized in Siliana during 3 days: November 1st, 2nd and 3rd, 2022 at the three living labs (SMSA Ankoud El Khir, SMSA ETTAWEN, SMSA Kouzira). The objective was to identify with the communities the main value chains with agroecological character. The selection of the value chains by the members of the living labs was done according to a global evaluation matrix prioritizing the value chains on the basis of a set of predefined criteria (economic, social and environmental) of impact and feasibility."}]},{"head":"First FGD in Sers living lab: The visioning approach","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Meeting the GDA \"Rural women in el SERS\" in Sers community was the first focus group discussion done with the community (Figure 3).This GDA was created in 2015, it has 6 members and 55 adherents."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The activities done among the GDA are breeding of small ruminants, cereal cultivation (the average size is between 2 and 2,5ha in the irrigated perimeter and 3ha in the others. All the members have less than 10 hectares and some of them rent land. They also practice beekeeping, poultry, grow saffron and vegetables."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"The objective of this FGD was to perform a visioning approach which is a process of creating a compelling statement of what an organization aspires to be or to achieve in the medium term (i.e., in five years) or in the long term (10 or 20 years) (Shipley, 2000). In our case study, the members of the GDA were asked about their vision concerning their agriculture in the past, present and future. The group was split into two smaller groups working in two parallel sessions according to their type of agriculture: rainfed or irrigated."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"In order to develop this vision, all persons present had to communicate their statements clearly and unambiguously. The first step was the share of individual visions; each participant presented to the other members of the group his vision of what he sees in agriculture in the past, present and future."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Then in a second step, the idea was to develop a collective vision. The participants were invited to design a common vision with a common statement summarizing the group's vision. "}]},{"head":"Living labs in Siliana","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The first activity of WP3 of the project consists in selecting and validating value chains with high economic, social and environmental potential, by living lab/study area. The selection of the value chains must be done according to a global evaluation matrix prioritizing the value chains on the basis of a set of predefined criteria (economic, social and environmental) of impact and feasibility(See figure 4)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Matrix templates created with guidelines can be used throughout the selection process to guide data collection efforts during field visits, conduct stakeholder workshops and serve as checklists (Jochem S et al, 2015). In order to meet our objective, three workshops were organized with the stakeholders (partners/potential beneficiaries) of the value chains. The first one took place in Rhahla, Gaafour with SMSA'Ankoud El Khir' on the 1 st November 2022, the second one took place in Chouarnia ,Makther on the 2 nd of November 2022 with SMSA ETTAWEN and the third one took place in Kesra with SMSA Kouzira in the 3 rd of November 2022."}]},{"head":"Economic criteria","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Job creation opportunities","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.3.Value chain selection from the livings labs FGD","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The results of the focus group discussions conducted at the four living labs based on the economic, social and environmental aspects have revealed that the main value chains selected are cereals, olive oil and sheep meat for all the living labs. Honey VC and Fig tree VC were also chosen by the living lab of Kesra \"Kouzira\" (Table 5). In terms of added value, olive oil VC and Honey VC have great opportunities to valorise specific and local products especially in Siliana. Sheep meat VC allows the small breeders of all living labs to have a regular income by selling the lambs throughout the year. It is an activity anchored in the traditions of the region and with important social values (meat lamb consumed in the periods of celebration). "}]},{"head":"Agroecological assessment","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Different agroecological practices are revealed by the farmers interviewed during the focus group discussions at the living labs (table 6). Several agroecological practices (Rotation, crop diversification, forage association, etc.) have been introduced by ICRADA in the farmers' production system through research projects such as the CLCA project. Traditional product \"Chriha\""}]},{"head":"Honey VC","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Traditional beehive \"Jebih\" Improve biodiversity (planting sulla and acacia) Source : Focus group discussions, 2022"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The 13 agroecological principles (HLPE,2019) applied to the five value chain selected by the members of livings labs are presented in the table 7.  "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The descriptive data on Kef and Siliana governorates allowed to notice that the most performing value chains in these regions were cereals, olive oil, sheep and honey. Based on economic, environmental and social criteria three value chains were chosen by the living labs during the focus group discussions."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The 13 Agroecological principles were applied to these value chains during the workshops to highlight which of the value chain can integrate these principles."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Kef Governorate and its delegations (CRDA, 2020) ................................................................. Figure 2. Location of Siliana Governorate (CRDA, 2020) ......................................................................... Figure 3. Workshop photo of the visioning in Sers community, October 2022 ....................................Figure 4. The three dimensions for the selection of the value chains .................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 1. Kef Governorate and its delegations (CRDA, 2020) ................................................................. Figure 2. Location of Siliana Governorate (CRDA, 2020) ......................................................................... Figure 3. Workshop photo of the visioning in Sers community, October 2022 ....................................Figure 4. The three dimensions for the selection of the value chains .................................................. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Main agricultural speculationsin the kef region in 2020 (in Ha) ............................................... Table 2. Main livestock productionin the kef region in 2020 (in Ha) ...................................................... Table 3. Main agricultural speculation in Siliana region in 2020 (in Ha) ................................................. Table 4. Main livestock production in Siliana region in 2020 (in Ha) ...................................................... Table 5.Main value chain selected at the living lab level according to the importance of economic, social and environmental aspects. ........................................................................................................ Table 6. Agroecological practices revealed by the farmers of living labs ............................................. Table 7. Agroecological principles applied to the main VC at the living labs ........................................ "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Kef Governorate and its delegations (CRDA, 2020) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Location of Siliana Governorate (CRDA, 2020) "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Workshop photo of the visioning in Sers community, October 2022 "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The three dimensions for the selection of the value chains The three living lab in Siliana are: ➢ AnkoudElKhir:It is an SMSA situated in Rhahla (Gaafour), created in 2022. It has 3 members, 27 adherents and 100 beneficiaries. The activities concern livestock (more than 50% of the members are small ruminant breeders); Cereal crops (Wheat) and olive trees (between 100 and 400 trees for each member) ➢ Ettawen:It is an SMSA situated in Chouarnia (Makther), created in 2017. It has 3 members, 114 adherents and 126 beneficiaries. The activities concern arable crops (wheat and barley); livestock (fattening and lamb breeding). On average 80% of the members have between 20 and 50 heads of small ruminants and about 4 cows; olive trees (an average of 150 per farmer) ➢ Kouzira:It is an SMSA situated in Kesra, created in 2020. It has 9 members, 120 adherents and 500 beneficiaries. The activities concern arboriculture (Fig trees, Olive trees, Cherry trees); Cereals (between 0.5 and 5 ha). "},{"text":" Water save in the sheep value chain Inputs reduction in the olive oil value chain Decrease/ stop the use of pesticides 3. Soil health Does your organization engage or promote the management of organic matter and soil biological activity? Conservation agriculture, rotation Crop diversification, manure, Olive plantations help floor fixing, Planting sulla and acacia, forage association 4Integration crop-livestock (sheep VC) Recycling olive by-products to feed animal Planting sulla and acacia to improve the agro ecosystem (Honey value chain) 7. Economic diversification Does your organization promote productive and income diversification on farms? Diversified agricultural activities Different use of the product (olive oil, Honey) Different use of the by-products (cereal, olive oil, honey) Exchange of olive varieties between farmers Farmer to farmer exchange at the community level Sharing of knowledge between the members of association 9. Social values and diets Does your organization contribute to building healthy, diversified and culturally appropriate diets, based on identity, tradition, social and gender equity of local communities? Traditional and social product (lamb meat) Local product (Fig tree) Creation of a label (olive oil) High nutritional value (olive oil and honey) Healthy product(olive oil and honey) oil producers and breeders have a suitable social place in the community Solidarity and respect between producers and consumers (Olive oil VC and Honey VC) 11. Connectivity Does your organization ensures proximity and confidence between producers and consumers? Proximity and confidence between producers and consumers (Honey and Fig tree VC) 12. Land and natural resource governance Does your organization strengthen institutional arrangements to include the recognition of farmers as managers of natural and genetic resources? Positive influence of SMSA on the biodiversity (planting sulla and acacia) Conservation of local varieties (olive oil VC) Conservation of local breeds (sheep VC) 13. Participation Does your organization encourages participation in decision making, decentralized governance and or local management of food systems? No participation (sheep VC) Participation in the decision making for the management of Kesra mountain (Honey VC) Source : Focus group discussions, 2022 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Main agricultural speculationsin the kef region in 2020 (in Ha) Delegation Cereals Legumes Forages Olive trees DelegationCerealsLegumesForagesOlive trees The Kef Est 19830 616 2480 5439 The Kef Est1983061624805439 The West Kef 10050 25 1400 3105 The West Kef100502514003105 Dahmani 31700 01 2255 4264 Dahmani317000122554264 Tejerouine 22960 - 3595 7895 Tejerouine22960-35957895 Sers 18700 200 5049 6305 Sers1870020050496305 Ksour 17100 - 4100 3345 Ksour17100-41003345 Djrissa 9170 01 1214 995 Djrissa9170011214995 KalaatSnen 15870 - 1690 2741 KalaatSnen15870-16902741 KalaatKhesba 10960 - 211 1719 KalaatKhesba10960-2111719 Nebeur 13560 1012 1690 7310 Nebeur13560101216907310 Sakiet Sidi Youssef 20050 70 4141 5033 Sakiet Sidi Youssef200507041415033 Touiref 6950 550 1800 2660 Touiref695055018002660 Governorate 196900 2475 29625 50810 Governorate19690024752962550810    Source: ODNO, KEF 2020 Source: ODNO, KEF 2020  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Main livestock productionin the kef region in 2020 (in Ha) Delegation Ovine (female producer) Bovine Goats (female producers) Beekeeping Poultry (Thousand units)    Local and Pure  Traditional Modern  Local andPureTraditionalModern   cross-breed Race  Hives hives  cross-breedRaceHiveshives The Kef Est 45000 1600 1500 5600 04 326  The Kef Est4500016001500560004326 The West Kef 19500 157 322 2330 10 580 75 The West Kef1950015732223301058075 Dahmani 35000 367 432 3000 27 725 - Dahmani35000367432300027725- Tejerouine 32350 132 234 3255 47 1395 - Tejerouine323501322343255471395- Sers 42615 474 531 3418 - 200 - Sers426154745313418-200- Ksour 41500 500 195 1900 30 440 - Ksour41500500195190030440- Djrissa 9000 45 14 1800 22 132 - Djrissa90004514180022132- KalaatSnen 49885 120 94 12460 426 445 - KalaatSnen498851209412460426445- KalaatKhesba 9000 01 09 1500 30 560 18 KalaatKhesba9000010915003056018 Nebeur 20530 992 1125 2505 58 1437 - Nebeur2053099211252505581437- Sakiet Sidi Youssef Touiref 24600 16100 360 355 -250 5060 715 20 20 654 654 -- Sakiet Sidi Youssef Touiref24600 16100360 355-2505060 71520 20654 654--  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Main livestock production in Siliana region in 2020 (in Ha) Delegation Ovine Bovine  Goats Goats Beehives DelegationOvineBovineGoatsGoatsBeehives  (female Local and cross- Pure (female (Female Modern Traditional (femaleLocal and cross-Pure(female(FemaleModern Traditional  producer) breed Race producer) Unit)   producer)breedRaceproducer)Unit) South 22940 1190 740 2680 2680 650 35 South2294011907402680268065035 Siliana Siliana Nord 21830 200 1080 2340 2340 850 40 Siliana Siliana Nord2183020010802340234085040 Bouarada 28350 750 500 1040 1040 1800 28 Bouarada2835075050010401040180028 Gaâfour 24300 646 162 345 345 1600 20 Gaâfour24300646162345345160020 Krib 24290 2050 2300 2340 2340 900 30 Krib24290205023002340234090030 Bourouis 27350 1690 530 895 895 1300 40 Bourouis273501690530895895130040 Makthar 34005 1600 460 2895 2895 1700 170 Makthar340051600460289528951700170 Kesra 28360 257 175 5660 5660 2300 120 Kesra28360257175566056602300120 Rouhia 48590 722 531 16695 16695 200 300 Rouhia485907225311669516695200300 Laâroussa 15350 390 185 1450 1450 2400 45 Laâroussa1535039018514501450240045 Bargou 24635 695 507 3660 3660 2500 50 Bargou2463569550736603660250050 Governorate 300000 11990 7170 40000 40000 18000 878 Governorate300000119907170400004000018000878     Source: ODNOSiliana, 2020  Source: ODNOSiliana, 2020  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Main value chain selected at the living lab level according to the importance of economic, social and environmental aspects.   Cereal VC Olive oil VC Sheep meat VC Fig tree VC Honey VC Cereal VCOlive oil VCSheep meat VCFig tree VCHoney VC Living lab Economic Selling to cereal Regular income Sources of   Living labEconomicSelling to cerealRegular incomeSources of rural aspect office By-products revenues   ruralaspectofficeBy-productsrevenues women  Use of straw for valorisation Production cost   womenUse of straw forvalorisationProduction cost SERS  animal feed Interesting suitable for   SERSanimal feedInterestingsuitable for (GDS)   selling price breeders   (GDS)selling pricebreeders  Social Social value Traditional Family work force   SocialSocial valueTraditionalFamily work force  aspect (family cohesion) activity (know-how   aspect(family cohesion)activity(know-how    Family inherited   Familyinherited    cohesion between   cohesionbetween     generations)   generations)  Environmental Rainfall crop Use of the by- Organic fertilizer   EnvironmentalRainfall cropUse of the by-Organic fertilizer  aspect  products    aspectproducts    For feed    For feed    animal    animal    Soil fixation    Soil fixation Living lab Economic Large area Small area Opportunities to Added value Added value Living labEconomicLarge areaSmall areaOpportunities toAdded valueAdded value Kouzira aspect Selling to cereal Collective land invest Attractive Attractive KouziraaspectSelling to cerealCollective landinvestAttractiveAttractive (SMSA)  office  Integration crop- market market (SMSA)officeIntegration crop-marketmarket     livestock Opportunities Opportunities livestockOpportunitiesOpportunities      to invest to invest to investto invest      By-products By-products By-productsBy-products      valorisation valorisation valorisationvalorisation  Social Nutritional value Family labour Family labour Adapted to the Healthy SocialNutritional valueFamily labourFamily labourAdapted to theHealthy  aspect Women Nutritional Farmer to farmer farm system product aspectWomenNutritionalFarmer to farmerfarm systemproduct   participation value exchange Inherited Self- participationvalueexchangeInheritedSelf-   Strategic crop Creation of Celebration traditions medication Strategic cropCreation ofCelebrationtraditionsmedication    jobs events  Family labour jobseventsFamily labour  Environmental Adapted to the Soil fixation Manure Adapted to Pollinization EnvironmentalAdapted to theSoil fixationManureAdapted toPollinization  aspect region climate Use of olive by-  region climate Improve aspectregion climateUse of olive by-region climateImprove   (rainfall) products   biodiversity (rainfall)productsbiodiversity Living lab Economic Selling to cereal Attractive price Regular revenue   Living labEconomicSelling to cerealAttractive priceRegular revenue Ettawen aspect office Opportunities    EttawenaspectofficeOpportunities (SMSA)   to invest    (SMSA)to invest  Social aspect Valorisation of Healthy and Farmer to farmer   Social aspectValorisation ofHealthy andFarmer to farmer   cereal products nutritive exchange   cereal productsnutritiveexchange   (traditional product Social value of   (traditionalproductSocial value of   products:  sheep meat   products:sheep meat   couscous, pasta,  Lamb of Aîd   couscous, pasta,Lamb of Aîd   etc.)     etc.)  Environmental Adapted to To avoid Organic manure   EnvironmentalAdapted toTo avoidOrganic manure  aspect climate region erosion    aspectclimate regionerosion    Recycle by-    Recycle by-    products    products Living lab Economic Selling to cereal High added interesting selling   Living labEconomicSelling to cerealHigh addedinteresting selling Ankoud El aspect office value price in the Aid   Ankoud Elaspectofficevalueprice in the Aid Khir    period   Khirperiod (SMSA)    Varied marketing   (SMSA)Varied marketing     channels   channels  Social aspect Social value Traditional and Social values of   Social aspectSocial valueTraditional andSocial values of   (harvest) healthy sheep meat   (harvest)healthysheep meat    product (celebration   product(celebration     events)   events)  Environmental Rainfall crop Soil fixation Organic manure   EnvironmentalRainfall cropSoil fixationOrganic manure  aspect  Resilient crop    aspectResilient crop   Source: Focus group discussions, 2022   Source: Focus group discussions, 2022  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Agroecological practices revealed by the farmers of living labs Agroecological practices Agroecological practices  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Agroecological principles applied to the main VC at the living labs  "},{"text":"Principles Honey value chain 1. Recycling Does your organization engage or promote the recycling of inputs or outputs within the company and with your partners?  Recycling opportunities in the olive value Recycling opportunities in the olive value chain (leaves, trunks, etc.) chain (leaves, trunks, etc.) Recycling wool Recycling wool Waxrecycling Waxrecycling  "}],"sieverID":"b3a0e3e1-0a87-430f-b85a-152b22ca7743","abstract":"The objective of this report is to select the main value chains with potential to integrate the agroecological principles in the Northwest of Tunisia. A descriptive analysis on the two governorates chosen was first made, then 4 focus group discussions were organized with local farmers associations. The VC assessment according to agroecological principles conducted with the main actors places the olive oil VC as the major value chain with agroecological character.The CGIAR initiative Transformational Agroecology across Food, Land and Water Systems develops and scales agroecological innovations with small-scale farmers and other food system actors in seven low-and middleincome countries. It is one of 32 initiatives of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future, dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0526a3946ef4e1c51d884cb69857bf13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef92da03-60c4-4c5b-a6b1-b12ce2f39e19/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"Classification of small ruminant production sub-systems in Ethiopia: Implications for designing development interventions LIVES WORKING PAPER 5 i Classification of small ruminant production sub-systems in Ethiopia: Implications for designing development interventions Classification of small ruminant production sub-systems in Ethiopia: Implications for designing development interventions","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Variables used in principal component analysis 3"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Table 2."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Explanatory and dependent variables used in to identify determinants of input use, productivity and marketing practices of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia 4"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Table 3."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Correlations between agro-ecological variables, cropping type and intensity versus livestock species composition, availability of grazing resources, small ruminant flock composition, and flock sizes 6"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Table 4. Rotated component matric from principal component analysis 7"},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"Table 5."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"Average livestock composition (cattle, sheep, and goat), small ruminant flock composition, flock sizes and grazing resources across agro-ecological zones in the mixed crop-livestock production system in the highlands of Ethiopia 8 Table 6."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Cropping systems across agro-ecological zones -Number of households growing cereals, enset-coffee, coffee and enset in the mixed crop-livestock production system 9"},{"index":10,"size":124,"text":"Table 7. PCs extracted and per cent of variance explained Table 8. Mean values of variables that describe flock characteristics, grazing management, agro-ecologies, and cropping systems of eight clusters of households identified from cluster analysis Table 9. Small ruminant sub-systems identified from eight clusters of households Table 10. Producers' input use and marketing strategies and productivity of small ruminants in six small ruminant subsystems in the mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia Table 11. Producers' socio-economic characteristics and farm resources/scale as determinants of input use and marketing decisions and variations across sub-systems Table 12. Household head gender and literacy status as determinants of small ruminant reproductive and mortality rates Table 13. Access to inputs/services, use of inputs/management level and farm resources as determinants of productivity"}]},{"head":"Figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"Figure 1. Part I of this working paper classifies small ruminant sub-systems in the mixed crop livestock system in Ethiopia. In Part II, important determinants of small ruminant productivity and producers' input use and marketing strategies were analysed across the six small ruminant sub-systems identified in Part I. Classification of livestock production systems forms a useful framework for the spatial targeting of development interventions. Household and community level data collected from Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNP), Amhara, Tigray and Oromia regional states, 31 districts, 497 communities and 2621 households were used to classify small ruminant sub-systems using principal components and cluster analyses. Exploratory analysis indicated variation and a clear structuring in livestock species and small ruminant flock composition and flock size in the mixed crop-livestock system. The variations were related to agro-ecologies and cropping patterns. Cluster analysis identified six clusters which were designated as sub-systems in the mixed crop-livestock system. The sub-systems were named following the dominant small ruminant species (sheep versus goat) and the degree of intensity/extensiveness of small ruminant production. The sub-systems were spatially characterized and described in terms of producers input use and marketing practices. Small ruminant production in Ethiopia could be classified into two systems (mixed crop-livestock and agro/pastoral) with six subsystems within the mixed crop-livestock system or into seven systems (the six sub-systems and pastoral/agro-pastoral system)."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Information on variations in producers' input use and marketing strategies. as well as in the level of small ruminant productivity across farming systems. is essential for better targeting of agricultural research and development interventions. Analysis of households' socio-economic characteristics and farm scale as determinants of small ruminant productivity and farmers' decisions on input use and marketing, fitting a generalized regression model to the data, showed that there are variations among the identified six sub-systems in the level of small ruminant productivity and producers' input use and marketing strategies. Both the households' socio-economic characteristics, such as gender and literacy status and scale of production (e.g. flock size and landholding), were found to determine input use and marketing behaviours of producers."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"The classification of small ruminant systems identified in this study would inform the development of strategies and formulation of targeted value chain interventions. The six sub-systems vary in the level of small ruminant productivity, producers input/service use, and marketing behaviours. This calls for system-specific targeting approach for small ruminant development, as well as a value chain approach, addressing constraints at critical leverage points across the small ruminant value chain and targeting appropriate producer groups (gender, literacy, etc.) for introducing technological interventions."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Classification of livestock production systems or constructing typology of farms is a tool to deal with farm diversity and variability. It forms a useful framework for the spatial targeting of development interventions (Notenbaert et al. 2009). Ruthenberg (1980) defined farming system as groups of farms which have a similar structure and function and can be expected to produce on similar production functions; and livestock system as a subset of the farming systems, including cases in which livestock contribute more than 10% to total farm output in value terms or where intermediate contributions such as animal traction or manure represent more than 10% of the total value of purchased inputs."},{"index":2,"size":185,"text":"Classification of farming systems in Ethiopia mostly lack quantitative indicators or basis. Livestock farming systems in Ethiopia are commonly classified parallel to and sometimes as part of crop production systems. Besides, although there have been some attempts to describe livestock systems in relation to cropping patterns (e.g. Gizaw et al. 2010), there are inconsistencies in description of livestock production systems with the same system being described as mixed crop-livestock (Menbere 2014a) or in relation to specific cropping pattern such as Enset (Ensete ventricosum) based system (Menbere 2014b). Small ruminant production systems in Ethiopia are generally classified under broad categories of mixed crop-livestock system and pastoral/agro-pastoral system. The mixed crop-livestock systems category, in the Seré and Steinfeld (1996) world livestock systems classification, can be disaggregated and distinguished by the type of main crops grown in them and the type of livestock prevailing (Notenbaert et al. 2009). The mixed crop-livestock system covers the whole region in the highlands of Ethiopia. Although the pastoral/agro-pastoral system in Ethiopia represent generally homogenous groups, there are indications from the literature that there could be variations in the mixed crop livestock system."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"Various criteria have been used to classify livestock systems, including integration with crops (intensity of cropping, potential for crop production, types of crops), relation to land (land-based/grazing and mixed systems and landless/ industrial, feedlot systems), contribution to livelihoods, agro-ecological zone, and degree of market orientation or intensification (Seré and Steinfeld 1996;Notenbaert et al. 2009), and intensity of factor use (McDermott et al. 1999). It has been found that household socio-economic and farm characteristics, as well as geographic locations, determine use and demand for inputs (Diego et al. 2015;Moti et al. 2015;Menbere 2015ab). The above facts imply that there are variations in input use and marketing strategies among topologies of farming systems. Information on such variations is essential for better targeting agricultural research and development interventions. This working paper classifies small ruminant sub-systems in the mixed crop livestock system in Ethiopia in Part I of the paper. In Part II, important determinants of small ruminant productivity and producers' input use and marketing strategies were analysed across the six small ruminant sub-systems identified in Part I."}]},{"head":"Material and method","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"2.1 Description of data "}]},{"head":"Part I: Classification of small ruminant sub-systems","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Exploratory analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"A preliminary exploratory analysis was run to explore the data for variation in small ruminant production practices and pattern of the variation in the dataset. The aim of this analysis was to identify criteria for classifying small ruminant production sub-systems within the mixed crop-livestock system in the highlands of Ethiopia. Review of the literature on classification of livestock systems (Seré and Steinfeld 1996;Notenbaert et al. 2009) indicated that agro-ecology and cropping systems are related to livestock systems or determine patterns in livestock production. First, correlation analysis was conducted to establish the relationships between the variables in the dataset. Further, principal components analysis was conducted using variables describing agro-ecological zones, cropping practices and small ruminant flock characteristics to identify variables that would explain the variation in the dataset used in this analyses."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The analysis was also used to calculate statistics for general description of the mixed crop-livestock system where the surveys were carried out."}]},{"head":"Cluster analysis and classification of sub-systems","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":861,"text":"Principal component analysis was conducted to summarize the data and to derive few variables (principal components, PCs) that would explain most of the variation in the data. A two-step cluster analyses with automatic selection of the number of clusters as implemented in SPSS version 20 (2011) was used for clustering households into homogenous groups using cluster analysis. The criteria used for the cluster analysis included eight PCs as continuous variables, agro-ecological zones with 10 categorical classes, and cropping system with four categorical classes. The cropping systems were classified as cereal system consisting of highland and lowland cereals, enset (Ensete ventricosum) system (with or without cereals), coffee system (sole coffee or also growing cereals), and enset-coffee (or coffee-enset) system. The clustering criteria were selected to reflect importance of small ruminants relative to other farm animals, relative importance within small ruminants (i.e. sheep vs. goats), integration with crops (cropping patterns), flock size, management practices (extensive grazing system vs. semi-intensive tethering system), degree of market orientation or intensification (use of external inputs and marketing strategies) and agro-ecology. The derived clusters were further characterized by more indicators that would reflect the above classification criteria. Clusters generated by the analysis were then grouped into fewer clusters based on their similarities to define sub-systems of small ruminant production in the Ethiopian highlands. The variables used in the study are listed in Table 1. Two types of analyses were conducted, namely overall analysis across the six sub-systems in the mixed crop-livestock system and nested design analysis where exploratory variables were nested within the six sub-systems to identify system-specific constraints. Factors that would determine small ruminant productivity, producers' input use and marketing practice(Table 2) were analysed. The factors broadly included producers characteristics, access/use of inputs/services, and farm scale. The data was analysed fitting a generalized regression model as implemented in SPSS version 20 (2011) with log transformation of the data since the data did not conform to normal distribution. The variables used in the analysis are presented in Table 2. The variables were used as either explanatory, dependent or both as explanatory and dependent variable depending on the type of analysis. Agro-ecological patterns of small ruminant production Agricultural production systems are largely determined by agro-ecological elements, socio-economic circumstances of farmers/pastoralists and market forces. The former two factors appear to be the major determinants of producers' production and marketing strategies in Ethiopia, market forces having limited influence on the traditional production systems which are largely smallholder systems with highly limited market orientation. For instance, maize stover utilization in Ethiopia was found to be co-determined by biomass production of maize and other cereals, extension advice on crop residue utilization, livestock ownership, farm size and agro-ecology (Moti et al. 2015). Correlation analysis (Table 3) showed that agro-ecological zones and cropping systems are significantly correlated with livestock compositions (cattle vs. small ruminants), small ruminant flock composition (sheep vs. goat), small ruminant flock sizes, and grazing resources which could indicate grazing management practices. This correlations should indicate that agroecologies influence relative importance of alternative livestock enterprises and scale of livestock production. Further exploration with principal component analysis (Table 4) indicated that agro-ecological variables and cropping patterns are highly related with the four principal components (PCs) which had eigenvalues of greater than one. This indicates that agro-ecological zones in combination with cropping systems explain the variation in small ruminant and cattle composition, small ruminant flock composition, small ruminant flock sizes, and grazing management practices. Spatially delineating landscapes with broadly similar production strategies, constraints and investment opportunities (Seré and Steinfeld 1996) and inclusion of crop-specificity and intensification (Notenbaert et al. 2009) have been used to classify livestock production systems in developing countries. Exploration of the data regarding relationships between agro-ecological variables and livestock production showed a clear structuring in the data collected in this study across a wide area which falls within the farming system classified traditionally as the mixed crop-livestock system. The proportion of sheep relative to cattle increased with increasing altitude (Figure 1). The exploratory analysis also showed that composition of small ruminant flocks is determined by rainfall patterns. The percentage of sheep in small ruminant flocks relative to goats is on the average higher in higher rainfall areas (Table 5), the average percentages being 41.7% in drier, 58.2% in moist, and 81.3% in wetter highland, midland and lowland areas. Regressing percentage of sheep in small ruminant flocks on average daily temperature and rainfall gave significant regression coefficients of -0.16 and 0.34, respectively. However, both sheep and goats seem to be more important in dry areas; average flock sizes in dry, moist and wet zones were 6.4, 5.4 and 3.5 for sheep and 7.6, 3.6 and 2.4 for goat. Regression coefficients of sheep flock size on temperature and rainfall were -0.22 and 0.36. The above results show that small ruminants are more important than large ruminants in the densely populated higher altitude areas and are important livelihood sources for people in marginal dry areas with less crop production potential. Furthermore, small ruminants seem to be more important for the poor. Correlations of flock sizes with ownership of horses and mules (indicators of wealth) and land holding were found to be low (r=-0.0016 and 0.10)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Figure 1. Ratio of sheep to cattle (y-axis) across altitude ranges (x-axis) in mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Agro-ecological patterns of grazing resources","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Ratio of the area of communal grazing lands over total agricultural land in a PA could be an approximate indicator to the type of grazing management and degree of intensity of small ruminant production. Larger ratios may indicate grazing-based extensive systems of small ruminant management. The data from the current study strongly indicate that grazing-based extensive system could be a major mode of production in drier areas. The average ratio of communal lands to total lands increased from 0.062 in wet areas through 0.062 in moist areas to 0.127 in dry agro-ecologies (Table 5). Relationship between grazing resources and small ruminant population is depicted in small ruminant density map in Figure 2.  Cropping systems and small ruminant production A clear cropping pattern can be discerned from Table 6. The major crops in the dry midlands and dry highlands are highland cereals. The moist and wet highlands grow both cereals and enset (Ensete ventricosum), while the moist and wet midlands grow either or both cereals and perennial crops (coffee and enset-coffee mixed) depending on rainfall and temperature regimes. These patterns are indicative of intensity of cropping which impact on the intensity of livestock production. For instance, there is larger communal grazing land, larger sheep and goat flocks (Figure 3) and more sheep than cattle in cereal system compared to enset system."},{"index":2,"size":237,"text":"The above exploratory analyses combined indicated that livestock species composition and flock size in combination with agro-ecologies and cropping systems can be used to discern patterns and classify sub-systems within the broader crop-livestock system in Ethiopia. This result is in accordance with description of small ruminant systems in relation with agro-ecologies and cropping systems as reviewed by Gizaw et al. (2010) and the use of these variables in the classification of world livestock systems.  1 to extract a smaller number of underlying variables (PCs) that explain the pattern of correlations within the 20 variables. The variables selected were supposed to reflect characteristics of production systems. These included relative importance of alternative livestock enterprises to producers' livelihoods, flock characteristics and management practices, and degree of market-orientation, which included input use and marketing strategies. Eight PCs that had eigenvalues of >1.0 were extracted (Table 7). The PCs explained 61.2% of the total variation in the data. This analysis did not meet one of the aims of principal component analyses, which is reduction of variables to a minimum of 1-3 PCs that can explain a greater per cent of the total variation. This shows that there is high variability in the mixed crop-livestock system which justified the need for subclassification of the mixed crop-livestock system. Such high diversity could also be the case in other similar systems which resulted in extraction of large number of PCs (Usai et al. 2006). "}]},{"head":"Clustering of households","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The cluster analysis produced eight clusters (Table 8). A clear pattern in the proportion of sheep and goats in small ruminant flocks, flock sizes, and grazing management were discerned among the eight clusters. The clusters corresponded to the ten agro-ecologies and four cropping systems. Higher sheep to goat ratios were found in highland and wetter areas. Households in cereal areas were clustered together in clusters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7. These clusters have 99.6 to 100% of their members from cereal growing areas. About 60% of the members in cluster 6 were coffee-enset growers, while the rest were enset and cereal growers. Cluster 5 represented the enset system, with 71.3% of its members being enset growers and the rest coffee-enset and cereal growers. Members of cluster 8 were cereal (57.6%) and coffee growers."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Areas with large communal grazing lands clustered together. These clusters (clusters 1, 4, 7 and 8 in Table 8) are found in drier areas (dry highland and dry/sub-moist midlands and lowlands) growing cereals and keeping large flocks."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"The above criteria when combined together indicate extensive systems of production. Conversely, households in perennial crop areas and wetter areas with high cropping potential, with smaller proportions of communal grazing lands of the total land, and keeping small flocks, were clustered together (cluster 3, 5 and 6). These characteristics are indicative of semi-intensive systems, probably with tethering practice as is common in the southern regions."}]},{"head":"Sub-systems identified","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Taking into consideration the patterns discussed above, similar clusters with respect to the classification criteria were combined to result in six distinct clusters and designated as sub-systems in the mixed crop-livestock system. The identified sub-systems were named following the dominant small ruminant species (sheep vs. goat) and the degree of intensity/extensiveness of small ruminant production based on household flock sizes and ratio of communal grazing land to total agricultural land. The sub-systems can be broadly classified in terms of the dominant small ruminants (sheep, goat, sheep-goat or goat-sheep subsystems), agro-ecology (highland subsystems, midland subsystems and lowland subsystems), or flock management levels (extensive, semi-extensive, and semi-intensive/tethering). The six sub-systems identified and suggested nomenclature are presented in Table 9.  "}]},{"head":"Characterization of sub-systems","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Characteristics of livestock production systems can be described in terms of the relative importance of livestock in the agricultural systems, relative importance of the various farm animal enterprises, the producers' flock management practices, level of input use and marketing strategies. The composition of livestock species, relative economic importance of the livestock species reared, and producers' management practices including grazing/ feeding management are largely determined by agro-ecologies and natural resource endowments including availability of grazing resources. Livestock management practices, including feeding/grazing management, are also determined by cropping systems, particularly the intensity of crop production. Level of input use and marketing strategies could be determined by the role of livestock production in the livelihood of producers relative to the dominant cropping system in mixed crop-livestock production systems. Consequently, livestock production systems have been characterized in relation to the dominant crop types (e.g. Gizaw et al. 2010)."}]},{"head":"Spatial characterization","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Spatial distribution of the six subsystems is mapped by extrapolating the agro-ecological and cropping system attributes of the sub-systems derived from the data used in this study (Figure 4). Sub-system I extends across the dry highlands and subalpine regions. Geographically, the sub-system is found in northeastern Amhara, eastern Tigray and the subalpine areas in Arsi and Bale zones in Oromia state. It falls in the highland cereal system. The wet/moist highland and wet/moist midland cereal systems mainly in Oromia and Amhara states fall under sub-system II, whereas the predominant sub-system in the wet/moist highland and wet midland perennial crop areas (mainly in SNNPR state) is sub-system III. Sub-system IV lies in the wet and moist midland areas mainly in Oromia and SNNPR states."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Administrative zones where more than 50% of the cereal farmers also grow coffee were included in the mapping of the sub-system. Sub-system V and VI cover the dry midlands and the lowlands, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Figure 4. Spatial characterization of six small ruminant subsystems in the mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia (The white area is mainly the pastoral/agro-pastoral system)."}]},{"head":"Importance of small ruminants and flock characteristics","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"Sheep extensive sub-system (Sub-system I): Farmers in this system keep mainly sheep, particularly in the subalpine regions and in higher altitude zones of the dry highland region. Sheep constitute 94% and 68.5% of small ruminants in the subalpine and dry highland zones, respectively. The ratio of sheep to goat in the different geographic regions of Ethiopia mapped using woreda sheep and goat population data is shown in Figure 5. Sheep and goat flock sizes, respectively, are 7.4 and 1.4 in subalpine and 6.7 and 7.2 in dry highland. Thus two sub-sub-systems can be recognized: The dry highland and the subalpine sheep zones. Ratio of sheep to cattle is the highest in this subsystem as calculated form the data used in this study (Table 9). The agricultural farming system in general can be designated as a sheep system rather than crop system, livestock (predominantly sheep) contributing as much as 85% of the farm income (Gryseels 1987)."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Farmers commonly keep large breeding flocks. The system is largely grazing-based. Although the designation of 'grazingbased systems' is commonly or traditionally used for lowland pastoral systems, marginal areas which are unfit for cropping because of topography, low temperature or low rainfall are categorized under 'grazing systems' (Steinfeld et al. 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":338,"text":"The major output in this system is lamb production and as such the sub-system can be described as a ewe-lamb system. Lambs are usually sold as yearlings to meet immediate cash needs. Fattened animals are secondary outputs where only a couple of culled rams are fattened for a prolonged period under traditional fattening practice. The sheep breeds in this system are well adapted to the dry, cold and degraded agro-ecology, and produce meat and wool with reasonable productivity level under low-input and low-output management system. The dry highlands, particularly the subalpine regions, are agro-ecologically characterized as dry, degraded, and cool with frequent frost occurrence. As a result, cereal crop production is unreliable. Sheep production is a major source of livelihoods in these areas. The large breeding flocks could be a source of fattening animals for fattening systems in the lower altitude areas as well as yearlings for the export market if interventions to condition yearlings to meet the export market requirements are introduced. However, with the introduction of hillside closure areas for soil conservation and turning communal extensive grazing into cut-and-carry system is a challenge for keeping extensive breeding flocks, which are a source of animals for markets which require large number of animals, like the export market. Devendra (1987) classified small ruminant systems in Asia into three: Extensive systems combining intensive arable cropping (with three subsystems: Roadside, communal, and stubble grazing; tethering; and cut-and-carry feeding) and systems integrated with tree cropping. Extensive systems were described as the most common system, where rearing ruminants is secondary to crop production, animals depend on grazing on available grazing areas. More than in the intensive system, probably because of access to plenty of grazing land, flock sizes are larger (1-15 herd) and goats and sheep belonging to several owners are run together and brought back in the evening. The system is also characterized by low input level (commonly unpaid family labour), and a generally low level of productivity due to substandard nutritional management where very little or no concentrates are provided."},{"index":4,"size":233,"text":"Sheep semi-extensive sub-system (Sub-system II): In contrast to the extensive sheep system, this sub-system lies in the crop-intensive cereal growing areas with high potential for crop production and less communal grazing lands. The classification scheme adopted here is consistent with Notenbaert et al. (2009) broad classification of livestock systems in Africa which distinguishes between two mixed crop-livestock systems classes, one in which natural resources are extensively managed and the other in which natural resources can be managed to intensify, the later class being found in high crop potential areas. Farmers keep medium-size flocks, predominantly sheep (Table 9). Small ruminant are less important compared to Sub-system I. Due to limited communal grazing, farmers allocate some area as private pasture or hay plots. Supplementary feeding with crop residue is common, particularly for fattening animals. The high crop residue and a better availability of green fodder makes the sub-system suitable for intensification of small ruminant production with intensive fattening. The fast growing sheep breeds in this system, classified as long fat-tailed breed group (Gizaw et al. 2007), are suitable for intensive fattening. The wet midlands in this sub-system are particularly intensive cropping areas with irrigated vegetables and fruit production, as well as irrigated fodder production. Farmers in this sub-system practice semi-intensive livestock production with dairying and fattening being the major livestock enterprises. The irrigated fodder production areas in the midlands could evolve into intensive livestock systems."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"Sheep semi-intensive/tethering sub-system (Sub-system III): This is the enset-based system. Sheep are the predominant small ruminant species in this system accounting for 86.5% of the flocks. Farmers characteristically keep small flocks. Tethering is a common flock feeding practice due to high human population pressure and less communal grazing lands in these areas. A study in two districts falling within this sub-system (Menbere 2014c) found that grazing land is a scare resource and only 34.1% of the farmers own on the average 0.07ha of private grazing land. The study also found land shortage and population pressure as the major problems limiting feed availability in the area."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"Fattening of sheep and goat, either home-bred or purchased, is a common practice. Farmers in this sub-system use relatively more inputs, mainly purchased feeds for fattening animals. The area lies in moist highlands and wet mid-highlands. The moist highlands constitute 61.5% of the cluster in this study. Being mainly a perennial crop area, the major perennial crops grown include enset (61.5%), coffee mixed with enset and some cereals. The system is common in the SNNPR state."},{"index":7,"size":70,"text":"Sheep-goat semi-intensive/tethering sub-system (Sub-system IV): The proportion of goats over sheep increases with decreasing altitude (Table 9). Three sub-systems were identified in the midland/lowland agro-ecologies. In the wet/ moist, mid-highland, coffee-based system (Sub-system IV), equal proportions of sheep and goats are kept (Table 9). Numerically sheep are less important than cattle. In this, farmers keep small flocks of sheep and goat, commonly tethered due to limited availability of grazing resources."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"Small ruminant production, and in general livestock production, seems less important in this high value perennial crop area, the major cash crop being coffee. According to CSA (2011), in Oromia and SNNPR coffee growing zones, up to 86.7% and 89.4% of cereal growing farmers also grow coffee, while 9.2% to 62.8% of the farmers grow sole coffee in some zones in SNNPR state."},{"index":9,"size":97,"text":"Goat-sheep extensive sub-system (Sub-system V): In the drier midland, cereal system, the goat population is higher than that of sheep. Farmers keep large flocks, especially sheep flocks, in a grazing-based system with large communal grazing lands. The sub-system was classified as goat-sheep extensive system since goats appear to be more important numerically. Cropping plays less role in the livelihood of the farmers. Estimates of crop yields (calculated from amount produced and plot area under cereals during the survey period) are low in the extensive systems in general (sheep extensive, goat-sheep extensive and goat extensive systems; (Table 9)."},{"index":10,"size":150,"text":"Goat extensive sub-system (Sub-system VI): This system extends in the low altitude areas in the mixed crop-livestock system. Two sub-sub systems could be identified: the dry lowland system and the moist lowland system. In general the sub-system is where the sheep to goat ratio is the least, sheep accounting for only 12.8% of the small ruminant flocks. It is also cattle-dominated sub-system (Table 9). In the dry lowlands, flock sizes are higher (6.63 sheep and 7.94 goats) than the moist lowlands (4.39 sheep and 4.50 goats). The largest proportion of communal grazing resources to total agricultural land in this sub-system is highly indicative of a grazing-based extensive system of small ruminant production. Cereal production is the dominant cropping system with the majority of the households clustered in this sub-system producing cereals with some coffee production in the moist zone. Crop production is unreliable with the least cereal yield (Table 9). "}]},{"head":"Part II: Determinants of input use, productivity and marketing characteristics","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Input use"},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Variation between agro-ecologies and production systems in herd size, livestock productivity and livestock trait preferences of livestock keepers is well established (e.g. Zindove and Chimonyo 2015). The proportion of purchased inputs that are used for livestock activities, land area per head of livestock, and the proportion of livestock products and services sold are some of the criteria commonly used to characterize livestock production systems (McDermott et al. 1999). In the current study, there were variations among the identified six sub-systems in the level of input use (Table 10). Generally, use of purchased inputs/services was higher for small ruminant production than fattening."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"Percentage of purchased inputs/services that was used for production of small ruminants was higher in subsystems I and II, and lower in the perennial crop (i.e. Enset-based system, Subsystem III) and the cash crop coffee growing areas (Sub-system IV). Use of supplementary concentrate feeds was higher in systems where small ruminants are numerically and economically more important (Sub-systems I, II and IV), whereas as use of crop residues was highest in high crop potential areas (Sub-systems II and III). Percentage of purchased inputs used for livestock activities, among other factors, is a criterion commonly used to characterize livestock production systems (McDermott et al. 1999). Planned use of inputs could also indicate the degree of producers' market orientation, which is planned production involving planned use of inputs/services with a market insight supported by market information. Besides farmers' rational decision on use of improved inputs and services, use of inputs is also determined by their access to inputs and services. And access is determined by geographic locations and the natural endowment of the area. Thus level of external input use may not always be an intrinsic characteristics of a production system."},{"index":4,"size":270,"text":"Besides the explicit influence of availability of inputs/services on input use, hidden relationships could also exist between producers' socio-economic characteristics, their farm scale (flock size and wealth status/land size) and their level of input use. These relationships were investigated overall across the six sub-systems and separately for each system using nested design for some of the variables (Table 11). Although it was difficult to explain some of these relationships, the analysis clearly showed that there is a clear relationship between most of the factors studied and input use. Women-headed households used more inputs for small ruminant production, whereas male-headed households used more inputs for fattening than women did. Literate household heads used significantly more inputs for fattening, whereas those whose primary activity was livestock production used more inputs for small ruminant production. The data also showed that use of external inputs/services (as proportion of total purchased) for small ruminants decreases by 0.064% and 0.01% with one percent increase in family size and household head's age, respectively. Although the relationships varied with the type of input used, there were significant tendencies for input use to increase with flock size. This would mean that producers with larger flocks manage their flocks better with improved inputs. These results are generally consistent with previous results from a study in the Ethiopian highlands where crop residue use increased with flock size (Jaleta et al. 2015). The relationships between land holding and input use was largely negative, probably since larger land holding could be associated more focus on crop production. Legesse (2008) also found curvilinear relationships where input use declined beyond four ha of land ownership."},{"index":5,"size":176,"text":"It has been reported that agro-ecology and cropping pattern in the Ethiopian highlands (Moti et al. 2015) and crop intensity-livestock density in Africa including Ethiopia (Diego et al. 2015) influence crop residue utilization. Analysis of producers' management practice in terms of input use across the whole mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia may thus not be appropriate as there could be variation among sub-systems. For instance, the relationships between determinants of input use and producers' decision on input use varied across the six sub-systems identified in this study (Table 10); input use increased significantly (P<0.05-0.001) with increasing flock size in Subsystem II and III, which are relatively semi-intensive systems (See Part I of this paper). On the other hand, less input was used by producers who had larger plot of land in high crop potential and cash crop sub-systems (Sub-system III and IV). This may indicate that small ruminants are less important in these sub-systems, as opposed to the extensive Sub-system I where input use was positively related with landholding, though the relationship was not statistically significant. "}]},{"head":"Marketing strategies","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Degree of producers' market orientation could be measured in terms of their marketing participation, for which offtake rates could be considered as a proxy. Variations were observed in offtake rates across sub-systems, which was highest in the highland/midland tethering sub-system and semi-extensive sub-system (Table 10). The contrast estimates calculated as deviations from the overall mean were 0.072 (P<0.01), 0.054 (P<0.05) and -0.115 (P<0.001) for Sub-systems II, III and VI, respectively. The high offtake rate in Sub-system III can be explained by the farmers' small ruminant production strategies. Farmers in this system keep small flocks, some keeping only fattening sheep/goat and/or a few breeding stock which are tethered around the homesteads. The practice can be described as a planned market-oriented farm enterprise. On the other hand, the lower offtake rates in the extensive systems, where large flocks are kept, is an indication to an important saving/insurance/cultural function of livestock in traditional systems."},{"index":2,"size":208,"text":"The current data also showed that in general with an increase in one percent of small ruminant in flock size, offtake rate would decrease by 0.008% (Table 11). The decline in offtake rates with increasing flock size could be explained by disproportionate offtakes with the increase in flock size. This relationship also indicates that traditional livestock keepers, such as pastoral communities, use livestock as capital store as well. Thus increase in reproduction and flock sizes may result in increased offtakes, but may not necessarily translate into increased offtakes more proportionately to the increase in flock sizes, which is required for a positive relationships between flock size and offtake rates. Analysis of household market participation behavior based on the same data set showed that there was significant and positive relationship between flock size and the probability of household market participation as seller (Gebremedhin et al. 2015). The same study also showed that the effect of an increase of one head of animal to the flock increases probability of participation as seller by only 4.2%. These results show that although increasing flock size is necessary to increase market participation, the current flock size is so small that off-take rate increased less proportionately than the rate of increase in flock size."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"However, we also found that the relationships between flock size and producers' marketing behavior varied across subsystems as shown in the nested model analysis (Table 9). There was a tendency for a positive relationship between flock size and offtake rate in the intensive cropping areas (Subsystem II and III), which are relatively more illiterates. However, flocks owned and managed by women had higher mortality rates. Age of household heads and household size were also included as covariates in this analysis. With a unit increase in family size, ARR increased by 0.034 lambs/kids (P<0.05) and there was a tendency for lamb/kid mortality to decrease with increased family size. ARR was significantly determined by land holding, which could be explained by the higher opportunity of farmers owning larger plots to produce more crop residues and cultivated fodder and provide better nutrition to their flocks. The data also showed that mortality, particularly adult mortality, was lower by about 0.46% in farms which had access to hay. There was a tendency for producers having larger flocks to have lower lamb mortality but significantly higher adult sheep and goat mortality. The data showed that with an increase in one unit of sheep/goat, adult sheep/goat mortality would increase by 0.022% per year (Table 13). "}]},{"head":"Implications and conclusions System-specific interventions","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"There is a clear pattern in the variation of small ruminant production across agro-ecologies and cropping systems in the mixed crop-livestock system. This study laid the methodological framework for classification of small ruminant systems in Ethiopia and elsewhere with similar situations. Small ruminant production in Ethiopia could generally be classified into two systems (mixed crop-livestock and agro/pastoral) with the mixed crop-livestock system further classified into six subsystems, making a total of seven systems (the six subsystems and the pastoral/agro-pastoral system). One of the reasons for failure of livestock development interventions could be poor targeting of beneficiaries."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The current classification is a strong indication for the need for stratification of production systems. The classification would inform the development of strategies and formulation of targeted value chain interventions."}]},{"head":"The extensive systems","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"This classification shows the relative merits of the identified subsystems. It can be argued that small ruminants are an important source of livelihoods for poor people. This is because households with income levels below the poverty threshold have more sheep and goats and the number of poor livestock keepers is higher in mixed rainfed temperate/ tropical highland livestock system in East Africa (which could be equivalent to dry cold highlands in Ethiopia) (ILRI 2002). The proportion of small ruminants to other livestock species and flock sizes of small ruminants are higher in the drier agro-ecologies, where poverty is also more likely to be more severe. The dry highland/subalpine and dry midland zones are unfavorable for cropping and, as such, farmers keep 'large' breeding flocks. The currently upheld tethering system in Ethiopia and closure of communal grazing areas could be a challenge for this system. Stratification of the grazing system (tethering vs. open grazing) may need to be considered to allow extensive grazing in such low potential areas. This stratification could include specialization of the extensive sheep system in the sub-moist highlands (particularly in the subalpine highlands) and extensive goat system in the dry midlands. The declining trend in grazing resources (Benin et al. 2002) and the increasing trend in livestock population (e.g. a 22% increase between 2005 and 2008 in Ethiopia; Tilahun and Emily 2012) is indicative of an inevitable change in the extensive system."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"The small ruminant development strategy may also need to consider the contribution of small ruminants to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the dry highland/subalpine zones and dry midlands. Trade in livestock and livestock products contributes a significant proportion of farm cash income, ranging from 85% in the high-altitude zone to 35% in the medium-altitude zone (Gryseels 1987). There is also the need for large breeding flocks to maintain the within breed genetic diversity to conserve the adapted indigenous genetic resources. Furthermore, the extensive breeding flocks are the source of fattening animals in the mid-altitude zone and of the export market which requires large volumes. The question may thus arise: Should the extensive system be abolished?"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The options for production interventions in the extensive system could include genetic improvement of the adapted indigenous stock through selective breeding to support the livelihoods of poor smallholders in marginal areas."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Selective breeding through community-based village cooperative groups could also serve as a feasible and sustainable measure to conserve the adapted indigenous breeds. Another option in for this system may include commercial ranching using the local small ruminant resources or through crossbreeding for production of terminal sires for the semi-intensive system and prime lamb production (to be finished in the mid-altitude zone) for the local and export market."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"The semi-intensive systems"},{"index":6,"size":119,"text":"The current results also indicated towards stratification and targeted interventions with regard to the high potential zones. Flock sizes are small in the high potential areas, including the wet highlands/midlands and irrigated cropping systems and perennial crop systems. Farmers could not benefit from reproduction of their small flocks, but rather from fattening. The characteristics of the semi-intensive subsystems should inform tailored production strategies. Extensive breeding interventions may not be suitable to the semi-intensive systems as it is in the extensive system with large breeding flocks. A controlled terminal crossing system using the meat type local breeds (e.g. Bonga sheep and Begait sheep and goats), as well as suitable exotic breeds could be a more feasible option for breeding intervention."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"Intensive finishing of local sheep/goat and crossbreds could be a focus for development interventions."}]},{"head":"Determinants of productivity, input use and marketing","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Characterization of the identified six sub-systems showed that there are variations in small ruminant productivity, producers input/service use, and marketing behaviours. These would enable to target interventions. We found that small ruminant productivity is determined by the use of improved inputs/services. Producers' marketing practice also varies with their production objectives which includes more targeted production for sale, such as in the semiintensive systems or production objectives which also include livestock as capital store in the more extensive systems. Producers' input use and marketing practices are in turn determined by their socio-economic characteristics and scale of production. There is high variation in small ruminant productivity and producers' input use and marketing decisions across the six small ruminant sub-systems in Ethiopia. This calls for system-specific targeting approach for small ruminant development, as well as a value chain approach, in addressing constraints at critical leverage points across the value chain and targeting appropriate small ruminant producers (gender, literacy, etc.) for introducing technological interventions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 1. Ratio of sheep to cattle (y-axis) across altitude ranges (x-axis) in mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia Figure 2. Small ruminant density (number of sheep and goat per square km) Figure 3. Sheep and goat flock sizes in different cropping systems in mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia Figure 4. Spatial characterization of six small ruminant subsystems in the mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia Figure 5. Ratio of sheep to goats in Ethiopia "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Small ruminant density (number of sheep and goat per square km). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Ratio of sheep to small ruminants (sheep/(sheep+goat)) in Ethiopia. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Variables used in principal component analysis Variables Category/Description VariablesCategory/Description Ratio of sheep to cattle Importance of sheep relative to cattle Ratio of sheep to cattleImportance of sheep relative to cattle Ratio of goat to cattle Importance of goat relative to cattle Ratio of goat to cattleImportance of goat relative to cattle Proportion of sheep to goat (community level) Importance of sheep relative to goat Proportion of sheep to goat (community level)Importance of sheep relative to goat Proportion of sheep to goat (household level) Importance of sheep relative to goat Proportion of sheep to goat (household level)Importance of sheep relative to goat Household sheep flock size Intensity of small ruminant production Household sheep flock sizeIntensity of small ruminant production Household goat flock size Intensity of small ruminant production Household goat flock sizeIntensity of small ruminant production Proportion of breeding females Management/breeding practice Proportion of breeding femalesManagement/breeding practice Proportion of breeding males Management/breeding practice Proportion of breeding malesManagement/breeding practice Ratio of communal grazing land to total land Grazing management Ratio of communal grazing land to total landGrazing management Ratio of private grazing land to total land Grazing management Ratio of private grazing land to total landGrazing management External input used for small ruminant production as Input use External input used for small ruminant production asInput use proportion of total purchased  proportion of total purchased External input used for small ruminant fattening as Input use External input used for small ruminant fattening asInput use Proportion of total purchased  Proportion of total purchased Kg of concentrate fed per day for small ruminants Input use Kg of concentrate fed per day for small ruminantsInput use Kg of crop residue used for small ruminants Input use Kg of crop residue used for small ruminantsInput use Household land holding Intensity of cropping Household land holdingIntensity of cropping Cereal yield (kg/ha) Intensity of cropping Cereal yield (kg/ha)Intensity of cropping Offtake rates Market participation Offtake ratesMarket participation Proportion of lambs sold of total sold Marketing strategy Proportion of lambs sold of total soldMarketing strategy Proportion of adult males sold of total sold Marketing strategy Proportion of adult males sold of total soldMarketing strategy Value of small ruminant sold Market participation Value of small ruminant soldMarket participation 2.3 Part II: Analysis of determinants of productivity, input use 2.3 Part II: Analysis of determinants of productivity, input use and marketing  and marketing  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Explanatory and dependent variables used in to identify determinants of input use, productivity and marketing practices of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia Explanatory/dependent Category/variable Unit Explanatory/dependentCategory/variableUnit  Input use  Input use Explanatory/dependent Purchased inputs used for small ruminant production % Explanatory/dependentPurchased inputs used for small ruminant production % Explanatory/dependent Purchased inputs used for small ruminant fattening % Explanatory/dependentPurchased inputs used for small ruminant fattening% Explanatory/dependent Concentrate supplement kg/day per animal Explanatory/dependentConcentrate supplementkg/day per animal Explanatory/dependent Crop residue supplement kg/day per animal Explanatory/dependentCrop residue supplementkg/day per animal Explanatory variables Availability of hay in PA categorical Explanatory variablesAvailability of hay in PAcategorical Explanatory variables Availability of purchased concentrate in PA categorical Explanatory variablesAvailability of purchased concentrate in PAcategorical Explanatory variables Distance to nearest veterinary service minute Explanatory variablesDistance to nearest veterinary serviceminute Explanatory variables Distance to nearest water source in dry season minute Explanatory variablesDistance to nearest water source in dry seasonminute  Productivity  Productivity Dependent Annual reproduction rate (number born per female joined) % DependentAnnual reproduction rate (number born per female joined)% Dependent Lamb/kid Mortality rate % DependentLamb/kid Mortality rate%  Household head characteristics  Household head characteristics Explanatory variables Gender (male or female) Categorical Explanatory variablesGender (male or female)Categorical Explanatory variables Primary occupation (livestock keeping or other) Categorical Explanatory variablesPrimary occupation (livestock keeping or other)Categorical Explanatory variables Literacy (read/write or not) Categorical Explanatory variablesLiteracy (read/write or not)Categorical Explanatory variables Household size Number Explanatory variablesHousehold sizeNumber Explanatory variables Household head age number Explanatory variablesHousehold head agenumber  Farm characteristics  Farm characteristics Explanatory variables Ratio of private grazing to total land ratio Explanatory variablesRatio of private grazing to total landratio Explanatory variables Stocking rate (number of small ruminants per ha) number Explanatory variablesStocking rate (number of small ruminants per ha)number Explanatory variables Household land holding ha Explanatory variablesHousehold land holdingha Explanatory variables Small ruminant flock size number Explanatory variablesSmall ruminant flock sizenumber  Marketing practices  Marketing practices Dependent Offtake rate % DependentOfftake rate% Dependent Proportion of young animals sold % DependentProportion of young animals sold% Dependent Proportion of adult animals sold % DependentProportion of adult animals sold%  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Correlations between agro-ecological variables, cropping type and intensity versus livestock species composition, availability of grazing resources, small ruminant flock composition, and flock sizes Flock1 Flock2 -.098** .121** .158** -.058* -.328** -.250** .194** .206** .010 -.009 -.096** -.090** -.122** -.137** Flock1 Flock2-.098** .121**.158** -.058*-.328** -.250**.194** .206**.010 -.009-.096** -.090**-.122** -.137** Grazing2 Cereal (ha) Cereal/ha Coffee (ha) Enset (ha) sheep Goat Shoat1 Shoat2 .320** -.272** -.050* -.114** .184** .633** -.407** .607** .370** -.334** .222** .033 .082** -.266** -.594** .475** -.642** -.382** .079** .007 .152** .315** .217** .073** -.547** .416** .281** -.096** 1 -.086** -.037 -.128** -.198** .070** -.160** -.127** -.041* -.086** 1 .110** -.029 -.018 -.106** .073** .079** -.072** -.037 .110** 1 .050* -.046* -.100** .054** .047* .154** -.128** -.029 .050* 1 -.027 -.222** .183** .139** Grazing2 Cereal (ha) Cereal/ha Coffee (ha) Enset (ha) sheep Goat Shoat1 Shoat2.320** -.272** -.050* -.114** .184** .633** -.407** .607** .370**-.334** .222** .033 .082** -.266** -.594** .475** -.642** -.382**.079** .007 .152** .315** .217** .073** -.547** .416** .281**-.096** 1 -.086** -.037 -.128** -.198** .070** -.160** -.127**-.041* -.086** 1 .110** -.029 -.018 -.106** .073** .079**-.072** -.037 .110** 1 .050* -.046* -.100** .054** .047*.154** -.128** -.029 .050* 1 -.027 -.222** .183** .139** Grazing1 -.208** .259** -.139** .011 .037 .004 -.139** Grazing1-.208**.259**-.139**.011.037.004-.139** Rainfall .092** -.232** 1 .007 .152** .315** .217** Rainfall.092**-.232**1.007.152**.315**.217** Temp. -.963** 1 -.232** .222** .033 .082** -.266** Temp.-.963**1-.232**.222**.033.082**-.266** Altitude 1 -.963** .092** -.272** -.050* -.114** .184** Altitude1-.963**.092**-.272**-.050*-.114**.184**  Altitude Temperature Rainfall Cereal (ha) Cereal/ha Coffee (ha) Enset (ha) AltitudeTemperatureRainfallCereal (ha)Cereal/haCoffee (ha)Enset (ha)  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Rotated component matric from principal component analysis  Relationships of PCs to variables  Relationships of PCs to variables Variables 1 2 3 4 Variables1234 Altitude .822 -.236 -.314 -.142 Altitude.822-.236-.314-.142 Temperature -.808 .104 .395 .132 Temperature-.808.104.395.132 Rainfall .238 .796 -.177 -.051 Rainfall.238.796-.177-.051 Ratio of communal grazing area to total area -.078 -.101 .658 -.015 Ratio of communal grazing area to total area-.078-.101.658-.015 Ratio of private grazing area to total area .196 -.156 -.585 -.091 Ratio of private grazing area to total area.196-.156-.585-.091 Household cereal cropping area (ha) -.223 .179 -.083 .829 Household cereal cropping area (ha)-.223.179-.083.829 Cereal yield per ha .079 .273 .376 -.207 Cereal yield per ha.079.273.376-.207 Household coffee cropping area (ha) -.065 .559 .135 -.104 Household coffee cropping area (ha)-.065.559.135-.104 Household enset cropping area (ha) .063 .246 -.518 -.224 Household enset cropping area (ha).063.246-.518-.224 Proportion of sheep to cattle .836 -.130 .048 -.007 Proportion of sheep to cattle.836-.130.048-.007 Proportion of goat to cattle -.677 -.548 .112 -.030 Proportion of goat to cattle-.677-.548.112-.030 Proportion of sheep to goat (community level) .880 .314 -.079 .001 Proportion of sheep to goat (community level).880.314-.079.001 Proportion of sheep to goat (flock level) .601 .261 .063 -.045 Proportion of sheep to goat (flock level).601.261.063-.045 Flock size (goat) -.031 -.166 .074 .471 Flock size (goat)-.031-.166.074.471 Flock size (sheep) .199 -.350 .196 .473 Flock size (sheep).199-.350.196.473  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Average livestock composition (cattle, sheep, and goat), small ruminant flock composition, flock sizes and grazing resources across agro-ecological zones in the mixed crop-livestock production system in the highlands of Ethiopia  Livestock composition* Flock composition  Flock size  Livestock composition*Flock compositionFlock size AEZ Sheep Goat Shoat1 Shoat2 Sheep Goat Shoat CGL AEZSheepGoatShoat1Shoat2SheepGoatShoatCGL Dry highland 0.28 0.14 0.68 0.81 6.70 7.19 7.67 0.13 Dry highland0.280.140.680.816.707.197.670.13 Dry lowland 0.09 0.21 0.19 0.24 6.64 7.94 9.64 0.14 Dry lowland0.090.210.190.246.647.949.640.14 Dry mid-highland 0.16 0.24 0.38 0.44 6.00 7.58 8.32 0.12 Dry mid-highland0.160.240.380.446.007.588.320.12 Moist highland 0.23 0.08 0.78 0.86 5.69 3.88 5.98 0.03 Moist highland0.230.080.780.865.693.885.980.03 Moist howland 0.03 0.22 0.13 0.27 4.39 4.50 4.95 0.13 Moist howland0.030.220.130.274.394.504.950.13 Moist mid-highland 0.13 0.15 0.48 0.55 4.15 4.69 4.85 0.08 Moist mid-highland0.130.150.480.554.154.694.850.08 Moist subalpine (Wurch) 0.38 0.04 0.94 0.91 7.37 1.36 7.18 0.00 Moist subalpine (Wurch)0.380.040.940.917.371.367.180.00 Wet highland 0.32 0.04 0.90 0.94 3.60 2.17 3.55 0.07 Wet highland0.320.040.900.943.602.173.550.07 Wet lowland 0.26 0.09 0.79 0.75 3.33 2.00 3.00 0.01 Wet lowland0.260.090.790.753.332.003.000.01 Wet mid-highland 0.19 0.08 0.74 0.88 3.58 3.23 3.95 0.12 Wet mid-highland0.190.080.740.883.583.233.950.12  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Cropping systems across agro-ecological zones-Number of households growing cereals, enset-coffee, coffee and enset in the mixed crop-livestock production system Principal component analysis was conducted on 20 variables listed in Table  Cereal Enset Coffee-enset Coffee CerealEnsetCoffee-ensetCoffee Dry highland 199 0 0 0 Dry highland199000 Dry mid-highland 609 0 0 0 Dry mid-highland609000 Dry lowland 19 0 0 0 Dry lowland19000 Moist highland 308 132 7 0 Moist highland30813270 Moist mid-highland 554 31 56 6 Moist mid-highland55431566 Moist lowland 48 6 4 11 Moist lowland486411 Moist subalpine (Wurch) 25 0 0 0 Moist subalpine (Wurch)25000 Wet highland 47 34 11 3 Wet highland4734113 Wet mid-highland 228 17 80 42 Wet mid-highland228178042 Wet lowland 1 0 1 2 Wet lowland1012 Figure 3. Sheep and goat flock sizes in different cropping systems in mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia Figure 3. Sheep and goat flock sizes in different cropping systems in mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia 14.00     14.00 12.00     12.00 10.00     10.00 8.00     8.00 6.00     6.00 4.00     4.00 2.00     2.00 0.00     0.00 Cereal Enset  Coffee Enset-coffe CerealEnsetCoffeeEnset-coffe  Sheep flock size Goat flock size  Sheep flock sizeGoat flock size  "},{"text":"Table 7 . PCs extracted and per cent of variance explained   Initial eigenvalues  Initial eigenvalues Component Total % of Variance Cumulative % ComponentTotal% of VarianceCumulative % 1 3.046 15.228 15.228 13.04615.22815.228 2 2.017 10.084 25.312 22.01710.08425.312 3 1.435 7.176 32.489 31.4357.17632.489 4 1.312 6.559 39.048 41.3126.55939.048 5 1.181 5.906 44.953 51.1815.90644.953 6 1.128 5.638 50.591 61.1285.63850.591 7 1.087 5.434 56.026 71.0875.43456.026 8 1.036 5.182 61.208 81.0365.18261.208 9 .991 4.953 66.161 9.9914.95366.161 10 .909 4.546 70.707 10.9094.54670.707 11 .908 4.541 75.247 11.9084.54175.247 12 .846 4.230 79.477 12.8464.23079.477 13 .807 4.034 83.511 13.8074.03483.511 14 .751 3.753 87.264 14.7513.75387.264 15 .700 3.499 90.763 15.7003.49990.763 16 .550 2.752 93.514 16.5502.75293.514 17 .462 2.312 95.827 17.4622.31295.827 18 .401 2.005 97.832 18.4012.00597.832 19 .385 1.926 99.758 19.3851.92699.758 20 .048 .242 100.000 20.048.242100.000  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Mean values of variables that describe flock characteristics, grazing management, agro-ecologies, and cropping systems of eight clusters of households identified from cluster analysis Clusters Sheep1 Sheep2 Sheep flock Goat flock CGL Altitude Temp. Rainfall Cereal (ha) Enset (ha) Coffee (ha) Clusters merged Clusters Sheep1 Sheep2Sheep flockGoat flockCGLAltitude Temp.RainfallCereal (ha)Enset (ha)Coffee (ha)Clusters merged 1 .16 38.2 6.0 7.6 .118 1941 18.8 689 4.9 .00 .00 V 1.1638.26.07.6.118194118.86894.9.00.00V 2 .13 46.1 4.6 5.0 .090 1938 18.5 1050 5.9 .00 .004 V 2.1346.14.65.0.090193818.510505.9.00.004V 3 .25 75.4 6.6 4.4 .035 2588 14.6 1124 4.6 .00 .00 II 3.2575.46.64.4.035258814.611244.6.00.00II 4 .29 70.7 6.7 6.7 .111 2524 15.7 660 1.9 .00 .00 I 4.2970.76.76.7.111252415.76601.9.00.00I 5 .24 86.5 3.4 2.6 .034 2593 14.1 1404 2.5 .78 .06 III 5.2486.53.42.6.034259314.114042.5.78.06III 6 .17 65.0 2.3 2.1 .041 1959 17.8 1530 2.7 .37 1.01 IV 6.1765.02.32.1.041195917.815302.7.371.01IV 7 .19 75.5 4.2 4.6 .154 2011 17.7 1501 4.8 .00 .018 II 7.1975.54.24.6.154201117.715014.8.00.018II 8 .03 12.8 4.4 4.5 .144 1287 22.1 1045 6.8 .05 .090 VI 8.0312.84.44.5.144128722.110456.8.05.090VI  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Small ruminant sub-systems identified from eight clusters of households Sub-systems Agro-ecology Alt. (m) Temp Rainfall CGL PP Grazing resources Cropping pattern Cereal (ha) Coffee (ha) Enset (ha) Cereal (kg/ha) Flock characteristics Sheep Sheep1 Sheep2 Goat1 flock Goat flock Sub-systemsAgro-ecology Alt. (m) Temp Rainfall CGL PP Grazing resourcesCropping pattern Cereal (ha) Coffee (ha) Enset (ha) Cereal (kg/ha)Flock characteristics Sheep Sheep1 Sheep2 Goat1 flockGoat flock I. Sheep extensive sub-system 2524 15.7 660 0.11 0.09 1.9 0.00 0.00 295.3 0.29 70.7 0.13 6.7 6.7 I. Sheep extensive sub-system2524 15.7 6600.11 0.09 1.90.000.00 295.3 0.2970.70.13 6.76.7 II. Sheep semi-extensive        II. Sheep semi-extensive sub-system 2352 15.8 1279 0.08 0.11 4.7 0.007 0.00 392.3 0.23 75.4 0.09 5.6 4.4 sub-system2352 15.8 1279 0.08 0.11 4.70.007 0.00 392.3 0.2375.40.09 5.64.4 III. Sheep tethering/semi-        III. Sheep tethering/semi- intensive sub-system 2593 14.1 1404 0.03 0.14 2.5 0.06 0.78 301.0 0.24 86.5 0.05 3.4 2.6 intensive sub-system2593 14.1 1404 0.03 0.14 2.50.060.78 301.0 0.2486.50.05 3.42.6 IV. Sheep-Goat tethering        IV. Sheep-Goat tethering sub-system 1959 17.9 1530 0.04 0.07 2.7 1.01 0.37 356.4 0.17 65.0 0.09 2.3 2.1 sub-system1959 17.9 1530 0.04 0.07 2.71.010.37 356.4 0.1765.00.09 2.32.1 V. Goat-Sheep extensive sub-system 1940 18.7 859 0.10 0.07 5.4 0.002 0.00 299.8 0.15 42.0 0.20 5.4 6.6 V. Goat-Sheep extensive sub-system1940 18.7 8590.10 0.07 5.40.002 0.00 299.8 0.1542.00.20 5.46.6 VI. Goat extensive sub-system 1287 22.1 1045 0.14 0.03 6.9 0.09 0.05 233.0 0.03 12.8 0.22 4.4 4.5 VI. Goat extensive sub-system1287 22.1 1045 0.14 0.03 6.90.090.05 233.0 0.0312.80.22 4.44.5  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Producers' input use and marketing strategies and productivity of small ruminants in six small ruminant subsystems in the mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia Sub-systems Sub-systems  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Household head gender and literacy status as determinants of small ruminant reproductive and mortality rates (I) Gender*Literacy (J) Gender*Literacy ARR 1 Young mortality Adult mortality (I) Gender*Literacy(J) Gender*LiteracyARR 1Young mortalityAdult mortality [Male]*[Literate] [Male]*[Illiterate] .052* -.37 -.98 [Male]*[Literate][Male]*[Illiterate].052*-.37-.98  [Female]*[Literate] -.034 -5.32 -4.47 [Female]*[Literate]-.034-5.32-4.47  [Female]*[Illiterate] .031 -3.54 -3.31* [Female]*[Illiterate].031-3.54-3.31* [Female]*[Literate] [Male]*[Illiterate] .087 4.94 3.49 [Female]*[Literate][Male]*[Illiterate].0874.943.49 [Female]*[Illiterate] [Male]*[Illiterate] .022 3.17 2.34 [Female]*[Illiterate][Male]*[Illiterate].0223.172.34  [Female]*[Literate] -.066 -1.78 -1.15 [Female]*[Literate]-.066-1.78-1.15 * Differences are statistically significant at 5% level of significance.    * Differences are statistically significant at 5% level of significance.  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Access to inputs/services, use of inputs/management level and farm resources as determinants of productivity.  ARR Lamb mortality Adult mortality ARRLamb mortalityAdult mortality Parameter B B B ParameterBBB Access to inputs/services    Access to inputs/services  "}],"sieverID":"7f99565e-9750-487e-846b-cfa6acaa20c2","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05a29640b00975013e1b8f83283e8cc0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bb87d4ba-f51f-4201-8fa1-dc19d05b3990/retrieve"},"pageCount":49,"title":"About Iles de Paix (Islands of Peace)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Implementation team","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Christopher Mutungi (IITA) "}]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"The Africa RISING partnership with Iles de Paix (IDP) seeks to deliver to farmers postharvest technology packages that improve the productive social, human, and economic conditions of smallholders in Karatu District. The goal is to contribute to sustainable family farming and responsible food systems. The partnership involves a Research in Development model for innovation delivery and scaling. This has two components: (i) introduction of the technologies in IDP's action villages using a mother-baby demonstration (demo) approach whereby learners (farmers) train their peers in a cascading model backstopped by Africa RISING; and (ii) joint research activities by Africa RISING and IDP to (a) address specific technology challenges and (b) build the capacity of partner staff and farmers. At postharvest level, the objective is to contribute to food and nutrition security through improved practices for the handling, processing, and storage of harvested produce. The aim is to transfer to farmers, processors, and other stakeholders validated technologies for improved postharvest management to reduce food losses, increase food safety, enhance nutrition, and raise the quality of produce by the following methods:"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"• Demonstrating improved harvesting, handling (drying), processing, and storage techniques for maize and legumes. • Providing technical backstopping for identification and deployment of varieties with superior postharvest characteristics. • Identifying postharvest challenges within local farmer contexts and recommending best practices."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"During the current reporting period, the following activities were undertaken; the action sites are shown in Figure 1."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Activity 1: A workshop to disseminate results and review activities of the collaboration was held. • Activity 2: A refresher training for lead farmers and KE staff was conducted."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"• Activity 3: Postharvest training materials were prepared and provided as part of capacity building for Kilimo Endelevu staff to be able to scale-up postharvest management technologies-two technology briefs and three brochures on postharvest and aflatoxin management in Swahili language were made available. • Activity 4: Participation at the Karatu 2019 seed fair organized by Kilimo Endelevu (with other partners). At this event, we showcased postharvest technologies exposing them to more than 800 farmers. • Activity 5: Dissemination of postharvest messages via mobile phone short message service (SMS) on Mwanga platform to farmers in the action villages was continued."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"These activities were winding-up actions in the eight (8) action villages (Bashay, Kainam Rhotia, Changarawe, Chemchem, G. Lambo, Slahhamo, Buger, and Kambi simba) that we started with in July 2018, and involved mainly strengthening the capacity of Kilimo Endelevu staff and lead farmers to expand scaling activities in these villages and others (Figure 1). "}]},{"head":"Results dissemination and review workshop","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Four Kilimo Endelevu staff and 20 lead-farmers attended the workshop (Figure 2, Table1). The aims were to: 1. Share results of postharvest demonstrations trials. 2. Gather feedback regarding performance of the demonstration trials.   "}]},{"head":"Farmer feedback and perceptions of the technologies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"The majority of farmers (66%) liked the metallic silo more than the bags. Unlike the bags, the silo could not be damaged by insects or rodents and was able to store more food in a confined space. However, we also noticed that 27 out of 35 households (77%) participating in the demos were unable to accommodate the 500kg silo because it was too large to pass through the door, otherwise they would have to do with modifications or adopt a smaller silo. Farmers were interested in local availability and suggested that having it manufactured locally would probably make it cheaper. There were also queries regarding durability; farmers felt that it was too light and thought it would be attractive if manufactured from a stronger material. While the metallic silo generally performed well, some farmers reported flour at the bottom of the silo after emptying, which suggests that some insect activity occurred although farmers perceived this to be insignificant. A main concern regarding the hermetic bags was consistency of quality from batch to batch (season to season). Farmers who had applied the technology before noted that bags introduced in past years were stronger and offered better grain protection. According to farmer ratings, the single liner AgroZ bag performed better than the double liner PICS bags in the demonstrations. Some other farmers observed that the bags were not suitable for beans, arguing that bean weevils (bruchids) punctured the bags with more ease than maize weevils. This observation was reported in the literature where certain insect species (e.g., Callosobruchus maculatus and Prostephanus truncatus) chewed holes through the liners 1 ."}]},{"head":"Performance of demonstration trials","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"There were differences in overall grain damage levels determined in the villages (Figure 3). The villages located at the higher altitude: Buger (1686 -1725 m.a.s.l), Kambi ya Simba (1545 -1626 m.a.s.l), and G. Lambo (1474-1486 m.a.s.l) had higher damage levels compared to those located at the lower altitude e.g. Chemchem (1219 -1240), and Changarawe (1375 -1440 m.a.s.l). Statistically, however, the effect of village was not significant (P = 0.254). Our earlier studies to compare the physical quality of grain stored in two contrasting agro-locations i.e. high altitude vs. cooler low altitude villages in neighboring Babati district also showed higher insect damage levels in former 2 . The low altitude zones would be favorable for insect multiplication because of warmer and more humid conditions. The cooler conditions may also encourage mold and insect damage due to low rate of drying. Thus, the higher overall grain damage recorded in the highaltitude villages may be attributed to the effect of interaction of temperature and relative humidity on insect population development, as well as progression of other forms of bioactivity."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The cultivated varieties and farm practices may also have contributed to the observed differences 3 .. Further data analysis will reveal the kind of damage that was predominant in these villages."},{"index":3,"size":230,"text":"The performance of different hermetic storage technologies is shown in Figure 4. There was no difference between villages (P = 0.641). Further statistical analysis (Figure 5) also showed that the three technologies did not perform differently (P = 0.628). . The mean grain damage levels were 8-9%, which translated into physical quantity losses of 4.4 -4.9% at 7 storage months (See Figure 5). The losses were reasonably low. However, two other interesting observations were made. First, insects survived in the containers. The populations were lowest in the Agro Z bag, and on average, highest in the metallic silo. The resultant grain damage by insects followed the same trend. Generally, however, the insect populations and grain damage were rather low except in a few cases where the damage exceeded 5% which is considered significant because above this level the grain can attract appreciable price discounting in the market 4 . It is not strange that the insects did not have huge impact on grain damage because the activity of the insects was reduced by the relatively low oxygen conditions 5 . Thus, the insects also did not feed ravenously or multiply as fast as in the control bags. Nonetheless, the presence of active insect activity signals that sound handling and management of the technologies by farmers must also be ensured, especially because farmers would require to open the containers more frequently."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Insect infestation from the field should be as low as possible and this can be achieved through timely harvesting and proper drying practices e.g. drying on mats. Grain must be properly dried before storage, and re-infestation during the intermittent opening of the containers should be prevented. Proper sealing should be ascertained after each opening. Farmers can also plan their grain withdrawing intervals e.g. every 4 weeks to minimise loss of the conditions necessary for preserving the grain. This planning can also improve the useful life of the containers especially the bags that weaken with every tying and untying."},{"index":5,"size":292,"text":"A second important observation was that both hermetic bags had insect punctures but the double liner PICS bags were more damaged by insects than the AgroZ bags, suggesting that the latter performed better (Figure 6). The AgroZ bags are made of micro-multilayer sheets forming a single hermetic liner. Both the field observations and farmer observations as well, have implications for scaling. When the hermetic bags are extremely damaged by insects after a single use, then they are no longer attractive to farmers; research has shown that air-tight bags should be reusable for at least 3 seasons to be economically attractive 6 . Air-tight bags with insect holes are ineffective. Some studies, however, argued that the grain filled in leaky bags may restrict oxygen movement and contribute to protective effect depending on the grain size and fill depth 7 . According to Baoua et al. 8 , PICS bags continued to be effective in preventing postharvest losses despite localized breaks in the air-tight seal of the bag. The maximum number of insect holes that would potentially render the bags useless is unclear and would be worth investigating; it depends on many factors including the grain parameters, and also the hole parameters including the size and storage conditions. The issue of quality consistency of the hermetic bags should be followed up with the private sector manufacturers. If not, a technology that in principle is very useful may disappear from the market. . On the other hand, metallic silos are profitable for farmers who need bigger storage capacity and have surplus grain for sale, and are certainly also attractive to farmers based on a host of other non-monetary considerations such as stability and a one-off investment; these aspects are being investigated in further socio-economic studies.     "}]},{"head":"Refresher training for lead farmers and Kilimo Endelevu staff","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"This activity, which was requested and financed by Kilimo Endelevu, was conducted in Karatu."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The aim was to build the confidence of lead farmers to be able to spearhead scaling actions including setting up of technology demonstrations and forming postharvest committees as a mechanism for increasing advocacy and improving accessibility of the technologies in the villages. The numbers of persons trained (Table 2 and Figure 7); at least two lead farmers from each village trained. The training covered the following aspects:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Improved postharvest technologies and their contribution to improved grain quality."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Improved drying and grain moisture verification, threshing, and storage."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• Grading and classification of grain lots based on physical quality parameters."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Grain quality standards and specifications for grains (East African grain standards)."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• Sampling and grain quality assessment techniques for small-scale farmers."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Aflatoxin and the pre and postharvest mitigation approaches."},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"• Storage hygiene and store management. "}]},{"head":"ICT messaging","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Eight short messages, which included actionable tips and reminders on good postharvest practices (good harvesting procedures, threshing and drying; sorting prior to bagging, improved storage techniques; aflatoxin control approaches; store preparation and storage hygiene) were disseminated. The present reporting period coincided with harvesting season. We therefore used SMS to deliver customized content (Figure 8) in the national language, to 42 lead farmers in the action villages who have access to a mobile telephone. Mobile telephone technology presents an opportunity to expand extension services to many farmers at low cost. It has the advantage of accuracy as standardized technical information is transmitted without distortion. This way, it is effectively reinforcing knowledge acquired through practical demonstrations."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Traditionally, agricultural extension has been delivered through rigid channels such as print media and word of mouth by extension workers. These channels do not allow timely updating of content with new knowledge; they are slow, information may reach farmers outside the intended timeline; and are limited in scaling because extension officers can only reach a limited number of farmers per season. In the coming months, village postharvest committees will register and obtain the consent of new farmers across the villages to take advantage of these benefits. The fair presented an opportunity to showcase and display Africa RISING postharvest technologies to more than 800 farmers (Figure 9). "}]},{"head":"Lessons learned and recommendations","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"• During this reporting period, the partnership with Iles de Paix improved the ability of Africa RISING to reach out to over 800 farmers and 10 extension workers and 17 media houses. .  Part II: Vegetable production activities Farmer evaluation of improved management practices was conducted in Kainam Rhotia and Kambi ya Simba in Karatu. Women and men were separately asked to rate the contribution of the practices on production (yield), economics (profit), environment (pesticide use and soil fertility), human condition (vegetable consumption and diversity), and social aspects (labor sharing, control of crop output, and conflict of resources between husband and wife). Farmers perceived that IMP practices had a better effect on increasing productivity, profitability, and human conditions with less effect on environment and social aspects (Annex 5b). One success story was published and can be accessed here: https://avrdc.org/from-trainee-to-model-farmer/"}]},{"head":"Baseline survey and nutrition education","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"A baseline survey was conducted in Karatu. Baseline data will be used in estimating the impact of nutrition education on household welfare. The Difference in Difference (DID) method, which requires baseline and end line survey data, will be employed. Baseline data was collected from 487 farmers (236 project beneficiaries and 251 controls). Baseline results are presented in Tables 5-9 and Figure 9. Findings indicate that the common vegetables grown in Karatu include Ethiopian mustard (27%), Chinese cabbage (17%), African nightshade (14%), onions (11%), tomato (9%), and pumpkin leaves (7%) (Table 7). Onions were mainly grown in control villages (16%) compared to beneficiaries' households (6%). Traditional African Vegetables (TAVs) such as Jute mallow, spider plant, kale, okra, and standard vegetables (sweet pepper and French beans) were hardly grown in Karatu, providing a good opportunity to introduce them to farmers. On average a household produced 861 kg of all vegetables per season and 81% of the produce was sold."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"Baseline results showed that farmers still lack knowledge about the nutritional content of vegetables and their health benefits. More than 80% of the households would like to increase vegetable consumption while 60% of the households indicated that they have a plan to increase consumption of vegetables among family members. The main foods consumed by the households were cereals (100%); spices, condiments, and beverages (97%); vegetables (98%); oils and fats (93%); sweets (83%); legumes, nuts, and seeds (55%); and fruits (8%) (Fig. 14). Meat products (i.e., poultry, offal, fish, etc.), eggs, milk and milk products were rarely consumed by many households. For example, about 1 percent of the households consumed eggs, while less than 10% consumed fish/seafood, milk, and milk products. Similar findings were reported in Mbarali and Bahi districts. The average Household dietary diversity score (HDDS) was 6.15, which means that on average, households consumed six food groups over the preceding 24 hours (Table 10). Intervention households (6.33) had a higher dietary diversity score (P < 0.01) than control households (5.98). HDDS varied by village (Table 10)."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Nutrition training was conducted from 18 to 28 August to equip participants with knowledge and skills on food groups and better feeding practices to reduce undernutrition among households in the project area. Major activities include providing information on the importance of eating diversified foods, recipe preparation, ways to add value of their farm produce based on relationship between plant health and human health and tips/approaches to change dietrelated habits that would ultimately improve nutritional status. In total, 332 farmers (52% women), 10 staff from NGOs, and eight government extension staff were trained (Table 11). The participants per village are presented in Table 11 while photos are provided in the appendix. "}]},{"head":"Achievements","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Impact of improved management practices (improved varieties and GAP) on vegetable performance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Improved management practices (IMP) combine technological packages of good quality improved seed, healthy seedlings, and good agronomic practices (GAPs), which can increase yields and incomes of smallholder farmers. Research followed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) to make it easy to conduct experiments with small-scale farmers. "}]},{"head":"Feedback from the communities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Farmer evaluation of improved management practices was conducted in two villages in Karatu. Women and men were separately asked to rate the contribution of the practices on production (yield), economics (profit), environment (pesticide use and soil fertility), human condition (vegetable consumption and diversity) and social aspects (labor sharing, control of crop output and conflict of resources between husband and wife). Feedback meetings were done with farmers from Kainam Rhotia and Kambi ya Simba     "}]},{"head":"Baseline survey","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"The objective of Africa RISING is to increase vegetable production and consumption of diverse nutrient-rich foods by poor rural households in Tanzania. To achieve this objective, the project is offering capacity building to farmers and partners (NGOs-IDP, Ministry of Agriculture, and food kiosk/restaurants). The training focuses on improved management practices and nutrition education. Therefore, a baseline survey was conducted in Karatu in July 2019. The baseline survey helped to achieve the following objectives: (1) To estimate the impact of improved agricultural practices on yield and income from vegetables at farm level; (2) to test uptake of nutritious recipes by food kiosks/village restaurants; and (3) to estimate the impact of nutritional education on farmers nutritional knowledge, attitude and practices (KAPs), income, and household nutrition. The difference in difference (DID) method was applied to estimate the impact of nutrition education on farmers' welfare. The DID method is widely used to minimize selection bias with individual level panel data. The method requires baseline and endline survey data. Data was collected from 487 farmers (236 project beneficiaries and 251 control). In this section, selected baseline results are presented."}]},{"head":"Socioeconomic characteristics of the sampled households","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Out of the farmers sampled 62% were male while 83% were male-headed households; 83% of these households were married with children (Table 6). On average, households owned 5.96 acres (6 acres by beneficiaries; 5.8 acres control). Few households had access to either private or public extension services with only 24% having access to agricultural information and support. The situation is similar regarding participation in agricultural training (31%). Households allocated on average about 0.181 acres to vegetable production and 46% had home/kitchen garden for vegetables. There are no significant differences between beneficiaries and the control thus these two groups can be used to estimate the impact of nutrition education. "}]},{"head":"Vegetables grown","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The most commonly grown vegetables in Karatu include Ethiopian mustard (27%), Chinese cabbage (17%), African nightshade (14%), onions (11%), tomato (9%), and pumpkin leaves (7%) (Table 7). Onions were mainly grown in control villages (16%) compared to beneficiaries' households (6%). Traditional African vegetables (TAVs) such as jute mallow, spider plant, kale, okra, and standard vegetables (sweet pepper and French beans) were hardly grown in Karatu, providing a good opportunity to introduce them to farmers. "}]},{"head":"Production","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Table 8 shows the total vegetable production per household per season in Karatu. On average a household produced 861 kg of vegetables (mainly top 5 vegetables in Table 7) and 81% of the produce is sold. Postharvest loss was very low at 4% because most of the farmers sell at the farm gate. However, yield, income, market participation, and postharvest losses varied by type of crop (see Annex 7, Tables 13-17). There was no significant difference between beneficiaries and control in terms of production, sales, and utilization indicators (Table 8 last column). "}]},{"head":"Nutrition knowledge, attitude, and practices","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Overall, 62% of the farmers knew that vegetables contain nutrients needed for growth and health while 38% did not know (Table 9). It is surprising that about 16% of farmers indicated that vegetables have similar nutrients. Only 6% of the farmers correctly named vegetables that are high in iron. These findings show that farmers still lack knowledge about the nutritional content of vegetables and their health benefits. Although, 88% of them believe that it is important to eat vegetables everyday but are not aware of the minimum amount they should consume per day."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"To improve overall health, the World Health Organization (WHO) advises that an individual should consume about 200 g of vegetables (minimum of 400 g of fruit and vegetables, which is equivalent to five 80 g servings (World Health Organization, 2003)) 9 . About 80% would like to increase vegetable consumption while 60% of the households indicated that they have a plan on how to increase vegetable consumption in their households. Usually the consumption of vegetables in developing countries is in the range of 20-50% of the minimum recommended level, and this is largely attributed to unhealthy diets, poverty, and food insecurity in developing countries (FAO, 2019) 10 . Previous findings in Babati showed that 32% household members consumed less than the recommended level 11 ."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Further, most of the vegetables are bought from the market (90%) or obtained from home gardens (39%) (Annex 7, Table 12) 12 . About 82% of the farmers consider that their daily diet does not contain all food groups needed per day while 77% believe that their foods do not contain sufficient nutrients. Thus, it is important to conduct training to increase nutrition knowledge among farmers' households. During the reporting period, nutrition training was done in eight villages and an additional eight villages will be trained in 2019/2020. "}]},{"head":"Foods consumed and dietary diversity","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The food groups consumed by the households were cereals (100%); spices, condiments, and beverages (97%); vegetables (98%); oils and fats (93%); sweets (83%); legumes, nuts and seeds (55%); and fruits (8%) (Fig. 14). Meat products (i.e., poultry, offal, fish, etc.), eggs, milk, and milk products were rarely consumed by many households. For example, about 1 percent of the households consumed eggs, while less than 10% consumed fish/seafood milk and milk products. Similar findings were reported in Mbarali and Bahi districts 13 . The average HDDS was 6.15 which means that on average, households consumed six food groups over the preceding 24-hour recall period (Table 10). Beneficiaries' households (6.33) had a higher dietary diversity score (P < 0.01) than control households (5.98). HDDS varies by village (Table 10).  11) and photos are available in annex 5a-1d."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"After the baseline survey, nutrition training was conducted in eight villages from 18 to 28 August 2019. Nutrition training equipped participants with knowledge and skills on food groups and better feeding practices to reduce undernutrition among households particularly, children under 5 and women of reproductive age in the project area. Major activities include provide information on the importance of eating diverse foods, recipe preparations, ways to add value to their farm produces based on relationship between plant health and human health and tips/approaches to change diet-related habits that would ultimately improve the nutritional status. In total, 332 farmers (52% women), 10 participants from NGOs, and eight government extension staff, and 16 restaurants/food kiosks were trained (Table 11). The participants per village are provided in Table 11 while photos are provided in annex 5a-1d. IDP, WorldVeg, and other partners organized a Seed and trade fair on 30 August 2019. The objectives were: (1) to gather and reach as many farmers as possible in Karatu District to celebrate the value of farmer seed and to raise awareness on the threats placed on multiplying seed and the implications of these threats;"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"(2) to give farmers a venue to voice their opinions and formulate their own policy priorities in the matter; and (3) to put farmers and stakeholders who champion the continued existence of farmer seed to Karatu in the spotlight and recognize their role as food ambassadors (Photos of the event are included in the annex 5d). Two new recipes were developed during nutrition training (Annex 6). "}]},{"head":"Challenges and measures taken","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"• Based on the research protocol, 128 farmers were selected to host demonstration trials. However, due to shortage of water in some areas only 64 farmers with access to water were selected to host demonstration gardens. Both, biometricians from IITA and WorldVeg approved this change."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• It was not possible to assess the adoption of vegetable-based recipes by food kiosks within the reporting period. Therefore, uptake of the recipes will be assessed in 2019/2020. "}]},{"head":"Partnership/linkages with other projects","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lessons learned","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"• The partnership with the Kilimo Endelevu program (Iles de Paix) has enabled Africa RISING to reach out to farmers and extension staff with improved technologies in Karatu District. The partnership has improved Africa RISING nutrition and agronomic research and enhanced scaling efforts by providing information regarding the livelihood status of the farmers and vegetable production. Through this collaboration, IDP will be scaling out the improved technologies (improved vegetable seed and good agricultural practices) to new regions (IDP will scale these technologies in eight new villages)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"• IDP staff have been trained on agronomy, postharvest management, and monitoring and evaluation. IDP will now maintain a beneficiaries' database (specifying the interventions in each village) to improve the scaling efforts and even track the spreading of the technologies and non-adoption of the disseminated technologies."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"• Field days enabled more farmers to learn from on-farm research trials in the target villages. It provides farmers the opportunity to learn, share experiences, and encourage them to adopt new technologies. Village field days are not only cost effective but also farmer participation is higher than centrally organized field days. Men actively participating in cooking at the village. Photo credit: Inviolate Dominic/World Veg."}]},{"head":"Pumpkin leaves with groundnut","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Ingredients (1-2 servings)"},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"• 1 kg pumpkin leaves Grind the mixture of garlic and ginger finely 5. Sort groundnuts and grind finally to flour or blend (For good taste use roasted groundnut, grind or blend) 6. Put the vegetables in a cooking pan, add carrots, onion, tomatoes, and ground garlic and ginger in a cooking pan, add water, salt, curry powder and cover well 7. Boil the vegetables for about 10-15 minutes or until well cooked 8. Stir the mixture well 9. Mix the groundnut flour with a mixture of water and stir well 10. Add the mixture of groundnut to the vegetable mixture; stir well, 11. Bring to the boil and stir well for 5 minutes 12. Season to taste; serve while hot with rice, stiff porridge or any other staple food Note: You can use coconut milk or milk instead of groundnut."}]},{"head":"African eggplant stew with sea food (dagaa) and okra","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ingredients (1-2 servings)","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"• 3 medium size carrots • Put cooking oil in a cooking pan, fry lightly then add dagaa, fry for 2-4 minutes then add tomatoes, ground garlic, curry powder, ginger and salt; stir until soft. • Add African eggplant, okra, and carrots and stir well • Add water (optional) stir and cover the pan for 10-15 minutes, and simmer until the vegetable is soft or well cooked. • Mix the groundnut flour with a mixture of water and stir well • Season to taste and serve hot with ugali, rice, or any staple Note: Depending on the availability of groundnut you can use coconut milk or milk. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Postharvest activity sites in Karatu District. "},{"text":"3 . Discuss Kilimo Endelevu's strategy for scaling the technologies going forward. 4. Discuss approaches for recording technology exposure and spreading data. 5. Discuss the role of local (village) government and extension officers in strengthening farmer learning and spreading of the technologies. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Lead farmers and extension workers attend a review and feedback workshop in Karatu. Photo credit: Christopher Mutungi/IITA. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Overall damage of maize grain stored in ordinary bags by village after 7 months of storage. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Overall damage of maize grain stored in hermetic containers by village after 7 months of storage. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Performance of air-tight storage technologies for storage of maize. Total population of adult insects, insect damage, overall damage and physical losses were examined after 7 months of storage in farmers' stores across 8 villages. AgroZ and PICS are brands of locally manufactured air-tight bags; the AgroZ bag has one hermetic liner whereas the PICS bag has two hermetic liners. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Insect holes on the air-tight bags after 7 months of maize storage "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Screenshots of some of the messages as received on a smartphone. Photo credit: Christopher Mutungi /IITA. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Africa RISING project staff shared technology briefs and fliers on postharvest storage of grains (plate a and b); visitors to the project stand were intrigued by the metallic silo and its efficacy for grain storage (plates c and d). Photo credit: Eveline Massam/IITA. "},{"text":"Annex 3 . Technology brief on metallic silo storage. Simplified brochure on causes of postharvest food losses and recommended best practices to reduce the losses . "},{"text":" . The technology ratings by farmers are presented in Figs. 10-13. Male farmers perceived that IMP practices increased productivity, profitability, and improved human conditions with less effect on environment and social aspects (Figs.10 & 12). Similar results are reported by women (Figs.11 & 13). Both women and men indicated that mulching helped to improve the environment by conserving soil moisture and increasing soil fertility. However, they were not able to link the improved soil fertility to increased yield. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Visualization diagram of the impact of IMP practices on SI indicators by male farmers in Kainam Rhotia. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Visualization diagram of the impact of IMP practices on SI indicators by male farmers in Kainam Rhotia. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Visualization diagram of the impact of IMP practices on SI indicators by male farmers in Kambi ya Simba. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Visualization diagram of the impact of IMP practices on SI indicators by female farmers in Kambi ya Simba "},{"text":"Figure 14 . Figure 14. Foods consumed by households in Karatu (24-hour recall). "},{"text":"c) Nutritional training on 4-27 August 2019 Sample of recipes prepared. Photo credit: Dyness Kejo/World Veg. A facilitator in discussion with trainees after a training. Photo credit: Dyness Kejo/World Veg. Practical demonstration by training facilitators. Photo credit: Inviolate Dominic/World Veg. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Attendance of farmers and extension workers to review workshop.  Institution Village         Institution Village Participant category District Agric office Kilimo Endelevu Bashay K.Rhotia Changarawe Chemchem G. Lambo Slahhamo Buger simba Kambi ya Total Female Participant categoryDistrict Agric officeKilimo EndelevuBashayK.RhotiaChangaraweChemchemG. LamboSlahhamoBugersimba Kambi yaTotalFemale Development  3         3 1 Development331 partner             partner Extension workers 3  1  1     1 6 3 Extension workers 311163 Farmers   1 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 15 4 Farmers13211232154 Total 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 3 24 8 Total3323311233248  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Number of lead farmers trained on improved postharvest management technologies and practices. .  Institution Village         Institution Village Participant category District Agric office Kilimo Endelevu Bashay K.Rhotia Changarawe Chemchem G. Lambo Slahhamo Buger simba Kambi ya Total Female Participant categoryDistrict Agric officeKilimo EndelevuBashayK.RhotiaChangaraweChemchemG. LamboSlahhamoBugersimba Kambi yaTotalFemale Dev. partner - 2 - - - - - - - - 2 0 Dev. partner-2--------20 Farmers -  4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 28 13 Farmers-4442244428 13  "},{"text":"• Scaling efforts could be boosted by making use of modern communication technology. It is therefore important that Kilimo Endelevu continues to update the telephone contacts of their farmers and extension workers, distinguishing those with video and SMS-only enabled devices. • Strategies to boost farmer-to-farmer communication need to be put in place, e.g., by increasing outreach campaigns in action villages. The Kilimo Endelevu draft strategy (Annex 1) if implemented in earnest should accelerate scaling to reach the numbers targeted by both KE and AR. Kilimo Endelevu strategy for scaling postharvest technologies in Karatu: Strategic objectives, outcomes, and indicators. Strategies Outcome Indicators StrategiesOutcomeIndicators and procure training   and procure training materials   materials Strategy 4. Train Outcome 4.1 Improved Indicator 4.1 # of Strategy 4. TrainOutcome 4.1 ImprovedIndicator 4.1 # of entrepreneurs in silos knowledge of entrepreneurs trained in silos entrepreneurs in silosknowledge ofentrepreneurs trained in silos fabrication entrepreneurs in silos fabrication fabricationentrepreneurs in silosfabrication  making  making Strategy 5: Train Annexes entrepreneurs in business Outcome 5.1: Improved knowledge and skills of Indicator 5.1 # of entrepreneurs trained in Strategy 5: Train Annexes entrepreneurs in businessOutcome 5.1: Improved knowledge and skills ofIndicator 5.1 # of entrepreneurs trained in skills (MVIWATA Arusha) Annex 1. Strategies Strategy 6: Link entrepreneurs with financial entrepreneurs in business development and management Outcome Outcome 6:1 Improved access to financial services business skills Indicator 6:1 # of financial Indicators linkages established between skills (MVIWATA Arusha) Annex 1. Strategies Strategy 6: Link entrepreneurs with financialentrepreneurs in business development and management Outcome Outcome 6:1 Improved access to financial servicesbusiness skills Indicator 6:1 # of financial Indicators linkages established between Strategic Objective 1: To build the capacity of smallholder farmers institutions e.g., MVIWAKA to the entrepreneurs entrepreneurs Strategic Objective 1: To build the capacity of smallholder farmers institutions e.g., MVIWAKA to the entrepreneurs entrepreneurs Strategy 1: Prepare training SACCOS? (MVIWATA Arusha) Outcome 1:1 Availed Indicator 1.1 # of training Strategy 1: Prepare training SACCOS? (MVIWATA Arusha)Outcome 1:1 AvailedIndicator 1.1 # of training manual in collaboration with Strategy 7: Link training materials for lead Outcome 7.1: Established manuals produced Indicator 7.1 # of linkages manual in collaboration with Strategy 7: Linktraining materials for lead Outcome 7.1: Establishedmanuals produced Indicator 7.1 # of linkages IITA. entrepreneurs with sellers of farmers and are in use. business networks among established between IITA. entrepreneurs with sellers offarmers and are in use. business networks amongestablished between Strategy 2: Train lead farmers fabrication materials Outcome 2:1 Improved materials sellers/ Indicator 2:1 # of lead farmers entrepreneurs and sellers of Strategy 2: Train lead farmers fabrication materialsOutcome 2:1 Improved materials sellers/Indicator 2:1 # of lead farmers entrepreneurs and sellers of in collaboration with IITA. skills and knowledge on manufacturers and silos identified fabrication materials in collaboration with IITA.skills and knowledge on manufacturers and silosidentified fabrication materials  storage technologies makers Indicator 2.2 # of lead farmers storage technologies makersIndicator 2.2 # of lead farmers  among lead farmers trained among lead farmerstrained Strategy 3: Lead farmers to Outcome 3:1 Improved Indicator 3:1 # of farmers Strategy 3: Lead farmers toOutcome 3:1 ImprovedIndicator 3:1 # of farmers train the community at large. storage practice among trained train the community at large.storage practice amongtrained  farmers in the community  farmers in the community Strategic Objective 2: To link farmers with hermetic bags/containers sellers/manufacturers Strategic Objective 2: To link farmers with hermetic bags/containers sellers/manufacturers Strategy 1: Identify hermetic Outcome 1:1 Improved Indicator 1:1 # of Strategy 1: Identify hermeticOutcome 1:1 ImprovedIndicator 1:1 # of bags/containers knowledge of the farmers sellers/manufacturers bags/containersknowledge of the farmerssellers/manufacturers sellers/manufacturers on the sources of hermetic identified sellers/manufacturerson the sources of hermeticidentified  bags/containers.  bags/containers. Strategy 2: Organize Outcome 2:2 Established Indicator 1:1 # of networks Strategy 2: OrganizeOutcome 2:2 EstablishedIndicator 1:1 # of networks engagement of farmers to business networks among established between engagement of farmers tobusiness networks amongestablished between sellers/manufacturers of the materials sellers/ entrepreneurs and the sellers/ sellers/manufacturers of thematerials sellers/entrepreneurs and the sellers/ hermetic bags/containers/ manufacturers and silos manufacturers of fabrication hermetic bags/containers/manufacturers and silosmanufacturers of fabrication manufacturers makers materials. manufacturersmakersmaterials. Strategic Objective 3: To establish a silo fabrication center in Karatu Strategic Objective 3: To establish a silo fabrication center in Karatu Strategy 1: Identify Outcome 1:1 Available Indicator 1:1 # of Strategy 1: IdentifyOutcome 1:1 AvailableIndicator 1:1 # of entrepreneurs who are ready human resources to entrepreneurs identified entrepreneurs who are readyhuman resources toentrepreneurs identified to fabricate silos and sell. fabricate silos in Karatu  to fabricate silos and sell.fabricate silos in Karatu Strategy 2: Identify training Outcome 2.1 Available Indicator 2.1 # of institutions Strategy 2: Identify trainingOutcome 2.1 AvailableIndicator 2.1 # of institutions institution institution for training identified institutioninstitution for trainingidentified  entrepreneurs.  entrepreneurs. Strategy 3: Identify source of Outcome 3.1 Improved Indicator 3.1 # of sources of Strategy 3: Identify source ofOutcome 3.1 ImprovedIndicator 3.1 # of sources of silos fabrication materials knowledge on the sources materials identified silos fabrication materialsknowledge on the sourcesmaterials identified  of fabrication materials  of fabrication materials  "},{"text":" In Karatu, farmers involved in participatory research and neighbouring farmers learnt from the demonstrations. Field days and seed and trade fairs were organized to offer a platform for farmers to learn about the vegetable technologies. On 13-16 July training was conducted for IDP staff, extension officers, and trainers of lead farmers to equip them with skills and knowledge on postharvest technologies for fruit and vegetables (Annex 5a andTable 11). A total of 28 participants including farmer trainers (11 females and 17 males) participated in the training. The training program is available at http://africa-risingwiki.net/BabatiPharvestraining_Aug19. Farmer field days were organized in each intervention village and 215 farmers (117 males and 98 females) and other stakeholders participated in them (Table11). IDP and WorldVeg organized a Seed and trade fair: (1) to gather and reach as many farmers as possible in Karatu District to celebrate the value of farmer seed and (2) to give farmers a venue to voice their opinions and formulate their own policy priorities. Over 800 people attended the event (photos of the event are included in the appendix Annex 5d, Table11). All the events and training can be accessed at http://africa-rising-wiki.net/EventsImpact of improved management practices (improved varieties and GAP)First season data was collected from March to September 2019. Data has been submitted to IFPRI to upload in Dataverse. Research followed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) and was done with 64 farmers from eight villages in Karatu namely: Changarawe, Buger, Chemchem, G'lambo Kambi ya Simba, Slahhamo, Kainam Rhotia, and Bashay. Improved management practices (IMP) are a technological package of good-quality, improved seed, healthy seedlings, and good agronomic practices (GAPs) that were tested with smallholder farmers. Results from the first season showed that IMP significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased yield of tomato by 48%, 30% for nightshade, and 28% for Ethiopian mustard. Similarly, the income from tomato increased by 57%, 39% for nightshade, and 40% for Ethiopian mustard. Besides, IMP reduced postharvest losses by 86-98% for all vegetable crops grown (Table5). Market participation increased by 14% for tomato, 36% for nightshade, and 11% for Ethiopian mustard. Overview  Overview  Africa RISING East and Southern Africa Project and Iles de Paix Africa RISING East and Southern Africa Project and Iles de Paix Activity name: (Islands of Peace) Partnership in Karatu District, Tanzania Activity name:(Islands of Peace) Partnership in Karatu District, Tanzania Activity start date: 20 January 2019 Activity start date:20 January 2019 Activity end date: 31 October 2019 Activity end date:31 October 2019 Name of prime World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) Name of primeWorld Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) implementing partner:  implementing partner:  • Iles de Paix (Islands of Peace) • Iles de Paix (Islands of Peace)  • Ministry of Agriculture in Karatu District • Ministry of Agriculture in Karatu District Major counterpart • Mtandao wa Vikundi vya Wakulima Tanzania (MVIWATA) Major counterpart• Mtandao wa Vikundi vya Wakulima Tanzania (MVIWATA) organization (s) • Research Community and Organizational Development organization (s)• Research Community and Organizational Development  Associates (RECODA) Associates (RECODA)  • International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) • International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)  Dr Justus Ochieng Dr Justus Ochieng Contact person Email: [email protected] Contact personEmail: [email protected]  • Justus Ochieng (WorldVeg) • Justus Ochieng (WorldVeg) Implementation team • Inviolate Mosha (WorldVeg) Implementation team• Inviolate Mosha (WorldVeg)  • Hassan Mndiga (WorldVeg) • Hassan Mndiga (WorldVeg) Geographic coverage Karatu District, Arusha Region, Tanzania Geographic coverageKaratu District, Arusha Region, Tanzania (districts, regions)  (districts, regions) Reporting period: 19 July 2019-30 September 2019 Reporting period:19 July 2019-30 September 2019 Executive summary  Executive summary Capacity building  Capacity building  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Linkage between activities implemented and the Africa RISING ESA project logframe-project outcome 1. Project outcome 1: Productivity, diversity, and income of crop-livestock systems in selected agroecologies enhanced under climate variability Project outcome 1: Productivity, diversity, and income of crop-livestock systems in selected agroecologies enhanced under climate variability Output 1.1: Demand-driven, climate-smart, integrated crop-livestock Planned activities Planned milestones Achievements towards milestones during the reporting period (refer to data -tables, figures, plates in the discussion section). Deviation from planned milestone and reasons Custom indicators/ deliverables this period. Deviation from custom indicator targets and explanation Output 1.1: Demand-driven, climate-smart, integrated crop-livestockPlanned activitiesPlanned milestonesAchievements towards milestones during the reporting period (refer to data -tables, figures, plates in the discussion section).Deviation from planned milestone and reasonsCustom indicators/ deliverables this period.Deviation from custom indicator targets and explanation research products (contextualized technologies) for improved productivity, diversified diets, and higher income piloted for specific typologies in target agro-ecologies [and scaled in 5] Outcomes 4 and 1.1.2: Evaluate and implement pathways that are effective at improving access to seeds and clonal materials of modern varieties of legumes, cereals, vegetables, and forages 1.1.2.1: Performance (yield and profitability) of vegetable production using improved technologies in Karatu established. 1.1.2.2: At least 128 lead farmers, eight government extension officers, on safe production (NGO) staff trained and three partner 1.1.2.1 Data collected (submitted to IFPRI to upload). Preliminary results are presented and discussed below. 1.1.2.2: 64 lead farmers (33 males; 31 females) were supported to effectively manage nurseries and extension support provided to IDP and extension staff. The following trainings were safe vegetable production to demonstration sites to ensure conducted at the 64 farmers (33 males; 31 females) are now engaged in the demonstration instead of 128 farmers. Reducing the number of farmers from 128 to 64 was approved by biometrician IITA WorldVeg and Meeting and training reports Field day report None in the reporting period None in the reporting period research products (contextualized technologies) for improved productivity, diversified diets, and higher income piloted for specific typologies in target agro-ecologies [and scaled in 5] Outcomes 4 and1.1.2: Evaluate and implement pathways that are effective at improving access to seeds and clonal materials of modern varieties of legumes, cereals, vegetables, and forages1.1.2.1: Performance (yield and profitability) of vegetable production using improved technologies in Karatu established. 1.1.2.2: At least 128 lead farmers, eight government extension officers, on safe production (NGO) staff trained and three partner1.1.2.1 Data collected (submitted to IFPRI to upload). Preliminary results are presented and discussed below. 1.1.2.2: 64 lead farmers (33 males; 31 females) were supported to effectively manage nurseries and extension support provided to IDP and extension staff. The following trainings were safe vegetable production to demonstration sites to ensure conducted at the64 farmers (33 males; 31 females) are now engaged in the demonstration instead of 128 farmers. Reducing the number of farmers from 128 to 64 was approved by biometrician IITA WorldVeg andMeeting and training reports Field day reportNone in the reporting period None in the reporting period   of vegetables lead farmers and other   None in the of vegetableslead farmers and otherNone in the    farmers in the project area:   reporting farmers in the project area:reporting    (1) Simple drip irrigation   period (1) Simple drip irrigationperiod    training conducted. (119    training conducted. (119    farmers (51% females).    farmers (51% females).    (2) Training on book-keeping    (2) Training on book-keeping    to help farmers keep better    to help farmers keep better  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Linkage between activities implemented and the Africa RISING ESA project logframe-project outcome 3. Project  "},{"text":"outcome 3: Food and feed safety, nutritional quality, and income security of target smallholder families improved equitably (within  households)       households)  Planned Planned milestones Achievements towards Deviation Custom Deviation from custom PlannedPlanned milestonesAchievements towardsDeviationCustomDeviation from custom  activities  milestones during from planned indicators/ indicator targets and activitiesmilestones duringfrom plannedindicators/indicator targets and    reporting period (refer milestone and deliverables explanation reporting period (refermilestone anddeliverablesexplanation    to data-tables, figures, reasons this period  to data-tables, figures,reasonsthis period    plates in the discussion    plates in the discussion    section)    section) Output 3.1: 3.1.1: Assess 3.1.1.1 Sensitization 3.1.1.1 Sensitization 233 farmers None in the None in the reporting period Output 3.1:3.1.1: Assess3.1.1.1 Sensitization3.1.1.1 Sensitization233 farmersNone in theNone in the reporting period Demand- the impact of meetings meeting completed trained reporting  Demand-the impact ofmeetingsmeeting completedtrainedreporting driven nutritional  3.1.1.2: 233 farmers  period 450 farmers were to be drawn drivennutritional3.1.1.2: 233 farmersperiod450 farmers were to be drawn research messaging on 3.1.1.2: 450 farmers trained   and trained from 16 villages. researchmessaging on3.1.1.2: 450 farmerstrainedand trained from 16 villages. products to farmers trained on nutrition    Training was only conducted products tofarmerstrained on nutritionTraining was only conducted reduce nutritional messages 3.1.1.3 Two recipes   in eight villages only. reducenutritionalmessages3.1.1.3 Two recipesin eight villages only. postharvest knowledge, 3.1.1.3: At least two developed (Appendix) Food kiosks  Additional training in eight postharvestknowledge,3.1.1.3: At least twodeveloped (Appendix)Food kiosksAdditional training in eight losses and attitude and new vegetable-based  have not None in the villages is planned for losses andattitude andnew vegetable-basedhave notNone in thevillages is planned for improve practices and recipes developed 3.1.1.4: 16 kiosks adopted reporting 2019/2020 improvepractices andrecipes developed3.1.1.4: 16 kiosksadoptedreporting2019/2020 food quality household and promoted. trained. Assessment of recipes in period  food qualityhouseholdand promoted.trained. Assessment ofrecipes inperiod and safety nutrition 3.1.1.4: At least four adoption of the will be their food   and safetynutrition3.1.1.4: At least fouradoption of the will betheir food piloted in status food kiosks done in 2019/2020. menu.   piloted instatusfood kiosksdone in 2019/2020.menu. target areas  incorporate one or    More time is needed to target areasincorporate one orMore time is needed to [and scaled  more vegetable 3.1.1.5: Baseline study   evaluate the adoption of the [and scaledmore vegetable3.1.1.5: Baseline studyevaluate the adoption of the in Outcome  recipes in their food conducted. Preliminary   recipes. Follow up will be done in Outcomerecipes in their foodconducted. Preliminaryrecipes. Follow up will be done 5]  menu. findings are presented   with the kiosks to assess the 5]menu.findings are presentedwith the kiosks to assess the    below. Full report will be   adoption of recipes in below. Full report will beadoption of recipes in    completed in 2019/2020   2019/2020. completed in 2019/20202019/2020.   3.1.1.5 Baseline     3.1.1.5 Baseline   survey conducted     survey conducted  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Participatory research was done with 64 farmers from eight villages in Karatu namely: Changarawe, Buger, Chem Chem, G'lambo, Kambi ya Simba, Slahhamo, Kainam Rhotia, and Bashay. The findings are presented in Table4. IMP significantly increased yield for tomato by 48%, 30% for nightshade, and 28% for Ethiopian mustard. Similarly, the income from tomato increased by 57%, 39% for nightshade, and 40% for Ethiopian mustard. Besides, IMP reduced postharvest losses by 86-98% for all vegetable crops grown (Table5, column 5). Market participation (measured in terms of percentage of quantity sold for each vegetable) significantly increased by 14% for tomato, 36% for nightshade, and 11% for Ethiopian mustard. These findings demonstrate that growing improved vegetable varieties using improved and safer crop management practices contribute to increased yields, household income, and to consumption of diverse diets. Impact of improved management practices (IMP) on various SI indicators. SI indicators Improved Standard farmer Total Impact test SI indicatorsImprovedStandard farmerTotalImpacttest  management practices (SFP)  in % (t/chi- managementpractices (SFP)in %(t/chi-  practices (IMP)    sq) 1 practices (IMP)sq) 1 Tomato (Tengeru 97)      Tomato (Tengeru 97) Yield (t/ha) 11.68 6.07 8.88 48% *** Yield (t/ha)11.686.078.8848%*** Revenue (Tsh/ha) 2,864,583 1,236,979 2,050,781 57% *** Revenue (Tsh/ha)2,864,5831,236,9792,050,781 57%*** Postharvest loss (% lost) 0.2% 8% 3% -98% *** Postharvest loss (% lost)0.2%8%3%-98%*** Amount sold (% sold) 94% 80% 90% 14% *** Amount sold (% sold)94%80%90%14%*** African nightshade      African nightshade (Nduruma-BG16)      (Nduruma-BG16) Yield t/ha 3.66 2.57 3.12 30% *** Yield t/ha3.662.573.1230%*** Revenue (Tsh/ha) 1,883,681 1,144,965 1,514,323 39% *** Revenue (Tsh/ha)1,883,6811,144,9651,514,323 39%*** Postharvest loss (% lost) 2% 11% 6% -86% *** Postharvest loss (% lost)2%11%6%-86%*** Amount sold (% sold) 79% 51% 67% 36% *** Amount sold (% sold)79%51%67%36%*** Ethiopian mustard (ML      Ethiopian mustard (ML EM1)      EM1) Yield (t/ha) 3.67 2.62 3.14 28% *** Yield (t/ha)3.672.623.1428%*** Revenue (Tsh/ha) 1,883,681 1,128,472 1,506,076 40% *** Revenue (Tsh/ha)1,883,6811,128,4721,506,076 40%*** Postharvest loss (% lost) 2% 20% 10% -89% *** Postharvest loss (% lost)2%20%10%-89%*** Amount sold (% sold) 81% 72% 77% 11% *** Amount sold (% sold)81%72%77%11%***  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Basic characteristics of the sampled households Variables Beneficiaries Control (C) Total Test (T = C) - VariablesBeneficiariesControl (C)TotalTest (T = C) -  (B) (n = 236) (n = 251) (n = 487) p-value (B) (n = 236)(n = 251)(n = 487)p-value Sex of respondent (= 1 if male) % 58.05 66.93 62.63 0.043 Sex of respondent (= 1 if male) %58.0566.9362.630.043 Sex of head of the HH (= 1 if 87.29 92.43 89.94 0.059 Sex of head of the HH (= 1 if87.2992.4389.940.059 male) %     male) % Marital status     Marital status 1 = married (%) 84.32 83.27 83.78 0.529 1 = married (%)84.3283.2783.780.529 2 = single (%) 2.97 8.76 5.95  2 = single (%)2.978.765.95 3 = divorced (%) 1.69 0.4 1.03  3 = divorced (%)1.690.41.03 4 = separated (%) 3.81 1.99 2.87  4 = separated (%)3.811.992.87 5 = widowed (%) 7.2 5.58 6.37  5 = widowed (%)7.25.586.37 Household size (#) 6.09 5.83 5.96 0.216 Household size (#)6.095.835.960.216 Land owned (acres) 2.077 2.330 2.208 0.403 Land owned (acres)2.0772.3302.2080.403 Land allocated to vegetables (acres) 0.136 0.222 0.181 0.100 Land allocated to vegetables (acres) 0.1360.2220.1810.100 Own vegetable home garden (1 = 51.71 40 45.66 0.010 Own vegetable home garden (1 =51.714045.660.010 yes) %     yes) % Access to extension services (yes) % 27.97 20.32 24.020 0.058 Access to extension services (yes) % 27.9720.3224.0200.058 No. of times visited by extension 1.416 0.997 1.200 0.175 No. of times visited by extension1.4160.9971.2000.175 officer     officer Participation in agriculture training 39.83 23.51 31.42 0.000 Participation in agriculture training39.8323.5131.420.000 (yes)     (yes)  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Vegetables grown by farmers in Karatu District. Vegetables Beneficiaries (B) Control (C) (n Total (n = VegetablesBeneficiaries (B)Control (C) (nTotal (n =  (n = 236) = 251) 487) (n = 236)= 251)487) Ethiopia mustard 35% 20% 27% Ethiopia mustard35%20%27% Chinese cabbage 19% 16% 17% Chinese cabbage19%16%17% African nightshade 22% 7% 14% African nightshade22%7%14% Onions 6% 16% 11% Onions6%16%11% Tomato 15% 4% 9% Tomato15%4%9% Pumpkin Leaves 9% 5% 7% Pumpkin Leaves9%5%7% Cowpea leaves 7% 2% 4% Cowpea leaves7%2%4% African eggplant 4% 2% 3% African eggplant4%2%3% Amaranth 5% 0% 2% Amaranth5%0%2% Carrot 0% 2% 1% Carrot0%2%1% Sweet potato leaves 0% 1% 1% Sweet potato leaves0%1%1% Cabbage 1% 1% 1% Cabbage1%1%1% Jute mallow 1% 1% 1% Jute mallow1%1%1% Spider plant 1% 0% 0% Spider plant1%0%0% Sweet pepper 1% 1% 1% Sweet pepper1%1%1% Kale 0% 0% 0% Kale0%0%0% Okra 0% 0% 0% Okra0%0%0% French beans 0% 1% 0% French beans0%1%0%  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Total vegetable production, sales, utilization, and postharvest losses. Variables Beneficiaries Control (n Total (n = (T=C) VariablesBeneficiariesControl (nTotal (n =(T=C)  (n = 236) = 251) 487) t-test (n = 236)= 251)487)t-test Yield (kg) per household per 713.9 1000.4 861.6 0.3287 Yield (kg) per household per713.91000.4861.60.3287 season     season Home consumption (kg) 50.3 113.5 82.8 0.3105 Home consumption (kg)50.3113.582.80.3105 Distributed to neighbours (kg) 43.7 39.6 41.6 0.7793 Distributed to neighbours (kg) 43.739.641.60.7793 Postharvest loss (kg) 39.0 37.5 38.2 0.9566 Postharvest loss (kg)39.037.538.20.9566 Quantity sold (kg) 581.0 809.9 698.9 0.3996 Quantity sold (kg)581.0809.9698.90.3996 Market participation (% sold) 81% 81% 81%  Market participation (% sold)81%81%81% Postharvest loss (% lost) 5% 4% 4%  Postharvest loss (% lost)5%4%4%  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Assessment of farmers' nutrition knowledge and attitude. Variables Beneficiaries Control (n Total (n VariablesBeneficiariesControl (nTotal (n  (n = 236) = 251) = 487) (n = 236)= 251)= 487) Do vegetables contain nutrients 68.64 55.78 62.01 Do vegetables contain nutrients68.6455.7862.01 needed for growth and health? (1    needed for growth and health? (1 if knows)    if knows) Do all vegetables have similar 20.76 11.95 16.22 Do all vegetables have similar20.7611.9516.22 nutrient values (1 if yes)?    nutrient values (1 if yes)? Correctly naming three 70.76 63.35 66.94 Correctly naming three70.7663.3566.94 vegetables that are high in    vegetables that are high in vitamin A    vitamin A Correctly naming three 7.23 5.18 6.17 Correctly naming three7.235.186.17 vegetables that are high in iron    vegetables that are high in iron Are you aware of how many 31.36 6.77 18.69 Are you aware of how many31.366.7718.69 grams of vegetables you should    grams of vegetables you should eat each day?    eat each day? Is it important to eat vegetables    Is it important to eat vegetables every day? (1 = yes)    every day? (1 = yes)  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Average household dietary diversity.Africa RISING in collaboration with Iles de Paix (IDP) is supposed to build the capacity of Kilimo Endelevu staff, government extension staff, and farmers. Capacity building of IDP staff is expected to scale out validated technologies to their target farmers in new villages/areas. Several farmers participated in setting-up demos and neighboring farmers learnt from the demos while field days and seed fairs offer a platform for farmers to learn about the technologies. Post-harvest training was conducted to equip the participants with skills and knowledge on postharvest technologies for fruits and vegetables. This is to maintain quality and safety (appearance, texture, flavor, and nutritive value) and to reduce losses between harvest and consumption. Photos of farmers and IDP staff who participated in postharvest training are presented in appendix (Annex 5a) while the number of farmers, IDP and extension staff who received training are presented in Table11. A total of 28 including farmer trainers (11 females and 17 males) were trained. About 215 farmers (46% females) and other stakeholders participated in field days (Table Variables Beneficiaries Control Total (n = 487) VariablesBeneficiariesControlTotal (n = 487)  (n = 236) (n = 251)  (n = 236)(n = 251) HDDS 6.33 5.98*** 6.15 HDDS6.335.98***6.15 HDDS by village    HDDS by village Intervention villages HDDS Control villages HDDS Intervention villagesHDDSControl villagesHDDS Bashay 7.000 Dumbechang 6.400 Bashay7.000Dumbechang6.400 Buger 6.667 Endallah 5.480 Buger6.667Endallah5.480 Changarawe 6.750 Endamagaw 6.200 Changarawe6.750Endamagaw6.200 Chemchem 6.778 Endashang'wet 6.240 Chemchem6.778Endashang'wet6.240 Endagemu 7.067 Getamock 5.800 Endagemu7.067Getamock5.800 Endallah 8.000 Kambi ya faru 5.375 Endallah8.000Kambi ya faru5.375 Gylambo 5.353 Laja 5.231 Gylambo5.353Laja5.231 Kainam rhotia 5.733 Lositete 6.667 Kainam rhotia5.733Lositete6.667 Kambi ya simba 6.267 Makhoromba 6.083 Kambi ya simba6.267Makhoromba6.083 Khusmay 5.733 Tloma 6.280 Khusmay5.733Tloma6.280 Kilima tembo 5.750 Total 5.980 Kilima tembo5.750Total5.980 Laghangareri 7.313   Laghangareri7.313 Mbuga nyekundu 6.818   Mbuga nyekundu6.818 Ng'aibara 6.200   Ng'aibara6.200 Qorong'aida 6.296   Qorong'aida6.296 Slahamo 5.667   Slahamo5.667 Upper Kitete 6.667   Upper Kitete6.667 ***significant difference between control and beneficiary at 1%.  ***significant difference between control and beneficiary at 1%. Capacity building for farmers and partners   Capacity building for farmers and partners  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Training Title of training Venue Date Total of trainees Percent women Title of trainingVenueDateTotal of traineesPercent women Postharvest management training Venue: IDP office 13-17 July, 2019 28 39% Postharvest management trainingVenue: IDP office13-17 July, 20192839% Nutrition training Various villages 19-28 August, 2019 332 52% Nutrition trainingVarious villages19-28 August, 201933252% Slahhamo Slahhamo 22 Aug 38 55% SlahhamoSlahhamo22 Aug3855% Gylambo Gylambo 28 Aug 43 42% GylamboGylambo28 Aug4342% Bashay Bashay 27 Aug 32 59% BashayBashay27 Aug3259% Chemchem Chemchem 19 Aug 34 68% ChemchemChemchem19 Aug3468% Kainam Rhotia Rhotia 20 Aug 53 32% Kainam RhotiaRhotia20 Aug5332% Changarawe Changarawe 21 Aug 30 40% ChangaraweChangarawe21 Aug3040% Buger Buger 23 Aug 37 57% BugerBuger23 Aug3757% Kambi ya simba K/simba 26 Aug 65 63% Kambi ya simbaK/simba26 Aug6563% Other participants     Other participants NGOs (IDP, MVIWATA, RECODA Various villages Various dates 10 20% NGOs (IDP, MVIWATA, RECODAVarious villagesVarious dates1020% Government extension staff   8 63% Government extension staff863% Restaurants owners/staff   16 N/A Restaurants owners/staff16N/A Field day in Karatu (by village) Various villages 8-13 July 2019 215 46% Field day in Karatu (by village)Various villages8-13 July 201921546% Buger Buger 8 July 2019 28 57% BugerBuger8 July 20192857% Changarawe Changarawe 8 July 2019 33 45% ChangaraweChangarawe8 July 20193345% Bashy Bahy 9 July 2019 21 52% BashyBahy9 July 20192152% G. Kambi G. Kambi 10 July 2019 32 38% G. KambiG. Kambi10 July 20193238% Rhotia Rhotia 11 July 2019 32 34% RhotiaRhotia11 July 20193234% Schomo Schomo 12 July 2019 37 51% SchomoSchomo12 July 20193751% Simba Simba 13 July 2019 32 47% SimbaSimba13 July 20193247% Seed and trade fair Mazingira Bora 30 August 2019 800 (500 farmers; 100 N/A Seed and trade fairMazingira Bora30 August 2019800 (500 farmers; 100N/A  ground -Karatu  students, 17 journalists  ground -Karatustudents, 17 journalists  Town  among others)  Townamong others)  "},{"text":"• Africa RISING is partnering with Kilimo Endelevu project by Iles de Paix (IDP) to scale out best-bet technologies in Karatu. Other partners are Mtandao wa Vikundi vya Wakulima Tanzania (MVIWATA) and Research Community and Organizational Development Associates (RECODA).  "},{"text":" Sort and wash pumpkin leaves, carrots and tomatoes and chop finely; don't peel 2. Wash, peel onions, and chop finely 3. Wash ginger and peel garlic 4. • 3 medium size carrots • 3 medium size carrots • 3 medium tomatoes • 3 medium tomatoes • 3 medium size onions • 3 medium size onions • 4 cloves garlic • 4 cloves garlic • ½ liter water • ½ liter water • ¼ kg groundnut • ¼ kg groundnut • 1 cup milk or 1 cups coconut milk • 1 cup milk or 1 cups coconut milk • 2 tbs carry powder (Simba Mbili) -optional • 2 tbs carry powder (Simba Mbili) -optional • 1 pc medium size ginger/optional • 1 pc medium size ginger/optional • Salt to taste • Salt to taste Preparation Preparation 1. 1.  "},{"text":" Sort and wash African eggplant and okra and cut the end tips • Sort and wash the sea food (dagaa) • Sort and wash carrots and tomatoes and chop finely; don't peel • Wash onions and chop finely • Wash ginger and peel garlic • Grind the mixture of garlic and ginger finely • Sort groundnuts and grind finally to flour or blend (you may use the roasted groundnuts) • 2 big tomatoes • 2 big tomatoes • 2 medium size onions • 2 medium size onions • ¼ kg okra • ¼ kg okra • ½ African eggplants • ½ African eggplants • 4 cloves garlic • 4 cloves garlic • ½ liter water • ½ liter water • ¼ kg groundnut • ¼ kg groundnut • 1 cup milk/ or 1 cups coconut milk • 1 cup milk/ or 1 cups coconut milk • 2 tbs curry powder (Simba Mbili) -optional • 2 tbs curry powder (Simba Mbili) -optional • 1 pc medium size ginger/optional • 1 pc medium size ginger/optional • 4 tbs cooking oil • 4 tbs cooking oil • 2 cups water • 2 cups water • 1 cup milk or coconut milk • 1 cup milk or coconut milk • Salt to taste • Salt to taste Preparation Preparation • •  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Onions. Variables Beneficiaries Control Total (n = (B = C) t-test/ VariablesBeneficiariesControlTotal (n =(B = C) t-test/  (n = 236) (n = 251) 487) chi -test (n = 236)(n = 251)487)chi -test Yield (kg per ha) 5,305.98 6,375.72 5,857.32 0.888 Yield (kg per ha)5,305.986,375.725,857.320.888 Yield (Kg) 449.8 825.2 643.3 0.186 Yield (Kg)449.8825.2643.30.186 Home consumption (kg) 2.861 15.107 9.172 0.001 Home consumption (kg)2.86115.1079.1720.001 Distributed to neighbours (kg) 1.749 25.415 13.947 0.058 Distributed to neighbours (kg)1.74925.41513.9470.058 Postharvest loss (kg) 13.641 34.9 24.585 0.346 Postharvest loss (kg)13.64134.924.5850.346 Quantity sold (kg) 431.589 749.795 595.592 0.235 Quantity sold (kg)431.589749.795595.5920.235 Market participation (% sold) 96% 91% 93%  Market participation (% sold)96%91%93% Postharvest loss (% lost) 3% 4% 4%  Postharvest loss (% lost)3%4%4%  "},{"text":"Table 16 . Tomato. Variables Beneficiaries Control Total (n = (B = C) t-test VariablesBeneficiariesControlTotal (n =(B = C) t-test  (n = 236) (n = 251) 487)  (n = 236)(n = 251)487) Yield (kg per ha) 23,377.37 539.21 11,606.57 0.112 Yield (kg per ha)23,377.37539.2111,606.570.112 Yield (kg) 79.1 105.2 92.6 0.678 Yield (kg)79.1105.292.60.678 Home consumption (kg) 18.405 57.25 38.426 0.477 Home consumption (kg)18.40557.2538.4260.477 Distributed to neighbours (kg) 9.788 6.944 8.322 0.549 Distributed to neighbours (kg)9.7886.9448.3220.549 Postharvest loss (kg) 1.385 2.6 1.991 0.391 Postharvest loss (kg)1.3852.61.9910.391 Quantity sold (kg) 49.521 38.482 43.832 0.639 Quantity sold (kg)49.52138.48243.8320.639 Market participation (% sold) 63% 37% 47%  Market participation (% sold)63%37%47% Post-harvest loss (% lost) 2% 2% 2%  Post-harvest loss (% lost)2%2%2%  "},{"text":"Table 17 . Chinese cabbage. Variables Beneficiaries (n Control Total (n (T=C) t-test/ VariablesBeneficiaries (nControlTotal (n(T=C) t-test/  = 236) (n = 251) 487) chi -test = 236)(n = 251)487)chi -test Yield (kg per ha) 5,096.85 1,925.18 3,462.17 0.449 Yield (kg per ha)5,096.851,925.183,462.170.449 Yield (kg) 150.451 269.035 211.569 0.230 Yield (kg)150.451269.035211.5690.230 Home consumption (kg) 17.682 96.102 58.100 0.207 Home consumption (kg)17.68296.10258.1000.207 Distributed to neighbors (kg) 14.313 14.571 14.446 0.966 Distributed to neighbors (kg)14.31314.57114.4460.966 Post-harvest loss (kg) 4.590 4.986 4.794 0.913 Post-harvest loss (kg)4.5904.9864.7940.913 Quantity sold (kg) 113.9 153.4 134.2 0.582 Quantity sold (kg)113.9153.4134.20.582 Market participation (% sold) 76% 57% 63%  Market participation (% sold)76%57%63% Postharvest loss (% lost) 3% 2% 2%  Postharvest loss (% lost)3%2%2%  "}],"sieverID":"c332fea4-628e-4c7e-8ebe-d0c9ebf8a07a","abstract":"Islands of Peace (IDP) is a Belgian NGO created in the 1960s. It is a pluralist association, with no religious, philosophical, ideological, or political ties. Currently IDP works in Benin, Burkina Faso, Peru, Uganda, and Tanzania. IDP also conducts activities in Belgium such as advocacy and development education. The intervention of IDP in Africa's overall objective is to enable people to pursue their own sustainable development process independently and with dignity. In its countries of operation, Islands of Peace facilitates local, reproducible, and sustainable development led by disadvantaged populations with their representatives and local authorities. Islands of Peace is an NGO specialized in the support for local development. Its interventions target vulnerable rural communities for whom the IDP programs tackle food insecurity."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b68d5d82b8398da8032a759c4ce623","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b192c4e4-024b-4fdc-a499-469fb5d8266d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"INFORME DE CAPACITACION 2021 EVALUACIÓN MULTILOCACIONAL DE NUEVO GERMOPLASMA FORRAJERO -FASE II","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"La misión de esta capacitación fue estructurada de acuerdo a los intereses específicos del equipo de Agrosavia, los cuales eran la socialización de los resultados obtenidos en la parte de mejoramiento y los ensayos de sequía y encharcamiento realizados por el CIAT del proyecto anteriormente mencionado."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"De acuerdo a los comentarios de los participantes se evidencio los puntos de mayor interés:"},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":" En el análisis de resultados, mostraron un gran interés en los nuevos híbridos y en su efecto en condiciones de la Orinoquia  Como plantearon los índices y por qué se planteó de esa manera  La solución de las diferentes sintomatologías de los materiales comerciales como lo son Mulato, Mulato II y Caimán.  Las diferentes maneras de medir los estreses por sequia De forma general los espectadores plantearon comentarios, preguntas y problemas de índole investigativa con el fin de aclarar lo que se estaba exponiendo. También, destacaron el manejo y dominio de los temas presentados y disposición para aclarar dudas de los diferentes expositores de la capacitación."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"9e7b4ef8-d87b-42b3-843e-c45d7cf080eb","abstract":""}

data/part_5/05e4ad3cfcdc99f3413e58b8cfdd8923.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05e4ad3cfcdc99f3413e58b8cfdd8923","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2bdb8cb5-5985-4f71-8bf3-25f324edd08d/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"ISPC commentary on the proposal CRP 1.3: \"Harnessing the development potential of aquatic agricultural systems for the poor and vulnerable\" (Proposal of","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"The ISPC notes that initial country choices are based on the lead Center's comparative advantage and are well documented. However, it is not clear how WorldFish's (and other partner's) prior results and experience truly contribute to this new way of working. Indeed, although research questions are posed, the current proposal does not elaborate on any new productivity enhancing research activities to be undertaken and how they will be summed for expected poverty impacts. The approach to resilience is to be commended and the approach proposed is novel so that the time course for achieving successful (more resilient system) outcomes is not known. The extent of buy-in from other CGIAR partners is sketched rather than being evident. Thus, the ISPC cannot at this stage determine whether the proponents can deliver the well argued strategic intent, or in what time frame. There is a need therefore to treat the framework presented as a hypothesis for testing rather than the final formulation of this CRP. The burden of the implementation risk rests with the proponents, who will need to be alert to the risks of non-delivery in a program structure which poses leadership and management challenges in keeping the several broad partner coalitions working and productive. We believe that a further critical step for this proposal will be to translate the intent into a more concrete research approach including many of the assessments and the development of impact indicators promised generically so far."}]},{"head":"Recommendation:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"The ISPC recommends that the CRP 1.3 approach be approved to allow the program's proponents to engage with partners so as to develop a revised proposal and work plan with greater specificity. The revision of the proposal should take into account the advice contained in this commentary, and should identify the research activities with research milestones and partner roles (which, for instance, will lead to a revision of Chapter 6 of the current proposal). The proposal should identify the meaningful involvement of other CGIAR Centers and programs in AAS approaches (beyond WorldFish and IWMI); describe and quantify where possible the outcomes and impacts for beneficiaries (in terms of livelihoods, human welfare, institutional change or resource or system resilience) expected from the hub and country-level approaches. On the basis of more concrete outputs the proposal should provide a strategy for how these will be utilised to maximise the IPG benefits across AAS countries and regions subsequently. The ISPC encourages a strategic approach to program evolution and would prefer to see the initial program implemented coherently in the first five target countries and starting to show evidence of added value of the integrated approach before the paced addition of further countries (and then only with adequate budget). The ISPC would be happy to provide further feedback on the initial operational plan for the first three years of the program."}]},{"head":"Strategic coherence and clarity of Program objectives","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"The proposal's strategy is coherent, logical, problem-led, and harnesses the comparative advantages of CGIAR and of the partner organisations. The problem identification is sound and there is an explicit link to the SRF's system-level outcomes related to poverty and food security. The philosophy underlying the program marks this CRP out as innovative territory for the CGIAR. The program takes as it starting point the people living in poverty, particularly women, in specific geographic areas defined as being dependent on Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS). Thus, the production systems themselves are not the unit of focus, and in fact there is rather little discussion of the production systems in the whole document. AAS are defined as \"agricultural systems in which the annual production dynamics of freshwater and/or saline or brackish coastal systems contribute significantly to total household income\". This covers aquaculture, cereals, fruit trees, livestock-keeping and capture fisheries. These systems do not need to be physically integrated (in terms of their resource flows) -a focus of the integrated aquaculture-agriculture research agenda of ICLARM/WorldFish in the past. Rather, the CRP is concerned primarily with livelihood systems, where there may be diverse strategies employed across the membership of a household. In this regard, it is first and foremost a social science-led proposal -although it is very good to see the integration of the social and environmental sciences being explored in the context of resilience. A revised proposal should, however, provide more details of specific (rather than generic) natural science research questions which might be addressed."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"The choice of six research themes is sensible and appropriate to a fully-integrated problem-oriented research for development program for the livelihood systems in these geographic locations. Of the six themes, Theme 1 (Sustainable increases in system productivity) focuses as much on understanding low productivity households' constraints and implementing strategies for promoting adoption of existing technologies, as on the generation of new technologies. Theme 2 (Equitable access to markets) is focused around participatory market chain analysis (PMCA), although it is somewhat unclear how far the CRP intends to support the implementation of activities that would strengthen the position of women in these market chains, rather than merely diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses. Theme 3 (Social-ecological resilience and adaptive capacity) has similarities with the Alternatives to Slash and Burn (ASB) partnership's interest in trade-offs among productivity, ecological and social goals. In stating that the program will combine \"environmental and social systems research with action for social change\" the CRP makes it overt development commitments to the communities quite clear."},{"index":3,"size":224,"text":"The program is focused geographically, with Zambia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Philippines and the Solomon Islands as the initial countries included. Within each country, there are a varying number of research \"hubs\". These sites are reasonably homogeneous within countries but very diverse across countries, so the partners and approaches will have to be adjusted to each country. The rationale for the choice of these countries and the specific sites within them is well justified in the proposal, although there appears to be a much more extensively developed hub-system for Bangladesh than other countries and enjoying significantly the largest proportion of the funds in 2011-13. However, the notion of basing all the research in vulnerable hub sites is possibly excessively risky. An alternative would have been to identify the \"hubs\" along a continuum of conditions, and so sampling a range of typologies. Instead the proponents have chosen hubs in places exclusively of high vulnerability which may reflect the priorities of the NGO partners or of donors, which in turn reflects an ethical commitment to supporting the poorest people. While this strategy is admirable from a humanitarian perspective, it makes program implementation more challenging and potentially puts the generation of IPGs at risk. Conditions may suddenly worsen and the NGO partners may need to move from a focus on long-term research and development to a short-term humanitarian response."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"This proposal is firmly focussed on development. The proponents coin the term \"research in development\" which combines the acquisition of knowledge as being a necessarily socially-embedded process, with an action research agenda which demands an ethical commitment to improving the lives of the people who are participating in the research. In other words, knowledge is generated by people living in poverty AAS-dependent areas for their own use in improving their lives. The role of the researcher (and the associated partner NGO agencies) is to facilitate this process."},{"index":5,"size":193,"text":"The proposal consistently points to the need for component research to be demand-driven and argues that the 'integrated livelihoods [of the women and men who live in AAS systems] have been marginalized by our agricultural research investments, and the opportunities they offer for reducing poverty have been missed'. It concludes: 'we will pursue integrated research that recognizes the full complexity of these systems and so harness their multiple contributions to reducing poverty'. Nonetheless, it was a surprise to not see any reference to system-specific research on aquatic resources and aquaculture in agricultural systems, for example. Much research has been conducted in this area, and the proposal is silent about why this is not being built on. This omission suggests that this research has had limited adoption or impact -an impression reinforced by the statement that \"previous efforts have not been successful to deliver full benefits of AAS\". It is critical to understand why, where and how these have failed. It would also be useful for the proposal to include, for example, an overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the adoption of World Fish Center's main technologies in the three focus regions."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"A low emphasis on strategic or more fundamental research in particular is noticeable. Few other organizations match the CGIAR's capacity to carry out substantial, strategic research. It is in this area that the CGIAR has a competitive advantage over the more nimble players usually involved in action research. There is no doubt that the WorldFish Center and its CGIAR partners conduct significant strategic research towards the proposal's objectives and will continue to do so, but the proposal itself does not emphasize this, rather the convening power of the Lead Center."},{"index":7,"size":144,"text":"The ISPC / Science Council has consistently advocated that the CGIAR should focus on its core niche of generating international public goods (IPGs). However, the ISPC also recognizes that such a mode of operation may lead to the problem of being too supply-led, where the interests of the scientists take precedence over the needs and interests of the intended beneficiaries of the research. Some expected IPGs are detailed in the program (i.e. knowledge, insight on process) but it would be useful to have more details (including some examples) and a clear strategy for ensuring generalizable insights emerge from the program. Indeed by focussing on key countries, and in some cases on smaller populations at hubs within them, it will be important for the proponents to show how the place-based research will ultimately benefit the greater number of AAS-dependent poor people identified in the proposal."},{"index":8,"size":82,"text":"Based on existing knowledge and scoping studies, key target problems and opportunities to address these problems are indicated for the different countries / hubs. Throughout the proposal it is made clear that the specific research to be undertaken will only be finalized during the participatory inception and priority-setting process that the program will pursue. This process is described in detail as national inception workshops, participatory diagnoses and ex-ante impact assessments, and program design. This process is appropriate, given the heterogeneity across sites."}]},{"head":"Delivery focus and plausibility of impact","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The proposal demonstrates a clear understanding of the links between problems, outputs and outcomes and the necessity of using an adaptive research approach if SLO goals and objectives are to be met. The impact pathway is based on up-to date research understandings plus pre-proposal participatory scoping in-country and hub research on the multiple dimensions of poverty, the structural underpinnings of poverty (i.e. beyond incomes), and gender inequity. The impression is that a lot of preparation has gone into this proposal."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"The proposal does not assume a single pathway from research to impact and that the needs for future ex-post impact assessment in the course of the research will likely be quite diverse. What is common across the program is a desire to understand the \"pathways out of poverty and formal and informal institutional structures and processes ... [that] support pro-poor, gender-equitable and sustainable development.\" A key determinant of the International Public Good (IPG) nature of this action research will be the extent to which data collected on these diverse pathways can be analysed across contexts to learn more generalizable lessons about what is necessary and sufficient to help people move out of poverty. In general, more serious thinking is needed on what the IPGs from this kind of program might be -currently the discussion on this issue is only on a conceptual level."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"The theories of change that shape expectations regarding impacts from the program could be contested but at least are made fully explicit. In terms of achieving 'sustainable' and 'transformative change' (terms that are integral to gender analysis but also used in the analysis of poverty and social protection), the real challenge will be to provide the financial and other resources (especially time) to 'moving socio-cultural norms, beliefs and attitudes' as a necessary condition for impact. The proposal is very clear that it fits into a chain of research and development partners whose participation is essential for meeting the SLO outcomes. Although not directly mentioned in this proposal, all partners involved in this CRP are being asked to change their operational modes. This is acknowledged in the proposal where it is stated that \"organisational behaviour changes will be monitored\". Institutional inertia is a potential risk to the program."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"Limited attempts have been made in the proposal to specify, let alone quantify the benefits that might result from the program. Even the country-specific sections only identify the target populations but are vague about the nature or magnitude of benefits that may materialize as a result of the program. It is appreciated that specific activities and interventions resulting from participatory action research cannot be fully specified at this stage. However, WorldFish and its partners have been active in most hub regions for a long time and should be able to identify some promising interventions and likely benefits. There is limited consideration of possible negative impacts and of tradeoffs that may constrain options. This area should be given greater emphasis, particularly in the highly managed and integrated systems of the Asian mega-deltas where strong interactions exist between fisheries and agricultural activities, for example, and the tradeoffs are quite well known."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"General sections 4 (Approach) and 5 (Impact pathways) are strong, and a focus on learning and adaptive management in the program is appropriate. These require that program management take the steps necessary to prepare for future impact assessment. This will require financial and human resources, as well as a good deal of imagination, as the work will be methodologically challenging, given the heterogeneity in interventions across sites. An adequate set of impact indicators for this project will require a blend of scientific, institutional and end-user developed measures which are not yet satisfactorily described in what tends to be weighted to social science descriptions."}]},{"head":"Quality of science","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"It is difficult for the ISPC to make judgments about scientific quality at this stage. The proposal has not elaborated on what gaps it intends to fill in the current state of global knowledge in this area, and hence could not propose specific methods and approaches. Because there are no boundaries to the work, the scope of the research questions and suggested outputs and outcomes for Theme 1 [P28] remain generic and unrealistic for a USD 4-6.5million budget and without embedding the entire CGIAR portfolio in this quest. However, country level research questions focus much more specifically on aquatic system issues but, implicit in the proposal, there appears to be a high reliance on scientific capacities and expertise of other CRPs and partners in many components of thematic research plans. The framework of the proposal itself represents perhaps the main overarching, 'big' idea but neither the framework nor its operationalization are treated as hypotheses and subjected explicitly to research. The ISPC believes that more could be learned by taking an explicit research approach to both aspects than from participatory evaluations alone. Section 6 on the research framework and themes is not very detailed with few references to academic literature -something that would have helped the reader get more a flavour of the kind of academic \"schools\" the research will be grounded in. Better specificity of comparative advantage and what is new is needed."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"A very serious critique of resilience assessments to date is that they require an almost impossible amount of research, are very difficult to do at large spatial scales, and are not by nature, participatory. It remains a relevant scientific approach but has provided few notable impacts to-date. Thus, application of novel participatory resilience research on this large scale has a real potential to inform the way that resilience research is both conducted and applied in this type of social-ecological context. The proposal is attempting exactly the sort of innovative research that CRPs are supposed to address. Certainly what is proposed is something that no one apart from the CGIAR is likely to take on."},{"index":3,"size":187,"text":"Attempts have been made to develop research questions of high relevance to the identified constraints and key development challenges under each theme for specific regions (Annex 4). However, the proposal stops short of going the extra step of formulating specific research activities for producing the expected outputs. The next step will be to design specific research activity plans, based on comprehensive consultation and participatory diagnoses of priorities with partners and stakeholders in the different regions during the inception phase. Nonetheless, it should still be possible to identify strategic research priorities at the level of focal systems (e.g. the rice-based farming/fishing/aquaculture systems of the Asian mega-deltas) that could be addressed by a program of this magnitude and lead to significant advances in system understanding and developmental impact. Whether this will be true also for some of the very challenging questions in the policy arena remains to be answered. For example, \"What macro-level policies constrain national and local-level efforts to reduce poverty and improve livelihoods?\" How the changes in a specific policy factor can be isolated from all the other factors may be beyond the scope of the project."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"Because of the lack of research detail (and description of likely benefits) the proposal is really inviting support for a process, and as such it is difficult to assess whether the three year and six year budgets are a legitimate or adequate request. However, the Worldfish Center has demonstrated effective leadership in having already co-ordinated a complex research proposal that is multidisciplinary; involves a range of partners; has a well developed social agenda; a strategy and approach for supporting ongoing change; and meeting the expressed needs and interests of local populations, while also envisioning the contributions it can make to wider and global knowledge. A natural resource program that can contribute to the understanding of what 'gender-equitable options to improve the lives of smallholder households' might look like, would be invaluable."}]},{"head":"Quality of research and development partners and partnership management","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"This program has a clear and well developed partnership development strategy. The disaggregation of different types of partners and the specification of criteria for identifying the key implementing partners gives confidence that there is sufficient experience of managing partnerships for true collaborations to be achieved. Due recognition is also given to the skills which the different partners bring, which is evidence of a good understanding of the CGIAR's niche."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The claim that it \"will bring together the combined knowledge of AAS users, governments and civil society organizations, integrating it with the capacities of the CGIAR and its partners\" is matched by the claim that it will build \"partnerships among fishers, farmers, traders, women's groups, private firms, local governments and other agents of change\". The success, suitability and ultimate utility for meeting development and research goals of these downstream partnerships, will depend on the quality of the core relationships between CGIAR Centers and NGOs."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Core partners are to be chosen based on their research and development skills, as well as their knowledge of the locations within which the research will be carried out. The choice of global partners (e.g. on the research side: Stockholm Resilience Centre, UEA, JCU; on the development side: CRS, CARE) is welcomed. There is already significant evidence of partner engagement in planning. This extends from the identification of hubs and 'local' partners to the carrying out of the initial scoping exercises. The synergy between the core partners provides a good balance for this particular program. A number of partners have a long history of engagement in these locations and have demonstrated excellent social development skills. The partnerships are formal and built on a clear understanding of benefits and gains for all those involved. A significant part of the budget (21%) will be expended through partners. As a result, the proposal is clear about the minimum requirements for effective partnership, whether they involve financial obligations or other forms of engagement, with an emphasis on transparency, continuous learning and accountability for results."},{"index":4,"size":214,"text":"The ISPC welcomes the frankness of the descriptions that detail how the CRP will interact with CGIAR Centers and programs (tables 7 and 8). The alignments and potential alignments are succinctly presented along with a straightforward assessment of a Center or other CRP's likely participation. At this stage, the CRP proponents seem to have little buy-in from other CGIAR Centers. Depending on the site they will need much more -for example, from IRRI in Bangladesh; from IFPRI across the board on empowerment, collective action, market chains, and on policy and institutions. CRPs such as this one could involve most of the CGIAR as providers of technologies and expertise to help the partner organisations. At the moment, this CRP appears to be largely about WorldFish and IWMI, given the relatively minor role to be played by Bioversity and CIAT. The CRP expects to be able to draw on emerging lessons from CRPs covering other agricultural systems that can be adapted for AAS. Cross CRP learning on macro-level policy reforms, innovations in institutions and governance for agricultural development is mentioned. Theme 2 (Equitable access to markets) is focused around participatory market chain analysis There is a considerable body of work proposed under a similar research theme in CRP 2 that is not mentioned in the proposal."},{"index":5,"size":280,"text":"In the section of the CRP that addresses risk management (Section 16, pg. 79), five of the first six risks concern collaboration and partnership of various kinds-new levels and types of collaboration that will be required of CGIAR Centers and projects, the culture of collaboration that will be required within the CRP itself, the challenge of building effective coalitions, the role of partners in scaling out the program's results. Partners are not a pro forma part of the CRP, but integral to its conception and its potential success. As a result, CRP1.3 has a nuanced and carefully considered strategy with respect to partnership as well as a number of management mechanisms that are intended to assure that partnerships are not just \"good\" but are also productive. This provides a sense that the management implications have been thought through, as have the issues associated with scaling up. The management structure includes formal mechanisms for partner engagement. Although the CRP characterizes some partners on the basis of the level of resources they can bring to the project or formal performance agreements, this is not the overriding factor that determines engagement in the program's management, evaluation or priority setting. The role and value of NGOs, like CARE and Catholic Relief Services, as partners are described in specific rather than generic terms. This reinforces the CRP's underlying commitment both to an integrated approach to the research and to using that approach to push well beyond the usual CGIAR partners to acknowledge complementary and, in some cases, superior capacity to realize results. Based on this, a reference to the ability to leverage $300 million in additional investments by building effective partnerships does not appear exaggerated."}]},{"head":"Appropriateness and efficiency of Program management","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The proposal has a number of implementation risks. Most of the research sites are likely to be difficult for carrying out research (e.g. working in extremely remote areas of Zambia; working with minority indigenous groups in Bangladesh). While it is laudable that these sites were developed explicitly as a response to priorities set by regional bodies, this is a risky strategy."},{"index":2,"size":244,"text":"The timescale for implementation, especially given these risks, is too ambitious. Attempting to scale up the program to ten countries within three years of operation, with several hubs in each country, represents a significant portfolio to be managed and quality-controlled. Given the complexity of the research that will likely take place, with many different types of interventions, and the difficulty of working in most of the selected sites, it would be better to use the first three years for establishing \"proof of concept\" in the three different types of systems identified (Mega deltas; Coral triangle; African inland). CRP 1.3 includes a highly detailed, multi-level structure for program management. These include mechanisms for program administration, independent program review, ongoing learning, and periodic participation by partners and others in evaluation and priority setting. The WorldFish Center serves as the lead Center for CRP 1.3 and the legally accountable entity for overall management and performance. There are also CRP-level oversight and management structures as well as a management and advisory structure that operates at the focal country level. Thus the proposal reflects a thorough effort to arrive at a structure that has integrity and coherence for the CRP, and that provides it with both optimal independence and functionality. It incorporates good checks and balances, the structure (and the tone) balances the relative roles of the Lead Center and the other participating Centers and partners without signalling undue concern about the Lead Center's potential control of the program."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"The M&E plan is integrated into an overall monitoring plan that gives priority to constant learning from monitoring being fed back into further research. As noted in the proposal, 'research in development is very much a circular process with many feedback loops'. In terms of monitoring impact, it is the participating users who will develop and agree on change processes and indicators of change. This is a sensible approach, relative to the alternative of stating lots of quantitative targets up front, but this should be moderated to include a scientific perspective on assessing sustainability and institutional change."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"The formation of country program committees and country program teams also gives confidence that mechanisms for the exchange of knowledge between different parts of the program will happen and thus benefit the likelihood and extent of impact. There is some slight confusion however about whether a Program Management Committee exists or is called a Program Leadership team?"},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"Nevertheless, it appears a complicated structure to put in place, particularly if it is expected to emerge from the intentional realignment and reallocation of existing staff and financial resources within each of the participating Centers. While it is possible to imagine that the Country Program Teams could be identified from existing research staff, the CRP envisions a transformed approach to research and a significant shift in culture, both of which will rely heavily on skilled and committed management at the country level, as well as being open to input from the relationships with development agencies."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"The skill set may not already be in place within participating Centers and may require some budgetary leeway to recruit what's needed."},{"index":7,"size":318,"text":"The projected level of CRP program support, which projects 3-5 people plus the Program Leader, does appear realistic, given the program's overall complexity and the kinds of management and coordination it demands. With that said, the CRP does not project a realistic level of funding for salaries and administrative costs -for example, approximately $360,000 a year for salaries, one of them a senior leadership position, by year 3. The potential under-resourcing of the program's management is further vulnerable in the event of a revenue shortfall. The proposal's contingency planning in the event of a 20% shortfall in projected support includes recruiting existing Center staff to lead and manage the program rather than seeking new leadership and management staff. The proposal makes a strong case for the shift in culture and practice demanded by the CRP and the inherent difficulty the system will face in navigating much more collaborative and integrative approaches to research. This argues for placing a premium on program management that brings new skills and frames of reference to the CRP. It is counterproductive not to budget to achieve that goal and even more self-defeating to see the cost of leadership as a logical place to economize. The proposed Program Leadership Team serves as a high level and high functioning management committee for the CRP. Where the Program Oversight Panel (POP) embodies expertise and independence, the PLT is designed to bring those with authority for funding and implementing the program together in one place. It is highly representative body comprising a representative of each of the participating Centers and an equal number from partners along with the country program managers. It is designed to work and the only thing likely to make that difficult is if the number of focal countries and the number of key partners grows -this could become a very crowded table and unwieldy for the useful purposes for which it is designed."},{"index":8,"size":170,"text":"CRP1.3 provides for a well balanced executive function for the overall management and administration of the program. The CRP Leader is appointed by the lead Center and reports to the Center's DG. Annual performance evaluation is a shared function that involves both the Center DG and the chair of the Program Oversight Panel (who is neither a staff nor board member of any of the participating Centers. In addition to the expected management and administrative responsibilities, the CRP Leader is also expected to serve as the public representative of the CRP and has responsibility for resource mobilization. CRP 1.3 proposes that knowledge sharing and learning are core to the program and they are given status as a research theme, rather than a management and coordination function. The budget attached to the theme is also significant. There is merit in considering Knowledge Sharing and Learning to be a function that benefits from a clear location and well defined staff function for its CRP-wide management and monitoring within the Program Support Unit."}]},{"head":"Clear accountability and financial soundness, and efficiency of governance","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"CRP 1.3 includes a strong platform for sound governance and oversight in the Program Oversight Panel. While the reporting relationships to the Consortium are clearly reserved to the lead Center, the POP is designed to be a knowledgeable, independent body that can assure the quality and performance of the program as well as maintain the confidence of partners, donors and stakeholders. There is a functional overlap between the lead Center board and the POP that enhances communication and accountability to the lead Center's board, but the POP is given the primary responsibility to undertake formal planning, monitoring and evaluation of the program, including commissioning external reviews."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The balance of budget between the themes looks appropriate. In terms of Center participation there is a very strong element of the budget going to WorldFish with apparently more for the partners than other CGIAR Centers, but there is evidence in the text to suggest that this is the endpoint of considerable discussion and not that Centers have been excluded."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"In the financial presentations, it was not possible to find:"},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"• A consolidated three-year projection of revenue and expenses. Program costs for 2014-16 were presented in this fashion (Table 15, p.86), but no similar table was provided for 2011-2013. • A financial presentation that consolidates project revenue with expenses. The revenue side is alluded to in the proposal's narrative but does not appear as part of the budget information."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"• A clearer presentation of the extent to which each of the participating Centers participates financially in the CRP. There is a pie chart that gives percentages of expenditures by Centers,partners,etc. (Figure 13,p.86). This appears to be a \"flow to\" presentation. It does not capture the extent to which funds in the initial years of the program will \"flow from\" restricted and other funds currently allocated to the participating Centers."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"The last of these omissions reflects a persistent challenge to viewing this and other CRP budgets clearly. While the presentation itemizes the costs of country and hub coordination as well as program governance and management as direct costs of the CRP, it implies an absolute and onerous increase in these costs as a result of the proposal and places the burden of paying these costs wholly on the new funding mechanism."},{"index":7,"size":193,"text":"Finally, a comment that is important to all CRPs and the efficiency of the CGIAR's programmatic approach: while CRPs are intended to grow the resource \"pie\" for research agendas, initially current resources from each of the Centers and various projects will be directed through to the CRP. As participation in various CRPs unfolds, it is clear that while more and more of the research side of a Center, including money, staff and partnerships, will flow into CRPs, none of the core costs of management and administration will. Perhaps at each Center these costs begin to contract and vanish as a Center places more and more of its portfolio within CRPs, but this is outside the view of the individual proposals themselves. At the proposal level, all that is evident is that transaction costs increase, and that while Center research funds flow into a CRP (and flow back out), management costs must be recovered elsewhere. There is no indication that the participating Centers, by moving funding and staff into the new program, are achieving any economies and efficiencies in the management area that would result in those gains flowing to the CRP, even initially."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"8f2814b3-4d82-441c-aef1-8e370a3979b1","abstract":"The CRP 1.3 proposal presents a \"research in development\" program to address the issues of poverty and vulnerability in selected countries of the world where aquatic agricultural systems are of major importance. As such, the proposal responds directly to the vision of the CGIAR in transition to have more direct impacts on the poor. The strengths of the current proposal are its problem-orientation, the clarity of the strategy, and novel and appropriate partnerships that have been formed for the initial target countries. International linkages to resilience science are complemented by national and NGO partnerships. It proposes to tackle the general issues of AAS (encompassing for this purpose Asian mega-deltas, Asia-Pacific islands and African inland waters), a potentially huge agenda, by focussing on 5 representative countries initially and potentially expanding the range to 10 countries. The ISPC welcomes this attempt to focus research on systems approaches to specific countries and hubs. However, the ISPC believes that all parties should be aware of the inherent difficulties (i.e. in achieving outcomes in realistic time scales) for a program conducted entirely in such difficult environments.The CGIAR wrestles with the need to produce international public goods from international research investments and, as for CRP 1.1 (Drylands), the challenge of producing IPGs while having a direct impact on the poor is recognised. The CRP 1.3 proposal correctly notes that the reduction of poverty in particular countries is place-based and context-specific. The primary raison d'être for research in development studies at the sub-national level is local development (and this argument may be true for all Theme 1 CRPs). How will we draw upon work with sub-national groups to achieve results and impacts that can be generalised to broader sets of beneficiaries? For CRP 1.3 there are likely to be lessons of general relevance across AAS countries and the program as it develops should continue to work out where true IPGs will be developed and how they can be scaled out and broadcast through scientific publications and the knowledge sharing and learning objective."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06b38b3d00696ad32afc68eafeea70af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3149dedb-7fe8-4fa7-be9d-540cf187dbef/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Diallel inheritance of relevant traits in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) adapted to acid-soil savannas","keywords":["General combining ability","specific combining ability","additive effects, dominance, super elongation disease"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), along with maize, sugarcane and rice constitute the most important sources of energy in the diet of most tropical countries of the world. Cassava is the fourth most important basic food after rice, wheat and maize and is a fundamental component in the diet of million of people (FAO/FIDA, 2000). The species originated in South America, and was domesticated about 5000 years ago (Allem, 2001;Olsen & Schaal, 2001). The first European sailors soon recognized the advantages of the crop and spread it through Asia and Africa. Until recently, cassava and its products were little known outside the tropical and subtropical regions where it grows. Compared with other staple foods, little scientific efforts had been made to improve the crop (Cock, 1989)."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"However, with the creation of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (II-TA) in Nigeria and the International Center of Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia in the early 1970's a new era began for cassava with the implementation of successful breeding projects, modernization of cultural practices and development of new processing methods (Cock, 1989;Jennings & Iglesias, 2002). National research centers in India, Thailand, Colombia, Cuba and Brazil, among few other countries, have conducted successful research on cassava as well."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Cassava is a very rustic crop that grows well in conditions where few other crops could survive: it is drought tolerant, can produce in degraded soils, and offers resistance to its most important diseases and pests. It is naturally tolerant to acidic soils and offers the convenient flexibility to be harvested when the farmers need it. Cassava has benefited from technological inputs in the area of breeding (Kawano et al. 1998;2003) to successfully satisfy the needs of farmers and processors. The general scheme for cassava breeding is indeed a phenotypic massal selection. Large number of segregating genotypes is evaluated in a lengthy process that requires as many as six year for completion (Ceballos et al., 2004;Jennings & Iglesias, 2002). Individual genotypes (clones) are selected and then multiplied to take advantage of the vegetative propagation of the crop."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"However, in spite of the importance of this crop, very little progress has been done to understand the inheritance of traits with agronomic relevance. Very few articles regarding the inheritance of quantitative traits have been published (Easwari et al. 1995;Easwari & Sheela, 1993;1995;1998). Cassava shows in this regard a unique situation because a molecular map has been already developed (Fregene et al., 1997;Mba et al., 2001) and yet very little knowledge based on traditional genetics has so far been produced. The objective of this study was to obtain information on the inheritance of traits with agronomic relevance in cassava so that a more scientifically based approach for improving them could be implemented."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Controlled pollinations among several parents were performed following the standard procedures described by Kawano (1980). Several thousand pollinations are routinely made among 25-30 elite cassava clones adapted to the acid soil environment (Ceballos et al., 2004). The specific parents used in this study where those that had produced enough botanical seeds for each of the required F1 crosses in a complete, balanced diallel set. That was the main selection criteria used for determining which parental materials would be included in the study."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Based on the seeds obtained a complete diallel set from 10 parents was prepared. Botanical seed produced from the crosses were planted in screen houses and transplanted to the field after 2 months at CIAT station in Palmira (Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia). A total of 12,022 genotypes were produced with maximum and minimum number of seeds for each F1-cross of 791 and 73, respectively. A total of 4697 were planted and 4251 could be transplanted to the field. From the transplanted seedlings, a total of 3871 (or 91.0%) developed into vigorous plants from which vegetative cuttings could be obtained."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Unavoidably there is a selection at this stage, which is based on the capacity of the plants to produce a minimum of six good quality vegetative cuttings. This was also the main criterion for selecting the sample of 30 clones that would represent each F1 cross. At harvest time six vegetative cuttings from 30 plants were obtained for all crosses except CM 4574-7 x SM 2058-2, which was represented by only 18 clones. For this particular cross, 12 plants (from a regional check) were added to complete the 30 plants required to maintain experimental units with uniform size and plant density. These 12 plants, however, were not considered in the analysis."},{"index":4,"size":187,"text":"Two locations with different soil conditions were used for this diallel evaluation. Both locations were at the Experimental Station in CORPOICA La Libertad near Villavicencio in Meta Department, Colombia (4° 06' N, 73° 29' W and at 400 meters above sea level). In spite of their proximity, the two environments were very different. Loma plot had severe edaphic constraints related to soil acidity (4.33 pH, 15.7 ppm P and 66.9% aluminum saturation). The environmental conditions in this plot generally allow for high disease pressure from super elongation disease (SED) induced by the fungus Sphaceloma manihoticola and cassava bacterial blight (CBB) induced by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Manihotis. Both diseases are endemic in this region and evaluation of the reaction of cassava to them is based on their natural incidence. Porcinos field had much better soil conditions (4.73 pH, 24.7 ppm P and only 28.5% aluminum saturation). Before planting 0.5 t ha -1 of dolomitic lime was applied to the soil. One month after planting the stakes 0.5 t ha -1 of 10-20-02 NPK fertilizer was applied following the standard recommendations for cassava grown in this kind of environments."},{"index":5,"size":134,"text":"A randomized complete block design with three replications per location was used. The evaluation was similar to a split-plot design. Each replication contained 45 main plots, one for each of the 45 F 1 crosses of the diallel. Each F 1 cross was, therefore, randomly allocated within each replication. Main plots contained eight rows with seven plants per row. The first and last rows and the first and last plant within each row were filled with border plants. The rest of the plot (6x5= 30 subplots) was used to plant the experimental material. The 30 clones constituting each F 1 cross were planted together in the respective main plots of each replication. Row-to-row distances and separation of plants within row were 1 m for a final plant density of 10000 plants ha -1 ."},{"index":6,"size":240,"text":"Trials were harvested in April 2002, ten months after planting (the usual age for harvesting cassava in this environment). Harvest is planned to take place just before the beginning of the rains. Root dry matter content drops drastically with the advent of the rains because the plant uses some of the energy accumulated in the roots to restart growth after the dry period. However, plants cannot be harvested too early because the vegetative cuttings obtained from them loose sprouting capacity and, therefore, additional evaluation and selection could be hampered. To take advantage of the large number of segregating progenies the results of this study were also used to continue the standard selection process in search of elite clones. Therefore the best performing clones in this diallel analysis were selected and planted in a preliminary yield trial (Ceballos et al., 2004) Plants were hand harvested individually and results averaged across the 30 clones of each F1 cross. All the roots produced by each plant were weighted as well as the above ground biomass (stem and foliage). Harvest index was measured as the ratio between root weight and total biomass. Dry matter content in the roots was estimated using the specific gravity methodology (Kawano et al., 1987). Approximately five kilograms of roots were weighed in a hanging scale (WA) and then, the same sample, was weighed with the roots submerged in water (WW). Dry matter content was estimated utilizing the following formula:"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"where WA= weight in the air and WW= weight in water."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"Reaction to SED and plant type architecture were scored using a 1 to 5 scale where 1=resistant or excellent plant type and 5=susceptible or very poor plant type. Plant type score took into consideration several important characteristics such as plant vigor, erect architecture with few branches and reduced branching angle, adequate capacity to produce vegetative cuttings, amount of foliage present and absence of foliar diseases."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"The analysis of variance follows the method 4 proposed by Griffing (1956)."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"Genotypes and environments were considered fixed and random effects, respectively."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"There was little development of CBB in both fields and, therefore, reaction to this disease was not analyzed. Pressure from SED was low or negligible at the Porcinos field, which is characterized by considerably better soil conditions. This is why SED scores could only be taken at the Loma plot. Table 1 presents the analysis of variance combined across locations. Environments were significantly different for fresh root yield, height of first branching and plant type score but did not show significant differences for harvest index and dry matter content. In general the coefficients of variability (Steel & Torrie, 1960) were acceptable for the relatively large trials involving cassava evaluations in the field."}]},{"head":"Analysis of variance","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Differences among the averages of the 45 crosses evaluated were highly significant (P ≥ 0.01) for dry matter content, height of first branching, SED and plant type score, significant (P ≥ 0.05) for harvest index and non significant for fresh root yield (Table 1). All variables (except SED which was measured only in one environment) showed highly significant (P ≥ 0.01) interactions between crosses and the environments (C x L). The error term for crosses in this analysis was the respective interaction with the environment. The large G x L interaction for fresh root yield explains the lack of statistical significance for differences among crosses for this variable. Individual locations analyses revealed highly significant differences (P ≥ 0.01) among crosses for the Loma field and nonsignificant at the Porcinos one (data not presented)."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"The sum of squares due to crosses was further partitioned in two orthogonal components represented by the general (GCA) and specific (SCA) combining ability effects. The proportion of the sum of squares for crosses explained by GCA and SCA effects is an estimation of the relative importance of additive and non-additive effects in the expression of each variable. SCA effects accounted for 53 % of the variation due to crosses for fresh root yield, 38% for harvest index and 33% for height of first branching. For the remaining variables non-additive effects accounted for less that 20% of the cross sum of squares. These results are consistent with those observed in two additional diallel studies for the sub-humid and mid-altitude valleys (CIAT, 2003). Across the three studies, SCA accounted for 51% (fresh root yield), 40% (harvest index), 28% (dry matter content), 25% (height of first branching) and 29% (plant type score) of the sum of squares due to crosses (CIAT, 2003)."}]},{"head":"General combining ability effects","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"General combining ability effects were highly significant (P ≥ 0.01) for height of first branching and SED score, significant (P ≥ 0.05) for dry matter content and non-significant for fresh root yield, harvest index and plant type score. Specific combining ability effects were highly significant (P ≥ 0.01) for height of first branching and plant type score, significant (P ≥ 0.05) for dry matter content and SED score, and non-significant for fresh root yield and harvest index. However, the combined analysis for genetic effects should, for most variables, be done in-dividually for each location, due to the significance of their respective interactions with the environment, particularly for the GCA effects."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The best two parents for fresh root yield, across the two locations, were SM 2219-11 and CM 4574-7 (Table 2). On the other hand, parent MPER 183 produced clearly mediocre progenies regarding fresh root productivity. SM 1219-9"},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"and CM 6740-7 also produced better than average progenies for this trait. The former was also found to be a good parent for the sub-humid environment and the mid-altitude valleys. CM 6740-7 was officially released as a cultivar with the name CORPOICA-REINA in 2001. SM 2219-11 not only had the highest positive GCA effects for fresh root yield, but also for harvest index (0.042) and positive GCA effects (but not the highest) for dry matter content in the roots (0.485)."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Moreover, the progeny from this clone had a good performance with low scores for SED (-0.205) and plant type (-0.147). Its progeny tended to have a high first branching (0.158), which is generally a desirable trait."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"A second outstanding clone, based on the average performance of its progeny across the two locations was CM 4574-7. It had the second highest GCA effects for fresh root yield as well as for dry matter content in the roots. The progeny from this clone also had the lowest GCA estimates for SED and plant type. In addition the height of first branching was high indicating a rather late branching in the life of the plant, a trait generally preferred by most farmers."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"As it is frequently the case for other crops, it was difficult to find a clone whose progeny was outstanding for most variables. In this experiment the progeny of MPER 183 was the worst for every variable and was among the poorer for height of first branching."},{"index":7,"size":186,"text":"In the analysis of individual locations the GCA effects for fresh root yield from the Loma field were highly significant. SM 2219-11 showed the highest positive value, which was also found for the Porcinos field ( Clone SM 1565-15 showed the best GCA effects for dry matter content at the Porcinos field, and the second best at the Loma field. GCA effects for this trait from CM 4574-7 were also outstanding in both environments. The progeny from this clone showed the best reaction to SED (GCA effect = -0.445), followed by SM 1565-15, CM 7033-3 and SM 2219-11, all with significantly negative values. MPER 183 produced the most susceptible progenies (GCA effect = 0.784) followed by MTAI 8 (GCA effect = 0.364). The join Thailand-CIAT breeding program developed the latter, which was released in 1987 as Rayong 60. Since SED is not present in Thailand, it is not surprising to observe that the progenies from MTAI 8 were found to be susceptible to this disease. MTAI 8 was included as parent because of its outstanding root yield potential and high dry matter content in the roots."},{"index":8,"size":144,"text":"GCA effects for plant type score identified CM 4574-7 as one of the best parents with negative values for both environments, particularly for the Loma field. CM 6740-7 and SM 2219-11 also showed good GCA effects for plant type at both locations. Clone SM 1565-15 showed again a particular adaptation to the savannas conditions represented by the Loma field, with a significantly negative GCA effect which contrasted with that from the Porcinos field, which was positive (although not statistically different from zero). In general, good (negative) GCA effects for plant type was associated with positive ones for height of first branching. Farmers generally prefer an erect, non-branching architecture because it facilitates cultural practices after the third-fourth month of grow and the production and handling of the planting materials is facilitated. A first branching high above the ground also results in a more erect type."}]},{"head":"Specific combining ability effects","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Table 3 presents a summary of averages for each cross (combined across both locations) as well as the respective SCA effects. Fresh root production is presented in t ha -1 units to illustrate the outstanding yield potential of this crop."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The highest yielding crosses were concentrated in combinations of certain progenitors. SM 2219-11 was a parent in five of the best 10 yielding crosses followed by CM 4574-7, which participated in four such crosses. As expected this agrees with the results from the GCA effects from Table 2, which showed these clones to be the best two for fresh root yield. The highest fresh root yields were always associated with positive SCA effects, which were frequently statistically significant. This would suggest that these good performances were closely associated with non-additive, rather than additive genetic effects. An observation coherent with those obtained from Table 1. The correlation coefficient between F1 average yield performances and their respective SCA effects was 0.73."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"In the case of resistance to super elongation disease, on the other hand, the lowest ratings were not necessarily associated with negative SCA effects with the exception of the first cross (CM 4574-7 x CM 6740-7) which showed the lowest SCA effect. It is reasonable, therefore to assume that for this trait additive rather than non-additive effects would control most of the reaction to the disease."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"These results reinforce those obtained from the analysis of variance in Table 1, where SCA accounted for less than 20% of the sum of squares due to crosses."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"The correlation coefficient between average SED score performance for the F1 crosses and their respective SCA effects was 0.37, much lower than that found for fresh root yield."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"The correlation coefficients between average harvest index and dry matter content with their respective SCA values were, respectively, 0.62 and 0.43."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"These values would also support the finding that non-additive effects play an important role for harvest index, which accounted for 38% of the sum of squares due to crosses (Table 1) but are not so important for dry matter content (for which only 18% of the sum of squares of crosses was accounted for by SCA effects, Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic correlations between evaluated traits","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Table 4 presents the phenotypic correlation coefficients among the averages of the 45 crosses analyzed in this study. As expected, negative correlations (ρ < -0.70) were observed between SED score and root and foliage yields as well as for dry matter content. It should be pointed out that lower scores for SED meant better (resistant) reaction to the disease. SED was also negatively associated with harvest index (ρ = -0.61). Positive correlation coefficients were also found for SED score and plant and root scores. This was also expected because in these variables a lower value represented better phenotypes as in the case of the SED score."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The height of the first branch showed a high correlation coefficient (ρ = -0.79) only with plant type score. In general, however, a high first branching tended to have higher root and foliage yields (correlation coefficients of 0.38 and 0.40, respectively). In addition to the correlations already mentioned, fresh root yield showed a highly positive coefficient with harvest index (ρ = 0.73) and negative ones with plant (ρ = -0.52) and root type (ρ = -0.84) scores."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Dry matter content was positively correlated with harvest index (ρ = 0.63) and fresh root yield (ρ = 0.51). The latter is a fortunate association because breeders are generally interested in developing cassava germplasm that has high fresh root yield as well as high dry matter content (Kawano, 2003, Jennings & Iglesias, 2002). Finally, high dry matter content was also associated, negatively as expected, with plant type score (ρ = -0.53)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Mean fresh root yield across the experiment was 20.4 t ha -1 , but was considerably higher in the Porcinos (36.1 t ha -1 ) than in the Loma field (12.4 t ha -1 ). Several families, however, showed mean productivities across the two environments above 25 t ha -1 , illustrating the excellent productivity of this crop, even in the limiting conditions of the Loma field. It should be emphasized that these are averages across the 30 clones representing each F1 family. The performance of the best clones within each family offers even wider ranges of variations. It is the performance of the individual clone that cassava breeders are most interested in."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The results of this study indicate a large influence of genotype by environment interactions, which are particularly problematic in the case of cassava."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"These effects were highly significant for all the variables analyzed in the two locations. Because the low multiplicative rate of cassava's planting material, it takes several years until the first multi-location trial can be conducted (Ceballos et al., 2004;Jennings & Iglesias, 2002). This implies that a large proportion of the selection process is affected by the lack of replication in different environments."},{"index":4,"size":172,"text":"One alternative would be to split the first clonal evaluation (Ceballos et al., 2004), which is typically based on 6-8 plants, in two locations (where each clone would be represented by 3-4 plants). Harvest index has been successfully used to overcome some of the problems related to interfamily competition in the first clonal evaluation stages (Kawano et al., 1998;Kawano 2003) when not enough planting material is available for replicated trials. Harvest index, however, also showed highly significant genotype by environment effects suggesting that even this variable is also very much influenced by this interaction. The use of border rows is not feasible in the large clonal evaluation trials because it would double the size of an already large trial. The approach currently used by CIAT to reduce interfamily competition in these trials is to widen row-to-row distance (from 1.0 to 1.2 m) and reduce plant-to-plant spacing within the row (from 1.0 to 0.8 m). This layout increases within-row competition and reduces the between-row one, while maintaining the overall plant density almost unchanged."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Another important conclusion from this study is the unexpectedly high role that SCA effects had for fresh root yield. SCA effects accounted for more than half of the crosses sum of squares for this variable. Non-additive effects also explained a considerable proportion of the cross sum of squares for harvest index and height of first branch and had little influence in dry matter content, SED and plant type score."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"Progenies from clones CM 4574-7, CM 6740-7 and SM 2219-11 showed an above average performance suggesting a higher breeding value for these three parental lines. Clone SM 1565-15 can be used as source of increased dry matter content in the roots and resistance to SED. In general the progenies from this clone were outstanding in the more limiting conditions of the Loma field, but could not compete well in the more favorable conditions of the Porcinos field. On the other hand clones MPER 183, HMC 1 and CM 7033-3 should not be used as progenitor of cassava clones targeting this environment.   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 2 The GCA effects for harvest index of SM 2219-11 were the highest at both locations. The better adaptation of SM 1565-15 to the conditions represented by the Loma field is also reflected in the case of harvest index with the third highest value, a sharp contrast with that from Porcinos field, which was the lowest among the ten parents. MPER 183 had negative GCA effects for harvest index at both locations, with the one from the Loma field being the lowest among all parents.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mean squares from the analysis of variance, combined across locations, for the diallel study from ten parental cassava clones evaluated in two soil conditions in Meta Department, Colombia. Source of Degrees Fresh Harvest Dry matter Height 1 st SED a Plant Source ofDegreesFreshHarvestDry matterHeight 1 stSED aPlant Variation of root yield Index content branching score type Variationofroot yieldIndexcontentbranchingscoretype  freedom kg pl -1 (0-1) (%) (m) (1-5) (1-5) freedom kg pl -1(0-1)(%)(m)(1-5)(1-5) Locations (L) 1 172.8** 0.232 144.25 680.48** n.a. 22.634** Locations (L)1172.8**0.232144.25 680.48**n.a.22.634** Rep/L 4 3.8 0.060 55.49 23.51 1.804 0.624 Rep/L43.80.06055.4923.511.8040.624 Crosses ( C ) 44 0.6 0.014* 17.27** 23.59** 0.813** 0.927** Crosses ( C )440.60.014*17.27**23.59** 0.813** 0.927** GCA 9 1.4 0.043 68.96* 76.87** 3.421** 3.783 GCA91.40.04368.96*76.87** 3.421**3.783 SCA 35 0.4 0.007 3.98* 9.89** 0.142* 0.192** SCA350.40.0073.98*9.89**0.142*0.192** C x L 44 0.5** 0.008** 5.82** 2.35** - 0.374** C x L440.5**0.008**5.82**2.35**-0.374** GCA x L 9 1.2** 0.022** 21.27** 4.27** - 1.578** GCA x L91.2**0.022** 21.27**4.27**-1.578** SCA x L 35 0.3* 0.005* 1.84 1.85* - 0.064 SCA x L350.3*0.005*1.841.85*-0.064 Error 176 0.2 0.003 1.34 1.22 0.086 0.067 Error1760.20.0031.341.220.0860.067 Total 357 0.8 0.006 4.53 5.97 0.264 0.264 Total3570.80.0064.535.970.2640.264 CV (%) b  21.40 14.09 3.70 10.40 10.01 7.44 CV (%) b21.4014.093.7010.4010.017.44 %SS crosses due to GCA c 47 62 82 67 86 83 %SS crosses due to GCA c476282678683 %SS crosses due to SCA c 53 38 18 33 14 17 %SS crosses due to SCA c533818331417 a SED: Super elongation disease evaluated only at Loma plot. * Significant at the P < 0.05 proba-bility level ** significant at P < 0.01 probability level. b CV = Coefficient of variability; c SS = sum a SED: Super elongation disease evaluated only at Loma plot. * Significant at the P < 0.05 proba-bility level ** significant at P < 0.01 probability level. b CV = Coefficient of variability; c SS = sum of squares.        of squares.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . General combining ability effects, combined across locations, for the diallel study from ten parental cassava clones evaluated in two soil conditions in Meta Department, Colombia. a SED and plant type scores based on a 1 (resistant to SED or good plant type) to 5 (susceptible a SED and plant type scores based on a 1 (resistant to SED or good plant type) to 5 (susceptible to SED or poor plant type) to SED or poor plant type)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Averages and specific combining ability effects (SCA), combined across 1 locations, for the most relevant traits in the diallel study evaluated in the 2 acid-soil conditions of eastern savannas of Colombia. 3 Cross a or Fresh root yield Harvest index Dry matter content SED score b Crossa orFresh root yieldHarvest indexDry matter contentSED scoreb parameter t ha -1 SCA 0 -1 SCA % SCA 1 -5 SCA parametert ha-1SCA0 -1SCA%SCA1 -5SCA 1 x  25.90 2.98 0.44 0.046 32.7 0.327 2.3 -0.418 1 x25.902.980.440.04632.70.3272.3-0.418 1 x  19.99 -1.14 0.38 -0.015 31.3 -0.597 2.2 0.007 1 x19.99-1.140.38-0.01531.3-0.5972.20.007 1 x  23.53 0.36 0.43 -0.001 32.6 -0.316 2.4 -0.113 1 x23.530.360.43-0.00132.6-0.3162.4-0.113 1 x  17.82 -3.70 0.37 -0.032 34.4 0.731 2.2 0.068 1 x17.82-3.700.37-0.03234.40.7312.20.068 1 x  25.39 2.46 0.43 0.024 31.5 -0.422 2.6 0.205 1 x25.392.460.430.02431.5-0.4222.60.205 1 x  26.50 1.53 0.45 0.007 31.8 -1.014 2.6 0.286 1 x26.501.530.450.00731.8-1.0142.60.286 1 x  16.24 -4.69 0.37 -0.048 32.3 0.152 2.5 -0.139 1 x16.24-4.690.37-0.04832.30.1522.5-0.139 1 x  21.49 2.51 0.38 0.047 31.0 1.647 3.2 -0.030 1 x21.492.510.380.04731.01.6473.2-0.030 1 x 10 21.27 -0.31 0.38 -0.029 32.4 -0.508 3.0 0.135 1 x 1021.27-0.310.38-0.02932.4-0.5083.00.135 2 x  19.12 -0.94 0.37 -0.024 31.7 0.766 3.0 0.160 2 x19.12-0.940.37-0.02431.70.7663.00.160 2 x  18.59 -3.50 0.37 -0.060 31.5 -0.498 3.3 0.223 2 x18.59-3.500.37-0.06031.5-0.4983.30.223 2 x  21.38 0.93 0.40 -0.001 33.9 1.189 2.5 -0.295 2 x21.380.930.40-0.00133.91.1892.5-0.295 2 x  22.63 0.78 0.43 0.022 30.6 -0.340 2.9 -0.038 2 x22.630.780.430.02230.6-0.3402.9-0.038 2 x  24.96 1.07 0.45 0.010 32.3 0.427 3.1 0.190 2 x24.961.070.450.01032.30.4273.10.190 2 x  17.39 -2.46 0.38 -0.030 30.0 -1.229 3.5 0.281 2 x17.39-2.460.38-0.03030.0-1.2293.50.281 2 x  16.83 -1.08 0.32 -0.006 27.3 -1.097 3.9 -0.010 2 x16.83-1.080.32-0.00627.3-1.0973.9-0.010 2 x 10 22.73 2.22 0.45 0.043 32.4 0.454 3.4 -0.093 2 x 1022.732.220.450.04332.40.4543.4-0.093 3 x  21.52 1.22 0.46 0.036 32.3 0.832 2.4 -0.167 3 x21.521.220.460.03632.30.8322.4-0.167 3 x  19.80 1.14 0.38 -0.019 32.5 0.290 2.2 -0.021 3 x19.801.140.38-0.01932.50.2902.2-0.021 3 x  21.77 1.71 0.39 -0.021 30.0 -0.415 2.7 0.225 3 x21.771.710.39-0.02130.0-0.4152.70.225 3 x  18.94 -3.17 0.42 -0.022 30.5 -0.825 2.4 -0.031 3 x18.94-3.170.42-0.02230.5-0.8252.4-0.031 3 x  17.11 -0.95 0.40 -0.018 30.2 -0.521 2.7 -0.095 3 x17.11-0.950.40-0.01830.2-0.5212.7-0.095 3 x  18.72 2.60 0.36 0.029 28.8 0.905 3.5 0.081 3 x18.722.600.360.02928.80.9053.50.081 3 x 10 18.25 -0.47 0.46 0.053 31.0 -0.434 2.8 -0.160 3 x 1018.25-0.470.460.05331.0-0.4342.8-0.160 4 x  21.89 1.19 0.42 -0.010 32.1 -1.133 3.0 0.445 4 x21.891.190.42-0.01032.1-1.1333.00.445 4 x  21.50 -0.59 0.40 -0.037 31.2 -0.307 3.1 0.307 4 x21.50-0.590.40-0.03731.2-0.3073.10.307 4 x  25.13 0.99 0.50 0.029 32.5 0.131 2.6 -0.156 4 x25.130.990.500.02932.50.1312.6-0.156 4 x  18.68 -1.42 0.46 0.011 32.6 0.904 2.8 -0.236 4 x18.68-1.420.460.01132.60.9042.8-0.236 4 x  17.13 -1.02 0.37 0.007 28.9 0.051 3.5 -0.248 4 x17.13-1.020.370.00728.90.0513.5-0.248 4 x 10 23.52 2.77 0.46 0.023 32.8 0.337 3.2 -0.055 4 x 1023.522.770.460.02332.80.3373.2-0.055 5 x  19.59 -0.87 0.42 0.005 33.1 0.896 2.3 -0.160 5 x19.59-0.870.420.00533.10.8962.3-0.160 5 x  20.61 -1.88 0.46 0.012 33.0 -0.086 2.2 -0.185 5 x20.61-1.880.460.01233.0-0.0862.2-0.185 5 x  22.76 4.31 0.46 0.047 32.4 -0.103 2.9 0.184 5 x22.764.310.460.04732.4-0.1032.90.184 5 x  18.68 2.16 0.36 0.031 28.7 -0.931 3.3 -0.023 5 x18.682.160.360.03128.7-0.9313.3-0.023 5 x 10 15.83 -3.28 0.38 -0.035 32.3 -0.853 2.9 -0.013 5 x 1015.83-3.280.38-0.03532.3-0.8532.9-0.013 6 x  18.62 -5.27 0.44 -0.014 30.7 -0.671 2.6 0.052 6 x18.62-5.270.44-0.01430.7-0.6712.60.052 6 x  21.08 1.23 0.43 0.008 31.9 1.110 2.5 -0.413 6 x21.081.230.430.00831.91.1102.5-0.413 6 x  18.25 0.34 0.35 0.014 27.7 -0.190 3.5 -0.125 6 x18.250.340.350.01427.7-0.1903.5-0.125 6 x 10 20.74 0.23 0.42 -0.002 31.8 0.337 3.1 -0.054 6 x 1020.740.230.42-0.00231.80.3373.1-0.054 7 x  26.53 4.63 0.48 0.014 31.7 -0.006 2.7 -0.132 7 x26.534.630.480.01431.7-0.0062.7-0.132 7 x  19.06 -0.89 0.34 -0.034 29.7 0.869 3.5 0.006 7 x19.06-0.890.34-0.03429.70.8693.50.006 7 x 10 25.54 2.99 0.45 -0.002 33.5 1.175 3.1 -0.030 7 x 1025.542.990.45-0.00233.51.1753.1-0.030 8 x  15.35 -0.56 0.34 -0.010 27.7 -0.528 4.2 0.315 8 x15.35-0.560.34-0.01027.7-0.5284.20.315 8 x 10 18.43 -0.09 0.45 0.026 31.9 0.220 3.7 0.236 8 x 1018.43-0.090.450.02631.90.2203.70.236 9 x 10 12.51 -4.06 0.26 -0.078 28.2 -0.727 4.1 0.034 9 x 1012.51-4.060.26-0.07828.2-0.7274.10.034 Mean LSD (5%) 20.43 8.03 1.92 2.88 d c 0.41 0.11 0.025 0.038 d c 31.32 2.804 0.489 0.733 d c 2.9 0.477 0.150 0.224 d c Mean LSD (5%)20.43 8.031.92 2.88 d c0.41 0.110.025 0.038 d c31.32 2.8040.489 0.733 d c2.9 0.4770.150 0.224 d c  "}],"sieverID":"c8d36849-fc31-4c89-bf74-89e9847038e6","abstract":"There is a limited knowledge on the inheritance of traits with agronomic relevance in cassava. A diallel study among ten parental clones was conducted in the acid-soils environment in the eastern savannas of Colombia. Thirty clones were obtained for each F1 cross. Each clone was represented by six plants, which were distributed in three replications at two locations. Therefore the same 30 genotypes of each F1 cross were planted in the three replications at the two locations. Analysis of variance suggested significant effects for five of the six variables analyzed (harvest index, dry matter content, height of first branching, reaction to super elongation disease and plant type scores). Fresh root yield showed strong genotype x environment interaction and differences between crosses reached statistical significance in only one of the two environments analyzed. General and specific combining ability effects and their interaction with the environment were significant for most of the variables as well. Results suggested that dominance plays an important role particularly in the cases of fresh root yield and harvest index.Abbreviations: CBB (cassava bacterial blight); SED (super elongation disease); WA (weight in the air); WW (weight in water); GCA (general combining ability); SCA (specific combining ability)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06fbe1d0fee1fa6fc69758c9de79be90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/74c4b128-dcff-4350-a628-7943a2c8dea2/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"SDP Policy Brief 2","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Hundreds of thousands of Kenyans earn their living through dairying and related activities. The sector currently accounts for 3.5 percent of total national gross domestic product (GDP) and about 14 percent of the agricultural GDP. The liberalization of the dairy industry in 1992 led to the emergence of many private enterprises throughout the dairy sector. Small-scale operators dealing in raw milk dominate the informal market, while larger enterprises provide processed milk in the formal market. The Smallholder Dairy Project (SDP) carried out a survey to assess levels of employment in the Kenya dairy industry (see box 1). 3"}]},{"head":"Employment in the dairy industry","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Figure 1 shows, in simplified form, the main agents involved in moving milk and milk products from the farm to the consumer. The potential for employment generation in each sector is described below."}]},{"head":"Employment generation in dairy farming","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"There are over 600,000 dairy farm households in Kenya, and much of the labour input on these farms is family-based self-employment. In addition, it has been estimated that dairy farming generates about 50 full-time wage-labour opportunities per 1,000 litres of milk produced on a daily basis. This translates to 365,000 jobs nationally and represents about 12 percent of the national agricultural workforce 5 ."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Dairying also generates many indirect jobs in the supply of secondary inputs and services to farmers, although such employment has not yet been quantified."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Given the very large share of dairy farming in the agricultural GDP and the rapid growth rate of the sector (4.1 percent per annum compared to 1.2 percent for agriculture as a whole), it is reasonable to conclude that investment in dairying creates more jobs than in most other agricultural sectors."}]},{"head":"Employment generation in milk marketing and processing","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Many people are employed in the wide range of enterprises involved in moving milk from the farm to the consumer, including retail outlets (such as milk bars and kiosks) and mobile milk traders in the informal sector, and milk processors and distributors in the formal sector. These people and enterprises generate indirect employment by buying services and products, such as bicycle or milk equipment repair, and milk packaging material. Figure 2 shows estimated rates of direct and indirect employment (expressed as jobs per 1,000 litres of milk handled daily) generated in selected sectors.   "}]},{"head":"Employment in the informal sector","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Well over 1.5 million litres of milk (excluding pasteurized milk) are traded daily in the informal market in Kenya. Those engaged in delivering milk from the producer to the consumer include: Mobile milk traders are largely self-employed. They typically sell 50 to 100 litres of raw milk daily, delivering their produce mainly by bicycle. This trade generates a mean of 20 full-time jobs (17 direct, 3 indirect) per 1,000 litres of milk handled on a daily basis. A major constraint is the lack of legal recognition of the trade by the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB) regulators, who argue that the lack of fixed premises compromises milk quality. 6 Milk bars are specialist outlets selling milk from fixed premises, often with seats for customers. The employment rate is 14 jobs (11 direct, 3 indirect) per 1,000 litres of milk handled daily. They use both family labour and wage employment. They collect milk from producers on foot, by bicycle, or by public transport."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Shops and kiosks trade in milk as part of other retail activity, mainly involving sale of household consumer items. The milk trade often comprises less than half of their total turnover."}]},{"head":"Employment in the formal sector","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The larger enterprises of the formal processing and marketing sector generate a mean of 12.5 full-time jobs per 1,000 litres of milk handled on a daily basis, less than in the informal sector. Of this total, 11 jobs are direct, less than the rate for mobile milk traders (see above). Conversely, only 1.2 indirect jobs are generated per 1,000 litres of milk handled by formal processors, compared to 3 in the informal sector. About half of the indirect employment arises from the manufacture of packaging material."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"There are variations within these figures; the amount of employment generated per 1,000 litres handled daily declines with scale, perhaps due to substitution of capital for labour. For example, smallerscale processors support about 13 jobs per 1,000 litres, while larger-scale processors support about 6 jobs. 7 Although the formal sector generates fewer jobs per 1,000 litres of milk handled than the informal sector, it does on the other hand offer more stable employment."}]},{"head":"Employment in milk marketing and processing: summary","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Using the employment rates above, it was projected that the entire dairy marketing and processing sector in Kenya supports a total of some 40,000 jobs (figure 3), about 70 percent of these in the informal sector. 8 Most jobs in both the formal and informal dairy sectors are direct. Direct job opportunities in the informal sector predominantly involve self-employment."}]},{"head":"Gender of labour","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The gender of workers in the informal milk marketing sector varies with enterprise type and nature of work involved. Young men aged 20 to 25 years dominate the mobile milk trade, which involves bicycle riding. Female workers are only mostly engaged when public transport is involved. In contrast, there are nearly equal numbers of male and female workers in milk bars."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Men account for over 80 percent of the direct job positions in dairy processing plants. Women find it difficult to work in the dairy factories as most tasks are extremely laborious and/or involve working in night shifts."}]},{"head":"Wage rates","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Wage rates in the formal and informal sectors are comparable. In the formal processing sector mean wages are Ksh 9,120 per month. Within the informal sector, mean earnings are Ksh 8,137 per month in milk bars and shops, and Ksh 9,550 for mobile traders. 9 Figure 4 summarizes this and other features of selected dairy subsectors. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The following conclusions can be drawn from this analysis of employment within the dairy industry: ■ Dairying is a profitable growth industry which has the potential to contribute greatly to employment-led economic recovery in Kenya."}]},{"head":"■","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"This potential is increased by the fact that dairying activities straddle many sectorsrural and urban, agricultural and industrial, formal and informal, small scale and large scale. In addition, employment in some parts of the informal milk market is particularly important to women."}]},{"head":"■","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"It is clear, therefore, that employment-enhancing policies should target all sectors of the dairying industry."}]},{"head":"■","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Improved conditions for more stable employment in the informal milk market may require the formulation of innovative policies."}]},{"head":"Policy implications","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Dairying generates many jobs throughout Kenya. The most effective policies would recognize the potential for further employment in all sectors of the industry, and would attempt to tackle the constraints currently limiting employment:"}]},{"head":"■","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"The current high level of employment of other rural poor by smallholder farmers is likely to be sustained and further developed if farm services such as animal health and breeding were improved. 10 ■ Employment in informal marketing is hindered by regulatory constraints; policies designed to facilitate licensing, training and organization of traders, would increase job opportunities and stabilize current employment. 11 ■ Employment generation in the formal dairy processing and marketing sector is constrained by low local demand for processed dairy products, and most processors are operating below their installed potential. Accessing export markets and markets for new dairy products will increase formal employment opportunities. As demand for processed products responds positively to rises in income levels, the formal sector will ultimately benefit from policies which generate overall economic growth in Kenya. 12 This publication is an output from a project funded by the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom for the benefit of developing countries. However, the views expressed here are not necessarily those of DFID. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 2: Employment rates (jobs/1,000 litres of milk handled daily) in the informal marketing and formal processing sub sectors "},{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. How milk gets to consumers from farmers. Percentage of raw and processed milk going through the different market channels "},{"text":" Figure 3: Projected total employment in the informal marketing and formal processing subsectors "}],"sieverID":"97f3efd1-99b9-4340-906e-75142a1a66a0","abstract":"The dairy industry is a significant source of employment in Kenya. At the farm level there are over 600,000 dairy households, generating an estimated 365,000 waged jobs in addition to the family labour involved.■ The processing and marketing of milk generates a further 40,000 jobs. Over 70 percent of these jobs are in the small-scale informal sector, which also employs a greater proportion of women. 1■ In addition to those directly employed there are many deriving indirect employment from the industry. 2■ Policies that encourage the efficient operation and development of both processed and raw milk markets will contribute to the job creation targets of the government."}

data/part_5/072a204823dbbfc58fae3c7cec5f79a7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"072a204823dbbfc58fae3c7cec5f79a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/78bd0071-2c2b-46e6-ac25-3915677df070/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Case Study 8 -Climate analogues","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"\"Climate Analogues: Finding Tomorrow's Agriculture Today\" is an effort by CCAFS to make climate change adaptation a more tangible endeavour by encouraging the exchange of knowledge between communities. The idea is that the \"analogues tool\" helps to identify geographic areas where growing conditions today mirror future climates. Then to promote exchanges between the communities living in these areas so that learning can take place on agriculture practices that work well in those \"future\" climates and encourage discussion on how these practices can be adapted to local context to cope with potentially dramatic shifts in growing conditions over time."}]},{"head":"Lead institution: CIAT and CCAFS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"CIAT is an agricultural research institution. It focus on scientific solutions to hunger in the tropics, believing that eco-efficient agriculture-developing sustainable methods of food production-is the best way to eradicate hunger and improve livelihoods in the region. CIAT is also about partnerships and works together with likeminded organizations to enhance impact."}]},{"head":"Climate communication aims","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The communications aims are to promote learning by interacting with peer groups and \"seeing\" what works. Dialogue how adaptive strategies can be used in the local context are also faciltated."}]},{"head":"Fit with categorical considerations for climate communication (see Table 1)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"Inform and educate individuals about climate change -inform on science (including level of consensus and magnitude of the problem); inform on causes; inform on current and potential impacts; Inform on possible solutions Achieve some type and level of social engagement/action -encourage action/behaviour that encourages' forward-learning'/adaptation; Encourage action which helps people to adapt or reduce their vulnerability and/or exposure Bring about changes in social norms and cultural values -influencing values through early education; influencing values through pervasive modelling; influencing on climate \"smart\" or \"resilient\" thinking/planning Communications/social learning characteristics Initially developed as a software tool (now with a web version), the idea is to make climate change more tangible by comparing similar geographic areas to those where a particular user lives and to demonstrate what their situation might look like in 30 years. Although an innovative idea, this is a top down information supply mechanism. In 2012, climate analogues plans to launch a second phase, where farmer exchanges are conducted between geographic locations. The goal is to build an inventory of local knowledge from around the world for regions that face similar challenges, and for those who take part in visit exchanges to learn and understand what adaptation options might be possible for them to adopt. If successful this has potential to develop into more of a triple loop social learning exercise where farmers learn from each other, implement changes and this in turn affects how exchanges and the \"analogue tools\" themselves are re-designed -bringing in local knowledge."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Linear/Looped scorecard: 2/3 Audience Policy makers, farmers and other local stakeholders in particular areas are they key targets."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Getting research into use (how this case study does or does not contribute to that) This is a good example of a project with potential. Research has started off in relative isolation and it has been recognised that it needs to be brought closer to target audiences. This has initially been done in a fairly top down and linear way, but there is potential for this to change with the forthcoming farmer exchanges."}]},{"head":"Evolution of the project (how has the project evolved or developed if known)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The web-based tool was first released in 2011, and the exchanges are planned for 2012."}]},{"head":"Challenges and questions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"§ How to ensure that the following claims of the project \"that the analogues tool is rooted in the basic notion that for centuries farmers have been innovating and adapting in response to shifting conditions, providing a rich source of information on how agricultural systems can adapt to climate change\" is reflected in the way the tool evolves itself -i.e. continuing to build on that local knowledge and building strong social learning into the tool and process. § Follow up after the knowledge exchange, what processes are in place to assist farmers in implementing new adaptation options, how can behaviour change being tracked to see if this process is really useful? § Exchange visits are resource intensive. How can this be replicated across large areas? What level of exchange is necessary? What added value do they bring?"}]},{"head":"Take aways","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"This project offers some very interesting opportunities for exploring social learning. The models provide a good basis for discussion and shared development of ideas."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"CCAFS theme: This initiative fits broadly under themes 1 and 2."}]},{"head":"Links","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Description of climate analogues http://gismap.ciat.cgiar.org/Analogues/ Information on the tool http://dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/climate-analogues-toolreleased/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"8f5bfa1c-1656-436f-b6eb-b6d5c4ff6335","abstract":""}

data/part_5/077e9f646824d181b1548b11dfabd9fa.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"077e9f646824d181b1548b11dfabd9fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e280bef5-da32-4431-b261-fd7febe1d850/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Double Burden of Malnutrition: Evidence from a Selected Nigerian Population","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":346,"text":"One of the most critical global disease burdens is malnutrition presenting as deficiencies and excess [1]. is burden accounts for at least 9 million deaths per year in children less than five years of age [2]. It is a significant public health problem, most notably in developing countries [3][4][5] where 90% of the world's undernourished children live. More troubling is the co-existence of both undernutrition and overnutrition in the same population, which is currently becoming a significant health problem globally [5]. is trend is more challenging in developing countries that are still tackling endemic undernutrition causes and effects [6,7]. Poor nutrition during the early formative years has been implicated to result in significant morbidity and mortality and delayed mental and motor developments [8]. In the long term, it has been linked to impairments of intellectual performance, work capacity, reproductive outcomes, and overall health [9]. Unfortunately, a significant cause is poor maternal nutritional status, which can harm the offspring, thus leading to a vicious cycle of malnutrition from one generation to another [3]. us, the nutritional status of mothers is essential both for her health and that of her baby. e consequences of poor maternal nutritional status are reflected in high infant and maternal morbidity and mortality, as described by Black et al. [3], Elshibly and Schmalisch [10], and Ugwa [11]. Nutritional deficiencies could manifest as either protein-energy malnutrition or micronutrient malnutrition (hidden hunger). Hidden hunger is much more difficult and expensive to assess. However, anthropometric measurements are practical and realistic tools for rapid assessment of the nutritional status of populations in developing countries and have been adapted in assessing both women and children [11][12][13]. Evidence has been established proving that the effects of undernutrition and overnutrition occurring concurrently in an individual, household, or population can be damaging [14]. Its occurrence in sub-Saharan Africa has been reviewed [3]; however, the evidence is still lacking from Africa's most populous country-Nigeria. In 2001-2003, the Nigerian food consumption and nutrition survey revealed 42% stunting among children under the age of 5 years, underweight was 25%, and wasting was 9% [15]."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"Similarly, according to the 2008 Nigerian National Demographic and Health Survey, 41% of Nigerian children less than five years were stunted, 23% were underweight, and 14% were wasted [16] (NDHS 2008). e NDHS 2013 [17] survey reflected a mild drop in these indices (especially stunting) but still gave reports of nutritional status that signify public health challenges. Scant studies have probed this challenge in mother-child pairs in Nigeria. A recent study examined the underlying causal factors of malnutrition in obese mother/stunted child pairs [18]. A review of the literature reveals several studies around Nigeria have investigated the challenge of protein-energy malnutrition in children [18][19][20][21][22] and women [23][24][25]. A study [26] presented results of nutritional parameters in mother-child pairs in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, with the sole aim of probing vitamin A intake to justify the introduction of biofortified cassava (rich in carotenoids which is a vitamin A precursor) considering that the state has the highest consumption of Nigeria's chief carbohydrate crop-cassava. While this study expatiated on hidden hunger rates in the selected population, anthropometric information was not critically reported in this population. A closer look into these anthropometric indicators is justified by results of the Nigeria demographic health surveys in the past decade that have established that women in the southern regions were having highest rates of overnutrition which had increased from 26.7% in 2008 [16] to 32.05% in 2013 [17]. As have been found in similar populations [7,18], these increases suggest that in the same household where the child may be undernourished, the mother (or primary caregiver) may be experiencing another form of malnutrition."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"is study was thus conducted to assess anthropometric indices among women of child-bearing age and children 6-59 months old in Akwa Ibom State, South-South region, Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Design.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"is was a descriptive cross-sectional study to assess anthropometric indices of women of childbearing age and children aged between 6 and 59 months. It was conducted alongside the study on vitamin A status of women of child-bearing age in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Study Location.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Akwa Ibom State, which is located in the South-South geopolitical zone and the humid forest agroecological zone, was selected as the project state. Earlier surveys had established that the state has the highest consumption of cassava and a high prevalence of vitamin A deficiency."}]},{"head":"Sample Size Estimation.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"e estimation of sample size for this study was based on the prevalent data on vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and iron and zinc deficiencies obtained for the state from the National Nutrition survey [15]. e prevalence of wasting, stunting, and underweight obtained from the National Demographic and Health Survey [16] was included in the estimation of sample size. e sample size was calculated based on the following criteria and assumptions:"},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"(i) e confidence level of 93.5 (precision of 6.5%) (ii) Power of 80% (iii) Estimated malnutrition among children of 30% (iv) A design effect of 2.5 (v) e individual response rate of 85% (vi) Seven individuals per household on average (vii) Sixteen percent of the population being children of 6-59 months of age (viii) A sample size of 660 households was estimated us, a total of 660 households with women of childbearing age and children of 6-59 months of age were selected for the study."}]},{"head":"Sampling Procedures.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"e sample was selected using a multistage selection scheme consisting of three levels: selection of local government areas (LGAs), enumeration areas (EAs), and households. Akwa Ibom State has 31 LGAs, made up of 16 rural, 5 urban, and 10 periurban areas. In Nigeria, the current official designation of rural, urban, and periurban is based mainly on population. According to the National Population Commission of Nigeria, a community with less than 5,000 people is regarded as rural, between 5,000 and 20,000 people is regarded as periurban, and above 20,000 is regarded as urban. Since malnutrition is prevalent in both urban and rural centres and dietary habits cut across all sectors of urbanization, ten (10) LGAs were selected using the probability proportionate to size, such that the likelihood of an LGA being selected was proportionate to its size. is resulted in the selection of 5 rural, 1 urban, and 4 periurban areas. A random selection of three EAs within each LGA was made. erefore, a total of 30 EAs were sampled. At least 22 households were sampled randomly at the community level from each EA totalling 660 households."}]},{"head":"Anthropometry. Anthropometric indicators for women","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"and children were collected in the study to provide outcome measures for nutritional status. Weight and height for both mothers and children were collected according to standard procedures, which included tared weighing procedure and length (recumbent) measurement for children under 24 months, while height measurement (standing) was carried out for children above 2 years and their mothers [16]."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"2.6. Data Processing and Statistical Analysis. Data entry was done using MS Access and MS Excel. Data verification, screening, and editing were carried out to ensure that the entry errors were corrected. Double entered data were compared using the compare procedure of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) to identify erroneously recorded data which usually cannot be easily verified or corrected. Weight and height values were used to calculate and classify body mass index (BMI) for mothers based on the World Health Organization classifications. Mothers within the teenage category were classified using WHO-Anthro Plus software, 2006, using the BMI-for-age classification [27]. Height-forage, weight-for-age, and weight-for-height were determined using WHO-Anthro Plus software, 2006."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"e results obtained were compared with reference values from the population of well-nourished children. Indices were expressed as the standard deviation of units from the median for the reference group."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Outlier values such as implausible values for anthropometric indices were excluded from the dataset. is accounts for variation in reported frequencies. Frequency of each variable was conducted to ensure that values are within the acceptable range. Essential basic descriptive statistics and plots on distribution were conducted using SAS version 9.2, Cary, NC, USA. e chi-square test tested the significance of differences in proportion, and p < 0.05 was taken as significant."}]},{"head":"Ethics Approval and Informed Consent. Ethical clearance was obtained through the Nutrition Division in the National","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":577,"text":"Health Research Ethics committee based in the Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja. Ethical approval was also obtained from Akwa Ibom State Research Ethics committee in the Ministry of Health. Written informed consent was obtained from the women who participated in the study after the study objectives had been explained. ere was no significant difference in the mean age between boys and girls (p � 0.17). Mean weight among children was 12.70 ± 3.78 kg, that of boys was 13.03 ± 3.76 kg, and girls had a mean weight of 12.36 ± 3.76 kg. ere was a significant difference in mean weight between boys and girls (p � 0.041). Five hundred and forty-three children had data on height, and the mean value was 87.28 ± 13.39 cm. Mean height for boys was 88.29 ± 14.57 cm and that of girls was 86.28 ± 12.04 cm. As presented in Table 2, a total of five hundred and ninety-six children were assessed for heightfor-age; of these, 295 (49.5%) were boys, and 301 (50.5%) were girls. ree hundred and seventy-three (62.9%) children had normal height-for-age; of these, 183 (30.7%) were boys, and 190 (31.9%) were girls. e total prevalence of stunting among children was 223 (37.4%); of these, 112 (18.6%) were boys, and 111 (18.7%) were girls. Prevalence of mild/moderate stunting was 118 (19.8%), and that of severe stunting was 105 (17.6%). ere was no significant difference in stunting between boys and girls. A total of 593 children were assessed for weight-for-age; of these, 294 (49.6%) were boys, and 299 (50.4%) were girls. e total prevalence of underweight among children was 108 (18.2%), comprising 67 (11.3%) moderate underweight and 41 (6.9%) severe underweight. Of the total number of underweight children, 53 (9.0%) were boys, and 55 (9.2%) were girls. ere were no significant differences in underweight between boys and girls (p > 0.05). A total of five hundred and fifty-one children were assessed for weight-for-height. Results showed that a total of 72 (13.1%) of the children were wasted. Of these, 34 (6.2%) were moderately wasted, and 38 (6.9%) were severely wasted. Again, there was no significant difference between boys and girls in wasting. As presented in Table 3, the mean age among mothers was 27.28 ± 6.85. Mean weight and height were 58.43 ± 12.05 kg and 157.52 ± 6.56 cm, respectively. Anthropometric data from 620 women were used to calculate maternal BMI. Highest body mass index (BMI) was 45.45 kg/m 2 ; the lowest BMI was 14.55 kg/m 2 , and the mean BMI was 23.54 ± 4.60 kg/m 2 . A total of 58.71% of the women had BMI values in the normal range. About 55 (8.87%) of the respondents were underweight, and 142 (23.39%) were overweight. Also, 57 (9.03%) were obese with a BMI higher than 30 kg/m 2 . Table 4 presents the crosstabulation of mothers' BMI status in comparison with children's anthropometric indices. e mother-child comparison showed that 105 (16.94%) moderately stunted and 94 (15.16%) severely stunted children had 45 (8.25%) and 18 (2.90%) overweight or obese mothers, respectively. Among the 44 (7.13) children who were severely underweight, only 11 (1.78) and 4 (0.65) had overweight and obese mothers, respectively. For the weight-for-height index, 30 (4.89%) experiencing mild wasting and 37 (6.04%) of the children who were severely wasted had 15 (2.45%) overweight and 7 (1.14%) obese mothers. ere was no significant (p > 0.055) relationship between mother's BMI and any of the children's anthropometric indices."}]},{"head":"Results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"As presented in","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"is study thus presents information on the occurrence of double burden malnutrition after assessing anthropometric assessments in mother-child pairs living in Akwa Ibom State. e result of this study indicated a high prevalence of stunting and wasting among the children in Akwa Ibom State."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"e underweight levels were, however, of medium severity. e stunting levels in this study were lower than a report [22] in which children living in Makurdi, a northcentral area of the country, were surveyed. is stunting level in this study is, however, higher than those reported by literature [25,28] from the southwestern part of the country."},{"index":3,"size":287,"text":"e rural study location may have contributed to this disparity. ese stunting values presented in this study are consistent with national estimates of stunted children in Nigeria [17]. Prevalence of underweight among children was comparable to results reported in the literature [21,29]. e wasting levels of children in this study can be considered to be of public health significance which suggests an occurrence of severe acute illness. ere was no significant difference in stunting, underweight, and wasting between boys and girls observed in this study. Several factors can be implicated as contributing to child undernutrition [30]. e Nigerian Demographic Health Survey has described these factors to include child sex, age, location, and socioeconomic status of the household which consists of factors such as parents' occupations and education with particular reference to maternal education [16]. Several other factors contributing to the high prevalence of undernutrition among children could include severe food shortage or suboptimal complementary feeding practices, and inadequate household sanitary facilities which can lead to illnesses and growth faltering [28]. Among Ethiopian children, Tessema et al. [31] stated that the prevalence of undernutrition was different across age groups of the children, which implies that each  stage of growth has its peculiarity. e mean height of the women falls within the short maternal height range described by the WHO collaborative study [27,32]. It is vital since it can be used to identify women with obstetric risks and predict reproductive outcomes [33]. Even though the maternal undernutrition in this study is low, undernourishment in women is always a situation of public health concern [34]. e more prevalent form of malnutrition among women in this study was overweight, which can be classified as a problematic situation of public health significance."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"In comparison to national estimates, the values in this study confirm a rise in the prevalence of overweight/obese women of child-bearing age [17] which could indicate suggestions of nutrition transition [7,35] which could have both short-and long-term implication for maternal and child health [10,11,36,37]. If the whole population is thus considered, there is a high prevalence of undernourished children and overweight mothers which indicates the existence of a double burden of malnutrition in the same population. is observation is similar to findings locally [18] and globally [7,14]."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Contrary to usual expectations that in low-middle income settings, malnutrition is unidirectional (undernourishment), this study thus asserts that it can be in two directions."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"is occurrence even raises the questions of the possibility of hidden hunger being present in the same population. At the household level, this occurrence is not apparent and expectedly was not statistically significant as presented in the results. However, the existence at population level confirms reports by Popkin et al. [7,38] who explained that variations still exist in the severity across the nations of the world. However, the existence is real, and interventions to reduce the burden should be expedited."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and Recommendation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Prevalence of malnutrition expressed as stunting, underweight, and wasting is high among the children involved in this study, so is maternal overnutrition which is prevalent among mothers."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"ere was no significant difference in stunting, underweight, and wasting between boys and girls."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"is prevalence indicates that in the same population, the presence of different forms of malnutrition exists. However, this trend is particularly worthy of note since Nigeria is still grappling with the challenges of undernutrition, and most of the interventions are usually focused in this direction. e evidence presented gives support to the growing list of reports that the existence of binary forms of malnutrition is manifesting at the household level, especially in areas of low economic status. Also, it provides a basis for strengthening any existing intervention to eradicate factors associated with double malnutrition, specifically in the South-South region and generally Nigeria. Besides, there was no relationship between the mother's BMI and any of the children's anthropometric indices."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"is report, therefore, recommends that more effort be placed on active nutrition surveillance to ascertain the prevalence and periodically reassess priority challenges. We also recommend that nutrition education in the areas of healthy eating for weight control for women and interventions on infant and young child care be implemented and strengthened."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"ese interventions should be carried out synergetically and not in parallel forms."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 , a total of 547 children had data on age and mean ± standard deviation. e mean age among children was 30.84 ± 13.02 months. e number of boys was 273 with a mean age of 31.61 ± 13.38 months while the girls numbered 274, with a mean age of 30.08 ± 12.62 months.  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Nutritional anthropometry: height-for-age, weight-for-age, and weight-for-height for children. Indices Sex −2 to +2SD (N %) ≤−2 to −3SD (N %) <−3SD (N %) Total (N %) IndicesSex−2 to +2SD (N %)≤−2 to −3SD (N %)<−3SD (N %)Total (N %)  Boys 183 (30.7) 61 (10.2) 51 (8.6) 295 (49.5) Boys183 (30.7)61 (10.2)51 (8.6)295 (49.5) Height-for-age (stunting) Girls 190 (31.9) 57 (9.6) 54 (9.1) 301 (50.5) Height-for-age (stunting)Girls190 (31.9)57 (9.6)54 (9.1)301 (50.5)  Total 373 (62.9) 118 (19.8) 105 (17.6) 596 (100) Total373 (62.9)118 (19.8)105 (17.6)596 (100)  Boys 241 (40.6) 33 (5.6) 20 (3.4) 294 (49.6) Boys241 (40.6)33 (5.6)20 (3.4)294 (49.6) Weight-for-age (underweight) Girls 244 (41.1) 34 (5.7) 21 (3.5) 299 (50.4) Weight-for-age (underweight)Girls244 (41.1)34 (5.7)21 (3.5)299 (50.4)  Total 485 (81.8) 67 (11.3) 41 (6.9) 593 (100) Total485 (81.8)67 (11.3)41 (6.9)593 (100)  Boys 234 (42.5) 18 (3.3) 16 (2.9) 268 (48.6) Boys234 (42.5)18 (3.3)16 (2.9)268 (48.6) Weight-for-height (wasting) Girls 245 (44.5) 16 (2.9) 22 (4.0) 283 (51.4) Weight-for-height (wasting)Girls245 (44.5)16 (2.9)22 (4.0)283 (51.4)  Total 479 (86.9) 34 (6.2) 38 (6.9) 551 (100) Total479 (86.9)34 (6.2)38 (6.9)551 (100) >−2SD to +2SD � normal; ≤−2 to −3SD � mild/moderate; <−3SD � severe.    >−2SD to +2SD � normal; ≤−2 to −3SD � mild/moderate; <−3SD � severe.  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Age and anthropometric information of mothers. Variable N Mean ± SD Minimum Maximum VariableNMean ± SDMinimumMaximum Age (years) 644 27.28 ± 6.85 14 50 Age (years)64427.28 ± 6.851450 Weight (kg) 638 58.43 ± 12.05 33 113.30 Weight (kg)63858.43 ± 12.0533113.30 Height (cm) 641 157.52 ± 6.56 140 191.00 Height (cm)641157.52 ± 6.56140191.00 Body mass index (kgm 2 ) 635 23.54 ± 4.60 14.55 45.45 Body mass index (kgm 2 )63523.54 ± 4.6014.5545.45  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Anthropometric categories of mothers with their children. Indices  Normal in/under weight Overweight Obese Total IndicesNormalin/under weightOverweightObeseTotal  Normal 247 (39.84) 36 (5.81) 100 (16.13) 38 (6.13) 421 (67.9) Normal247 (39.84)36 (5.81)100 (16.13)38 (6.13)421 (67.9) Stunting (p � 0.410) Mild/moderate Severe 69 (11.13) 48 (7.74) 7 (1.13) 12 (1.94) 19 (3.06) 26 (4.19) 10 (1.61) 8 (1.29) 105 (16.94) 94 (15.16) Stunting (p � 0.410)Mild/moderate Severe69 (11.13) 48 (7.74)7 (1.13) 12 (1.94)19 (3.06) 26 (4.19)10 (1.61) 8 (1.29)105 (16.94) 94 (15.16)  Total 364 (58.71) 55 (8.87) 145 (23.39) 56 (9.03) 620 (100) Total364 (58.71)55 (8.87)145 (23.39)56 (9.03)620 (100)  Normal 309 (50.08) 42 (6.81) 125 (20.26) 45 (7.29) 521 (84.44) Normal309 (50.08)42 (6.81)125 (20.26)45 (7.29)521 (84.44) Underweight (p � 0.613) Mild/moderate Severe 30 (4.86) 23 (3.73) 7 (1.13) 6 (0.97) 9 (1.46) 11 (1.78) 6 (0.97) 4 (0.65) 52 (8.43) 44 (7.13) Underweight (p � 0.613)Mild/moderate Severe30 (4.86) 23 (3.73)7 (1.13) 6 (0.97)9 (1.46) 11 (1.78)6 (0.97) 4 (0.65)52 (8.43) 44 (7.13)  Total 362 (58.67) 55 (8.91) 145 (23.5) 55 (8.91) 617 (100) Total362 (58.67)55 (8.91)145 (23.5)55 (8.91)617 (100)  Normal 321 (52.37) 47 (7.67) 130 (21.21) 48 (7.83) 546 (89.07) Normal321 (52.37)47 (7.67)130 (21.21)48 (7.83)546 (89.07) Wasting (p � 0.829) Mild/moderate Severe 16 (2.61) 22 (3.59) 2 (0.33) 5 (0.82) 9 (1.47) 6 (0.98) 3 (0.49) 4 (0.65) 30 (4.89) 37 (6.04) Wasting (p � 0.829)Mild/moderate Severe16 (2.61) 22 (3.59)2 (0.33) 5 (0.82)9 (1.47) 6 (0.98)3 (0.49) 4 (0.65)30 (4.89) 37 (6.04)  Total 359 (58.56) 54 (8.81) 145 (23.65) 55 (8.97) 613 (100) Total359 (58.56)54 (8.81)145 (23.65)55 (8.97)613 (100)  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Age and anthropometric information of children of 6-59 months.  No Total Mean ± SD No Boys Mean ± SD No Girls Mean ± SD p value NoTotal Mean ± SDNoBoys Mean ± SDNoGirls Mean ± SDp value Age (months) 547 30.84 ± 13.02 273 31.61 ± 13.38 274 30.08 ± 12.62 0.170 Age (months)54730.84 ± 13.0227331.61 ± 13.3827430.08 ± 12.620.170 Weight (kg)  12.70 ± 3.78  13.03 ± 3.76  12.36 ± 3.76 0.041  * Weight (kg)12.70 ± 3.7813.03 ± 3.7612.36 ± 3.760.041  * Height (cm) 543 87.28 ± 13.39 273 88.29 ± 14.57 270 86.28 ± 12.04 0.079 Height (cm)54387.28 ± 13.3927388.29 ± 14.5727086.28 ± 12.040.079  "}],"sieverID":"c4a795a9-9ca2-4dae-8182-90cf685046c1","abstract":"Indices reflecting the double burden of malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa are increasing. Evidence to support this claim in households of Africa's most populous country-Nigeria-is scant. is study, therefore, presents results from a study of mother-child pairs sampled from Akwa Ibom State in the southern region of Nigeria. Anthropometric measures for 660 mother-child pairs were collected according to standard procedures. Indices were expressed as the standard deviation of units from the median for the reference group. Chi-square analysis was used to test significant differences in proportion, and p < 0.05 was taken as significant. A total of 37.4% of the children were stunted out of which 19.8% were moderately stunted, and 17.6% were severely stunted. Prevalence of wasting was 13.1%, 6.2% were moderately wasted, and 6.9% were severely wasted. Mean maternal body mass index was (23.54 ± 4.60) kgm 2 . 9.0% were underweight mothers, 23.2% were overweight, and 9.3% were obese. e co-existence of undernutrition among children and overnutrition in women of child-bearing age is prevalent in this population. We recommend that more effort be placed on active nutrition surveillance to ascertain malnutrition prevalence and periodically reassess priority challenges."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07b0b6893b51d2bdfe8eac319d8e6bd1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b9ea800-e21f-4e33-8fd3-1d3ff9906199/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"IUFoST Scientific Roundtable (SRD4) Summary Report COVID-19 Crisis: Implications for Food Systems in Developing Economies (Focus on Africa)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"the decades, leaving low income citizens unable to cope with hunger and malnutrition that result from drought and conflicts."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"A number of the countries that had a head start with the virus are highly urbanized. In most African countries, much of the population lives in rural areas, while 80 % of the urban populations live in urban settlements, with meagre incomes. People derive comfort and security from living together but this social culture is now are challenged through social distancing and requirements to wash hands are imposed, even though there may be no water or it has to be bought. The virus is impacting in the middle of the land preparation and planting season in East Africa and, with many sub-Saharan African countries adopting measures similar to those by Western countries, major food deficits are anticipated."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"However, to every challenge there is a silver lining. COVID-19 provides African countries the opportunity to find local solutions and to revisit relevant policies that have hitherto not been taken seriously. As lockdown restrictions begin to ease, countries and regions have to come back with new ways of cooperating and more equitable ways of working together. There is a lot going on in many countries; hopefully, all this can be documented."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Catherine Bertini, World Food Prize Laureate, Former UN Under Secretary and Executive Director of the World Food Programme, Crisis Management -Interruptions in the Food Chain"},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"The hope is that countries yet to be hard hit by COVID 19 are planning and learning lessons from other countries. From villages to nations, leaders must be nimble and move quickly to fix disruptions in food chains."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"Examples include the shutdown of the food service side of the food industry. As restaurants close, suppliers lose customers. Wherever possible, guidance should be provided to those food suppliers to pivot to sales in markets and stores where demand is growing. As schools close, school food programs, should be maintained with arrangements for orderly pick up of food from the schools or distribution in relevant areas."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"As demand for food rises, rules for acceptable sales and distribution to avoid wasting of food must be implemented. As national leadership reacts to growing food needs, they should avoid knee-jerk political decisions, such as closing borders, that negatively impact their own consumers, farmers, and processors. Organizations and governments must find creative approaches for delivery of food and food aid, sometimes even house to house. Systems are needed to avoid people rushing the food distribution process."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"The importance of food assistance within the first 1000 days of life -from pregnancy until the age of 2must be recognized as the most critical time in development, during which the requirement for adequate food must be met with the creation of more production and distribution of special food for this vulnerable population to avoid a generation of stunted children."},{"index":9,"size":56,"text":"Poor leadership decisions can make matters worse. Leaders at every level must surround themselves with thoughtful advisors from a variety of disciplines to help them to make quick and informed decisions to protect the health and wellbeing of their people. In addition, the voices of women in their community and family leadership roles must be heard."}]},{"head":"Cheikh Ndiaye, Executive Director, African Food and Agriculture Skills Development Centre, Senegal, COVID-19 and African Governments policies implications on the Food System of Vulnerable Populations","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The strategy of everyone solving their own problems is unsustainable and counterproductive. As the virus is ignoring borders, it cannot be tackled individually by each nation -a global approach is needed. While we are physically distanced from one another, we can still come together to solve these problems. If not, the virus will not be defeated and will bounce back and re-infect the world."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"African nations are faced with technical and practical problems, but governments do not have the money to implement meaningful interventions and support. People depend not only on protection from the virus but also on access to nutritious and sufficient food without which they lose their livelihoods, sparking tension and social unrest."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"As the COVID 19 pandemic takes hold in Africa, it will spread like wildfire, taking advantage of favorable preconditions: people on the extreme end of the hunger spectrum, weak and less well equipped to face any pandemic; the majority of the African population depending heavily on traditional, seasonal agricultural production and its attendant job , fishing or pastoralism; and the lack of health facilities, promiscuity, existing and frequent comorbidities, such as AIDS, hypertension and diabetes."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"The globally accepted practice of closing down cities and businesses is difficult to implement in the African context. If the farmers have no planting season, seasonal workers are restricted, and access to seeds and markets are closed, it will lead to food shortages, price increases and starvation in vulnerable populations. Efforts should be made to assist workers impacted in the hope that with support from the international community, some of the foreseeable negative impacts of COVID 19 can be mitigated."},{"index":5,"size":114,"text":"There is no doubt of the impact of the pandemic on the food system (for chefs, farmers, food service workers, processing and distribution workers and many others). Governments across the continent have stepped up measures to contain the massive spread: screening of travellers and deployment of agents for surveillance; cut down on flights; tightening of borders; restrictions of movements and gatherings with social distancing; and closing of schools and public places, all under a state of curfew and emergency with measures to go along with it. While some measures are generic, some must be country/region specific and consideration must be given to how best to apply them to avoid causing more harm than good."}]},{"head":"Samuel Godefroy, Senior Food Regulatory Expert, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Arab Food Safety Initiative for Trade Facilitation (SAFE), Crucial Role of Food Regulators to Support the Food Production Sector at Times of Emergencies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"During these unprecedented times of the COVID-19 Pandemic, maintaining the safety and availability of food and agrifood products is essential. Closure of businesses and food service establishments and necessary restrictions in movement has put a strain on conditions of production. Food regulators play a key role in limiting supply disruption and maintaining operations. There are three areas where they can intervene in addressing and mitigating the impact on food production systems:"},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"1.They have an immediate role in addressing COVID-19 as possible food hazard, including any communication related to it and busting myths related to the virus and the food production system. It is important to reiterate the scientific consensus that food and food packaging is not a vehicle for transmission. Food regulators around world and, in particular in developing nations, must be the source of credible information to provide guidance regarding the hazard and food."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"The role of regulators is key to maintaining the trust and confidence of consumers in the safety and availability of the food supply. They must gather pertinent information and translate it to industry and consumers. Regulators must be able to network to provide the correct information and maintain its consistency in relaying it to their stakeholders. Regulators of sub-regions could be mobilized in networks to provide a single voice for scientifically credible information."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"2. Regulators are expected to be the go-to party where guidance is needed for food and agrifood producers. Guidance is needed regarding sanitation and protection of workers. It must be adapted to the realities of the food production sector and to the realities of African countries and developing economies. They need to be proactive in volunteering guidance in specific to some parts of their supply chains, such as how to practice social distancing in the context of farmers markets and small farmer production."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"3. Regulators must maintain their core food regulatory capacity, in part as related to food inspection and overseeing recall of high risk or contaminated products. They must ensure that no new threats or hazards are introduced, including food fraud and prevention of dumping to avoid shortages."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"The situation emphasizes the importance of development of business continuity plans and emergency response plans in advance of crises. Collaboration is required so that core food regulatory functions can be exercised to avoid added the strain of the failure of core regulatory functions."},{"index":7,"size":195,"text":"Lara Hanna Wakim, Vice Director of Higher Center for Research, Former Dean of the Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Lebanon, Lebanese Economic and COVID-19 Crises: Impact on food supply, demand and access Currently, Lebanon is struggling with a number of issues: a major financial crisis related to the total blockage of Lebanese banking facilities to purchase inputs from abroad that has limited the availability of needed agri-food inputs in quantity and on time; the absence of credit to farmers; inflated prices for imports when 85 percent of Lebanon's food basket comes from external sources; and a possible shift in diets as people purchase more affordable and stable pre-packaged food. COVID-19 is not an ordinary shock to supply, demand and access; it is a shock to the world and is a human crisis. Its impacts on the food supply will directly and indirectly affect all four pillars of Lebanese food security and nutrition: availability, access, utilization and stability. The specific issue is access to imports in time for the planting season, which may affect yields and income. Restrictions to worker movement will cause labour shortages, especially relevant to labour-intensive crops."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"Declining demand due to a decline purchasing power will affect the ability of farmers and producers to invest and adopt adequate technology and will further shrink food production and availability."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"Panic buying increases demand. It is important to raise awareness to reduce food waste and to better consider the categories food that consumers are buying in terms of nutrition facts."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"In terms of the impact on food access, supply disruptions and loss of jobs and incomes falls hardest on low-wage workers, and in the absence of safety nets and income assistance, the working poor will see their access to food decline."},{"index":11,"size":135,"text":"Action recommendations: Short-term At the government level, the Lebanese government has started safety nets and social and financial protection for the most vulnerable. Political actors, alongside municipalities have played a leading role in the campaign. At the Individual level, individuals and some NGOs have launched initiatives to encourage people to return to their villages and engage in agriculture. Plans have been made to cultivate unused land, distribute seeds and organize agriculture cooperatives and technical assistance. This is promising but not enough. Dynamics have been set in motion empowering municipalities that will drive more decentralized activities that can be part of the solution. In the broader picture, disruptions to society are having an impact on women and children. Access to food and learning are needed, and Lebanese Government has launched support for online teaching and learning."}]},{"head":"Medium-term","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"There is a fundamental need to support productive capacity and the private sector, NGOs and academia should be urged to bring technical and analytic capabilities to support the government. Assess the diverse impacts of the crisis: There is an urgent need for a holistic and strategic food security plan to be led at high government levels and coordinated at national and international levels. Given the demands placed on international funds, Lebanon must help itself and find ways to revive its economy. Increasing local food production (called Mouneh) is vital to address these challenges. Trade barriers should be dismantled and supply chains re-established."}]},{"head":"Long-term","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Strengthen the policy environment for sustainable food production. The present crisis highlights existing challenges in food systems and emphasizes the need for improved resilience in food supply chains and in food systems. This is a moment of solidarity -all leaders must convey a strong message asking for people to do it together."}]},{"head":"5.Theodore Knight-Jones Senior Scientist Epidemiology, Animal and Human Health, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Urban Informal markets in Africa -Challenges of Crisis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Dr. Knight-Jones focused on the zoonotic risks that Africa may have but noted that, in the struggle to suppress COVID-19, we should not forget the broader pattern of disease emergence. These zoonoses have shaped society over time and continue to do so. Drivers are changes in society and its environment and the pace of that change, which is arguably happening faster in Africa now than anywhere else. While every continent has produced serious epidemics and pandemics, with the fastest growing and youngest human population of any region in the world, some regions of Africa are now approaching the high-density levels seen in Asia."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"There are a few primary routes that facilitate the rise of zoonotic pathogens: wildlife infections directly passing to people; wildlife species passing infections to domestic animals that in turn pass them on to people; and pathogens arising in domestic species passing to people. A key factor in the subsequent spread within humans is dense urban populations, potentially exacerbated by extensive and uncontrolled food chains. The faster this can happen, the less time we have to control wider impact. Societal changes that have an impact include exposure of any of these hosts to new environments and new species through climate change, changing ranges of agriculture, and changing ranges of wildlife reservoirs, creating new ecological niches favoring interspecies transmission of pathogens and the emergence of new pathogens."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"The phenomena that facilitate these events are present in Africa today: the spread of agricultural practices into areas reserved for wildlife populations, changes in farming systems, and expanding ranges for agriculture. Urbanization is occurring at a massive rate with poor sanitation, food processing and marketing standards of hygiene which is potential pathogen spread and emergence. Population growth drives demand for protein and expansion of food production into new areas. A reflection of this is increased consumption of bush meat prevalent across Africa, a high-risk activity for pathogen emergence, precipitated and exacerbated by inefficiencies in livestock production."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"It is also important to consider how ready society is to detect, track, understand and control these pathogens once they emerge, before wider dissemination. The limited capacity of government services in Africa is a challenge as there is not the capacity to track this. Evidence of this is the persistence of zoonotic diseases controlled elsewhere but not in Africa. If COVID persists in Africa in a way that it does not elsewhere, it may result not only in an ongoing health burden but cause economic burdens from trade and movement barriers."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"COVID is a new emerging pathogen. While these threats have been periodically emerging over time, we have been more aware of and tracking them for last two decades. We do wonder if there was a case of warning fatigue by some countries. The current situation is a painful illustration of need to maintain readiness and strategies. When to trigger pandemic control measures for poorly understood and rarely occurring events is a costly and challenging issue, but failure to do so is even more costly. What is required is a better understanding of the diseases, ongoing surveillance capacity to detect emerging threats and deal with them, and an improved understanding and monitoring of the drivers and causes of zoonotic disease and their spread."}]},{"head":"Silnia Badenhorst, Group Food Safety Manager (SME) Massmart/Walmart, Industry challenges and solutions for Food Safety and Security","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"In developing countries, efforts to ensure a high-quality food supply chain are faced with challenges under normal conditions. Operating as a food business within a pandemic as large as the current COVID-19 pandemic adds to them significantly throughout the food supply chain, which in South Africa is a web of formal and informal interactions between agricultural inputs, logistics, farmers, spazas, bakkie traders, processing plants, shipping, retailing, biosecurity and more. Ensuring a sustainable food supply within this complex system is becoming more of a concern."}]},{"head":"Specific challenges include","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"-The incorrect classification of \"essential goods and services\". This has a significant impact of food security, as it should extend across agriculture and not just to food. Agricultural value chains are intertwined and, if not managed carefully, will have a direct and negative impact on food security. The \"food industry\" in South Africa is complex and includes a number of support services that, directly and indirectly, enable the efficient and effective operations of the holistic food value chain, and therefore, fits the fundamental definition of essential services. From a food supply chain perspective, essential goods and services entail all activities and processes which support the production, processing, distribution, consumption, and waste disposal of food in the system."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"-Lack of accurate information on the informal food supply chains. The essential role that the informal sector plays in the \"business as usual\" food system must be acknowledged, as it supplies a variety of essential food and related services to the poor and vulnerable groups. A systemic disruption to their operations will impact livelihoods and rural economies significantly."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"-Lack of an implementation plan regarding the issuing of permits and the enforcement of health and safety requirements within informal food trading."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"-Insufficient productivity of certain demanded foods during COVID-19 (raw materials, packaging, staff shortages) and non-availability of essential imported food products that SA is dependent on, such as rice, wheat and palm oil."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"-Cross-border transportation limitations and restrictions."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"-The impact on food security caused by the demobilisation of the workforce, restricted movement of goods, closure of ports of entry, and panic-buying of food."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"-The strain placed on the food supply chain by the significant increase in demand, price volatility, increased inflations, complications of exchange controls and trade relations, and weak management of macroeconomic dynamics."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"-Food insecurity at the household-level (especially the poor). South African agriculture is export-oriented, and the food left for local consumption is expensive."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"-The closure of schools means hundreds and thousands of poor children in rural areas and informal settlements will no longer access the food and nutrition they rely on when are at school."},{"index":10,"size":97,"text":"-Although South Africa is a net exporter of agricultural products, most South Africans are ravaged by poverty and have to fend for themselves, a situation worsened by the virus and the lockdown. Panicbuying and stockpiling will lead to further disenfranchisement of the most vulnerable in society -the unemployed, the elderly, and most of those dependent on a single source of income. This inability to purchase food may actually last far longer than the lockdown, making it a long-term problem that can lead to more under-nourished people in the country. Some solutions to these issues can be identified:"},{"index":11,"size":74,"text":"-In order to ensure that food remains available to South African consumers, continuous tracking of operations within the value chain will be necessary. A disruption of activities at any single point will have implications for others. Furthermore, problems with cross-cutting services, such as transportation of employees and goods, could impact at multiple nodes simultaneously. In this regard, logistical services within the chain to ensure efficient movement of both products, services and labour are critical."},{"index":12,"size":57,"text":"-A web-based monitoring tool has been developed by the Bureau for Food and Agricultural Policy (BFAP) to enable key role players to report blockages and breakdowns within the chain, thus enabling rapid and appropriate responses. This End-to-End Agro Food Chain Tracker forms part of the initiatives that government is driving in collaboration with the Agricultural Task Team."},{"index":13,"size":38,"text":"-Government should ensure the correct classification of essential goods and services and Inclusion of the informal sector as an important component of the food supply chain and ensure that critical agricultural production activities continue uninterrupted in essential services."},{"index":14,"size":62,"text":"-With regard to food access, measures should be taken to promote school feeding at home; establish municipal food banks; compel food-producing companies and food retail stores to recycle consumable foodstuffs and make it available to the most vulnerable; establish humanitarian food reserves; ensure emergency foodstuffs are mobilised; ensure all food needs are fully met; and scale up nutritional support and feeding schemes."},{"index":15,"size":17,"text":"-Social protection programmes for food prices should be adjusted and restrictions on price hiking should be imposed."},{"index":16,"size":14,"text":"-Immediate and urgent increases in food supply should be available from farm food production."},{"index":17,"size":8,"text":"-Export of strategic agricultural commodities should be facilitated."},{"index":18,"size":30,"text":"Speakers' quotes, and other reference materials may be obtained through [email protected]. This information is available to all with notification to the IUFoST Secretariat [email protected] and recognition of source. Thank you."},{"index":19,"size":148,"text":"The International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST) stimulates the ongoing exchange of knowledge in those scientific disciplines and technologies relating to the expansion, improvement, distribution and conservation of the world's food supply. The international food science and technology scientific community works within the Union to exchange ideas and develop strategies to meet the vision and mission of IUFoST. The Union works with other international organizations such as FAO, WHO and UNIDO to fulfill its mission. It is the elected global representative of Food Science and Technology in the International Science Council (ISC). IUFoST's vision is to Strengthen Global Food Science and Technology for Humanity. IUFoST's mission is to: (a) Promote international co-operation and information exchange. (b) Provide education and training to food scientists and technologists around the world. (c) promote professionalism and profession organization among food scientists and technologists. For more information visit www.iufost.org, Contact: [email protected]."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"424053c4-40bf-4baa-ab7e-334a70bf684e","abstract":"Food stocks globally are high, without the disruptions in international trade in food staples seen in the 2007-8 food price crisis that were exacerbated by export bans. Disruptions in food production, supply chains, markets and services are more driven by domestic circumstance and control mechanisms. Much bigger impacts of physical distancing are seen in food production and supply chains that are labor rather than capital intensive, such as those that require migrant workers for harvesting as opposed to combine harvesting. In almost every country with control measures, the food service side is completely shut down, leading to many disruptions.As COVID spreads to South Asian and African countries, the economic contraction will be sharp and severe and recovery may be slow if the disease persists. This presents a significant problem for the poor. If GDP decline estimates are consistent, 140 million people will be moving into extreme poverty, despite progress made in past years, with 80 million located in Africa.Given this, public food distribution, nutrition and health, and social safety net programs will be critical as the poor will be constrained in earning their livelihoods and obtaining food if movement restrictions and lockdowns persist. International support will be important, as most governments are facing large debt loads, potential currency exchange challenges and loss of tax revenue, and have little room for fiscal stimulus. As a result, they must prioritize policies and investments and adapt quickly to changing circumstances.Co-Chair Ruth Oniang'o, Chair of the Board of Sasakawa Africa Association, SAA, founder and Editor-in-Chief of AJFAND, founder of Rural Outreach Africa, Recipient of the African Food Prize, Implications of COVID-19 on Food Systems in Africa Dr. Oniang'o compared the COVID-19 pandemic to a conflict, with major disruptions in people's lives that impact food production for majority of smallholder farmers and also disrupts the food supply chain. The virus was slow arriving on the African continent. With the whole world predicting the worst for Africa's 54 sovereign states, countries with very weak economies were forced to get ready, despite the fact that these governments do not have social safety net programs to cushion the impact on their populations. They have no reserves, coping with their periodic food crises through donors that now have to mobilize all resources to help themselves. In addition, bad governance leads to the kind of inequality seen over"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07c21795d2a6da9e078617a107429511","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5249d3ca-daaa-4e2a-a93c-ed4cdda08285/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), a CGIAR research center operating in Africa, Asia, and","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"An alliance with Bioversity International","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"To meet the growing demand for research-fordevelopment solutions at a greater scale and within a time frame that is commensurate with rapidly changing global challenges, CIAT is establishing an Alliance with Bioversity International, a sister CGIAR center with a complementary mandate, strategy, capacity, and presence on the ground. This Alliance will develop and deploy evidence-based solutions to build sustainable, resilient food systems and landscapes. This will include making better use of agricultural biodiversity, producing food in the face of climate change, reducing the environmental footprint of agriculture, and ensuring a vibrant agricultural sector that drives prosperity, economic development, and improved human health and nutrition. This roadmap capitalizes on the synergies and complementarities of CIAT and Bioversity International to deliver on these opportunities in Latin America and the Caribbean. As the program of the Alliance evolves within the region and new opportunities emerge, it is expected that changes may have to be made to the roadmap. By releasing it now, it is intended to guide the work of CIAT during this period of transition and institutional innovation, so as to maintain a strong and forward-looking program as the priorities and arrangements evolve. 3"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"November 2018 |"},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"A new initiative, Future Seeds, is a state-of-the-art genebank under development to ensure the continued protection of humanity's priceless reservoir of crop diversity. Future Seeds also enables innovations in genomics and big-data technologies for a more data-driven and targeted use of crop diversity by expanding the digital dimension of the genebank. Located in the midst of a global biodiversity hotspot, Future Seeds serves as a platform to convene genetic resource scientists from around the world."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Partnerships are at the core of CIAT's strategy in the region."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"Our mandate to achieve impact at scale means that we work with government agencies and other partners on the ground providing the tools and scientific support for implementing eco-efficient agriculture at scale. CIAT's research in the region helps to better understand and harness current and future trends and their links to food security, nutrition, natural resource management, climate change, landscapes, and eco-efficiency in the agri-food sector. Currently active in 14 countries in LAC and more than 50 worldwide, CIAT plays a valuable role in South-South transfer of agricultural knowledge and learning across the region and globally to accelerate innovation for development impact."}]},{"head":"Regional trends","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"shaping the agricultural sector"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"T The following trends are expected to drive transformation of the agricultural sector in Latin America and the Caribbean in the coming decade and will, therefore, have relevance for CIAT's research agenda:"},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Latin America is the largest net food-exporting region and, as such, will be subject to pressure related to productivity, low value-added, dietary transformations globally, foreign investments in agriculture and land, and higher social, environmental, and economic standards within the global food industry. Agriculture and food production will remain important economic sectors in many countries in the region, although their relative importance for GDP and related workforce will vary across countries."}]},{"head":"Strengthened role of LAC in the global food system as a food exporter","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"There is an increasing need for economic analyses that support As agriculture uses more than 50% of the water in the region, an immense opportunity arises to innovate in water-efficient production systems and water conservation in agricultural landscapes. Water is emerging as an important framing discourse for policies and practices in agriculture, and continued access for small farmers will be challenged while their agricultural livelihoods will depend more on water availability."}]},{"head":"Water stress","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Pockets of malnutrition, lack of sufficient calories, and hidden hunger will persist, particularly where agriculture and selfprovisioning are important to food security. Yet, at the national level in many countries, obesity will replace hunger as the major health challenge, with increasing diabetes and other diet-related noncommunicable diseases affecting rural and urban poor."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"From food security and hunger to nutrition security, obesity, and food safety LAC will be the most urbanized region in the world by 2030 and will remain so."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Urban consumers drive the food system."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Yet half of these urban consumers are located in a mosaic of small and midsized cities, and growing small towns surrounded and serviced by rural areas."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"These small and mid-sized cities are experiencing higher growth rates than the larger megacities."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"The growth of medium and large farms, and large agribusiness alongside a continued small-farm sector will have implications for household livelihood strategies, inequality, and rural economies. The demographic transition in rural areas will be toward older and fewer farmers, along with rural-urban and overseas migration, including of youth. Policies, programs, and research will need to differentiate between these groups as end-users."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Health policies, including taxes on unhealthy food and new labeling requirements, economic development policies that strengthen the agricultural sector and sustain the region's potential as a key provider of global environmental goods, and trade policies that respond to shifting global relations will all create potentially conflicting incentives for the agricultural sector."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"Local, national, and regional food markets will remain important for producers and consumers in the region, particularly lower income groups. The private sector, including large agribusiness, food processors, and retailers, will have an increasingly important role in the regulation of the food and agricultural sectors vis-à-vis the public sector."}]},{"head":"Rural transformation","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Shifting policies in response to new priorities and challenges","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Important incentives exist for conservation of biodiversity, water, soils, forests, other ecosystem services, and landscapes."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Increased pressure is present for agricultural development to be compatible with sustainable use, valuation, and conservation of natural resources."}]},{"head":"Recognized role of LAC in the provision of environmental services globally","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate as a strategic issue","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"(and real challenge) for economic and agricultural development focuses on long-term climate changes as well as increased short-term climate variability and exposure to extreme weather events. Production landscapes and communities that are resilient in these three contexts will be the architecture of the future."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"With poverty rates decreasing and GDP per capita increasing, mostly in urban areas, the unequal distribution of wealth will remain as a main development challenge in the region."}]},{"head":"Uneven institutional capacity for innovation in agriculture","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Increasing inequality","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"National agricultural research and extension systems (NARES)"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"and national innovation systems across Latin America are heterogeneous, with a growing gap between a handful of strong well-resourced NARES with strong links to the private sector and the majority of small NARES with limited capacity that will require differential strategies."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Upland farmer in Bolivia (Neil Palmer/CIAT)."}]},{"head":"CIAT's","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Research theme 1: Food systems"},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) is home to countries that top the lists for obesity; on average over the region, 60% of consumers are overweight. These numbers, along with incidence of diabetes, are growing fast and women are most affected. 3,4,5 Undernourishment in LAC is lower than in other regions (6.6%), 6 yet, within LAC, some countries have levels of undernourishment as high as 40%. 7 Obesity, undernourishment, and hidden hunger co-exist within many countries in the region. Transformations in market systems and dietary changes are occurring rapidly and the private sector plays an increasingly important role in food production, processing, and retailing as LAC consolidates its position as the main net exporter of agricultural and food products globally. 8 Moving forward, we will need to breed crops with higher nutritional quality while continuing our breeding to develop varieties that are high yielding, adapted to a variety of environments, and resilient to multiple stresses. Although there will be a focus on CIAT's core crops (beans, cassava, rice, and forages), high-value crops (coffee, cacao) and food systems as a whole will also be targeted."}]},{"head":"November 2018 |","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"We believe that agriculture (supported by key policy instruments) has an enormous potential to catalyze processes of socioeconomic inclusion in rural areas and address the structural causes of social and political unrest in many countries of the region. We will need to deepen our understanding of the market systems that serve the poor and how they affect nutritional outcomes, income generation, and the equal distribution of benefits for rural and urban poor and for producers and consumers. This will require research and innovation on traditional market systems, on food environments, on nutrition information policies to incentivize healthy consumer choices, and on institutional arrangements that support positive nutritional outcomes through consumption, including delving more into the rural-urban food nexus and linking with urban development initiatives connected to food, including urban agriculture and food labeling. 9"}]},{"head":"Research agenda","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"•","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Addressing the triple burden of malnutrition This includes crop and varietal development in CIAT's core crops with a nutritional focus; work on contaminants and food safety-related production practices; tackling malnutrition through nutrition innovation strategies such as biofortification; research on adoption and scaling to understand and improve nutrition outcomes for different households and family members with particular emphasis on gendered roles; and support to ministries on policy innovation."}]},{"head":"• Productivity and profitability growth","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"This includes understanding and closing the yield gap for priority crops through varietal, agronomic, or systems research; production systems and breeding research to improve the productivity of land, water, labor, biodiversity, and financial capital; and integrated livestock-cropping systems and agroforestry. This research needs to consider technological innovations that serve youth and women farmers in particular, and target small-and medium-sized farms where returns to innovation are high."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"• National and regional food system analyses This includes the development of indicators and tools for assessing food systems in terms of nutritional, food safety, resilience, and equity outcomes and trade-offs to guide policy interventions; characteristics and drivers of the food environment for poor consumers; and analysis of health, nutrition, and policies to drive innovation in megacities."}]},{"head":"• Market systems and value chains","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"This includes research on nutrition and gender-sensitive, inclusive, climate-resilient, and environmentally sound (i.e., deforestation-free) value chains and business models; research on the traditional food sector and local market systems; and improving the profitability and sustainability of production systems while reducing environmental footprints."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"New partnerships will include the health, medical, food science/processing/safety sectors, supporting countries to reframe their understanding of the connections between agriculture, food, and health, as well as how to regulate and articulate appropriately those sectors for improved nutrition and poverty reduction outcomes. Private-sector actors, including traders, processors, retailers, farmer organizations, commodity boards, and traditional market actors; international trade integration or private-sector roundtables such as WEF and ICCO/ICO; and international initiatives such as Food-Smart Cities and the UNEP 10YFP SFS program will be important partners in this research agenda."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"9 For example, focusing on high levels of sugar, fat, and sodium content. Chile and Mexico are pioneers in the region on this front."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Until October 2018, more than 290 biofortified varieties of 12 staple crops had been released or were undergoing a testing phase in over 60 countries across the world. Latin America and the Caribbean has also benefited from the development of more nutritious crops. Just in 2017, eight nutritionally improved varieties were released, including beans, rice, cassava, maize, and sweet potato."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Seed and commercialization specialists are working together in value chains to introduce and fast-track adoption of biofortified crops. Such is the case of Colombia, where a national program is being implemented to encourage farmers to shift from illegal crops to staple food crops. Today, seeds are being produced to enable 10,000 Colombian households to harvest the benefits, both nutritional and economic, from biofortified crops."}]},{"head":"Biofortified crops make their way into the region","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Research theme 2:"}]},{"head":"Agroecosystems and landscapes","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Water stress, climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, and land degradation are increasingly important concerns within the international community as well as for national and regional governments in LAC. LAC holds important wilderness and biodiversity areas. Governments and private-sector actors are gaining awareness that productivity growth in agriculture for its own sake is insufficient and large-scale public and private investments are increasingly being reoriented around environmental indicators of concern. Landscapes for sustained provision of environmental services where productive and conservation purposes are reconciled and integrated are receiving growing attention at the expense of a purely productive focus for rural development. Climate change has challenged commodity traders to invest in supply chain resilience and environmental performance with a focus on long-term stability of the supply."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Moving forward, CIAT's work on agricultural production systems and landscapes for LAC will need to more tightly link short-and long-term system productivity and profitability, incorporating green growth indicators and the provision of ecosystem services, thus generating quantifiable contributions to country and regional climate, poverty, and resource conservation goals. The region will need more solutions that lean toward sustainable productive landscapes where agriculture and functional restoration are integrated, showing how agricultural sector development contributes positively and verifiably to national and international commitments such as the nationally determined contributions (NDCs)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Water will be particularly important as agriculture uses 70% of the water in the region. 10 Much more research is needed on water-efficient irrigation infrastructure and supportive policies, as well as on water resource management more broadly that supports diverse uses for agriculture, households, energy, and industry."}]},{"head":"Research agenda","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"•"}]},{"head":"Agro-ecological practices","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"This includes developing and promoting the adoption of agro-ecological practices at plot, farm, and landscape levels that make more efficient use of water and nutrients, conserve biodiversity, reduce pest problems (i.e., biological controls), restore soils, landscapes, and ecosystem services, and that promote integrated agrosilvopastoral systems."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"•"}]},{"head":"Landscape-level restoration of degraded ecosystems","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"This includes the design and implementation of productive landscapes that support livelihoods, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, with emphasis on water, carbon, and greenhouse gases for specific sites; with a target on critically degraded areas with potential for agriculture and the provision of ecosystem services that foster community-based activities; and making use of sustainable business models."}]},{"head":"•","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water efficiency","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Broadening our research agenda on water-smart agriculture and water-smart agricultural landscapes, including sustainable irrigation investments, waterefficient technologies, agronomic practices, and engagement with irrigators' associations for water-use efficiency and watershed management."}]},{"head":"•","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Quantification and economic valuation of ecosystem services","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Innovating with digital tools and refining methods for quantification, monitoring, and economic valuation of ecosystem services; measuring the impact of technologies and interventions such as land restoration to guide investment planning and policy-making for the public and private sectors."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"10 www.fao.org/americas/prioridades/suelo-agua/en/ The sustainable production system known as Quesungual has been successfully implemented in the Central American Dry Corridor for soil, water, and vegetation management. Hundreds of farmers have increased their yields of maize and beans, while improving ecosystem services and resilience."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"CIAT has also been working in Central America in actions towards improving water availability and developing tools aimed to inform investments in water harvesting for agriculture. In Peru, CIAT's research to assess the value of ecosystem services was key to passing a law that promotes mechanisms for equitable sharing of economic benefits from nature."}]},{"head":"Boosting ecosystem services and restoration in LAC Partners","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Much stronger collaboration with the environmental sector will be important, including UNEP, ministries of the environment, and other environmental agencies, global and regional environmental NGOs, as well as participation in environmental debates, building the bridges to agriculture and facilitating South-South cooperation. Engaging with indigenous peoples in the region, who are both farmers and stewards of large tracts of forests, presents an opportunity for collaborative, participatory research, outreach, and on-the-ground implementation of knowledge products."}]},{"head":"Research theme 3: Climate resilience","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Latin America and the Caribbean is highly vulnerable to climate change, climate variability, and extreme weather events. The importance of the agricultural sector for the economies of South and Central America in terms of employment, rural economies, GDP, and food security makes climate change a very real and imminent threat for the region. Land-use change and degradation, particularly the advance of the agricultural frontier and the expansion of extensive livestock grazing systems, are accelerating the effects of climate change in the region. Climate commitments are increasingly central to the agendas of many governments in the region."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"CIAT's capacity and leadership in the area of climate change and agriculture make us a key partner in the region for helping countries convert climate change and variability into an opportunity for sustainable growth in the agricultural sector. To do this, CIAT must focus more heavily on the economic case for climate-resilient agriculture in the short and long term, informing investments and financial instruments to unlock the sector's potential."}]},{"head":"Research agenda","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"•","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Technologies for adaptation to climate change","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This includes promoting the development and adoption of varieties tolerant of drought/high temperature/and flood, agronomic practices that promote adaptation and mitigation, and production systems resilient toward climate change and variability."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"•"}]},{"head":"Low-carbon climate-resilient pathways","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"This includes support for countries in the region to comply with their NDCs, develop national adaptation plans (NAPs), and foresight for sector planning."}]},{"head":"•","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agricultural risk management","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"This includes improved climate information services for agricultural investment planning; digital advisory services for improved crop management, including agro-climatic services for farmers; financial services and products, agronomic practices to reduce risk from pests and diseases as well as yield loss, and instruments for managing market risk such as agricultural insurance and the study of institutional arrangements at various levels."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"New "}]},{"head":"Climate resilience","index":36,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"T A view of the Cauca River Valley, near the country's so-called \"agricultural capital,\"Palmira, in southwestern Colombia.(Neil Palmer/CIAT). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Funding shift for agriculture: from ODA to loans/ investments; from agriculture to environmental services; and from public to private sector The digital and mobile technology revolution is hitting LAC rapidly. Agriculture, particularly small-farm agriculture and public-sector entities, including technical assistance programs, needs to be a part of this change. There will be important opportunities to piggyback on advances in other sectors to quickly bring agriculture into the digital era.   "},{"text":"Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), but partnerships will focus on financial institutions, agricultural commodity traders and farmers organizations, building on current engagements under the CGIAR breaking through into product development and deployment by private-sector actors including development banks. Digital technology companies, extension service providers, national climate change offices, ministries of natural resources, and meteorological institutes will also be important partners.CIAT has been a leader across the region in developing climate services for the agricultural sector, designed to minimize crop losses to climate variability, reduce risks for farmers and enable greater profitability for farm enterprises. Our work in Colombia has won numerous international awards for its novelty and development impact, and CIAT is engaged across much of the region in the design and deployment of new services. The approach introduces farmers to new skills, best practices, and knowledge on how to incorporate local, reliable, and timely climate and site-specific information from trusted sources into their planning systems and strategies. In both Colombia and Honduras, up to 330,000 farmers have been reached through nine local technical agroclimatic committees, and in Colombia alone, more than 150 thousand farmers are receiving tailored agroclimatic advisory services, and an additional 6,000 have adopted climate-smart practices.  "}],"sieverID":"169e512b-e06e-4760-ba36-6f2d3ad42b03","abstract":"is headquartered in Cali, Colombia. CIAT has worked in collaboration for 50 years with hundreds of partners across Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC).We work with government agencies and other partners on the ground providing tools and scientific and technical support for implementing eco-efficient agriculture at scale. CIAT's research in LAC helps better understand and harness current and future trends and their links to food security, nutrition, natural resource management, climate change, landscapes, and eco-efficiency in the agri-food sector.Currently active in 14 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, CIAT plays a valuable role in South-South transfer of agricultural knowledge and learning across the region and globally to accelerate innovation for development impact."}

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' . . . . \" . . \" . . . earn ipms aql bq paiaho:, sauoz apssoi3em 1 .z \" \" \" ' \" ' \" ' \" ' \" \" \" \" \" \" s~!~s!~ameieqn eiep avllales pue eaJe Lpws ' 11 [ . . . . . \" . . 11. Land-use distribution in the different land regions of the WURP map determined using Landsat TM data of path: 197, row52 in the regions of Bobo-Dialousso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"12. Land-use distribution in the different agroecological and soil zones determined using Landsat TM data of path: 197, row52 in the regions of Bobo-Dialousso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"13. Distribution of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands and their cultivation status in the study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"14. Inland valley morphometric characteristics determined using Landsat TM data of path: 197, row:52 (Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, Sikasso, Mali) . . . . . . . . . . . . .   "}]},{"head":"Plates","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"see centerfold -1. False color composite of TM 4 (red), TM3 (green), TM5 (blue) highlighting the broad inland valley bottoms near Sikasso, Mali. For example, the bottom widths of valley bottoms were: 250 to 500 meters in Peniasso, and 500-800 meters in Banankoni and Lotio 2. Distinguishing the inland valley bottoms from the valley fringes and uplands through ratio RGB image of TM4lTM7 (red), TM4lTM3 (green), and TM4lTM2 (blue) 3. Inland valley bottoms delineated and mapped for the entire study area of Landsat Path:197, Row52 (Sikasso, Mali; and Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso) (see the legend for color key) 4. Land-use classes mapped for the different components of the toposequence (valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands) for the entire study area of 3.12 million ha covered by Landsat path:197, row:52 in Sikasso, Mali and Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso (see the legend for color key)"},{"index":2,"size":227,"text":"5. Land-use classes in a sub-area near Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; note the relatively high density of cultivation across the toposequence in areas adjoining roads and settlements (see legend for the culor key) 6. Land-use classes in a suh-area near Sikasso, Mali; note the dramatic differences in land use in Farako reserve forest and the area in the immediate neighbhourhood of Sikasso (see legend for color key) 7. Rice cultivation in the inland valley bottoms surrounding Sikasso, Mali. Observe the contrast between the valley bottoms of the Farako forest reserve from that of the valley bottoms near and north Sikasso 8. Location of the potential benchmark research sites for technology development research activities in the study area covered by Landsat TM path:197, row:52 (Sikasso, Mali; Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso) 9. Land-use classes uf valley bottoms in a sub-area (near Toussiana, Burkina Faso) of Landsat Path:197, Row:52. The valley system of Kamao (immediately west of Toussiana) is one potential valley for technology development research activity 10. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) map of sugarcane fields in a sub-area ( ) of Landsat path: 197, row:52; the higher the NDVI, the greater is the biomass and vigour leading to higher productivity 11. Spatial distrihution of areas of significant upland cultivation (see white color) in the entire study area of Landsat TM path: 197, row:52; areas inside the polygon indicate insignificant cultivation"}]},{"head":"Introduction and Background","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) is currently conducting a characterization of inland valley agroecosystems in West and Central Africa (Izac et al. 1991). A macro-(subcontinental) scale stratification (level I) of West and Central Africa led to a map of 18 agroecological and soil zones (figure 1). Each of these zones represents an area of more than 10 million ha (table 1). Overall, about 36 million ha spread across 11 countries of West and Central Africa are targeted for level I1 characterization. This will be mesoscaled (regional, semidetailed)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"For this purpose, 1 I Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), and 5 Lz systkmepour I'obscrvation de la terre (SPOT) high r-solution visible (HRV) data bases were acquired in sample areas of level I. Each satellite scene over a particular area will be referred to as a study area. Each study ar-,a covers one or more of IITA's level I agroecological and soil zones (figure 1 and table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The ohjectives of level I1 (regional) characterization include inventorying and mapping inland va!ley bottoms; determining land use and land cover of inland valleys and their uplands; determining the cultivation intensities relative to settlements and the road network; mapping the spatial distribution of inland valley systems: testing hypotheses, such as relationships between uplandlinland valley cultivation patterns and cultivation patterns within and across agroecological zones; and determining the location of potential benchmark research sites for technology development activities."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"The level II characteristics are reported with respect to the subcontinental (level I) agroecological and soil zones (figure 1) and also with respect to geological and geomorphological land regions of the Wetland UtilizationResearch Project (WURP) in West Africa (Windmeijer and Andriesse 1993). The location of satellite images on the WURP map is shown in figure 2."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Readers of this inlanil valley characterization report are referred to the resource and crop management research monograph of IITA hy Thenkahail and Nolte (1995a) for the background, definitions (see illustration in tigure 3), rationale, ohjectives, approach, and methodology of level 11 characterization which remain consistent across the study areas. A brief overview of this ~nethodology is described below."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"1. The valley bottoms were delineated using image enhancement, display. and digitizing techniques."}]},{"head":"2.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The valley fringes were mapped by delineating the areas immediately adjoining valley bat-toms, by using a search radius on either side of valley bottoms equivalent to the mean fringe width measured during the ground-truthing. 3. Land-uselland-cover studies were carried out separately for valiey bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands using unsupervised classification of multihand data. 4. Several other characteristics such as the percentage area of inland valleys cultivated at varying distances from roads and settlements, have heen extracted through spatial data manipulation (e.g., boolean logic interpolation and contiguity analysis) of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) datalayers. 5. A methodology for key sitelkey watershed selection was developed based on expert knowledge and GIS modeling of various spatial datalayers. 6 . Ground-truth data, Global Positioning Systems (GPS) data, and other data sources were incorporated into digital image analysis. Analyses were conducted using Earth Resources Digital Analysis System (ERDAS 1991).    "}]},{"head":"Study Area and Satellite Data Characteristics","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The results of each study area are published in the Inland Valley Characterization Report series. Each publication addresses the envisaged common objectives and adopts a consistent approach and methodology as presented in the monograph by Thenkabail and Nolte (1995a). This study was conducted in parts of Burkina Faso and Mali covered by Landsat-5 TM path: 197, row52 of Landsat's world reference system (see figure 4 for location and geographic co-ordinates). The study area covers about 3.13 million ha. The major settlements in the study area are Bobo-Dioulasso, Orodara, Koloko, Toussiana, Koudougou, Kouka, and Faramana in Burkina Faso; and Sikasso, Kle'la, Koutiala, Karangana and Kouri in Mali (figure 4)."}]},{"head":"Macroscale zones covered by the study area","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The regional (level 11) characteristics are reported witli respect to two macroscale zones: a. IITA's level I agroecological and soil zones (see figure I and figure 5); b. land regions of the WURP report (see figure 2 and figure 6)."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Agroecological and soil zones were derived from stratifying West and Central Africa according to two agroecological parameters: 1. IITA's mandate agroecological zones, namely northern Guinea savanna, southern Guinea savanna, derived savanna, and humid forest, which were developed by the Agroecological Studies Unit at IITA (Jagtap, personal communication); the major factor determining a zone is the length of growing period; and 2. soils based on a digitized version of the soil map of the world FAOIUNESCO (1977); the 106 soil units of FAOIUNESCO (1974) had been merged to 23 major soil groupings (e.g., Acrisols, Luvisols, etc.)."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"These data of agroecological zones and soils were manipulated using a geographical information system (GIS) which resulted in 18 zones, constituting the level I map (figure 1, table 1). Each zone portrays a specific combination of these two factors and represents an area of over 10 million ha in West and Central Africa (see table I). This study area covers two agroecological and soil zones (AEZs) (see figure 5): AEZ 1 and 2; the rest of the area is not covered by the level I map. The characteristics of AEZ I and 2 are given in table 1. The major soil grouping throughout the study area is Luvisols accortling to the F A 0 soil classification system of 1974 (FAOIUNESCO 1974). The following land regions are covered by the study area (see table 2): a. land region 2.8 -Interior Plains with sedimentary deposits as geologic formation b. land regions 3.1 and 3.2 -Plateaux region with basement complex as geologic formation c. land region 3.3 -Plateaux region with sedimentary deposits as geologic formation"},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"The process of deriving geologically and geo~norphologically determined land regions in West Africa is explained in Hekstra et al. (1983). For a detailed description of these land regions see Windmeijer and Andriesse (1993). The mean population densities in this study area as determined from the WURP report (Hekstra et al. 1983) vary between 5 to 15 (see table 3 and figure 4).       "}]},{"head":"Notes:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"1 ."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Level I agroecological and soil zones (see figure I) h. Geological and geomorphological land regions in West Africa according to Hekstra d al. (1983) and"},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Windmeijer and Andriesse (1993) (see figure 2) c. Wetland utilization research project (WURP), see Hekstra et al. (1983) The results and discussions will he presented ant1 discussetl for the following zones (see tahle 4 and figures 5 and 6): 1. Level I zones: AEZ 1 (45% of the study area) and AEZ 2 (12%); and 2. WURP land regions: land region 3.3 (68%) and land region 2.8 (24%); other land regions occupied very low percentages of the overall stutly area: land region 3.1 (2%) and land region 3.2 ( 6 % ) , and hence characteristics relative to these two zones were not reported."},{"index":4,"size":237,"text":"The study area comprises two zones with different lengths of growing period: the northern Guinea savanna with 151-180 days and the southern Guinea savanna with 181-210 days (see figure 5 and tahle 1). Land region 3.3 falls in this study area predominantly in the northern Guinea savanna (figures 5 and 6). The mean vegetation densities were nearly uniform across the different macrozones in the study area (tahle 5). The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values of 0.34 ttr 0.39 (tahle 5) are indicative of fairly vigorous vegetation. This was mainly due to the date of data acquisition (27 Septe~nher 1991) which is the peak rainy season in the region with crops in vegetative or critical growth phases. Other vegetation. such as grasses and shruhs, is vigorous to very vigorous in growth.  6). However, two land regions occupy only 2% and 6% of the study area, whereas the major part falls into land region 3.3 (68%), the Plateaux region with sedimentary deposits (paleozoic sandstones) as geological formation. In the northwestern part of figure 6 land region 2.8 occurs (24% of the overall study area). It is part of the Interior Plains region of West Africa with sedimentary deposits (paleozoic sandstones, tillites) as parent material. The gwlogical formations constituting the region are given in tigure 7. Much of the study area is covered by sandstones and tillites of Cambrian age. Ahout 90% of the ground-truth sites were located here."}]},{"head":"Physical characteristics of the study area","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"According to Si~npara (1995) a northwest-southeast axis divides the geologic formations of that region. The sandstone south of Sikasso is of a hard nature whereas north of Sikasso a soft sandstone occurs. Blanchet (1992) sees these changing sandstone characteristics as a major reason for independently circulating subsurface groundwater levels in the region which affects the hydrologic dynamic in inland valleys. The study area is predominantly sandstone with recent alluvial deposits along certain valleys (figure 7). The recent alluvial deposits in the valleys are as a result of periodic tlooding in the area. The tlooding deposits fertile soil and makes cultivation of rice and other crops extremely attractive."}]},{"head":"2.2.2.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Soils. According to the classification of the level I map, Luvisols are to be found as the major soil grouping in the study area (see figure 1 and table I). In reality, the study area is characterized by very heterogenous soil conditions on uplands and the nonhydromorphic part of inland valley fringes. Figure 8 tlisplays the areal spread of 24 map units as given on the soil map of the world (FAOIUNESCO 1977) for that area. Their composition is listed in table 6. Based on the composition rules of F A 0 (1978) the following tlistribution of soil units was calculated: "}]},{"head":"2.2.4","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Farming systems. The agricultural systems are as diverse as the soils in the study area. Manyong et al. (in preparation) characterized farming systems in the middle belt of that area as market-driven and being in the intensification phase (figure 9). The influence of market access and good infrastructure on farming systems is also obvious in the area around Sikasso and between Bobo-Dioulasso and Toussiana. Farming systems here are in the market-driven expansion and early intensification phases, respectively. That means infrastructure, such as road networks, has reached a level sufticient enough to enable farmers to grow at least one cash crop as a major objective of farm households. Between these two regions, around Koloko un the Burkina Faso site, lies a region where population density is still the major driving force for farming systems hut land availability is increasingly scarce. Therefore, Mauyong et al. (in preparation) classified that region as population driven expansion phase (figure 10). Market factors mainly drive the farming (figure 9) with cotton and sorghum being the main upland crops (see their spatial distribution in figure 10) and rice being the main lowland crop. I percentages are \"rounded-off\" to nearest integer b. results for the area \"outside ledel I\" are not reported c. geological and gmmorphological land regions in West Africa according to Hekstra et al. (1983) and"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Wind~neiizr and Andriesse (1993)  "}]},{"head":"Rainfall and hydrology","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Rainfall in the study area shows a monomodal pattern with 80% of the annual amount falling in four months, between June and September (figure I I). The annual total varies at stations in the study area among 832 mm (KoundougoulKouka in the northeast), 987 mm (Koutiala in the northwest), 1072 mm (Sidkradougou in the southeast, at the lower right comer of the study area), and 1310 mm (Sikasso in the southwest). Evapotranspiration around Sikasso is around 1800 mm (Blanchet 1992). The longterm spatial distribution of the rainfall in the study area varies between 1000 mm to 1250 mm, with rainfall decreasing towards the northern portion of the study area. Most of this rainfall occurs between the months of May ant1 September."}]},{"head":"I P M A M I J A S O N D","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":312,"text":"Figure 1.l Monthly rainfall in 6 stations in the study area expressed as percentage of annual total [Sivakumar et al. (1984). Sivaku~nar and Gnoumou (1987)l 2.3.1 Hydrology with respect to the water dynamic in inland valley systems. The hydroldgical dynamics is best understood with a knowledge of the topographical or terrain features in the study area. The inland valley systems are. typically, characterized by large bottom and fringe widths with gentle transversal slopes of 0-2 degrees. Mild to very mild longitudinal slopes along with tlat to near-tlat valley bottoms in the first-to fourth-order streams do not facilitate quick drainage of water downstream. This results in shallow water being spread across inland valley bottoms of third-and fourth-order streams (which often exceed 500 In in width) as the water drains off from the first-and second-order streams. The inundation will last for several months during the peak rainy season (July through October). These characteristics are generally found in the whole of the study area and are best exemplified in plate 4: (i) the area between Nialninasso and Nougoussouala north of Sikasso, Mali, (ii) the area between Bama and Desso. nor& of Sikasso, Mali, and (iii) the area in the immediate vicinity of Sikasso. Mali. These areas are very well suited for inundated rice cultivation. Blanchet (1992) determined in the Peniasso watershed near by Sikasso in 1991 runoff coefficients (surface runoff in percent of rainfall) between 3.2% and 13.0% for eight events. The runoff coefficients were calculated to be 8-13% at the heginning and in the middle of the rainy season whereas at the end of the rainy season (September) they come down to 6% (Blanchet 1992). Runoff as a percentage of total discharge (defined as surface runoff [ruissc<llement] + hase flow [c'coulement de hase] was determined to be > 60% at the start of the rainy season and between 30 and 50% at the end."}]},{"head":"Ground-Truth Data","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"Ground-truth data were collected from 25 valley bottoms, 17 valley fringes, and 36 upland plots. In valley fringes, 17 sample plots were located at the upper, nonhydromorphic part and 8 sample plots at the lower hydromorphic part. Ground-truthing took place between 25 September and 1 October 1993 to correspond seasonally with the satellite overpass date of 27 September 1991. The locations of ground-truth sites are shown in figure 12. At each location (where a GPS reading was taken) there were 1 -2 plots with the GPS location reading being taken on the center of the road and the plots falling on either side of the road. The time frame of the project necessitated a heavy reliance on archived (or historical) satellite data. Real-time or near-real-time ground-truthing is not a feasible proposition due to numerous difticulties involved, such as a high uncertainty in obtaining a good quality real-time satellite image as a result of cloud and harmattan problems, and difficulties in planning ground-truthing activities across several study areas of West and Central Africa at short notice. A consideration of such data collection prccedures has been discussed in the monograph by Thenkabail and Nolte (1995a). The data collection strategy, parameters measured or observed, and the methods and procedures used to collect and analyze parameters remain the same across study areas. These are described in the same monograph. A comprehensive inland valley database has been developed by Ofodile et al.(in press). Only a shortcut of the parameters measured is presented in the following paragraph."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The location of each ground-truth site was determined using a global positioning system (GPS) Garmin 100-SRVYR. Locations noted were geographic co-ordinates (latitudellongitude) in degree, minutes, md seconds and universal transverse mercator (UTM) co-ordinates (x,y) in meters. The accuracy of these GPS readings was usually within + 30 m. GPS was also used to collect groundcontrol points to georeference the satellite image. A total of 21 ground-control points in prominent locations, such as a road crossing a river (over the center of the bridge) and a road crossing a railway line were recorded. These ground-control points were well spread across different portions of the image."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Land-use measurements were made along a transect in a 90 m by 90 m plot in valley bottoms, at valley fringes (hydromorphic and nonhydromorphic), and on uplands. GPS-location readings were taken at the center of the valley bottoms. Leaf area index (LAI) of the canopy was measured in the same 90 m by 90 m plot of valley bottoms and uplaqds. Land-cover types recorded at each site were trees, shrubs, grasses, cultivated farms, barren farms, barren lands, built-up areas or settlements, roads, and others. Different combinations of these land-cover types led to specific land-use categories (see tables 7, 8, and 9)."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Several other characteristics recorded at each inland valley site included: valley bonom width (m), valley fringe width (m), transversal slope (degree), stream order (number), and qualitative observations, such as occurrence of a central stream in the bonom, nature of the water discharge, status of water management systems, and soil moisture conditions (see Thenkabail and Nolte 1995a). Note:"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Table 13 provides the exact cultivated areas for different components of the toposequence"}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The first step in establishing the characteristics of inland valleys in the study area involved georeferencing the satellite image to Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates. This was done using 19 of the 21 GPS-location data points gathered at different prominent locations of the image during the ground-truthing. The image was georeferenced with an accuracy of about 2 pixels (ahout 60 m). This precise georeferencing made possihle an accurate study of inland valley characteristics, such as their land use and cultivation intensities in different components of the toposequence (valley hottoms, valley fringes, and uplands)."}]},{"head":"Mapping valley botton~s and valley fringes","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The study region is characterized hy valleys with large botttrm widths as exemplified in a suharea around Sikasso. Mali (plate I). The characteristics of this image include:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"1. a false color composite (FCC) image of hand TM4 (red). TM3 (green), and TM5 (blue) surrounding Sikasso, Mali: 2. an image displayetl with an magnifying factor of 1; and 3. an image that highlights the flat or ncar-flat hottoms which are seasonally inundated."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Inland valley hottoms were distinguishwl from neighhouring fringes and uplands through image ehancenlent and display techniques such as the ratio RGB image of TM41TM7 (red), TM4lTM3 (green), and TM4lTM2 (hlue) (plate 2). These highlighted valley hottoms were delineated through digitizing. The illustration in plate 2 tlernonstrates: 1. an enhanced image. ohtained by using a ratio red-green-hlue (RGB) image of Landsat T M hands TM4lTM7, TM4lTM3. TM4lTM2; as a result, valley hottoms showed up in a white or cream Coltrred network oistreams. very easily distinguished from their fringes and surrounding uplands; and 2. an image, displayetl with a magnification factor of 2, to highlight inland valley hottoms, clearly distinguished from other features: thereby. valley btrtto~n boundaries could he easily and exactly digitized directly off the screen."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"The resulting valley bottoms in the entire stutly area of 3.12 million ha are shown in plate 3 along with their land-use classes (to be discussed later in this report). Plate 3 provides the spatial distribution of inland valley bottoms, their densities. and land-use characteristics."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"Following the definition in Thenkahail ant1 Nolte (1995a), inland valleys comprise valley bottoms and valley fringes (hydr~~morphic and nonhydromorphic parts) (see figure 3)."},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"Valley fringes adjoin valley bottoms and were mapped by a combination of image processing and GIS techniques as explained in the monograph of Thenkahail and Nolte (1995a). The mean widths of the valley fringes, measured during the ground-truthing, were used to \"spread\" on either side of valley bottoms and \"mask\" the image area other than that within this \"spread\" width. This results in \"masking\" the valley bottoms and the uplands in order to highlight only the valley fringes. The outcome is illustrated for sample areas in earlier reports of Thenkabail and Nolte (1995b and 199%)."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"The same technique was adopted to map the valley fringes of the entire study area of Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso. Mali."}]},{"head":"Mapping settlements and the road network using TM data","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The following parameters were determined using the TM data for each of macnrscale zones covered by the study area (tahle 3):"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"1. presence or absence of major settle~nents; 2. number of major settlements; 3. presence or absence of major road network; and 4. density of road network (kmlkm')."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"All the zones had one major settlement or more than one (tahle 3). The biggest settlements were Boho-Dioulasso (about 3050 ha) in Burkina Faso and Sikasso (about 835 ha) in Mali. All other settlements were much smaller (between 15 ha and 490 ha). A total of 70 major settlements were mapped. The location of these settlements with respect to the macrcrscale zones are given in tahle 3 (even though these settlements exist in plate 4, the scale of the map makes it impossible to notice smaller settlements). All macroscale zones in the study area have a major road system. The density of the road network was lowest in AEZ 2 with 0.022 km/km2 compared with the other zones which have road-network densities hetween 0.027 and 0.040 kmlkm? (tahle 3)."}]},{"head":"Land-use characterization of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":468,"text":"Land-use characteristics were mapped separately t'or valley hottoms. valley fringes and uplands. This involved using the CLUSTR unsupervised classification algorithm of Earth Resources Digital Analysis System (ERDAS.) and incorporating ground-truth information to arrive at the desired land-use themes and classes (see Thenkahail antl Nolte 1995a for an extensive discussicln of the methodology). Six nonthermal hands of TM were used in the classification process. The GPS data and the land-use and land-cover data were used along with the spectral vegetation indices to identify the spectral classes of unsupervised classification. An initial 50 spectral classes of unsupervised classification were reduced to the final 16 land-use information classes (tahle 7, and figures 13a and 13h) which were then mapped unifc~rmly across the stutly area. Each of these classes has a varying percentage of 10 land-cover types (tahle 8). The 16 land-use classes (tahle 7) were displayed against the 10 land-cover types in a matrix fcirmat in tahle 9. For example, the class \"significant farmlands of valley bottoms\" (land-use class 10) contains 65% farmlands (59% harren farms plus 6 % cultivated farms), 8% trees, 9 % shrubs. 14% grasses. and 4% harren lands (table 9). This proportion of land-cover types will vary depending on the season. For example, in the dry season many of the farmlands are expected to be harren. However. the land-use class will remain the same. The varying proportion of landcover types for a land-use class is a result of the heterogeneity crf the information classes even within a single pixel (28.5 ~n hy 28.5 ~n ) and due to aggregating different spectral classes to a few predecided land-use classes. As mentioned earlier, in this study the original 50 spectral classes from unsupervised classification were aggregated to 16 land-use classes (table 6). Pure land-use classes (having a single land-cover type that occupies 100% of its area) are water, settlements, and roads. These classes also comprise gallery forests along the fourth-or higher-order streams. All these classes have high reflectance in TM4 (near infrared waveband) and low reflectance in TM3 (the red waveband). As a result, the vegetation indices for these classes are amongst the highest (see table 10). The uncultivated valley fringes (class 9) were significantly different in spectral characteristics compared to the other two classes for uncultivated areas (class 3 for uplands and class 12 for bottoms). This was mainly due to the higher vigor and greater density of valley-bottom vegetation relative to that of fringes and uplands. Gallery forest (lush green trees and shrubs) is mainly concentrated along the valley bottoms. This was also due to a higher percentage of sparse and short shrubs at the fringes (class 12) compared with the bottoms. The clusters of classes 2, 8, and 11 are very close in figure 12 because they both have a remarkably similar land-cover distribution (table 9)."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The classes showing significant farmlands at the fringes (class 7) and on the uplands (class 1) have similar spectral characteristics, but their clusters are notably different in position, illustrating significant farmlands in valley bottoms (class 10). This was mainly due to the cultivation of inundated rice (swamp rice) in the valley bottoms versus cropping of sorghum and cotton at the fringes and on the uplands. The presence of water in these valley bottoms caused a high absorption in the water absorption band TM5, resulting in low values of TM5 (figure 13b). Therefore, the midinfrared simple vegetation index one (MSVII = data of TM4 divided through data of TMS) discriminates better between class 10 and class 1 or 7, respectively, than the ratio vegetation index (RVI = data of TM4 divided through data of TM3)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Class 16 (barren land) shows up as a wetland in these hispectral plots mainly due to a high soil moisture status because of rains during the date of overpass. a. significant farmlands (classes 1, 7, and 10): farmlands (cultivated farms + barren farms) constitute > 30 % 11f the total land area of this class:"},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"b. scattered farmlands (classes 2. 8, and 11): farmlands constitute 1 10 % hut 5 30 % of the total land area of this class: and c. insignificant farmlands (classes 3.9, and 12): farmlands constitute 5 10 % of the total land area of this class. The areas occupied by each of these 16 land-use classes have heen presented with respect to the WURP land regions in table I I and to the agroecological and soil zones of IITA in table 12. The land-use classes in plate 4 compress an area of 3.13 million ha. This plate is useful in getting a spatial view of land-use distribution in a region. Land-use maps for \"windows\" within this region of study provide excellent details (see, for example, plate 5)."},{"index":5,"size":264,"text":"Land-use class 3 represents areas with savanna vegetation. It comprises 5 10% (insignificant) farmlands. The percentage area relative to the total geographic area occupied by this class varies between 6.5% (for land region 2.8) to 28.7 % (for AEZ 1) (see tables l l and 12). The entire study area had 23.2%. area of class 3. Land-use class 2 (for uplands). 8 (for valley fringes), and 11 (for valley bottoms) are also predciminantly savanna vegetation with 10% to 30% of the area being farmlands. The percentage areas covered by these predominantly savanna land-use classes, in each agroecological zone, were generally high. For example: in AEZ 1 the percentage areas covered by these classes were 25.9% for class 2 (uplands). 6.7% for class 8 (valley fringes). and 4.2% for class 1 I (valley bottoms). The overall percentage areas far savannas should include the percentages of the \"pure\" savanna class (class 3) and predominantly savanna classes (classes 2, 3, 8, and 11). Thereby, the overall savanna percentage areas were 65.5% (class 2, 3, 8, and 11) for AEZ I, 70.4% for AEZ 2, 65.4% for the entire study area, 67.1 % for land region 3.3, and 61.6% for land region 2.8. Dominance of these classes in land regions 3.3 and 2.8 (table 11); and AEZ 1, 2, and entire study area (table 12) are characteristics of this study area in the transition of northern Guinea savanna and Sudan savanna. On average, land-use class 3 consists predominantly of grasses (48%) followed by shrubs (24%), trees (9%), farmlands (9%), barren land (6%) and others, (4%) (see table 6)."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"The forest classes 5 and 6 represent about 4% in different macroagroecological zones (table 11 and  12) as may be expected in this transition zone of the northern Guinea savanna and Sudan savanna study area. It has to be noted that, even within this area, a significant portion is gallery forests (trees along river banks) for higher-order streams (fifih-order or higher) (see these characteristics depicted in plate 4). The gallery forests along the fourth-or lower-order streams fall into the class \"uncultivated valley bottoms\" (land-use class 12) or part into the class \"uncultivated valley fringes\" (land-use class 9).    13)."},{"index":7,"size":140,"text":"The land-use characteristics mapped for the entire study area of 3.13 million ha is depicted in plate 4. This plate provides an excellent spatial depiction of land use in a regional context. For example, the areas with little or no cultivation are shown in violet (upland savannas), rose, and red-orange (upland forest), red (predominantly valley-fringe savannas andlor forest), and magenta (predominantly valley-bottom forest and/or savannas), These colors are dra~natically seen in plate 4 and show up to occupy over 50% of the area. These colors contrast with those of significant cultivation (shown in gray for uplands, white for fringes, and cyan for bottoms) and scattered cultivation (seafoam for uplands; pine-green for fringes; and yellow for hottoms) mainly along roads and settlements (see roads and settlements in plate 8 and compare the distrihution of significant and scattered cultivation in plate 4)."},{"index":8,"size":99,"text":"The detailed land-use characteristics are depicted forsub areas near two major settlements: Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso (plate S), and ~ikasso, Mali (plate 6). Plate 5 illustrates the high cultivation intensities across the toposequence in areas nearer to settlement and road networks. In the immediate vicinity of Sikasso there is intense cultivation in valley botto~ns (mostly inundated rice) and valley fringes and uplands (mostly sorghum) (plate 6). In areas to the east of Sikasso, in the Farako forest resexwe, the land use dramatically changes to savannas (see dramatic differences in land use depicted for forest versus nonforest areas in plate 6)."}]},{"head":"4.4","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Inventory of inland valleys and cultivation intensities across the toposequence","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"The area of inland valleys (valley bottoms plus valley fringes) is a function of the density of valleys and their characteristics, such as their bottom width and fringe width. An inventory of inland valleys was made possible by this process of highlighting and mapping (see section 4.1). Using the same technique as enumerated in section 4.1 and illustrated in plates 1 through 3, inland-valley bottoms were mapped for the entire study area of 3.13 million ha (plate 3). The sparse network of inlandvalley systems in the entire study area (plate 3) is obvious from their spatial distrihution. A quantitative assessment indicated low drainage densities (ratio of the length of the streams to the area encompassed by them in kmlkm') and coarse stream frequencies (ratio of length of the streams to the area encompassed by them in number/km2) (tahle 14). The drainage densities varied between 0.35 kmlkm2 and 0.48 km/km2 and stream frequencies varied between 0.48 number/km2 and 0.69 number/km2. Although the spatial coverage of inland valleys is sparse, this study area is characterized hy large valley-bottom ant1 valley-fringe widths (table 15). The large bottom widths are evident in plate 1. These large valley hottom and valley fringe widths account mainly for the considerable percentage of area covered by inland valleys (tahle 13) in spite of the coarse stream frequency (tahle 14) in all the different macroscale zones studird."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The mapping strategy conceptualized for use with remotely sensed data, as outlined in detail in Thenkahail and Nolte (1995a). is to map consistently all valleys as inland valleys along fourth-or fifth-order streams. The decision where to draw the line between inland valleys and floodplains (usually at fourth-or fifth-order streams) is hased on ground-truth data. However, not all valleys below, say, fourth-order when mapped as inland valleys are actually likely to be inland valleys.  Level I agroecological and soil zones (see figure 1)"},{"index":3,"size":232,"text":"Geological and geomorphological land regions in West Africa according to Hekstra et al. (1983) and Windmeijer and Andriesse (1993) (see figure 2) 2. stream frequencies (numherlkm2) as: very coarse (0-0.5); coarse (0.5-1.0); medium (1-2); fine (2)(3); and very fine (> 3) b. When the suhara was too small such as for land region 3.1 (2% of total study area), stream densities and frequencies were not calculated and hence were marked \"-\" Some of them are tloodplains. This is due to the high variation encountered in characteristics such as bottom widths and flooding regime. Since floodplains have a different hydrological regime, soil conditions (Raunet 1985), and cropping patterns, they are to he distinguished from inland valleys. However, a strict distinction is not possible due to practical reasons and hence all valleys of fifthorder and below have been mapped as inland valleys. The inland valley frequencies and densities were higher in (1) AEZ 2 compared to AEZ 1; and (2) Land region 3.3 compared to land region 2.8 (see table 14). However, as a result of the presence of valleys with larger bottom widths in AEZ 1, the percentage area of valley bottoms in AEZ 1 (9.1%) exceeded that of AEZ 2 (7.7%) (as area is also a significant function of bottom width). For the same reason, the valley bottom area of land region 2.8 (9.1 %) exceeded that of land region 3.3 (8.2%)."},{"index":4,"size":183,"text":"As a result of the methodology used in this study (see Thenkabail and Nolte 1995a for details) valley fringe area is a direct function of valley frequencies and densities. As a result, the zones with higher frequencies and densities (AEZ 2 in comparison to AEZ 1; land region 3.3 in comparison t o land region 2.8; see table 14) had a higher percentage of valley fringe area (25.5% for AEZ 2 in comparison to 17.8% for AEZ I; and 20.4%.for land region 3.3 in comparison to 18.1% for land region 2.8; see table 13). Both land regions have similar geology-sedimentary deposits (Cambrian sandstone, figure 7). Cultivation intensities (table 13) in the valley bottoms were highest for AEZ 2 (24%) as a result of nearness of this area to the major settlement of Sikasso, and conditions marketdriven expansion phase (see tlgure 9). Rice is the major crops in the bottoms. The highest intensities of upland (29.6%) and valley-fringe (27%) cultivation was in land region 2.8 as a result of marketdriven conditions and with well connected road network and with cotton as the major crop."},{"index":5,"size":113,"text":"Due to significant differences in the geographical areas studied (45% of the entire study area for AEZ 1, 12% for AEZ 2, 24% for lmd region 2.8, and 68% for land region 3.3, see table 12) a direct and realistic comparison of results across zones was not feasible. In a more regional context, in the entire study area, valley bottoms were 8.6% (see plate 3) valley fringes 20.4%, and uplands 70.2% (table 13). The cultivation intensities in the entire study area were nearly constant across the toposequence with around 20% (18.4% for valley bottoms, 19.2% for valley fringes, and 21.9% for uplands). The significant cultivation across the toposequence was as a result of:"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"1. cotton + sorghum-based (figure 10) market-driven intensification or expansion phase (figure 9); 2. market-driven cultivation in lowlands (mainly rice) (see plate 7, for example)."},{"index":7,"size":204,"text":"4.4.1 Intensity and distribution of rice cultivation. Rice cultivation forms an important component of inland valley cultivation in the rainy season in the entire study area, especially in the valleys surrounding Sikasso, Mali. The broad and flat or near-tlat valley bottoms offer an excellent opportunity for paddy rice cultivation during the rainy season as demonstrated in several valleys around Sikasso, Mali (see plate 7 for the spatial distribution of rice cultivation in valley bottoms near Sikasso and its surroundings). A total of 269,006 ha constitute valley bottoms in the entire study area, of which 18.4% (49,497 ha) are cultivated (tables 12 and 13). Of the cultivated inland valleys, 42% of the area (20,789 ha) had rice crop. Inland valleys with rice are primarily to be found in a large area near Bama, northwest of Bobo-Dioulasso (see plate 4) and in the vicinity of Sikasso (see plate 7). Potential inland valleys for paddy rice cultivation exist, especially valleys that have wide bottom width (typically second-and higher-order), and significant water submergence as shown near Niaminasso, Nougoussouala, and Sikasso (see plate 7). These valleys, however, would require appropriate technologies, such as low-cost water control measures (e.g., channels, levies, and bunding) and rice varieties adapted to inundated conilitions."}]},{"head":"Cultivation intensities with respect t o distance f r o m settlements a n d the r o a d network","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Cultivation intensities of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands were calculated relative to their distance from major settlements and major road networks through manipulation of relevant GIs spatial data layers, using such techniques as hoolean logic interpolation and contiguity analysis. Cultivation intensities of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands at various distance limits (0-2 km, 2-4 km, 4-5 km, and > 5 km) from major settlements and major road networks in the different level I zones are presented in table 15. Five k ~n was consitlereil the greatest distance for farmers to commute on foot to their farms on any given tl;~y; ant1 hence the maximum tlistance limit was set at 5 km."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Generally, the cultivation intensities decreased with increasing distance from settlements and the road network for each component of the toposequence (table 15). However, in several cases such a fall in cultivation intensity between two distance limits was only marginal (within 1 or 2%). This is obvious from uplands in land region 2.8 where the cultivation intensity remained virtually constant. According to Manyong et al. (in preparation) this area is characterized by market-driven agricultural systems with cotton as the major cash crop which is likely to account for that effect. In most cases, however, the cultivation intensities were about 3% higher for distance limits within 0-5 km as compared to those heyond 5 k ~n ."}]},{"head":"4.6","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study of t h e cultivation patteru across t h e toposequence i n t h e entire study area","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"Significantly cultivated areas at each component of the toposequence are spatially illustrated for the entire study area of 3.13 million ha for uplands (plate 1 I), valley fringes, and valley bottoms @late 12). The polygons I and 2 were drawn for regions with insignificant cultivation. The regions with insignificant upland cultivation (areas within polygon 1 in plate 11) also had insignificant inland valley (valley bottom plus valley fringe) cultivation (areas within polygon 1 in plate 12). Similarly, regions with significant upland cultivation (several areas outside polygon 1 in plate 11) also have significant inland valley cultivation (several arras outside polygon I in plate 12). It is obvious from these figures that in dominant portions of the study area a high correlation exists between cultivation patterns on the uplands and in inland valleys. This proves one of the hypotheses of Izac et al. (1991) that the degree of upland cultivation has a strong influence on the degree of inland valley cultivation. These results further contlrmed the findings of Thenkabail and Nolte (1995b) in the Save study area. The cultivation intensities were strongly intluenced by the presence of settlements and the road network (see plate 4 along with roads and settlements shown in plate 8). Data of cultivation intensities across the toposequence are summarized in Tahle 16."}]},{"head":"Morphological characteristics of inland valleys derived from ground-truth data","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Data of measurements of some morphological characteristics of inland valleys gathered duringgroundtruthing are highlighted in table 16. Only the data for areas with (Cambrian) sandstone as parent material (see tigure 7) are illustrated since descriptive statistical analyses were only possible in these areas with enough ground-truth sit& per respective stream orders. Due to the small number of observations per stratum, no statistical test was performed. However, data in table 16 show a clear trend that the bottom and fringe widths increase considerably with increasing stream order. At the same time, the data illustrate a high variation in measurements of bottom and fringe widths at each stream order. About 50% of the area (shape ratio of 0.49, table 16) of the valleys along first-and second-order streams constitute the hottom. The lower-order valleys also have 0.5 or 0.8 degree transversal slopes with almost flat or near-tlat fringes. Fourth-and fifth-order valleys had mean bottom widths of 495 m and 978 m, respectively. As mentioned in section 4.4 some of the higherorder valleys are to be considered as tloodplains. All the valleys (100%) investigated were U-shaped."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"In this wet season investigati~~n (last week of September) 69% of the valley bottoms had wet soil conditions. 21% were moist. and 10% had dried-out soils."}]},{"head":"4.8","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Deternlining the cropping pattern of inland valley systems from ground-truth data","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The ground-truth land cover data provided the following important inferences (table 17):"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"1. The nonhydromorphic valley fringes had significantly more shrubs (27.8%) when compared with valley bottoms (14.5%) and uplands (17%); and 2. Uplands had significantly more grasses (38.3%) when compared with valley fringes (27.5% for hydromorphic and 27.9% for nonhydromorphic) and valley bottoms (26.1 %)."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"The valley bottoms were distinguishable through: 1. Significantly higher cultivation intensities (37.5%) in comparison to valley fringes (17% for nonhydrtrmorphic and 26.2% for hydromorphic fringes); and 2. Significantly fewer trees + shrubs + grasses (50.2%) compared to nonhydromorphic fringes (69%), and uplands (63.9%)."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"However, the cultivation intensities based on ground-truth data were highly overestimated (table 17) when compared with the same tjgures from satellite data (table 13). For example, the cultivated areas for valley bottoms were 37.5% using ground-truth data compared to only 18.4% estimated by satellite data. This is due to factors such as: 1. dependency along road networks for ground-truthing; 2. possible hias in stopping for readings at more cultivated valleys rather than relying on selecting valleys on a purely random basis; and 3. the fact that the valleys along road networks are more likely to he cultivated than valleys away from them.   "},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"(3)  The bias becomes more pmrninent when one considers the low density of road network in the region (see plate 8, for example)."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"In addition to the above points, it is important to note that the ground-truth data depends on plot measurement in each location. The diversity and variability even within a given valley are typically overwhelming. This is so because a timely representative plot exists only in theory. In practice (in the field) one hardly gets a clear view of variability due to accessibility and time factors."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"The above-mentioned difticultie with ground-truth data can be overcome through the spectral capability of remotely sensed data. This capability will enable a proper characterization of spatial variabilities that occur within and between valleys or uplands."},{"index":8,"size":142,"text":"Similar large differences were found hetween ground-truth and remotely sensed estimates of cultivation in another study area in Gagnoa, C6te d'lvoire (Thenkahail and Nolte 1995~). Due to the season (last week of September) of ground-truthing (main cropping season with most crops in vegetative to critical growth phases) 72-92% of farms were cultivated in different components of the toposequence (table 18). Grasses were the most dominant characteristic land-cover feature of uncultivated and fallow lands, irrespective of the toposequence (table 18). Valley bottoms were dominated by rice and closely followed by sorghum or maize (tahle 19). All other components of toposequence (nonhydromorphic ant1 hydromorphic fringes and uplands) were dominated by sorghum and maize fields. One surprising aspect of these results were that the numbers of cotton fields were very low or nonexistent an observation which contradicts data from Manyong et al. (see figure 10)."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"Table 18 Relative distribution of land-use types within a cropping pattern at different toposequential components in the Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso. Mali study area   "}]},{"head":"Benchmark Area or Watershed Selection for Technology Development","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The output spatial data layers of this study obtained from remotely sensed data (land use of valley bottoms, land use of valley fringes, land use of uplands, road networks, and settlements) were used for GIS modeling to select likely benchmark sites for technology development research. The data obtained from ground-truthing were incorporated into the above datalayers. The position data of each ground-truth site and the ground-control point data for georeferencing form integral components of the above datalayers."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"Expert opinion was sought to rate each of the above spatial datalayers on a scale of 1 to 5 (5 being the best). This was done by weighing each factor of each datalayer according to their impact on inland valley cultivation as conceived by the expert. This procedure has been discussed in detail by Thenkabail and Nolte (199%). These data were sought in standard forms from members of the Inland Valley Consortium. Four international research centers (IITA, WARDA, CIRAD, Winand Staring Centre and Wageningen Agricultural University) and seven national research systems from Republic of Benin, Burkina Faso. CCte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria constitute the Inland Valley Consortium. Thirty scientists with considerable experience ant1 knowledge in inland valley agroecosystems and diverse background were requestetl to respond to the questionnaire. These scientists represented five international agricultural research centers (IITAINigeria, WARDAlCBte d'lvoire, Winand Staring Centre and Wageningen Agricultural UniversityIThe Netherlands, CIRADIFrance, and IMMIINiger) and seven national research institutions (Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Benin, and Nigeria). Twelve persons responded."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"The modal value of each variable pertaining to a spatial datalayer was taken and incorporated into GIS modeling using the GISMO routine of ERDAS. The expert opinion indicated the following: 1. Significantly cultivated valley bottoms ( 2 30% of the total area is cultivated), valley fringes (hydromorphic and nonhydromorphic part), and uplands at present will drive further exploitation of the lands still left in the same valley system andlor in neighboring valley systems. 2. Inland valleys that are near already cultivated uplands have the best chance of being exploited for cultjvation; the greater the degree of cultivation in the uplands, the greater are the chances of inland valley cultivation."}]},{"head":"3.","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"The nearer the settlements and road networks are to inland valleys, the greater are the chances of those valleys being exploited; proximity to settlements has a greater influence than proximity to road systems. 4. Inland valley utilization for agriculture is likely to peak when population density rises above 30 persons/km2; 5. The zones with a shorter length of growing period (e.g., northern Guinea savanna) are relatively more likely to have inland valleys utilized for agriculture compared to zones with a greater length of growing periotl (e.g.. equatorial forest). 'aas) sassel:, asn-puel aql pue 'q~omlau peoi aql 'malsKs Kalle~ aql se qsns uo!lemioju! 8u!moqs l!eiap u! paddew a n g aleld u! palsa%%ns seaie uo!ieaol le!iuaiod aql JO @iaAaS '~uamdola~ap 103 @!lualod lsaleai% aql ItIasa~dal qaym asoql ale sma1sLs Kalle~ puelu! lsaq aqL '8 aleld u! salsi!s pallg ~I ! M paiq%!~y%!q a n spaqsialefi qaieasai yiemqsuaq lo uaLele1ep le!leds asaqljo seaie qsieasai ynmq:,uaq a s a u ,(8 aleld) sa!i!~!pe qaieasai ,uamdola~ap L%olouqsa~ JOJ suo!~eaol Jsaq aqi Klle!lualod ale leq) m a n aql palq%!lq%!q %u!lapom s ~f ) a q 'siaKe[eiep legeds sno!ieA 01 mdu! uadxa aAoqe aql uo pasea"}]},{"head":"Summary and Conclusions","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"This inland valley agroecosystem research report presents and discusses the results of a level I1 (regional or semidetailed or meso-) characterization study of inland valley agroecosystems in the Sikasso and Koutiala regions of Mali; and Bobo-Dioulasso, and Kouka regions of Burkina Faso. The total study area is about 3.13 million ha covered by Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) path:197, row:52. (See the exact co-ordinates in figure 4.) The study adopted the methodology recommended by Thenkabail and Nolte (1995a) which involved digital image analysis and integrationof the remotely sensed data with GPS and ground-truth data in an GIS framework."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"One hundred percent of the inland valleys that were studied were U shaped, 74% were fndamas (that is, inland valleys with potential for dry-season cropping). At the time of ground-truthing 69% of the inland valleys were wet, 21% were moist, and 10% were dry. The mean transversal slopes were generally mild with about 1.5 degrees for the first-, to third-order inland valley streams, and about 0.5 degrees for the fourth-order inland valley streams."},{"index":3,"size":210,"text":"The total study area (3.13 nill lion ha) comprised 8.6% valley bottoms (see plate 3), 20.4% valley fringes, and 70.2% uplands. Water bodies, roads, and settlements comprised the other 0.8% area. The valley-bottom distribution was sparse (see plates 2 and 3). The drainage density of 0.4 km/km2, and stream frequency of 0.61 number/km2 obtained in the study area were classified as low (0.3-0.6 km/km2), and coarse (0.5-1.0 number/km2), respectively, by WURP (1983). In spite of the low and coarse drainage densities, and stream frequencies in the study area, the percentage area of inland valleys (valley bottoms plus valley fringes) was significant mainly as a result of the large valleybottom and fringe widths of the inland valley streams (first-to fourth-order streams). The mean bottom widths for the first-to third-order strea~ns were about 90 In, and increased dramatically for the fourth-order to about 400 m. Valleys with typically large bottom widths are illustrated in plate 1. The mean valley fringe (hydromorphic plus nonhydromorphic) widths were about 200 m for the first three inland valley streams and for the fourth-order stream about 920 m. Hence, even though the stream frequencies and stream densities were coarse and low respectively, the large sizes of the valley bottoms and valley fringes led to their significant percentages."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Due to significant differences in the geographical areas studied (45% of entire study area for AEZ 1, 12% for AEZ 2, 24% for land region 2.8 and 68% for land region 3.3 see tables 11 and 12) a direct and realistic comparison of results across zones was not feasible. However, it may be noted that the valleys in AEZ 1 had greater bottom widths than valleys in AEZ 2, resulting in a higher percentage area of valley bottoms in AEZ 1 (9.1%) compared to AEZ 2 (7.7%). For the same reason, the percentage valley bottom area in land region 2.8 (9.1 %) exceeded that of land region 3.3 (8.2%)."},{"index":5,"size":191,"text":"The study mapped 16 land-use classes (table I I) which were derived from the various combinations of the land-cover types (table 8). The spatial distribution of the 16 land-use classes in the entire study area of 3.13 million ha (plate 4) dramatically highlights regions with insignificant or no cultivation (violet, red, magenta, rose, and red-orange) in cornparison to regions with significant cultivation (gray, white, cyan). The seafoam color is the region with scattered farming. The characteristics of land use are best depicted when mapped in a smaller scale for subareas such as in plates 5 and 6. The spatial distribution of land use and cultivation patterns relative to road networks and settlements is available from plates 5 and plate 6. Forest and nonforest boundaries are dramatically highlighted in plate 6. Several characteristics of the inland valley agroecosystems can also be inferred from the landuse maps of the subscenes. For example, significant cultivation, mainly with rice crop, is seen mostly in the third-and fourth-order valley bottoms in the vicinity of Sikasso (plate 6). These valley bottoms are, typically, broad and flat and are often flooded and have recent deposits of fertile alluvium."},{"index":6,"size":118,"text":"The grassland dominant savannas are most extensive in the study area. The overall savanna percentage areas were 65.5% for AEZ 1, 70.4% for AEZ 2, 67.1% for land region 3.3, 61.6% for land region 2.8, and 65.4% for the entire study area. The forest classes are predominantly trees along the river banks and were about 4% for all level I zones within the study area. This very low percentage of forest cover was only to be expected in the study area as it falls in the northern Guinea savanna and Sudan savanna. Compared to other level I zones studied, barren areas of the Sudan savanna were most extensive with 6 % area of the respective level 1 zone."},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"The cultivation intensities were nearly the same across the toposequence with 18.4% for valley bottoms, 19.2% for valley fringes, and 21.9% for uplands. The significant cultivation across the toposequence was mainly attributed to the market-driven conditions. In most cases, cultivation intensities were about 3% higher for distance limits within 0-5 km from the road network and settlements compared to those areas beyond 5 km."},{"index":8,"size":148,"text":"The valley bottoms in the study area were characterized by flat or near-flat surfaces (see plate 1 for example) that have shallow flooding all through the rainy season. Rice cultivation forms an important component of lowland rainy-season cultivation in the entire study area, especially in the valleys surrounding Sikasso, Mali (plate 6). These broad and flat or near-flat valley bottoms of the study area offer an excellent oppurtunity for inundated rice cultivation during the rainy season as successfully demonstrated in several valleys around Sikasso, Mali. (See plate 7 for spatial distribution of rice cultivation in the valley bottoms near Sikasso and surroundings.) However, the area of valley bottoms available for cultivation far exceeds their current utilization. A total of 269,006 ha constitute valley bottoms in the entire study area, of which only 18.4% (49,497 ha) was cultivated. Of the cultivated inland valleys, 42% (20,789 ha) had rice cultivation."},{"index":9,"size":128,"text":"Except for a few inland valleys such as the large farm near Bama, northwest of Bobo-Dioulasso (see plate 4), and in the area surrounding Sikasso (plate 7), there is very little rice cultivation andior only partial exploitation of inland valley systems for rice cultivation in the study area. However, an extensive potential for rice cultivation exists, especially in the inundated valleys of third-and fourthorder streams such as those near Desso and Laranfiara in Burkina Faso (see plate 9, for example); Banankoni and Lotio watersheds surrounding Sikasso, Mali (see plate 3 and 7); and Niaminasso and Nougoussouala, north of Sikasso, Mali (plates 3 and 7). These valleys, however, require appropriate technology such as low-cost water control nleasures (e.g., channels, levies, ant1 bunding), and appropriate rice varieties for inundated conditions."},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"The study showed a strong relationship between upland cultivation (plate 11) and inland valley cultivation (plate 12) proving one of the hypotheses of this study."},{"index":11,"size":75,"text":"The study highlighted the strengths of remotely'sensed data in the proper inventorying of parameters such as percentage nf cultivated areas. Such estimates based purely on ground-truth data provided significant overestimates of cultivated areas. For example, the cultivated valley-bottom areas estimated purely based on ground-truth data were 37.5% compared to 18.4% provided hy Landsat TM data. Similar differences were observed in another study area in Gagnoa, Cote d'lv8ire using SPOT HRV data Fenkahail and Nolte 199.5~)."},{"index":12,"size":54,"text":"Information from the different georeferenced spatial datalayers generated mainly from Landsat TM data (e.g., land use of different components of the toposequence, cultivation intensities of inland valleys with respect to road network and settlements) was used in conjunction with expert knowledge, through GIs modeling, to determine the potential sites for technology development research activities."},{"index":13,"size":193,"text":"This led to a map of potential benchmark research sites in the study area @late 8). These potential benchmark research sites were characterized by: (a) near-flat valley bottoms; (b) large valley bottom widths (about 100 m for first-to third-order valleys; and about 400 m for the fourth-order valleys); (c) well connected road networks (typically, within 6 km); (d) proximity to settlements (typically, within 6 km); (e) rainy-season shallow inundation of flood water in valley bottoms; ( f ) mild to very mild transversal slopes (mean of about 1.5 degrees for first-to third-order valleys; and a mean of about 0.5 degrees for the fourth-order valleys); (g) large fringe widths (about 200 m for first to thirdorder valleys; and about 920 m for fourth-order valleys). A final selection of the research sites should involve a visit to the several potential sites shown in plate 8 by a team of scientists of diverse expertise for a quick reconnaissance, interviews with farmers, and interaction with NARS. Detailed maps of each of the interested potential locations that are shown in plate 8 should be drawn to be taken to the field (see one such example in plate 9)."},{"index":14,"size":37,"text":"The study resulted in digital georeferenced data bases for the land use of uplands, valley bottoms, and valley fringes; inland valley bottom areas; inland valley fringe areas; upland areas; rice cultivation areas: and benchmark research area locations."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" zz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ZS:MOJ ' ~6 1 :qied NJ, IRSpUE7 104 sassep asn-puel 91 aqi u! sadLl JaAo3-pueljo uo!inq!Jis!p aXerua3iad zz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lpnis s!qi u! pagguap! sadh JaAo3-pueT [z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eaie Lpnis aql jo spueldn uo pue 'sa8u!~j Lalle~ ie 'smo~loq L a l p U! uo!id!i3sap pue uo!mq!~ls!p uo!lela8a~ qayl '~a!J08al~3 asn-puel £1 \" \" \" \" ' ~L L ~I 0 3 S s N n / O V d 01 8 ~! ~~0 3 3 E ) EaJl? 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"},{"text":" tz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eiep NL Bu!sn qiomlau peoJ aql pue siuawa~ilas 8u!ddeN 2.b EZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sa8u!ij Lalle~ pue surolioq Lalle~ 8u!ddem 1.b EZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . uo!ssnns!a pue s l l n s a ~ .AI 81 \" ' smanLs L a l p puelu! aql u! 3!ureuLp ialem oi 13adsa~ q l ! ~ L8oloipL~ T . E . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L80lolpr(q pUE IIejU!ex E'z I[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . surajsLs Bu!uried t.z.2 I T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . uo!ieia8a~ E'Z'Z I T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"text":" punoi%q3ea pue uo!innpoiiuI .I 10. TM-derived vegetation indices for the final land-use classes in Landsat TM path:197, row:52, covering the regions of Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"text":"Figures 1 . Figures "},{"text":" 11. Monthly rainfall in 6 stations in the study area expressed as percentage of annual total . 18 12. Ground-truth site location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"text":"Plate 3 1 9 the soil classification scheme of FAO/UNESCO (1974) d. The area figures are for West and Central Africa and were determined using the AREA procedure of IDRlSI (1992) Plate 1 False color composite of TM4 (red), TM3 (green), TM5 (blue) highlighting the broad inland valley bottoms near Sikasso, Mali. For example, the bottom widths of valley bottoms were: 250-500 m in Peniassa, and 500-800 m in Banankoni and Lotio Plate 2 Distinguishing the inland valley bottoms from the valley fringes and uplands through ratio RGB image of TM4fI'M7 (red), TM4FIM3 (green), and TM4fl'M2 (blue) Inland valley bottoms delineated and mapped for the entire study area of Landsat Path: 197, Row: 52 (Sikasso, Mali; and Bobo-Dioulasso, Bnrkina Faso) along with land-use classes. Valley bottoms were 8.6 percent (0.27 million ha) of the total study area (3.13 million ha) nsignificant ftil'mlilnd~. fringes i i ~n i r i r a n t , f a l r n l a n d s , hottoms I i<nti.et.ril farmlan<lii, bott.oms I I n s i g n i f i c a n t far-nilnnds. b o t t o m s 1 l:3 JV?tfT I l Buiil -u p a r e a st.tlleni l . i Road.; Plate 7 Rice cultivation in valley bottoms surrounding Sikasso, Mali. Observe the contrast between the valley bottoms of the Farako forest reserve and the valley bottoms near and north of Sikasso Plate 8 Location of potential benchmark research sites for technology development research activities in the study area covered by Landsat TM Path: 197, Row: 52 (Sikasso, Mali, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso) <a-: I Significant f a ~m l a n d -, 111,lands % :? Sc~rlltrred f a r m l a n d s . u p l a n ~l s 3 Sarailna \\-rgrl.al.irin, ilplands 1 \\ \\ ' c t l a ~~d / ~l a ~~s l ~I ~~~~~l , 1 1 ~~1 a 1 1 d s 5 Dense f o r c s t , u p l a n d s fi l ~. d e n s e forcst., l.iplands i Sigriificnnt f a r m l a n d s , fringes H Sr:alleied f a t -l n l a ~~r l s . f r ~n g e s Insignificant f a r m l a n d s , fringes .I0 Significant f a r m l a n d s , b o t t o l ~i s I I b r a t t c r s d fai. "},{"text":" ) in inland valleys (valley bottoms plus valley fringes) in the entire study area of Landsat TM path: 197, row: 52. Areas inside the polygons indicates insignificant cultivation uaZu!ua%e~ ' 3 s ~ jo uo!ss!wiad p u ! ~ ~I!M dew aqi jo uo!l3npo~dai t ( ~6 6 1 assappuv pue ~a[!awpu!~) ej!yv JsaM u! dew dHnM ayl lo suo15a~ puel u! pale301 swa1dso~ao~8e Lalle~ puelu! jo uo!1ez!~a~ae~eq3 11 103 suo!l!s!nb3e A ~H L O ~S pue WL 1espw7 z a.rn%g "},{"text":"2 Figure 6 Figure 4 Population density in the study area "},{"text":"(  "},{"text":" idd!e..~:e.-c~mbnan. .m.~.tamo.n!!!ie. .~e~k~.......... ................................................................ ~!~h!!~..di~.~.ec!ed~.~i!!!..~.~e!PIe~~s~.me~a~ ........................................................ "},{"text":" .............................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................ a . I ) . . . . . ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"text":" ...................................................................................................... ... basemen!. comn!ex.= ...m i . rl dLe. ..~..~e.rm.i~a!..~.~e.camb~a~~.a.~!d..~.@~e~.~n:.I.e.~!.~~ive..$~!.rm~ti~)*s............~~r~.!!~k . fa!!!!ed "},{"text":"Figure 7 Figure 9 Figure 7 Geological formations in the study area "},{"text":"Figure 12 - Figure 12 -Ground-truth site location "},{"text":" The 50 original spectral classes were reduced to 16 land-use classes by integrating the ground-truth, GPS, and ancillary data. The final mean spectral characteristics of the 16 land-use classes are provided in table 10 antl figures 13a and 13b. The vegetation during the satellite overpass date (27 Septemher 1991) was lush green as it was still the rainy season in the region. This results in relatively high vegetation indices for each class. The distinct clusters of each class are obvious from figures 13a and 13h. Settle~nents (class 14) and wads (class 15) showed high reflectance in thematic mapper hand 3 (TM3) resulting in their clustering at the extreme right side of the plot. Absorption in the TM3 and TM4 wavebands resulted in a single very distinct cluster for water (class 13). Upland forest classesclass 6 (very dense forest) and class 5 (dense forest) -predominantly consisted of trees (see tahle 7). "},{"text":" + uplands are not equal to loo%, the rest of the area falls in water body, roads and settlements or \"round-off errors b. "},{"text":"T a b l e 15 Cultivation pattern o f valley hottoms. valley fringes and uplands with respzct to distance from settlements and the road network "},{"text":" provide enough sample points per subarea and stream order for statistical analyses a.r' value for bottom widths measured on the ground and with TM data is ... "},{"text":" Farmland cropping pattern in hottoms and at hydromorphic and nonhydromorphii: fringes of inland valleys and on uplands in the regions of Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso. "},{"text":"' Isaialu! jo spaqsialem io s e a s p!iualod aql u! sioleioqelloa SXVN 30 sisaialu! aql se [lam se sanss! syuouoaa pue '~eiuaumoi!~ua 'a!uqla '@!30s se qans siolaej [euo!l!ppe $0 les!eidde aAloAu! plnom s ! ~ 'uo!lemioju! alqepene Ile ql!m seaie pai:,a[as 01 sl!s!~ qznoiql [es!eidde p!dei e uo paseq aq [[!M sa!l!i\\!lae qaieasai luawdo[ahap K%olouqaal , 103 paqualem l o eaie qxeasai e 30 uo!~aa[as [tug a u '(sdem 'suadxa '.%.a) sa:,Jnos i a q o Lue moy uo!aemioju! pue f(01 aleld u! dem IAaN aql aas) i o % p pue Li!suap uo!l~la%a~ se q3ns sal!s asaq JOJ %U!SU~S alomai moij UO!I~UI~OJU! leuo!l!ppe pue :(6 a l e ~d 'aldmexa 103 "},{"text":" 15. Morphological characteristics of inland valleys in the regions of Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. Cultivation pattern of valley hottoms, valley fringes and uplands with respect to distance from settlements and the road network for different level I zones of Landsat path:197, row:52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17. Relative distribution of land-use patterns within a 90 m by 90 m plot at different toposequential components in the Boho-Dioulasso, ~u r k i n a Faso and Sikasso, Mali study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 1 Parameters describing the level I agroecological and soil zones ~ ~ ~~~~-~ ~ ~~~ p ~~~~~~-~ ~ ~~~p  "},{"text":" ~nlari,ls, b o t t o m s a 12 I n s i g n i f i ~a n t far~rllarwls, hi,t.Lonls I3 YI'ater .' ' I I4 R l l i l t -u p a r e a o r s c t t l c m e ~i t s I3 YI'ater .' ' I I4 R l l i l t -u p a r e a o r s c t t l c m e ~i t s 15 Rriwds  15 Rriwds a 1 6 H a r r c ~i l a n d or i l r s r r t  a 1 6 H a r r c ~i l a n d or i l r s r r t  Plate 9 Land-use Plate 9 Land-use  classes of valley classes of valley  bottoms in a bottoms in a  sub-area (near sub-area (near  Toussiana, Toussiana,  Landsat Path: Landsat Path:  197, Row: 52. 197, Row: 52. The valley system Plate 11 Spatial distribution of areas of significant upland cultivation (see white The valley system Plate 11 Spatial distribution of areas of significant upland cultivation (see white of Kamao color) in the entire study area of Landsat TM path: 197, row: 52. Areas inside the of Kamao color) in the entire study area of Landsat TM path: 197, row: 52. Areas inside the polygons indicates insignificant cultivation (immediate west polygons indicates insignificant cultivation(immediate west  of Toussiana) is of Toussiana) is  one potential one potential  valley for valley for  technology technology  development development  research activity research activity  Plate 10 Plate 10  Normalized Normalized  difference difference  vegetation index vegetation index  (NDVI) map of (NDVI) map of  sugarcane fields in sugarcane fields in  a sub-area a sub-area  (Nyankadougou, (Nyankadougou,  South-west of South-west of  Bobo-Dioulasso) Bobo-Dioulasso)  of Landsat Path: of Landsat Path:  197, Row: 52. The 197, Row: 52. The  higher the NDVI, higher the NDVI,  the greater is the the greater is the  biomass and I vigour, leading to a biomass and I vigour, leading to a  "},{"text":"Land.regi.sn.: ... !..N..T..E..R..!..e...R II..L..L!.~..C!..S ....................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ?~~~mm!..~.~m~!e.x.~..u~~.e!.~r~:s.am~.ria!!i.m.~!a.'~.sn!!!it:,..~edi.me!!!ar~..a.~d..~~!~a!!.i~.~o.~k ................... 39.7    85.2 39.785.2 nearly level to gently undulating nearly level to eently undulatine  slightly dissected, with inselbergs, mesas slightly dissected, with inselkrgs, mesas nearly level to gently undulatingnearly level to eently undulatineslightly dissected, with inselbergs, mesasslightly dissected, with inselkrgs, mesas   .....   ..... + alluvial silts and clays tertiary sedimentarv dennsits  lower presambrian: granites, migmatites, gneisses basement complcx - middle pre-camhrian: metamorphic rocks basement complex - ... + alluvial silts and claystertiary sedimentarv dennsitslower presambrian: granites, migmatites, gneisses basement complcx -middle pre-camhrian: metamorphic rocks basement complex -...  1.2 to 1.5 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 1.2 to 1.52.2.12.22.3  "},{"text":"hi~~!~..di.s.sec!ed,..r~!!!i!!~ ................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... dissected and upwarded, gently rolling slightly dissected, nearly level nearly level to gently undulating steeply dissected, undulating nearly level to gently undulating nearly level to gently undulating slightly dissected, with doloritic hills, and mesas dissected, with mesas  dissected and upwarded, gently rollingslightly dissected, nearly levelnearly level to gently undulatingsteeply dissected, undulatingnearly level to gently undulatingnearly level to gently undulatingslightly dissected, with doloritic hills, and mesasdissected, with mesas paleozoic sandstones paleozoic sandstones, shales, mudstones, conglan~erates mesozoic sandstones, shales mesaroic sandstones, conglomerates paleozoic sandstones, tillites tefliary sandstones, mudstones, conglomerates palwzoic schists, quartzites, sandstones sandstone. shales, conglomerates. mark and limestone of different aee ...... paleozoic sandstonespaleozoic sandstones, shales, mudstones, conglan~eratesmesozoic sandstones, shalesmesaroic sandstones, conglomeratespaleozoic sandstones, tillitestefliary sandstones, mudstones, conglomeratespalwzoic schists, quartzites, sandstonessandstone. shales, conglomerates. mark and limestone of different aee...... sedimentary deposits - sedimentary deposits - sedimentary deposits - scdimcntary deposits - sedimentary deposits - sedimentary deposits - sedimentary deposits - sedimentarv deoosits -  sedimentary deposits -sedimentary deposits -sedimentary deposits -scdimcntary deposits -sedimentary deposits -sedimentary deposits -sedimentary deposits -sedimentarv deoosits - 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 3. 2.42.52.62.72.82.92.102.113.  "},{"text":"k.K!..regiC!.!L P..L..A.T..E..*..U..X  74.5  74.5 slightly dissected, with inselbergs, mesas  slightly dissected, with inselbergs, mesas lower pre-cambrian granites, migmatites, gneisses  lower pre-cambrian granites, migmatites, gneisses basement complex - ... basement complex -... 3.1 3.2 3.13.2  "},{"text":"Table 3 Population. settlements, and road network in the study area of Landsat TM path: 197, row52 (Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; and Sikasso, Mali) with respect to IITA and WURP level I zones Macroscale Population Major settlement (TM data) Major road network MacroscalePopulationMajor settlement (TM data)Major road network zones density   (TM data) zonesdensity(TM data)  (no.Ikm?)     (no.Ikm?)   No. of major Major settlement Presence Density of No. of major Major settlementPresenceDensity of  WURPC settle~ne~~ts presence and name or absence road network WURPCsettle~ne~~ts presence and nameor absence road network    (yesloo) (yesluo) (kmlkmn2) (yesloo)(yesluo)(kmlkmn2) A. AEZ la 12 24 Yes. Koundougou, Yes 0.027 A. AEZ la1224Yes. Koundougou,Yes0.027    Toussiana   Toussiana B. AEZ 2 15 9 Yes. Klela Yes 0.022 B. AEZ 2159Yes. KlelaYes0.022 C. land 12 60 Y e : Boho- Yes 0.03 1 C. land1260Y e : Boho-Yes0.03 1 region   Dioulasso,   regionDioulasso, 3.3h   Sikasso, Orodoura   3.3hSikasso, Orodoura    Koloko, Kouka,   Koloko, Kouka,    Kuudoogo   Kuudoogo D. land 7 10 Yes: Klela, Yes 0.040 D. land710Yes: Klela,Yes0.040 region 2.8   Koutiala, Kouri   region 2.8Koutiala, Kouri E. Entire I I 70 Yes: Bob<>- Yes 0.035 E. EntireI I70Yes: Bob<>-Yes0.035 study area   Dioulassr,. Sikasso,   study areaDioulassr,. Sikasso,    Orrrditra, Koloko,   Orrrditra, Koloko,    K<,udrlugrx~, Kookx.   K<,udrlugrx~, Kookx.    Fammana, Klela,   Fammana, Klela,    Kouliala. Kouri   Kouliala. Kouri  "},{"text":" Parent material. The study area covers four different land regions (LR) of the WURP map (see figure2and table2, and figure   "},{"text":"Table 4 Level 1 agroecological and soil zones and land regions of the WURP map(Hekstra et al. 1983; Windmeijer and Andriesse 1993)  covered hy Landsat T M path: 197, r o w 5 2 (Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali) Macroscale zones Area Percentage of entire study areaa Macroscale zonesArea Percentage of entire study areaa  (ha)  (ha) A. agroecological and soil zone (AEZ)   A. agroecological and soil zone (AEZ) AEZ 1 1,418,302 45 AEZ 11,418,30245 AEZ 2 389,234 12 AEZ 2389,23412 outside level I zoneb 1,328,110 43 outside level I zoneb1,328,11043 entire study area 3.135,856 100 entire study area3.135,856100 B. WURP land regionsC   B. WURP land regionsC land region 2.8 761,281 24 land region 2.8761,28124 land region 3.1 44.270 2 land region 3.144.2702 land region 3.2   land region 3.2 land region 3.3 2,138,169 68 land region 3.32,138,16968 Notes:   Notes:  "},{"text":"Table 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) vegetation indices for the ~nacroscale zones in the study area Level I agrowological and soil zone (see figure I and table I ) b. Study area covered by i i ~l l scene of row52    Vegetation indices Vegetation indices  "},{"text":"vegetation index; data of TM band 4 are divided through data of TM band 3 r. MSVII = midinfrared simple vegetation index one; data of TM band 4 are divided through data of TM band 5 Tnhle 10 TM-derived vegetation indices for the final land-use classes in Landsat TM path:197, row:52, covering the regions of Boho-Dioulasso. Burkina Faso and Sikasso. Malia It is important to note that the areas of each land-use class in tables 11 and 12 contain a varying degree of land-cover types as defined in table 9. Land use is an identity name for varying combinations of land-cover types. Therehy, exact cultivated areas, for example, should be derived from tables 11 or 12 based on the distrihution pattern of land cover provided in table 9. The results of exact cultivated areas are presented in table 13. For example, the exact cultivated areas of the valley bottoms for AEZ 1 are calculated as follows.   valley bottoms for AEZ 1 are calculated as follows. a. The areas of valley bottoms for AEZ 1 were (table 12):   a. The areas of valley bottoms for AEZ 1 were (table 12):  class 10 (valley hottoms with significant farmlands) with 7,717 ha;  class 10 (valley hottoms with significant farmlands) with 7,717 ha;  class 11 (valley bottoms with scattered farmlands) with 59,062 ha; and  class 11 (valley bottoms with scattered farmlands) with 59,062 ha; and  class 12 (valley bottoms with insignificant farmlands) with 62,045 ha.  class 12 (valley bottoms with insignificant farmlands) with 62,045 ha. Adding up these three classes gives a total valley bottom area of 128,824 ha.  Adding up these three classes gives a total valley bottom area of 128,824 ha.   ~~~    ~~~ Land-use   MEAN VALUES   Land-useMEAN VALUES classes TM3 TM4 TM5 R V I ~ MSVII' classesTM3TM4TM5R V I ~MSVII' 1 39.75 82.75 87.50 2.10 0.96 139.7582.7587.502.100.96 2 38.26 78.36 74.89 2.12 1.10 238.2678.3674.892.121.10 3 33.00 74.82 67.18 2.27 1.11 333.0074.8267.182.271.11 4 38.00 69.00 68.00 1.82 1.01 438.0069.0068.001.821.01 5 33.50 89.50 67.50 2.67 1.33 533.5089.5067.502.671.33 6 33.50 101.40 77.00 3.03 1.32 633.50101.4077.003.031.32 7 40.25 81.33 89.33 2.05 0.94 740.2581.3389.332.050.94 8 36.67 76.42 79.00 2.09 0.97 836.6776.4279.002.090.97 9 38.75 79.13 84.63 2.06 0.95 938.7579.1384.632.060.95 10 38.90 77.30 70.20 2.01 1.15 1038.9077.3070.202.011.15 11 35.50 75.50 73.38 2.13 1.04 1135.5075.5073.382.131.04 12 32.78 80.67 67.56 2.48 1.19 1232.7880.6767.562.481.19 13 29.70 37.50 i5.00 I .26 1.50 1329.7037.50i5.00I .261.50 14 50.20 74.10 108.40 I .48 0.68 1450.2074.10108.40I .480.68 15 53.10 7 1.20 106.30 1.45 0.67 1553.107 1.20106.301.450.67 16 39.00 64.00 78.00 1.64 0.82 1639.0064.0078.001.640.82  "},{"text":"Table 11 Land-use distribution in the different land regions of the WURP map (Hekstra et al. 1983, Windmeijer and Andriesse 1993) determined using Landsat TM of path:197, row52 in the regions of Bobo-Dialousso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali No. Land-use category Land region 3.3 Land region 2.8 No.Land-use categoryLand region 3.3Land region 2.8   area % of total area % of total land area% of totalarea% of total land   (ha) land region (ha) region (ha)land region(ha)region  Uplands     Uplands I significant farmlands 144,642 6.4 124,549 17.8 Isignificant farmlands144,6426.4124,54917.8 2 scattered far~nlands 588,800 26.0 275,227 39.3 2scattered far~nlands588,80026.0275,22739.3 3 savanna vegetation 648,320 28.5 45,760 6.5 3savanna vegetation648,32028.545,7606.5 5 dense vegetation 72,326 3.1 4,969 0.7 5dense vegetation72,3263.14,9690.7 6 very dense vegetation 10,950 0.5 6,905 1.0 6very dense vegetation10,9500.56,9051.0  Valley fringes     Valley fringes 7 significant farmlands 58,423 2.6 38,874 5.6 7significant farmlands58,4232.638,8745.6 8 scattered farmlands 196,267 8.7 63,776 9.1 8scattered farmlands196,2678.763,7769.1 9 insignificant farmlands 206,119 9.1 23,639 3.4 9insignificant farmlands206,1199.123,6393.4  Valley bottoms     Valley bottoms 10 significant farmlands 13,898 0.6 6,788 1.0 10significant farmlands13,8980.66,7881.0 1 1 scattered farmlands 87,115 3.9 46,755 6.7 1 1scattered farmlands87,1153.946,7556.7 12 insignificant farmlands 84,384 3.7 9,530 1.4 12insignificant farmlands84,3843.79,5301.4  Others     Others 14 built-up arealsettle~nents 4,787 0.2 1,056 0.2 14built-up arealsettle~nents4,7870.21,0560.2 15 roads 4,941 0.2 1,577 0.2 15roads4,9410.21,5770.2 16 harrenldesert area 57,237 2.5 44,766 6.4 16harrenldesert area57,2372.544,7666.4 Note:      Note: For      For  "},{"text":"the co~nposition of land-cover types and their distribution in each land-use class, see tables 8 and 9.   "},{"text":" For the composition of land-cover types and their distribution in each land-use class. see tables 8 and b. the cultivated areas of land cover for the corresponding land-use classes(class 10, 11, and 12)   were defined intable 8 to be 65% (59% cultivated farmlands plus 6 % barren farmlands) for class 10, 23 % for class 11, and 3 % for class 12; c. the resulting cultivated area is 20,462 ha (7717*0.65 + 59062*0.23 + 62045*0.03); and d. the valley bottom area cultivated (20,462 ha) as a percentage of total valley bottom area (128,824 ha) is 15.9% (table row:52  Entire study area % of total AEZ                       row:52Entire study area% of total AEZ Table 12 Land-use distribution in the different agroecological and soil zones (AEZ) determined using Landsat TM of path: 197, in the regions of Bobo-Dialousso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali AEZ 2 Land-use category AEZ 1 No. of total AEZ area 5 % of total AEZ area area % (ha) (ha) (ha) Uplands significant farmlands scattered farmlands savanna vegetation wetlands/marshland dense vegetation very dense vegetation Valley fringes significant farmlands scattered farmlands insignificant farmlands Valley bottoms significant farmlands scattered farmlands insignificant farmlands Others water built-up arealsettlements roads -----------barrenldesert area Note: Table 12 Land-use distribution in the different agroecological and soil zones (AEZ) determined using Landsat TM of path: 197,in the regions of Bobo-Dialousso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, MaliAEZ 2 Land-use category AEZ 1 No.of total AEZ area 5 % of total AEZ area area %(ha) (ha) (ha)Uplandssignificant farmlandsscattered farmlandssavanna vegetationwetlands/marshlanddense vegetationvery dense vegetationValley fringessignificant farmlandsscattered farmlandsinsignificant farmlandsValley bottomssignificant farmlandsscattered farmlandsinsignificant farmlandsOtherswaterbuilt-up arealsettlementsroads-----------barrenldesert areaNote:  "},{"text":"Table 13 Distribution of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands and their cultivation status in the study area UPLAND AREA  a % (of cultivated UPLAND AREAa % (of cultivated   as as VALLEY FRINGE AREA  as a %E of cultivated total as a % VALLEY FRINGE AREAas a %E of cultivatedtotal as a % VALLEY BOTTOM AREA  as a 5% of culti\\,atzd total as a X of total VALLEY BOTTOM AREAas a 5% of culti\\,atzdtotal as a X of total Percentage of entire study area Percentageof entirestudy area Study area   Study area  "},{"text":"Table 14 Inland valley morphometric characteristics determined using Landsat TM data of path: 197, row:52 (Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, Sikasso. ~a i i ) ~, ~ - Characteristics of inland valley watersheds    -Characteristics of inland valley watersheds  AEZ I AEZ 2 entire land land land land AEZ IAEZ 2entirelandlandlandland    study region region region region studyregionregionregionregion    area 3.3 3.1 2.8 3.2 area3.33.12.83.2 Mean drainage density 0.42 0.48 0.40 0.43 - 0.35 - Mean drainage density0.420.480.400.43-0.35- (kmlkm2)        (kmlkm2)    --     -- Mean stream 0.51 0.69 0.61 0.65  0.48  Mean stream0.510.690.610.650.48 frequency (no.lkm2)        frequency (no.lkm2) Notes:        Notes: a. Hekstra et al. (1983) classified:       a. Hekstra et al. (1983) classified: I. drainage densities (km/km2) as: very low (0-03); low (0.3-0.6); medium (0.6-1.2); high (1.2-2.4); and I. drainage densities (km/km2) as: very low (0-03); low (0.3-0.6); medium (0.6-1.2); high (1.2-2.4); and very high > 2.4; and        very high > 2.4; and  "},{"text":"Table 19   "}],"sieverID":"b9bdbbdb-b02e-4bbb-8beb-b0e3b5c51f78","abstract":"12. Spatial distrihution of areas of significant cultivation (see white cn!or) in inland valleys (valley bottoms plus valley fringes) in the entire study area of Landsat TM path:197, row:52; the areas encircled hy the polygons 1, 2, 3, and 4 indicate insignificant cultivation"}

data/part_5/08641262e680539269df095cbc55e2dd.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08641262e680539269df095cbc55e2dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b261308a-a264-4823-93bb-01a9a8d392c1/retrieve"},"pageCount":37,"title":"Gender analysis and strategic planning","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Focus module 4"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Capacity Assessment outcomes for development partners (assessment 2015) "}]},{"head":"Feedback from earlier modules","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Recap from module 2 and 3"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Feedback from earlier modules… 3. Gender responsive monitoring"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• helps to improve project performance: has the project achieved improvements in the lives and well-being of women and men?"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Proven impacts can be used to improve decision-making and policies"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Know and address unintended negative consequences and gender based constraints"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Gender responsive M&E identifies opportunities to empower women"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"Why gender responsive monitoring?"},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"• gender issues have to be measured on purpose and from the start, otherwise they will not be given any attention during the implementation of the project / program"},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"• Much M&E focuses on numbers and outputs and not on quality of participation and benefits"},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"• Data aggregated by household (and not by sex) obscures gender differences within households Why gender responsive monitoring?"},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"Concepts: monitoring vs evaluation"}]},{"head":"Monitoring Evaluation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Continuous Periodical (mid/end term)"}]},{"head":"Analysis and checking of progress","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Assessment of impact, effectiveness, sustainability"}]},{"head":"Often internal Often external","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"To improve implementation"}]},{"head":"Assess achievement of results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Concepts: gender responsive monitoring"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Assesses the project's effects and impacts (intended or unintended) on gender relations and women's empowerment."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• Tracks changes in:"},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"the conditions and positions of women and men participating in the value chain, -women's and men's shares in employment and income across value chain nodes gender relations such as in the gender division of labor and workload, differences in access and control over resources and information, decision making, and others, -women's and men's attitudes and perceptions."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Gender responsive M&E should collect gender data and analyze the reasons for gender differences and develop interventions"}]},{"head":"Developing gender responsive indicators","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Gender responsive indicators: definition an indicator that captures gender-related changes in society, in a value chain, etc. over time"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Does the program/project have different benefits and results for men and women? How and why?"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Does the program/project affect changes in gender relations? How and why?"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Requires sex-disaggregated data collection"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Measures changes in positions and not (just) numbers, Compare:"},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"-\"the number of women who joined the producer association\" and -\"percentage change in proportion of women's membership\" • involve both women and men in developing, collecting and analyzing indicators"}]},{"head":"Gender responsive indicators: examples","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"From LAF program's Gender Strategy -impact level"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Change in women's share of income from livestock and fish enterprises"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Participation of women and other vulnerable groups in the livestock and fish markets"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• Change in assets ownership by men and women"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Change in control of livelihood assets by men and women"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Change in consumption of Animal Source Foods (ASF) by men, women, and children"},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• Change in women's control of livestock and fish resources (e.g. decision making power) disaggregate further by:"}]},{"head":"Specific","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"age ethnicity marital status sexual identity ability etc. Not the same as comparing male and female-headed households! Sex-disaggregated data: collection Sex-disaggregated data can be collected from men and women randomly selected from different households: Household x: 1 man Household y: 1 woman Or from one man and one woman within one household Household x: 1 man and 1 woman (primary members) Not necessarily twice as many people! Sex-disaggregated data: difficulties"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• men may not be willing to allow their spouses to be interviewed"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• Women may not be available at certain times of day, and men may be less likely to be present at other times"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• inconsistencies in data between men and women (especially when the same questions are asked to men and women)"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• \"joint management\" could be a disguised male dominance"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• Much of women's work is under-valued or 'invisible' to men and outsiders, and thus not reported Sex-disaggregated data: possible solutions"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"• Use both male and female enumerators;"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• men and women to be interviewed separately, simultaneously and privately;"},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"• multiple visits to households for gaining confidence, follow-up discussions and comparison of data;"},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• Choose a time and place which is convenient for women and men (may be different)"},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"• Starting interviews with questions on less sensitive domains"},{"index":12,"size":15,"text":"• Compare men and women's responses to similar questions, and gather feedback on differences (FGDs)"},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"• Recognize diversities (class, ethnic, religious and other) as well as individual preferences and abilities "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" They specify who, what, where, when and how much/often Measurable They give an indication of quantity and quality Achievable They are achievable at an acceptable cost (cost effectiveness relationship) Relevant They are relevant with respect to the objective and ToC of the intervention Time They are achievable in the time of the intervention 5. Sex-disaggregated data Sex-disaggregated data: definition Data related to individuals that are collected, analyzed and presented separately for men and women. "},{"text":"• Pros and cons of the tool • Application of the tool for your own monitoring • Data collection aspects "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"assessment 2015) Knowledge management and gender responsive M&E Averages Areka Bako Yabello  Knowledge management and gender responsive M&E The capacity to collect, interpret and report on sex-Org. Averages Ind. Org. Ind. Doyogena Org. Ind. Org. Ind. Horro Org. Org. Ind. Ind. Yabello Org. Org. Ind. Ind . Knowledge management and gender responsive M&E The capacity to collect, interpret and report on sex-Org. Averages Ind. Org. Ind.Doyogena Org. Ind. Org. Ind.Horro Org. Org.Ind. Ind.Yabello Org. Org. Ind. Ind . The capacity to collect, interpret and report on sex-disaggregated data in all research  2.1   1.3    3.0  2.0  The capacity to collect, interpret and report on sex-disaggregated data in all research2.11.33.02.0 disaggregated data Existence and quality of a gender responsive M&E system 2.4    2.0   3.0   2.3  disaggregated data Existence and quality of a gender responsive M&E system 2.42.03.02.3 Existence and quality of a gender responsive M&E system and ability to use it and ability to use it The capacity to provide inputs for national policies and 1.8 1.7   2.0 2.3   2.0 2.0  1.0 1.0  Existence and quality of a gender responsive M&E system and ability to use it and ability to use it The capacity to provide inputs for national policies and 1.81.72.0 2.32.02.01.0 1.0 Capacity to train other actors on gender responsive M&E legislation on gender responsive knowledge management 1.0 Access to and production of knowledge documents and publications on gender 1.3 within VCs The capacity to collect, develop and make accessible Capacity to provide gender inputs, perspectives, insights to other organizations' reports and publications quality knowledge documents and publications on gender 1.3 1.0   1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0   1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0  1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0  Capacity to train other actors on gender responsive M&E legislation on gender responsive knowledge management 1.0 Access to and production of knowledge documents and publications on gender 1.3 within VCs The capacity to collect, develop and make accessible Capacity to provide gender inputs, perspectives, insights to other organizations' reports and publications quality knowledge documents and publications on gender 1.3 1.01.0 1.0 1.0 1.01.0 1.01.0 2.01.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.7 Capacity to provide gender inputs, perspectives, insights    1.0   3.0   1.0  1.7 Capacity to provide gender inputs, perspectives, insights1.03.01.0 Staff's ability to collect, interpret and report on sex-disaggregated data to other organizations' reports and publications Scientists' ability and commitment to collect, interpret Staff's ability to develop/work with gender sensitive and report on sex-disaggregated data systems and tools for monitoring, evaluation and learning and measuring changes from gender interventions Scientists' ability to develop/work with gender sensitive 1.0 2.6 2.2 1.0 2.4 1.4  1.0 2.4 2.5 1.0 2.9 2.6 Staff's ability to collect, interpret and report on sex-disaggregated data to other organizations' reports and publications Scientists' ability and commitment to collect, interpret Staff's ability to develop/work with gender sensitive and report on sex-disaggregated data systems and tools for monitoring, evaluation and learning and measuring changes from gender interventions Scientists' ability to develop/work with gender sensitive1.02.62.21.02.41.41.02.4 2.51.02.9 2.6 systems and tools for monitoring, evaluation and learning  2.2   2.2    2.3  2.0 systems and tools for monitoring, evaluation and learning2.22.22.32.0 Staff's access to and ability to produce quality documents and measuring changes from gender interventions             Staff's access to and ability to produce quality documents and measuring changes from gender interventions and publications on gender   1.9 2.0  1.9 1.8   1.9 2.4  1.8 1.9 and publications on gender1.92.01.91.81.9 2.41.8 1.9 Access to gender-sensitive M&E training of female and Scientists' access to and ability to produce quality            Access to gender-sensitive M&E training of female and Scientists' access to and ability to produce quality male staff documents and publications on gender   2.1 1.7  2.2 1.4   2.1 1.8  1.9 1.9 male staff documents and publications on gender2.11.72.21.42.1 1.81.9 1.9 Average Average 1.6 1.7 2.2 2.0 1.5 1.3 2.2 1.6 2.0 1.8 2.2 2.2 1.5 1.2 2.1 2.1 Average Average1.61.72.22.01.5 1.32.21.62.01.82.2 2.21.5 1.22.1 2.1  "}],"sieverID":"f7f8fa63-3dfa-4663-afee-f8ac1e812ba4","abstract":""}

data/part_5/08ca6f3078510b068773f64403953266.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08ca6f3078510b068773f64403953266","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/24357/JQPLDR"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Responses of different rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes to salt stress and relation to carbohydrate metabolism and chlorophyll content","keywords":["Carbohydrate metabolism","chlorophyll concentration","rice","salt stress","salt tolerance"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Large amount of soluble sodium ions accumulates in soil and water because of the combined effects of natural and human factors; and this seriously affects plant growth and yield (Sahin et al., 2002). Salt stress is becoming one of the key factors that restrict agricultural productivity, especially in irrigated areas and in rainfed coastal areas (Neue, 1991;Castillo et al., 2000). Because of the *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. increasing need for enhancing productivity of salt affected areas, more interest is being devoted in recent years on studies of the adaptive physiological and metabolic processes associated with salt tolerance of crop plants (Ismail et al., 2007). Numerous physiological responses of plants to salt stress were observed before, including cellular and whole plant responses (Chen and Filippis, 2001). The seedling stage is one of the most sensitive stages to salt stress in rice, and studies on salt tolerance during this stage could probably provide insights for enhancing tolerance throughout the plant life cycle  (Munns and Tester, 2008). Moreover, the relation between sodium concentration in plant tissue and growth and yield were observed to be negative, and with greater effects on shoot growth than on root growth (Eschie et al., 2002). Percentage survival of transplanted seedlings correlated positively with the dry weight of seedling at transplanting, as well as with biomass accumulation during stress (Maiale et al., 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"Carbohydrates produced by photosynthetic tissues is either transported to other organs as soluble sugars, or accumulated in leaves as soluble sugars and starch during the different growth stages. Under most abiotic stresses, the ability of plants to recover from stress normally increase with increasing concentrations of photosynthetic assimilates in plant tissues during or after stress (Bagheri and Sadeghipour, 2009;Naureen and Naqvi, 2010). Soluble carbohydrates and starch, which accumulates under normal conditions before the stress commonly constitute the main resources for plants to supply energy during stress condition, as well as during recovery (Khelil et al., 2007). Therefore, higher concentrations of carbohydrates in plant tissue is one of the important adaptive mechanisms as observed under submergence (Chaturvedi et al., 1996;Dkhil and Denden, 2010). Reduction in plant biomass is sometimes observed under severe salt stress, and this is possibly because of the decrease in carbohydrate accumulation caused by reduction in carbon assimilation (Moradi and Ismail, 2007;Pattanagul and Thitisaksakul, 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"Potassium uptake is usually inhibited under salt stress, because of its molecular similarity to sodium ions, causing competition during active uptake. This could affect the rate of conversion of soluble sugars into starch when the uptake of K + and its concentration in plant tissues is reduced, as K + is needed for the catalytic activities of starch biosynthesis enzymes (Chartzoulakis et al., 2006;Dkhil and Denden, 2010). Previous reports attributed the decrease of starch content in shoot tissues to the decrease in the amount of K + absorbed under salt stress (Cakmak et al., 1994;Jenci and Natarajan, 2009). Another reason for reduction in starch concentration in plant tissue is the direct effects of decreased CO 2 assimilation caused by reduction in stomatal conductance and content of chlorophyll in plant tissues under salt stress (Moradi and Ismail, 2007). The effects of salinity on chlorophyll synthesis and integrity seems to vary with the level of salt stress, as few reports suggested an accelerated rate of biosynthesis and higher concentrations during vegetative growth (Asch et al., 2000;Santo, 2004), however, significant differences between genotypes were sometimes observed regarding the effects of salt stress on chlorophyll concentration in leaves (Rout et al., 1997;Datta et al., 2009)."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"Apparently, previous studies considered changes in carbohydrate metabolism as important physiological responses for adaptation to abiotic stress in plants, and various metabolic changes were documented (Asch et al., 2000;Santo, 2004;Pattanagul and Thitisaksakul, 2008;Naureen and Naqvi, 2010). However, detailed studies on genetic differences in these traits are still scanty. Here we evaluated the variation in carbohydrate concentration in rice genotypes known to contrast in their tolerance of salt stress, to further investigate whether these changes are associated with tolerance. We compared changes in nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) and chlorophyll concentrations in one salt tolerant (IR651) and one moderately tolerant (IR64) rice genotypes grown under normal and saline (EC 9.8 dS/m) conditions. The data associated the ability to accumulate higher concentrations of starch in plant tissues and chlorophyll a in leaves to tolerance of salt stress."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant materials","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Two rice genotypes were used in this study, IR65192-4B-10-3 (IR651 hereafter), a salt tolerant genotype, and IR64, a widely grown variety with moderate tolerance of salt stress (Moradi et al., 2003). The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse and a field at the international Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, during the dry (November 2008 to March 2009) and wet (April 2009 to October 2010) seasons. The soil used was taken from the experimental farm of IRRI, a heavy clay soil developed from volcanic ash. The basic physical and chemical characteristics of this soil are summarized in Table 1."}]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Pre-germinated seeds of the two genotypes were sown in the greenhouse in seeding trays filled with field soil (Table 1). Two rice genotypes, the tolerant IR651 and the moderately tolerant IR64 were sown in a greenhouse in seeding trays of 1 x 0.5 m, filled with 6 kg of sieved field soil fertilized with 0.40 g N, 0.25 g P and 0.25 g K. Two seeds were sown per hole with a total of 240 holes per entry using pre-germinated seeds. After 30 days, seedlings were transplanted in the field either under control or in saline soil with an average electrical conductivity (EC) of about 9.8 dS m -1 , with 2 seedlings per hill in a 9 m 2 plots. A factorial RCBD was used with three replications. The trial was conducted two times once during the dry season and the second during the wet season on IRRI experimental farm in the Philippines."}]},{"head":"Sampling and growth analyses","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Leaf area, dry weight per seedling and concentrations of starch, soluble sugars and total non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) in plant tissues were determined using whole seedlings at transplanting. Percentage survival was determined after 6, 10 and 15 days following transplanting. The modified standard evaluation system (SES) of IRRI (Moradi and Ismail, 2007) was used for evaluating salinity tolerance of the two genotypes at 20 days after transplanting. Whole plants were then sampled after 20 and 30 days following transplanting, and used for measuring the concentrations of starch, soluble sugars, and chlorophyll in plant tissues. Correlations between different growth attributes (dry weight, leaf area, root/shoot ratio and carbohydrate content) determined at transplanting and percentage survival determined 15 days after transplanting were calculated."}]},{"head":"Measurements of growth and physiological attributes","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Concentration of starch and soluble sugars","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"Carbohydrate concentrations in plant tissues were determined at transplanting and at intervals after treatment. A modified colorimetric method was used for analysis of starch and soluble sugar concentrations (Thakur and Sharma, 2005;Dkhil and Denden, 2010). For starch concentration, plant tissues were homogenized in an ice-cold mortar and pestle in a volume of 16 ml 80% (v/v) ethanol. The homogenates were centrifuged at 3000×g, for 10 min at 4°C, and then perchloric acid (HClO4, 6 ml, 30%, v/v) was added to dissolve starch from the pellet. The slurry was left at room temperature for 6 h, and starch was detected with I2-KI reagent prepared by diluting 0.1 ml stock solution (0.06 g I2 and 0.60 g KI in 10 ml deionized water) with 0.05 M HCl just prior to the assay. Samples of 0.5 ml starch solution were mixed with 0.5 ml I2-KI reagent, 1 ml 30% (v/v) perchloric acid and vortexed, then left standing at room temperature. The absorbance of the samples at 620 nm wavelength was then determined using a spectrophotometer, and the concentration determined using a standard carve. For soluble sugars, plant tissues were suspended in test tubes with 3 ml of 80% ethanol, the extract was evaporated to dryness and the residue was dissolved in 20 ml distilled water. Total soluble sugars were determined by the phenol-sulfuric acid method, using glucose as standard. The total NSC was determined as the sum of starch and soluble sugar concentrations."}]},{"head":"Standard evaluation system (SES) scores","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The modified standard evaluation system (SES) of IRRI was used for evaluation of the visual symptoms of salt damage during seedling stage. A scoring system of 1 to 9 was used, with 1 indicates normal growth with no symptoms of injury; 3 indicates near normal growth with leaf tips or few leaves whitish and rolled; 5 indicates intermediate tolerance with growth severely retarded, most leaves rolled and few are elongating; 7 indicates susceptibility with complete cessation of growth, most leaves dry, some plants dying; and 9 indicates high susceptibility with most plants dead or dying (Zhang et al., 2010)."}]},{"head":"Growth and leaf area measurements","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Green leaf area measurements were made each morning of the sampling dates. Plants were randomly chosen and gently uprooted. All leaves were detached and the senescing portions removed. A total of 4 plants were harvested per replicate and total green leaf area measured using a LiCor-3100 leaf area meter (LiCor, Lincoln, Zhang et al. 21 Nebraska, USA). Shoot and root growth were assessed on the same 4 plants from each replicate. Roots and shoots were gently separately and rinsed for few times with distilled water and then with NanoPure quality water for three additional times to remove adhering salt. Dry weights (mg) were determined with a top loading balance after drying the samples to a constant weight in an oven set at 70°C."}]},{"head":"Chlorophyll concentration","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"About 20 mg of freeze-dried plant material were heated at 80°C for 10 min in 10 mL aqueous ethanol (80% v/v) in extraction vials, then cooled to room temperature and the volume adjusted to 10 mL with 80% v/v ethanol. After extraction, the leaf sections looks white, grayish or light brown, and sink to the bottom of the extraction vial allowing the extract to be decanted into a glass cuvette without filtration or centrifugation. Absorption readings were determined using a spectrophotometer, with the optical density determined at 649, 652 and 665 nm (Santo, 2004). Chlorophyll concentration in mg/ml was then calculated using the following formula:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Chlorophyll (mg/g) = C (mg/ml) × V (ml) / fresh weight (g), with C = absorption reading and V = solution volume."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Data analyses were carried out using SAS software 8.0 (SAS institute, 2001). Differences between means with P ≤ 0.05, P ≤ 0.01 and P ≤ 0.001 were considered significant based on LSD values. Correlations of seedling survival with other parameters were calculated using Microsoft Excel 2003 software. The data was presented as averages across the dry and wet seasons as the responses of the genotypes were similar across both seasons."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variation in visual injury and survival","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Effect of salinity on both genotypes was apparent from the higher SES values after 20 days of exposure to salt stress (Table 2). The SES score of IR651 was significantly lower than that of IR64, confirming the higher tolerance of this genotype. Salinity also caused considerable reduction in survival across the two genotypes, where it decreased by about 35, 44 and 53% points after 6, 10 and 15 days, respectively, following transplanting in saline soil. However, the survival of the tolerant genotype IR651 was significantly higher than the moderately tolerant variety IR64 at all sampling dates."}]},{"head":"Seedling growth at transplanting and correlation with survival","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"No significant differences were observed between the   two genotypes in leaf area and root and shoot dry weights at transplanting, however, the root:shoot ratio of IR651 was significantly higher than that of IR64 (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Seedling survival determined 15 days after transplanting in saline soil correlated significantly with shoot and root dry weights as well as with dry weights of leaves and stems and with leaf area (Table 4). However, the correlation with root:shoot ratio was insignificant, suggesting that variation in this trait during early seedling growth might not affect survival after transplanting in saline soils."}]},{"head":"Variation in carbohydrate concentration in seedlings at transplanting and relation with survival","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Starch concentrations in stems, leaves and roots of the tolerant genotype IR651 at transplanting were higher, respectively, by about 22, 8 and 14%, than the moderately tolerant genotype IR64. However, the differences are significant only for stem starch concentrations. Conversely, soluble sugar concentrations were lower in the stems (12%), leaves (10%) and roots (11%) of IR651, though the differences are not statistically significant (Table 5)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Starch concentration in stems and leaves of seedlings measured at transplanting correlated positively with survival at 15 days of transplanting in saline soils. However, correlation of survival with soluble sugar concentrations was negative (Table 6). This suggests that maintaining conditions in the nursery that maximize the conversion of soluble sugars into starch in the shoot before transplanting could contribute to survival of seedlings when transplanted in saline soils. Correlations of both soluble sugars and starch in roots with seedling survival were not significant.   "}]},{"head":"Variation in carbohydrate concentration between genotypes and treatments after 20 and 30 days of transplanting","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"After 20 days of transplanting, starch and total carbohydrate concentrations in the shoot were considerably lower under saline condition than under control condition (Table 7), but with no significant differences in total soluble sugar concentration, suggesting effects of salt stress on conversion of soluble sugars into starch. This becomes clearer after 30 days of salt stress where soluble sugars accumulated to significantly higher concentrations in shoots compared to that under control conditions. Differences between genotypes were greater 20 DAT, where the tolerant genotype accumulated higher soluble sugars, but lower amount of starch, and after prolonged stress of 30 days, the tolerant genotype still maintained higher soluble sugars than IR64. However, total NSC concentration was statistically similar in both genotypes under both saline and control conditions. This suggests that the higher tolerance of IR651 is probably not associated with its ability to accumulate starch or NSC in its shoots under stress. Trend in carbohydrate accumulation in roots seem to be similar to that in shoots, where soluble sugars, starch and total NSC were significantly less under salt stress. But this effect seem to revert as the seedlings age, where both soluble sugars and total carbohydrates became higher under salt stress, possibly suggesting inhibition of growth through effects other than photosynthesis and carbohydrate translocation to roots. IR651 maintained higher soluble sugar concentration in roots both at 20 and 30 days following transplanting in saline soils (Table 7). For both shoot and root NSC concentrations, interactions between genotypes and salinity were not significant."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"After 20 days of transplanting, the ratios of starch to total carbohydrate in plant tissues was significantly higher under control (normal) than under saline conditions (Figure 1a), and the difference was even higher at 30 DAT (Figure 1b), which suggests that starch formation is probably hindered under salt stress. The ratios of soluble sugars to total carbohydrates showed reverse trends, they are significantly higher under saline than under control conditions (Figure 1c and d). This also suggests that conversion of soluble sugars into starch is probably limited under saline conditions. The tolerant genotype IR651 maintained substantially lower ratio of starch to total carbohydrates in its tissues (Figure 1a and b), but conversely higher ratio of soluble sugars to total carbohydrates (Figure 1c and d). The higher proportion of soluble sugars in the tissue of the tolerant genotype could probably be advantageous for direct use during growth and maintenance under salt stress conditions."}]},{"head":"Variation in chlorophyll concentration and ratios at 20 and 30 days after transplanting","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"After 20 and 30 days of transplanting in saline soil, chlorophyll a concentrations in leaves of IR651 were 12.9 and 23.6% higher than in IR64, while chlorophyll b concentrations were 34.4 and 34.8% lower than in IR64 at 20 and 30 DAT, respectively (Table 8)."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"However, no significant differences were observed in total chlorophyll (a+b) concentration of the two genotypes.  After 20 days of transplanting, the concentrations of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and chlorophyll a+b in plant tissues under salt stress were greater than under control conditions, by about 17, 94 and 32%, respectively, and similar trends were observed at 30 DAT, though the differences were not significant. The data showed that the chlorophyll concentration in leaves increased under salt stress, with the tolerant genotype maintaining higher concentration of Chlorophyll a, but lower concentration of chlorophyll b. Consequently, chlorophyll a/b ratio decreased substantially under salt stress, both at 20 and 30 DAT, and the tolerant genotype IR651 maintained significantly higher chlorophyll a/b ratio than the moderately tolerant genotype IR64 (Figure 2) at both sampling dates."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":418,"text":"Variation in chlorophyll concentration and growth as affected by salinity and genotype Significant differences were observed between the tolerant IR651and the moderately tolerant IR64 in their responses to salt stress (Table 2). Genetic variation in salinity tolerance in rice as well as in other crop species has been frequently documented in the past (Moradi et al., 2003;Eschie et al., 2002;Moud and Maghsoudi, 2008). Seedling survival measured 15 days after exposure to salt stress correlated positively with different growth attributes at transplanting, including root and shoot biomass, and leaf area and dry weight, suggesting a direct effect of seedling biomass at transplanting on survival of salt stress when seedlings are transplanted in saline soils. This has been observed in previous studies (Maiale et al., 2004;Sunnart et al., 2010), and older rice seedlings are mostly recommended when transplanting in saline soils. Eschie et al. (2002) and Ozturk et al. (2004) observed a negative association of sodium concentration in culture solution with plant growth rate and root-shoot ratio. No significant differences in shoot and root dry weights and leaf area were observed between the tolerant IR651 and the moderately tolerant genotype IR64 (Table 3), but the root-shoot ratio of IR651 was significantly greater than that of IR64. However, the insignificant correlation between root-shoot ratio and survival percentage under salt stress (Table 4) suggested that the higher root: shoot ratio of the tolerant genotype is probably not involved in salt tolerance in rice. Concentrations of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were higher under salt stress than under control condition, which agreed with previous observations (Asch et al., 2000;Santo, 2004). However, chlorophyll a/b ratio was significantly lower (Figure 2), suggesting greater effects of salt stress in reducing chlorophyll a than chlorophyll b. Considering that chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment (Daiz et al., 2002;Santo, 2004), this reduction in ratio could probably be one of the main reasons for reduced photosynthesis under salt stress as reported in rice before (Moradi and Ismail, 2007). Significant differences in chlorophyll concentrations under salt stress were also observed between genotypes, with the tolerant genotype having higher chlorophyll a, but lower chlorophyll b, resulting in substantially higher chlorophyll a/b ratio than the moderately tolerant genotype (Table 8; Figure 2). Ability of the tolerant genotype to maintain higher concentration of chlorophyll a is probably one of the important mechanisms contributing to salinity tolerance in this genotype, which could consequently result in higher photosynthetic capacity and carbohydrate formation (Moradi and Ismail, 2007;Rout et al., 1997;Datta et al., 2009)."}]},{"head":"Responses of different rice genotypes to salt stress and its relation to carbohydrate metabolisms","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Higher non-structural carbohydrate concentration in plant tissue under abiotic stresses was known to have positive effects on plant survival of stress and recovery afterwards (Bagheri and Sadeghipour, 2009;Naureen and Naqvi, 2010). These carbohydrates could provide important resources for energy supply under abiotic stresses when carbon assimilation is reduced, (Khelil et al., 2007), and is considered an important adaptation strategies under unfavorable growth conditions as the case with complete submergence in rice (Das et al., 2005;Dkhil and Denden, 2010). In this study, we observed that starch concentration was significantly higher in the tissue of the tolerant genotype at transplanting (Table 5); and there was a significant positive correlation between survival percentage under salt stress and starch concentration in stems and leaves at transplanting. However, seedling survival under salt stress correlated negatively with soluble sugar concentration at transplanting (Table 6). This suggests that accumulation of starch in plant tissue before transplanting could improve seedling survival when transplanted in saline soil, and this can be enhanced both through breeding as well as proper management of seedlings in the nursery before transplanting."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"Under salt stress, consumption of metabolic energy increased while the amount of carbohydrate accumulation decreased because of reduced photosynthetic capacity; which will then cause slower growth and biomass accumulation (Pattanagul and Thitisaksakul, 2008). Besides its direct effects on carbon assimilation, salt stress could also hinder other important metabolic processes. For example, the activity of several starch biosynthesis enzymes can be affected by the concentration of potassium in plant tissues, and salinity was known to cause considerable reduction in the uptake of potassium and its concentration in plant tissue (Chartzoulakis et al., 2006;Ismail et al., 2007;Moradi and Ismail, 2007;Dkhil and Denden, 2010). The reduction in starch concentration in plant tissue observed in this study could be due, in part, to the decrease in K + absorption under salt stress (Cakmak et al., 1994;Jenci and Natarajan, 2009). Contrary to starch concentration, soluble sugar concentration was higher in the tolerant genotype (Table 7); and the ratio of soluble sugars to total carbohydrate was higher than in the moderately tolerant genotype under salt stress (Figure 1). This can probably be due to lesser effects of salt stress on carbon assimilation and soluble sugar formation than on conversion of soluble sugars to starch."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"This effect could be mediated by the lower K + and the unfavorable ratio of Na + to K + in plant tissue under salt stress (Ismail et al., 2007;Zhang et al., 2010), with the consequent effects on the activity of the enzymes involved in the translocation and conversion of soluble sugars into starch. Maintaining greater ability to convert soluble sugars into starch before and during salt stress could potentially play an important role in rice tolerance of salinity. Further studies are needed to substantiate this relation using a wider range of contrasting rice genotypes, and also to investigate the extent of genetic variation to be explored in gene discovery as well as in breeding."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Salinity causes substantial decrease in seedling survival and considerable reduction in growth of surviving plants as indicated by the higher SES scores. Greater root and shoot biomass, leaf area and starch concentration in plant tissue at transplanting correlated positively with seedling survival after transplanting in saline soils. Salinity causes substantial reduction in total nonstructural carbohydrate concentrations in plant tissue, basically through greater effects on reducing starch formation, and this is possibly mediated through mechanisms associated with conversion of soluble sugars into starch caused by the unfavorable sodium: potassium ratio and homeostasis. The salt tolerant genotype IR651 had higher soluble sugars and lower starch concentration during exposure to salt stress, suggesting that the tolerance of this genotype is probably mediated through mechanisms other than maintenance of higher starch/total carbohydrate ratio under salt stress. Tolerance of salt stress is related to the ability to maintain higher concentration of chlorophyll a and greater chlorophyll a/b ratio in plant tissues under salt stress. Further studies using a large and more diverse set of rice genotypes are needed to evaluate the potential use of these traits in breeding salt tolerant rice varieties."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Ratios of starch (a and b) and soluble sugars (c and d) to total carbohydrate concentrations at 20 days (a and c) and 30 days (b and d) after transplanting. *, ** indicate significance at P ≤ 0.05, and 0.01, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Variation in chlorophyll a/b ratios in leaves at (a) 20 and (b) 30 days after transplanting. *, ** Significant at P ≤ and 0.01, respectively. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Characteristics of the soil used in the studies. Soil style pH (H2O,1:1) Organic carbon (g kg -1 ) CEC (cmol kg -1 ) Total N (g kg -1 ) Available P (mg kg -1 ) Active iron (g kg -1 ) Clay (g kg -1 ) Soil stylepH (H2O,1:1)Organic carbon (g kg -1 )CEC (cmol kg -1 )Total N (g kg -1 )Available P (mg kg -1 )Active iron (g kg -1 )Clay (g kg -1 ) Paddy soil 6.1 22.7 25.3 2.26 80.0 25.0 300 Paddy soil6.122.725.32.2680.025.0300  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Variation in SES scores at 20 days after transplanting (DAT) and survival percentages at 6, 10, 15 DAT under control and saline conditions. Treatments SES score 20 DAT 6 DAT Survival (%) 10 DAT 15 DAT TreatmentsSES score 20 DAT6 DATSurvival (%) 10 DAT15 DAT Genotype     Genotype IR651 5.1 77.7* 69.8** 55.9** IR6515.177.7*69.8**55.9** IR64 7.8*** 52.8 43.1 37.7 IR647.8***52.843.137.7 Salinity     Salinity Saline 6.4*** 65.2 56.5 46.9 Saline6.4***65.256.546.9 Normal 1.0 100.0*** 100.0*** 100.0*** Normal1.0100.0***100.0***100.0*** *, **, *** Significant at P ≤ 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001, respectively.   *, **, *** Significant at P ≤ 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001, respectively.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Variation between IR651 and IR64 in leaf area, dry weight and root:shoot ratio at transplanting. Genotype Leaf area (cm 2 plant -1 ) Root dry weight (g) Shoot dry weight DW(g) Root: shoot ratio GenotypeLeaf area (cm 2 plant -1 )Root dry weight (g)Shoot dry weight DW(g)Root: shoot ratio IR651 22.2 0.118 0.475 0.269*** IR65122.20.1180.4750.269*** IR64 25.5 0.119 0.481 0.227 IR6425.50.1190.4810.227 Mean 23.8 0.119 0.477 0.256 Mean23.80.1190.4770.256  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Correlation coefficients for the association of survival at 15 days after transplanting with seedling growth and dry weights at transplanting. Growth parameter Survival (%) Growth parameter Survival (%) Growth parameterSurvival (%)Growth parameterSurvival (%) Leaf dry weight 0.64** Shoot dry weight 0.62* Leaf dry weight0.64**Shoot dry weight0.62* Stem dry weight 0.61* Leaf area 0.60* Stem dry weight0.61*Leaf area0.60* Root dry weight 0.68** Root: shoot ratio -0.04 Root dry weight0.68**Root: shoot ratio-0.04  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Variation in starch and sugar concentrations in plant tissues in two rice genotypes at transplanting. Genotype Starch concentration (%) Stem Leaf Root Sugar concentration (%) Stem Leaf Root GenotypeStarch concentration (%) Stem Leaf RootSugar concentration (%) Stem Leaf Root IR651 16.1* 5.3 5.6 9.4 4.3 5.4 IR65116.1*5.35.69.44.35.4 IR64 13.2 4.9 4.9 10.7 4.8 6.1 IR6413.24.94.910.74.86.1 Mean 14.7 5.1 5.3 10.1 4.6 5.8 Mean14.75.15.310.14.65.8  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Correlation coefficients for the association of survival at 15 days after transplanting in saline soils and carbohydrate concentrations in the seedlings at transplanting. Starch concentration Survival (%) Sugar concentration (%) Survival (%) Starch concentration Survival (%) Sugar concentration (%) Survival (%) Stems 0.60* Stems -0.54* Stems0.60*Stems-0.54* Leaves 0.67** Leaves -0.55* Leaves0.67**Leaves-0.55* Roots 0.39 ns Roots -0.48 Roots0.39 nsRoots-0.48  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Variation in carbohydrate concentration in shoots and roots at 20 and 30 days after transplanting (DAT).  Carbohydrate concentration Carbohydrate concentration Carbohydrate concentrationCarbohydrate concentration Treatments 20 DAT (%)  30 DAT (%)  Treatments20 DAT (%)30 DAT (%)  Soluble sugars Starch Total Soluble sugars Starch Total Soluble sugarsStarchTotalSoluble sugarsStarchTotal Shoot       Shoot IR651 15.8* 17.4 33.2 13.5* 18.2 31.6 IR65115.8*17.433.213.5*18.231.6 IR64 14.5 19.9* 34.4 11.9 18.1 30.0 IR6414.519.9*34.411.918.130.0 Saline 14.7 14.5 29.2 15.2* 15.2 30.4 Saline14.714.529.215.2*15.230.4 Normal 15.6 22.8** 36.0** 10.2 21.1** 31.2 Normal15.622.8**36.0**10.221.1**31.2 Mean 15.1 18.6 33.2 12.7 18.2 30.8 Mean15.118.633.212.718.230.8 Root       Root IR651 9.8* 8.8 18.6 6.5* 8.7 15.2* IR6519.8*8.818.66.5*8.715.2* IR64 7.5 9.9 17.4 4.2 9.2 13.4 IR647.59.917.44.29.213.4 Saline 7.7 7.7 15.4 6.2* 8.9 15.1* Saline7.77.715.46.2*8.915.1* Normal 9.6* 11.1** 20.7** 4.4 8.9 13.3 Normal9.6*11.1**20.7**4.48.913.3 Mean 8.6 9.4 18.0 5.3 8.9 14.2 Mean8.69.418.05.38.914.2  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Variation in chlorophyll concentration in leaves of the two rice genotypes measured at 20 and 30 days after transplanting (DAT) in saline and normal soils. Treatments Chlorophyll concentration 20 DAT (%) Chlorophyll concentration 30 DAT (%) TreatmentsChlorophyll concentration 20 DAT (%)Chlorophyll concentration 30 DAT (%)  "},{"text":"Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Chlorophyll a+b Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Chlorophyll a+b  IR651 7.9 2.1 10.0 6.8** 1.5 8.2 IR6517.92.110.06.8**1.58.2 IR64 7.0 3.2* 10.2 5.5 2.3** 7.8 IR647.03.2*10.25.52.3**7.8 Saline 8.1* 3.5** 11.5** 6.4 2.1 8.4 Saline8.1*3.5**11.5**6.42.18.4 Normal 6.9 1.8 8.7 5.9 1.7 7.6 Normal6.91.88.75.91.77.6 Mean 7.5 2.7 10.1 6.2 1.9 8.0 Mean7.52.710.16.21.98.0 *,** Significant at P ≤ 0.05 and 0.01, respectively.     *,** Significant at P ≤ 0.05 and 0.01, respectively.  "}],"sieverID":"6e2e000e-ad9c-4d25-9f87-fecc37adca19","abstract":"The study aims to investigate the physiological mechanisms associated with salt tolerance of different rice genotypes; with emphasis on carbohydrate metabolism and chlorophyll concentration. Studies were conducted in a greenhouse and fields at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) during the dry season (November 2008 to March 2009) and the wet season (April 2009 to October 2010). Salt stress increased chlorophyll concentration in leaves of a tolerant (IR651) and a moderately tolerant (IR64) rice genotypes, but significantly decreased chlorophyll a/b ratio. Chlorophyll a concentration and chlorophyll a/b ratio were higher in the leaves of IR651 than in the leaves of IR64 under salt stress, and this is probably one of the reasons for the higher tolerance of IR651 compared with IR64. Differences between genotypes in dry weight and leaf area were not significant under control condition; however, higher soluble sugars and starch concentrations in plant tissues were observed under control conditions than under salt stress. Conversion of soluble sugars into starch seems to be partially inhibited by salt stress as suggested by the higher concentrations of soluble sugars compared with starch under salt stress. Apparently, the salt tolerant genotype maintained higher soluble sugars, higher chlorophyll a and chlorophyll a/b ratio under salt stress, and these traits could have partially contributed to its salt tolerance."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08cf899e1e64f068bc1d1e2e8022bab1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c48a8536-b9fd-44fd-aef1-2a6f3d0ceb9d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Potato breeding Network for Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"To establish the East Africa Potato Network and a comprehensive breeding strategy, four countries team up for it (Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda), with Tanzania and Nigeria being part as observer. These countries have a substantial potato cultivation area and recognize the crop's importance for agricultural development and food security. Furthermore, they are categorized as lowincome or lower-middle-income nations, with relatively low levels of poverty (Table 1). Establishing a potato breeding network in these countries is a strategic move to improve crop productivity and yield, which could significantly contribute to enhancing food security and income for smallholder farmers. Table 1. Areas under potato cultivation, crop significance, income categories, poverty levels of priorities countries for breeding in Africa ."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"A potato breeding workshop was organized by the International Potato Center (CIP)-Kenya in which five countries were invited to join the group in establishing the East-Africa Potato Breeding Network . The main objective of this network is to bring together potato experts to collaborate and share knowledge and resources in the field of potato breeding. By forming this network, we aim to facilitate the exchange of ideas, techniques, and genetic resources among potato breeders and researchers. This will help us to develop more effective breeding strategies and accelerate the development of new potato varieties that meet the needs of different markets. The key outcomes of this network include: i) Improved collaboration and communication among potato researchers, ii) enhanced understanding of the genetic and environmental factors that affect potato breeding, iii) greater access to diverse genetic resources for potato breeding, iv) accelerated development of new potato varieties with improved traits, such as disease resistance, yield, and quality and v) increased dissemination and adoption of improved potato varieties by farmers and consumers."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"By the end of 2024, it's expected that i) at least three countries will have their Market Segment identified, and Target Product Profile designed, ii) at least two breeding programs will be assessed, and the improvement plan designed with support of ABI-Transform (Figure 1), iii) the second network meeting will define, align, and set priorities for the regional breeding strategy as Figure 1. Therefore in 2024 the main network priorities are: regional market segments agreed and prioritized, partner Tier ratings agreed, roles and responsibilities for network members agreed and Budget/subgrants to partners allocated based on: Authors Thiago Mendes, CIP, Kenya; Atsede Retta, EIAR, Ethiopia; Athanase Nduwumuremyi, RAB, Rwanda; Chiedozie Egesi, IITA, Nigeria; Dragan Milic, ABI -Transform (CIMMYT, Kenya); Kalaye Kigwinya, TARI, Tanzania; Prossy Namugg, NARO, Uganda and Susan Otieno, KALRO, Kenya"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Tuber seeds of a set of advanced clones selected by CIP in Kenya. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Effective CGIAR-NARES/SMEs Breeding networks: Roles and responsibilities. Biswanath Das, 2023. RTB breeding project meeting, Kampala, September 7, 2023. Oral presentation (ABI -Transform Template). "}],"sieverID":"d240a775-77b7-4fca-beaa-b7700dc979e9","abstract":"Potatoes are an indispensable crop for East Africa, serving a multitude of vital purposes. They are a staple food crop in many countries, acting as a key source of nutrition for millions of people in the region. This high-energy food provides a significant portion of daily caloric intake, ensuring food security and combating hunger. Also, they are a valuable cash crop for smallholder farmers, providing a source of income throughout the year, come rain or shine. Potatoes offer abundant employment opportunities for people in East Africa, from farmers and traders to processors. Additionally, intercropping potatoes with other crops diversifies agricultural production and mitigates the risks associated with a reliance on a single crop. Finally, potatoes are important for climate resilience in the region, with their drought and heat tolerance and ability to thrive in diverse agroecological zones. Breeding programs can improve potato varieties, enhancing yields, resistance to pests and diseases, and nutritional content, ultimately supporting the well-being and livelihoods of the people in East Africa.CIP thanks all donors and organizations that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. https://www.cgiar.org/funders/"}

data/part_5/09039d00709dd195ba5584de9db42550.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09039d00709dd195ba5584de9db42550","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0293f7fb-bcec-4f39-badc-16f0c2ccf3c4/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"ANALYSING STAKEHOLDERS FOR SUSTAINABLE WETLAND MANAGEMENT IN THE LIMPOPO RIVER BASIN: THE CASE OF GA-MAMPA WETLAND, SOUTH AFRICA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction and rationale 3","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"In the Limpopo River Basin characterised by climatic extremes, wetlands are important aquatic systems. Because of the abundance of water in wetlands particularly in the dry season, when compared to the surrounding catchment area, they constitute important resources for rural people livelihoods and perform major environmental functions. Wetlands and their surrounding catchments support rural livelihoods through provision of a large range of natural resources including soils, water, plants and animals, that are used by rural households in a various activities (Turpie 2000;Turpie et al. 1999;Masiyandima et al. 2004;McCartney and van Koppen 2004). Uses of wetlands also include cultivation and livestock grazing and watering. When compared to dry land, the interest of wetlands for crop production lies in their residual moisture all year round and the wider range of crops that can be cultivated. Therefore wetlands take an essential part in food security, especially during the dry season or in drought years, and dietary variety (Masiyandima et al. 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The benefits rural people derive from wetlands are supported by the variety of environmental functions performed by these complex and sensitive environments. These functions benefit not only people living on or nearby wetlands but have also effects on people living downstream. The type and intensity of wetlands uses have potential impacts on these functions. Increasing population and a higher frequency of drought, that drives farmers to extend wetlands area under cultivation, have put a high pressure on wetlands ecological processes."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Acknowledging the important role of wetlands for local communities but in the same time the necessity to preserve their crucial ecological functions, the research project \"Wetlands-based livelihoods in the Limpopo basin: balancing social welfare and environmental security\" under the Challenge Program Water and Food 4 aims at enhancing food security and improving the livelihoods of wetland-dependent communities by increasing productivity of water and optimising and maintaining wetland ecosystem services. More specifically, the project proposes to analyse the mix of wetland uses and the trade-offs among them, to develop guidelines and tools to assist decision-making at various levels (local community, local governments, policy-makers) and to enhance capacity of wetland users, managers and policy makers. Research is conducted in three sites in the Limpopo river basin: the Intunjambili wetland in the Tuli river catchment in Zimbabwe, the Chibuto wetland in the floodplain of the Changane river, a tributary of the lower Limpopo, in Mozambique; and the Ga-Mampa wetland in South Africa."},{"index":4,"size":265,"text":"The Ga-Mampa wetland is a riverine wetland located in the bottom of the steep sided valley of the Mohlapetsi river, a tributary of the Olifants River, in the middle part of the Limpopo basin (Figure 1). Although only a small tributary, it seems that the Mohlapetsi River makes a significant contribution to the flow of the lower Olifants particularly in the dry season (McCartney 2005). The wetland covers approximately 1 km 2 of the catchment of a total area of 490 km 2 . The catchment is predominantly rural, with a low population density. The upper catchment comprises relatively natural grassland vegetation, contained within two natural reserves (Sarron 2005). It is assumed that wetland hydrology is affected by the upstream flow and possibly underground water connections that may link with lateral inputs from small streams and 'side-swamps' (McCartney 2005). The contribution of the wetland to the hydrology of the Mohlapetsi and more largely to the Olifants River is not well understood. The local communities of four villages, located close to the valley bottom, use the wetland for various purposes including among others crop cultivation, livestock grazing and wild plant harvesting for crafts and building. The wetland area has been converted to agriculture over the last decade following the collapse of irrigation schemes after the floods in 2000, to the extent that more than half of the wetland has been converted to agriculture (Chiron 2005;Ferrand 2004). It is also modified through grazing activities and probably road and irrigation infrastructures. The impact this has had on the hydrological and ecological functioning is not fully understood so far."},{"index":5,"size":172,"text":"In each of the three sites, the first step of the research framework (presented in Masiyandima et al. 2005) consists in a stakeholder analysis, so as to define the system physical and social boundaries, the main characteristics of its functioning, and the relevant time and spatial scales for further research. As wetlands perform a wide range of functions and provide various services to people, the stakeholders' interests about wetland are likely to be multiple and possibly conflicting. Therefore a specific approach is needed to analyze the complexity of relationships between various stakeholders. This paper presents the approach developed and the results of the stakeholder analysis conducted in the Ga-Mampa wetland. The objectives of the stakeholder analysis were to (1) consolidate the understanding of the system, with an identification of key stakeholders, (2) set their perception of the situation, the issues at stake regarding the wetland use and management, the causes of conflicts among them, and (3) identify existing and potential trade-offs between the various uses of the wetlands and its ecological functions."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"The paper is organized as follows: the next section presents the main concepts of the stakeholder analysis as reported in the literature. Then the approach developed in this research project is described and the results of the analysis for Ga-Mampa wetlands presented. The paper concludes on a feedback on the method used and the lessons of the analysis for further research on the site."}]},{"head":"Concepts and approaches for stakeholder analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"It is generally acknowledged that the community involvement and participation in the management of natural resources is a condition of their sustainable use. In the case of wetlands, they are recognized as fundamental principles of wise use by the Ramsar Convention (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2004b;Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2004a)."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Stakeholders can be defined as the people who either (i) will be potentially affected by the management of wetlands; (ii) will be involved by one way or another in the implementation of management activities; or (iii) who are likely to support or oppose the research or development project or the policy at stake. Usually, the expected outcomes of stakeholder involvement in natural resources management are (i) a better understanding of people concerns leading to solutions more adapted to their needs; (ii) an assessment of their knowledge about the wetland system, the integration of this knowledge in management options, and a better targeting of awareness and education activities; (iii) ownership of the project and support to its implementation; (iv) reduction of potential conflicts among stakeholders; and finally (iii) improved communication and coordination of actions and stronger working relationships among stakeholders."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Grimble and Wellard define stakeholder analysis as \"holistic approach or procedure for gaining an understanding of a system, and assessing the impact of changes to that system, by means of identifying the key actors or stakeholders and assessing their respective interests in the system\" (Grimble and Wellard 1997). In the development context, stakeholder analysis is used by International Development Agencies as a project management tool to identify the consequences for stakeholders of the implementation of a particular project or policy (Grimble and Wellard 1997). In a research context, stakeholder analysis is used as an analytical tool to understand complex situations, its potential evolution and trade-offs between various objectives (Grimble et al. 1995;Grimble 1998). We adopted the latter point of view in this research."},{"index":4,"size":204,"text":"Grimble and his colleagues proposed a five steps approach for the analysis (Figure 2), each of them involving specific tools (Grimble 1998;Grimble et al. 1995). They insisted however on the fact that the approach should remain flexible. In the case of our research project, the purpose of the stakeholder analysis would be to help formulating the project design, guide the implementation of research activities and target the research outputs. For the second step, tools used in participatory rapid appraisal (interviews of key informants, focus group discussions, time line and participatory mapping, transect walks, seasonal diagrams, preference ranking and Venn diagram) are particularly adapted. Examples of application of these tools to wetland systems are given by Masiyandima et al. 2004 andMcCartney andvan Koppen 2004, and detailed description on how to implement these tools in Wilde 2001. Interviews can also be complemented by direct observations of stakeholder practices. At this stage it is important to understand what are the uses of the wetland, the direct and indirect goods and services people derive from it, the rules of access to the resources and constraints people experience in using it, the form of management of the resources, and the context in which each stakeholder group take its decisions."},{"index":5,"size":197,"text":"The identification of stakeholder groups is a critical and delicate step, which needs to be thought of on a case-by-case basis, as the relevant actors to include in the analysis will depend on the purpose of this analysis. However it can be useful to refer to a classification of stakeholders to avoid missing important actors. Grimble and Wellard distinguish stakeholders according to their level of intervention from global, national and regional level down to the household or even intra-household level. They also divide them into active stakeholders (those who affect a project or an action) and passive ones (those who are affected). Hein et al. (2005) refine this classification by relating the scale at which ecosystem services are provided to human beings to the institutional scale at which stakeholders take their decisions on the utilization of their different sources of capital, including natural resources (Figure 3). The difficulty resides in the fact that ecological and institutional boundaries seldom coincide. Various tools can be used to identify stakeholders: interviews of key informants, focus group discussions, and secondary data. In general the previous step of understanding the system provide a first list of actors that can be refined further."},{"index":6,"size":262,"text":"The assessment of stakeholders' interests and characteristics can be done through a variety of data collection method. Grimble particularly recommends informal, semi-structured interviews. More formal and quantitative approaches are proposed by supporters of multicriteria decision approaches (e.g. analytical hierarchy process, see Herath 2004 ;Strager and Rosenberger ;De Marchi et al. 2000). In the context of the European Water Framework Directive, which imposes public consultation during the development of watershed management plans, Garin et al. propose an analysis of stakeholders' points of view based on a semi-structured survey (Garin et al. 2001 ;Rinaudo and Garin 2002). Their approach aims at linking the scientific and technical knowledge of experts with the viewpoints expressed by local actors. The questionnaire covers water uses of the interviewee, her knowledge about the water resources of the basin and their uses, her concern about water, the impacts of her activities on water, the existence of tensions and conflicts over water use in the basin, and proposed solutions to ease these tensions. In order to represent the diversity of points of view within time and budget limits, the sample of interviewees is composed of persons likely to represent an interest group in a public debate on water issues, representatives of organizations which intervene in the water sector, and individual water users that are not institutionally represented. The various sectors of activities that use water or have an impact on it are represented in the sample. Example of application of the approach to the Lère River catchment and Hérault River basin in France are given respectively in Batut 2001 andRuhlmann 2001."},{"index":7,"size":272,"text":"The last step of the stakeholder analysis consists in characterizing the relationships between the various stakeholder groups as conflict or cooperation and assessing the intensity of these relationships. Grimble and Wellard make a distinction between conflicts and trade-offs. They define conflicts as \"situations of competition and potential disagreement between two or more stakeholder groups over the use of one or more scarce resource\" and trade-offs as \"process of balancing conflicting objectives by a particular stakeholder group\" (Grimble and Wellard 1997, p.179). Owen et al. classify conflicts in three categories according to their intensity: \"Disputes are disagreements arising over differences in interests and positions. They tend to be over a single issue and involve low levels of emotion and little investment of group or individual identity. (…) Conflicts are disagreements that tend to involve significant levels of emotion and are enmeshed in the identity of the groups and individuals involved. Deep-rooted conflicts are those conflicts that involve basic needs which cannot be compromised or suppressed.\" (Owen et al. 2000, p.478). The type and intensity of relationships between stakeholder groups is often related to the degree of their influence and power 5 , a characterization which is often used by Development Agencies (e.g., World Bank 2003). However other factors may affect interactions between stakeholders: nature of power and authority relationships, socio-cultural relationships, historical contexts, and legal institutions. Discussion of past concrete case of conflict, using either group meetings or interviews of representatives of stakeholder groups, appears to be the most appropriate way to collect information. An example of the output of such an analysis conducted with a group discussion is presented in Figure 4."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Finally, results of steps 4 and 5 can be summarized in a stakeholder analysis matrix as in Table 1."}]},{"head":"Method developed in this project","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"General approach Following Grimble's recommendations (Grimble 1998;Grimble et al. 1995), our presentation follows the five steps identified in Figure 2. In this section, we present and argue basic assumptions made for achieving each of these steps, except the final one, which corresponds to the analysis presented in the next section. 5 \"importance refers to those whose needs and interests are the priorities of aid while influence refers to the power certain stakeholders have over the success of a project\" (Grimble and Wellard 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":". As presented in the former section, the main objectives of the analysis (step 1) were threefold:"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"(1) contributing to formalize expert knowledge, (2) identifying stakeholders perception of issues related to wetland, and (3) exploring potential trade-offs related to wetland uses 6 ."},{"index":4,"size":211,"text":"The second step consists in developing an understanding of the system with a clear identification of decision-makers in the system. One interpretation of this step is that one is supposed to have a consolidated expert knowledge on a system before making a stakeholder analysis. We should therefore give some precisions on the fact that we chose as our first objective something that may be interpreted as an intermediary mean of the overall analysis. In fact, our first intention was to make a clear distinction between expert knowledge and stakeholder perception, which allows doing analyses as proposed by Garin et al. (Garin et al. 2001 ;Rinaudo and Garin 2002). We did not consider that formalized knowledge on the site was sufficient at the beginning of our study, and then chose to follow another approach, considering that scientists involved in works related to Ga-Mampa area were special stakeholders. Applying techniques from stakeholder analysis to scientists might contribute to our understanding of the system, by extracting their expert but non-formalized knowledge about the system. This has been completed by a review of existing scientific and gray literature related to the study site. While not presented in this paper, outcome of this step is a partial understanding of the system, with hypotheses and scientific controversies."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"In order to identify key stakeholders (step 3) and investigate their perception (our personal implantation of step 4), the assumption was made that non-scientific stakeholders were divided in two groups: local stakeholders and external stakeholders. The reason for this distinction was ideally based on the possibility to have a regular interaction with Ga-Mampa wetland. Thus, local stakeholders refer to people that live close to the wetland, whereas external stakeholders refer to people living outside the catchment. We have to mention that our distinction between local and external stakeholders may be ambiguous for some particular people: people living inside the catchment area but in some villages downstream of the wetland, people living outside the catchment but with a strong implication in the area."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Figure 5 summarizes the approach we used for the stakeholder analysis, and shows that a special place was given to researchers interviews, even if they were considered as \"stakeholders\"."}]},{"head":"Methodology used for interviews","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The distinction we made between the different groups of stakeholders (researchers, local and external) had direct implications on the methodology we used to interview them."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"As explained above, the objectives of the researchers' interviews were (i) to formalize their non-formalized knowledge on the Ga-Mampa wetland system and identify knowledge gaps, (ii) to derive from this knowledge, hypotheses to be tested through interviews of local and external stakeholders and guide the elaboration of the corresponding questionnaires and samples. Five persons were interviewed from two research teams and institutions: IWMI (one economist, one geographer-agronomist, and one hydrologist) and University of Limpopo (the coordinator of the Centre for Rural Community Empowerment -CRCE -and its facilitator, also a member of the local community). Researchers were asked to draw 6 sketches along the interview in the following order:"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"1. Geographical representation of the catchment, in order to identify the structuring elements of the local landscape: physical boundaries, hydrology, relief and land-use (field plots -houses -roads -natural environment)."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"2. Links between the site and outside, in particular the broader Olifants River basin, in terms of trade, migration of populations, hydrology, etc."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"3. Functional representation of the system following the hydrological cycle, identifying the various water sources and their uses from upstream to downstream."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"4. Schematic representation of the different uses 7 and functions of the wetlands and their beneficiaries."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"5. Sketch of land use dynamics, to understand the main features of land ownership and allocation in the area and the related power relations among the different actors."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"6. In parallel with the previous drawings, a 6 th sketch was drawn representing the relationships -power and conflicts -between the different stakeholders."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"An example of outputs for each of these drawing is given in Figure 6."},{"index":10,"size":185,"text":"For the local stakeholders, as we made the assumption that they have strong links with Ga-Mampa wetland, the objective was to get quite a precise view of their perception on several points: their conception of a wetland (which characteristics to be used; the expanse of Ga-Mampa wetland; the functions and uses linked to wetlands (in general, for Ga-Mampa wetland in particular, and their own uses); qualification of each mentioned function or use (who is concerned, how many people, how frequently, what period of the year, where precisely in the wetland, impact on the evolution of the wetland); global evolution of the wetland; concerns and tensions among users and/or other stakeholders (external included); proposed solutions to manage wetlands issues, proposed managers. These questions on perception were completed with some others on personal characteristics (age, gender, role in the community) to enable the analysis. We chose a semi-opened questionnaire with a clear formulation of questions to facilitate translation into local language. A map of the locality, with some basic indications, was used to allow people to draw geographical indications (expanse of the wetland, location of specific uses)."},{"index":11,"size":121,"text":"For external stakeholders, the assumption was that they might not have a good knowledge on Ga-Mampa wetland, but might have some general points of view on wetlands. Basically, the questions asked concerned the same topics as for local stakeholders: definition of a wetland, their functions and uses, good management of a wetland, possible tensions or conflicts, way to manage them. As we could not know what was the particular knowledge on Ga-Mampa wetland of each interviewee before starting, people were asked to answer first from a general point of view and, when possible, for Ga-Mampa wetland. We chose a completely open questionnaire, while inciting them to draw, from blank, a picture of Ga-Mampa wetland. All those interviews were conducted in English."}]},{"head":"Stakeholders, perceptions of and concerns about the Ga-Mampa wetland","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"A wide range of stakeholders are involved in the management of Ga-Mampa wetland"},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The different stakeholders have been classified according to their role and level of intervention (Table 2). Assumptions behind this are that the degree of knowledge on Ga-Mampa wetland is dependent on the scale of intervention (the more local a stakeholder is, the more he/she is knowledgeable about the wetland); and the type of knowledge (e.g., scientific, mainly on environmental issues, etc.) depends on his/her role. It is interesting to note that even if our first assumption was to distinguish only local and external stakeholders, we finally use more gradations."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Stakeholders and their relationships are represented in Figure 7. A relation is said to be balanced when two stakeholders communicate but do not influence each other. A \"has power on\" relation means that one of the stakeholders can potentially influence the other. This influence can be more or less important and more or less effective. In some cases of power relationships, the influenced stakeholder communicates with the one who is influencing him (\"possible feedback\")."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"As explained in the presentation of the method, stakeholders are divided into three groups: local stakeholders, external stakeholders and researchers. This division is visible in the network of relationships: local stakeholders, who regroup traditional authorities, the Community Development Forum (CDF) representing the communities and different groups of wetland users (cultivators and livestock breeders), are linked together by strong relationships. Some external stakeholders (the different levels of governments, from local to national, Mondi Wetland Project -MWP -an environment lobbying group, and Working for Wetlands -WfW -a governmental program) are also related by working relationships. Other external stakeholders, such as the Olifants River Forum, which regroups all the main water users 8 in the Olifants River basin, or the Kruger National Park are more loosely linked with the others."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Local stakeholders relate with the lowest levels of governments or their technical staff (e.g., ward councillor, extension officer) and with researchers (IWMI and University of Limpopo) who implement field research activities."}]},{"head":"Perception of the situation differs from one stakeholder group to another","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"External stakeholders define a wetland by the presence of water, its specific soils and plants, in accordance with the scientific definition. Local community members define it more by the presence of reeds and water, i.e. elements that are easily visible. However, when asked about, they also evoke some animal species and type of soil. In any case, in their definition local stakeholders focus on animals and plants they can eat or sell. This illustrates that contrarily to external stakeholders their main issue is not the preservation of the wetland but to find a way to have enough food and to earn a little money."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Wetland uses and functions perceived by each group of stakeholders are presented in Table 3, following the classification of wetland ecosystem services proposed by Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 (see also Hein et al. 2005 andde Groot et al. 2002). Provisioning functions are the most often cited and acknowledged by all categories of stakeholders, and probably the most important for the local communities from a livelihood perspective. Regulating functions, which benefit more the downstream population than the local one are nevertheless also cited by all stakeholders, with slight differences as presented below. Stakeholders see information functions as the least important on this particular site."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"From Table 3, a relation appears between the ecosystem services perceived by stakeholders and the scale at which they work or take their decision. The Ga-Mampa community mainly perceives production services and the religious function it benefit from. If local wetland users also speak about regulation services, they do not seem to give it as much importance as to production services. It can also be assumed that without various interventions from external stakeholders (extension officer, MWP, Limpopo department of Economic Development Environment and Tourism -LEDET), they would not have been aware of the existence of such services. External stakeholders do not perceive the wide range of goods local people derive from the wetland, but only some of them (cultivation, reeds and grass collection). This translates a superficial knowledge of Ga-Mampa wetland, except for few of them (MWP, extension officer) On the contrary they emphasize on the regulating functions, especially the water supply to Olifants River. They also cite tourism as a potential use. Researchers give a lot of importance to production services but are also those who are the most interested in regulating services."},{"index":4,"size":335,"text":"As for services provided by wetland, concerns expressed by each group of stakeholders (see Table 4) are related to their interest and scale of intervention. Concerns of local stakeholders are strongly linked to their uses of the wetland and the problems they face in their daily life. They spontaneously insisted on the latent tensions between cultivators and livestock owners, although this was not proposed in the questionnaire, while external stakeholders hardly mention them. External stakeholders seem more concerned with the diminution or disappearance of the wetland, which they relate to the development of cultivation, than with the problems faced by local community. In this respect, \"wetland preservation\" has a different meaning for the two groups: for local community the issue is to preserve the natural resources they are using, although external stakeholders aim at protecting its environmental functions at a larger scale. Indeed, the concerns of the latter about this particular wetland reflect their concerns about wetlands in general. The only issue on which external and local stakeholders agree is erosion, which therefore may be used as a starting point to discuss about wetland management. Tensions represented on Figure 7 were identified both from stakeholder interviews and informal conversations with community members. Tensions between traditional authorities and the Community Development Forum and local municipality are originated from the new political dispensation since the end of apartheid. While the new South African Constitution (Republic of South Africa 1996) acknowledges the role of traditional authorities over natural resources management, more specifically land allocation in communal areas, their legitimacy has been weakened first because of the collaboration of some traditional leaders with the government of apartheid 9 , and more generally because \"we are now in democracy and no one can force his fellow to do something!\" (a Ga-Mampa wetland farmer quoted by Tinguery 2006). In Ga-Mampa community, the advent of democracy was translated into the creation of the Community Development Forum, a link between the local community and its elected representative to the municipality, the ward councillor."},{"index":5,"size":195,"text":"The conflict between MWP and the community was first documented by Ferrand 2004. Local stakeholders and MWP representative again reported it during the interviews. Tensions arose after a training session organised by MWP for agricultural extension officers. The Ga-Mampa wetland was chosen as a case study for trainees to conduct a diagnosis of wetland status. Trainees found that the wetland was degraded because of cultivation. In their meeting with the wetland committee chairperson they suggested that farmers should move out of the wetland, referring to the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (CARA, Republic of South Africa 1983), which formally forbid wetland cultivation. The community rejected this position, arguing that they are using the wetland for livelihood purpose. Through the mediation of the ward councillor, a meeting where each party was able to explain its position was organized. MWP suggested to write a proposal for the rehabilitation of the wetland in collaboration with the community and local municipality and to help securing some funds to implement it 10 . Conflict seems over now. Nevertheless, local people keep these tensions in mind and seem ready to react against any attempt to force them out of the wetland."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"Only local stakeholders evoked tensions within the community. They occur between livestock breeders whose livestock graze in the wetland and farmers who cultivate plots in the wetland: because fences that are supposed to protect the plots against animal intrusion are deteriorated, cattle and donkeys which roam freely in the area can easily destroy the crops. It seems that these tensions can easily degenerate into an open conflict if no measure is taken. As opposed to researchers, external stakeholders, except the extension officer, are not aware of these internal tensions."}]},{"head":"Proposed solutions for sustainable management of the wetland","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Solutions proposed by the various stakeholders to ease the tensions and preserve the wetland functions reflect their perception of and interests in the system (Table 5). Community members focus on solutions that will help their daily life and improve their livelihoods: the adoption of \"better\" agricultural practices and the fencing of wetland plots to limit the tensions between farmers and livestock owners. The range of solutions proposed by external stakeholders is wider and address both local conflicts among wetland users and preservation of wetland services at a larger scale:"},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Technical solutions to limit tensions between wetland farmers and livestock owners: the objective is there to protect wetland and irrigation plots against intrusion from livestock and avoid escalation of tensions into conflict. Although rehabilitation of fences should occur quickly to allow farmers to implement their crops, their exact position may be an issue, as fencing wetland plots can be seen as a recognition of the legitimacy of wetland use for cultivation."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Technical solutions to limit erosion of the riverbed: protection of the riverbanks by gabions or tree planting was proposed by MWP, LEDET and the extension officer as a way to limit the erosion. It must be noted that this would be efficient only in the case of moderate floods. Another aim would be to prevent cultivation close to the riverbed."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"A proposal for wetland rehabilitation has been informally submitted by MWP to WfW, but funds are still lacking. Many stakeholders at local and provincial levels support this proposal. The interest of trees compared to gabions is that they could provide fruits for local consumption and improve the landscape; therefore it would be easier to involve the community in their management."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Awareness program to enhance community knowledge of wetland functioning and to improve wetland-farming practices: this solution was cited by almost all external stakeholders and is based on the understanding that sustainable use of wetlands requires a full participation of the community that is using it. This program should include description of wetland functioning, presentation of current legislation related to wetlands and \"best agricultural practices\"."},{"index":6,"size":252,"text":"Economic alternatives to wetland cultivation: rehabilitation of irrigation schemes and development of tourism: all external stakeholders acknowledge that wetland cultivation contribute to livelihoods of Ga-Mampa community; therefore one of the solutions to limit further alteration of the wetland or even to reverse to a lesser extend of cultivation would be to offer livelihood alternatives. Rehabilitation of irrigation schemes was the most obvious alternative for external stakeholders. Its real effect on the decrease of wetland cultivated area will depend first on the level of income that can be derived from the irrigation schemes, which is not only function of the physical rehabilitation but also on farmers collective organization to distribute water and access to market, and second on the proportion of wetland farmers that do not have access to irrigation schemes. It is the purpose of the livelihood analysis and economic valuation of wetland goods and services to assess the likelihood of these impacts. The CDDA representative also evoked the development of other wetland-based economic activity, such as craft industry in relation to tourism activities around the eco-lodge recently built in Ga-Moila. At present it is still not clear if the wetland protection was part of the motive of the construction of the facilities. It is more likely related to the presence nearby of the two nature reserves and of the location of Ga-Mampa on the African Ivory Road, a historic trail used by traders until the 19 th century, which is marketed by the Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism."},{"index":7,"size":100,"text":"The strict application of the law, which forbid cultivation in wetland (CARA), is a threat that is envisaged as a last resort by external stakeholders to force wetland users to adopt a more sustainable use. Nevertheless the credibility of the threat can be questioned, as the CARA, which was adopted during the apartheid, is not perceived as completely legitimate in the new South Africa 11 . Furthermore it did not really target wetland subsistence farming but more commercial farming activities. Finally the Department of Agriculture, responsible for its application, lacks the human capacities and financial means to really implement it."}]},{"head":"Discussion and conclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Feedback on the approach"},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The method used to interview researchers aimed at analyzing scientific knowledge as one of stakeholders' points of view on Ga-Mampa wetland. The main interest of the approach is that it allows collecting not only information on facts but also on scientific assumptions, which would be verified in the course of the research project. The range of themes addressed during the interview is quite wide, and the course of the interviews remains very vivid. Its main drawback is that it requires quite a long time to implement and analyze the interviews, more specifically to compare the perceptions. There is a need for more formalized tools and a framework to analyze stakeholder perceptions when they are expressed through little formalized interviews."},{"index":3,"size":186,"text":"The length and repetitive character of the questionnaire used for local stakeholders was its major handicap: interviewees got easily bored and tempted to give mechanical answers or even not to answer to quickly reach the end of the interview. Nevertheless, this structure was deliberately chosen to limit imprecision and misunderstanding due to translation, in a context where neither the interviewer nor the translator had a good command of English language. Furthermore, this structure facilitates the analysis of answers and comparison of points of view and is particularly recommended in the case of a large sample of stakeholders. In our case the sample was too limited to allow for quantitative analysis, as it was planned initially. Another limitation is its gender bias, as only 4 out of 15 people are women, although the proportion of women among wetland users is probably higher. It is to be noted that the interviewees particularly appreciated the use of maps as a support for the interview. The opportunity to complement this formal questionnaire with more participatory approaches was missed, due to the inexperience of the interviewer with this type of approach."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"The number of external stakeholders interviewed is limited, and they belong to the same network, which probably reduces the diversity of points of view. These interviews should then be pursued with a wider range of stakeholders at different institutional levels, from local municipality to national government, and from various sectors (e.g., tourism). Representatives of downstream water users, such as the Olifants River Forum or the Kruger National Park are identified as potential stakeholders and should be interviewed. The format of this interview was very open, which can be a handicap if not well prepared and with inexperienced interviewer. The appropriateness of applying to external stakeholders the approach used for researchers, which appeared to be more structured, may be considered."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"For application in other sites, a combination of participatory approaches and a semi-structured individual survey might be considered. Participatory tools give interviewed people a different role, a different relationship with the interviewer, the interviews appears to be less \"extractive\" and more empowering from the stakeholder perspective. The objective of a more participatory approach would be to get a more in-depth understanding of the local situation in a relatively short time. Their use in the first steps of the stakeholder analysis would help structuring and shortening the individual questionnaire, which remains necessary to really describe the diversity of perceptions and for quantitative analysis."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"Finally, it appeared during the analysis of the interviews that a conceptual framework is necessary to compare the perceptions expressed by various stakeholders to go beyond a mere description. The classification of stakeholders presented in this paper is a tentative framework, which needs to be further developed."}]},{"head":"Identified trade-offs","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The stakeholder analysis conducted in Ga-Mampa wetland allowed identifying three main trade-offs between wetland ecosystem services:"},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The most obvious trade-off, which can lead to a conflict, occurs between crop production for food and commercialization and production of fibers for livestock grazing, reed and grass harvesting. This trade-off is related to land allocation process among the different uses. It concerns different groups of the local community, and also probably different individuals within the same households, when households use the wetland for several purposes. Local wetland users are fully aware of it."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The second trade-off happens between crop cultivation and hydrological regulation. It opposes local wetland users on one hand, and downstream water users and environmental lobbyists on the other hand. The awareness of the local population but also of downstream water users of this trade-off is relatively low, while environmentalist groups and some department staff give it a high priority."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"The last trade-off has seldom been mentioned by the various stakeholders we met, although it might be the most important one for the local population (Kotze 2005). It is related to the depletion of soil organic matter associated with the artificial drainage of wetland plots and unsustainable agricultural practices. It opposes wetland cultivators today with cultivators of tomorrow. The low level of awareness regarding this trade-off can be explained by the fact that the rapid expansion of farming in the wetland is relatively recent and its impacts on soil fertility are hardly perceptible yet."}]},{"head":"Further research","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"This identification of trade-offs and the associated stakeholders gives direction for further research on the site. Several activities are on going or planned to clarify our understanding of the system and support wetland management decisions. A livelihood analysis has been initiated in order to better quantify the contribution of wetland to the livelihood of the local community and prepare the economic valuation of wetland services. A hydrological monitoring is in place. Data will feed a hydrological model to better assess the contribution of the wetland to the hydrology of the catchment and at a larger scale to the basin. This will be the basis for evaluating the benefit of the hydrological regulation function of the wetland. In parallel, an agronomic analysis will be set up to understand the impact of present agricultural practices on the condition of the wetlands, more specifically the level of soil organic matter. Finally, on the basis of these disciplinary works, an integrated dynamic model will be developed to represent the interrelationships between the socio-economic system and the biophysical system of Ga-Mampa wetland. It will serve as a support of discussion among various groups of stakeholders on the future management of the wetland."},{"index":2,"size":241,"text":"Participatory management of the wetland Such decision-or negotiation-support tools are increasingly used to help decision in complex natural resources management contexts involving multiple stakeholders. However, to really have an impact on stakeholders' behavior, decision-support systems need to be developed and implemented in a participatory way (Van Asselt Marjolein and Rijkens-Klomp 2002 ;Steins and Edwards 1999). This is based on the assumption that involvement of stakeholders in a project will help to define the different components of the issues and to find more sustainable solutions. Participatory approach is particularly well adapted to the resolution of complex problems encompassing a network of multidisciplinary issues. In the case of Ga-Mampa wetland the preservation of the ecosystem is entangled with rural poverty, sustainability of irrigation system and apartheid legacy. Therefore, many stakeholders at various levels and from different sectors have to be involved in the wetland management. The involvement of the local community at every step of the development of a wetland management plan will ensure that they take ownership of the proposed plan and will commit to its implementation. Participation of external stakeholders is also required as some of them are influential in policy making (e.g., MWP) and others have decision power over the use of resources, including financial ones (e.g., traditional authorities, different levels of government). The characterization of stakeholders proposed in this paper may help identifying which actors should be involved at various steps of the decision-making process. The Olifants river catchment"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"The Ga-Mampa wetland   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 :Figure 3 :Figure 4 : Figure 1: Location of the Ga-Mampa wetland in the Mohlapetsi river catchment, a tributary of the Olifants River "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: General approach of the stakeholder analysis "},{"text":"Table 1 : Example of a stakeholder analysis matrix (World Bank 2003)  Stakeholder Relevant Characteristics Interests in Influence on StakeholderRelevantCharacteristicsInterestsinInfluenceon categories stakeholders (social, location, relation to policy policy (H=High, categoriesstakeholders(social, location,relation to policypolicy (H=High,    size, (effects on / M=Medium, size,(effects on /M=Medium,    organizational effects of policy) L=Low) organizationaleffects of policy)L=Low)    capability    capability Government      Government policy-makers      policy-makers Implementing      Implementing agency staffs      agency staffs Intended       Intended beneficiaries      beneficiaries Adversely      Adversely affected persons      affected persons Organized      Organized interest groups      interest groups (e.g., business      (e.g.,business associations,      associations, trade-unions)      trade-unions) Civil society      Civilsociety (e.g., NGOs,      (e.g.,NGOs, CBOs, religious      CBOs, religious organizations)      organizations) Donors       Donors Other external /      Other external / international      international stakeholders      stakeholders  "}],"sieverID":"66dd7681-7cdc-4130-952b-0e470db09012","abstract":"The Ga-Mampa wetland within the Mohlapitsi river catchment, located in the Olifants River basin in South Africa, is used by the local community as part of their livelihoods. It has been recently partly converted to agricultural land with potential threats on its ecological functions, such as the regulation of hydrology of the river. To ensure that this development does not compromise environmental security, a holistic approach is required. In particular, sustainable management of wetland cannot be achieved without active participation of all stakeholders including the local community. Therefore, a stakeholder analysis appears to be a prerequisite for any development or research intervention on wetland management, as emphasised by the Ramsar Convention.A stakeholder analysis was conducted in 2005 in this wetland. Its objectives were to (1) consolidate the understanding of the system, with an identification of key stakeholders, (2) set their perception of the situation, the issues at stake regarding the wetland use and management, the causes of conflicts among them, and (3) identify existing and potential trade-offs between the various uses of the wetlands and its ecological functions. The approach used comprises three different types of interviews, depending on the targeted interviewees: scientists, local community members and stakeholders living outside the valley.The results illustrate the wide range of stakeholders involved in the management of this wetland and the diversity of their perceptions. Local community members mainly consider the wetland as an agricultural resource for their livelihoods while stakeholders from outside focus more on its hydrological importance for the Mohlapitse River and further downstream for the Olifants River. The latter also consider the wetland as an opportunity to develop economically the valley using alternative livelihood activities such as craft industry and tourism. Similarly solutions proposed by the various stakeholders differ according to their perception. Three main trade-offs have been identified: between crop production, livestock grazing and natural vegetation production; between water for on-site food production and income generation and water supply downstream; and between today's livelihoods and future soil fertility.The paper concludes on an analysis of the advantages and limits of the approach used for further application."}

data/part_5/093934c46fdadc220e76a9fccb6e833d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"093934c46fdadc220e76a9fccb6e833d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87bb25ee-8374-4171-8ef0-5561752b8aa7/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"መደበኛ ንፅህና ያለው የአለባ ሥርዓትን ማረጋገጫ መንገዶች (SoP) 1 የወተት ማለቢያ ዕቃዎችን በአግባቡ ማፅዳት። 2 አንድ ንፁህ ፎጣ የያዘና አንድ በረኪናና ውኃ የያዘ ባልዲ ማዘጋጀት። 3 የሚታለቡ ላሞችን የኋላ ሰውነት ክፍላቸውን ማጠብ። 4 እጅን በአግባቡ በሳሙና ማታጠብ። 5 ግቱን ለብ ባለ ውኃ ማጠብ፤ በንፁህ ፎጣ ማድረቅ፤ ያደረቅንበትን ፎጣ በረኪና የያዘው ባልዲ ውስጥ መዘፍዘፍ። 6 እጅን በአግባቡ በሳሙና ማታጠብ። 7 ከአለባ በፊት ሁሉንም የጡት ጫፍ በአዮዲን መንከር። 8 በጡት ጫፍ ላይ የቀረውን አዮዲን በንፁህ ፎጣ ማፅዳት። 9 ከያንዳንዱ ጡት ናሙና የሚሆን ትንሽ ወተት በነጭ ሲኒ ውስጥ በማለብ ያልተለመደ ነገር ወተት ውስጥ ካለ ማረጋገጥ። 10 ሁሉንም ጡቶች አጠናቆ በደንብ ማለብ። 11 እጅን በአግባቡ በሳሙና ማታጠብ። 12 ከአለባ በኋላ ሁሉንም የጡት ጫፍን በአዮዲን መንከር። 13 ከአለባ በኋላ ሁሉንም የጡት ጫፍን በአዮዲን መንከር። 14 የተጠቀምንበትን ፎጣዎች በአግባቡ ማጠብ፤ ማድረቅና ለሚቀጥለው ዙር ማዘጋጀት።","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" የኢትዮጵያ እንስሳት ጤና ለገጠር ልማት (HEARD)ፕሮጀክት ወጪ የሚሸፈነው በአውሮፓ ሕብረት ነው። ከፕሮጀክቱ ዓላማዎች መካከል አንዱ የሆነው የእንስሳት ሕክምና አገልግሎት ሰጪዎችን ቴክኒካል ብቃት በማሻሻል የተሻለ አገልግሎት እንዲሰጡና ተገቢ አገልግሎት እንዲሰጡ ማድረግ ነው። ይህም በዓለም አቀፍ የእንስሳት ምርምር ኢንስቲትዩት (ILRI) እና የኢትዮጵያ የእንስሳት ሐኪሞች ማኅበር (EVA) በጋራ በመተግበር ላይ ይገኛል። የHEARD ፕሮጀክት ዋና ፈጻሚው የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ ዲሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ የግብርና ሚኒስቴር ነው። ይህ እትም የተዘጋጀው በአውሮፓ ህብረት የገንዘብ ድጋፍ ነው። ይዘቱ የ ILRI (ዳግም ብርሃኑ እና ሰለሞን ግዛው) ብቸኛ ኃላፊነት እንጂ የግድ የአውሮፓ ህብረትን አመለካከት የሚያንፀባርቅ አይደለም። አድራሻዎች (Contacts) አዘጋጅ፦ ዳግም ብርሃኑ፤ ILRI, [email protected] አስተዋፅኦ ያበረከቱ፦ ሰለሞን ግዛው እና ቲዮዶር ናይት-ጆንስ የተተገበረው በ በአውሮፓ ህብረት የገንዘብ ድጋፍ ጋር በመተባበር "}],"sieverID":"bb289dd1-7f16-4ca4-94fd-24531f165584","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0950f989f2b35b49b06ebcdf2ed6c9d4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0950f989f2b35b49b06ebcdf2ed6c9d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e3a1aee7-d3b5-4a89-bb91-c47d9ca68e53/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Neglected and underutilised species (NUS): an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT)","keywords":["orphan crops","NUS","SWOT analysis","sustainable agriculture","rural development View publication stats"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"99deb34d-c41b-4e55-be61-397ce1200c12","abstract":"Despite the growing attention to the neglected and underutilised species (NUS) as a valid instrument to promote not only sustainable agriculture and food systems but also sustainable development in rural areas, attempts to move from good intentions to effective actions have been limited. This is due, among others, to a gap in knowledge about the myriads of existing NUS and their potential. In this context, the present paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of crop NUS. Data for the SWOT analysis were retrieved through a review of the literature carried out in June 2022 on the Web of Science. Strengths relate, inter alia, to adaptability to harsh, marginal conditions, tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g. pests and diseases, drought) and low external input requirements of NUS as well as their high medicinal and nutritional values combined with widespread culinary traditions. Weaknesses regard low productivity as well as difficult access to quality seeds, inputs, technologies and knowledge. Higher demand from consumers as well as increasing attention to sustainability and resilience in the whole agri-food system and agroecology represent opportunities for the promotion of NUS to address challenges such as food and nutrition insecurity and poverty. Climate change, biodiversity loss and genetic erosion, land and agroecosystem degradation, loss of traditional knowledge and heritage, and competition from commercial crops are among the main threats to NUS. The SWOT of NUS outlined in this work should inform evidence-based policies and strategies for the promotion of NUS, especially in developing countries. They should also guide the undertakings and actions of all stakeholders interested in the development of NUS value chains."}

data/part_5/0962cc473d4c91a1c13f91812838c967.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0962cc473d4c91a1c13f91812838c967","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/333b2770-ae0c-4676-991c-a985dac845f0/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"4","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"A todos los pequeños agricultores, colegas e instituciones que han trabajado de manera conjunta con el proyecto IssAndes en el desarrollo y aplicación de los diferentes conceptos y contenidos en este documento."}]},{"head":"Agradecimientos","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"EXPRESAMOS NUESTRO RECONOCIMIENTO y profundo agradecimiento a quienes estuvieron vinculados en el desarrollo del presente catálogo: los agricultores, técnicos, científi cos y promotores del desarrollo. Su contribución, desde diferentes ángulos, ha sido sumamente valiosa para estudiar y profundizar en las propiedades nutritivas de un grupo de variedades de Apurímac y Huancavelica, con el objetivo de encontrar alternativas para el desarrollo de innovaciones orientadas a mejorar la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional de las poblaciones vulnerables en el Perú."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Un especial agradecimiento al grupo de agricultores y agricultoras conservacionistas, quienes como socios de la investigación pusieron sus parcelas y variedades a disposición para los estudios y análisis físico-químico. Ellos son los esposos: Armando Ramos y Aidé Parí; Mercediano Chacón y Donata Pichiua; Roberto Maucaylle y Victoria Yauris y los señores Dámason Pariona y José Palomino. Del mismo modo, agradecemos al equipo técnico de los socios de IssAndes quienes cumplieron un importante rol en el asesoramiento y conducción de las parcelas de caracterización: Celfi a Obregón, Jesús Blancas y Leonardo Espinoza, de ADERS Perú; Mario Sevilla, Oscar Delgado, Antonio Palomino y Sergio Villano de CAPAC Perú; Cecilia Flores, Miguel Quispe, Fidel Simón y Alfredo Meza, de PRISMA."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Se agradece la contribución del equipo técnico del CIP en Huancayo y Lima, por su excelente trabajo a nivel de campo y laboratorio: Delio Alfaro, Carolina Bastos, Luz Bernardo, Sergio Maguiña, Jorge Nuñez, Eduardo Porras, Luis Roca. Asimismo, agradecemos a los investigadores de los programas globales de Genética y Mejoramiento de Cultivos, Recursos Genéticos y Ciencias Sociales, por sus interesantes aportes que sentaron las bases para la elaboración de este catálogo: Stef De Haan, Thomas Zum Felde, Guy Hareau, y Walter Amorós. De igual manera, agradecemos a Ana María Vela por su aporte en la producción de esta publicación."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Para su implementación, IssAndes ha contado con el apoyo fi nanciero de la Unión Europea (UE). EL PROYECTO Innovación para la Seguridad y Soberanía Alimentaria en los Andes (IssAndes) del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), se ejecuta en cooperación con la Unión Europea (UE) y articula a una serie de socios públicos y privados en Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú."},{"index":5,"size":190,"text":"El enfoque moderno de la agricultura reconoce la necesidad de desarrollar un nuevo modelo que articule la agricultura, la nutrición, la salud humana y la generación de ingresos de los productores. Este modelo debe orientarse a mejorar la articulación entre los sistemas de producción y los sistemas alimentarios en zonas geográfi cas específi cas, para reducir su vulnerabilidad a la inseguridad alimentaria mediante la innovación. El enfoque de trabajo de IssAndes (www.issandes.org) y de sus socios nacionales de investigación y desarrollo, busca promover y sacar provecho de los sistemas de producción basados en el cultivo de la papa, columna vertebral de la alimentación de las poblaciones rurales en las regiones altoandinas. La papa es un cultivo con múltiples ventajas comparativas: crece rápidamente, es fácilmente adaptable, tiene alto rendimiento y no es muy afectado por las fl uctuaciones internacionales de precios de los alimentos (como quedó demostrado en la última crisis mundial de precios de los alimentos del 2008). Las papas son ideales para lugares donde hay poca tierra y abunda la mano de obra, condiciones características de gran parte del mundo en desarrollo y especialmente de las zonas altoandinas. Sin"}]},{"head":"Miguel Ordinola","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Coordinador del Proyecto IssAndes en Perú","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"André Devaux","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Director de América Latina y el Caribe del CIP Líder del SO5 -Sistemas Alimentarios Resilientes \"un potencial impresionante por su impacto en la nutrición, escalamiento e innovación\". El objetivo de este concurso fue recolectar y resaltar experiencias exitosas de aquellos proyectos que buscan acercar los enfoques de nutrición con los de agricultura y seguridad alimentaria. De las cincuenta experiencias de todas partes del mundo que se presentaron al concurso, se premiaron cinco, siendo IssAndes la única de América Latina y las otras cuatro de África."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Esta publicación presenta los avances realizados por el proyecto en el Perú en la caracterización de las variedades nativas. Esperamos que sea de utilidad para los diferentes proyectos y experiencias públicas y privadas que se vienen implementando para promover la investigación y el desarrollo de innovaciones ligadas a la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional."}]},{"head":"Presentación","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"embargo, el modelo también reconoce que deben incluirse variables como diversifi cación productiva, educación nutricional e incidencia en políticas públicas, a fi n de generar mayores impactos en los resultados."},{"index":2,"size":260,"text":"De manera operativa IssAndes trabaja en función a cuatro componentes: i) Contribución de la papa a la nutrición y salud: innovaciones en papa relacionadas con la nutrición y salud, de manera participativa; ii) Mejoras en sistemas de producción basados en papa: innovaciones en el marco de sistemas agrícolas (semilla, cambio climático, manejo integrado del cultivo y manejo de crianzas menores, tanto para la alimentación de la familia como para la articulación al mercado; iii) Educación nutricional para el cambio de comportamiento: mejoras en prácticas de alimentación, diversifi cación de alimentos, conocimiento nutricional; iv) Incidencia pública y de políticas: promover políticas para el fortalecimiento de la seguridad alimentaria y nutrición. Introducción EN LAS FAMILIAS asentadas en los Andes, la papa es un componente importante de su dieta, es la base de sus sistemas de cultivo y fuente de ingresos económicos, aportando de manera importante a su seguridad alimentaria. En las zonas andinas del Perú (3,800 -4,100 msnm), el cultivo de la papa ocupa alrededor del 80% de la superfi cie agrícola, destacándose por su rica biodiversidad en un marco de agricultura familiar a pequeña escala y una cultura tradicional. Esta diversidad se expresa en los sabores, colores y formas, así como también en las propiedades nutricionales e incluso por su aporte a la salud. Gran parte de esta riqueza se mantiene en custodia en el Banco de Germoplasma del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) con la fi nalidad de salvaguardar los recursos genéticos, que sirvan de base para la generación de nuevas variedades con interesantes características agronómicas, comerciales y nutricionales."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"La elaboración del presente catálogo ha sido impulsada por el Proyecto IssAndes del CIP en colaboración con los programas globales Genética y Mejoramiento de Cultivos y Recursos Genéticos, con la participación de los socios territoriales ADERS Perú, CAPAC Perú y PRISMA, y la importante contribución de un grupo de agricultores conservacionistas de las regiones de Apurímac y Huancavelica, donde se implementa el Proyecto."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"La publicación presenta como tema central las características nutricionales, morfológicas y moleculares de un grupo de 24 variedades nativas de papa, que fueron seleccionadas por su excelente calidad nutricional de un total de 200 variedades analizadas. Se incluye información complementaria sobre la biodiversidad y seguridad alimentaria y nutricional en los andes, el rol de la papa nativa en el ámbito de intervención de IssAndes y testimonios de los agricultores conservacionistas que colaboraron con la investigación."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Con este trabajo se espera llamar la atención sobre el valor nutricional de un grupo destacado de variedades nativas, de manera que puedan ser un aporte a la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición de las poblaciones vulnerables de las zonas rurales y urbanas del Perú."}]},{"head":"IX 13 12","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Biodiversidad,seguridad alimentaria y nutricional en los andes Cabe mencionar que en base a los cálculos realizados sobre los alimentos que componen la dieta de los niños/as, se encontró que estas variedades aportan el 13% de hierro, zinc y vitamina C (favorecedor de la absorción de hierro de fuente vegetal). Este estudio también encontró que en la dieta actual el aporte de la papa es mayor que el de las carnes en Huancavelica y solo un poco menor en el caso de Apurímac. Asimismo, para los niños y niñas a partir de los seis meses, la papa es un alimento suave y versátil y en combinación con otros alimentos, es un importante y nutritivo componente de la dieta. El hierro de la papa tiene mayor biodisponibilidad que los cereales, aunque no tanto como las carnes. Si se incluye un mayor consumo de papas nativas de alto contenido de hierro en la dieta, puede generar mayores benefi cios."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"LA EXISTENCIA de una rica biodiversidad de la papa en la región andina, cuya domesticación se inició hace 7,000 años AC, es producto de una cultura andina que ha conservado sus recursos por varias generaciones y actualmente constituyen un importante legado para la humanidad. En esta diversidad se"}]},{"head":"La papa nativa en las zonas de trabajo de IssAndes: Huancavelica y Apurímac","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Focalización en zonas de alta concentración de pobreza y cultivo de papa para identifi car poblaciones objetivos baja a 1 t/ha., afectando seriamente la economía de la familia rural (generalmente se ve afectada por fenómenos climáticos tales como, las heladas, sequías y granizadas, y enfermedades como la infestación por \"rancha\" o tizón tardío); la comercialización se da en mayor medida en Apurímac (70% de la producción) mientras que en Huancavelica es mayor el autoconsumo; las variedades más importantes desde el punto de vista comercial son Huayro y Peruanita (76% de superfi cie en Apurímac y 54% en Huancavelica)."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"La importancia del cultivo de la papa nativa, como se señaló anteriormente, radica en la existencia de una cultura andina milenaria. En la sierra peruana existen diversos grupos de pequeños productores que han permitido mantener una rica biodiversidad, así como también un sistema de cultivo sostenible y de acuerdo a su realidad territorial peculiar. En estas zonas se practica la rotación de laderas, denominados \"laymes\", y el uso de terrenos descansados por 4 a 7 años (siendo la papa el primer cultivo de la rotación). Se trabaja bajo una perspectiva ecológica, con la premisa de lograr cosechas libres de plagas y enfermedades; se práctica el \"shacro\", con la siembra de decenas de variedades en mezcla en los surcos y la labranza cero, que evita la remoción del suelo, como una forma de contrarrestar el efecto de la erosión de los terrenos."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Para el manejo de cultivo se utilizan herramientas tradicionales como la \"chakitajlla\" o arado de pie para las labores de preparación del suelo antes de la siembra (\"barbecho\" y \"chacmeo\"). En estas zonas, es interesante el trabajo organizado durante el cultivo, con una visión de género y generacional, con la mantienen una rica biodiversidad de cultivos. Este es el caso de los llamados agricultores conservacionistas, quienes cultivan 50, 100, o hasta 300 variedades nativas de papa en parcelas menores a una hectárea, ya que para ellos, la biodiversidad es su medio de vida."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Muchas de las variedades que manejan se han mantenido de generación en generación. Su contribución más importante es la de ser \"Guardianes de la Biodiversidad\", que ayudan a mantener una reserva fundamental, que forma parte del patrimonio cultural del país, y que constituye un gran aporte para la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional de estas zonas."},{"index":5,"size":176,"text":"Cinco reconocidos agricultores y tres agricultoras conservacionistas de Apurímac y Huancavelica, se integraron desde el 2011 a una investigación conjunta con el Proyecto IssAndes, sus socios territoriales ADERS Perú, CAPAC Perú y PRISMA, y un equipo de investigadores del CIP, para la caracterización morfológica, molecular y nutricional de 200 variedades nativas de papa y cuyo resultado se ve plasmado en el presente catálogo. A continuación se realiza una breve reseña de los agricultores conservacionistas socios de la investigación, quienes realizaron aportes altamente signifi cativos para el presente catálogo. Relata que por los años ochenta, en tiempos de inestabilidad social casi todo el pueblo huyó a otras ciudades, pero él se quedó enfrentando situaciones muy adversas. Unos años después (1999), llegaron un grupo de investigadores que buscaban rescatar las papas nativas, al cual se integró con mucho entusiasmo, sobre el cual afi rma que \"desde esos años siempre estoy dispuesto a colaborar, aquí en mi parcela han hecho varias tesis; ahora colaboro con ADERS-Perú, y el proyecto IssAndes\" en seleccionar las papas que alimentarán a los niños\"."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"A todo lo anterior agrega un pedido: \"la papa es un cultivo que enfrenta muchas adversidades, por el clima y las plagas, el apoyo debiera ser permanente para conservar estos recursos en nuestras tierras, y trabajar con los jovencitos pensando en el futuro de la nación\"."}]},{"head":"Don Damason Pariona","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Laria, Conayca, Huancavelica DON ARMANDO, es un joven y acucioso agricultor que vive cerca a sus padres y ha heredado de ellos la pasión por las papas nativas. Ahora comparte esta pasión junto con su esposa Aidé y sus cuatro hijos aún pequeños. Son conocidos en Perú, y a nivel internacional como productores de papa nativa y como buenos colaboradores de la investigación, nos dice: \"mi familia ha recibido numerosas visitas de personas importantes, científi cos, periodistas nacionales e internacionales, así hacemos conocer nuestras papas nativas como patrimonio nacional\". Esta familia ha hecho buena amistad con los científi cos del CIP, así como también con los especialistas de PRISMA y ADERS Perú."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Hace ya diez años participa en diversas ferias de la papa, que cada año organizan las instituciones públicas y diversas ONG, en Huancavelica, Junín, Ayacucho y Lima. \"A cada feria que voy me consigo unas cuantas variedades de papa para aumentar mi colección, que ahora llega a 230 variedades, […]   DESCRIPCIÓN MORFOLÓGICA: Reporta los caracteres morfológicos básicos de la planta y el tubérculo, siguiendo la lista de descriptores morfológicos de la papa y la tabla de colores (Gómez 2000). Son seis caracteres los que se presentan en este catálogo: hábito de crecimiento, color de la fl or, forma del tubérculo, profundidad de los ojos, color de la piel y de la pulpa."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"INFORMACIÓN MOLECULAR: Presenta el perfi l genético o la \"huella genética\" de cada variedad, inspirado en el diseño de los antiguos kipus, y confeccionado en base a marcadores moleculares (23 marcadores microsatélites). Su conocimiento es de gran utilidad para el mejoramiento genético de variedades. Las características que están descritas en el kipu son cinco, y se presentan en el siguiente cuadro:"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"COMENTARIO SOBRE LA VARIEDAD: Se presenta las características relevantes de cada variedad en cuanto a su valor nutricional y aptitud culinaria."}]},{"head":"INFORMACIÓN VISUAL:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Para cada variedad se presentan un total de cuatro vistas fotográfi cas: la planta, la fl or, el tubérculo entero y el tubérculo partido."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"La información nutricional ha sido complementada con datos morfológicos y moleculares, que fueron trabajados por el equipo de especialistas del Programa Global de Recursos Genéticos, con la fi nalidad de precisar las especies a las cuales pertenecen las variedades, estimar la diversidad genética existente y determinar el perfi l genético de cada una de las variedades como base para el mejoramiento genético."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Los datos corresponden a las evaluaciones realizadas durante los años 2012 y 2013 en cuatro localidades:"},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"A continuación se precisan, los detalles sobre la caracterización nutricional, morfológica y molecular, en base a la información recopilada en los análisis de laboratorio, y en las parcelas de los agricultores."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"A continuación a manera de ejemplo se muestra el perfi l genético de la variedad Puka Puma (pa) Makin: "}]},{"head":"Solanum stenotomum","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Qulli Sullu","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Hábito de crecimiento [ Wenccos ] "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Esta experiencia fue reconocida, por su trabajo en Perú, en el concurso Harvesting Nutrition 2013 (http://bit.ly/ConcursoBM), organizado por la plataforma de conocimiento SecurityNutrition del Banco Mundial. El panel de cinco jurados conformado por representantes de las instituciones organizadoras (The Security Nutrition Knowledge Platform, Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition y Save the Children) decidió premiar a IssAndes al encontrar en sus resultados y enfoque 10 "},{"text":" participación de la familia en pleno (hombres y mujeres de diferentes edades) donde cada integrante cumple un rol específi co en las diversas labores que demanda el cultivo de la papa. Al respecto retomamos la siguiente refl exión En el Perú hay una gran diversidad cultural que está ligado a la conservación de la biodiversidad. La mayor parte de esa diversidad está en manos de los agricultores pequeños, marginados que autoconsumen casi toda su producción, o de comunidades indígenas de culturas muy antiguas y tradicionales. El cambio en los sistemas de producción y el abandono de las prácticas tradicionales puede traer como consecuencia la pérdida de la diversidad. […] Es injusto mantener una situación de marginalidad y pobreza; es necesario por lo tanto mejorar todo el sistema, mejorando alguno o varios de sus componentes, sin disminuir la diversidad. Es necesario criterios y metodologías para estar seguro que la diversidad se está manteniendo en manos del agricultor, o para llamar la atención en caso de que disminuya, y así poder conocer el proceso de erosión genética (Sevilla y Holle 2004). ES INTERESANTE encontrar en las zonas alto andinas (3,400-4,100 msnm) agricultores que "},{"text":" más ricas, para mis hijos que radican ya varios años\". Don Damason tiene 8 hijos, todos casados, ahora lo acompaña solo una hija en la comunidad. "},{"text":" realmente en estas ferias intercambiamos variedades, hace poco conseguí las variedades de Cuzco y Puno, algunas son las mismas que yo tengo\". Ha sido galardonado más de una vez por su colección y ser conocedor de numerosas papas nativas.Como todos los agricultores conservacionistas, guarda un sentimiento especial por las papas desde su niñez, todos los años siembra en pequeñas parcelas, en \"shagro\", mezclando todas sus variedades, indica: \"yo prefi ero sembrar en \"shagro\", para asegurar mi cosecha, y la alimentación de mi familia, […] a la cosecha separo las variedades para comer en fresco y para preparar chuño, para regalar a mi familia y mis compadres, y para vender en las ferias\". Su mayor deseo es continuar sembrando las papas nativas por muchos años más, pero cada año observa con preocupación cambios drásticos en el clima. \"[…] estos últimos años las heladas y granizadas caen en cualquier momento, afectando la cosecha de papa, éstas se quedan menudas y su producción se reduce, a veces solo cubrimos nuestro consumo familiar, no hay volumen para vender\". "},{"text":" hace 20 años formó el Comité de Conservacionistas de Conayca, con 24 socios, del cual fue presidente. Ha viajado por varias ciudades participando de las \"ferias de la biodiversidad\", ganando muchos diplomas y trofeos por sus numerosas y novedosas variedades de papa. Es un buen conocedor de las propiedades que tienen la mayoría de las 150 variedades que cultiva y nos dice: \"unas resisten bien a las heladas, otras crecen bien en terrenos arcillosos, otras deben sembrarse solo en laderas, también hay papas especiales para la sopa y la pachamanca, para el chuño, la papa seca y el almidón, y otras hasta son apropiadas para las mujeres embarazadas\".Cuando formó su familia, muy joven a los 23 años, lo primero que pensó fue sembrar todas las variedades de papa que tenía su padre, \"las papas son la alegría de mi vida y hasta hoy a mis 82 años me acompañan, son mis fi eles compañeras, las siembro siempre en la jalca, allá en las alturas,[…]  y todos los años, después de la cosecha viajo a Lima llevando unas cuantas arrobas de las 21 20 21 DON JOSÉ es muy conocido en todo Andahuaylas y Apurímac, como también en Lima, siendo un gran colaborador e investigador nato. Ha participado en muchas ferias a nivel nacional e internacional, exhibiendo con mucho orgullo una gran variedad de papas nativas. Actualmente se muestra muy entusiasmado porque su esfuerzo por conservar y seleccionar las variedades nativas por su calidad culinaria e industrial están surtiendo efecto. \"Mi compromiso con las papas nativas es cada vez mayor, años atrás (2004) participé activamente para impulsar las variedades de color, con el proyecto de INCOPA/Papa Andina, con CAPAC Perú, estas papas ahora son famosas en Perú y en Europa, me refi ero a los chips de colores, actualmente estoy apostando por las papas de pulpas moradas y rojas, que poseen antioxidantes, y previenen muchas enfermedades, […] algunas ya se venden en las ferias y las tiendas de autoservicios con mucha aceptación como la Q' eccorani, esta papita es muy apreciada por sus colores\". Nos relata que desde muy niño se vinculó al cultivo de la papa, participaba de las cosechas, ayudando a sus padres en la selección de papa para el consumo y para la semilla. Le llamaba mucho la atención los colores diferentes y los sabores de las papas, pero también le preocupaban mucho las plagas que se presentaban con frecuencia en los campos, lo cual lo motivó a formarse como Técnico Agropecuario, y basado en su formación nos dice: \"hace tiempo ya, que me apasiona la investigación y siempre estoy abierto a colaborar con semillas y mis campos para nuevos experimentos; vienen aquí mis colegas del INIA-Cuzco, de las Universidades, y varios proyectos, como este último de IssAndes y Capac Perú. Espero que todo ello sirva para mejorar la economía de las familias campesinas; pero lamentablemente el apoyo de los gobiernos a la agricultura es mínimo; que a veces desanima continuar en esta carrera de agricultor\". DON MERCEDIANO Y DOÑA DONATA, son una pareja dedicada íntegramente a la agricultura; en su pueblo natal Kishuará siembran, varios cultivos para la casa y para el mercado, pero confi esan que la papa es el cultivo más preciado, por diversas razones: \"en especial la papa nativa es la que más apreciamos, heredé de mis y padres y abuelos unas 50 variedades, todas ellas muy ricas y harinosas, y de excelente color, amarillas, como yema de huevo, hasta moradas, como las moras […] Ahora estas papitas tienen un buen futuro, son buscaditas en el mercado y su precio está bien\". Esta pareja de esposos siempre están dispuestos a colaborar con la exhibición de las papas nativas ya sea en ferias, como en museos, universidades u otros espacios. Su dedicación al cultivo, les está rindiendo frutos, de esa forma se han vinculado con instituciones que promueven la cadena comercial de la papa, y desde la Asociación de productores Los Andes, la cual Don Mercediano dirige, vende papas nativas a los mercados de la capital. Asimismo, colaboran con la investigación, actualmente con IssAndes, poniendo a disposición sus papas nativas, su terreno y su tiempo, por lo que confi esan que: \"Estamos muy entusiasmados por conocer las propiedades nutricionales y porque no las propiedades medicinales de las papas nativas, […] por aquí usamos la papa contra el dolor de cabeza y de las muelas haciendo emplastos, también el chuño de la papa amarga es un buen alimento para las mujeres embarazadas\". Don Mercediano reconoce que su esposa, conoce muy bien los vaivenes del cultivo de papa en las zonas alto andinas. Ella comenta: \"Las siembras de papa están expuestos a las inclemencias del clima, si es muy lluvioso ya la \"rancha\" esta encima y hay que aplicar químicos queramos o no para salvar la cosecha; también las heladas y el granizo a veces nos afecta; pero hay variedades de las nativas que resisten, y por eso las sembramos a mayor altura, allí rinden bien y son más ricas y más coloreadas\". Donata se encarga de la selección de las variedades para semilla, consumo, y el mercado en diferentes calidades y calibres, lo que aprendió de las capacitaciones técnicas que recibió ya hace unos años de la ONG CAPAC Perú y del Proyecto INCOPA-CIP, conocimiento que les ha servido para incursionar en mercados exigentes en calidad. variedades de papas nativas. Asimismo, recientemente recibió elPremio \"Ministerio de Agricultura\", un reconocimiento anual otorgado como presidente de \"Qori Ccantu\", y por su condición de conservacionista innovador, sobre ello señala: \"Estos premios son un buen aliciente para continuar perseverando con la siembra de papas nativas, a pesar que hay años en que el clima nos castiga ya con las heladas o ya con sequías, y también la \"rancha\", un problema muy serio por aquí para las papas nativas\".Actualmente están interesados en conocer sobre las propiedades nutritivas de las papas nativas y de las mejoradas, al respecto doña Victoria se muestra contenta de saber que las papas nativas están siendo estudiadas, como ella dice: \"Antesmirábamos a las papas por su bonito color y su forma, ahora estamos inquietas por conocer que tienen dentro, […] como nos dicen los ingenieros, debe ser que nuestras papas son muy nutritivas para los niños y para todos. Estamos muy agradecidos por todo lo que hemos logrado hasta ahora, y esperamos continuar trabajando con los ingenieros en nuevas cosas\". DOÑA VICTORIA forman una pareja de agricultores innovadores, de cuyos padres heredaron su afi ción por el cultivo de las papas nativas, lo cual se ha visto potenciado con el apoyo de los proyectos de investigación y desarrollo como INCOPA/Papa Andina/CIP y actualmente de IssAndes, a través de socios como CAPAC Perú. Ellos reconocen este apoyo, y nos comenta que: \"Desde el 2006 mantenemos vínculos con los ingenieros de CAPAC, quienes nos han capacitado en el cultivo y la comercialización de nuestras papas nativas, logramos vender a un buen precio a los mercados de mayor prestigio en Lima, como Wong y Metro, y también a la industria de los \"chipis\", […] este año hemos comercializado más de 50 t. ya con la Asociación de Productores \"Qori Ccantu\", de la comunidad de Tintay, en la cual somos más de diez socios\". Siguiendo la trayectoria de los agricultores conservacionistas, Roberto Mauycalle ha sido merecedor de varios premios en diferentes años. Recibió un reconocimiento como conservacionista de la región Apurímac, por cultivar Reporta el valor nutricional de los tubérculos, en función a la concentración de los siguientes elementos: Vitamina C (Vit. C), hierro (Fe), zinc (Zn), compuestos fenólicos totales (CFT), antocianinas totales (AT) y la actividad antioxidante (AA); se ha trabajado con muestras crudas (2012-2013) y cocidas (2013) de cada variedad. Los valores son promedios y están expresados en base seca pero también se incluye el dato de materia seca (MS %), que permite realizar el cálculo de la concentración en base fresca. "},{"text":" , IssAndes ha impulsado la caracterización de variedades nativas de papa dentro de su componente de trabajo 1: \"Contribución de la Papa a la Nutrición y Salud\". En este catálogo se presenta un grupo de 24 variedades nativas cultivadas en el ámbito de intervención del Proyecto IssAndes, en las zonas productoras de papa de las regiones de Apurímac y Huancavelica (ver listado en el Anexo 1). Estas variedades fueron seleccionadas por su calidad nutricional, entre un total de 200 variedades y luego de una evaluación de dos años (2012 y 2013). Se debe precisar que estas variedades fueron proporcionadas por cinco familias de agricultores conservacionistas, quienes colaboraron con el establecimiento de las parcelas, contando con el apoyo del equipo técnico de IssAndes. Las parcelas se establecieron a altitudes que van de 3,800 a 4,100 m.s.n.m., en las localidades de San Gerónimo y Kishuará ubicadas en la provincia de Andahuaylas, en Apurímac, y de Atalla y Laria en la provincia de Huancavelica, en Huancavelica. Este trabajo fue coordinado por los socios territoriales de Huancavelica (ADERS Perú y PRISMA) y Apurímac (CAPAC Perú). Para el análisis nutricional de los tubérculos se tuvo la colaboración del Programa Global Genética y Mejoramiento de Cultivos, a través de su equipo técnico del Laboratorio de Calidad y Nutrición, el mismo que contó con los servicios del Waite Analitycal Service de la Universidad de Adelaide en Australia ligeramente harinosa y tiene potencial para uso industrial ligado a la salud. DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA • XXV harinosa y suave, con buen sabor para su consumo en fresco: sancochada o en puré. ligeramente harinosa y un sabor agradable. Se recomienda su consumo en fresco. DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA • XXVII muy harinosa y suave, con muy buen sabor y recomendada para consumo en fresco: puré y sancochada. harinosa, suave y de buen sabor, siendo recomendado para uso en puré y sancochada. 5 4 XXVIII • CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA • XXIX 32 , suave y de muy buen sabor, siendo recomendada para su consumo en puré y sancochada. Tiene textura ligeramente harinosa y de buen sabor, sugiriéndose su consumo en guisos y sancochada.7 6 XXX • CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA • XXXI "},{"text":" muy harinosa, suave, de sabor muy agradable, especial para consumo en fresco: puré y sancochada. , de buen sabor. Recomendada para consumo en fresco: puré y sancochado. • CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA • XXXV muy harinosa, suave y especial para su consumo en puré y sancochado. De textura muy harinosa, suave, buen sabor y especial para consumo en puré y sancochado. "},{"text":" • CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA CATÁLOGO DE VARIEDADES DE PAPA NATIVA DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA • XXXVII "}],"sieverID":"b7035940-fb62-4ec2-a667-5d75fe5f6289","abstract":"con potencial para la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional DE APURÍMAC Y HUANCAVELICA con potencial para la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional Agradecimiento 4 Catálogo de variedades de papa nativa con potencial para la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional de Apurímac y Huancavelica"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09644db73a6b1211ab6fcc894f28770c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25da0d2c-3673-483b-af4b-913f81c17286/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"Cassava Weed Management Project A training manual OF WEED MANAGEMENT IN CASSAVA PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA ABC THE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"PREFACE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"This guide is in response to demands from cassava stakeholders on the Cassava Matters WhatsApp group and the Knowledge Attitude and Practices study (KAPs) that was conducted by the IITA-led Cassava Weed Management Project. This easy-to-read reference manual for farmers will help them to cultivate cassava better and increase their productivity. The three dimensions of weed control: cultural, mechanical, and chemical are captured and illustrated in a logical and simplified manner."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Our aim is that farmers and other extension service actors reading this guide will be properly informed about critical aspects of cassava cultivation, and will be able to pass on this information to others. This material primarily belongs to the IITA Cassava Weed Management Project that is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been registered, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by the IITA Cassava Weed Management Project in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Cassava is widely grown in Nigeria and other tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It is rich in carbohydrates, calcium, vitamins B and C, and essential minerals. However, nutrient composition differs according to variety and age of the harvested crop, soil conditions, climate, and other environmental factors during cultivation. Every part of cassava is useful, the leaves are used as a vegetable for humans or fodder for animals, while the roots are major sources of carbohydrates. Yield of cassava in Africa and Nigeria in particular is being stymied by several factors including poor weed control."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Weeding takes 50-80 percent of total farm budget. In most communities women are the main actors that hand weed cassava, an activity that is tortuous and results to back-ache. Yield losses of cassava under weed infestation is estimated at between 50 and 90 percent. Poor weed control and other agronomic constraints impedes cassava production and put yield of cassava in Nigeria at about 8 tons per ha (t/ha) (FAO, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Cassava Weed Management Project","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"On the flip side, yield potential of cassava is high under good weed control conditions providing 25-40 t/ha of fresh root yield and 500-750 bundles/ha of stems. To bridge the yield gap, farmers need to:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"! Have a weed control plan. ! Reflect on the purpose for which they want to go into cassava production:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"-Root production for localized market or targeted industry."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"-Seed/stem production as a certified seed entrepreneur."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"-Root and stem production."}]},{"head":"!","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Reflect on the technical competence of personnel on weed management, agronomy, mechanization, processing and marketing."}]},{"head":"!","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Ensure timeliness of operation: an activity calendar can be of help."}]},{"head":"!","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Understand the cost implications and associated risks."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Cassava roots are consumed either boiled or processed into products such as flour, gari, fufu, akpu, chips, attieke (cassava couscous), tapioca, and abacha. Cassava can also be processed into industrial products such as ethanol and starch."}]},{"head":"Uses of cassava","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Cassava/Wheat Bread "}]},{"head":"Setting up calender for cassava farm","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Depending on location, prospective farmers are encouraged to draw up a calendar of operation (Fig. 1). This helps in planning and better implementation of activities. Please contact the nearest Agricultural Development Program (ADP) office to draw a calendar of operations. After selection of a suitable site, it is highly recommended to measure the site with an appropriate measuring instrument; a tape or a Global Positioning System (GPS) device. For rough estimate, measure the length and breadth in meters and multiply the length by the breadth to get the area."}]},{"head":"Measurement of selected site","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Benefits of site measurement"}]},{"head":"Land preparation and tillage","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"! It tells you the amount of money you need to pay for other operations such as land clearing, ploughing, harrowing etc. ! It reveals the exact amount of inputs to be applied such as herbicides and fertilizers. ! In summary, all other good agronomic practices are based on proper site measurement."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"! Slash the vegetation and remove tree stumps (where applicable)."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"! Apply glyphosate at the label rate on perennial weeds such as Imperata cylindrica, Panicum maximum, and Cyperus rotundus and other sedges."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"! Wait for 14 days and then plough once. ! Harrow once 14 days after ploughing. ! Ridge (1 m × 1 m) with a tractor mounted ridger but where not possible ridge manually. In case of manual ridging, mark out the points for ridging with pegs 1 m apart at both ends of the field. ! Join two pegs at opposite ends to guide ridging."}]},{"head":"Cassava Weed Management Project","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Planting materials","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Cassava stems are used for the propagation of cassava. The choice of variety is usually driven by the end use. For instance, a farmer who is targeting the starch industry might go for varieties that have high starch content while those considering the gari industry may go for the yellow varieties because of the nutritional benefits and so on. The yellow varieties are biofortified through conventional breeding to have increased carotenoid content to supply vitamin A-an essential nutrient needed by the body."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Whatever the reason for cultivating cassava, we encourage farmers to go for improved varieties that are high yielding and disease and pest resistant. A total of 46 improved cassava varieties have been released in Nigeria out of which 6 are biofortified yellow varieties. Please contact IITA, National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, or the nearest ADP office in your area for improved varieties."}]},{"head":"Stem cutting handling","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"! Stems for planting should be obtained from plants that are between 10 and 12 months old."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"! Cuttings should be disease free and without evidence of scars on the stem."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Cassava Weed Management Project"}]},{"head":"12","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"LG ED V I LA E SE S N TE RN U E RP EE R"}]},{"head":"THE ABC OF WEED MANAGEMENT IN CASSAVA PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"! Cassava stems can be planted the same day, but should not be stored for more than 5 days under shade."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"! For longer storage (not exceeding 60 days), cassava stems should be stored vertically in the soil under shade."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"! The base of the stems should touch the soil and moistened regularly, with the surroundings kept free from weeds."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"! The stems should be cut with sharp tools, preferably secateurs, cutlasses or a chainsaw into 20-25 cm lengths with 5-7 nodes."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"! Depending on location and history of insect pests, treat cassava stems with insecticide before planting to prevent termite and millipede attack by dipping stems in a solution of termiticide (Pyrinex 48 EC at 200 ml/100 liter of water) or any other termiticide."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Cassava Cassava is planted on ridges, mounds, or flat ground. Planting can be done manually or mechanically using planters."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"Cassava should be planted at a spacing of 1 m x 0.8 m (12,500 stands per ha) for root production. Closer spacing (1 m x 0.5 m) can be used for stem production."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"-3 0 2 5 c m 2 -3 0 5 c m"},{"index":9,"size":105,"text":"It is important for farmers to keep to the correct spacing because it helps in controlling weeds and also gives farmers optimum yield/result. ! Cassava stems should be planted or inserted in the ground 0 vertically, at an angle of 45 . ! Ensure that the nodes of the cutting are turned upwards. This enables fast sprouting of the stems. ! Ensure that two-thirds of the stem is buried in the ground while one third is above the ground. ! Ensure moisture availability at least for the first 2-3 months after planting. ! When using mechanical planters, cassava stems are usually buried in the ground."},{"index":10,"size":23,"text":"After the initial planting, visit the field after 15-21 days to observe sprouting and plant growth and replace cuttings that have not sprouted."}]},{"head":"Gap filling or replacement of non-sprouted cuttings","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Cassava Weed Management Project"}]},{"head":"Weeds and weed control","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Weeds are among the major constraints to cassava production, and for cassava farmers to be successful, they must control weeds. Weed control in cassava can be done manually, mechanically, culturally, or chemically (use of herbicides). Manual weed control involves the use of hand/hoe. Mechanical weed control entails the use of motorised weeders. Cultural methods such as the use of cover crops, hand hoe, correct spacing, tillage, and cassava variety also help in the control of weeds."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Cassava Weed Management Project"}]},{"head":"Chemical weed control","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pre-emergence weed control","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"This involves the use of herbicides which may be pre-emergence or post-emergence. Pre-emergence herbicides are herbicides that are applied before the weeds emerge while post-emergence herbicides are those that are applied on the field after the weeds emerge."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Pre-emergence herbicides such as Primextra Gold (S-Metolachlor + Atrazine) or any other herbicide registered for pre-emergence weed control in Nigeria should be applied immediately after cassava is planted. Farmers should note that the efficacy of any pre-emergence depends on good land preparation. For example, if perennial weeds especially rhizomatous, tuberous, or tufted weeds are not killed during land preparation, a good pre-emergence herbicide may fail."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"(For maximum efficacy, pre-emergence herbicides should be applied on the day after planting or at most two days after planting.)"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Post-emergence weed control"}]},{"head":"Caution in using glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"After applying pre-emergence herbicide, visit your farm weekly starting from 4 weeks after pre-emergence herbicide application. As soon as 30% of the weeds in the farm reach the 4-6 leaf stage, apply the appropriate post-emergence herbicide as spot treatment using a spray shield. If these steps are properly carried out, cassava should form a canopy and there may be no need for additional weeding until harvest. Farmers can use any of the registered post-emergence herbicides such as fusilade forte or glyphosate."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Glyphosate as a post-emergence should be applied under the canopy of cassava with a spray guard fitted to the nozzle, provided the cassava is 8 weeks old or more. Care must be taken when using glyphosate. Please note that glyphosate can only be applied with a knapsack sprayer as directed spray. It cannot be applied in a cassava field with a tractor mounted boom sprayer. For mechanized largescale farms, a tractor-drawn motorised rotary weeder is an option."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"If using mechanical or hand weeding, farmers are advised to visit their farms 2 weeks after planting to observe the emergence of weeds."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"As soon as 30% of the weeds in the farm reach the 4-6 leaf stage, begin to weed. Repeat this activity until cassava forms a canopy. The disadvantage here is the frequency involved and associated costs."}]},{"head":"Cassava Weed Management Project","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Some selected herbicides for pre-planting, pre-emergence, and post-emergence in cassava"}]},{"head":"Sprayer calibration","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Glyphosate: This herbicide is used for total weed control during preplanting and as a post-emergence herbicide."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"! Glyphosate is sold in the market as Roundup Turbo, Touchdown Forte, Delsate, Sarosate, Glycel, Force up, Clearweed, etc. ! Quantity (Liters per ha) needed per hectare: Read labels for rates."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Fusilade forte: This is a post-emergence herbicide used to control grasses. It should be combined with a broadleaf post-emergence herbicide for good weed control. Read labels for rates of application."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Primextra Gold (S-Metolachlor + Atrazine): This is a pre-emergence herbicide used for control of most annual grasses and broadleaf weeds. ! Apply Primextra Gold apply after planting (1-2 days) but before crops and weeds emerge. ! The seed bed (ridges/flat) should be moist and clean. ! Quantity (Liters per ha) needed per hectare: Read labels for rates."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Lagon (Aclonifen + Isoxaflutole): This is a pre-emergence herbicide for the control of most annual grasses and broadleaf weeds. ! Quantity per ha: 1-1.25 liters ! Apply after planting (1-2 days) but before crops and weeds emerge. ! The seed bed (ridges/flat) should be moist and clean."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Calibration is essentially getting your sprayer ready for use. It is a very important aspect of any spraying function as it ensures that the pesticide/herbicide is applied at the rate on the product label."}]},{"head":"Cassava Weed Management Project","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Application in excess of the recommended rate is prohibited, can damage crops, and is uneconomical. On the other hand, continuous application of lower dosage may lead to weed resistance, which is a serious problem."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Check and ensure that all parts of the sprayer are functioning properly. Clean the knapsack sprayer and set the pressure gauge at low (L) for herbicides as marked on top of the diaphragm sprayer tank. Use the green, yellow or red flooding polijet nozzle for band spraying herbicides. For broadcast spraying, use the flan fan nozzle."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Fill the tank with water and pump to a suitable pressure and check for leaks and drips. Correct any problems before proceeding with the calibration. Calibrate the sprayer in the field at the beginning of the season before actual spraying by following these steps:"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Using a measuring tape, mark out a rectangular area in your field 10 2 meters long by 10 meters wide. This is approximately 100 m . "}]},{"head":"Steps for calibrating a knapsack sprayer","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"24","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"! Fill your sprayer tank with water to the maximum mark. ! Spray the marked area walking at a normal and comfortable pace and using a constant pumping speed. ! After you have sprayed and covered the marked area, calculate the water used by taking the difference in water levels on the spray tank before and after the spraying operation."}]},{"head":"2","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"! If 3 liters of water were able to spray 100 m , then the delivery rate 2 for 10,000 m will be approximately 300 liters. ! Suppose the knapsack sprayer tank capacity is 20 liters (for example a CP 3 sprayer), then you need to fill the sprayer 15 times 2 (15 sprayer loads) to spray 10,000 m (1 hectare) of farm. That is, you divide 300 liters by 20 liters to get 15. ! Suppose you are using a 20-liter spray tank and the recommended rate for the herbicide is 4 liters per hectare 2 (10,000 m ), divide the 4 liters (4000 milliliters) of herbicides by 15 loads which is equivalent to 267 milliliters per sprayer tank."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Herbicides assist in weed control but they need to be handled with care so they do not harm the environment, plants, and applicators."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Here are some safety tips. ! Do not eat, drink, or smoke during spraying of herbicides. !Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (mask, gloves, overall, and rain boots). !People without personal protective equipment should stay away from spraying. !Spray in the direction of the wind. You can toss ash to know the direction of wind. !Spray only when the wind is not strong and there is no indication of rain."}]},{"head":"Safe use of herbicides","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"!Herbicides should be applied by only trained personnel. Children should not play with or touch herbicides. They must stay away. !Maintain the sprayer and the nozzles to ensure optimum performance of the sprayer. !Before application, read the label on herbicides to know the correct dosage. !Use only herbicides approved by the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC). !Destroy and bury empty containers of herbicides in the farm far away from water points. !After spraying, do not wash the sprayer in nearby stream or places of water supply. Wash the sprayer in the farm. !Do not use empty containers to convey water, salt, or vegetable oil."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Discard them. !After spraying, take your bath, change, and wash your clothes before eating."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Soil fertility and cassava"}]},{"head":"How to identify fertile soil","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Cassava like any other crop demands good soil for optimum productivity. Therefore farmers must select fertile soils to grow cassava."}]},{"head":"1.","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Look out for good vegetative growth: A fertile soil supports good crop growth. Yield is low in poor soils and plant growth is stunted. 2."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Look out for visual symptoms or signs of biological activities on the soil surface (e.g. worm casts). The presence of worm casts indicates good fertility. Specific recommendation for fertilizers is being investigated by the African Cassava Agronomy Initiative (ACAI), and will be made available to farmers in due course"}]},{"head":"WORM CASTS","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Harvesting","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"When is harvesting done? Cassava roots attached to the main stem can remain safely in the ground for several months. However, after harvest, the roots start deteriorating within 2 to 3 days, and rapidly become of little value for consumption or industrial use."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"! Harvest cassava when the roots are old enough to have accumulated enough starch but have not yet become fibrous. ! An optimum period of 10 to 15 months after planting is recommended when the yield and quality are highest. ! Harvesting too early results in low yield. ! Leaving the roots too long in the soil also exposes them to rodents and ties down the land unnecessarily. ! Harvest cassava during fairly dry weather so that you can easily remove soil from the roots. Roots harvested in wet conditions get soil stuck on them and this can lead to inaccurate weight records."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Cassava Weed Management Project"}]},{"head":"Processing Conclusion","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Harvested roots must be processed immediately after harvest and therefore there should be proper arrangements of transporting the roots either to the market or to the processing center before roots are harvested."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"To achieve high yield, farmers must combine good agronomy with improved seeds, and proper weed control. The steps highlighted in this publication therefore provide a simple pathway that would enable farmers improve their productivity, incomes, and ultimately their livelihoods."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Cassava Weed Management Project"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1. A typical calendar for cassava production in Oyo State, South West, Nigeria. "},{"text":"THE ABC OF WEED MANAGEMENT IN CASSAVA PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA Improved Cassava varieties bred by IITA in collaboration with the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike, and HarvestPlusPlantingCassava can be planted at various times of the year depending on the agroecology (April-May for early season, and August-October for late season in the rainforest; May-June for early season, and August-early October for late season in the savanna). "},{"text":"THE ABC OF WEED MANAGEMENT IN CASSAVA PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA Cassava Weed Management Project 7 Steps in setting up a cassava farm The basic steps required for cassava production are:  ! Site selection !Site selection ! Land clearing !Land clearing ! Pre-planting herbicides application !Pre-planting herbicides application ! Sourcing of good planting materials !Sourcing of good planting materials ! Tillage !Tillage ! Planting !Planting ! Application of pre-emergence herbicide !Application of pre-emergence herbicide ! Replacement of dead or non-sprouted cuttings !Replacement of dead or non-sprouted cuttings ! Fertilizer application !Fertilizer application ! Application of post-emergence herbicide !Application of post-emergence herbicide ! Harvesting !Harvesting ! Selling or processing !Selling or processing  "}],"sieverID":"a894c2d3-8a94-4ed8-9547-4304cfb6376e","abstract":"We encourage the use, reproduction, and dissemination of materials in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, materials may be copied, downloaded, and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgment of the IITA Cassava Weed Management Project as the source and copyright holder is given. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made to"}

data/part_5/0a23ba3f79942cabafee88e867aca5bb.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a23ba3f79942cabafee88e867aca5bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d0dd150-7046-4af0-aa01-88ee106e9394/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe","keywords":["Créditos: Bioversity International/M. Halewood Fotos de las páginas siguientes: Participantes del taller","banco de germoplasma del CIP y Lima. Créditos: Bioversity International/CIP Bioversity International Headquarters Via dei Tre Denari","472/a 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino)"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Del 25 al 28 de septiembre de 2018 se celebró en el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP, Lima, Perú) el Taller de capacitación para los Coordinadores Nacionales en América Latina y el Caribe sobre la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya del Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica (Protocolo de Nagoya) y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (Tratado Internacional). El taller fue muy concurrido, con más de 60 participantes, incluidos los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional de 16 países de América Latina y el Caribe."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Asistieron también representantes de las Secretarías del Tratado Internacional y del Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica, de la Federación Internacional de Semillas, de organizaciones de agricultores y de pueblos indígenas, de organizaciones de investigación agrícola nacionales e internacionales, así como expertos de la región que han trabajado durante décadas en políticas de acceso a recursos genéticos y participación en el reparto de beneficios. La lista de participantes está disponible en el Anexo 2 de este informe."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Jorge Alberto Cabrera Medaglia fue el facilitador del taller. Este se realizó en español con traducción simultánea al inglés. Algunas presentaciones se hicieron en inglés, con traducción simultánea al español. Informe sobre el 'Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe', 25-28 de septiembre, 2018, CIP, Lima, Perú."}]},{"head":"Países representados","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Antigua and Barbuda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Para algunos países, el taller constituyó una oportunidad para que los Coordinadores Nacionales del Tratado Internacional y del Protocolo de Nagoya se reunieran, por primera vez, en un foro donde poder discutir libremente sus opiniones, problemas y dudas."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Este fue el quinto de una serie de talleres centrados en la implementación del Tratado Internacional y el Protocolo de Nagoya de forma que se apoyen mutuamente 1 , y el primero de la serie que incluyó un día dedicado a identificar modos de promover los derechos de los pueblos indígenas, las comunidades locales y los agricultores en el contexto de la implementación de estos dos instrumentos. Esta sesión especial fue coorganizada con la Asociación Andes. La agenda del taller, que incluye los enlaces a todas las presentaciones en Powerpoint realizadas durante el mismo, está disponible en el Anexo 1 de este informe."}]},{"head":"Objetivos","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Los objetivos del taller fueron:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"1. Fortalecer las relaciones entre los Coordinadores Nacionales de cada país y de la región."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"2. Analizar los retos y las oportunidades para implementar el Tratado Internacional y el Protocolo de Nagoya de forma que se apoyen mutuamente y de forma que promuevan objetivos políticos complementarios, tales como la adaptación al cambio climático o la mejora de los medios de vida de los pueblos indígenas y de las comunidades locales."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"3. Dotar a los participantes de herramientas útiles para abordar situaciones de la vida real en las que es importante la implementación de los dos instrumentos de forma que se apoyen mutuamente."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"4. Identificar modos de apoyar a los países para que puedan implementar el Tratado Internacional y el Protocolo de Nagoya de forma que se apoyen mutuamente."}]},{"head":"Lógica y contenido del Tratado Internacional y del Protocolo de Nagoya","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Las palabras de bienvenida durante la apertura del taller fueron dadas por:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Óscar Ortiz, Director General Adjunto de Investigación y Desarrollo del CIP;"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Kathryn Garforth, Secretaría del Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica;"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Álvaro Toledo, Secretaría del Tratado Internacional;"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• Roger Alberto Becerra Gallardo, Subdirección de Regulación de la Innovación Agraria (SDRIA), Dirección de Gestión de Ia Innovación Agraria (DGIA), Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA), Perú; y,"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• Jessica Amanzo Alcántara, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente (MINAM), Perú."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"El primer conjunto de presentaciones y discusión del taller se dedicó a exponer la lógica y el contenido del Tratado Internacional y del Protocolo de Nagoya. Asimismo, brindó a los participantes la oportunidad de compartir sus experiencias trabajando en el contexto de ambos acuerdos internacionales."}]},{"head":"Estado de implementación a nivel nacional y regional","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Los participantes hicieron presentaciones sobre el estado de implementación del Tratado Internacional y del Protocolo de Nagoya en sus respectivos países. Las presentaciones se resumieron en forma de posters que habían sido preparados de forma previa a la celebración del taller. Los enlaces a los posters se incluyen en el Anexo 3 de este informe."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Después de debatir sobre la implementación a nivel nacional, el taller cambió su enfoque para centrarse en los esfuerzos llevados a cabo a nivel regional dentro del Grupo de Países de América Latina y el Caribe para promover la implementación del Tratado Internacional y del Protocolo de Nagoya."}]},{"head":"Escenarios en la interfaz del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Los participantes se dividieron en cuatro grupos para debatir cuestiones relacionadas con la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en varios escenarios hipotéticos. Los escenarios incluían situaciones como la recolección de semillas en fincas de agricultores, incertidumbres sobre las leyes a aplicar a diferentes recursos genéticos en diferentes circunstancias, y cuestiones relacionadas con el intercambio de recursos genéticos en proyectos de investigación regionales, entre otros aspectos. Los escenarios están disponibles en el Anexo 4 de este informe."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Se pidió a los grupos que discutieran sobre cómo gestionarían dichos escenarios en su país o en otros países si fuera necesario, delimitando lo más claramente posible los casos en los que aplicarían las normas relativas al Tratado Internacional y aquellos en los que aplicarían las normas relativas al Protocolo de Nagoya. Los facilitadores del ejercicio ayudaron a los grupos a abordar las dudas más complejas que surgieron en el curso de las discusiones. Al finalizar, los grupos compartieron en plenario sus respuestas a cada uno de los escenarios."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Dos veces durante el taller, se organizaron \"concursos\" con preguntas sobre el Tratado Internacional, el Protocolo de Nagoya y la implementación de los mismos de forma que se respalden mutuamente. Un facilitador leyó las preguntas y los cuatro grupos compitieron para ver quién respondía correctamente a más de ellas."}]},{"head":"Derechos de los pueblos indígenas, las comunidades locales y los agricultores","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Una sección del taller se centró en la promoción de los derechos de los pueblos indígenas, las comunidades locales y de los agricultores en el contexto de la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional de forma que se apoyen mutuamente. Hubo presentaciones y debates sobre derechos bioculturales comunitarios, bancos de semillas comunitarios, prácticas de manejo de semillas por parte de los pequeños agricultores y sobre protocolos bioculturales comunitarios. También hubo presentaciones sobre ejemplos de buenas prácticas relacionadas con estos temas por parte de organizaciones de Perú, Madagascar, México, Costa Rica y Guatemala. "}]},{"head":"Expectativas y planes","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ANEXOS ANEXO 1 -Agenda","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe, 25-28 de septiembre, 2018, CIP, Lima, Perú."}]},{"head":"Objetivos del taller","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Fortalecer las relaciones entre los Coordinadores Nacionales de cada país y de la región."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"• Analizar los retos y las oportunidades para implementar el Tratado Internacional y el Protocolo de Nagoya de forma que se apoyen mutuamente y de forma que promuevan objetivos políticos complementarios, tales como la adaptación al cambio climático o la mejora de los medios de vida de los pueblos indígenas y de las comunidades locales."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"• Dotar a los participantes de herramientas útiles para abordar situaciones de la vida real en las que es importante la implementación de los dos instrumentos de forma que se apoyen mutuamente."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Identificar modos de apoyar a los países para que puedan implementar el Tratado Internacional y el Protocolo de Nagoya de forma que se apoyen mutuamente."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Día 1: Martes, 25 de septiembre, 2018 Respuestas a las expectativas y necesidades identificadas: planes inmediatos, posibilidades a largo plazo • Los mismos pequeños grupos discuten posibles respuestas/iniciativas para responder (positiva o negativamente) a las necesidades identificadas por el otro grupo. • Presentación de las respuestas en plenario (respuesta 1 y respuesta 2)."}]},{"head":"15.30","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Punto 12 de la agenda: Los equipos nacionales hacen planes de seguimiento • Los equipos nacionales identifican tres acciones que pondrán en práctica para dar seguimiento al taller en sus países para promover la implementación de ambos acuerdos de forma que se apoyen mutuamente, y una iniciativa a poner en marcha a nivel regional. • Presentación de las respuestas en plenario."}]},{"head":"16.30","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Punto 13 de la agenda: Evaluación del taller, cierre, agradecimientos y despedidas ANEXO 2 -Lista de participantes Usted dirige una organización nacional de investigación agrícola en un país A. Uno de sus mejoradores de plantas ha introducido recientemente con éxito una secuencia de genes de una bacteria en una variedad de berenjena tradicional de su país, creando una nueva variedad que es resistente a un virus que está dañando la producción de berenjena en varios países. Usted descubrió las bacterias de forma inadvertida en los materiales de berenjena que se le enviaron a través del ANTM del país B (claramente existe un problema con las reglamentaciones fitosanitarias, pero ese no es el punto de este escenario). Usted desea lanzar la nueva variedad en varios países. ¿Puede hacerlo? Por favor, explique el razonamiento detrás de su respuesta. ¿Sería diferente si la secuencia genética fuera de otro cultivo en lugar de una bacteria? ¿Y si viniera de otra berenjena?"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"CASO PRÁCTICO 2: Apoyo normativo para una respuesta regional a una enfermedad que se extiende rápidamente"},{"index":3,"size":207,"text":"Usted es el Coordinador Nacional del Protocolo de Nagoya. Una de sus organizaciones nacionales de investigación agrícola se ha convertido recientemente en miembro de un consorcio regional de I+D formado para dar respuesta a una enfermedad (marchitamiento por Fusarium) que amenaza la producción de plátanos en su región. Como parte del esfuerzo colectivo, los socios del consorcio acordaron crear una colección activa de variedades de plátanos, agrupando aquellas que creen que pueden ser buenas fuentes de resistencia genética a enfermedades. También han acordado compartir las diferentes cepas del hongo que han aparecido en sus respectivos países. Los socios deberán intercambiar esos recursos genéticos como parte de sus esfuerzos colectivos para seleccionar las diferentes variedades de plátanos y ver cómo responden a las diferentes cepas del hongo. El hongo se está extendiendo rápidamente a través de la región; puede llegar pronto a su país. Por lo tanto, debe armar las colecciones de plantas y hongos y poner en marcha el trabajo lo antes posible. ¿Qué leyes aplican? (ignore los aspectos de bioseguridad). ¿Qué puede hacer a corto plazo para evitar que el trabajo del consorcio se retrase por excesiva burocracia? ¿Qué puede hacer a largo plazo? ¿Habría alguna diferencia si usted fuera el Coordinador Nacional del Tratado Internacional?"}]},{"head":"CASO PRÁCTICO 3: Materiales In Situ","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Usted ha sido designado en calidad de autoridad nacional competente del país bajo el régimen reglamentario para la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"3.1. Recibe una solicitud para recolectar muestras de cocoteros que crecen a lo largo de las playas públicas del país. ¿Cómo responde?"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"3.2. Parientes silvestres de la caña de azúcar y la yuca crecen en algunas áreas nacionales protegidas. Una organización de investigación agrícola de otro Estado Parte del Tratado Internacional le ha solicitado permiso para recolectar muestras de estas plantas. ¿Cuáles son sus opciones? ¿Cuáles son las normas aplicables? ¿Cómo respondería en última instancia? ¿Por qué?"}]},{"head":"CASO PRÁCTICO 4: Espacio jurídico","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Usted dirige un banco nacional de germoplasma de cultivos. Ha recibido una solicitud de un investigador de un país vecino de muestras de algunos frijoles de su colección. Su país se adhirió al Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica en 1998 y ratificó el Tratado Internacional en 2003 y el Protocolo de Nagoya en 2013."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"4.1. No hay leyes nacionales de aplicación para ninguno de estos acuerdos."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"4.2. Existe una ley nacional de acceso y distribución de beneficios, adoptada en 2000, en la que se estipula que el acceso a los recursos genéticos del país debe estar sujeto al consentimiento fundamentado previo de la autoridad competente designada por el Ministro de Medio Ambiente y debe incluir una serie de condiciones obligatorias relativas a la distribución de los beneficios que no son compatibles con el ANTM."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"¿Qué debe hacer en cada uno de los casos (4.1 y 4.2)? ¿Por qué?"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"(English version)"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"SCENARIO 1: Resources from another kingdom"},{"index":7,"size":138,"text":"You are the director of a national agricultural research organization in Country A. One of your plant breeders has recently successfully introduced a gene sequence from a bacterium into a traditional eggplant variety from your country; creating a new variety that is resistant to a virus that is damaging eggplant production in a number of countries. You inadvertently discovered the bacteria in eggplant materials that were sent to you under the SMTA from country B (clearly there is a problem with phytosanitary regulations, but that is not the point of this scenario). You want to release the new variety in a number of countries. Are you able to do so? Please explain the rationale behind your answer. Would it make any difference if the gene sequence were from another crop instead of bacteria? From an eggplant in particular?"},{"index":8,"size":228,"text":"SCENARIO 2: Policy support for a regional response to a rapidly spreading disease You are the national Nagoya Protocol focal point. One of your national agricultural research organizations has recently become a member of regional R&D consortium that was formed to respond to a disease -fusarium wilt -that is threatening banana production in your region. As part of the collective effort, the consortium partners have agreed to create a working collection of banana varieties, pooling together those varieties which they think may be good sources of genetic resistance to the disease. They have also agreed to share the different strains of the fungus that have appeared in their respective countries. The partners will need to exchange those genetic resources as part of their collective efforts to screen the different banana varieties to see how they respond to the different fungal strains. The fungus is spreading fast across the region; it may arrive soon in your country. So you need to assemble the plant and fungal collections and get the work underway as soon as possible. What laws apply? (Please disregard biosafety aspects). What can you do in the short term to help expedite things, so that the consortium's work is not delayed by too much red tape? What can you do in the longer term? Would it make any difference if you were the national ITPGRFA focal point?"},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"SCENARIO 3: In situ materials"},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"You have been designated as your country's competent national authority under the regulatory regime for implementing the Nagoya Protocol."},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":"3.1. You receive a request to collect samples from coconut trees that grow along the country's publicly owned beaches. How do you respond?"},{"index":12,"size":53,"text":"3.2. There are wild relatives of sugar cane and cassava growing in some nationally protected areas. An agricultural research organization in another ITPGRFA member state has written requesting permission to organize a collecting mission to gather samples of these plants. What are your options? What rules apply? How, ultimately, do you reply? Why?"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Punto 2 de la agenda: Preparando el escenario: el Protocolo de Nagoya, el sistema multilateral del Tratado Internacional, la importancia de la implementación de ambos instrumentos de forma que se apoyen mutuamente y los retos de coordinación nacional  ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS Día 1: Martes, 25 de septiembre, 2018 Día 2: Miércoles, 26 de septiembre, 2018 Día 3: Jueves, 27 de septiembre, 2018 Día 4: Viernes, 28 de septiembre, 2018  Día 1: Martes, 25 de septiembre, 2018 Día 2: Miércoles, 26 de septiembre, 2018 Día 3: Jueves, 27 de septiembre, 2018 Día 4: Viernes, 28 de septiembre, 2018 13.00 'Escenarios en la interfaz del Protocolo de Nagoya y del sistema multilateral' Almuerzo 'Pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y agricultores' 'Pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y agricultores' (continuación) y 'Expectativas y Planes' 13.00 'Escenarios en la interfaz del Protocolo de Nagoya y del sistema multilateral' Almuerzo 'Pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y agricultores' 'Pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y agricultores' (continuación) y 'Expectativas y Planes' 14.00 15.30 16.00-8.30 8.30 8.30 10.00 9.30 10.30 11.00 11.30 13.00 14.30 17.30 16.30 10.00 13.00 Punto 4 de la agenda: ¿Por qué es importante la implementación de apoyo mutuo? -Opiniones de distintas partes interesadas • Mutually supportive implementation is important for International genebanks David Ellis, CIP • Reflections from the seed industry Paul Olson, KWS, Federación Internacional de Semillas • IPLC/famer perspectives Alejandro Argumedo, Asociación Andes • The view from INIA Roger Becerra, SDRIA-DGIA-INIA • Using plant genetic diversity for climate change adaptation Michael Halewood, Bioversity International y Dave Ellis, CIP • ABS-related challenges along the plant variety development chain Selim Guvener, CIP Pausa para café Reflexiones sobre las presentaciones basadas en los posters -Comentarios de Manuel Ruiz, Bert Visser, Paul Olsen, Itzel Punto 9 de la agenda: Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos (Ronda 2) Promoviendo los intereses de los pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y Saldivar, Hélène Guillot Pausa para café agricultores bajo el Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional (continuación) los especialistas Punto 6 de la agenda: Esfuerzos regionales coordinados para promover la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional • Overview of GEF-UNDP project activities in GRULAC Anthony Vega, UNARGEN • Summary of regional ITPGRFA Consultation workshop, Uruguay 2017 Marcos Martínez, Ministerio de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca • Strategic action plan to strengthen • Community biocultural protocols: a Flavia Noejovich, Coordinadora, Perú, Proyecto Punto 10 de la agenda: Promoviendo los intereses de los pueblos indígenas, comunidades mechanism for promoting community GEF sobre Acceso y Distribución de Beneficios locales y agricultores bajo el Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional • Overview of IPLC/Farmers' Rights session: interests under the ITPGRFA, Nagoya Alejandro Argumedo, Asociación Andes Protocol, and other relevant instruments Biocultural Rights Under the Nagoya • Community biocultural protocols in Michael Halewood, Bioversity International Protocol and the Plant Treaty • Community seed banks: promoting Madagascar and Benin Alejandro Argumedo, Asociación Andes Pausa para café farmers' management on the frontier Marleni Ramírez, Bioversity International between the Nagoya Protocol, Plant Treaty, Promoviendo los intereses de los pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y conservation and use of Mesoamerican human rights accords agricultores bajo el Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional (continuación) plant genetic resources in adapting • Seed management practices in Small-scale Bert Visser, Oxfam • Developing community biocultural Romana Alejandra Barrios Pérez, SEMARNAT, agriculture to climate change, 2014-2024 • Challenges and opportunities for mutually supportive implementation in GRULAC Farming Systems protocols in Mexico México Micaela Bonafina, Ministerio de Medio Almuerzo • Developing Farmers' Rights guidelines in Walter Paulo Quirós Ortega, ONS, Costa Rica Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, Argentina, Carliz Díaz, Ministerio del Poder Popular para Visita al banco de germoplasma del CIP Costa Rica Presentación de posters Cada país presenta sus posters en sesión el Ecosocialismo, Venezuela; y Patricia Gladys Gadaleta, Argentina • Experiences in Guatemala on outreach and José Luis Echeverría Tello, CONAP, Guatemala Fin de la sesión education for ILCs itinerante Pausa para café Almuerzo 14.00 15.30 16.00-8.30 8.30 8.30 10.00 9.30 10.30 11.00 11.30 13.00 14.30 17.30 16.30 10.00 13.00Punto 4 de la agenda: ¿Por qué es importante la implementación de apoyo mutuo? -Opiniones de distintas partes interesadas • Mutually supportive implementation is important for International genebanks David Ellis, CIP • Reflections from the seed industry Paul Olson, KWS, Federación Internacional de Semillas • IPLC/famer perspectives Alejandro Argumedo, Asociación Andes • The view from INIA Roger Becerra, SDRIA-DGIA-INIA • Using plant genetic diversity for climate change adaptation Michael Halewood, Bioversity International y Dave Ellis, CIP • ABS-related challenges along the plant variety development chain Selim Guvener, CIP Pausa para café Reflexiones sobre las presentaciones basadas en los posters -Comentarios de Manuel Ruiz, Bert Visser, Paul Olsen, Itzel Punto 9 de la agenda: Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos (Ronda 2) Promoviendo los intereses de los pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y Saldivar, Hélène Guillot Pausa para café agricultores bajo el Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional (continuación) los especialistas Punto 6 de la agenda: Esfuerzos regionales coordinados para promover la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional • Overview of GEF-UNDP project activities in GRULAC Anthony Vega, UNARGEN • Summary of regional ITPGRFA Consultation workshop, Uruguay 2017 Marcos Martínez, Ministerio de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca • Strategic action plan to strengthen • Community biocultural protocols: a Flavia Noejovich, Coordinadora, Perú, Proyecto Punto 10 de la agenda: Promoviendo los intereses de los pueblos indígenas, comunidades mechanism for promoting community GEF sobre Acceso y Distribución de Beneficios locales y agricultores bajo el Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional • Overview of IPLC/Farmers' Rights session: interests under the ITPGRFA, Nagoya Alejandro Argumedo, Asociación Andes Protocol, and other relevant instruments Biocultural Rights Under the Nagoya • Community biocultural protocols in Michael Halewood, Bioversity International Protocol and the Plant Treaty • Community seed banks: promoting Madagascar and Benin Alejandro Argumedo, Asociación Andes Pausa para café farmers' management on the frontier Marleni Ramírez, Bioversity International between the Nagoya Protocol, Plant Treaty, Promoviendo los intereses de los pueblos indígenas, comunidades locales y conservation and use of Mesoamerican human rights accords agricultores bajo el Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional (continuación) plant genetic resources in adapting • Seed management practices in Small-scale Bert Visser, Oxfam • Developing community biocultural Romana Alejandra Barrios Pérez, SEMARNAT, agriculture to climate change, 2014-2024 • Challenges and opportunities for mutually supportive implementation in GRULAC Farming Systems protocols in Mexico México Micaela Bonafina, Ministerio de Medio Almuerzo • Developing Farmers' Rights guidelines in Walter Paulo Quirós Ortega, ONS, Costa Rica Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, Argentina, Carliz Díaz, Ministerio del Poder Popular para Visita al banco de germoplasma del CIP Costa Rica Presentación de posters Cada país presenta sus posters en sesión el Ecosocialismo, Venezuela; y Patricia Gladys Gadaleta, Argentina • Experiences in Guatemala on outreach and José Luis Echeverría Tello, CONAP, Guatemala Fin de la sesión education for ILCs itinerante Pausa para café Almuerzo 10.30 14.00 Esfuerzos regionales coordinados para promover la implementación del Protocolo de 10.30 14.00Esfuerzos regionales coordinados para promover la implementación del Protocolo de  Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional (continuación) Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional (continuación) 8.00 11.30 Registro de los participantes Punto 7 de la agenda: ¡Concurso en pequeños grupos! 8.00 11.30Registro de los participantes Punto 7 de la agenda: ¡Concurso en pequeños grupos! 12.00 Opening 8.30 Punto 8 de la agenda: Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos sobre áreas grises Bienvenida y apertura (Ronda 1) Óscar Ortiz, Director General Adjunto de Investigación y Desarrollo, CIP Introducción al ejercicio 12.00 Opening 8.30Punto 8 de la agenda: Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos sobre áreas grises Bienvenida y apertura (Ronda 1) Óscar Ortiz, Director General Adjunto de Investigación y Desarrollo, CIP Introducción al ejercicio 13.00 Almuerzo Roger Alberto Becerra Gallardo, SDRIA-DGIA- 13.00AlmuerzoRoger Alberto Becerra Gallardo, SDRIA-DGIA- 14.00 INIA, Perú Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos (continuación de la Ronda 1) 14.00INIA, Perú Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos (continuación de la Ronda 1)  Trabajo en grupo Jessica Amanzo, Ministerio de Medio Trabajo en grupoJessica Amanzo, Ministerio de Medio 15.30 Pausa para café Ambiente, Perú 15.30Pausa para caféAmbiente, Perú 16.00 17.30 Kathryn Garforth, Secretaría del Convenio Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos (continuación de la Ronda 1) sobre la Diversidad Biológica Presentaciones en plenario del trabajo llevado a cabo por los grupos. Comentarios de los Álvaro Toledo, Secretaría del Tratado especialistas Internacional Presentaciones y expectativas de los Todos Fin de la sesión 16.00 17.30Kathryn Garforth, Secretaría del Convenio Trabajando a través de escenarios hipotéticos (continuación de la Ronda 1) sobre la Diversidad Biológica Presentaciones en plenario del trabajo llevado a cabo por los grupos. Comentarios de los Álvaro Toledo, Secretaría del Tratado especialistas Internacional Presentaciones y expectativas de los Todos Fin de la sesión  participantes  participantes  Objetivos del taller. Resumen del programa,  Objetivos del taller. Resumen del programa,  adaptación, adopción  adaptación, adopción 10.00 Pausa para café  10.00Pausa para café 11.30   11.30  Where we are, and how we got here: an Michael Halewood, Bioversity International Where we are, and how we got here: anMichael Halewood, Bioversity International  overview of co-organizers joint activities  overview of co-organizers joint activities  The International Treaty in a nutshell Álvaro Toledo, Secretaría del Tratado The International Treaty in a nutshellÁlvaro Toledo, Secretaría del Tratado  • Aspectos relevantes y estado actual Internacional • Aspectos relevantes y estado actualInternacional  The Nagoya Protocol in a nutshell Kathryn Garforth, Secretaría del Convenio The Nagoya Protocol in a nutshellKathryn Garforth, Secretaría del Convenio  • Aspectos relevantes y estado actual sobre la Diversidad Biológica • Aspectos relevantes y estado actualsobre la Diversidad Biológica 12.00 Punto 3 de la agenda: ¡Concurso en pequeños grupos! 12.00Punto 3 de la agenda: ¡Concurso en pequeños grupos! 12.40 Foto de grupo -Mostrador de CIP  12.40Foto de grupo -Mostrador de CIP  "},{"text":" Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe, 25-28 de septiembre, 2018, CIP, Lima, Perú. ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS  ANEXOS ANEXOS ANEXOS N˚Name/ N˚Name/ N˚Name/ 10 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Gender Country/ Institution/ Gender Country/ Institution/ Gender Country/ Institution/ ANEXO 3 -Posters Position/Cargo Position/Cargo Position/Cargo Guatemala José Luis Echeverría Tello (CONAP) Email/Correo electrónico Email/Correo electrónico Email/Correo electrónico ANEXO 4 -Escenarios N˚Name/ N˚Name/ N˚Name/ 10 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Gender Country/ Institution/ Gender Country/ Institution/ Gender Country/ Institution/ ANEXO 3 -Posters Position/Cargo Position/Cargo Position/Cargo Guatemala José Luis Echeverría Tello (CONAP) Email/Correo electrónico Email/Correo electrónico Email/Correo electrónico ANEXO 4 -Escenarios Nombre Nombre Nombre de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los País Institución País Institución País Institución y Álvaro Alfredo Ramos Méndez Nombre Nombre Nombre de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los País Institución País Institución País Institucióny Álvaro Alfredo Ramos Méndez 10 Mahendra Persaud 22 Carliz Elena Díaz de 36 Andrés Casas Dias Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de M Guyana Guyana Rice Development Board Plant Breeder/Chief Scientist [email protected] F Venezuela Dirección General de Diversidad Biológica [email protected] M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina Profesor e Investigador Principal [email protected] Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura_Guatemala (MAGA) Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de 10 Mahendra Persaud 22 Carliz Elena Díaz de 36 Andrés Casas Dias Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de M Guyana Guyana Rice Development Board Plant Breeder/Chief Scientist [email protected] F Venezuela Dirección General de Diversidad Biológica [email protected] M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina Profesor e Investigador Principal [email protected] Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura_Guatemala (MAGA) Taller para los Coordinadores Nacionales del Protocolo de N˚Name/ Nombre 1 Pamella Rosemary Thomas 2 Nneka Matara Nicholas 3 Patricia Gladys Gadaleta 4 Micaela Anabel Bonafina 5 José Ramón Campero Marañón 6 Rafael Adolfo Murillo García 7 César Guillermo Tapia Bastidas 8 Álvaro Alfredo Ramos Méndez 9 José Luis Echeverría Tello Guvener Ortega 54 Selim Domínguez 17 Arthur César Lima Naylor 18 Teresa Doris Agüero Teare 19 Leonora Alejandra Rojas Salinas 20 Maribel Álvarez Mora 21 Walter Paulo Quirós 35 Raul Blas Sevillano 52 Bert Visser 53 David Ellis Agricultura_Ecuador2 Gender Country/ País F Antigua and Barbuda F Antigua and Barbuda F Argentina F Argentina M Bolivia M Bolivia M Ecuador M Guatemala M Guatemala M M Brasil F Chile F Chile F Costa Rica M Costa Rica M Perú M M Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Institution/ Institución Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries & Barbuda Affairs/ Team Fress Produce Cooperative Department of Environment -Ministry of Health and the Environment Dirección de producciones y Pesca -Ministerio de Agroindustria Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nación Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agropecuaria y Forestal (INIAF) Dirección General de Biodiversidad y Áreas Protegidas (DGBAP); Viceministerio de Medio Ambiente, Biodiversidad, Cambios Climáticos y de Gestión y Desarrollo Forestal del Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Agua (MMAyA) Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) Departamento de Agricultura Orgánica / Viceministerio de Sanidad Agropecuaria y Regulaciones -Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería Consejo Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (CONAP) / Dirección Diversidad Biológica Center (CIP) Conservación de la International Potato de Valoración y de Medio Ambiente -Ministerio de Vivienda Territorial y Medio Ambiente (MVOTMA) División del Medio Ambiente -Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Ministerio de Agricultura División de Recursos Naturales y Biodiversidad -Ministerio del Medio Ambiente National Commission for the Management of Biodiversity -Ministry Energy Oficina Nacional de Semillas de Costa Rica Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Oxfam International Potato Center (CIP) de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los 9 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Ecuador Position/Cargo Agriculture Coordinator/ President Technical Officer/ Legal Consultant Responsable de la Unidad de Recursos Coordinador Científico Jefe del Departamento de Agricultura Orgánica Fitogenéticos de Recursos Director Encargada asuntos ambientales, recursos genéticos y bioseguridad / Profesional Presidente Comisión Nacional Nativos Genética y Marcadores Moleculares Ambiente Wilson Rojas, Ministerio del Email/Correo electrónico [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] of Environment and Legal Advisor / Technical Office [email protected] Malpartida Nuevas Tecnologías -INDECOPI y Conocimientos Colectivos 34 Luz Gómez Pando M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Ciencias Agrícolas. Mejoramiento Cereales y Granos [email protected] R&D Legal Affairs 51 Itzel Saldivar F México CIMMYT Intellectual Property Counsel Agricultura_Ecuador1 Agropecuarias [email protected] Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Nacional de Investigaciones Property de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los del Tratado Internacional. Instituto and Intellectual 8 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Ecuador César Tapia, Coordinador Nacional Especies Quinteros Invenciones y Variedades Vegetales Protection (PVP) / Internacional) Conservación de 33 Sara F Perú Dirección de Coordinadora de [email protected] and Plant Variety (Coordinadora Nacional del Tratado Departamento de [email protected] Valladolit contra la Biopiratería -(INDECOP) 50 Paul D. Olson M KWS SAAT SE Head of Germplasm Intellectual Property del Ministerio de Agricultura [email protected] Técnica de Recursos Fitogenéticos Política Agraria 32 Andrés M Perú Comisión Nacional Presidente [email protected] Guillot Federation (ISF) Agricultural Manager Fernández Granda, Coordinadora Departamento de [email protected] Becerra Gallardo (INIA) Genéticos (SDRIADGIA-INIA) 29 Karina Ramírez Cuadros F Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria 30 Saara Puerta Sopla F Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria 31 Manuel Ruiz Mueller M Perú Sociedad Peruana de 49 Hélène F International Seed International [email protected] Protocolo de Nagoya) and C. Lianne Derecho Ambiental Medaglia Cuba (Coordinadora Nacional del [email protected] Cabrera Agricultura_Cuba Ambiente de la República de Agricultura_ Venezuela (INIA) Especialista Alberto Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la de Ciencia, Tecnología y Medio Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la gob.pe 48 Jorge M Costa Rica Facilitator [email protected] de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Internacionales del Ministerio de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los especialista_arapov01@inia. Agricultura 7 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Cuba Dirección de Relaciones 18 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Venezuela Maxwell Mendoza y Carliz Díaz (INIA) Técnico [email protected] 47 Álvaro Toledo Chavarri M España International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA/FAO) Oficial Técnico del la Alimentación y la Agricultura_Costa Rica Agricultura_ Uruguay Fitogenéticos para Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la (MVOTMA) sobre los Recursos de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Ortega de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los (MGAP) y Alicia Aguerre Domínguez, Tratado Internacional [email protected] 6 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Costa Rica Maribel Álvarez Mora y Walter Quirós 17 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Uruguay Marcos Javier Martínez Techera Ordenamiento Protección de la Biodiversidad 28 Roger Alberto M Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria Especialista en Acceso a Recursos [email protected] 46 Michael del Tratado Internacional Agricultura_Peru Halewood M Canadá Bioversity International Head of Policy Unit [email protected] Agricultura. Coordinadora Nacional Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Genéticos [email protected] 15 Marcos Javier Martínez Techera M Uruguay Ministerio de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca (MGAP) Coordinador Campo Natural / Coordinador Técnico del Proyecto Ganaderos Familiares y Cambio Climático [email protected] 16 Alicia Aguerre F Uruguay División Biodiversidad / Dirección Nacional Jefa del Departamento de [email protected] 26 Carlos Javier Pentón García M Cuba Dirección de Relaciones Ambiente de Cuba 27 Alejandro Argumedo (online) M Perú Ramírez Central and South America 45 Kathryn Garforth F Canadá Convention on Agricultura_Chile Políticas Agrarias del Ministerio de de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Biological Diversity Programme Officer Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la bioseguridad, Oficina de Estudios y 16 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Perú Roger Alberto Becerra Gallardo [email protected] 5 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Chile ambiental, recursos genéticos y Agricultura_Panama Teresa Agüero Teare, Encargada Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Tecnología y Medio 44 Marleni F Perú Bioversity International Representative for [email protected] Agricultura_Bolivia de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Ministerio de Ciencia, Doig Relations Director Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la 15 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Panamá Anthony Vega y Darío Luque Internacionales [email protected] (INIA) 43 Ana Peña F Perú Ministry of External Minister Counselor [email protected] 4 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Bolivia Semillas (Ministerio de Agricultura) José Ramón Campero Marañón de Inspección y Certificación de Agricutura, Ganadería Silvestre -UNARGEN Naturales (SEMARNAT) Palomino Innovación Agraria Benin la Agricultura del Servicio Nacional Secretaría de Vega Biodiversidad y Vida Ambiente y Recursos 42 Ladislao M Perú Instituto Nacional de Mejorador [email protected] Protocol and the ITPGRFA's multilateral system_ Bossou Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y Sostenibles / Funcionaria [email protected] Rice Research Station Burma 11 Aminah Thana McPherson-Damon F Guyana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Legal Officer [email protected] 12 Elizabeth Santacreo F Honduras Dirección de Ciencia y Tenología Agropecuaria (DICTA) / Secretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería (SAG) Jefe de Unidad de Frutales [email protected] 13 Marlé Patricia Aguilar Ponce F Honduras Dirección de Biodiversidad Secretaría de Energía, Recursos Naturales, Ambiente y Minas (MiAmbiente) Analista Ambiental [email protected] 14 Anthony M Panamá Departamento de [email protected] Moreno -Ministerio del Poder Popular para Ecosocialismo 23 Maxwell José Mendoza León M Venezuela Oficina de Integración y Asuntos Internacionales -Ministerio del Poder Popular para el Ecosocialismo (MINEC) Especialista en Derecho Penal Internacional (UNALM) del Departamento de Horticultura de la Facultad de Agronomía Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe, 25-28 de septiembre, 2018, CIP, Lima, Perú. 11 Mutually Supportive Implementation of the Nagoya Protocol and the ITPGRFA's Multilateral System_ Guyana Guyana Aminah Mac Pherson-Damon y Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe, Mahedra Persaud 25-28 de septiembre, 2018, CIP, Lima, Perú. [email protected] 24 Rosalinda González Santos F México National Service of Inspection and Certification of Seeds (SNICS) -Ministry of Agriculture rosalinda.gonzalez@sagarpa. gob.mx 25 Romana Alejandra Barrios Pérez F México Dirección General de Sector Primario y Recursos Naturales Renovables -Secretaría de Medio Directora de Regulación de Bioseguridad, Recursos Genéticos 3 Mutually supportive implementation of the Nagoya Benín Toussaint Mikpon y Bienvenu González, Directora de Recursos (INIA) Biodiversidad y puntofocal.pnaypb@semarnat. gob.mx 37 Jessica Amanzo F Perú 12 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Honduras Marlé Aguilar Ponce, Coordinadora Ministry of Environment Director of Genetic Resources and Agrobiodiversity 38 Emma Rivas F Perú Ministry of Environment Specialist 39 Julián Chura Chuquija M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Mejoramiento Génetico de Maíz [email protected] 40 Percy Rolando Egúsquiza Bayona M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Mejoramiento, Tuberosas y Raíces [email protected] 41 Cinthya Zorrilla F Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria [email protected] N˚Title/Título Country/ 1 Mutually supportive implementation of the Nagoya Protocol and the ITPGRFA's multilateral system_ Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda 2 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo de Medio Ambiente y Rosalinda Agricultura_Argentina Agricultura_Mexico y Recursos Genéticos, Ministerio Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la de Bioseguridad, Biodiversidad de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Argentina de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Pérez, Directora de Regulación Patricia Gadaleta y Micaela Bonafina 14 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo México Q.A. Romana Alejandra Barrios Barbuda Madagascar Agricultura, Pesca y Asuntos de Protocol and the ITPGRFA's multilateral system_ Andriamahazo Pamella Thomas, Ministerio de 13 Mutually supportive implementation of the Nagoya Madagascar Naritiana Rakotoniaina y Michelle Medio Ambiente Internacional Nneka Nicholas, Departamento de Agricultura_Honduras Coordinadora Nacional del Tratado País Authors/Autores de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Nacional de Acceso y Distribución de Beneficios y Elisabeth Santacreo, CASO PRÁCTICO 1: Recursos de otro reino N˚Name/ Nombre 1 Pamella Rosemary Thomas 2 Nneka Matara Nicholas 3 Patricia Gladys Gadaleta 4 Micaela Anabel Bonafina 5 José Ramón Campero Marañón 6 Rafael Adolfo Murillo García 7 César Guillermo Tapia Bastidas 8 Álvaro Alfredo Ramos Méndez 9 José Luis Echeverría Tello Guvener Ortega 54 Selim Domínguez 17 Arthur César Lima Naylor 18 Teresa Doris Agüero Teare 19 Leonora Alejandra Rojas Salinas 20 Maribel Álvarez Mora 21 Walter Paulo Quirós 35 Raul Blas Sevillano 52 Bert Visser 53 David Ellis Agricultura_Ecuador2 Gender Country/ País F Antigua and Barbuda F Antigua and Barbuda F Argentina F Argentina M Bolivia M Bolivia M Ecuador M Guatemala M Guatemala M M Brasil F Chile F Chile F Costa Rica M Costa Rica M Perú M M Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Institution/ Institución Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries & Barbuda Affairs/ Team Fress Produce Cooperative Department of Environment -Ministry of Health and the Environment Dirección de producciones y Pesca -Ministerio de Agroindustria Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nación Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agropecuaria y Forestal (INIAF) Dirección General de Biodiversidad y Áreas Protegidas (DGBAP); Viceministerio de Medio Ambiente, Biodiversidad, Cambios Climáticos y de Gestión y Desarrollo Forestal del Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Agua (MMAyA) Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) Departamento de Agricultura Orgánica / Viceministerio de Sanidad Agropecuaria y Regulaciones -Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería Consejo Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (CONAP) / Dirección Diversidad Biológica Center (CIP) Conservación de la International Potato de Valoración y de Medio Ambiente -Ministerio de Vivienda Territorial y Medio Ambiente (MVOTMA) División del Medio Ambiente -Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores Ministerio de Agricultura División de Recursos Naturales y Biodiversidad -Ministerio del Medio Ambiente National Commission for the Management of Biodiversity -Ministry Energy Oficina Nacional de Semillas de Costa Rica Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Oxfam International Potato Center (CIP) de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los 9 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Ecuador Position/Cargo Agriculture Coordinator/ President Technical Officer/ Legal Consultant Responsable de la Unidad de Recursos Coordinador Científico Jefe del Departamento de Agricultura Orgánica Fitogenéticos de Recursos Director Encargada asuntos ambientales, recursos genéticos y bioseguridad / Profesional Presidente Comisión Nacional Nativos Genética y Marcadores Moleculares Ambiente Wilson Rojas, Ministerio del Email/Correo electrónico [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] of Environment and Legal Advisor / Technical Office [email protected] Malpartida Nuevas Tecnologías -INDECOPI y Conocimientos Colectivos 34 Luz Gómez Pando M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Ciencias Agrícolas. Mejoramiento Cereales y Granos [email protected] R&D Legal Affairs 51 Itzel Saldivar F México CIMMYT Intellectual Property Counsel Agricultura_Ecuador1 Agropecuarias [email protected] Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Nacional de Investigaciones Property de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los del Tratado Internacional. Instituto and Intellectual 8 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Ecuador César Tapia, Coordinador Nacional Especies Quinteros Invenciones y Variedades Vegetales Protection (PVP) / Internacional) Conservación de 33 Sara F Perú Dirección de Coordinadora de [email protected] and Plant Variety (Coordinadora Nacional del Tratado Departamento de [email protected] Valladolit contra la Biopiratería -(INDECOP) 50 Paul D. Olson M KWS SAAT SE Head of Germplasm Intellectual Property del Ministerio de Agricultura [email protected] Técnica de Recursos Fitogenéticos Política Agraria 32 Andrés M Perú Comisión Nacional Presidente [email protected] Guillot Federation (ISF) Agricultural Manager Fernández Granda, Coordinadora Departamento de [email protected] Becerra Gallardo (INIA) Genéticos (SDRIADGIA-INIA) 29 Karina Ramírez Cuadros F Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria 30 Saara Puerta Sopla F Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria 31 Manuel Ruiz Mueller M Perú Sociedad Peruana de 49 Hélène F International Seed International [email protected] Protocolo de Nagoya) and C. Lianne Derecho Ambiental Medaglia Cuba (Coordinadora Nacional del [email protected] Cabrera Agricultura_Cuba Ambiente de la República de Agricultura_ Venezuela (INIA) Especialista Alberto Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la de Ciencia, Tecnología y Medio Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la gob.pe 48 Jorge M Costa Rica Facilitator [email protected] de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Internacionales del Ministerio de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los especialista_arapov01@inia. Agricultura 7 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Cuba Dirección de Relaciones 18 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Venezuela Maxwell Mendoza y Carliz Díaz (INIA) Técnico [email protected] 47 Álvaro Toledo Chavarri M España International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA/FAO) Oficial Técnico del la Alimentación y la Agricultura_Costa Rica Agricultura_ Uruguay Fitogenéticos para Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la (MVOTMA) sobre los Recursos de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Ortega de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los (MGAP) y Alicia Aguerre Domínguez, Tratado Internacional [email protected] 6 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Costa Rica Maribel Álvarez Mora y Walter Quirós 17 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Uruguay Marcos Javier Martínez Techera Ordenamiento Protección de la Biodiversidad 28 Roger Alberto M Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria Especialista en Acceso a Recursos [email protected] 46 Michael del Tratado Internacional Agricultura_Peru Halewood M Canadá Bioversity International Head of Policy Unit [email protected] Agricultura. Coordinadora Nacional Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Genéticos [email protected] 15 Marcos Javier Martínez Techera M Uruguay Ministerio de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca (MGAP) Coordinador Campo Natural / Coordinador Técnico del Proyecto Ganaderos Familiares y Cambio Climático [email protected] 16 Alicia Aguerre F Uruguay División Biodiversidad / Dirección Nacional Jefa del Departamento de [email protected] 26 Carlos Javier Pentón García M Cuba Dirección de Relaciones Ambiente de Cuba 27 Alejandro Argumedo (online) M Perú Ramírez Central and South America 45 Kathryn Garforth F Canadá Convention on Agricultura_Chile Políticas Agrarias del Ministerio de de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Biological Diversity Programme Officer Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la bioseguridad, Oficina de Estudios y 16 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Perú Roger Alberto Becerra Gallardo [email protected] 5 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Chile ambiental, recursos genéticos y Agricultura_Panama Teresa Agüero Teare, Encargada Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Tecnología y Medio 44 Marleni F Perú Bioversity International Representative for [email protected] Agricultura_Bolivia de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Ministerio de Ciencia, Doig Relations Director Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la 15 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Panamá Anthony Vega y Darío Luque Internacionales [email protected] (INIA) 43 Ana Peña F Perú Ministry of External Minister Counselor [email protected] 4 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Bolivia Semillas (Ministerio de Agricultura) José Ramón Campero Marañón de Inspección y Certificación de Agricutura, Ganadería Silvestre -UNARGEN Naturales (SEMARNAT) Palomino Innovación Agraria Benin la Agricultura del Servicio Nacional Secretaría de Vega Biodiversidad y Vida Ambiente y Recursos 42 Ladislao M Perú Instituto Nacional de Mejorador [email protected] Protocol and the ITPGRFA's multilateral system_ Bossou Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y Sostenibles / Funcionaria [email protected] Rice Research Station Burma 11 Aminah Thana McPherson-Damon F Guyana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Legal Officer [email protected] 12 Elizabeth Santacreo F Honduras Dirección de Ciencia y Tenología Agropecuaria (DICTA) / Secretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería (SAG) Jefe de Unidad de Frutales [email protected] 13 Marlé Patricia Aguilar Ponce F Honduras Dirección de Biodiversidad Secretaría de Energía, Recursos Naturales, Ambiente y Minas (MiAmbiente) Analista Ambiental [email protected] 14 Anthony M Panamá Departamento de [email protected] Moreno -Ministerio del Poder Popular para Ecosocialismo 23 Maxwell José Mendoza León M Venezuela Oficina de Integración y Asuntos Internacionales -Ministerio del Poder Popular para el Ecosocialismo (MINEC) Especialista en Derecho Penal Internacional (UNALM) del Departamento de Horticultura de la Facultad de Agronomía Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe, 25-28 de septiembre, 2018, CIP, Lima, Perú. 11 Mutually Supportive Implementation of the Nagoya Protocol and the ITPGRFA's Multilateral System_ Guyana Guyana Aminah Mac Pherson-Damon y Nagoya y del Tratado Internacional en América Latina y el Caribe, Mahedra Persaud 25-28 de septiembre, 2018, CIP, Lima, Perú. [email protected] 24 Rosalinda González Santos F México National Service of Inspection and Certification of Seeds (SNICS) -Ministry of Agriculture rosalinda.gonzalez@sagarpa. gob.mx 25 Romana Alejandra Barrios Pérez F México Dirección General de Sector Primario y Recursos Naturales Renovables -Secretaría de Medio Directora de Regulación de Bioseguridad, Recursos Genéticos 3 Mutually supportive implementation of the Nagoya Benín Toussaint Mikpon y Bienvenu González, Directora de Recursos (INIA) Biodiversidad y puntofocal.pnaypb@semarnat. gob.mx 37 Jessica Amanzo F Perú 12 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo Honduras Marlé Aguilar Ponce, Coordinadora Ministry of Environment Director of Genetic Resources and Agrobiodiversity 38 Emma Rivas F Perú Ministry of Environment Specialist 39 Julián Chura Chuquija M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Mejoramiento Génetico de Maíz [email protected] 40 Percy Rolando Egúsquiza Bayona M Perú Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) Mejoramiento, Tuberosas y Raíces [email protected] 41 Cinthya Zorrilla F Perú Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria [email protected] N˚Title/Título Country/ 1 Mutually supportive implementation of the Nagoya Protocol and the ITPGRFA's multilateral system_ Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda 2 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo de Medio Ambiente y Rosalinda Agricultura_Argentina Agricultura_Mexico y Recursos Genéticos, Ministerio Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la de Bioseguridad, Biodiversidad de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Argentina de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Pérez, Directora de Regulación Patricia Gadaleta y Micaela Bonafina 14 Perspectivas en la implementación del Protocolo México Q.A. Romana Alejandra Barrios Barbuda Madagascar Agricultura, Pesca y Asuntos de Protocol and the ITPGRFA's multilateral system_ Andriamahazo Pamella Thomas, Ministerio de 13 Mutually supportive implementation of the Nagoya Madagascar Naritiana Rakotoniaina y Michelle Medio Ambiente Internacional Nneka Nicholas, Departamento de Agricultura_Honduras Coordinadora Nacional del Tratado País Authors/Autores de Nagoya y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Nacional de Acceso y Distribución de Beneficios y Elisabeth Santacreo, CASO PRÁCTICO 1: Recursos de otro reino  "}],"sieverID":"da9be6c5-d5e7-4c94-a28d-8cee2c0788c6","abstract":"por su apoyo a esta esta reunión. CCAFS es llevado a cabo con apoyo de los donantes del Fondo CGIAR y a través de acuerdos bilaterales de financiación. Para detalles por favor visitar https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. Las opiniones expresadas en este documento no pueden ser tomadas como opiniones oficiales de estas organizaciones. La traducción del informe al español fue realizada por Ana Bedmar Villanueva."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a301eae61174eae912ee79ec849905d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/549cc223-7609-42ba-8f5c-dcf2598a726f/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:35 (GMT+0)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Milestones:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• At least 20 new, more productive, disease resistant and climate resilient wheat varieties released by 8-10 partner countries after completing the mandatory performance evaluations"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• High yielding, disease-resistant varieties adopted by farmers, therefore crop losses reduced and less chemicals used in targeted countries."}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• 11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains Contributing Centers/PPA partners:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• CIMMYT -Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo / International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Evidence link:"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"• https://archive.wheat.org/download/2021-wheat-variety-releases/"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Title: P1366 -Deliver International Nurseries to co-operators Description of the innovation: 70 varieties of wheat containing at least one WHEAT parent were released in 2021. Including 11 winter wheat varieties, 6 durum wheat varieties and 53 bread wheat varieties. New Innovation: Yes Innovation type: Other Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: Varieties have been released by national programs and are now available for uptake by farmers or extension agents. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: CIMMYT -Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo / International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • ICARDA -International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas "}],"sieverID":"c9c317c5-4405-486a-af74-70ab44682011","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0a5e75a3c2c3e30681e9331e64509aae.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a5e75a3c2c3e30681e9331e64509aae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/76792e11-fea2-47d8-8bed-4f84f16f76a7/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"EXTINCIóN ES PARA SIEMPRE ! EXTINCIóN EXTINCIóN ES PARA SIEMPRE ! ES PARA SIEMPRE !","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"• lleva su propio 'insecticida'"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• lleva su propio 'insecticida'"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• la arcelina cambia en la cocción • la arcelina cambia en la cocción"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• la larva del gorgojo no se desarrolla en presencia de arc-1, arc-5, arc-7"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• la larva del gorgojo no se desarrolla en presencia de arc-1, arc-5, arc-7"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• permite al agricultor guardar su cosecha • permite al agricultor guardar su cosecha"},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"• sólo pocas poblaciones en W de México • sólo pocas poblaciones en W de México de los 8,000 km en las Américas de los 8,000 km en las Américas ejemplo: la proteína en la yuca ejemplo: la proteína en la yuca 2. Uso en mejoramiento 2. Uso en mejoramiento  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Suelo fuentes: Bonjean & Picard 1990, Gallais 1992, Evans 1998 "},{"text":" fuente: Koo et al.2004     "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"registrado en el Sistema Multilateral del Tratado    149/ 6,000 clones evaluados 149/ 6,000 clones evaluados (Acuerdo firmado con el Órgano Rector el 16 de octubre de 2006) 149/ 6,000 clones evaluados 149/ 6,000 clones evaluados (Acuerdo firmado con el Órgano Rector el 16 de octubre de 2006) Contenido Proteína bruta % Cultivo Frijoles (Phaseolus) Rango Frijoles (Phaseolus) 1 1 Yuca (Manihot) Yuca (Manihot) 1 1 No. de taxa 44 44 33 33 rango 0.95 -6.42 % rango 0.95 -6.42 % No. de materiales 35,683 35,683 6,467 6,467 Contenido Proteína bruta %Cultivo Frijoles (Phaseolus) Rango Frijoles (Phaseolus) 1 1 Yuca (Manihot) Yuca (Manihot) 1 1No. de taxa 44 44 33 33rango 0.95 -6.42 % rango 0.95 -6.42 % No. de materiales 35,683 35,683 6,467 6,467  Forrajes tropicales Forrajes tropicales 1 1 fuente: Ceballos et al. 2006 668 668 23,140 23,140 Forrajes tropicales Forrajes tropicales1 1fuente: Ceballos et al. 2006 668 66823,140 23,140  Colombia Perú Guatemala 65,290 ColombiaPerúGuatemala65,290  "},{"text":"Materiales de germoplasma como Bienes Públicos Internacionales : fuente: CIAT -URG, 2008 Distribución de materiales: Distribución de materiales:  usuario identificado usuario identificado usuario identificado usuario identificado material definido material definido material definido material definido propósito claro propósito claro propósito claro propósito claro normas fitosanitarias normas fitosanitarias normas fitosanitarias normas fitosanitarias acuerdo sobre ANTM acuerdo sobre ANTM acuerdo sobre ANTM acuerdo sobre ANTM  "},{"text":"período 1973 -2007) frijoles frijoles yuca yuca forrajes forrajes frijoles : 403,057 (78%) or 11 x frijoles : 403,057 (78%) or 11 x yuca : 30,847 (6%) ó 4.4 x 84,012 (16%) ó 3.6 x 517,916 muestras a 136 países diferentes forrajes : forrajes :   "}],"sieverID":"1d7446fd-3d1a-408a-815f-8d6f2697ccd3","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0a6ba4d502d6f6adada3c4f397d65752.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a6ba4d502d6f6adada3c4f397d65752","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b21c83ac-5c64-4abc-8788-f52a09c0365c/retrieve"},"pageCount":37,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"DISCLAIMER","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"This report on Uganda is part of a series of Working Papers on The Contribution of Livestock to GDP in the IGAD Member States. These papers were planned and commissioned by the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development's Livestock Policy Initiative (IGAD LPI). The purpose of these papers is to provide support to Livestock Policy Hubs in the Member States to use study outcomes in their engagement with PRSP processes in their respective countries to advocate representation of livestock in national strategy documents that is commensurate with its contribution to economic growth, poverty reduction and food security."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of either the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations or the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities concerning the delimitations of its frontiers or boundaries."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"The opinions expressed in this paper are solely those of the authors and do not constitute in any way the position of the FAO, IGAD, the Livestock Policy Initiative nor the government studied. "}]},{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"This is the fifth in a series of reports on the contribution of livestock to the economies of the IGAD member states. Building on methodologies developed in earlier studies of the role of livestock in the economies of Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan, the present report undertakes an assessment of the contribution of livestock to Uganda's national economy. Conventional GDP accounting may ignore some of the benefits that people derive from livestock in subsistenceoriented economies, when households directly provision themselves, when economic exchanges are not calculated in monetary terms or when these exchanges go unrecorded. The present study assigns monetary values to the non-marketed goods and services provided by livestock, and estimates the contribution of livestock to the wider national economy -as exports, as inputs into manufacturing industries, and as a component of household consumption."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Official national accounts estimates are produced by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS)."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"This report supports the following conclusions:"},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"1. In comparison to the other reports in this series, this analysis of the contribution of livestock to the Ugandan economy rests on a good but narrow data base. The data base is narrow because few field studies on livestock production have been undertaken in Uganda, probably as a result of decades of insecurity and civil war. It is therefore fortunate that official government data on livestock production in Uganda is both up-to-date and reasonably comprehensive. Of the four IGAD countries reviewed in this series, only Uganda has recently undertaken a national livestock census that includes pastoral livestock. Of the countries reviewed here, only Uganda will in future be attempting to base its annual livestock GDP estimates on data from regular national field surveys that include pastoral areas of the country, the twice yearly Uganda National Panel Survey (UNPS) undertaken by UBOS."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"2. Using 2009 as a basis for comparison, this report re-estimated the contribution of livestock to agricultural GDP. Both the original official and re-estimated figures are based in large measure on official data, but the two calculations produce substantially different results. The re-estimated livestock value added in 2009 -1,069.407 billion UShs (or about $526 million US dollars at 2009 exchange rates) -is nearly double the original official estimate of 573 billion UShs (roughly $282 million US dollars), an increase of 86.6% over official estimates for that year."},{"index":6,"size":138,"text":"3. The official and revised estimates also identify different sources for the majority of Uganda's livestock output. According to the revised estimates, cattle milk and offtake combined equal 977.526 billion UShs or about 73% of the gross value of all livestock output. In the light of these calculations, cattle are by far the most economically important livestock species in Uganda. The original official calculations paint a substantially different picture, with the majority of Uganda's livestock output coming from types of livestock other than cattle, while cattle are estimated to provide only 27% of the gross value of national livestock output. The disparity between the official and our revised assessment is due both to previously unavailable statistical data on livestock production and to the alternative computational methods used in this report to estimate the value of individual livestock products."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"4. According to previous official estimates, livestock contributed 1.7% to total national GDP in 2009; our revised estimates would now place this contribution at about 3.2% of the national total."},{"index":8,"size":75,"text":"To put the revised livestock contribution into perspective, it is larger than the GDP derived from either cash crops or fishing, marginally smaller than the contribution from forestry, but still only about a quarter of the value of food crop production. While livestock are vitally important to household welfare and in certain regions of the country, Uganda is not a pastoral nation on the scale of IGAD member states such as Sudan, Ethiopia or Kenya."},{"index":9,"size":137,"text":"5. In 2009 just under half -about 47% -of the direct benefits derived by livestock owners from their animals were attributable to the financially related livelihood services provided by livestock. According to conventional national accounting procedures, the financial benefits derived by livestock owners from their animals may support farming households and thereby enhance farm output, but the increases in economic productivity that arise from these services are not identified as part of the contribution by livestock to the economy. Including financial benefits, total direct use benefits derived from livestock were 2007.390 billion UShs or about $989,000,000 US dollars in 2009. This figure would have been higher if we had been able to estimate the economic value of livestock ploughing and transport services, but there was insufficient evidence to quantify the importance of these aspects of livestock production."},{"index":10,"size":147,"text":"6. The financial component of livestock output is high in Uganda because formal sector financial services are unavailable or expensive in rural areas. When the coverage provided by formal financial institutions increases and these services become more affordable, the financial component of livestock production diminishes in importance relative to the value of more tangible goods and services -milk, meat, manure, animal traction etc -as has happened in Kenya (IGAD LPI Working Paper 03-11). In sum, increasing 'normal' forms of livestock production, which are recognized in GDP accounting, is dependent, to some extent, on the provision of affordable credit and insurance for livestock owners, which permits animal owners to re-focus their production objectives on conventional types of livestock output. Until this happens, the apparent low output of Ugandan livestock will reflect, in part, the diverse and unaccounted array of services that these animals must provide for their owners."},{"index":11,"size":53,"text":"7. Livestock and livestock products constitute a small portion of Uganda's official export trade, in the period from 2006 to 2010 never amounting to more than 1.5% of all exports by value. Informal cross-border livestock trade does take place but is unlikely to significantly increase the share that livestock contribute to national exports."},{"index":12,"size":146,"text":"8. In 2009-10 average monthly expenditure for a household in Uganda was UShs 232,700 (197,500 UShs in rural and 384,350 in urban areas); food, drink and tobacco were the largest category of household expenditure, accounting on average for 45% of all expenditures (51% in rural and 32% in urban areas). Livestock food products (meat, milk, dairy products and eggs) constitute about 43% of household expenditures on food and beverages; 72% of these expenditures are in cash. 9. The production of meat and milk for domestic consumption is low in Uganda, averaging less than 11 kg of meat and about 23 litres of milk per capita per year for all Ugandans. These figures compare with an estimated availability of 41 kg of meat and 26 litres of milk per person in Sudan, and approximately 15 kg of meat and 198 litres of milk per person in Kenya."}]},{"head":"These conclusions support the following recommendations:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Official statistics on livestock production are more than usually important in Uganda because there are few alternative sources of quantified information on livestock. The following recommendations focus on areas of concern regarding gaps in the current, official system for the collection of data and the analysis of livestock production."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"1. Livestock offtake rates: The calculation of offtake rates in Uganda is complicated by the retrieval and consumption of dead animals by some livestock owners. By transforming a certain percentage of dead animals from an economic loss into an economic benefit, the consumption of fallen animals potentially has a significant impact on offtake rates, especially when livestock mortality rates are high, as they are for almost all types of livestock in Uganda. As well as asking about sales, slaughter and gifting of animals, future versions of the UNPS should enquire about the retrieval and consumption of dead livestock."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"2. Animal power: None of the reports in this series -on Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan or Uganda -has been able to obtain sufficient information to reliably estimate the economic importance of animal power. IGAD should consider introducing a region-wide programme of work on the prevalence and economic value of animal power usage in IGAD countries, a subject that is chronically neglected by both academic research and government agricultural monitoring systems. We also recommend that future versions of the UNPS include questions on the cost of ploughing services, the area ploughed by animal power on a rental basis, and the area ploughed by oxen owners for themselves."}]},{"head":"Karamoja Sub-Region:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"In Karamoja, 2.4% of the nation's population produces a fifth of the nation's livestock wealth. Attempts to estimate national livestock output are therefore highly sensitive to any defects in the data on Karamoja. Aside from insecurity in the region, two other issues complicate the estimation of Karamoja livestock production. UNPS is a household not a livestock survey and uses households rather than livestock numbers as a basis for selecting its sample. Under these circumstances, caution must be taken to ensure that Karamoja households are adequately represented since these households -though few in number -hold a disproportionate percentage of the nation's livestock. Lost or stolen livestock present another challenge. There is increasing evidence of the commercialization of livestock raiding in Karamoja, with animals being stolen in order to be marketed and transported outside the region for domestic consumption or unofficial export. Although difficult to document, these animals are part of regional livestock offtake for national accounting purposes."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"We recommend a specialized study of livestock production in Karamoja designed to quantify the region's contribution to national livestock output. It has been shown that returns per hectare of land in pastoral systems were 6.8 times higher than returns to ranching systems in south-western Uganda (Ocaido et al. 2009). In light of these findings, both Karamoja regional development and national livestock policy would benefit from an authoritative, evidence-based re-assessment of the value of that region's pastoral production."}]},{"head":"4.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"In estimating the livestock contribution to agricultural sector GDP we recommend that UBOS consider adopting a production-based approach to calculating the gross value of individual animal products. As demonstrated in this report, the methods used in such calculations are transparent and can be readily adjusted to accommodate fluctuations in UNPS survey data."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION -METHODS AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"This is the fifth in a series of reports on the contribution of livestock to the economies of the IGAD member states. The objective of this report is to assess the extent to which livestock's contribution to the Uganda national economy is reflected in national accounts, if necessary by assigning monetary values to the non-marketed services that livestock provide."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"The overall objective of the IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (LPI) is to enhance the contribution of the livestock sector to sustainable food security and poverty reduction in the IGAD region. The LPI project covers IGAD member states Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda. The first report in this series examined the contribution of livestock to Ethiopia's agricultural sector GDP (IGAD LPI Working Paper No. 02 -10, 2010). Additional reports on Ethiopia (IGAD LPI Working Paper No. 02-11), Kenya (IGAD LPI Working Paper No. 03-11), and Sudan (IGAD LPI Working Paper forthcoming) expanded the scope of the original investigation to examine livestock-related economic benefits that are not conventionally considered to be part of official GDP estimates."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Building on methodologies developed in these earlier studies, the present report undertakes an assessment of the contribution of livestock to Uganda's national economy. Conventional GDP accounting may ignore some of the benefits that people derive from livestock in subsistence-oriented economies, when households directly provision themselves, when economic exchanges are not calculated in monetary terms or when these exchanges go unrecorded. The present study assigns monetary values to the non-marketed goods and services provided by livestock, and estimates the contribution of livestock to the wider national economy -as exports, as inputs into manufacturing industries, and as a component of household consumption."}]},{"head":"A production-based method for estimating agricultural output","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The size of livestock's contribution to agricultural GDP is the most commonly quoted measure of livestock's role in the overall national economy and it is the starting point for this analysis. UBOS is responsible for estimating Uganda's GDP and, with respect to livestock, bases its estimates on both its own survey data and material provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF)."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"The methodology developed by IGAD for estimating the livestock component of agricultural sector GDP follows a production approach. For livestock this approach involves four stages. First, national livestock populations are estimated, in this case based on projections of national livestock populations provided by the 2008 Uganda national livestock census conducted by MAAIF and UBOS. Second, production coefficients are applied to the livestock population estimates to generate estimates of the total quantity of animal products such as milk, animals for slaughter, and manure produced by the national herd. Third, national average farm gate prices are used to assign a monetary value -the gross value of production -to total output (expressed in this case in Ugandan schillings) for each kind of livestock product. Finally, input costs (intermediate costs) are deducted from the gross value of output to derive value added, the unit in which GDP is expressed."},{"index":3,"size":392,"text":"The production approach outlined here has been used by IGAD to estimate the contribution of livestock to agricultural sector GDP in Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan and will be the basis for this study. Using this approach, initially no distinction needs to be made between production destined for commercial sale, for immediate consumption by producers, or for export. This is an advantage in a semi-commercialized economy, such as Uganda's livestock sector, in which livestock owners consume a significant portion of what their herds produce. Home production for home consumption (or for informal local exchange and consumption) is frequently unrecorded in official marketing statistics. By basing estimates on total product output, livestock GDP estimates do not rely on incomplete marketing data and should, in principle, include subsistence production. UBOS's estimation techniques do not at present correspond to IGAD's production approach. Since changes to their methodology in 2007, UBOS does not estimate the volume of output for different livestock products, does not collect farm gate prices on the sale of livestock products, and does not collect information on the intermediate costs specific to different livestock enterprises (such as cattle, sheep or goat raising). UBOS methodology was, however, closer to that of IGAD LPI prior to 2007, and is likely in the next couple of years to evolve to again resemble the IGAD methods more closely. The Uganda National Panel Survey (UNPS), currently being conducted by UBOS, is a new twice yearly household survey that includes questions on livestock production. UBOS has thus far conducted three rounds of surveys and continues to refine the methodology. The system will be finalized in 2013 and the first livestock sector GDP estimates based on the survey will be available by 2014. The first round of survey data collection is now complete and results are available (Uganda National Panel Survey, 2009/2010 (Wave I): Key Findings, UBOS 2011). UBOS and MAAIF also conducted a comprehensive national livestock census in 2008 (The National Livestock Census Report, MAAIF and UBOS, 2008), which provides authoritative, recent livestock population estimates and productivity data. Taken in combination, the 2008 livestock census and UNPS survey provide the foundation for increasingly accurate estimates of the livestock contribution to agricultural sector GDP. How to best use these resources is currently under discussion in UBOS and MAAIF, and the present consultancy is well timed to constructively contribute to this discussion."}]},{"head":"Organization of the report","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"This report is divided into two parts."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Part I examines what some economists have termed the 'direct use values' of livestock in Uganda. Direct use values, include the kinds of agricultural outputs that are enumerated in conventional GDP estimates -material goods such as milk and live animals for domestic consumption or export. The calculations undertaken in Part I will therefore provide a means to cross-check current Uganda GDP estimates for livestock production against a new set of estimates. Part I also examines two kinds of economic contributions made by livestock -as sources of animal power for transport or agricultural work, and as providers of financial services such as credit or insurance -that are poorly represented in standard GDP calculations organized according to international conventions. Though not exclusively, both of these kinds of economic activity tend to directly support the livelihoods of livestock owners."},{"index":3,"size":188,"text":"Part II of the report examines some of the non-agricultural contributions livestock make to the wider economy Uganda. Agricultural value added is based on the value of unprocessed or lightly processed agricultural produce at point of first sale. Some agricultural produce is consumed at this stage, but much is taken up by other sectors of the economy that use it, modify it, and add value to it. As these livestock goods and services transit through the wider economy they continue to contribute to national GDP, not in the form of agricultural output but classified now as services or manufacturing. The multiplier or indirect benefits derived from livestock in this way appear under a variety of headings in national accounts and are not readily attributed to livestock, which makes it difficult to assess the full extent of livestock's influence on the national economy. To remedy this situation and to gain a clearer understanding of the economic linkages between livestock production and the wider economy, Part II of the report examines three different ways Ugandans use livestock outputs -for private consumption, as exports, or as inputs into other domestic industries."}]},{"head":"PART I: DIRECT USE BENEFITS OF LIVESTOCK","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Direct use values refer to livestock outputs in the form of goods and services, both marketed and for non-commercial or subsistence use. The concept of direct use value was developed by economists attempting to quantify the economic benefits derived from the natural environment (Barbier 1993) and has subsequently been applied to livestock (Hesse and McGregor 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"Direct use values include but are broader than conventional definitions of Agricultural value added. Agricultural value added expresses in monetary terms the value of the goods that livestock produce -items such as live animals for slaughter and dairy products, manure, fibres, hides and skins. As long as enough of these products are traded to establish a producer price, home-produced goods that are directly consumed by livestock owners are routinely included in agricultural value added, though there may be practical difficulties in estimating the volume and value of these subsistence goods. Estimates of agricultural value added therefore include, or should include, the value of both marketed and un-marketed or informally marketed goods produced by livestock. The same cannot be said for the un-marketed services that livestock provide for their owners. For reasons discussed later in this report, the financial services provided by livestock -as credit, insurance or savings -are excluded entirely from GDP calculations, and only a part of the benefits derived from animal power are recognized, usually as contributions to transport rather than agricultural sector value added."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"The concept of direct use value pulls together under one heading all the various economic benefits derived from livestock -from both goods and services, whether they are marketed or for subsistence, both in the agricultural and other sectors of the economy. This is useful for an analysis, like the present one, that attempts to construct a comprehensive estimate of the economic benefits derived from livestock. The concept of direct use also includes a broad range of livelihood benefits that livestock owners depend upon in practice, but which cannot for technical reasons be incorporated into national accounts. The concept of direct use therefore provides a more balanced expression than GDP accounting of the economic reasons why livestock owners keep and value their animals. Since agricultural value added is one component of direct use value, it is nonetheless possible to compare the results of this more inclusive assessment with those based on national accounting guidelines."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"The following sections of Part I estimate the value of the goods and financial services provided by livestock to the Ugandan economy. To illustrate our methods of calculation, we estimate livestock output in 2009."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"The monetary values of meat and milk output are the main components of official estimates of the contribution of livestock to agricultural value added. We therefore begin our appraisal with an estimation of these values."}]},{"head":"Cattle milk","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Dairy output is a complex result of the interaction of multiple variables -cattle breed, the percentage of cows in the herd, the proportion of those cows that lactate per year, output per lactation, the level of extraction for human use, etc."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"According to the 2008 livestock census, there were 11,408,740 cattle in Uganda in 2008. 5.6% of the national herd were exotic or cross dairy breeds and 47.8% of these were cows, 32.8% of which were lactating. Based on these percentages, there were 98,000 to 100,000 lactating cows of improved breeds in Uganda in 2008 (Table 1). Also according to the 2008 census, 27.7% of the national cattle herd consisted of indigenous Ankole cattle, 65.9% consisted of zebu and other indigenous breeds, and 0.8% were exotic beef breeds. 40.5% of indigenous cattle were cows and approximately 32.8% of these were giving milk. Beef cattle produced no milk for human consumption."},{"index":3,"size":214,"text":"Overall, according to the census report, 8.5 litres of milk were produced per milked cow per week, 442 litres per cow per year, or 1.85 million litres of milk per day. If 1,519,580 cows give on average 422 litres per year, annual cattle milk production can be estimated to be 671,654,360 litres in 2008 based on published information in the 2008 census. There are marked differences in the amount of milk produced by different Ugandan cattle breeds. Table 2 provides an overview of research on the effect of these breed differences on milk output for human consumption in pastoral and farm herds. We located no research studies of onfarm milk offtake specifically from indigenous zebu breeds, the most common type of cattle in Uganda and reputedly the least productive in terms of milk output. There were 1,425,941 indigenous cows giving milk in 2008 and 97,926 improved dairy cows (Table 1); if these indigenous and improved cows produced, respectively, 508 and 1834 litres on average per annum (Table 2), total national milk production for human consumption in 2008 can be estimated at 724,378,028 litres from indigenous cattle and 179,596,284 litres from improved breeds, a total of 903,974,312 litres in 2008, an increase of about 35% over output estimates based on data in the 2008 census."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"There are a number of plausible explanations for this discrepancy:"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Taking the unweighted mean of localized research study results is a crude method to determine national averages."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"• Dairy researchers tend to be drawn to areas that could potentially be developed for dairy production, thereby unintentionally inflating the apparent national level of dairy output if their work is used to construct a national average"},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"• The 35% discrepancy in output may, to some extent, represent real lost dairy output in Karamoja District as a result of the deleterious impact on pastoral livelihoods of insecurity and of intermittent government attempts at pacification (Kratli 2010;Stites and Mitchard 2011)."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Milk output was underreported in the 2008 census."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"In this report we will base our estimates of livestock milk output on the lower range of values provided in the 2008 national livestock census."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"According  "}]},{"head":"Goat and camel milk","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In 2008 there were 12,449,656 goats in Uganda, 53% of which were female. There are references to goats being milked, primarily to provide food for children among agro-pastoral and pastoral groups in northern Uganda (Okello 1985;Dyson-Hudson and Dyson-Hudson 1969;Dyson-Hudson 1966), but we could locate no information on the amount of milk that was likely to be obtained in this way or the prevalence of this practice."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"In eastern Africa, local goats generally produce 200-300 ml of milk/day for 60-90 days, have a kidding rate of about 150% per annum, and will only be milked if they give birth to a single kid (Peacock pers. com.). In the absence of evidence from Uganda, we assume that all female goats in Karamoja Sub-region are milked and none are milked elsewhere in Uganda, that each female produces 250 ml of milk for human consumption per day for 75 days each year, or about 19 litres per adult female per year. In 2008 there are an estimated 32,870 camels in Uganda, almost all in Karamoja Sub-Region. We located no information on the extent to which these animals were milked, but will assume for the purposes of this report that Ugandan camels produce 186 litres per annum for human consumption, which is the estimated output per head from Kenyan camels (IGAD LPI 03-11)."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Assuming little change in the size of the camel herd in one year and assigning camel milk the same monetary value as cattle milk, the value of camel milk production for human consumption in 2009 can be estimated as follows: 32,870 head *186 litres/head * 618 UShs/litre = 3,778,340,760 UShs or 3.778 billion UShs in 2009."}]},{"head":"Cattle offtake","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Net cattle offtake in 2009 according to the UNPS Wave 1 results can be estimated to lie between 10.15% and 14.17%. Net offtake is defined here as the sum of gifts out, sales, slaughter and 20% of all deaths, less gifts in and less animals purchased, relative to opening herd size. A portion of all dead or lost animals is included in offtake on the assumption that significant numbers of fallen animals are eaten and that a proportion of stolen animals are either consumed or sold for consumption. UBOS (unpublished)   Consult 2006). Nyombi reported culling rates between 20 and 30% per annum in intensive dairy herds in the early 1990s (Nyombi 1994), and FAO estimated an 11.6% offtake rate for cattle in the early 2000s (FAO 2005). Ocaido et al. (2009) documented annual cattle offtake rates for ranches and pastoralists in south western Uganda of 21 to 28%, but these rates were elevated by a drought that led to higher than usual levels of sales during the study period."}]},{"head":"Sheep, goat and camel offtake","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"In In 2008 there were an estimated 32,870 camels in Uganda. We could locate no information on the rates of offtake or the sale price of these animals. For purposes of this calculation we will assume that the size in 2009 of the national camel herd in Uganda did not change from the census estimate in 2008 and that the offtake rate from this herd is identical to the estimated offtake from Kenyan camel herds -1.75% per annum. It should be noted that these estimations are highly sensitive to the assumed rate at which dead or lost animals are recovered, consumed and therefore become a component of offtake rather than loss. No research was available on recovery rates for fallen animals in Uganda, but because mortality rates are high, different assumed rates of recovery generate large variations in the estimated gross value of output. For example, increasing the assumed recovery rate for goats from 20% to 50% increases the estimated gross value of goat offtake from 181.913 to 233.850 billion UShs, and doing the same for sheep increases offtake from 35.380 to 54.186 billion UShs."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"In 2002, FAO estimated annual offtake rates for goats at 30.8% and for sheep at 36.2%, i.e., a rate broadly similar to 33% derived for goats from the UNPS data but much higher than the UNPS annual offtake rate for sheep at 22%. In south western Uganda, Ocaido et al. (2009) documented goat offtake rates of 38% (inclusive of sales, goats eaten, given out and stolen)."}]},{"head":"Pig offtake","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In 2009 the annual net pig offtake rate (the sum of gifts out, sales, slaughter and 20% of all deaths, less gifts in and less animals purchased, relative to closing herd size) was 22.32% based on UNPS Wave 1 results. At this rate, a pig population of 3,280,000 head yielded an estimated offtake of 732,096 head valued at 42,198 UShs per head, totalling 30.893 billion UShs. in 2009."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The estimated FAO pig offtake rate for 2002 was 82% (FAO 2005), much higher than the 22% rate derived from the UNPS survey results for 2009. On the other hand, the Uganda Programme for Trade Opportunities and Policy (UPTOP) estimated pig offtake rates of 20% (Greenbelt Consult 2006)."}]},{"head":"Poultry production","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"In this report we use the UBOS estimate (unpublished) of the gross value of poultry productionmeat and eggs -in 2009: 89 billion UShs."}]},{"head":"Manure for fertilizer","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Available evidence suggests that manure for fertilizer is not used consistently by Ugandan farmers, that it is not sold in most communities and does not have an established monetary value, which precludes its inclusion in GDP estimates. Ocaido et al. (2009) found that manure contributed to 2.7 to 4.4% of total cattle herd output from pastoral and ranch herds, respectively, but was not sold in south western Uganda. An examination of various levels of dairy farm intensification found that manure was not a binding constraint on crop production on these farms; at best, farmers used as fertilizer 15% of the manure their herds produced (Nanyeenya et al 2008). This study concluded that manure had a shadow price of zero."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"While it is clear that manure has an agronomic value in sustaining crop and rangeland productivity, it would seem that manure has negligible economic value for farmers given the levels of intensification characteristic of farming systems in Uganda."}]},{"head":"Animal power","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The following citations and quotations attest to the importance of oxen draught power in certain agro-pastoral and farming systems in Uganda, the century-long history of oxen use in some areas, and the continuing interest of various government programmes in promoting oxenization for development purposes:"},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"• In agro-pastoral areas of Soroti Distict, 'cattle herd composition was usually geared towards supporting traction with bulls and steers constituting over 36.4% of the herds (Ocaido et al 2009: 5). In this area 95% of households used bulls and steers for ploughing, transport of building materials, firewood and harvests. At the time of study in the early 2000s, the average daily hire rate for oxen was 4,000 UShs or about 2.80 US dollars per day (Ocaido et al. 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"• In Pallisa District of eastern Uganda (Teso farming system) oxen ploughing was introduced in 1910 and flourished in conjunction with cotton farming through the 1970s. From 1985 to 1991 the cattle herd fell from 123,000 head to 2,000 due to insecurity, and cotton farming collapsed. At present, all but the poorest category of farmers owns ox ploughing equipment and at least one ox to team with another farmer for draught power (Ebanyat et al. 2010; see also Nyugo and Olupot 1999;Barton et al. n.d.)."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"• 'In some areas like Lira and Soroti in the northeast, draught power is essential as it provides a link between crops and livestock systems. Currently, only 35% of farmers in Lira are estimated to own draught oxen -far below the levels in the 1980s. Although households with an off-farm income source have been able to restock with draught oxen, poor rural households continue to till the soil with hoes'. 'Only about 40% of households within the cattle corridor own livestock and only 5% of households own oxen for ploughing in areas where animal traction for cultivation was the mode pre-insurgency' (African Development Fund, National Livestock Productivity Improvement Project, Appraisal Report 2002: pages 11 and 12)."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"• Maize cultivation with ox-drawn ploughs was introduced to the Sabei agro-pastoralists occupying the plains at the base of Mt. Elgon in the period before World War I (Goldschmidt 1969)."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"• Along with food and building materials, ox ploughs were one of the incentives provided by the government to encourage voluntary disarmament in Karamoja in 2001-02 (Stites and Akabwai 2010)."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"The national livestock census of 2008 asked livestock owners about their possession of hoes, pangas, garden forks and slashers; the census did not enquire about and contains no information on the ownership of oxen chains or ploughs. The published report from the census also contains no information on the number of oxen in Uganda that are trained or used for ploughing or haulage. As it is presently worded, the UNPS survey questionnaire enquires about ox-ploughs, but the results from this question have not yet been tabulated; the questionnaire does not enquire about the ownership or use of draught oxen or about the costs of renting ploughing services."}]},{"head":"Blood","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"A large ox will yield 4 litres of blood in the rains and be ready to bleed again in 5 months; dry season yields are much lower (Dyson Hudson 1966) "}]},{"head":"Honey production","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"According to the livestock census, in 2008 Uganda produced 2600 metric tons of honey; we were unable to locate information on farm gate prices for honey, and therefore cannot estimate the monetary value of honey output."}]},{"head":"Financially related livelihood services provided by livestock","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock as credit","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"The credit or financing benefits of livestock derive from the ability of livestock owners to dispose of their animals for particular purposes at a time that they choose -their ability to 'cash in' on the value of their animals as needed. This flexibility gives livestock owners access to money without the need to borrow and confers an additional financial benefit beyond the sale, slaughter or transfer value of their livestock. This additional financial benefit can be estimated as the opportunity cost of rural credit -what it would otherwise cost a livestock owner to obtain funds comparable to those produced by liquidating a part of the herd (Bosman et al. 1997). Employing this method of estimation, the additional finance value of a livestock holding is equivalent to the interest that the owners would be required to pay to obtain loans equal to the value of their livestock offtake."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"Research suggests that the substitution of livestock sales for access to credit is a practice actually engaged in by Ugandan farmers. Balikowa (2004) reported that the lack of capital was a significant constraint for dairy farmers, the majority of whom lacked access to credit facilities and indicated that interest rates were high. Under these circumstances, 'Many farmers fear to borrow due to uncertainty in the profitability of dairy enterprises while other[s] lack the necessary collateral security. Others prefer to sell some of the animals in order to finance the farm operations and therefore do not need to borrow from financial institutions' (Balikowa 2004: 12). Our challenge is to establish the level of financial benefit that can be reasonably imputed to the use of livestock sales as a substitute for credit."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"In the early 1990s in Uganda, formal lending interest rates fell from 37% to about 20-25% (Mbuza et al 1995). Average bank lending interest rates continued to decline to about 20% in the decade up to 2006 (Wabukawo 2008), and microfinance annual interest rates to farmers were 13% following a government credit scheme launched in 2006-07 (Kasirye 2007). In a recent study, Matovu and Luke (2010) found that:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• the majority of informal lenders charged annual interest rates of 11-20%,"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• a minority of informal lenders charged more than 50% per year,"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• formal traditional credit sources were changing 21-30%,"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• but over 40% of all borrowers paid no interest whatsoever."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"Matovu and Luke did not attempt to estimate average rural interest rates. The Uganda National Household Survey 2009/2010: Socio-Economic Module (UBOS 2010) contains a wealth of information on credit availability and use in Uganda. Unfortunately, it contains no information on average credit interest rates in rural areas, although it did confirm that the vast majority of rural households obtain credit from informal sources (Kasirye 2007)."},{"index":9,"size":96,"text":"An idea of the significance of personal lending on mean rural credit interest rates can be estimated from data in Kenya, where we do have a recent national survey that included both institutionalized (formal and informal) and private lending. In Kenya institutionalized credit interest rates in rural areas ran at about 25% p.a., although roughly half of all lending was not conducted through institutions, but was done privately among neighbours, friends and kin. When this personalized lending was taken into consideration, apparent mean rural interest rates fell from 25% p.a. to 6.3% per annum (KNBS 2006)."},{"index":10,"size":147,"text":"If the situation in Kenya is any indication, it is likely that no one actually knows the prevailing average interest rate on rural credit in Uganda. In the absence of evidence, we will in this study use the rural Kenya interest rate of 6.3% p.a. The total estimated value of national livestock offtake in 2009 is given in Table 3. Part of the insurance or security value of livestock comes from the ability of owners to liquidate their own herds in an emergency. In this instance, the level of security provided to a particular individual depends on the value of that individual's assets, and livestock ownership functions as self-insurance. The value of this form of asset-based insurance can be calculated as the annual cost that herd owners would need to pay to purchase insurance coverage equal to the capital value of their herd (Bosman et al. 1997)."},{"index":11,"size":156,"text":"While sound in theory, this method is difficult to implement in Uganda, which does not yet have a national health insurance scheme (Kagumire 2009;NBS Television 2011), where the formal insurance market is small, and where by 2006 only one commercial insurance company even offered health insurance (Zikusooka et al 2008). Research for this report uncovered no documented availability of formal health insurance coverage for rural Ugandans, and hence no basis on which to impute the insurance value of their livestock. Elsewhere in eastern Africa, the relevant insurance premium was estimated at 0.4848% in Kenya, 2.4% in Sudan and 10% in rural Ethiopia (IGAD LPI WP numbers 02-11, 03-11 and forthcoming). In the absence of additional evidence, we assume that insurance in rural Uganda costs 10% of the value of the coverage provided, as it does in Ethiopia where formal rural insurance coverage is also generally unavailable and insurance is instead provided by voluntary self help associations."},{"index":12,"size":12,"text":"Valuing retained livestock at 75% of the sale price of marketed animals,  "}]},{"head":"Risk pooling","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"For livestock owners the insurance value of livestock derives not only from their ability to liquidate their individual herds, but also from their ability to call upon assistance from fellow stock owners in time of need. These collective insurance schemes are based on the gifting and loaning of livestock within rural communities. Since transfers are in-kind -meat, milk, live animals and traction/transport services -contributions into these systems are roughly comparable to withdrawals from them. The value of the system from the perspective of resource givers and receivers is therefore approximately equal: recipients extract a level of support from the system that equals what donors are willing to contribute. The value of this communal system of livestock insurance is therefore approximately equal to the level of livestock loaning and gifting within rural communities."},{"index":2,"size":338,"text":"Table 5 estimates the value of Ugandan livestock involved in 2009 in exchanges between livestock owners. For each species excepting camels, the average annual rate at which animals are gifted from herds is taken from a preliminary analysis of the UNPS Wave 1 survey results. We assume that camels are gifted at the same rate as cattle, that small stock (pigs, sheep and goats) are disposed by their new owners within a year of their transfer, and that large stock (cattle and camels) remain in the recipients herd for three years. Based on these assumptions, the total value of livestock involved in gift exchanges in 2009 was 353.916 billion UShs, which was also the approximate value of the insurance/risk pooling benefit derived from these exchanges. The total value derived from using livestock exchanges to collectively buffer risk was 353.916 billion UShs in 2009. In comparison to the other reports in this series, this analysis of the contribution of livestock to the Ugandan economy rests on a good but narrow data base. The data base is narrow because, aside from research on cattle milk production and dairying reviewed in Section 2.2, few field studies on livestock production have been undertaken in Uganda, probably as a result of decades of insecurity and civil war. Unlike Ethiopia and Kenya, and to a lesser extent Sudan, there is no substantial, independent body of scientific or project-based research that can be used to crosscheck official figures. It is therefore fortunate that official government data on livestock production in Uganda is both up-to-date and reasonably comprehensive. Of the four IGAD countries reviewed in this series, only Uganda has recently undertaken a national livestock census that includes pastoral livestock. Of the countries reviewed here, only Uganda will in future be attempting to base its annual livestock GDP estimates on data from twice-yearly national field surveys (the Uganda National Panel Survey conducted by UBOS), rather than projections based on assumptions and indices or, as in Ethiopia, on field surveys that exclude pastoral areas of the country."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Table 4 summarizes the unpublished calculations that lie behind the official 2009 estimate of the livestock contribution to agricultural GDP.  2 Estimated input costs on based on a preliminary analysis by UBOS of UNPS Wave 1 results."},{"index":4,"size":193,"text":"Both the official and re-estimated sets of calculations are based in large measure on official data, for the reasons noted above, but otherwise there is little similarity. Most obviously, the two calculations produce substantially different results. The re-estimated livestock value added -1,069.407 billion UShs -is nearly double the original official estimate of 573 billion UShs, a discrepancy that is all the more puzzling because the official estimates attribute a higher gross value to livestock output than do the revised estimates, 1789 billion UShs for the official estimate versus 1,333.307 billion UShs for the revised estimate. The two sets of calculations also identify different sources for the majority of Uganda's livestock output. According to the revised estimates, cattle milk and cattle offtake combined equal 977.526 billion UShs or about 73% of the gross value of all livestock output. In light of these calculations, cattle are by far the most economically important livestock species in Uganda. The original official calculations paint a substantially different picture, with the majority of Uganda's livestock output coming from sources other than cattle, which are estimated to provide only 27% of the gross value of national livestock output (Table 4)."},{"index":5,"size":172,"text":"These conflicting results are a consequence of combining different analytical methods with different sources of data. Analytically, the revised figures are based on an attempt to estimate the quantity and value of individual animal products, and these individual values are then combined to provide an overall picture of livestock output. The official figures are, in contrast, based on indexed values ascribed to bundles of livestock products derived from individual livestock species (such as cattle) or the aggregated output of several species (as in 'goats and other animals'). In terms of data, both the 2008 livestock census results and a preliminary analysis of the livestock data in the first round of the UNPS survey were available for our revised estimates. Official estimates will not utilize these data sources until the national accounts are officially rebased. Compared to the official figures, these differences in data and analytical methods have produced an 78% increase in the estimated size of the contribution made by livestock to agricultural GDP in 2009, the year chosen for this comparison."},{"index":6,"size":200,"text":"Table 7 summarizes our estimates of the direct economic benefits obtained both from livestock products (as a portion of agricultural GDP) and from livestock services (normally not part of GDP estimates). Just under half -about 47% -of the direct benefits derived by livestock owners from their animals are attributable to the financial services provided by livestock. According to conventional national accounting procedures, these financial self services may support farming households and thereby enhance farm output, but the economic benefits that arise from these services are not identified as part of the contribution by livestock to the economy. The quantification of these benefits nonetheless contributes to a clearer understanding of the economic functions of livestock at both household and national levels. In particular, the high ratio of financial service benefits relative to other kinds of livestock production highlights the unavailability and high cost of formal financial services in rural Uganda. The cost of formal financial services determines the value to be attributed to the untraded, asset-based, financially related services provided by livestock for their owners. In Uganda, the financial benefits imputed to livestock are high because formal financial services are expensive, as they are in Ethiopia (IGAD LPI Working Paper 02-11)."},{"index":7,"size":132,"text":"When the coverage provided by formal financial institutions increases in the rural areas and these services become more affordable, as has happened in Kenya, the financial component of livestock production diminishes in importance relative to the value of more tangible goods -milk, meat, manure, etc -or services -such as animal traction and transport (IGAD LPI Working Paper 03-11). In sum, increasing 'normal' forms of livestock production, which are recognized in GDP accounting, is dependent, to some extent, on the provision of affordable credit and insurance for livestock owners, which permits animal owners to re-focus their production objectives on conventional types of livestock output. Until this happens, the apparent low output of African herds will reflect, in part, the diverse (and unaccounted) array of services that these animals must provide for their owners."}]},{"head":"PART II: CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK TO THE WIDER ECONOMY","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"This final part of the report examines three different ways the Uganda economy uses livestock products -for private consumption, as inputs into other domestic industries, and as exports."}]},{"head":"The role of livestock in household consumption and expenditure","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"In 2009-10 average monthly expenditure for a household in Uganda was UShs 232,700 (197,500 UShs in rural and 384,350 in urban areas); food, drink and tobacco were the largest category of household expenditure, accounting on average for 45% of all expenditures (51% in rural and 32% in urban areas) (UBOS 2010). The amount and kind of monthly household expenditure on livestock food items is shown in Tables 8 and 9."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Livestock food products (meat, milk, dairy products and eggs) constitute about 43% of household expenditures on food and beverages; 72% of these expenditures are in cash. For other categories of expenditure that might be expected to be supported in some measure by livestock production (transport or clothing, for instance) available evidence does not allow the disaggregation of the livestock contribution.  Fluid milk from cattle, goats and camels available for consumption or processing into dairy products."}]},{"head":"Livestock products as inputs into manufacturing","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In 2009 food processing accounted for 40.3% of Uganda's manufacturing value added (UBOS unpublished) and meat preparation and dairy processing accounted for 3% of all food processing. In 2009 animal feed production constituted 0.9% and leather and footwear production made up 0.6% of total industrial production (UBOS unpublished)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"According to an analysis of livestock export competitiveness in 2006, by that date livestock processing infrastructure -abattoirs, hides and skins processors, and dairy processing companieswere underdeveloped (Greenbelt Consult 2006)."}]},{"head":"The export of livestock and livestock products","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"In the period from 2006 to 2010, livestock and livestock products constituted a small portion of Uganda's formal export trade, never amounting to more than 1.5% of all exports by value (Table 11). Table 12 gives the species composition of estimated unofficial livestock exports from 2008 to 2010. Source: UBOS unpublished"}]},{"head":"Summary of Part II","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Livestock make a modest contribution to the non-agricultural sectors of Uganda's economy. In comparison to the other IGAD countries reviewed in this report series, livestock and their products make up a small part of Uganda's exports, the per capita production of meat and milk for domestic consumption is low, and Ugandans spend a moderate proportion of their household food budget on livestock-derived foods."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"While livestock are essential to the livelihoods of people in certain parts of the country, Uganda's overall economy does not depend on livestock production to the same extent as that of Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Aside from work done since the 1990s on dairying, little recent field research has been conducted on the performance of Ugandan livestock production systems. The reappraisal carried out in this report of the contribution of livestock to the national economy is, therefore, heavily dependent on data produced by government monitoring and statistical services. The results of this reassessment nonetheless conflict with official figures, estimating an increase of 87% above official estimates of the contribution of livestock to agricultural GDP in 2009, the year selected to make this comparison. The disparity between the official and our revised assessment is due both to previously unavailable statistical data on livestock production and to the alternative computational methods used in this report to estimate the value of individual livestock products."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"According to previous official estimates, livestock contributed 1.7% to total national GDP in 2009; our revised estimates would now place this contribution at about 3.2% of the national total. To put the revised livestock contribution into perspective, it is larger than the GDP derived from either cash crops or fishing, marginally smaller than the contribution from forestry, but still only about a quarter of the value of food crop production. While livestock are vitally important to household welfare and in certain regions of the country, Uganda is not a pastoral nation on the scale of IGAD member states such as Sudan, Ethiopia or Kenya."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"GDP estimates exclude an unusually high proportion of the direct benefits generated by Ugandan livestock. The financial component of livestock output is high in Uganda because formal sector financial services are unavailable or expensive in rural areas. At nearly half of total livestock output, the imputed value of the financial services provided by livestock in Uganda is a larger component of overall livestock output than in any of the other countries reviewed here -Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya. In Uganda in particular, conventional definitions of value added exclude from national accounts a large proportion of the economic benefits that motivate many rural people to own livestock."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"By misconstruing the reasons people keep livestock, outside observers may also undervalue the kinds of animals people keep. Because they provide a source of affordable credit and insurance, rural people may choose to hold animals that are durable and, hence, likely to retain their financial value, but are relatively unproductive in other, more conventional ways. Seen in these terms, conventional GDP accounting may promote a misinterpretation of the factors that motivate rural people to keep animals and obscure the circumstances that will induce them to engage in new kinds of livestock production."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"The production of meat and milk for domestic consumption is low in Uganda, at less than 11 kg of meat and about 23 litres of milk per capita per year. These figures compare with an estimated availability of 41 kg of meat and 26 litres of milk per person in Sudan, and approximately 15 kg of meat and 198 litres of milk per person in Kenya."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"These conclusions support the following recommendations:"},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"Official statistics on livestock production are more than usually important in Uganda because there are few alternative sources of quantified information on livestock. The following recommendations focus on areas of concern regarding gaps in the current, official system of data collection and analysis of livestock production."},{"index":8,"size":84,"text":"1. Livestock offtake rates: The 2008 livestock census collected information on egg, honey and milk production but, for reasons that are unclear, did not enquire about meat output in the form of animal offtake rates. This oversight is difficult to remedy through short-term studies because offtake rates fluctuate widely with variations in rainfall, and short-term studies are unlikely to provide a balanced assessment of average rates over the longer term. The regular biannual monitoring of livestock offtake in the UNPS is therefore particularly important."},{"index":9,"size":135,"text":"The calculation of offtake rates in Uganda is complicated by the retrieval and consumption of dead animals by some livestock owners. By transforming a certain percentage of dead animals from an economic loss into and economic benefit, the consumption of fallen animals potentially has a significant impact on offtake rates, especially when livestock mortality rates are high, as they are for almost all types of livestock in Uganda. We could find no documentation of the percentage of dead animals that are consumed, although this form of offtake is likely to be an important channel through which some rural Ugandans supplement their diets, especially in drought conditions in pastoral areas. As well as asking about sales, slaughter and gifting of animals, future versions of the UNPS should enquire about the retrieval and consumption of dead livestock."}]},{"head":"Animal power:","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"As it is presently worded, the UNPS survey questionnaire enquires about the ownership and rental of ox-ploughs but does not enquire about the ownership or use of draught oxen or about the costs of renting ploughing services. The rental of ploughing services can be used to establish the monetary value of ploughing by oxen, either on a rental basis or by the farmer's own animals. We recommend that future versions of the UNPS include questions on the cost of ploughing services, the area ploughed by animal power on a rental basis, and the area ploughed by oxen owners for themselves."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"None of the reports in this series -on Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan or Uganda -has been able to obtain sufficient information to reliably estimate the economic importance of animal power. IGAD should consider introducing a region-wide programme of work on the prevalence and economic value of animal power usage in IGAD countries, a subject that is chronically neglected by both academic research and government agricultural monitoring systems. Any attempt to quantify the economic contribution of livestock to Uganda must come to terms with Karamoja. This is not easy. The 1990-91 national census of agriculture and livestock excluded much of Karamoja 'due to the then existing security situation' (MAAIF 1993:2). Some analysts reject the 2008 Karamoja livestock census figures as too high for some north-eastern districts (Benson and Mugarura 2010), while others suspect they are too low (Kratli 2010) 1 . Aside from insecurity in the region, two other issues complicate the estimation of Karamoja livestock production. UNPS is a household not a livestock survey and uses households rather than livestock numbers as a basis for selecting its sample. Under these circumstances, caution must be taken to ensure that Karamoja households are adequately represented since these households -though few in number -hold a disproportionate percentage of the nation's livestock. Lost or stolen livestock present another challenge. There is increasing scholarly evidence of the commercialization of livestock raiding in Karamoja, with animals being stolen in order to be marketed and transported outside the region for domestic consumption or unofficial export (Eaton 2010). Although difficult to document, these animals are part of regional livestock offtake for national accounting purposes."}]},{"head":"Karamoja","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"We recommend a specialized study of livestock production in Karamoja designed to quantify the region's contribution to national livestock output. It has been shown that returns per hectare of land in pastoral systems were 6.8 times higher than returns to ranching systems in south-western Uganda (Ocaido et al 2009). In light of these findings, both Karamoja regional development and national livestock policy would benefit from an authoritative, evidence-based re-assessment of the value of that region's pastoral production."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"4. In estimating the livestock contribution to agricultural sector GDP we recommend that UBOS consider adopting a production-based approach to calculating the gross value of individual animal products. As demonstrated in this report, the methods used in such calculations are transparent and can be readily adjusted to accommodate fluctuations in UNPS survey data. "}]},{"head":"ANNEX","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The overall objective of the IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative is to enhance the contribution of the livestock sector to sustainable food security and poverty reduction in the IGAD region. The project purpose is to strengthen the capacity in IGAD, its member states, regional organizations, and other stakeholders to formulate and implement livestock sector and related policies that sustainably reduce food insecurity and poverty. The IGAD member states covered by the project are Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda."},{"index":2,"size":327,"text":"IGAD LPI activities in Sudan and Uganda are being undertaken in cooperation with their respective Livestock Policy Hubs (LPH) -a multi-stakeholder, advisory groups hosted by the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries (Sudan) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (Uganda). The LPHs has in this context expressly asked IGAD LPI to undertake this study on the contribution of livestock to GDP in both countries and are looking to use the outcome in their engagement with Poverty Eradication Paper development process in the case of Sudan, and with the National Development Plan in Uganda. These are part of their cooperation with IGAD LPI to improve the profile of livestock in the national development strategies. This request is supported by one of the findings of the Mid-Term Review of the IGAD LPI project which established that whereas Output 1 of the IGAD LPI log frame 2 highlighted the relevance of livestock to GDP, the importance of the contribution of livestock to GDP in the countries was not adequately stressed. Furthermore, an IGAD LPI working paper has emphasised the range of services that livestock provide to the livelihoods of different socioeconomic groups. Many of these services are not marketed and it is therefore suspected that they are not currently reflected in the region's national income accounting. In response to this the IGAD LPI is commissioning studies to look at and articulate the contribution of livestock to GDP in the IGAD member states to attract the increased investment that the sector deserves. The study was initially carried out in Ethiopia with a view to replication in the other IGAD member states. The findings will ultimately be linked to ongoing in-country livestock policy development processes that are supported by the project, especially those related to the better integration of livestock in PRSP (Medium Term Plans) processes and the allocation of national resources. The findings will inform policy hub and working group meetings, and the process of allocating public funds."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The study in is also anticipated to be a valuable resource to the Bureaus of Statistics. For that reason and in order to facilitate access to data, collaboration with the Bureaus through the offices of one of their staff in both countries is also anticipated."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"In collaboration with the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries and the Central Bureau of Statistics (Sudan) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries and the Ugandan Bureau of Statistics (Uganda), the consultant will;"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"1. assess and capture all contributions of livestock to the national economy, irrespective of whether on not current methodologies of GDP calculation cover them. This will involve satellite accounting by looking at the contribution of livestock to other sectors such as manufacturing and transport and add these values to the agricultural GDP estimates."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"2. provide a subsequent assessment of how far the contribution of livestock to national economy is reflected in national income accounting in the country. This will require assigning values to the non marketable services that livestock provides and familiarity with the System of National Accounts (SNA). Under this consultancy, the consultant is not required to provide an exhaustive overview of the methodologies adopted by the Bureaus."}]},{"head":"Specific Activities","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"In order to address the objective of the study, and in collaboration with the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries and the Central Bureau of Statistics (Sudan) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries and the Ugandan Bureau of Statistics (Uganda), the consultant will;"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"1. Carry out a situational analysis (mainly through literature review and interviews) on how livestock is currently computed in GDP calculations within national income accounting and how and where livestock contributes to the overall economy in Sudan and in Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"2. Propose a methodology for the internal computation of livestock in GDP that includes assigning values to the non marketable services that livestock provides."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"3. Propose an approach for the assessment of the contributions of livestock to the overall economy (satellite accounting)."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"4. Report the situational analysis findings and the proposed methodology in an inception report to IGAD LPI which will be shared with the LPHs for discussion and comments."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"5. Apply the proposed methodology and the approach (ideally in collaboration with a national consultant drawn from the Bureaus of Statistics) in determining the contribution of the livestock sector to national GDP and to the overall economy in both countries."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"6. (Ideally in collaboration with a national consultant drawn from the Bureaus of Statistics), report the findings of the study in a draft report to be presented to IGAD LPI and members of the LPHs for comments."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"7. Prepare a final report to IGAD LPI containing the findings of the study and a critical assessment of the application of the methodology and the approach in Sudan and in Uganda, together with any pertinent recommendations for how similar studies could be implemented the remaining IGAD Member States."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"8. Present findings to members of the Sudan Livestock Policy Hub. 9. Prepare up to two policy briefs for each country, and two policy briefs based on a previous study in Kenya."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 : Milking cows by breed Breed % National herd Head Cows Milking cows Breed% National herdHeadCowsMilking cows Ankole 27.7 3,160,221 1,279,890 419,804 Ankole27.73,160,2211,279,890419,804 Zebu/other 65.9 7,518,360 3,067,491 1,006,137 Zebu/other65.97,518,3603,067,4911,006,137 Exotic 5.6 624,590* 298,554 97,926 Exotic5.6624,590*298,55497,926 dairy/cross     dairy/cross Exotic 0.8 75,440* 28,064 0 Exotic0.875,440*28,0640 beef/cross     beef/cross All cattle 100 11,408,740*  1,519,580* All cattle10011,408,740*1,519,580*  "},{"text":".152 billion UShs in 2009. to the census, the 2008 national average producer price of milk per litre was 442 UShs. Assuming that farm gate milk prices inflated at the same rate as consumer milk prices (UBOS unpublished data), the farm gate price for milk in 2009 had increased 14.53% over that in 2008 to 506 UShs/litre. UBOS (unpublished) further assumes that the national cattle herd grew by 3% between 2008 and 2009. Assuming milk production grew apace with cattle numbers, the gross value and volume of cattle milk output in 2009 can be estimated as follows: 671,654,360 litres (production in 2008) + (671,654,360 litres * .03) = 691,803,991 litres in 2009 * 671,654,360 litres (production in 2008) + (671,654,360 litres * .03) = 691,803,991 litres in 2009 * 506 UShs/litre = 350 506 UShs/litre = 350  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Milk offtake, litres per annum for Ugandan cattle breeds Sources Indigenous Improved dairy, Indigenous Ankole SourcesIndigenousImproved dairy,Indigenous Ankole  unspecified exotic or cross  unspecifiedexotic or cross MAAFI/ILRI 1996 545   MAAFI/ILRI 1996545 K2-Consult 2002 810-990 (mean 900)   K2-Consult 2002810-990 (mean 900) Staal and Kaguongo 2003 243 900  Staal and Kaguongo 2003243900 MAAIF 1992 350 1200  MAAIF 19923501200 Kugonza et al 2011   480-550 (mean 515) Kugonza et al 2011480-550 (mean 515) Nyombi 1994  1,402  Nyombi 19941,402 UNDP/FAO 1995 736 @ 60% indigenous and 40% exotic -  UNDP/FAO 1995736 @ 60% indigenous and 40% exotic -  grazed   grazed Galukande 2010  3120-3360 (mean 732 Galukande 20103120-3360 (mean732   3240)  3240) Petersen et al. 2003   326-561, higher Petersen et al. 2003326-561, higher    range from 2+ parity range from 2+ parity    (mean 444) (mean 444) Grimaud et al 2007  1110-2310 (mean 540 (assuming 300 Grimaud et al 20071110-2310 (mean540 (assuming 300   1710, assuming day lactation) 1710, assumingday lactation)   300 day lactation)  300 day lactation) Garcia et al. 2008 435-564 (mean 500) 2400-2700 (mean  Garcia et al. 2008435-564 (mean 500) 2400-2700 (mean   2550)  2550) Ocaido et al. 2009 .88/day dry and   Ocaido et al. 2009.88/day dry and  2.06/day wet   2.06/day wet  season, lactation   season, lactation  length not known   length not known Unweighted mean of 508 1834 558 Unweighted mean of5081834558 available research results    available research results  "},{"text":"978 billion UShs in 2009. There were about 1,073,405 adult female goats in Karamoja that provided, on the above assumptions, 20,594,700 litres of milk in 2008, or (adjusting for 3% herd growth) 21,212,541 litres in 2009. At Karamoja cattle milk prices in 2008 adjusted for inflation, goat milk output in 2009 was worth: 21,212,541 litres * 618 UShs/litre = 12.  "},{"text":"The gross value of cattle offtake in 2009 is estimated to lie between 627.374 and 875.856 billion UShs depending estimated the size of the national cattle herd in 2009 at 11,751,000 head. At an assumed net annual offtake rate of 10.15% (based on the assumed recovery of 20% of fallen or lost animals) the national cattle herd yielded an offtake of 1,192,726 head valued at 526,118 UShs/head (UPNS unpublished) and worth in total 627.374 billion UShs in 2009. A 14.17% annual offtake (based on the assumed recovery of 50% of dead or lost cattle) yielded 1,664,753 head of offtake valued at 526,118 UShs/head (UPNS unpublished) or 875.856 billion UShs. in 2009. on the assumed proportion of dead or lost animals that are consumed, a variable which appears never to have been documented. in their analysis, but provided no justification or evidence for this rate (Ministry ofPlanning and Economic Development 1997). The Uganda Programme for Trade Opportunities and Policy (UPTOP) estimated commercial cattle offtake rates of 12% with an additional 3% consumed by herd owners (Greenbelt  "},{"text":"913 billion UShs. in 2009. 2009 the annual net goat offtake rate (the sum of gifts out, sales, slaughter and 20% of all deaths, less gifts in and less animals purchased, relative to opening herd size) was 33.45% based on UNPS Wave 1 results. At this rate, a goat population of 12,823,000 head yielded an estimated offtake of 4,289,293 head valued at 42,411 UShs per head, totalling 181.In 2009 the annual net sheep offtake rate (the sum of gifts out, sales, slaughter and 20% of all deaths, less gifts in and less animals purchased, relative to opening herd size) was 22.2% based on UNPS Wave 1 results. At this rate, a sheep population of 3,513,000 head yielded an estimated offtake of 779,886 head valued at 45,366 UShs per head, totalling 35.  "},{"text":"380 billion UShs in 2009.   "},{"text":"484 billion UShs. In Kenya the market value of a average camel was approximately 1.60 that of marketed cattle; assuming the same relative value of cattle and camels in Uganda, the sale value of a Uganda camel in 2009 was 1.60 * 526,118 UShs (the sale value of cattle in Uganda in 2009) = 841,789 UShs/camel. On this basis the estimated value of camel offtake in 2009 was 32,870 * 0.0175 * 841,789 UShs/head = 484,218,077 UShs or .  "},{"text":"355 billion UShs in 2009. We have no information of the cash value of cattle blood, or indeed if there is a market for blood that could be used to establish a shadow price for this product. Until more data is available, we will price cattle blood at the market value of milk in Karamoja in 2009, 618 UShs/litre. The estimated value of cattle blood is 2,192,245 litres * 618 UShs/litre = 1,354,807,410 UShs or 1.  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Value of livestock offtake in 2009, billion USh Livestock Total LivestockTotal species  species Cattle 627.374 Cattle627.374 Camel .484 Camel.484 Sheep 35.380 Sheep35.380 Goat 181.913 Goat181.913 Pig 30.893 Pig30.893 Total 876.044 Total876.044 At an assumed annual interest rate of 6.3%, the total At an assumed annual interest rate of 6.3%, the total  "},{"text":"imputed value of Uganda livestock (excluding poultry) as a source of credit to their owners is estimated to be 876.044 billion UShs * .063 = 55.191 billion UShs in 2009 2.12.2 Self-insurance   "},{"text":"876 billion UShs in 2009. Table 3 gives the estimated capital value of Ugandan livestock -5,288.761 billion UShs in 2009. The value of these animals as asset-based insurance at a premium rate of 10% can be estimated as 5,288.761 * 0.10 = 528.  "},{"text":"Table 4 : The capital value of Ugandan livestock in 2009 Livestock 2009 Mean producer Assumed mean Capital value of Livestock2009Mean producerAssumed meanCapital value of species population sale price/head value/head at 75% stocks -billion UShs speciespopulationsale price/headvalue/head at 75%stocks -billion UShs   UShs of sale price UShs  UShsof sale price UShs Cattle 11,751,000 526,118 394,588 4,636. 804 Cattle11,751,000526,118394,5884,636. 804 Sheep 3,513,000 45,366 34,024 119.526 Sheep3,513,00045,36634,024119.526 Goats 12,823,000 42,411 31,808 407.874 Goats12,823,00042,41131,808407.874 Camels 32,870 841,789 631,342 20.752 Camels32,870841,789631,34220.752 Pigs 3,280,000 42,198 31,648 103.805 Pigs3,280,00042,19831,648103.805 Total    5,288.761 Total5,288.761  "},{"text":"Table 5 : The value of gifted stock in 2009, billion UShs Livestock Annual % of herd gifted Capital value of Value of gifted LivestockAnnual% of herd giftedCapital value ofValue of gifted species gifting rate  stocks -billion UShs stocks speciesgifting ratestocks -billion UShsstocks Cattle 2.2% 6.6 4,636. 804 306.029 Cattle2.2%6.64,636. 804306.029 Sheep 4.9% 4.9 119.526 5.857 Sheep4.9%4.9119.5265.857 Goats 7.5% 7.5 407.874 30.591 Goats7.5%7.5407.87430.591 Camels No data 6.6 20.752 1.370 CamelsNo data6.620.7521.370 Pigs 9.7% 9.7 103.805 10.069 Pigs9.7%9.7103.80510.069 Total    353.916 Total353.916 2.13 Summary of Part I    2.13 Summary of Part I  "},{"text":"Table 4 Official estimates of livestock production in 2009: gross value and value added, billion UShs Product group Gross value of output Value added Product groupGross value of outputValue added Cattle 482 185 Cattle482185 Goats and other animals 1227 343 Goats and other animals1227343 Poultry 89 45 Poultry8945 Total 1789 573 Total1789573  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Livestock production in 2009: gross value, input costs and value added, billion UShs Product Billion UShs  Cattle milk Cattle milk  "},{"text":".307 Cost of livestock inputs 2 263.900 Value added by livestock production 1,069.407 Notes: 1 Offtake values are based on the assumed recovery of 20% of dead or lost cattle, goats, sheep and pigs, and no recovery of camel carcases. Assuming an increased recovery rate of 50% for cattle, goats and sheep increases the value of estimated offtake to 1,195.263 billion UShs.  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Direct use benefits derived from livestock in 2009, billion UShs Type of benefit Value added from livestock products Services not currently in GDP estimates  Value added livestock products 1,069.407  Value added livestock products1,069.407 Benefit from financing/credit  55.191 Benefit from financing/credit55.191 Benefit from self-insurance  528.876 Benefit from self-insurance528.876 Benefit from risk pooling/stock  353.916 Benefit from risk pooling/stock353.916 sharing   sharing Transport and traction power from  No estimate Transport and traction power fromNo estimate equines   equines Ruminant animal power  No estimate Ruminant animal powerNo estimate Sub-totals 1,069.407 937.983 Sub-totals1,069.407937.983 Total direct economic benefits 2007.390  Total direct economic benefits2007.390  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Monthly household consumption expenditure for livestock products, UShs Item Purchased consumption Consumption of Received in Total ItemPurchased consumptionConsumption ofReceived inTotal  Household Away from home produce kind/free  HouseholdAway fromhome producekind/free   home    home Beef      Beef  67,522,000,000 15,017,500 2,203,531,125 2,468,118,900 72,208,667,525 67,522,000,00015,017,5002,203,531,1252,468,118,90072,208,667,525 Pork      Pork  11,392,300,000 130,166,100 228,744,200 354,633,850 12,105,844,150 11,392,300,000130,166,100228,744,200354,633,85012,105,844,150 Goat meat      Goat meat  14,154,700,000 24,357,800 2,122,737,100 516,683,500 16,818,478,400 14,154,700,00024,357,8002,122,737,100516,683,50016,818,478,400 Other meat      Other meat  1,597,095,250 13,880,000 1,244,739,800 212,970,800 3,068,685,850 1,597,095,25013,880,0001,244,739,800212,970,8003,068,685,850 Chicken      Chicken  13,996,200,000 130,952,000 21,610,500,000 1,886,710,500 37,624,362,500 13,996,200,000130,952,00021,610,500,0001,886,710,50037,624,362,500 Eggs      Eggs  5,894,521,700 47,601,900 2,645,669,050 160,589,900 8,748,382,550 5,894,521,70047,601,9002,645,669,050160,589,9008,748,382,550 Milk      Milk  27,300,900,000 74,357,600 16,997,700,000 1,251,551,750 45,624,509,350 27,300,900,00074,357,60016,997,700,0001,251,551,75045,624,509,350 Infant      Infant formulae 648,351,800 - 13,564,800 20,972,150 682,888,750 formulae648,351,800-13,564,80020,972,150682,888,750 Ghee      Ghee  2,167,409,805 - 612,812,250 50,974,000 2,831,196,055 2,167,409,805-612,812,25050,974,0002,831,196,055 Total-      Total- Livestock 144,673,478,555 436,332,900 47,679,998,325 6,923,205,350 199,713,015,130 Livestock144,673,478,555 436,332,900 47,679,998,325 6,923,205,350 199,713,015,130 Percentage 72 0 24 3 100 Percentage720243100 of total      of total Source: UBOS 2010, calculated from unpublished data   Source: UBOS 2010, calculated from unpublished data  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Monthly per household consumption expenditure for livestock products, UShsIn 2009 the population of Uganda was estimated to be 30.7 million people. Based on product output estimates developed in this report, Table10estimates the quantities of livestock foods available for consumption by this population in 2009. Item Consumption out of Consumption out Received in Total ItemConsumption out ofConsumption outReceived inTotal  purchases  of home produce kind/free  purchasesof home producekind/free  Household Away from    Household Away from  home    home Beef      Beef  6,542 1 214 239 6,996 6,54212142396,996 Pork      Pork  4,554 52 91 142 4,839 4,55452911424,839 Goat meat      Goat meat  5,503 9 825 201 6,539 5,50398252016,539 Other meat      Other meat  3,259 28 2,540 435 6,262 3,259282,5404356,262 Chicken      Chicken  3,704 35 5,719 499 9,957 3,704355,7194999,957 Eggs      Eggs  1,134 9 509 31 1,683 1,1349509311,683 Milk      Milk  2,326 6 1,448 107 3,887 2,32661,4481073,887 Infant formulae      Infant formulae foods 3,125 - 65 101 3,291 foods3,125-651013,291 Ghee      Ghee  1,307 - 370 31 1,708 1,307-370311,708 Total-Livestock 31,455 141 11,782 1,785 45,164 Total-Livestock31,45514111,7821,78545,164 Source: UBOS 2010, calculated from unpublished data   Source: UBOS 2010, calculated from unpublished data  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Meat and milk available for domestic consumption, 2009 Total offtake Official exports Offtake for domestic consumption Total meat and offal or milk, tons for domestic consumption 1 Based on carcass weights (including meat and edible offal) of 150 kg for cattle, 155 kg for camels, 14 kg for sheep, 12 kg for goats, 60 kg for pigs and 1.3 kg for poultry(FAO 2005). Per Per capita, capita, kg or kg or litres/ litres/ Year Year  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Formal exports of livestock products -quantity, value and percentage of all export value Commodity unit 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Commodity unit20062007200820092010 Cattle Tonne 22,214 20,942 13,042 5,160 120,869 CattleTonne22,21420,94213,0425,160120,869 hides '000 US $ 8,032 18,114 12,518 5,996 17,061 hides'000 US $8,03218,11412,5185,99617,061  % value 0.8 1.4 0.7 0.4 1.1 % value0.81.40.70.41.1 Live '000 head 0 23 95 198 7 Live'000 head023951987 animals '000 US $ 28 1,551 1822 3,908 3,985 animals'000 US $281,55118223,9083,985  % value 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 % value0.00.10.10.20.2 Source: Statistical Abstract 2011, UBOS 2011     Source: Statistical Abstract 2011, UBOS 2011  "},{"text":"Sub-Region: Karamoja Sub-Region contains about 3% of the population of Uganda and about 80% of the households in this sub-region own livestock (2002 population census; UBOS 2009). The livestock owners of Karamoja therefore constitute about 2.4% of the national population, but these people own abut 20% of the nation's cattle, 16% of its goats, nearly half of all sheep, over 90% of the donkeys and virtually all camels (UBOS 2009). If we apportion gross national livestock output strictly by regional herd sizes, Karamoja produces just under 20% of Uganda's livestock output by value. In other words, 2.4% of the nation's population produces a fifth of the nation's livestock wealth, and has likely done so for some time. The proportion of the national cattle herd located in the sub-region in 2008 was virtually unchanged from the last census conducted in the early 1960s -approximately 19-20% of the nation's total (Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives 1965).  "}],"sieverID":"76d6a49f-0ed1-4d92-a5b5-6510669adcaf","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b354a840402b5bd5096be27939feb84","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a0459395-7528-4928-b744-10d3ebcdcebe/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"Tabla de contenido","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"La Iniciativa Global del CGIAR Agroecología para transformar los sistemas alimentarios promueve un enfoque transdisciplinario, participativo y orientado a la acción para diseñar opciones de desarrollo que apoyen la resiliencia de los sistemas alimentarios, la equidad y la sostenibilidad. A nivel de territorios denominados \"Paisajes Vivos Agroecológicos\" en siete países (Burkina Faso, India, Kenia, RDP de Laos, Perú, Túnez y Zimbabue), cada uno abarcando un sistema alimentario especifico, la Iniciativa busca articular a los diversos actores que los conforman, adaptando soluciones al contexto local, integrando conocimientos tradicionales y científicos, y fortaleciendo el ecosistema social e institucional con miras a una transición agroecológica. Dichos actores son agricultores y sus asociaciones, comunidades indígenas, investigadores de múltiples disciplinas, empresas del sector privado, organizaciones no gubernamentales locales, nacionales, e internacionales, así como formuladores de políticas desde la escala local hasta la nacional."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"En el corredor agroforestal Pucallpa -Aguaytía, ubicado en la región de Ucayali, centro-oriente amazónico del Perú, se viene estableciendo desde mediados del año 2022 un Paisaje Vivo Agroecológico que reúne a los diversos actores del territorio para, primero, identificar sus desafíos de índole socioeconómica y ambiental, y, luego, codiseñar las innovaciones tecnológicas e institucionales que propicien su transición agroecológica."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Es en este contexto que, desde marzo de 2023, se han desarrollado una serie de talleres multiactor, con la finalidad de conjuntamente alcanzar una visión compartida del territorio o Paisaje Vivo Agroecológico futuro, identificar las acciones necesarias hacia esa visión, y poner en práctica un marco de evaluación que nos permita tomar el pulso de nuestros avances a lo largo de esa ruta de transición agroecológica."},{"index":4,"size":349,"text":"Contexto: Corredor Agroforestal Pucallpa -Aguaytía El 26 de julio de 2021 se aprueba la Estrategia Regional para el Desarrollo Rural Bajo en Emisiones en el Departamento de Ucayali al 2030 (ERDRBE Ucayali 2030) 1 como política pública regional, con la finalidad de reducir y detener la deforestación y mejorar la calidad de vida de la población con énfasis en el ámbito rural y comunidades indígenas. En el marco de su implementación, con un enfoque de sostenibilidad, inclusión social, y competitividad, el Gobierno Regional de Ucayali (GOREU) estableció cinco espacios geográficos denominados Unidades de Desarrollo Territorial (UDT), entre los cuales se encuentra la UDT que comprende la provincia de Padre Abad y parte de la provincia de Coronel Portillo (Figura 1). Esta abarca una superficie de 14 064.11 km², que representa el 14% de la superficie total del departamento de Ucayali y la totalidad de la subcuenca del rio Aguaytía y sus tributarios. Tratándose de un territorio que registra la mayor tasa de deforestación a nivel de Ucayali en las últimas dos décadas, con el 40% de sus bosques perdidos por la ampliación de la frontera agrícola y la construcción de infraestructura (vías y carreteras), el GOREU lo ha priorizado como 'corredor agroforestal' con potencial de desarrollo de actividades alternativas que sean económica y ambientalmente sostenibles y que contribuyan a la resiliencia al cambio climático (GOREU, 2020;MINAM, 2021). La actividad agrícola que actualmente predomina en el corredor se basa en el monocultivo de cacao, café, palma aceitera, plátano, papaya, piña, camu camu, arroz, y pastos para la crianza ganadera, con implicancias en función de perdida de la biodiversidad, empobrecimiento de suelos, y fragmentación de bosques. Sin embargo, con una población que es 40.9% rural, su alto potencial forestal, acuícola, y turístico, y una política pública que lo respalda, el corredor reúne las condiciones para el diseño de innovaciones agroecológicas y su escalamiento, apoyándose en la articulación de los múltiples actores institucionales, públicos y privados, que reúne el territorio. En vista de lo anterior, la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú ha identificado este corredor como su área de influencia e intervención."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"1 Fuente: https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/dispositivo/NL/2010749-1 Iniciativa de Agroecología WP2 -Reporte de Taller Figura 1. Mapa de ubicación del corredor agroforestal Pucallpa -Aguaytía en Ucayali. "}]},{"head":"Objetivos del taller","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"El taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\" tuvo el objetivo principal de generar, junto con los actores locales con quienes viene interactuando la Iniciativa de Agroecología en el corredor Pucallpa-Aguaytía en Ucayali, indicadores contextualmente relevantes para monitorear el desempeño agroecológico a través de múltiples escalas en el territorio, desde la parcela hasta el paisaje. Estos indicadores no solo atienden una necesidad de generar evidencia del impacto de la agroecología desde la Iniciativa, sino que también sirven, a largo plazo, para tomar el pulso de los alcances reales de los proyectos y programas de investigación y desarrollo que los diversos actores institucionales, socios de la Iniciativa, realizan en el corredor."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Los objetivos específicos del taller fueron los siguientes:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Socializar con los actores locales el marco general de la herramienta Holistic Localized Agroecology Performance Assessment (HOLPA);"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Motivar la reflexión sobre indicadores de desempeño agroecológico en función de la teoría de cambio que fue elaborada por los mismos actores en talleres previos;"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• Definir indicadores locales que aborden los impactos esperados de la teoría de cambio, agrupados en las cuatro dimensiones de HOLPA (agrícola, ambiental, económica, social)."},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"¿Quienes participaron?"},{"index":7,"size":100,"text":"El taller contó con la participación de 12 personas, 5 mujeres y 7 hombres, representando a 10 instituciones que han sido parte de las actividades de indagación previas de la Iniciativa de Agroecología en el corredor agroforestal Pucallpa-Aguaytía, que desde julio de 2022 han incluido entrevistas a actores clave y talleres en torno a la teoría de cambio para la transición agroecológica en el territorio. En la Tabla 1 se expone el perfil de los actores institucionales que participaron en el taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\". 3 Dos representantes del mismo sexo."},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"4 Un representante de cada sexo."}]},{"head":"Marco conceptual","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"De impactos a elementos clave de la transición agroecológica"},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"El ejercicio enfocado en la generación de indicadores locales con los actores institucionales del corredor Pucallpa-Aguaytía se enmarcó en la teoría de cambio, u hoja de ruta para la transición agroecológica, que fue concebida para el territorio a través de los talleres multiactor que se realizaron entre julio de 2022 y marzo de 2023. El anclaje de esta actividad con la teoría de cambio establecida para el corredor fue indispensable para encajar la propuesta de indicadores de desempeño contextualmente relevantes con los temas prioritarios que fueron previamente identificados por los actores locales en función de los impactos (largo plazo) y resultados (mediano plazo) esperados a lo largo de esa ruta de cambio."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Sobre la base de lo reportado en el documento Teoría de Cambio -Ucayali, se extrajeron los \"elementos clave\" que guiarían la reflexión sobre indicadores para el monitoreo periódico de nuestros avances hacia los (4) impactos. Los \"elementos clave\" refieren a temas específicos anidados, ya sea explícita o implícitamente, en los resultados o alcances intermedios esperados en el corredor (véase procedimiento detallado en Metodología)."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"HOLPA como marco de evaluación del desempeño agroecológico La herramienta de Evaluación Holística Localizada del Desempeño de la Agroecología, o HOLPA por sus siglas en inglés, fue desarrollada por la Iniciativa de Agroecología del CGIAR para generar evidencia sobre la eficacia de los enfoques agroecológicos para proporcionar medios de vida y sistemas alimentarios sostenibles, resilientes e inclusivos en todos los contextos. Asimismo, la herramienta permite comparar el desempeño, desde una mirada holística, entre parcelas, fincas, paisajes, y sistemas alimentarios en diferentes etapas de transición hacia la agroecología. Esta evaluación comparativa de desempeño se apoya en una lectura de la sustentabilidad que integra las dimensiones agrícola, ambiental, económica, y social (Figura 2)."},{"index":5,"size":200,"text":"El marco de evaluación HOLPA define la agroecología como un enfoque para lograr sistemas alimentarios sostenibles mediante la \"aplicación de conceptos y principios ecológicos que optimizan las interacciones entre plantas, animales, humanos y el medio ambiente... tomando en cuenta los aspectos sociales que deben abordarse para un sistema alimentario sostenible y justo\" (FAO, 2021). HOLPA se basa en los 13 principios agroecológicos consensuados y sintetizados por el HLPE (2019) para guiar el diseño y la gestión de sistemas agrícolas y alimentarios (Wezel et al., 2020). El \"nivel de transición agroecológica\" y el \"contexto socioecológico\" son, además, dos conceptos clave del marco de evaluación HOLPA. El nivel de transición agroecológica refiere al grado de adherencia a los 13 principios agroecológicos, considerando aquellos principios más relevantes para la evaluación según el contexto (por ej., los principios que aplican para el sistema alimentario en su conjunto pueden no ser relevantes para una evaluación a nivel de finca). Por otro lado, el contexto socioecológico refiere a los factores sociales, económicos y ecológicos, dentro y fuera de la escala de análisis, que pueden permitir u obstaculizar una transición agroecológica. Dichos factores pueden incluir la estructura de hogares, el acceso a mercados, y el entorno regulatorio."},{"index":6,"size":197,"text":"Figura 2. Marco conceptual de la herramienta HOLPA, donde las 4 dimensiones (círculo exterior) y los 18 temas (círculo interior) proporcionan el marco para la selección de indicadores de desempeño. De la agrupación macro a nivel de dimensiones (4) y temas (18), HOLPA propone un total de 19 indicadores \"globales\" que son medibles y comparables a través de los diversos contextos, o territorios socioecológicos, donde interviene la Iniciativa de Agroecología a escala global. Cada indicador consta de un método especifico y replicable en cada territorio (Figura 3). Co-creación de indicadores locales Siendo la co-creación un principio clave de la agroecología y situando la evaluación de desempeño agroecológico en un contexto local, el desarrollo de la herramienta HOLPA contempló la integración de indicadores que fuesen, según los actores de cada territorio, significativos para su contexto y aspiraciones. Mas allá de los indicadores globales consensuados, como los 13 principios agroecológicos, por una comunidad de practica a nivel internacional, los indicadores locales servirían para captar las características y matices de desempeño más finas en el territorio. La generación de estos indicadores locales fue posible mediante un proceso participativo involucrando a los actores clave del territorio (véase procedimiento detallado en Metodología)."}]},{"head":"Metodología","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Identificación y agrupación de elementos clave La Teoría de Cambio -Ucayali elaborada con los actores del territorio fue la base para la identificación previa de los elementos clave de la transición agroecológica que orientarían la generación de indicadores localmente relevantes durante el taller.  2), y sus elementos clave correspondientes, luego fueron agrupados en la categoría \"Agrícola y Ambiental\"; y los impactos (3) y (4), y sus elementos clave correspondientes, en la categoría \"Económica y Social\". Se procedió de esta manera debido a la predominancia de las dimensiones del ámbito \"natural\" versus \"social\" entre los impactos (1) y (2) e impactos (3) y (4), respectivamente, y para facilitar la reflexión sobre indicadores a ser posteriormente realizada con los actores locales."}]},{"head":"Criterios de selección de participantes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Para la realización del ejercicio fueron preidentificados los actores institucionales que formaron parte de etapas anteriores (i.e., mapeo, entrevistas, y talleres multiactor) del proceso de establecimiento del corredor agroforestal Pucallpa-Aguaytía como territorio de intervención desde la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú. Sin embargo, dado el objetivo específico del ejerciciogenerar indicadores medibles para el monitoreo del desempeño agroecológico local-fue necesario enfocar la selección de actores de acuerdo con los criterios siguientes:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Conocimientos técnicos sobre los aspectos de índole agrícola, ambiental, económico, y social que fueron priorizados en la teoría de cambio;"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Representatividad de una diversidad de perfiles: agricultores y sus organizaciones, academia, instituciones gubernamentales, oenegés u otras entidades de desarrollo a escala local, nacional o internacional;"},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• Interés o potencial de las instituciones representadas en aplicar la herramienta HOLPA, integrándose los indicadores locales, para evaluar el desempeño de sus proyectos o programas de desarrollo en el corredor;"},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• Disponibilidad para participar en el taller, considerando las actividades que se iban desarrollando en paralelo desde otras instituciones con los mismos actores."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"Basándonos en estos criterios, fue recopilada una lista de 20 actores idóneos, inclinándose la mayoría ( 14) a las áreas de experiencia agrícola y ambiental. Se procedió a extender las invitaciones al Taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\", a realizarse el 6 de septiembre de 2023 en el Hotel Manish, Pucallpa, Ucayali, por correo electrónico o presencialmente por mesa de partes (gobierno regional). Véase la agenda del taller que acompañó las invitaciones en el Anexo 2 (p. 21)."},{"index":7,"size":197,"text":"Paso a paso del taller 1. Distribución de participantes según área de experiencia De los 20 actores que fueron invitados, 12 confirmaron su participación. Para la realización del ejercicio se consideró trabajar con dos grupos, cada uno con al menos 6 integrantes. Previo al taller, cada participante fue asignado a uno de los dos grupos de trabajo según su área de mayor experiencia, apoyándonos en los conocimientos del equipo local de la Iniciativa sobre dichos actores en el territorio. El primer grupo (Grupo 1) fue asignado la tarea de desarrollar los indicadores relacionados a los impactos 1 y 2, con sus 8 elementos clave, enfatizando las dimensiones agrícola y ambiental; y el segundo grupo (Grupo 2) fue asignado la misma tarea para los impactos 3 y 4, con sus 8 elementos clave, enfatizando las dimensiones económica y social. Véase la Tabla 2 como referencia de la agrupación de elementos clave y dimensiones por impacto que orientaron dicha preasignación. Durante la recepción y registro de los participantes, cada uno/a recibió una etiqueta detallando su nombre e indicando con un punto de color verde su asignación al Grupo 1 y con un punto de color azul al Grupo 2."}]},{"head":"Introducción a la actividad","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Se contextualizó la actividad -el desarrollo de indicadores locales -en el marco de la Iniciativa de Agroecología y su objetivo, específicamente desde el equipo de trabajo Paquete 2 (WP2), de generar evidencia científica del impacto de prácticas agroecológicas en distintas escalas para proponer mejoras o soluciones hechas a la medida del contexto local, y asimismo orientar la toma de decisiones de los actores con miras a la transición agroecológica del territorio. Luego se hizo un repaso de HOLPA como herramienta para la Evaluación Holística Localizada del Desempeño de la Agroecología, sin ahondar en el listado de indicadores globales y más bien destacando las cuatro dimensiones (agrícola, ambiental, económica, social) que esta integra. Se presentó el objetivo específico del taller: generar indicadores locales para su posterior integración a HOLPA y aplicación desde nuestros proyectos y programas de desarrollo en el corredor de Pucallpa-Aguaytía, Ucayali. Por último, se expuso el programa del taller, que transcurriría desde las 9 am hasta las 12:30 pm."}]},{"head":"Identificación de temas prioritarios para el corredor","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Se recapituló con los 12 participantes los impactos y elementos clave de la teoría de cambio, o ruta de transición agroecológica, que resultaron de los talleres multiactor previos (laminas 9 y 10, PPT -Taller LISP) y que guiarían el desarrollo de la actividad. Se especificó que se trabajaría sobre los 16 elementos clave, clasificados estos en dos grupos según las áreas temáticas o dimensiones generales (agrícola-ambiental; económica-social) que más los identifica según el marco de evaluación HOLPA."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"4. ¿Como sabremos que estamos avanzando?"},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Se introdujo el concepto de \"indicador\" a partir de la pregunta ¿cómo sabremos si vamos por buen camino, o que estamos avanzando, hacia esos impactos que esperamos en el corredor? Esta reflexión nos ayudaría a aterrizar una definición y función de indicador a modo de instrumento para \"tomar el pulso\" del desempeño agroecológico a lo largo de esa ruta de transición, partiendo del statu quo hasta alcanzar, a largo plazo, los cambios deseados (laminas 12 y 13, PPT -Taller LISP). Se expusieron las cualidades de un \"buen indicador\", es decir, que sea especifico, medible, alcanzable, y relevante en función de los impactos esperados en el territorio:"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Especifico: claramente definido, con un significado claro, permite evaluar con mayor precisión;"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Medible: cuantificable, tiene una unidad de medición clara, como porcentajes, números o tasas;"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Alcanzable: puede medirse con los recursos y datos disponibles dentro de un marco temporal factible;"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• Relevante: significativo y tiene una relación clara con los cambios esperados."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"A continuación, se compartió con los participantes un ejemplo de indicador concreto y relevante para el territorio, aquel utilizable para evaluar la \"diversidad de la dieta en el hogar\", que es un área de desarrollo priorizada por el gobierno regional de Ucayali. Luego se explicó la actividad grupal a la que nos dedicaríamos el resto de la mañana: la generación y priorización de indicadores locales."}]},{"head":"Lluvia de ideas de indicadores contextualmente relevantes","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Previa asignación a cada uno de los dos grupos de trabajo -Grupo 1 (impactos 1 y 2, agrícola-ambiental) y Grupo 2 (impactos 3 y 4, enfoque económico-social) -los participantes fueron ubicados, según el color del punto que recibieron durante la recepción de invitados, en una de dos estaciones de trabajo, con 6 integrantes por estación. En cada estación (Grupo 1 y Grupo 2) fueron colocados sobre un papelógrafo y en tarjetas de cartulina los impactos y elementos clave correspondientes. Los impactos sirvieron como marco global de referencia, pero fue en base a los elementos clave especificados que se motivó la lluvia de ideas de indicadores. Una facilitadora guio la lluvia de ideas en torno a los elementos clave con cada grupo. Se incitó la reflexión con las preguntas: ¿Qué indicador sería importante para medir el impacto en este territorio? ¿Como monitoreamos nuestros avances hacia ese impacto? La facilitadora iba registrando sobre tarjetas de cartulina en limpio las ideas que los participantes proponían como indicadores. Estas se pegaban al costado del elemento clave al que refería. Durante el ejercicio, cada facilitadora retomó las cualidades de un buen indicador (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante), poniendo énfasis en que los indicadores deberían de ser lo más específicos posibles. En esta etapa del ejercicio no se restringió el número de indicadores propuestos, puesto que el objetivo era reunir, en cada grupo de trabajo, las ideas sugeridas por todos sus integrantes para luego evaluar y priorizarlas."}]},{"head":"Priorización de indicadores contextualmente relevantes","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"Después de una pausa de 15 minutos, se emprendió el ejercicio de priorización de indicadores con cada uno de los dos mismos grupos de trabajo. En cada estación de trabajo fue pegada en la pared una hoja impresa con los atributos de un buen indicador (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante) a modo de criterios de selección de los \"top 4\" indicadores que surgieron de la lluvia de ideas. Asimismo, en cada estación se colocó un papelógrafo con 6 columnas etiquetadas con tarjetas de cartulina \"Indicador\", \"Especifico\", \"Medible\", \"Alcanzable\", \"Relevante\", \"Total\". Debajo de la columna \"Indicador\" se ubicaron los indicadores generados durante la lluvia de ideas. En cada grupo, la facilitadora explicó a los integrantes que la tarea ahora consistiría en calificar cada indicador mediante un sistema de ranking, atribuyéndole un puntaje de 3 (alto), 2 (medio), o 1 (bajo) por criterio --especifico, medible, alcanzable, y relevante. Tomando como ejemplo el indicador \"diversidad de la dieta en el hogar\", este podría calificar como altamente especifico (valor de 3), medianamente medible (valor de 2), bajamente alcanzable (valor de 1), y altamente relevante (valor de 3), con un puntaje de 9 sobre el máximo posible de 12."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Considerando que ambos Grupo 1 (enfoque agrícola-ambiental) y Grupo 2 (enfoque económico-social) generaron una extensa lista de indicadores durante la sesión de lluvia de ideas -34 indicadores en el Grupo 1 y 33 indicadores en el Grupo 2 -se tuvo que agregar un paso de pre priorización antes de pasar a la calificación por puntaje. De sus 34 indicadores, el Grupo 1 identificó sus \"top 9\", considerándolos de mayor importancia para el territorio. Luego procedieron a calificar estos 9 indicadores según el ranking de 3 a 1 por criterio."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Los 33 indicadores generados por el Grupo 2 no solo atendieron los elementos clave correspondientes a los impactos 3 y 4 con enfoque económico-social (refiérase a Tabla 2), sino que también resultaron de una innovación metodológica. Los integrantes del Grupo 2 observaron que los impactos y elementos clave que les tocó abordar a través de indicadores alcanzaban niveles amplios y complejos de la transición (por ej., articulación institucional, cooperativismo) que serían difícilmente medibles."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Optaron por bajar el nivel del ejercicio a la unidad de producción familiar y enfocar el desarrollo de indicadores en los ámbito económico y social a ese nivel. Fueron 13 los indicadores generados específicamente teniendo en cuenta la unidad de producción familiar. Luego, este subgrupo de indicadores fue calificado según el ranking de 3 a 1 por criterio."}]},{"head":"Socialización de resultados del ejercicio grupal","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Al finalizarse el ejercicio de priorización grupal, se pasó a una sesión de exposición de los resultados en plenaria. Cada facilitadora resumió el proceso -donde se tuvo alguna dificultad para derivar un indicador u otras observaciones de su grupoy compartió los indicadores elegidos como finalistas tras la calificación según ranking por criterio. Se abrió el espacio para preguntas y comentarios de todos los participantes del taller."}]},{"head":"Resultados","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Indicadores por impacto y dimensiones HOLPA En la Tabla 3 se presentan los indicadores que resultaron de la lluvia de ideas inicial en cada grupo de trabajo: Grupo 1 (impactos 1 y 2, enfoque agrícola-ambiental) y Grupo 2 (impactos 3 y 4, enfoque económico-social). Cada indicador corresponde a un impacto, dimensiones de HOLPA, y elemento clave de la ruta de transición agroecológica (teoría de cambio). Numero de medios de comunicación a los que acceden los miembros de la familia"}]},{"head":"Indicadores priorizados","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"En la Figura 4 se presentan los resultados de la priorización de indicadores que cada grupo de trabajo, el Grupo 1 enfocado en las dimensiones agrícola-ambiental y el Grupo 2 enfocado en las dimensiones económica-social, calificó según los criterios de selección \"Especifico\", \"Medible\", \"Alcanzable\", y \"Relevante\". Obsérvese en la Tabla 4 que los indicadores calificados bajo la dimensión económica-social registraron un puntaje máximo de 5. Esto se debe a que el Grupo 2 adoptó un sistema basado en votos para seleccionar sus indicadores finalistas, una vez que todos los que pasaron a la fase de calificación por ranking según los cuatro criterios obtenían un puntaje entre 11 y 12 (Figura 4B). Cada uno de los seis integrantes del Grupo 2 eligió sus \"top 4\" indicadores prioritarios mediante una etiqueta adhesiva en forma de circulo, llegándose de esta manera al puntaje entre 1 y 5 para este grupo de indicadores."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"En la Tabla 4 se incluye una columna que especifica si el indicador era o no abordado por la encuesta global HOLPA. Esto sirvió para orientar, ya en gabinete, la selección de aquellos indicadores locales priorizados que (1) aun no eran atendidos por la encuesta HOLPA, (2) agregarían valor a la encuesta, y (3) eran alcanzables en función de recursos y practicidad. Por ejemplo, a pesar de que el indicador \"Índice de desnutrición infantil\" recibió uno de los puntajes más altos bajo la dimensión económicasocial y de que no estaba contemplado en la encuesta global HOLPA, no fue integrado a HOLPA debido a su complejidad y a los recursos (tiempo, monetario) que supondría el levantamiento de tal información."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Por otro lado, hubo indicadores como \"Número de agricultores que hacen manejo en selección y conservación de semillas de especies nativas\" y \"Tipos de uso del suelo\" que motivaron la formulación de preguntas nuevas y especificas al caso de especies nativas y uso del suelo con respecto de áreas naturales (sin producción), a pesar de que ambas temáticas eran parcialmente abordadas en la encuesta global HOLPA."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Indicadores locales integrados a HOLPA Los indicadores locales generados y priorizados por los actores locales que fueron integrados a HOLPA, la justificación de su selección, y como fueron incorporados a la encuesta global HOLPA figuran en la Tabla 5. En el Anexo 4 (p. 27) se muestran las preguntas especificas con respecto de los indicadores locales."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Tabla 5. Indicadores locales integrados a HOLPA Indicador Dimensión HOLPA Justificación Como se incorporó Tipos de uso del suelo y tenencia de la tierra Agrícola-ambiental Se especifican los tipos de uso del suelo más allá de los sistemas de producción, incluyendo áreas de bosque, purma, u de otro tipo de cobertura natural. Esta especificación se hace para cada categoría de tenencia de la tierra (dueño, alquilada y derecho de uso)."},{"index":6,"size":144,"text":"Incluyendo las opciones \"Cultivos, Pastizales, Purma baja/joven (<10 años), Purma alta/antigua (≥10 años), Bosque, Tierra en descanso, Otros\" y en cada opción se registra el área en hectáreas Origen de los productos de la dieta familiar Económica-social Complementa el indicador \"diversidad de la dieta familiar\" especificando la proporción de la comida que la familia produce dentro del predio familiar y que alimentos de los más consumidos en el hogar son comprados Incluyendo las preguntas \"¿Qué cantidad de la comida que consumen en su hogar proviene de su propio predio?\" y \"¿Cuáles son los 3 alimentos que más se consumen en su hogar y cuáles de ellos se compran? Cada pregunta tuvo opciones de respuesta Manejo de semillas Agrícola-ambiental Se agrega valor a las preguntas de la encuesta global HOLPA sobre procedencia de semillas, especificando las prácticas de manejo, almacenamiento y conservación de especies nativas"},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"Incluyendo preguntas que instaron a precisar las (1) prácticas de selección y conservación de semillas y (2) prácticas de almacenamiento de semillas"}]},{"head":"Conclusiones Lecciones aprendidas","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"El taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\" no solo alcanzó sus objetivos, sino que también corroboró la cantidad y calidad de conocimientos que reúnen los actores del territorio a quienes convocamos para la realización de la actividad. Agricultores, ingenieros, académicos, profesionales de desarrollo del ámbito público y privado, estas personas comparten con la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú la preocupación por el bienestar ambiental y social del corredor agroforestal Pucallpa-Aguaytía y el interés en articular capacidades en pro de una transición agroecológica."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Del ejercicio colectivo que se desarrolló se pueden rescatar las lecciones siguientes:"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"• La gran mayoría (92.5%) de los indicadores propuestos por los actores del territorio ya eran abordados por la encuesta global HOLPA, lo cual sugiere cuan comprensiva es la encuesta concebida por el liderazgo global de la Iniciativa de Agroecología del CGIAR."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"• La generación de indicadores locales en el ámbito económico-social supuso desafíos al exigir una reflexión tanto a nivel macro del ecosistema institucional como a nivel micro de la unidad de producción familiar. En este sentido, considerando la complejidad y envergadura temporal de los procesos de cambio a nivel institucional, los participantes consideraron más práctico y prioritario empezar por la formulación de indicadores capaces de evaluar y monitorear cambios a nivel de la unidad de producción familiar."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"• A pesar de no haber incluido los indicadores que refieren a elementos clave como \"Asociatividad y cooperativismo\", \"Comercialización local con baja intermediación\", o \"Educación y difusión de información sobre oferta local a consumidores\", todos importantes desde la perspectiva agroecológica, serán referentes críticos y útiles en etapas futuras de la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"• Los ejercicios de índole participativa suelen tomar más tiempo del que se anticipa según las agendas que concebimos en gabinete. Fue necesario, para no interrumpir la dinámica y riqueza de los trabajos grupales, acotar los alcances del taller, por lo que no se abordaron métodos, frecuencias y escalas para la medición de los indicadores priorizados por los actores durante el taller. • Recapitulación de los impactos y elementos clave de la ruta de transición agroecológica que fueron identificados en los talleres multiactor previos."}]},{"head":"Anexos","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"•","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Poner énfasis en la necesidad de \"tomar el pulso\" o monitorear el desempeño agroecológico durante esa transición."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Notas facilitadores:"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"-Se proyecta 1 lámina con los impactos y elementos clave de la transición AE que fueron extraídos de la ruta de transición, o teoría de cambio."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"-Indicar, en una segunda lámina, que durante el ejercicio se trabajará sobre los 16 elementos clave (8 por grupo) según las áreas temáticas y dimensiones globales HOLPA que representan."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Alejandra PPT (2 láminas) 9:50 am -10:10 am 20 min ¿Como sabremos que estamos avanzando?"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Hacia esos impactos esperados, ¿cómo sabremos si vamos por buen camino (o que estamos avanzando)?"}]},{"head":"•","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Se introduce el concepto de indicador. Desde la Iniciativa de Agroecología nos apoyamos en ellos para evaluar el desempeño agroecológico en un territorio."}]},{"head":"•","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Se exponen las cualidades de un buen indicador: especifico, medible, alcanzable (temporalmente) y relevante en función de los intereses compartidos y procesos de cambio a los que aspira el ALL."}]},{"head":"•","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Se presenta un ejemplo concreto relevante para el ALL (indicador de seguridad alimentaria: \"diversidad de la dieta en el hogar\", que es un área prioritaria para el GOREU)."}]},{"head":"•","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Se explica a los participantes la actividad grupal a continuación: generar indicadores que midan los impactos que queremos alcanzar."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Notas facilitadores:"},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"-Para la actividad del próximo bloque, los impactos y elementos clave de la transición habrán sido organizados en 2 grupos: Grupo 1 integrando los impactos 1 y 2 con enfoque agrícola / ambiental, y Grupo 2 integrando los impactos 3 y 4 con enfoque económico / social. Cada participante habrá sido previamente asignado a uno de los 2 grupos según el área de experiencia (agrícola, ambiental, económica, social) que Alejandra PPT (4 láminas) tendremos como referencia en nuestra lista de invitados. Dependiendo del número y composición de quienes participan del taller, algunas áreas de experiencia y por ende impactos pueden estar sub o sobre representados. En cuyo caso se solicita a los participantes ubicarse en el grupo que mejor lo identifica."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"-En el salón se ubicarán dos estaciones de trabajo: una para el Grupo 1 que trabajara los impactos 1 y 2, y otra para el Grupo 2 que trabajara los impactos 3 y 4. En cada estación figurarán los impactos correspondientes en tarjetas de cartulina y al costado de cada uno los elementos clave de la transición, también en tarjetas de cartulina. Los impactos sirven como marco global de referencia, pero es en base a los elementos clave de la transición que se motivará la lluvia de ideas de indicadores."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"-En cada estación de trabajo, colocar tarjetas con definiciones de cada uno de los 4 criterios de evaluación (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante) para orientar la priorización de indicadores en el ejercicio siguiente. -El/la facilitador/a enfatiza cualidades de un buen indicador (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante). Los indicadores que resulten de este ejercicio deben de ser lo más específicos posibles. Por ejemplo, si quedara algún indicador muy general como seguridad alimentaria o salud del suelo, ahondar en el aspecto especifico de mayor interés (desnutrición infantil, anemia, carbono en el suelo, compactación del suelo, acidez del suelo, etc.)."},{"index":6,"size":134,"text":"-El/la facilitador/a va escribiendo los indicadores propuestos sobre tarjetas de cartulina y los va ubicando al costado de su(s) elemento(s) clave correspondiente(s). Cada estación y facilitador(a) contará con una hoja impresa de indicadores auxiliares como \"back up\" para incitar la reflexión si a los participantes les costase iniciar la lluvia de ideas. Sin embargo, nos apoyamos en esta lista \"back up\" como último recurso. -En cada estación de trabajo, tener listo un papelógrafo con 6 columnas etiquetadas con tarjetas de cartulina: \"Indicador\", \"Especifico\", \"Medible\", \"Alcanzable\", \"Relevante\", \"Total\". Ubicar los indicadores que surgieron de la lluvia de ideas bajo la columna \"Indicador\". Selección de indicadores por medio de ranking: altamente \"…\" = 3; medianamente \"…\" = 2; bajamente \"…\" = 1. Por ej., un indicador de seguridad alimentaria que resulte bajamente especifico, pero altamente relevante."}]},{"head":"Alejandra","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"•","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Se califica cada indicador, preguntando al grupo su importancia según cada uno de los 4 criterios que figuran sobre el papelógrafo. Los facilitadores escriben \"3\", \"2\", o \"1\" bajo la columna que corresponde a cada criterio. Una vez terminada la calificación de todos los indicadores, por cada fila donde figura un indicador se suman las cifras y se escribe su puntaje bajo la columna \"Total\"."}]},{"head":"•","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Serán priorizados los 4 indicadores con mayor puntaje. Si algunos indicadores reciben el mismo puntaje, el grupo tendrá que llegar a un consenso sobre el más importante según el vacío de información que este es capaz de atender y practicidad."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Notas facilitadores:"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"-Mantenemos las 2 mismas estaciones de trabajo (Grupo 1, Grupo 2), cada una con el papelógrafo y materiales que habrán sido preparados durante el break."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"-Cada facilitador(a) tendrá la tarea de orientar la selección de los top 4 indicadores por grupo (mínimo 1 por dimensión HOLPA), considerando que estos atenderán los impactos y elementos clave según áreas temáticas de HOLPA (Grupo 1 = agrícola, ambiental; Grupo 2 = económica, social). [OPCIONAL] Se pregunta: ¿Qué experiencias han tenido en la medición de este indicador? El enfoque de esta pregunta es ahondar, si el tiempo lo permite, en escala, método y frecuencia de muestreo. Si no tienen experiencia, enfocar la reflexión en escala y posibles métodos."}]},{"head":"Notas facilitadores:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"-Mantenemos las 2 mismas estaciones de trabajo (Grupo 1, Grupo 2). Cada estación tendrá, sobre su papelógrafo, sus 4 indicadores prioritarios resaltados con otro color de plumón o asterisco. Notas facilitadores:"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"-Se exponen, en total, los 8 indicadores que fueron priorizados por los 2 grupos de trabajo junto con sus escalas, métodos, y frecuencias de muestreo."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Alejandra 2. Origen de los productos de la dieta familiar (a) ¿Qué cantidad de la comida que consumen en su hogar proviene de su propio predio?"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Seleccionar la opción que mejor representa las condiciones de su hogar:"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Se muestra las siguientes opciones (solo seleccionar 1 opción):"},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"-Casi toda la comida de mi hogar es producida dentro de mi predio."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"-La mitad de la comida de mi hogar es producida dentro de mi predio."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"-Una pequeña parte de la comida de mi hogar es producida dentro de mi predio."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"-Nada de la comida de mi hogar se produce dentro de mi predio."},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"(b) Por favor dígame cuales son los 3 alimentos que más se consumen en su hogar y cuáles de ellos se compran."},{"index":11,"size":27,"text":"Se muestran 3 espacios para escribir los 3 alimentos más consumidos. A continuación de cada alimento debe marcarse una de las siguientes opciones: \"Compra\" o No compra\"."},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"3. Manejo de semillas (a) ¿Cuáles de las siguientes prácticas de selección y conservación de semillas usted emplea?"},{"index":13,"size":6,"text":"Seleccione todas las opciones que apliquen."},{"index":14,"size":14,"text":"-Descarte de plantas enfermas en parcela -Descarte de plantas enfermas o dañadas en almacén."},{"index":15,"size":10,"text":"-Cosecha en condiciones de baja humedad (evita propagación de enfermedades)"},{"index":16,"size":21,"text":"-Secado de semillas por exposición al sol -Limpieza de semillas postcosecha (eliminación de residuos de tierra, polvo, insectos vivos o muertos)"},{"index":17,"size":29,"text":"-Adquisición de semillas de parcelas distintas / vecinos -Otros (dejar abierto para que el agricultor mencione otra) (b) ¿Cuáles de las siguientes prácticas de almacenamiento de semillas usted emplea?"},{"index":18,"size":6,"text":"Seleccione todas las opciones que apliquen."},{"index":19,"size":1,"text":"- "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fuente: Fuente: Elaborado por Juan Sebastián Velásquez. En: Pareja, P., et al. 2023. \"Reporte de Contextualización de Perú: Análisis del contexto y principios agroecológicos\". "},{"text":" Fuente:Jones, S. et. al. 2023. Holistic Localized Agroecology Performance Assessment (HOLPA) Tool & Guidelines for Use. "},{"text":"Figura 3 . Figura 3. Indicadores de desempeño a escala global de la herramienta HOLPA "},{"text":"Figura 4 . Figura 4. Resultados de priorización de indicadores por grupo de trabajo. (A) Grupo 1 (B) Grupo 2 "},{"text":" de indicadores contextualmente relevantes•Hacer lluvia de ideas de indicadores con relación a los impactos y elementos clave de la transición • ¿Qué indicador sería importante para medir el impacto en este territorio? ¿Como monitoreamos nuestros avances hacia ese impacto? Al costado del impacto y elementos clave el/la facilitador/a coloca en tarjetas los indicadores que van surgiendo a modo de lluvia de ideas por lo/as participantes Notas facilitadores: "},{"text":"• Cada grupo elige a un/a ponente para exponer los resultados del ejercicio: 4 indicadores locales y contextualmente relevantes.• "},{"text":"-• [OPCIONAL]  Para cada indicador los facilitadores anotarán la escala, método, y frecuencia de muestreo sobre una tarjeta de cartulina y la pegará al costado del indicador sobre el papelógrafo. Se repasan los 8 indicadores seleccionados, con escalas, métodos, y frecuencias.•Se resalta que estos son los indicadores locales que integrarán la herramienta HOLPA. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Específicamente, de los cuatro (4) impactos que figuran en la teoría de cambio se derivaron 16 elementos clave. Como se expuso en el Marco Conceptual, estos elementos clave son los temas específicos, resumidos en una frase, que se infieren de los resultados o alcances intermedios en la teoría de cambio. A cada impacto se le atribuyó al menos tres elementos clave y entre dos y tres dimensiones de sustentabilidad abarcadas por la herramienta HOLPA (Tabla 2).  15. Mesas técnicas regionales  15. Mesas técnicas regionales  agropecuarias  agropecuarias  16. Servicios financieros alternativos  16. Servicios financieros alternativos Los impactos (1) y (   Los impactos (1) y ( Tabla 2. Impactos, elementos clave, y dimensiones HOLPA  Tabla 2. Impactos, elementos clave, y dimensiones HOLPA Impactos Elementos clave Dimensiones HOLPA ImpactosElementos claveDimensiones HOLPA (1) Las familias agricultoras del 1. Biodiversidad Agrícola (1) Las familias agricultoras del1. BiodiversidadAgrícola corredor mejoran sus ingresos económicos y su seguridad alimentaria 2. Diversificación de ingresos Ambiental corredor mejoran sus ingresos económicos y su seguridad alimentaria2. Diversificación de ingresosAmbiental  3. Diversificación de chacra Económica 3. Diversificación de chacraEconómica   Social Social (2) Las familias agricultoras del 4. Especies mejoradas y nativas Agrícola (2) Las familias agricultoras del4. Especies mejoradas y nativasAgrícola corredor mejoran los rendimientos de sus cultivos agroecológicos 5. Semillas de calidad Ambiental corredor mejoran los rendimientos de sus cultivos agroecológicos5. Semillas de calidadAmbiental  6. Innovación tecnológica Social 6. Innovación tecnológicaSocial  7. Conservación y manejo de suelos  7. Conservación y manejo de suelos  8. Reducción de agroquímicos  8. Reducción de agroquímicos (3) Las familias agricultoras del 9. Asociatividad y cooperativismo Económica (3) Las familias agricultoras del9. Asociatividad y cooperativismoEconómica corredor se integran en productos agroecológicos mercados/cadenas de valor de intermediación 10. Comercialización local con baja Social corredor se integran en productos agroecológicos mercados/cadenas de valor deintermediación 10. Comercialización local con bajaSocial  11. Cartera actualizada de productos de  11. Cartera actualizada de productos de  biodiversidad regional  biodiversidad regional  12. Educación y difusión de información  12. Educación y difusión de información  sobre oferta local a consumidores  sobre oferta local a consumidores (4) Tomadores de decisión y sociedad 13. Información técnica actualizada y Económica (4) Tomadores de decisión y sociedad13. Información técnica actualizada yEconómica civil colaboran hacia una agricultura desarrollada familiar y empresarialmente función de cadenas de valor 14. Agenda de investigación común en articulada Social civil colaboran hacia una agricultura desarrollada familiar y empresarialmentefunción de cadenas de valor 14. Agenda de investigación común en articuladaSocial  "},{"text":" Anexo 1. Elementos de la ruta de transición (teoría de cambio) Cambio institucional: Articulación de políticas y procesos; recursos financieros para desarrollo de cadenas; 9:10 am -Introducción a la actividad Alejandra PPT (6 láminas) Cambio institucional: Articulación de políticas y procesos; recursos financieros para desarrollo de cadenas; 9:10 am -Introducción a la actividad Alejandra PPT (6 láminas) priorización de productos regionales en mercados institucionales; promoción y comunicación de la producción local / 9:25 am • Contextualización del taller dentro de la Iniciativa y específicamente regional a la ciudadanía el WP2. priorización de productos regionales en mercados institucionales; promoción y comunicación de la producción local / 9:25 am • Contextualización del taller dentro de la Iniciativa y específicamente regional a la ciudadanía el WP2. (4) Tomadores de • 15 min -Colaboración Presentación general de HOLPA y su aplicabilidad en el territorio 13. Información técnica -Económica priorizado en Ucayali. -Redes de (4) Tomadores de • 15 min-Colaboración Presentación general de HOLPA y su aplicabilidad en el territorio 13. Información técnica -Económica priorizado en Ucayali.-Redes de Impactos (1) Las familias agricultoras del corredor mejoran sus ingresos económicos y su seguridad alimentaria decisión y sociedad civil colaboran hacia una agricultura familiar y empresarialmente desarrollada • Presentación del objetivo del ejercicio: generar indicadores locales Temas clave Elementos clave de transición AE Dimensiones -Ingresos -Seguridad alimentaria 1. Biodiversidad 2. Diversificación de ingresos -Agrícola -Ambiental -Articulación institucional -Desarrollo empresarial actualizada y articulada -Social que integrarán la Herramienta Holística Localizada de Evaluación del 14. Agenda de investigación común en función de cadenas de Desempeño de la Agroecología (HOLPA por sus siglas en ingles) para monitorear el desempeño agroecológico a nivel de familias, chacras, y paisajes desde nuestros proyectos y programas de valor 15. Mesas técnicas desarrollo en el corredor de Pucallpa-Aguaytía, Ucayali. • Repaso del programa del taller. -Económica regionales agropecuarias Notas facilitadores: 3. Diversificación de chacra -Social 16. Servicios financieros -Se proyectan 7 láminas: (1-2) Ubicación del taller en la Iniciativa de Indicadores (auxiliares) -Ingresos agrícolas y no agrícolas -Ingreso neto productores y consumidores -Presencia de intermediarios -Participación de instituciones en familiar redes y -Especies y organizaciones base Impactos (1) Las familias agricultoras del corredor mejoran sus ingresos económicos y su seguridad alimentaria decisión y sociedad civil colaboran hacia una agricultura familiar y empresarialmente desarrollada • Presentación del objetivo del ejercicio: generar indicadores locales Temas clave Elementos clave de transición AE Dimensiones -Ingresos -Seguridad alimentaria 1. Biodiversidad 2. Diversificación de ingresos -Agrícola -Ambiental -Articulación institucional -Desarrollo empresarial actualizada y articulada -Social que integrarán la Herramienta Holística Localizada de Evaluación del 14. Agenda de investigación común en función de cadenas de Desempeño de la Agroecología (HOLPA por sus siglas en ingles) para monitorear el desempeño agroecológico a nivel de familias, chacras, y paisajes desde nuestros proyectos y programas de valor 15. Mesas técnicas desarrollo en el corredor de Pucallpa-Aguaytía, Ucayali. • Repaso del programa del taller. -Económica regionales agropecuarias Notas facilitadores: 3. Diversificación de chacra -Social 16. Servicios financieros -Se proyectan 7 láminas: (1-2) Ubicación del taller en la Iniciativa deIndicadores (auxiliares) -Ingresos agrícolas y no agrícolas -Ingreso neto productores y consumidores -Presencia de intermediarios -Participación de instituciones en familiar redes y -Especies y organizaciones base  alternativos Agroecología y WP2; (3-4) Presentación general de HOLPA, enfatizando variedades de alternativos Agroecología y WP2; (3-4) Presentación general de HOLPA, enfatizandovariedades de  su aplicabilidad para la evaluación sistémica del territorio; (5) Objetivo cultivos en finca su aplicabilidad para la evaluación sistémica del territorio; (5) Objetivocultivos en finca  del taller, que es generar indicadores locales; (6) Programa del taller. -Costo de canasta del taller, que es generar indicadores locales; (6) Programa del taller.-Costo de canasta básica Cambio institucional: Coordinación y concertación de acciones de los sectores público y privado; articulación de básica Cambio institucional: Coordinación y concertación de acciones de los sectores público y privado; articulación de instrumentos de ordenamiento, planeamiento, y gestión territorial instrumentos de ordenamiento, planeamiento, y gestión territorial 9:25 am - Identificación de temas prioritarios para el corredor 9:25 am -Identificación de temas prioritarios para el corredor Cambio institucional: Servicios y capacitación con visión holística; Productos financieros hechos a la medida del 9:50 am Cambio institucional: Servicios y capacitación con visión holística; Productos financieros hechos a la medida del 9:50 am calendario agrícola; Planeación estratégica y orientación de recursos de los gobiernos a escala nacional y regional calendario agrícola; Planeación estratégica y orientación de recursos de los gobiernos a escala nacional y regional hacia la agricultura familiar Anexo 2. Agenda del taller 25 min hacia la agricultura familiar Anexo 2. Agenda del taller 25 min (2) Las familias agricultoras del corredor Hora Actividad (tiempo) mejoran los rendimientos de sus cultivos agroecológicos 8:40 am -Recepción de invitados -Productividad agroecológica -20 participantes fueron invitados. 13 confirmados, que posteriormente 4. Especies mejoradas y nativas -Agrícola -Ambiental 5. Semillas de calidad -Social 6. Innovación tecnológica de suelos 7. Conservación y manejo 9:00 am Notas facilitadores: -Volumen de Responsable Materiales producción -Valor de producción/ha José Lista de asistencia finca -Ingresos netos de la impresa (2) Las familias agricultoras del corredor Hora Actividad (tiempo) mejoran los rendimientos de sus cultivos agroecológicos 8:40 am -Recepción de invitados -Productividad agroecológica -20 participantes fueron invitados. 13 confirmados, que posteriormente 4. Especies mejoradas y nativas -Agrícola -Ambiental 5. Semillas de calidad -Social 6. Innovación tecnológica de suelos 7. Conservación y manejo 9:00 am Notas facilitadores:-Volumen de Responsable Materiales producción -Valor de producción/ha José Lista de asistencia finca -Ingresos netos de la impresa 20 min serán divididos en 2 grupos según área de experiencia: agrícola, 8. Reducción de ambiental, económica, social. Para dicha asignación contaremos, previo agroquímicos al taller, con la lista de invitados, la institución que cada uno representa, y -Cálculos de Lista de invitados perdidas por plagas con áreas de y enfermedades experiencia 20 minserán divididos en 2 grupos según área de experiencia: agrícola, 8. Reducción de ambiental, económica, social. Para dicha asignación contaremos, previo agroquímicos al taller, con la lista de invitados, la institución que cada uno representa, y-Cálculos de Lista de invitados perdidas por plagas con áreas de y enfermedades experiencia  sus áreas (1-2) de experiencia para orientar la conformación de cada sus áreas (1-2) de experiencia para orientar la conformación de cada  grupo. Por ej.: Grupo 1: agrícola y ambiental; Grupo 2: económica y grupo. Por ej.: Grupo 1: agrícola y ambiental; Grupo 2: económica y social. Conforme los invitados ingresan al salón, Jose indica en sus Cambio institucional: Respaldo técnico-productivo y co-creación de innovaciones; desarrollo de nuevas capacidades Etiquetas para sanidad vegetal y animal agrícola/ambiental; punto color azul -económico/social). en prácticas de conservación; estudios científicos contextualizados con enfoque agroecológico; rol proactivo en etiquetas el grupo al que cada uno fue asignado (punto color verde -nombres social. Conforme los invitados ingresan al salón, Jose indica en sus Cambio institucional: Respaldo técnico-productivo y co-creación de innovaciones; desarrollo de nuevas capacidades Etiquetas para sanidad vegetal y animal agrícola/ambiental; punto color azul -económico/social). en prácticas de conservación; estudios científicos contextualizados con enfoque agroecológico; rol proactivo en etiquetas el grupo al que cada uno fue asignado (punto color verde -nombres (3) Las familias 9:00 am -Bienvenida y presentaciones -Mercados 9. Asociatividad y -Económica Alejandra -Canales de (3) Las familias 9:00 am -Bienvenida y presentaciones -Mercados9. Asociatividad y-Económica Alejandra -Canales de agricultoras del corredor se integran en valor de productos agroecológicos 10 min mercados/cadenas de 9:10 am • Cada participante se presenta con su nombre y la asociación o regionales con baja intermediación productos de 11. Cartera actualizada de -Oferta de productos cooperativismo 10. Comercialización local -Social institución a la que pertenece. productos locales diversificada de -Cartera comercialización local y regional agricultoras del corredor se integran en valor de productos agroecológicos 10 min mercados/cadenas de 9:10 am • Cada participante se presenta con su nombre y la asociación o regionales con baja intermediación productos de 11. Cartera actualizada de -Oferta de productos cooperativismo 10. Comercialización local -Social institución a la que pertenece.productos locales diversificada de -Cartera comercialización local y regional    biodiversidad regional -Equidad dentro de biodiversidad regional-Equidad dentro de    12. Educación y difusión cadena de valor 12. Educación y difusióncadena de valor    de información sobre de información sobre    oferta local a oferta local a    consumidores consumidores  "},{"text":" Alejandra Arce, Científica Asociada en Agroecología, [email protected] CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.orgWe would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders.To learn more about this Initiative, please visit this webpage.To learn more about this and other Initiatives in the CGIAR Research Portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio © 2023 CGIAR System Organization. Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0   -Mezcla de la semilla con arena o -Mezcla de la semilla con arena o   ceniza ceniza   -Almacenamiento sin desgranar (p.ej. -Almacenamiento sin desgranar (p.ej.   maíz) maíz)   -Otros (dejar abierto para que el -Otros (dejar abierto para que el   agricultor mencione otra) agricultor mencione otra)   En sacos de yute, fibras locales o En sacos de yute, fibras locales o   sintéticas sintéticas   -A granel (amontonado en espacio -A granel (amontonado en espacio   cubierto de los elementos lluvia y sol) cubierto de los elementos lluvia y sol)   -Envase hermético (recipientes que -Envase hermético (recipientes que   evitan exposición al aire y humedad) evitan exposición al aire y humedad)   p.ej. sacos de plástico, botellas de p.ej. sacos de plástico, botellas de   plástico, tambos metálicos plástico, tambos metálicos   -Tratamiento con plantas o -Tratamiento con plantas o   biopreparado que sirven como biopreparado que sirven como   repelentes de plagas y previenen repelentes de plagas y previenen   enfermades enfermades International License (CC BYNC 4.0). -Tratamiento con agroquímico International License (CC BYNC 4.0).-Tratamiento con agroquímico   -Limpieza y desinfección del almacén -Limpieza y desinfección del almacén | | | | ||  "}],"sieverID":"e66ff7cd-0342-4aa0-9a82-d3614f891438","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b86f88a8ff1737029b76ae0b3849ca0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1063/WF_3569.pdf"},"pageCount":16,"title":"WorldFish CGIAR Research Program 3.7 -Livestock & Fish UGANDA AQUACULTURE VALUE CHAINS: STRATEGIC PLANNING MISSION SUMMARY REPORT","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"This report presents the findings and recommendations of a strategic planning mission to reevaluate the feasibility of WorldFish implementing a fish value chain research program in Uganda under the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish (L&F). The over-arching goal of L&F is to increase productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems so as to increase availability and affordability of meat, milk and fish for poor consumers and, in doing so, to reduce poverty through greater participation by the poor along animal source food value chains. This will be achieved by making a small number of carefully selected animal source food value chains function better, for example by identifying and addressing key constraints and opportunities (from production to consumption), improving institutional arrangements and capacities, and supporting the establishment of enabling pro-poor policy and institutional environments."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Uganda was identified in 2010 as one of two candidate countries for the development of fish value chains under L&F (the other country being Egypt). However, it was subsequently discovered that the Ugandan aquaculture industry was much smaller than officially recorded, and opportunities to raise funds in the country were poorer than anticipated. It was therefore agreed that the strategic planning exercise should be undertaken to guide decisions on whether or not to go ahead as proposed for Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"The key findings of the mission are as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":262,"text":"• Though available data do not appear to show a decrease, lake fish stocks and capture fisheries are widely thought to be in general decline 1 due in large part to over-fishing, compounded by environmental degradation and climate change / variability. There is widespread consensus among stakeholders that the widening supply-demand gap for domestically produced fish products can only be narrowed through aquaculture. • While aquaculture production in Uganda is much smaller than official figures suggest, it is likely to expand rapidly in the next decade. Significant levels of commercial investments are planned to take place within the coming three years. An industry with around 10,000 tons production capacity will most likely emerge within the next three to five years. • Uganda currently acts as a regional hub for the supply of aquaculture inputs (feed, seed, fingerlings) and small amounts of aquaculture-produced fish, along with large quantities of wild caught fish and fish products to neighboring countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda, Kenya, and perhaps to a lesser extent South Sudan. There is potential for Uganda to take on a more significant regional role in the supply of aquaculture inputs and products in the future. • Current government policies prioritize fish as a key investment opportunity over the medium term. Aquaculture development is on the policy agenda in the shape of a strategic aquaculture plan, and the government is planning to develop aquaculture parks in up to five gazetted areas including lakes and rivers in the central and western regions as detailed in the recently drafted Aquaculture Parks Policy."},{"index":5,"size":414,"text":"Although there are attempts to enhance the enabling environment for the sector, the governance capacity remains weak. • It is the general perception among development partners that the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) is lacking capacity, incentives, drive and leadership. Both the Government and development partners see the private sector and commercial investments as the main drivers of aquaculture, with the public sector providing the enabling context. • A number of donors are actively supporting agriculture, with more apparently reentering the sector. A smaller number currently focus on fisheries and/or aquaculture in Uganda and the region with the European Union (EU) being the largest player in Uganda at present. The EU is currently considering support to the aquaculture parks and indicated to the mission that although aquaculture is not a top priority it will not be left aside. If the EU decides to provide support to aquaculture, it is -according to the EU mission in Kampala -very possible that other donors may follow. • Farmers are currently being pushed towards high cost aquaculture production systems which potentially run at a loss and will not deliver fish for the poor. There is a need for lower feed conversion ratios (FCR), higher value production systems, and/or lower production (feed) costs. The production models for tilapia and catfish currently promoted are too expensive for smallholders and there is a need for cheaper alternative models, e.g. using locally produced feeds and relying more on natural pond fertilization. Larger, good quality cages are also recommended. • Because of the very small amounts of farmed fish being produced, prices for are influenced by the relatively low wholesale prices of wild fish from the lakes. However, further away from the lakes, and at the retail level, fish fetches a much higher price. Also, preferences for different types of fish (tilapia; catfish) vary across the region. • Marketing of farmed fish is a major challenge, despite the high demand for fish. The 'hub-model' with clusters of well-organized smallholders built under the USAID Livelihoods and Enterprises for Agriculture Development (LEAD) project offers some promise for further expansion. Aquaculture value chains in Uganda and the East African region are currently disjointed and ineffective; some would argue that there is no value chain at all, only temporal spot markets that occasionally link small numbers of actors who generally operate in inefficient ways. On the other hand, there are functional and well-developed fisheries value chains that operate at local, regional and international levels."},{"index":6,"size":199,"text":"The planned investments from the private sector will support improvements in aquaculture input and output marketing, bringing in opportunities for value chain development that could have impacts on food and nutrition security at local, national and regional levels. However, until the anticipated expansion in aquaculture production actually occurs, we recommend that WorldFish should focus on the fisheries sector, for which there is ample scope for value chain improvements to benefit the poor. Although the study team was tasked to consider whether WorldFish should proceed with an aquaculture research program under the L&F CRP, we feel that confining the focus to aquaculture means that the organization as a whole is missing out on the large potential for research interactions on wild fisheries and fisheries products in Uganda and the region. Lake Victoria alone is one of the world's largest freshwater fisheries employing many thousand poor fishermen, sustaining many more (poor) men and women working in the value chain and providing animal-sourced protein for poor people in Uganda and the region. The potential short-term and long-term impacts that could be achieved from a wild and farmed fish research-for-development program would be considerably greater than one focused solely on aquaculture value chains."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Specifically, the research objectives of WorldFish should be to:"},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"1. Develop and test models for SME-based, pro-poor, gender equitable fisheries and aquaculture value chain development;"},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"2. Increase access -geographic, but especially economic -to fish by poor consumers and assess nutrition outcomes at intra-household level, as affected by poverty, livelihoods, life cycle, health, ethnic and gender norms;"},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"3. Address the growing environmental issues, in particular surrounding impacts of rapid expansion in lake-based cage farming and its effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services;"},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"4. Address conflict and governance issues around common property resources, especially in relation to lake-based commercial cage farming; and 5. Generate knowledge for more evidence-based, planning, decision-and policymaking processes and help strengthen the emerging policy and regulatory framework for aquaculture and fisheries."},{"index":12,"size":179,"text":"The mission finds that this could be an opportune time for WorldFish to engage in research for development in Uganda and the broader East African region under the L&F program. The commercial aquaculture sector is set to expand significantly in the coming years, albeit from a very limited baseline, stimulating market developments that could benefit poor producers and consumers. WorldFish should position itself ahead of these changes, to develop and strengthen its networks, establish its identity, anticipate and nurture pro-poor research and development opportunities, and gradually build a portfolio in Uganda (with a regional outlook) as a go-to research-for-development facilitator, knowledge partner, and broker of innovative partnerships in the aquaculture (and fisheries) sector. There is an opportunity to influence and help frame a much needed research agenda around key issues such as propoor value chain development, animal-source food and nutrition security, gender equity, and environment impact, before and during the early stages of this widely anticipated private sector take-off. These vital research and development issues, if not driven by agencies like WorldFish are in danger of receiving inadequate attention."},{"index":13,"size":66,"text":"There are potential risks surrounding such an engagement, however, relating to a weak policy environment and the lack of clarity around commitment by the Government as well as development partners to financing the interventions needed to establish the enabling framework, secure public goods, and help drive the sector forward sustainably. There are signs though that a stronger enabling framework is emerging encouraged by the national leadership."},{"index":14,"size":79,"text":"A key challenge will be in raising the necessary funds to establish a permanent in-country presence and build a sizeable portfolio if it is focused only on the aquaculture sector which, at present, makes a very limited contribution towards livelihoods, employment and the economy. It is therefore proposed that the initial focus should be on fisheries and aquaculture, until such time that the aquaculture sector has expanded sufficiently to warrant exclusive focus. Given this scenario, five options are presented:"},{"index":15,"size":172,"text":"1. Establish presence from early in 2013, initially for three years, under the umbrella of a CGIAR partner, with a full-time representative/Value Chain Coordinator based in Uganda; 2. Establish presence from early in 2013, initially for three years, under the umbrella of a CGIAR partner, with a part-time representative/Value Chain Coordinator based in Uganda; 3. No staff recruitment in 2013 but initiate activities in Uganda/East African region by drawing on existing WorldFish staff and others to undertake and guide initial activities until such time that a more substantive portfolio and income streams have been generated; 4. Delay decision on Uganda/East African region and re-assess the situation in two to three years to see whether the planned private sector investments have led to increased aquaculture production levels and improved marketing and whether there is genuine commitment from the Government and development partners to provide necessary support; and 5. Undertake another feasibility mission to another country (e.g. Ghana, Nigeria, Malawi, Zambia) to determine whether or not there is a better alternative to Uganda/East Africa."},{"index":16,"size":143,"text":"The first three options assume availability of L&F seed money to cover cost of staff and initial field work (e.g. rapid value chain assessments; market studies), until such time that additional income has been generated. Very recent information from the Consortium Office received via ILRI, however suggests non-growth for L&F with a 2013 budget identical to the 2012 budget, leaving insufficient funds to start up a Uganda presence for the time being or provide seed money for initial field research. The necessary funds will therefore have to be raised from other sources. WorldFish is already engaged in three large projects in Uganda/East Africa (ASARECA, AFPSAN, STARGO) and there are three more initiatives in the pipeline (EU-Fish Trade, ADRAS, COMESA-Women in Business), the first of which has recently received confirmation of funding. Planned activities under these projects offer a basis from which to expand."},{"index":17,"size":69,"text":"Opportunities for further fundraising include the development of broad, regional proposals that address the 'big questions' prepared together with CGIAR partners and submitted to larger donors such as the Gates Foundation, IFAD 2 , and others; working in partnership with national and regional bodies (e.g. NEPAD, COMESA, ASARECA, PAF, NARS) to develop joint proposals relating to the proposed research agenda 3 ; private sector funding; and competitive research grants."}]},{"head":"Findings and conclusions: the role of WorldFish in Uganda and East Africa 1.1 Summary of findings","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The key findings of the mission are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":505,"text":"• Lake fish stocks and capture fisheries are generally thought to be in general decline due in large part to over-fishing, compounded by environmental degradation and climate change / variability. There is widespread consensus among stakeholders that the widening supply-demand gap for domestically produced fish products can only be narrowed through aquaculture. The official statistics however, do not show an overall marked decline. This could be a reflection of the difficulties in collecting accurate data rather than a true reflection of the capture fisheries situation, or it could suggest that the situation is not as grave as generally perceived. • While aquaculture production in Uganda is much smaller than official figures suggest, it is likely to expand rapidly in the next decade. Significant levels of commercial investment are planned to take place within the coming three years. An industry with around 10,000 tons production capacity will likely emerge within the next three to five years. • Current policies (e.g. DSIP) prioritize fish as a key investment opportunity over the medium term. Aquaculture development is on the policy agenda in the shape of a strategic aquaculture plan, and the government is planning to develop aquaculture parks in up to five gazetted areas including lakes and rivers in the central and western regions. Although there are attempts to enhance the enabling environment for the sector, the governance capacity remains weak (security of tenure at cage sites; weak civil rights; environmental issues). • Farmers are currently being pushed towards high cost production systems which potentially run at a loss and will not deliver fish for the poor. There is a need for lower FCRs, higher value production systems, and/or lower production (feed) costs. The production models for tilapia and catfish currently promoted are too expensive for smallholders and there is a need for cheaper alternative models, e.g. using locally produced feeds and relying more on natural pond fertilization. • Prices for farmed fish are influenced by the relatively low wholesale prices of wild fish from the lakes. Further away from the lakes, where fish farming has not yet developed to meet the gap, fish fetches a much higher price, as would be expected. Preferences for different types of fish (tilapia; catfish) vary across the region. • Marketing is a major challenge, despite the high demand for fish. The 'hub-model' with clusters of well-organized smallholders built under the LEAD project offers some promise for further expansion. Aquaculture value chains in Uganda and the East African region are currently disjointed and ineffective; some would argue that there is no value chain at all, only temporal spot markets that occasionally link a very small number of actors who generally operate in inefficient ways. • Uganda is currently a regional hub for supply of capture fisheries and aquaculture products (feed, seed, fingerlings, live and processed fish) to neighboring countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Kenya, and perhaps to a lesser extent South Sudan. There is potential for Uganda to take on an even more significant regional role in the future."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"The conclusion from these findings is that the planned increase in commercial aquaculture production will most likely stimulate market development, expanding the current value chains (such as they are), and bringing in opportunities for value chain improvement that would have impacts on food and nutrition security at local, national and regional levels. Given the size of the existing capture fisheries and the anticipated emergence of a strong commercial aquaculture sector in Uganda, there is an opportunity for WorldFish to become a significant player in Uganda. This could be as a broker/facilitator of partnerships helping to identify, address and remove obstacles to private, commercial sector value chain development while ensuring that enough attention is given and knowledge generated around ASF and nutrition security, food safety, poverty, gender equity and environment issues and impacts -all vital research and development themes that otherwise are in danger of being ignored."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"In the smallholder aquaculture sector WorldFish could build on the good foundation laid for instance by the USAID LEAD project with emerging smallholder hubs. At a technical level, there is a need for alternative, low-cost production models for smallholders in particular."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Persistent weaknesses on the government side, notably in MAAIF (to a lesser extent in NARO) and a rudimentary policy/regulatory environment, however present an important risk, There are signs though that the national leadership is prioritizing aquaculture as a future growth area. This all points towards engaging more with the private sector while cultivating good working relationships with public partners and government counterparts and seizing opportunities to help shape an emerging policy and regulatory environment for more evidence-and knowledge-based planning and decision-making."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Fundraising will be a major challenge. This can be partly addressed by adopting a regional approach rather than focusing on Uganda alone and by broadening the scope to cover both aquaculture and fisheries."}]},{"head":"The role of WorldFish in Uganda and the East African Region","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The overall aim of the Livestock and Fish CRP is to increase affordable ASF supplies to poor consumers by poor producers. The program selected its focal value chains and countries through a review process applying the following criteria: potential for market expansion; potential for the poor to benefit from the market expansion; existence of supply constraints which research could aid in addressing; supportive policy environment; and existing interest among stakeholders in working on improving the chain (see Annex 1). All of these factors currently exist in Uganda, suggesting that it is an appropriate country of focus for L&F."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Regional linkages are such that the development of value chains in Uganda would benefit poor producers (through the supply of inputs) and consumers (though increased availability of fish products) in neighboring countries such as DRC, Rwanda and Kenya."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"As stated above, the Ugandan aquaculture sector will likely undergo rapid and substantial growth in the coming years, driven primarily by the private sector and spearheaded by a few medium to large-scale commercial companies, including foreign investors. WorldFish can help ensure that essential research for development issues around poverty alleviation, food and nutrition security and related gender issues 4 , ecological footprints, and development and dissemination of international public goods get on to the agenda and receive the attention they deserve. While increasing availability of fish through development of the aquaculture sector is essential in improving nutrition and food security, increased consumption by those who need it most will only result if issues around access and utilization are also addressed. Much of the expansion of the commercial sector is likely to be through lake-based cage aquaculture, which unless properly planned and regulated can create environmental problems and loss of ecosystem services (fishing, potable water), to the poor and vulnerable (Beveridge 2004, Beveridge & Brummett, in press), with consequent conflict."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"The CGIAR Livestock and Fish Research Program aims to work with fish farmers at various levels to develop sustainable pro-poor, gender equitable value chains to improve the food and nutrition security of vulnerable consumers. WorldFish would seek to achieve this for aquaculture in Uganda/East Africa region by bringing its research and capacity building skills, its focus on gender and its approach to partnerships to bear on the sustainable development of the sector. This is entirely consistent with Uganda's current National Development Plan (see Section 2.1). Specifically, the research objectives of WorldFish would be to:"},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"1. Develop and test models for SME-based, pro-poor and gender equitable aquaculture value chain development; 2. Increase access -geographic, but especially economic -to fish by poor consumers and assess nutrition outcomes at intra-household level, as affected by poverty, livelihoods, life cycle, health, ethnic and gender norms; 3. Address the growing environmental issues, in particular surrounding impacts of rapid expansion in lake-based cage farming and its effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services; 4. Address the growing conflict and governance issues around common property resources, especially in relation to commercial cage farming. 5. Generate knowledge for more evidence-based, planning, decision-and policymaking processes and help strengthen the emerging policy and regulatory framework for aquaculture"},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Possible research issues under these key areas are further elaborated in Annex 7."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"As elaborated in Section 3.5, the potential short-term impacts (within two or three years) that can be achieved from the proposed research program would likely be considerably greater if the research agenda were to focus on fisheries as well as aquaculture value chains, particularly in relation to objectives 1, 2 and 4 above."}]},{"head":"Candidate value chains and geographical regions in which to work","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Given the proposed research areas outlines above, the recommendation is to focus on Central/Eastern Region (due to SoN and Greenfields partnerships, environmental and governance issues on Lake Victoria, presence of active farmer groups and cooperative society (WAFICOS), anticipated sites for Aquaculture Parks, trade with Kenya and potential cross-border links with Kenya Gatsby Trust and the German-Israel-Kenya trilateral project), and Western Region (due to presence of active farmer groups, trade with DRC, environmental and governance issues on Lake Albert, willing partners and on-going work by partners, anticipated sites for Aquaculture Parks). Within each region, we may consider selecting sites that are both urban and rural, and that are located both near the lakes and further away from the lakes."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The points below provide some of the key criteria and associated possibilities for the identification of candidate value chains / geographical areas:"},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"• Areas where SME farmers are already active and there is the potential for value chain development. The LEAD project has established out-grower fish farmer groups in Bushenyi and Kasese (Western Region), Kaberamaido (Eastern Region), Amuru/Gulu and Kitgum (Northern Region). Kabeihura Farmers Ltd (Bushenyi) is a particularly successful group that has good capacity for catfish seed production and has established profitable market linkages in exporting fish and seed to DRC. These groups may be need further support in order to mature and be able to sustain themselves following the end of the LEAD project in October 2012. Other SME groups are those supported by SCAPA (Central Region) and UAOGRESCUE (Lakes Albert and Nakivale in Western Region; Lakes Bisina and Kyoga in Northern Region; and a water reservoir in the Karamoja region)."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"• Areas where there is lack of geographic access to fish by poor consumers, i.e. further away from the lakes, or in areas where fish for consumption is simply not available, e.g. near the shores of Lake Albert where fish stocks are very low and mukene is harvested for animal feed, not for human consumption. • Areas with large populations of poor consumers who lack economic access to fish."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"There is likely to be higher density of poor consumers in urban and peri-urban areas than in rural areas. • Areas where environmental concerns are apparent. Such areas would include lakes where cage farming is expanding (e.g. Lake Victoria); any of the sites for the proposed Aquaculture Parks -the sites have yet to be determined; and also areas where oil fields are being developed (Lake Albert). • Areas where there are growing conflict and governance issues around common property resources. Such areas would include lakes where cage farming is expanding (e.g. Lake Victoria; and any of the sites for the proposed Aquaculture Parks)."},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"Other considerations in the selection of areas in which to work might include the presence of willing partners; possible overlaps with ILRI's pig value chain activities; areas where WorldFish and its partners have previously or are currently working (e.g. Blake's governance work on Lake Victoria; ASARECA project; AFSAPN; possible ADRAS project; SoN; Greenfields; Dr Kabahenda's nutrition projects; Aquaculture Consultants' farmers' database; cross-border links with Kenya Gatsby Trust and German-Israel-Kenya trilateral project, etc); and areas where cross-border linkages might attract funding for regional activities. We should also consider areas targeted by large-scale investors where opportunities for framing a pro-poor consumer and pro-environment agenda may emerge."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"It will also be necessary to focus on areas to be identified by the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries for the development of Aquaculture Parks. Potential sites are currently being explored, and the EU-funded COWI consultancy to take place in November 2012 will undertake the feasibility studies. In addition, MAAIF has identified 31 districts 5 as suitable for fisheries and aquaculture development based on both natural and socioeconomic factors. The districts identified are located around the country's major water systems including Lake Victoria Crescent, Lake Kyoga basin, River Nile catchment, Edward-George complex and the Koki lakes."}]},{"head":"Potential threats to the proposed research / development agenda","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The findings of the mission suggest that there are a number of potential threats to the proposed engagement in Uganda by WorldFish:"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"• Scarcity of funding for research. See Section 5.2 for an overview of fundraising approaches. • The policy and regulatory framework around aquaculture is incomplete. While the intention is to put in place polices and updated regulations and guidelines the process may face both bureaucratic and political challenges and delays. At the same time this represents an opportunity for WorldFish and partners to influence decisionmaking."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Overall the mission finds that this could be an opportune time for WorldFish to engage in research for development in Uganda and the broader East African region under the L&F program. The commercial aquaculture sector will likely expand significantly in the coming years, stimulating market developments that may be of limited benefit to poor producers and consumers. WorldFish should position itself ahead of these changes to develop its network, establish its identity, anticipate and nurture pro-poor research and development opportunities, and gradually build a portfolio in Uganda (with a regional outlook) as a go-to research-for-development facilitator, knowledge partner, and broker of innovative partnerships in the aquaculture sector. There is an opportunity to influence and help frame a much needed research agenda around key issues of pro-poor value chain development, food and nutrition security, ecological services and impacts, and so forth."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Until the anticipated expansion in aquaculture production actually occurs, however, we recommend that WorldFish should focus on the fisheries sector, for which there is ample scope for value chain improvements to benefit the poor. Although the study team was tasked to consider whether WorldFish should proceed with an aquaculture research program under the L&F CRP, we feel that confining the focus to aquaculture means that the organization as a whole is missing out on the important potential for research interactions on wild fisheries and fisheries products in Uganda and the region. Lake Victoria alone is one of the world's largest freshwater fisheries employing many thousand poor fishermen, sustaining many more men and women working in the value chain and providing animal-sourced protein for poor people in Uganda and the region. The potential short-term and long-term impacts that could be achieved from a wild and farmed fish research-for-development program would be considerably greater than one focused solely on aquaculture value chains."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"There are important potential risks surrounding such an engagement relating to a weak policy environment and the lack of clarity around commitment by the Government of Uganda as well as development partners to resourcing the interventions needed to establish the enabling framework and take the sector forward. The greatest challenge from a WorldFish perspective will likely be in raising the necessary funds to establish a real presence. Given this scenario, five options have been identified, and various avenues for future fundraising are put forward."}]},{"head":"Options for implementation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Five options are presented in table 1 below, together with the advantages and risks associated with each. Suggestions for mitigating some of the risks have also been included."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The first two options involve establishing a presence in Uganda; the third option involves establishing activities without a presence; the fourth option is to defer a decision until funding opportunities look more favorable; and the fifth option is to consider alternative countries."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"The cost implications of Options 1 and 2 are detailed in Annex 8. Note also that very recent information from ILRI suggests that the 2013 L&F budget will remain identical to the 2012 budget, leaving little room for seed money in Uganda. "}]},{"head":"Resource mobilization","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"While there are opportunities for leveraging small amounts of research funding in the near future (e.g. from ADRAS (if successful), ASARECA, or the EU-funded Fish Trade Project), there are no apparent or immediate opportunities for large-scale funding. Building up a sizeable portfolio with a larger revenue stream may therefore take time and require a sustained presence and concerted effort."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The mission found no readily available funds from conventional bilateral donors in country at the moment. EU is the most likely option in 2013, if the Aquaculture Parks initiative goes ahead. If the EU decides to fund the Aquaculture Parks initiative, then other bilateral donors might come on board, but again this is all tentative. A clearer picture around the EU decision is expected during the second quarter of 2013."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Limited CRP core funds means that any allocation of CRP funds to Uganda / East Africa could detract from other WorldFish L&F activities."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"The following funding alternatives should be explored: i) Develop broad, regional proposals with ILRI on ASF / health / nutrition and/or environmental issues that address the 'bigger strategic questions' under L&F. Possible donors might include Gates Foundation, IFAD (engage in on-going dialogue with ILRI) and others. Next steps might include a review of possible donors and their priorities; big 'think pieces' at high level (to bring issues onto the agenda) and at L&F component level (feeds, breeding, gender, etc.)."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"ii) Strengthen and develop research-for-development networks / partnerships with national and regional bodies (e.g. NEPAD, COMESA, ASARECA, PAF, NARS) to develop joint proposals relating to the proposed research agenda. WorldFish may not be a key partner, but this is consistent with the current CGIAR approach to divert more support to local and regional bodies and can leverage funds. Another potential option is linking up with the Nile Basin Development Challenge (NBDC) as part of the Challenge Programme of Water and Food on joint activities under CRP5 on Water, Land and Ecosystems. Some of the interventions are about the creation of small reservoirs which should be exploited as Multiple Use Systems, and one potential would be to rear fish as an additional source of protein. Next steps might include a review of regional bodies and their engagement in aquaculture and -crucially -their capacity to deliver. The risk of this approach is that it may take us out of our priority areas of focus if potential partners have other priorities."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"iii) Possible private sector funds might include those listed below. Fundraising through the private sector requires a very different approach to fundraising through more conventional channels and can be enhanced by insights from fundraising consultants 7 and others who are experienced in this approach and in forming public-privatepartnerships within research. b. Medium and large scale aquaculture companies that are interested in funding research and development on specific issues that would be of benefit to their company. For example, possible collaboration with Source of the Nile on genetic development."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"c. Corporate Social Responsibility funding through oil companies (Total, Tullow Oil) or through aquaculture players, e.g. Commercial Aquaculture Producers for Africa (CAPA)."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"iv) Competitive research grants through calls for proposals -may offer limited funding for research, but grants are typically small and internal competition can limit the possibilities for Uganda/EA. Assuming a success rate of one in three, substantial time could be absorbed by pipeline development."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"Whichever research funding options we decide on we will need to be strategic in terms of effort expended, likely returns, and partnership development potential."},{"index":10,"size":137,"text":"Other noteworthy initiatives and potential partnering and funding opportunities include: a newly initiated trilateral Kenya-Israel-Germany project on tilapia value chains, which might extend into Uganda in future; WorldFish is currently working with public and private sector partners in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda in developing aquaculture in the region (see http://www.worldfishcenter.org/our-research/ongoing-projects/african-aquaculturedevelopment-beyond-the-fish-farm). Although the project finishes at the end of 2013, there are further opportunities to apply for funding in 2014. NEPAD-FAO Fish Program has a strong focus on aquaculture, in support of the NEPAD Action Plan for the Development of African Fisheries and Aquaculture. The Aquaculture Working Group (AWG) is a region-wide body established within the Partnership for African Fisheries (PAF) to address challenges inhibiting aquaculture and fisheries research and development in Africa. It is also aligned to the NEPAD 'Fish for All' Abuja framework for aquaculture development."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" a. Private funding for cooperative development, as has been achieved in Aceh and other parts of Southeast Asia (see Phillips et al, 2012) through the WorldFish Incubator business model. "},{"text":"• The artisanal fisheries sector is extremely vibrant, but the smallholder aquaculture sector is still struggling. Despite earlier expectations, small and medium enterprise (SME) aquaculture has not yet taken off in Uganda. It remains difficult for producers to make a profit let alone break even. The main constraints and bottlenecks include: feeds (low quality, high prices, volatile supply); lack of market development; absent or weak business development services (e.g. advice, technology and capital); misguided/misinformed producers and new entrants expecting a quick return on investments.  "},{"text":" • MAAIF is lacking capacity, drive and leadership. Working with government in the agriculture sector is not easy. Both the Government and development partners see the private sector and commercial investments as the main drivers of aquaculture, with the public sector providing the enabling context.• A number of donors are actively supporting agriculture, with more apparently reentering the sector. A smaller number currently focus on fisheries and/or aquaculture in Uganda and the region with the EU being the largest player in Uganda at present. The EU is currently considering support to the aquaculture parks. The EU indicated to the mission that although aquaculture is not a top priority it will not be left aside.  "},{"text":"• Lack of effective extension services in Uganda and lack of practical aquaculture training among extension workers. This can be overcome by potential to work with LEAD lead farmers; adopting 'best practice' from organizations such as the International Centre for Research in Agriculture (ICRA); and working with NGOs and other agencies (e.g. WAFICOS) on the ground in collaboration with an emerging private sector.• Weak capacity of government players and a general sense of malaise. Partnerships with private sector should be prioritized. • Threat of conflict over access to resources -poaching, theft, weak social capital.Research should be undertaken into governance issues to find ways to address these problems.• Political instability and civil conflict including possible political instability with next election (2015); potential insecurity in northern Uganda due to Lord's Resistance Army, tensions in South Sudan, etc. A more detailed analysis is required; if necessary, WorldFish should avoid working in the North and develop contingency plans for potential periods of instability. • Within WorldFish, diverting scant resources on an over-stretched program may detract attention from other activities. This can be avoided with adequate funding. • Are the Chinese a threat or opportunity? Weak institutional frameworks may result in introduction of alien species (carps) and pathogens and environmental consequences, as occurred in Zambia with introductions of fish from Thailand 6 . On the other hand, Chinese investments will bring opportunities for economic development and expansion of the aquaculture sector; market development; increased quality and quantities of seed and feed.  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Options, advantages and risks Options 1, 2 and 3 would all involve the initiation of field activities with L&F funds and new bilateral monies, e.g. for an initial market study/value chain assessment, a follow-up on the USAID-LEAD smallholder project, and research on constraints/bottlenecks to value chain development (e.g. research on local feed options and feed quality including a CFFRC studentship shared between Egypt and Uganda), etc. depending on levels of funding. Recent news from ILRI indicate non-growth in the overall L&F budget from 2012 to 2013 potentially leaving no seed money for Uganda. Option Resource Mobilization Strategy * Advantages Risks and management suggestions OptionResource Mobilization Strategy *AdvantagesRisks and management suggestions 1 Establish presence early in 'Soft launch' advisable for presentation Local and regional If additional funding is not forthcoming then the 1 Establish presence early in'Soft launch' advisable for presentationLocal and regionalIf additional funding is not forthcoming then the 2013, initially for three years, reasons; 'hard launch' only possible networking would presence may need to be closed after two-three 2013, initially for three years,reasons; 'hard launch' only possiblenetworking wouldpresence may need to be closed after two-three under the umbrella of a CGIAR once long-term funding secured. enhance fundraising years, with inherent reputational risk. To be under the umbrella of a CGIARonce long-term funding secured.enhance fundraisingyears, with inherent reputational risk. To be partner, with a full-time representative/Value Chain Coordinator Scope funds for public-private R&D partnerships; scope within Uganda and in the East Africa region; work with efforts. Displays serious commitment to partners managed by regular review. Careful partner selection and avoid becoming associated with the 'wrong' individuals/partners. partner, with a full-time representative/Value Chain CoordinatorScope funds for public-private R&D partnerships; scope within Uganda and in the East Africa region; work withefforts. Displays serious commitment to partnersmanaged by regular review. Careful partner selection and avoid becoming associated with the 'wrong' individuals/partners. Role of Coordinator would be to network among local and regional partners for ILRI-Uganda and ILRI-Kenya on development of L&F wide concept notes and proposals bringing in and L&F on the part of WorldFish. Full time salary costs would limit available funding for initial research activities. Role of Coordinator would be to network among local and regional partners forILRI-Uganda and ILRI-Kenya on development of L&F wide concept notes and proposals bringing inand L&F on the part of WorldFish.Full time salary costs would limit available funding for initial research activities. fundraising purposes and also support from WorldFish Zambia and  Need to avoid possible (misplaced) assumptions fundraising purposes and alsosupport from WorldFish Zambia andNeed to avoid possible (misplaced) assumptions supervise initial research Penang offices  among WorldFish staff that Coordinator is solely supervise initial researchPenang officesamong WorldFish staff that Coordinator is solely activities (see Note below).   responsible for fundraising. Needs to be managed activities (see Note below).responsible for fundraising. Needs to be managed Coordinator would be   by ensuring that FTE and travel budget available Coordinator would beby ensuring that FTE and travel budget available local/regional recruit. Purchase   for other L&F staff to support fundraising efforts. local/regional recruit. Purchasefor other L&F staff to support fundraising efforts. admin/support staff services from ILRI or other CGIAR center. Pay for use/rent of ILRI or other center vehicles + use of taxis.   The Bioversity/ILRI compound is an option, but as other CGIAR centers (e.g. CIP) plan to recruit more staff, space may become scarce. We can also explore possible office space at the IFPRI compound. admin/support staff services from ILRI or other CGIAR center. Pay for use/rent of ILRI or other center vehicles + use of taxis.The Bioversity/ILRI compound is an option, but as other CGIAR centers (e.g. CIP) plan to recruit more staff, space may become scarce. We can also explore possible office space at the IFPRI compound. Work under Bioversity's    Work under Bioversity's country agreement with MOFA    country agreement with MOFA until WorldFish has its own    until WorldFish has its own country agreement (same    country agreement (same approach as ILRI).    approach as ILRI). High cost, high risk option    High cost, high risk option 2 Establish presence from Q1 As above. Money saved on full-time Slightly less costly May be difficult to recruit suitable part-time staff 2 Establish presence from Q1As above. Money saved on full-timeSlightly less costlyMay be difficult to recruit suitable part-time staff 2013, initially for three years, salary cost ($80,000) could be spent option than (1); money who is committed long-term; use of consultant 2013, initially for three years,salary cost ($80,000) could be spentoption than (1); moneywho is committed long-term; use of consultant under the umbrella of a CGIAR on initial research activities and saved on staff costs may have 'loyalty' issues in representing under the umbrella of a CGIARon initial research activities andsaved on staff costsmay have 'loyalty' issues in representing partner, with a part-time fundraising efforts by existing L&F staff could be directed WorldFish. To be managed by regular review. partner, with a part-timefundraising efforts by existing L&F staffcould be directedWorldFish. To be managed by regular review. representative/Value Chain Coordinator and others. Local and regional networking would towards fundraising efforts and initial Possible lack of continuity if funding is raised for permanent office -existing p/t staff may not want representative/Value Chain Coordinatorand others. Local and regional networking wouldtowards fundraising efforts and initialPossible lack of continuity if funding is raised for permanent office -existing p/t staff may not want  "}],"sieverID":"e250264c-124c-4634-8f95-ac1cccaf10de","abstract":""}