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data/part_5/0010d99424382d128226d01303cf2654.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0010d99424382d128226d01303cf2654","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a39a575-ea84-4859-b8c5-a67615ee8ffd/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"TV show helps mobilize East African farmers to adopt climate-smart agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Shamba Shape Up's SMS service has received messages from over 70,000 viewers since it began in 2012, with the second and third series generating over 37,000 texts in just 26 weeks. Internet use is also rising-the Facebook page has 20,000 followers and the Africa Knowledge Zone 400,000 hits. So the audience is accessing the programme off air and online, too."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"CGIAR scientists and development partners proactively engage with Shamba Shape Up. Parent company Mediae is expanding CSA platforms in East Africa by linking to their iShamba mobile, SMS and Internet services. For example, Shamba Shape Up undertook a study for the World Bank to evaluate how to improve risk management in agriculture in Kenya."}]},{"head":"KEY FACTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Shamba Shape Up has over 9 million average monthly viewers."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• In 2014, 42% of Shama Shape Up viewers (over 5.5 million) adopted new practices, boosting Kenya's GDP by USD 24 million from productivity increase in maize and dairy."}]},{"head":"LESSONS: KEY ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Dissemination of CSA information in a creative manner via television reaches a wide audience."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Bringing together a range of interactive formats, such as television, SMS, iShamba etc., gives farmers the ability to access, interact and ask questions regarding agricultural production, markets and seasonal forecasts."}]},{"head":"FURTHER READING","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Shamba Shape Up homepage: http://bit.ly/1RzdAH9"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• These are some of the impacts an agriculture TV-show can have: http://bit.ly/20dYSqK"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Searching for that evergreen farm with the Shamba Shape Up make-over team: http://bit.ly/1nkUisU "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"bd295a6e-1fa3-45f1-99ac-2694fb72b4e3","abstract":"Shamba Shape Up is an East African TV show that helps smallholders 'make over' their farms by providing help with recurrent agricultural challenges such as lack of water, pests and diseases, crop production and reaching markets. Using knowledge from CCAFS, CGIAR Centers, and numerous development partners, the show is increasingly presenting climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to East African smallholders-airtime dedicated to CSA is up to 35% of total programme time. The number of average viewers per month is over 9 million, 42% of which (over 5.5 million smallholders in 2014) have adopted new practices, boosting Kenya's gross domestic product (GDP) by over USD 24 million in the maize and dairy sectors. November 2015 CCAFS Outcome Case LEAD CENTER / PARTNER CCAFS YEAR 2014 CONTACT Philip Thornton (FP4) THEME Policies and institutions (FP4)"}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"004ee620b16ba36242e5fc2038f2e0b3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/03217e0b-179a-4615-aa4b-a228ad3a21c9/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"Whiteflies (WF) are the major biotic stress that threatens the sustainability of staple crop, including cassava, causing direct damage due to feeding and can obliterate the entire cassava crop. Twelve WF species are serious pests of cassava being the most important Aleurotrachelus socialis (LAC) and Bemisia tabaci (Africa). One of the most potent resistance mechanisms to A. socialis was discovered at CIAT. On the resistance line, MEcu 72 WF deposit fewer eggs, establish fewer feeding sites, nymph development is delayed, and WF mortality is increased. One approach was proposed to unravel the genetic mechanism of white fly resistance (WFR). Gene expression profiling, using microarray technology, coupled the subtractive libraries approach. The aim was to capture genes that were differentially induced during WF attack. Microarrays technology on challenged and non-challenged WF resistant/susceptible subtractive libraries, as well as, on the 5000 cassava unigene microarray (Lopez et al, 2004), were used to identify differentially expressed genes in cassava during A. socialis attack. Our results suggest that WFR is a complex trait, in which more than one genetic region may be involved. This WFR can be used in molecular breeding to accelerate the development of WFR cassava cultivars with field attributes valued by smallholder farmers in Latin America. By understanding the mechanism of resistance to A. socialis, our studies may lead to strategies that will confer resistance to other WF species that today decimate cassava in Africa and Asia."}]},{"head":"Unraveling whitefly resistance in cassava (Manihot esculenta)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Bohorquez, Adriana 1 , Becerra Lopez-Lavalle, Luis 1 ., Bellotti, Anthony C. 1 and Joe Tohme, 1 ."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"1 CIAT, Agrobiodiversity and Biotechnology Project, AA6713, Cali, Colombia -QTL mapping approach to identify the genetic basis for cassava's quantitative resistance to A. socialis."}]},{"head":"ONGOING WORK","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":307,"text":"-Real-Time PCR validation of candidate genes. In this study, changes in the Cassava transcriptome profile were examined throughout the life cycle of the whitefly, as changes in the plant defense gene RNAs occur in crop plants in response to adult and nymphal stages. Significant Analysis of Microarray (SAM) software identified 550 genes as significantly regulated in the six collect times and the two comparisons (resistant infested vs resistant noninfested & resistant infested vs susceptible infested), which 310 Up-regulated and 240 down-regulated. Functional categories were defined using the GO classification scheme. Twenty-one percent were of unknown function, no match or \"expressed proteins\". GO identified genes involved in Defense response, cell wall modification, oxidative stress, photosynthesis (Table 1), transport, response to stimulus, proteolysis, carbohydrate metabolism, etc. (Figure 1). Some of these sequences are part of the signaling pathways regulated by jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene (ET), which are implicated in the defense response during pathogens and herbivores attack to plants (Figure 2). The application of functional genomics approach in the study of cassava defense responses, opens a wide range of future applications at different levels, both in silico and experimentally. Gene expression analysis, construction of physical and genetic maps, genomic sequence analysis, gene silencing and production of genetically modified organisms are some of the projects will be developed in the future. 3-AP2/ERF TF are potential mediators of the synergistically induction process between JA and ET and induce defense genes such as basic vacuolar proteins PRB1, CHIB (PR-3), as well as lectins and proteinase inhibitors. RT-PCR analyses showed that PRB1 and LOX5 RNAs are accumulated when A. socialis feeding on the resistant genotype MEcu 72 (Figure 3). 4-The defense response is complex and involves all the processes of cellular metabolism, some of which themselves can be effector mechanisms that are controlling the attacker. Among these are, the generation of ROS."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"METODOLOGY","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: RT-PCR analyses of RNA isolated from cassava resistant Ecu72 and susceptible CMC40. Total RNA was extracted from both infested and non-infested leaves at time1 (adult & egg), time 2 (nymph I & II), and time 3 (nymph III & IV). Genes involved in defense PRB1 (ATPRB1) and LOX5. G3PDH (endogenous gen). "},{"text":"ACKNOWLEDGMENT- We acknowledge Gines-Mera fellowship for support the Ph.D studies and Fausto Rodríguez for his technical support. "},{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: Functional categories of regulated genes during cassava-whitefly interaction. Hybridizations were done with the Cassava Unigene Microarray, 5000 unigenes) "}],"sieverID":"7c0e6f27-ba4a-405a-8045-ce5020c4de0f","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"004eeb294c41e47641eef626879bb64f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/12e7f530-55a8-4032-bac8-6245342bb927/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Perspectivas abiertas por el Tratado","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• por qué un Tratado? por qué importa para Nicaragua?"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• contenido del Tratado Qué es \"acceso facilitado\" ?"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"•no está incluido en las definiciones (art. 2)"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"•propósitos: investigación, mejoramiento, enseñanza, uso directo (art. 12.3)"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"•no hay necesidad de seguimiento individual, libre de costos"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"•toda la información de pasaporte debe ser entregada con el material"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"•el Receptor no puede reclamar la PI sobre el material y componentes genéticos"},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"•para el material en desarrollo el acceso queda sujeto al criterio de quien lo desarolla"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"•material incluido en el Sistema multilateral queda disponible en el Sistema"},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"•el material se obtiene mediante aprobación de un ATM estándar (SMTA)"}]},{"head":"Beneficios considerados por el Tratado","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"•acceso facilitado a los RFG incluidos en el Sistema Multilateral (p.ej. Acceso a las colecciones en dominio público; CIAT 64,870 materiales)"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"•acceso a información de evaluación, investigación científica (p.ej. Acceso a las bases de datos del CIAT, productos como SoFT)"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"•acceso a/y transferencia de tecnología (p.ej. Desarrollo de selección asistida por marcadores y su transferencia)"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"•capacitación (p.ej. Cursos de conservación de RFG, Investigación participativa)"},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"•repartición de beneficios monetarios El receptor que obtenga derechos de propiedad intelectual sobre un producto desarrollado a partir de materiales obtenidos del Sistema Multilateral, y que transfiera dichos derechos de propiedad intelectual a un tercero, transferirá las obligaciones sobre distribución de beneficios a este tercero."}]},{"head":"1.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"El receptor, asociados, contratistas, licenciatarios y arrendatarios pagan el 1.1% de las ventas brutas menos un 30% (0.77%)."}]},{"head":"2.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"No se causan pagos cuanto el material se vende como producto básico."}]},{"head":"3.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Cuando el receptor obtenga los materiales en virtud de varios SMTA, sólo se realiza el pago básico del numeral 1."}]},{"head":"4.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Obligación de informar al Órgano Rector, dentro de los 60 primeros días de cada año calendario, lo siguiente: a) Monto de las ventas en el año calendario anterior b) Cuantía del pago adeudado al Órgano Rector c) Información sobre restricciones que han dado lugar al pago."}]},{"head":"5.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"El pago se hace exigible y pagadero al momento de la presentación del informe."}]},{"head":"MECANISMOS DE ACEPTACION Y FIRMA DEL SMTA","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"1. FIRMA: Firma del funcionario autorizado del Proveedor y Receptor en que se reconoce la responsabilidad y obligación de cumplir el SMTA."}]},{"head":"2.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"SELLADO: El material se suministra con copia del SMTA por el Proveedor, y la aceptación y retención por el Receptor significan aceptación del SMTA."}]},{"head":"3.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"ELECTRONICO: Se coloca clic en la casilla de acepto de la página Web del Proveedor. El material debe ir acompañado de una copia del SMTA NOTA: El mecanismo se acuerda entre el Proveedor y el Receptor, a menos que una de las partes elija el método de firma."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"•• fuente: Plucknett et al. 1987 "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"6dfa7333-3c7a-4d74-bfee-b88ce66b857e","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0073cc8c85b7b9324902113dbf5856ec.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0073cc8c85b7b9324902113dbf5856ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/452ae5fc-adb7-4c43-8fef-05df62b65ee9/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"In situ Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conservation Actions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Countries are prioritizing taxa and areas for conservation actions based on analyses of species distribution and threats. The UNEP/GEF supported global project, \"In situ conservation of crop wild relatives through enhanced information management and fi eld application\" aims to conserve CWR in the wild."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The project brings together fi ve countries: Armenia, Bolivia, Madagascar, Sri Lanka and Uzbekistan. All are centers of diversity for CWR and are among the world's biodiversity hotspots."}]},{"head":"Climate Change","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Climate change is a threat to many important species of crop wild relatives."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Photo: A. Lane, Bioversity International"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Armenia: Wheat*, beet*, pear, high mountain pea Bolivia: Potato*, quinoa, peanut, beans*, cassava*, sweet potato*, chili pepper, pineapple, custard apple, papaya, mora, tree tomato, cocoa, cayu, palm Madagascar: Rice*, banana*, yam*, vanilla, coffee Sri Lanka: Rice*, banana*, cinnamon, cowpea*, pepper Uzbekistan: Apple*, barley*, almond, walnut, pistachio, onion *Crops included in Annex 1 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Above left, Madagascar's priority areas for conserving CWR Above right, Madagascar's analysis of threats. Above, Changes in potential distribution changes of wild cassava (manihot tristis) over ten years in Bolivia. Right, Selling cassava in Madagascar. "}],"sieverID":"915c977d-5c68-4e69-80e4-03dd9656568c","abstract":"Wild species are being evaluated for their potential to improve the tolerance of their crop relatives to biotic and abiotic stresses. Country Wild relative of... Desirable Traits Armenia Wheat and pear Resistance to adverse environmental conditions Bolivia Peanut Quinoa, Cañahua Pest and diseases resistance of selected species from three genera Nutritious properties of Quinoa and Cañahua Madagascar Coffee Rice Yam No or low caffeine, high content of Chlorogenic acid Resistance to Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMW) Potential for domestication Sri Lanka Rice Resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses Uzbekistan Apple, Pistachio Capacity to resist extreme environmental conditions"}
data/part_5/0097d0bb863c41f679269f84c8e1bb80.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0097d0bb863c41f679269f84c8e1bb80","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/JDC7QW/QV8INF"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Protocol for the Agricultural Biodiversity (ABD) Assessment in Karnataka, India","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The biodiversity of plant and animal species both domesticated and wild used for food by humans (referred to here as agricultural biodiversity-ABD) is one of the most important assets for rural households, particularly for the poor in marginal areas such as the drylands of the developing world. A contribution of Bioversity International to the Dryland Systems CGIAR Research Programme (CRP) [http://drylandsystems.cgiar.org/] has been to examine systematically the diversity of these species in CRP target sites in Mali, Ghana, Malawi and India. Bioversity and partners have carried out a set of Agricultural Biodiversity Assessments in these countries. In the case of the state of Karnaktaka in India the selected sites include three villages in the Bijapur District: Mannur, Nandyal, Balaganur. Here we present the protocols used for collecting the data."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The objective of the ABD Assessment is to identify and quantify all the useful plant, animal, and aquatic species utilized by rural households and communities in the Dryland Systems CRP sites, as well as information on markets attended and general socioeconomic household characteristics. This information will be used to characterize three dimensions of ABD: (1) diversity in the production system, including on farm and common lands; (2) dietary diversity; and (3) market diversity; in terms of the elements and relationships involved and the exogenous factors that influence their status and dynamics. These data will be the basis for analyzing the roles of ABD in the lives and livelihoods of these rural populations in order to identify entry points for designing and implementing interventions that contribute to improve their well-being."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"In Karnataka the ABD Assessment consists of a household survey in the villages selected by ICRISAT to implement the Dryland Systems Program. The sample will involve approximately 67 households per village, for a total sample size of 200 households. The household survey contains two sections:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"(a) One that elicits information on the ABD use by the household;"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"(b) Another that elicits information on foods consumed by specific members of the household."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"The criteria for determined to whom each section should be applied to is presented in the appropriate section."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"There should be a close communication between national partners in each site and Bioversity office in Bangaluru to update the list of species and as additional information is gathered."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Once the FGDs for all villages have been completed, the teams will proceed to carry out the household survey."}]},{"head":"Protocol for the Household Survey","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The household questionnaires will be carried with the SAME households interviewed for the ICRISAT baseline survey seven study villages. It is very important to use an identification system that allows linking our ABD survey with the ICRISAT baseline survey."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The survey consists of four components: (a) useful biological diversity in the production system (on farm, and those species harvested from forest and community land including water resources);"}]},{"head":"(b) markets; (c) dietary diversity; (d) general socioeconomic information","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The survey is divided into two questionnaires. One elicits information on biological diversity, markets and general socioeconomic information (ABD questionnaire). The second one elicits information on dietary diversity of a woman and a child. The questionnaires are provided in two additional files. Specific instructions to elicit the dietary diversity are provided in the specific questionnaire."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"The ABD questionnaire will be applied together to the male head of household and to the women selected according to the criteria explained below. The Dietary Diversity questionnaire will be applied only to the woman. The selection criterion for that woman is as follows: (1) a mother in the household between 15-49 years old with a child aged between 6-59 months. If more than one member of the household has these characteristics then choose one randomly (see additional instructions for the dietary diversity section below). ( 2) If no mother in the household has a child of that age, choose a mother within the age group 15-49 years. If none is available, chose the woman who customarily prepares the food in the household irrespective of age. Most questions about species refer to a specific season of reference (either the Kharif (wet) season 2013 or the Rabi (dry) season of 2013/14)."}]},{"head":"ABD questionnaire","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The ABD questionnaire elicits information on the following aspects:  Useful biological diversity in the production system by specific season (on farm, and those species harvested from forest and community lands as well as rivers and ponds) o Species characterization in terms of  seasonality, water regime, objective of production, importance, parts used, uses  Seed systems  sources, transactions, social relations, locations  Infra-specific diversity  number and types of varieties  Gender: management and decision-making "}]},{"head":"Dietary diversity questionnaire","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The Dietary diversity questionnaire comprises three sections: (1) women and child dietary diversity;"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"(2) infants and young child feeding practices;"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"(3) household food security. Includes the following information:"},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":" Foods and ingredients consumed specifically by a mother and a child 6 and 59 months in the previous 24 hours; includes information on sources : self-produced, purchased, bartered, payment in kind, collected"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"2f1e033c-40f7-4b1a-93f5-a00797073d51","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"012b6d30d700f36d1e33f4addea834dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H019020.pdf"},"pageCount":22,"title":"NOTA AL LECTOR","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Desde 1991 el Instiluto Internacional del Manejo de fa Irrigacion (UMl) identifico el lema de la Transferencia del Manejo de los Sistemas de Riego (TMR) como de vital interes en 10 rclacionado con los arreglos institucionales en el manejo del recurso agua. Fue tanta la importancia que el Instituto presto al tema que resolvio crear un programa de investigacion, informacion y de apoyo institucional dirigido hacia la transfcrcl1cia, privatizacion y auto-manejo de los sistemas de riego en paises en via de desarrollo."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Como partc del programa arriba anotado, el Instituto ha realizado algunos trabajos de investigacion en illl buen numero de paises, a nivel global; entre otros en China, Indonesia, India y Sri Lanka en el Asia; Nigeria, Sudan y Senegal en el Africa, y Mexico, U.S.A., Colombia y Ecuador en las Americas. Adcmas el IIMl ha ejecutado una ampiia revision de literatura sobrc el tema y ha motivado a profesionales para que infonnen sobre sus propias eXIJcricncias. En esle sentido se han publicado informes corlos que tralan sobre diferenles aspectos relacionados con la transferencia en Japon, Nueva Zelandia, Chile, Filipinas, Bangladesh, Israel, etc. Finalmente, el IIMI organizo una conferencia internacional sobre la TMR en el ano 94 en la China. El evento realizado en Wuhan del 20 al 24 de septiembre, reunio 220 participantes representando 28 paises. Este esfuerzo, sin duda, coloco al IIMI en la vanguardia del conocimiento sobre la Transferencia del Manejo de los Sistemas de Riego."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Las paginas siguientes tratan de sintetizar algunas definiciones y conceptos basicos afines al lema y se dan en el capitulo 2. Luego, se hace un resumen de los resultados de las investigaciones realizadas en algunos de los paises ya mencionados tanto por eI IIMl como pOl' otros organisl110s, que se presenlall en eI capitulo 3. Ad se presentall tal11bien unos cuadros que resumenla informacion recopilada, (vcanse al final del texto). Finalmcnle, en el capitulo 4 se dan algunas eonclusiones y se plantean algunos illterrogantes que estimulen la discusion a realizarse en los proximos dias cn el marco del seminario-taller sobre la TMR en Riobamba, Ecuador."}]},{"head":"1/","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Trabajo presentado en el seminario-taller sobre transferencia del riego, rcalizado en Riobamba, Ecuador. Noviembrc 12-17, 1995. Especialista en Riego. Oficina Region Andina, Cali -Colombia. Instituto Inlcrnacional del Mal1ejo de la IlTigacion (IIMI)."}]},{"head":"II.","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DEFINICIONES Y CONCEPTOS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"El concepto de transferencia del manejo del ricgo se define en forma amplia como la conlraccion 0 reduccion del papel del gobierno en el manejo del riego con la corre:'1Jondiente expansion del papel de los usuarios del agua u olras instituciones del sector privado (Vermillion, 1991). EI concepto de privatizacion se define como la lransicion de La propiedad de las obras de un sistema de riego del gobierno al sector privado (Vermillion, 1991). Pod ria decirse que In privntizacion es una transfcrencia \"total\" [incluycndo las obras] del manejo de los sistcmas de riego."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"A fin de entender mejor 10 que implica la transferencia, talvez vale la pcna dcfinir 10 que es el riego y que comprende un sistema de riego."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Riego: la intervencion bumana para modificar en ticmpo y cspacio la distribucion del agua quc ocurrc cn canalcs naturalcs, dcprcsioncs, vias dc drcnajc 0 acuifcros, y manipular toda 0 partc dc csta agua para mcjorar la produccion de cultivos agricolas 0 para favorccer cl c.•ccimiento de otras plantas deseables (Small y Svcndsen citados por Vcrmillion, 1995)."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Por 10 tanto, de acuerdo a la definicion arriba anotada, los sistemas de riego pueden inc1uir los siguientes aspectos: i) la operacion del sistema ii) el mantenimiento del mismo iii) la rehabilitacion (inc1uyendo su modernizacion) iv) movilizacion de rccursos v) la gobernabilidad 0 ejercicio del poder, y vi) la propiedad 0 derechos del mismo Resumiendo a Vermillion (1995), cada uno de eslos aspectos involucra una serie de acciones especificas. Por ejemplo, la Operacion requiere de loma de decisiolles y manipulacion de tecnologia. EI Mantenimiento requicre de preservar y arreglar la tecnologia afin al sistema; Ia Rehabilitacion implica la reslauraeion de la infraestructura a cierto standard pre-establecido. La Movilizacion de recursos significa eI uso de finanzas, mana de obm y matcriales. La Gobernabilidad eonllcva n la eslructura de la autoridad y detenninacion de reglas basicas. Finalmente, la propiedad inc1uye los aspcctos y responsabilidades asociados a un titulo legal."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Lo anterior da una clara idea de Ia complejidad asociada con un sistema de riego y por 10 III tanto el traspaso a una nueva autoridad, de hecho, crea la inquietud sobre la capacidad de ese nuevo ente de aswnir las responsabilidades que la transferencia del mancjo del sistema conlleva."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"La transferencia del manejo de cualquier sistema puede definirse de acuerdo a las caracteristicas del traspaso dadas en 3 dimensiones: i) la Funcion, ii) cl Nivcl y iii) la Organizacion."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"EI cuadro I resunle esas opciones que pueden visualizarse como una serie de alternativas que pueden darse por separado 0 en eonjunto. En el caso de las dimensiones F y N las opciones no son exduyentes, 10 eual si seria el caso en la dimension O. Miremos por ejemplo el caso de Colombia, un pais con el cual eSIDn familiarizados todos, 0 casi todos los pru1icipantes en este seminario-taller, y tratemos de describir el modelo de la TMR que se esta dando alli."},{"index":8,"size":107,"text":"En terminos de la Funcion (F), podemos decir sin lugar a dudas que la transferencia incluye al FI, F2 y F4. Las funciones F3 y F4 ofrecen algunas dudas: no es todavia claro quien tenddl la responsabilidad de ejecutar una potencial rehabilitacion del sistema de riego y, mas preocupante,no existe claridad sobre quien la pagaria. La gobernabilidad es confusa enla medida en que la antigua entidad rectora mantiene ingerencia, sea esta velada 0 no, sobre algunas decisiones primordialmente asociadas con los presupuestos y/o finanzas del sistema. En cuanto al F6, la Propiedad, esta definitivamente no se ha dado debido a escollos legales que aun tratan de resolverse."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"En 10 rclacionado con el nivel (N) clmodclo TMR en Colombia ha traspasado todo cl sistema, incluyendo la captura del recurso, es decir va del Nl al N5. Debe aclararse sinembargo, que en el easo de sistemas abastecidos por un reservorio, cl estado conserva alguna ingerencia sobre esas obras."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"Finalmenle, en 10 referente a la Organizacion (0) el traspaso se ha efectuado de la Agencia del Gobicrno (01) a un grupo 6 Asociaci6n de Usuarios (05)."},{"index":11,"size":27,"text":"Siguiendo el mismo ejercicio anterior, puede caracterizarse el modelo de TMR que se adelanta en cualquier pais del mundo. Esto queda a la discreci6n de los lectorcs."}]},{"head":"RESULTADO GLOBAL DE LA TMR.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Dado que cl proceso de la TMR, salvo eontadas excepciones, es relativamente nuevo en el ambito mundial, la evidencia sobre sus resultados --lease impacto --apenas empieza a surgir. La mayoria de la informacion que esta emergiendo es mas de canictcr cualitativo que cuantitativo y por 10 tanto dificil de validar."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"A fin de facilitar la presentacion de los resultados, es convenicntc agruparlos alrcdcdor de los temas sabre los cualcs Ia TMR supuestamente ha de tener impacto y que son en tcrminos generales la raz6n de ser del proceso de la transferencia. Estos temas son: i)"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Desempefio en la Operacion y Mantenimiento ii)"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Fillanzas de los Sistemas iii)"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Productividad Agricola y Rendimiento Economico iv)"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Recursos del Estado, y v)"},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"Efectos Ambientales"},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"A continuacion se presenta una version muy condensada sobre la informacion disponible, en cada tema:"},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"1. Desempefio en la Operacion y Mantenimiento."},{"index":10,"size":75,"text":"EI argumento central de que la TMR debe conducir a una mejora en las tareas de Operacion y Mantenimiento (O&M) en los sistemas trnasferidos, se basa en la premisa de que el sector privado --por ejemplo un grupo de usuarios --es mas eficiente que el sector publico, y que esto combinado con el recicn adquirido sentido de \"pertcnencia\" del sistema, debe crear un incentivo adicional que conducira a una mayor eficiencia en el manejo delmismo."},{"index":11,"size":145,"text":"Un alto porcentaje de la infonnacion recogida por ellIMI sobre esle lema se rcfierc a las impresiones, y por ende expresiones subjetivas dadas por usuarios, oficiales de los proyectos, investigadores 0 simples visitantes en encuentros casuales. Estudios realizados en Sri-Lanka, Nepal, India, Colombia, Mexico y Estados Unidos apuntan hacia un aumento en la satisfaccion de los usuarios con respccto a la equidad y mejora en la distribucion del agua. Desafortunadamente, la validcz cientifica de este tipo de informacion cs por supuesto euestionable. Sinembargo, en contraposicion a 10 ya afirmado sc han reportado en Mexico, Colombia y las Filipinas que inmediatamente despues del traspaso se observo un detcrioro en la distribucion del agua y en el mantenimiento del sistema a causa del recmplazo de personal con experiencia por canal eros sin esta, 0 por recoctes presupucstales con fines de ahorro decretados por el nuevo ente administrativo."},{"index":12,"size":50,"text":"Evidencia un poco mas solida se ticne de la India, en donde mcdicioncs dc caudales ejecutadas en canales sclcceionados en sistemas de ricgo en los Estados de Bihar y Andhra Pradesh (eitados por Vermillion, 95) demuestran una mejor distribucion del agua, al comparar Ia situacion antes y despucs del traspaso."},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"En Indoncsia (JoIlllson y Reiss), con base a las horas de bombeo, sc obscrv6 una aceleracion en el deterioro de los cquipos de bombeo una vcz que eslos pasaron a mana de las asociaciones de usuarios."},{"index":14,"size":133,"text":"Un estudio realizado en Colombia (Sistemas Coello y Saldafia), mostro que las condiciones de mantenimiento son optimos 20 anos despues de Ia transfcrencia. En trabajo efectuado en los sistemas de Nanyao y Bayi en la planicie nortena de la China indican que hubo una disminuci6n en la cantidad de m 3 de agua utilizados por ha, despucs del traspaso. Esta disminuci6n estaba ligada primordialmente al incremento en las tarifas de agua, una causa directa de la transferencia. Finalmente, en cuanto a estudios realizados por el IIMI, se observ6 en el Proyecto de la cuenca del Columbia en Estados Unidos, que las eficiencias de conducci6n cayeron inmediatamente despucs del traspaso pero luego se recuperaron. El suministro de agua por ha 1110str6 Wla tcndencia conlraria, subi6 dcspucs dellraspaso para luego ir decayendo con cl tiempo."},{"index":15,"size":48,"text":"En otros estudios docwnentados, pero no ejecutados, por el IlMI en Nigeria, Vietnam, Republica Dominicana y Ncpal (vcr Vermillion 1995) se ha obtenido evidencia de mcjoras en las Operaciones de los Sistcmas. En todos estos casos la informaci6n contiene l11cdicioncs dc campo combinada con percepciones de los usuarios."},{"index":16,"size":51,"text":"En resumen, la informaci6n que emerge ell euanto al impacto sobre la O&M parece indicar que la transferencia ha sido positiva. Sinembargo, dado ellipo de investigaciones efectuadas y el corto periodo que cubren, debe lenerse mueho cuidado en la interpretaci6n de resultados. EI cuadro 2 trata de resumir la informacion presentada."}]},{"head":"2.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Finanzas de los Sistemas."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Los aspectos mas imp0l1antes relacionados con las finanzas de los sistemas y que suponen gcnerarrul un impacto a causa de la transfercncia, son los rclacionados con: i) personal y equipo ii) costos de O&M y tarifas de agua iii) si el subsidio es pequeno 0 no existe la transferencia puede dar lugar a una disminucion en el costa del riego para los usuarios."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"En Indonesia y Senegal, la eliminacion de subsidios por parte del gobierno creo un aumento entre 5 y 7 veces en las tarifas de agua, en el primero, y enlre un 200 y 400%, en cl segundo. Por el contrario, en las Filipinas y China se reportaron disminuciones en los coslos de O&M despucs del traspaso. En Ia India, donde existen fuertes subsidios, aun despues de la transfereneia, los eostos del agua disminuyeron de US$2.70 a $1.20 por ha como resultado de un uso mas efieiente de las bombas por parte de los usuarios."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"En nuestro continente, tanto en Colombia como en Mexico, la eliminacion de subsidios genero incrementos en los eostos de las tarifas. En el primer caso, las tarifas fijas (pOl' area) paso de Ps.500 a PS.2900 (moncda constanle) y la tarifa volumctrica (por m 3 ) baj6 inicialmente y luego ha ido subiendo. En el segundo caso, en 7 sub-sistemas 0 modulos el aumento vario de 45 al 180%. En cl Proyecto Columbia, en USA, donde las tarifas cstaban muy ccrca del costa real de la O&M, el traspaso creo un aumento inicial en las tarifas que luego fue decreciendo."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Finalmente, en Nueva Zelandia se reporta que las tarifas de agua son entre 2 y 4 vcccs mas bajas en los sistemas privatizados comparados a cuando eran manejados por el gobierno."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"Con respecto a Ia reeoleccion de tarifas toda la evidencia apunta a un aumcnto en los porcentajes de los usuarios que pagan. En Mexico el % de recoleccion paso del 57 en 1981 al 100% en 1994, a nivel nacional. En Colombia se Henen similares numeros antes y despucs del traspaso."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"En las Filipinas, en el sistema Libmanan-Cabusao, los porcentajes de reeoleccion pasaron del 27% en los aiios 80 a160% en los 90s. En la Republica Dominicana, en el Proyecto Manejo de Agua a Nivel Parcelario sc paso de112% al 80% despues de la transfereneia. Tendencia similar se ha documentado en la China y Nigeria."},{"index":8,"size":48,"text":"Otro impacto importante observado como consecuencia de la transferencia es que las organziaciones campcsinas que asumen el control empiezan a diversificar cl tipo de ingresos con los que tienen que operar. Esto se ha documentado en vados dc los paises ya l11cncionados: Filipinas, Sri-Lanka, Colombia, China y USA."},{"index":9,"size":105,"text":"El ultimo aspecto a considerar dentro de las finanzas se refiere al eslado presupuestario de los sistemas, es decir a la capacidad del nuevo ente administrador de poder, euando menos, cquilibrar los gastos con los ingresos 10 cual aseguraria la viabilidad financiera de los misl11os. De nuevo eabe mcncionar cl caso de Colombia donde con excepci6n dc los sistemas pOl' bombco (RUT y San Rafael) ias asociaciones han logrado contrarestar los efcctos de la climinacion de los subsidios. En ia India, sistcmas de pozos cn Uttar Pradesh han pasado de deficits a supcravits despues del traspaso. Igual ocurri6 al sur de Luzon, en las Filipinas."},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"Un resumen del impacto de la transferencia sobre las tinanzas de los sistemas se presenta en el cuadro 3. Las tendencias en aspectos especiticos parecen cstar mejor detinidas que los re1acionados con la O&M de los sistemas discutidos anteriormcnte."}]},{"head":"3.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Produetividad Agricola y Rendimiento Economico."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"La relacion que pueda existir entre cl proceso de la TMR y la productividad agricola y el rendimiento economico de los sistemas es, sin lugar a dudas menos directa que la que existe entre cl traspaso y el desempeno de la O&M y la viabilidad financiera, discuLidas antes. Sinembargo podria esperarse que si mejora la O&M del sistema, esto deberia traducirse en un incremento de la productividad agricola y por ende del rendimiento eeonomico."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Las medidas mas comunes para analizar la productividad agricola son el area cullivada bajo riego, la intensidad de cultivos y sus rendimientos. En cuanto a rendimiento eeonomico, 10 mas adecuado para evaluarlo seria el ingreso neto por tinca y la utili dad economica del riego."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Pero, hay menos informacion disponible en 10 economico que en 10 concerniente a 10 agricola."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"En Republica Dominicana se han reporlado aumcntos hasta del 40% en los rendimientos de los cultivos pero es dificil separar cuanto de ello se debe al traspaso. EI trabajo en Colombia muestra que tanto los rendimientos de arroz como las areas bajo riego se han por 10 menos sostenido despues del traspaso. Tambien hay informacion que apunta al incremento en el ingreso neto por tinca en el sistema de Saldana."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"En Senegal se reporta una disminucion de la intensidad de cultivos pero con aumento del area bajo riego de 612 a 1071 ha, en la region Doue. Tambicn en esc mismo pais, en Be a Morphil sc ha doblado el area y ha aumentado la intensidad del cultivo de 86 a 93%."},{"index":7,"size":87,"text":"Un easo interesante se reporta en sistemas por bomb eo en el Nilo Blanco en Sudan, donde los rendimientos de trigo por unidad de agua aplicada fueron de 0.11 kg/m3 en sistemas manejados por usuarios 0 compafiias privadas en contraposicion a 0.17 kg/m3 en los manejados por el estado. Iguaies difercncias se obtuvieron en las utilidadcs por unidad de agua con $0.3411 00 m 3 para los transferidos, $1.09/100 m 3 para los del estado, y solo $0.0911 00 m J para los manejados por empresas privadas."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"En Egipto se reportan aumcntos de $300 por ha. en cl ingreso anual por granja en los sistemas \"mesqa\". En la region de Uttar Pradesh en la India Ia informacion es mixta: disminucion en el area bajo riego despucs del traspaso, pero aumcnto en la intensidad del eultivo (143 a 162%) Y con aumentos del 10% en los rendimientos de trigo, arroz y cafia de azuear. El tiempo oeurrido des de el traspaso (2 afios) es sinembargo muy corto para poder dar unas conclusiones tirmes."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"Finalmente, en cl sistema Banurbur en las Filipinas se rcporta aumento cn el area (486 a 750 ha) 10 mismo que en el delta del Red River en Vietnam, donde cl area paso de 934 a 1300 ha, y Ia intensidad del cultivo aumento de 170 a 250%, despues de Ia transferencia."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"Un somera amilisis de Ia informacion recopilada sobre este tema parece indicar que existe una tendencia, despues de la transfcrencia, a aumcntar tanto la productividad agricola como cl rendimiento economico de los sistemas transferidos. Sin embargo, debido a la inhercnte dificultad de aislar el efecto de la transferencia, los resultados debcn lomarsc con precaucion."}]},{"head":"4.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Recursos del Estado."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Una de las razones primoridales por las cuales los gobiernos han promovido el proceso de la TMR es para ayudar a reducir la carga presupuestal que conlleva el manejo de los sistemas."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Por 10 tanto, llama la atencion que se hayan ejecutado muy pocos estudios dirigidos a analizar este tipo de impacto. La transferencia ofrece, potencialmente, una gran oportunidad para reducir el gasto de los gobiernos en Ia O&M y de permitir entonces la relocalizacion de fondos para olros fines del sector agropccuario."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"El caso tipico es el de la NIA --agencia estatal de las Filipinas --donde la TMR produjo un ahorro al gobierno de $12 por ha. En Sri-Lanka el rlmanejo participativo\" ayudo a reducir los gastos del gobierno por ha, de Rp 680 en 1985 a Rp 300 en 1994, y en la India la transferencia disminuyo el subsidio de sistemas por pozos de $876 a $656 despu6s de la transfercncia, una reduecion del 25%."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"Finalmente, en Chile (Gazmuri, 1994) se indico que la politica de privatizacion del sector agricola ha tenido un impacto sobre la balanza de pagos que paso de un deficit de $500 M a un superavit de $1500 M sin haberse construfdo un solo sistema de riego nuevo en 19 aoos. Que tanto de esto pueda atribuirse directamente a la TMR es algo no muy claro; sinembargo se puede asumir, sin mucho riesgo, que Ia transferencia ha contribuido a esas cifras. EI cuadro 5 resume la informacion aca presentada."}]},{"head":"5.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Efectos Ambientales."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Todavia no se ha definido muy bien la relacion que pueda existir entre el proceso de la TMR y el impacto 6 efecto que pueda tener sobre el medio ambiente. Sinembargo, siguiendo Ia logica de que la pertencncia de un sistema por parte de los usuarios deberU general\" un mayor interes por la sostenibilidad de los mismos, se podda intuir que el tema del impaeto ambiental empezara a tenerse en cucnla con mayor ccleridad. Hasta la fecha cs poca la informacion existente ligando los dos lemas."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"En Chile, las asociaciones de usuarios basados en las nuevas normas de privatizacion, estan haciendo cabildeo a fin de lograr que la industria del papel invierta en equipo, que reduzca efectos nocivos al ambiente. Igualmente, en Republica Dominicana (Yap Salinas, 1994) se reporta que juntas de usuarios recicn constituidas haeen esfuerzo para regular cl usa del suelo y agua can miras a revertir Ia degradacion del suclo y problemas de salud asociados a encharcamientos debido a malas practicas de manejo promovidas por usuarios inexpertos."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Finalmente, en Colombia existe buena evidencia que grupos de usuarios, particularmente en el sector de la pequefia irrigaci6n, han tornado la bandera para proteger las fuentes de agua. Este tipo de programas se ven en los estados de Tolima, Valle y Cauca, primordialmente."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"IV."}]},{"head":"COMENTARIOS Y CONCLUSIONES","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Las paginas antcriorcs dcjan eutrever que, sin lugar a dudas, cl proccso de la TMR, es un tema de alcance global. Aunque por falta de tiempo y espacio la ponencia no elabora sobre las diferentes modalidades (u opciones) que se dan en cuanto a la transferencia en los palses que se mencionan, la experiencia adquirida por el IIMI indica que existen modelos de TMR abarcando practicanlente todas las posibles combinaciones que se plantean en cI cuadro I."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Dcbe dejarse en claro que a pesar de ser cl IIMI la instituci6n que probablemente ha recogido la mayor expericncia, en cuanto al tema en ell11undo, no prelende ser esta ponencia exhausliva ni en los palses ni en los resultados que se presentan. Por ejemplo, en los ultil110S l11escs se ha estado oyendo de las experiencias sobre la TMR que se estan llevando a cabo en Turquia. Otro pais que se mendona es Madagascar. Obvial11ente, cl I1MI tiene lil11itaciones tanto humanas como presupuestarias y no pretende poder abarcarlo todo."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"Talvez la mayor lecd6n aprendida hasta ahora es que dada Ia diversidad, sino tambicn Ia cOl11plejidad del lema seria poco practico lralar de Uegar a un modclo peculiar de la TMR que pudiera aplicarse a escala global; mas bien parece que seria mas pnictico dar a conocer las experiencias -~ positivas y negativas ~que permitan a cada pais scleccionar 10 que mas Ie eonvenga dadas sus caracteristicas especificas. Otra lecci6n aparenle esta relacionada con la falta de una metodologla, esa Sl con caractcr global, para poder evaluar cl verdadcro impacto atribuible al proceso de la transfcrencia del manejo de los sistemas de riego. S610 con una herramienta de este tipo podrian compararse, verdaderal11ente, las experiencias tanto denlro como entre paises, a fin de concluir que es 10 bueno, 10 malo y 10 feo del proceso. Hasta ahora los resultados presentan cierlas tendcncias de los impactos pcro que por confundirse con otros efectos es riesgoso, cuando menos, tratar de obtener conclusiol1cs catcg6ricas."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Las diferentes categorizacioncs que se presentan cn cuanto a impacto del TMR surgen de la revisi6n misma de la litcratura. Podrian incluirse otras 6 simplificar las sugeridas; el lector podra dilucidar sobre esc tcma."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Finalmente, debe hacerse enfasis en el hecho de que general mente cl proceso de la TMR en cualquier pais hace parte de una politica mayor, que de por sl influye en cl alcance y magnilud del proceso. Pero, sin lugar a dudas, la TMR tendra un impaclo significativo en el sector agropecuario y concretamente en cl sub~scctor riego. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" IMl) ACTO DE LA TRANSFEIlliNCIA SOBHE EL MANEJO DE LOS SISTEMAS DE IUEGO: LA EXPEIUENCIA GLOBAL DEL lIMI I CARLOS GARCES-RESTREPO 1 I INTRODUCCION "},{"text":" LA TRANSFERENCIA DEL MANEJO DE LOS SISTEMAS DE RIEGO DEL SECTOR PUBLICO AL PRIVADO SE ESTA DANDO A NIVEL GLOBAL ES URGENTE DESARROLLAR UNA METODOLOGIA QUE PERMITA EVALUAR EL IMPACTO DEL PROCESO DE LA TRANSFERENCIA, A FIN DE PODER COMPARAR SUS EFECTOS DENTRO Y ENTRE PAISES. EXISTEN UN SINNUMERO DE MODEL OS DEL PROCESO DE LA TRANSFERENCIA EN EL MUNDO, NO ES NECESARIO NI SE DEBE TRATAR DE GENERALIZAR UN MODEL 0 PARTICULAR. SIN LUGAR A DUDAS LA TRANSFERENCIA ESTA TENIENDO IMPACTO SOBRE LOS ARREGLOS INSTITUCIONALES PARA EL MANEJO DEL RECURSO A GUA, UNA RAZON QUE POR SI SOLA EXIGE DEL ESTUDIO DE ESTE PROCESO. ENe I A L DEL A T RAN S FER E N C I A DESEMPENO EN LA OPERA CION Y MANTENIMIENTO FINANZAS DE LOS SISTEMAS PRODUCTIVIDAD AGRICOLA Y RENDIMIENTO ECONOMICO RECURSOS DEL ESTADO, Y EFECTOS AMBIENTALES "},{"text":" Cuadro 1. Representacion de las Opciones en el Traspaso del Manejo de los Sistemas de Riego.Cuadro 2. Impacto de la Transferencia sobre la Operacion y Mantellimiento de los Sistemas. Impacto de la Transferencia en cuanto a las Finanzas de los Sistemas. Cuadro 3. Continuaci6n ... Cuadro 3. PAIS SISTEMA PAIS SISTEMA IMPACTO PIUNCIPAL IMPACTO PlUNCIPAL TIPO TIPO INFORMACION INFORMACION Cuadro 3. Continuaci6n ... Cuadro 3. PAIS SISTEMA PAIS SISTEMAIMPACTO PIUNCIPAL IMPACTO PlUNCIPALTIPO TIPO INFORMACION INFORMACION Filipinas Sri-Lanka A nivel nacional Kaudullah Disminuci6n personal Diversificaci6n ingresos Secundaria Primaria• Filipinas Sri-LankaA nivel nacional KaudullahDisminuci6n personal Diversificaci6n ingresosSecundaria Primaria• USA China DIMENSION Proyecto Columbia Provincia Hebei OPCIONES Disminuci6n personal Diversificaci6n ingresos TIPO Secundaria Secundaria USA ChinaDIMENSION Proyecto Columbia Provincia HebeiOPCIONES Disminuci6n personal Diversificaci6n ingresosTIPO Secundaria Secundaria PAIS Colombia Colombia SISTEMA 10 transferidos Cocllo Fl. OPERACION IMPACTO Disminuci6n personal Divcrsificaci6n ingrcsos INFORMACION Seeundaria Secundaria PAIS Colombia ColombiaSISTEMA 10 transferidos CoclloFl. OPERACION IMPACTO Disminuci6n personal Divcrsificaci6n ingrcsosINFORMACION Seeundaria Secundaria SRI LANKA Chile Filipinas KAUDULLA En 60,000 ha. Libmanan-Cabusao F2. MANTENIMIENTO Sin cambio aparente Disminuci6n personal Diversificaci6n ingresos Entrevistas Secwldaria Secundaria SRI LANKA Chile FilipinasKAUDULLA En 60,000 ha. Libmanan-CabusaoF2. MANTENIMIENTO Sin cambio aparente Disminuci6n personal Diversificaci6n ingresosEntrevistas Secwldaria Secundaria INDIA Indonesia India FUN C ION (F) PALIGANJ (SONE) Mejora distribuci6n agua Programa P2AT Aumento tarifas Uttar Pradesh Mejora presupuestaria F3. REHABILIT ACION F4. MOVILIZACION RECURS OS Mediciones Primaria Primaria CHINA BA YI, NANYAO Reducci6n en aplic.lha Datos secundarios Senegal Senegal River Valley Aumento tarifas Primaria Filipinas Sur de Luz6n Mejora presupuestaria Primaria INDIA Indonesia India FUN C ION (F) PALIGANJ (SONE) Mejora distribuci6n agua Programa P2AT Aumento tarifas Uttar Pradesh Mejora presupuestaria F3. REHABILIT ACION F4. MOVILIZACION RECURS OS Mediciones Primaria Primaria CHINA BA YI, NANYAO Reducci6n en aplic.lha Datos secundarios Senegal Senegal River Valley Aumento tarifas Primaria Filipinas Sur de Luz6n Mejora presupuestaria Primaria VIETNAM Filipinas Colombia RED RIVER Sur de Luz6n RUT-bombeo F.5 GOBERNABILIDAD Aumenta eficicncia riego Disminuci6n costos O&M Deterioro presupuestario Mcdicioncs Secundaria Secundaria VIETNAM Filipinas ColombiaRED RIVER Sur de Luz6n RUT-bombeoF.5 GOBERNABILIDAD Aumenta eficicncia riego Disminuci6n costos O&M Deterioro presupuestarioMcdicioncs Secundaria Secundaria INDONESIA China Colombia F.6 PROPIEDAD PROGRAMA P2AT Deterioro unidades de Nanyao bombeo Sistemas Bayi y Disminuci6n costos O&M Coello -derivaei6n Mejora presupuestaria Medicioncs Secundaria Secundaria INDONESIA China ColombiaF.6 PROPIEDAD PROGRAMA P2AT Deterioro unidades de Nanyao bombeo Sistemas Bayi y Disminuci6n costos O&M Coello -derivaei6n Mejora presupuestariaMedicioncs Secundaria Secundaria N 1. CAPTURA DEL RECURSO Mcjora fuente agua Disminuci6n tarifa Impacto de la Transferencia en Ia Jlroductividad Ag.•icoia y cl EN LATERAl Mediciones Uttar Pradesh Secundaria N2. CONDUCCION KANOIUVER Mejora distribuci6n agua Mediciones Coello y Saldana Aumento tarifas RClldimicnto Econ6mico. Secundaria NIVEL DEL SISTEMA (N) N3. RED PRINCIPAL NEPAL India Cuadro 4. NIGEIUA Colombia SENEGAL RIVER V ALLEY Deterioro unidades de bomheo Entrevistas Mexico 7 m6dulos Guanajuato Aumento tarifas Secundaria TIPO N4. RED SECUNDARIAJMENOR N5. PARCELARIO COLOMBIA COELLOY SALDANA Sin cambio aparente USA Proyceto Columbia Aumento y luego Secundaria PAIS SISTEMA IMPACTO INFORMACION Datos secundarios disminuci6n tarifas Republica Proyecto Parcclario Aumenta rendimientos de Sccundario N 1. CAPTURA DEL RECURSO Mcjora fuente agua Disminuci6n tarifa Impacto de la Transferencia en Ia Jlroductividad Ag.•icoia y cl EN LATERAl Mediciones Uttar Pradesh Secundaria N2. CONDUCCION KANOIUVER Mejora distribuci6n agua Mediciones Coello y Saldana Aumento tarifas RClldimicnto Econ6mico. Secundaria NIVEL DEL SISTEMA (N) N3. RED PRINCIPAL NEPAL India Cuadro 4. NIGEIUA Colombia SENEGAL RIVER V ALLEY Deterioro unidades de bomheo Entrevistas Mexico 7 m6dulos Guanajuato Aumento tarifas Secundaria TIPO N4. RED SECUNDARIAJMENOR N5. PARCELARIO COLOMBIA COELLOY SALDANA Sin cambio aparente USA Proyceto Columbia Aumento y luego Secundaria PAIS SISTEMA IMPACTO INFORMACION Datos secundarios disminuci6n tarifas Republica Proyecto Parcclario Aumenta rendimientos de Sccundario REPUBLICA Nueva Zelandia A nivel nacional AZUA Dominicana 01. AOENCIA DE GOBlERNO Mcjora distribuci6n agua Disminuci6n tarifas cultivo Mcdicioncs Secundaria REPUBLICA Nueva Zelandia A nivel nacional AZUA Dominicana01. AOENCIA DE GOBlERNO Mcjora distribuci6n agua Disminuci6n tarifas cultivoMcdicioncs Secundaria 02. AGENCIA PUBLICA AUTO~FINANCIABLE 03. COMPANIA PRIVADA 04. NO~OUBERNAMENTAL SIN LUCRO Sin cambio significalivo AumcnLa % rccolecci6n Aumenta ingresos, area y Sccundario Primaria rendimiento cstable Datos secundarios Mejora distribuci6n agua Aumcnta % recolecci6n Secundaria Aumcnta arca, baja intensidad Primario Datos sccundarios Aumenta % recolecci6n Sccundaria Aumenta area e intensidad Primario 05. ORUPO DE USUARIOS 06. INDIVIDUAL Aumenta % rccolecci6n Primaria Nilo Blanco-bombeo Difcrencias gobierno-usuario o R G A N I Z A C ION (0) DOMINICANA MEXICO LAGUNERA Filipinas Libmanan-Cabusao Colombia Saldafia USA COLUMBIA BASIN Mexico A nivel micional Senegal Regi6nDouc Colombia Cocllo y Saldaila Senegal lle a Morphil Republica Dominical1a Proyecto Parcelario Sudan Primario 02. AGENCIA PUBLICA AUTO~FINANCIABLE 03. COMPANIA PRIVADA 04. NO~OUBERNAMENTAL SIN LUCRO Sin cambio significalivo AumcnLa % rccolecci6n Aumenta ingresos, area y Sccundario Primaria rendimiento cstable Datos secundarios Mejora distribuci6n agua Aumcnta % recolecci6n Secundaria Aumcnta arca, baja intensidad Primario Datos sccundarios Aumenta % recolecci6n Sccundaria Aumenta area e intensidad Primario 05. ORUPO DE USUARIOS 06. INDIVIDUAL Aumenta % rccolecci6n Primaria Nilo Blanco-bombeo Difcrencias gobierno-usuario o R G A N I Z A C ION (0) DOMINICANA MEXICO LAGUNERA Filipinas Libmanan-Cabusao Colombia Saldafia USA COLUMBIA BASIN Mexico A nivel micional Senegal Regi6nDouc Colombia Cocllo y Saldaila Senegal lle a Morphil Republica Dominical1a Proyecto Parcelario Sudan Primario China Egipto A nivel nacional \"Mesqas\" Aumenta % recolecci6n AUl11enta ingresos por granja Sccundaria Sccundario China EgiptoA nivel nacional \"Mesqas\"Aumenta % recolecci6n AUl11enta ingresos por granjaSccundaria Sccundario Fuente Nigeria India : Adap/ado de Vermillion, 1995 Kano River Awnenla % recolecci6n Uttar Pradesh Area baja, rendimiento sube Secundaria Secundario Fuente Nigeria India: Adap/ado de Vermillion, 1995 Kano River Awnenla % recolecci6n Uttar Pradesh Area baja, rendimiento subeSecundaria Secundario Filipinas I3anurbur Area aUl11enta Secundario FilipinasI3anurburArea aUl11entaSecundario Vietnam Delta Red River Area e intcnsidad aUl11cntan Secundario VietnamDelta Red RiverArea e intcnsidad aUl11cntanSecundario "}],"sieverID":"4e00fa37-bf05-4dcc-97b1-08a62f89599c","abstract":"Dada fa naturaleza de esta ponencia --esencialmente una revision de literatura --y a fin de facilitar la lectura se han c1iminado la mayor parte de las citas bibliogrMicas. El mayor material que se presenta ha sido traducido libremente de la pUblicacion V cnnillion, D.L. 1995. Methodology for Assessing tbe IUlpact of Irrigation Managcmcnt Turnovcr, Colombo, Sri Lanka. International Irrigation Managcmcnt Institute. [ullpublished dnlft],que es a su vez una revision de literatura sobre el Impacto de la Transferencia del Manejo de los Sistemas de Riego. Ellcctor que desee profundizar en la informacion presentada nceesariamenle tendni que referirse a la cita arriba anotada ylo cotejar los paises con las refereneias dadas al final del texto."}
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One way to get around this problem is by splitting your herd."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Divide your herd into milking and non-milking animals."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"• Keep the milking animals close to the milk-collection point and feed them on stored forage or bought feed. Keep the milk herd in good health and disease-free. • Drive the rest of the herd off in search of pasture."}]},{"head":"Organize a marketing group","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"If you have only a few animals giving milk at any one time, you will have only a small surplus to sell. Dairies and retailers, on the other hand, require a reliable daily supply of milk, in a sufficient quantity and of a reliable quality."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"• Organize a group of producers to produce and sell your milk. Together, you can produce enough milk to make it worthwhile for a trader to pick up, process and sell it. You will have a stronger bargaining position with the buyer, and you can share tasks, exchange information and get services such as credit and training."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"• Make sure that women are part of the group: they often do the milking, make butter and cheese, and sell dairy products on local markets. They need milk for cooking and to feed to children."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Organize a group of producers to sell milk together."}]},{"head":"Set up a milk-collection point","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"It is costly and time-consuming for a dairy to pick up small amounts of milk from scattered locations. Setting up a collection centre will encourage traders or dairies to buy your milk and get you higher prices."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Set up a collection centre with your milk-producers' group at a convenient location."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"• Arrange for all members of your group to deliver their milk to the collection centre each morning, and for the milk to be picked up quickly by a refrigerated truck. • Make sure the milk that members bring to the collection centre is fresh and uncontaminated. • Equipment you will need:"},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"• Cans, pots, buckets, stirrers, funnel and a strainer, all made from aluminium or stainless steel • A spring balance or scales to weigh the milk that members deliver • Aluminium cans to transport the milk • Testing equipment and supplies: test tubes, glassware, spoons, paraffin burner, pipettes, measuring cylinder, lactometer, chemicals • Nets to keep flies off • Clean, running water • Cooling facilities (if possible)."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Get advice on how to set up and manage a collection centre from the government or a development organisation."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Set up a collection centre where producers can bring their milk for a dairy to pick it up."}]},{"head":"Start a small processing plant","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"A small processing plant nearby can buy your milk and create jobs for the community. It can serve local consumers or supply a larger dairy in town. It can be run only in the wet season when there is enough milk available for processing. It can pasteurize and package milk and turn it into yoghurt, ghee and other products."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"What to do (e.g., plastic sachets for milk, cups for yoghurt)."}]},{"head":"Improve feeding in the dry season","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The amount of milk delivered to dairies varies hugely from season to season, as pastoralists move their animals around, and production rises and falls along with the growth of grass. That makes it difficult to keep dairies running at capacity, harming their profitability and viability -and their ability to keep buying milk."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"• Keep milking animals close to the milk-collection points, where you can feed them and care for them properly. • Make and store hay or silage, or feed the animals with sown forage or purchased feed in the dry season. • Provide supplements such as molasses feed blocks and mineral licks. "}]},{"head":"More information on milk collection and processing","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Improve hygiene","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Milk can be contaminated in various ways: through dirty hands and teats, unhygienic milking containers, plastic jerry cans, and deliberate dilution. Bacteria can multiply rapidly in warm milk and in hot weather."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"• Wash your hands and the udder with clean water before milking. • Wash the milking bucket and all equipment well. Keep the milking area clean and free of dust and flies. • Use stainless-steel or aluminium buckets and cans to carry and store milk. Do not use plastic jerry cans: they are impossible to clean properly."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"A few healthy, well-fed cows produce more milk than a lot of thin, ill animals."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Plastic jerry cans may look clean, but they are impossible to keep clean! Aluminium cans like these are much better."}]},{"head":"Deliver it quickly","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Milk is highly perishable, especially in a hot climate. So speed is everything: the milk has to get from udder to dairy (and to the retailer) as fast as possible before it goes off."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"• Keep the milk cool by burying the containers deep in the sand, wrapping the containers in wet towels or (better) by refrigerating the milk. • Heat the milk to kill the bacteria, then allow it to cool."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• Get it there quickly. Take the fresh milk to the collection point or customer as quickly as possible. Transport it in the morning when the air is still cool."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Replace feet with bicycles, bicycles with motorbikes, motorbikes with pick-ups, and pick-ups with refrigerated lorries."}]},{"head":"Think camel","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Camel milk is popular among certain consumers, and has a huge potential market -one that pastoralists are in a unique position to serve. There is a big demand for camel milk in some cities."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"10 Give women a bigger role"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Producing, handling and selling milk is often a woman's job. But women often have little say in pastoralist societies. In some societies they are excluded from big decisions, are not allowed to travel alone and find it hard to get information."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"If women play a bigger role in marketing, it can benefit the whole family and the economy as a whole."}]},{"head":"What to do","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"• Women should attend training and become members of groups. • Women should take leadership positions in groups. • Women should form women-only groups to produce and market milk. • Older women should join groups: they are important role models for younger women. • Encourage men to support the women and help them to see the benefits of women taking a more active role in milk marketing."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Women are often responsible for milking and handling dairy products."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Milk only disease-free animals. Healthy, well-fed animals produce more milk than those that are thin and ill. And certain diseases, such as tuberculosis, brucellosis and mastitis, can also affect the quality and safety of the milk. However, many drugs on sale in the drylands are expired or fake. 6 Improve animal health care 6Improve animal health care What to do What to do Lambert, J.C. 1988. Village milk processing. Lambert, J.C. 1988. Village milk processing. FAO Animal Production and Health FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 69. tinyurl.com/mnecukh Paper 69. tinyurl.com/mnecukh Kurwijila, L.R. 2006. Hygienic milk handling, Kurwijila, L.R. 2006. Hygienic milk handling, processing and marketing: Reference processing and marketing: Reference guide for training and certification of guide for training and certification of small-scale milk traders in Eastern small-scale milk traders in Eastern Africa. International Livestock Research Africa. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi. tinyurl.com/mmftfy2 Institute, Nairobi. tinyurl.com/mmftfy2 "},{"text":"do some market research. Is there demand for camel milk and Is there demand for camel milk and other products? other products? • Set up a group to produce and sell • Set up a group to produce and sell camel milk. camel milk. • Arrange for collection, processing • Arrange for collection, processing and delivery to the town. and delivery to the town. • Make other products, such as ice- • Make other products, such as ice- cream or sweets. cream or sweets. "}],"sieverID":"7b02e1e2-72ef-4f57-9d79-48dd9b2572e1","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"02458d8771db7b6b2f8371a5fbd0b0f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/26a013f1-967b-43d7-bb11-98da436370bd/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"• Enabling farmers access sustainable feed supply strategies • Improving animal health services • Improving supply of and access to market information and developing the culture of collective action at farmers' level • Improving livestock market facilities "}]},{"head":"Research and development 'best bets'","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Challenges in the value chain","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Small ruminant value chain development in Yabello, Ethiopia"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Our vision: \"By 2020, Yabello pastoralists will have improved their incomes, nutrition and health through sustainable market oriented goat production\""},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Seasonal moisture stress and sporadic drought The Project thanks all donors and organizations who globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" High incidence of infectious diseases and parasites (coenurosis, CCPP) • Limited or no access to key rural services (e.g., financing, veterinary facilities, and extension) • Shortage of breeding bucks • Feed shortage due to erratic rainfall and lack of feed supply on the market • Information asymmetry and limited horizontal and vertical integration along the value chain • Limited selling options for farmers in the local markets -buyer's market • Gap in knowledge and skills of producers and extension agents in market-oriented production including handling of meat, milk and dairy products This is a product of the CGIAR research programs on Livestock and Fish (2012-2016) and LIVESTOCK (2017-2022) as well as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)-funded SmaRT Ethiopia Project -Improving the Performance of Pro-Poor Sheep and Goat Value Chains for Enhanced Livelihoods, Food and Nutrition Security in Ethiopia. The project is led by ICARDA in close collaboration with ILRI, national (MoLF, EIAR, OARI) and other international partners. "}],"sieverID":"b0e66f83-6085-45f0-af66-e5914f177fdb","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"025218c4f0b7b2f19bba9d11b384348d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f37770a-5815-4d84-80a8-4f27a4d39228/retrieve"},"pageCount":49,"title":"Responses of earthworm communities to crop residue management after inoculation of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758","keywords":["arable field","tillage","crop residue availability","trait-based approach","community weighted mean","Rao's quadratic entropy"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Earthworms contribute crucially to soil processes, including in arable cropping systems (Edwards, 2004) and have been classified into ecological groups (Bouché, 1977) to infer effects on soil functioning. Endogeic species burrow horizontally in deeper soil layers and are geophagous, feeding on soil organic matter. Epigeic species inhabit the topsoil without much burrowing and anecic species dig deep permanent burrows with important effects on continuous burrow formation and water infiltration (Keith and Robinson, 2012). Both epigeics and anecics are saprophagous and feed on plant litter on the soil surface (Curry and Schmidt, 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Earthworm communities in arable fields are dominated by endogeics (e.g., Crittenden et al., 2014;Frazão et al., 2017), whereas epigeics and anecics usually occur at low densities, if at all. This may result in an underperformance of earthworm-mediated soil functions that are central for soil quality (Andriuzzi et al., 2015;Postma-Blaauw et al., 2006). The scarcity of epigeics and anecics in arable fields is thought to be the result of intensive conventional tillage (Chan, 2001): direct negative effects are exposure to predation and destruction of permanent burrows of deepburrowing anecics, and indirect effects are related to crop residue incorporation into the soil profile. Residue incorporation is negative for epigeics and anecics (Frazão et al., 2019), but positive for endogeics, by increasing the soil organic matter in the deeper layers of the soil profile. Farmers are keen on having anecics inhabiting their arable soils, due to their contribution to soil structure formation and water infiltration (Andriuzzi et al., 2015;Bertrand et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Previous studies have reported the effects of the anecic Lumbricus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758) on soil porosity and other soil fauna (enchytraeids, nematodes and other earthworms) seventeen years after inoculation (Nuutinen et al., 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":160,"text":"Community response to disturbance has traditionally been analysed through taxonomic approaches, focussing on species richness and composition (Feld et al., 2009), and in case of earthworms also through broad ecological groups. However, additional information on the functional ecology of communities may reflect important patterns of community assembly and species coexistence (Mouchet et al., 2010), which can be better predictors of ecosystem function than taxonomic indicators (Gagic et al., 2015). In this respect, Ricotta and Moretti (2011) argued that community weighted means (CWM) (Garnier et al., 2004) and Rao's quadratic entropy (RaoQ) (Botta-Dukát, 2005) represent two complementary aspects of functional composition and diversity of communities, i.e. the mean and the diversity of functional traits within a given species assemblage, respectively. Inoculating L. terrestris in combination with improved conditions conducive to its survival, as well as stimulating epigeics through the accessibility of crop residues on the soil surface could be an alternative to amend functional diversity of earthworm communities in arable fields."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"In the present study, we investigated the response of earthworm communities to crop residue amount and placement in the soil profile, in arable fields under different tillage practices: conventional mouldboard ploughing (hereafter -CT‖) and non-inversion tillage (hereafter -NIT‖). Our objectives were: (i) to evaluate the feasibility of inoculating L. terrestris under different crop residue management in the two tillage systems; (ii) to assess how local earthworm communities (density, diversity, species composition, ecological groups, and functional diversity) are affected by crop residue management and inoculation of L. terrestris. In any traitbased approach, one of the critical aspects is trait selection. Here, we chose traits that are expected to respond to food availability and position in the soil, i.e. body weight, number of cocoons, time to maturity, reproductive strategy, typhlosolis shape, and tegument (cuticle and epidermis) thickness."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"We hypothesised that i) the inoculation of L. terrestris would be more successful where crop residues were provided on the soil surface, particularly concurring with less intensive soil disturbance typical of the NIT trial; ii) crop residue management and the inoculation of L. terrestris would affect the earthworm community composition, with epigeics benefitting from crop residue availability on the soil surface, but being subject to competition with L. terrestris where inoculated; and endogeics being facilitated by the inoculation of L. terrestris; and iii) the availability of crop residue on the soil surface would favour trait diversity, as well as heavier earthworms with larger reproductive output, faster developmental time, with a less complex typhlosolis shape and thinner tegument."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study site","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"In the summer of 2013, two parallel field trials were installed at the PPO Westmaas research farm of Wageningen University and Research, located in the southwest of The Netherlands. The trials were situated in two adjacent arable fields that differed in tillage practices since 2009: CT and NIT. The CT field was mouldboard ploughed annually and the NIT field was loosened without soil inversion, either with a paragrubber (2009-2012 and 2014-2015) or with a spading machine (2013). Previous sampling indicated that both fields lacked L. terrestris (Frazão et al., unpublished results). The soil type is a Haplic Fluvisol (WRB, 2006), developed in calcareous marine deposits with a sandy clay loam texture (49% sand, 24% clay) and a pH of 7.9 in the top 30 cm. Daily average temperature was 10.8 °C and annual precipitation was 883 mm over the experimental period (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, 2016). The crop rotation of both fields was as follows: winter wheat in 2013, followed by radish (Raphanus sativus subsp. oleiferus) as cover crop, sugar beet in 2014 and winter barley in 2015. Both fields received similar mineral fertilization and synthetic crop protection; no animal manure was used throughout the experimental period."}]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"In August 2013, 24 plots (6x6 m) were established in the two neighbouring tillage fields, arranged in a split-plot design with two factors and replicated in four blocks. Within each block, the main plots were randomly assigned to the factor L. terrestris inoculation (two levels: -+‖, with inoculation and --‖, without inoculation), and subplots were randomly assigned to the factor crop residue application (three levels that differed per trial). In the CT field the factor crop residue application comprised three levels: (i) no crop residues (hereafter -S 0 ‖), (ii) incorporation of crop residues (hereafter -I 100 ‖), and (iii) soil surface applied residues (hereafter -S 100 ‖). In the NIT field, the factor crop residue application comprised the levels (i) no residues (hereafter -S 0 ‖), (ii) 25% of crop residues placed on the soil surface (hereafter -S 25 ‖), and (iii) 100% of crop residues placed on the soil surface (hereafter -S 100 ‖) (Fig. 1A). Inherent to the tillage regimes, crop residue treatments under study were not exactly the same for the NIT and CT systems, as it was impossible to test an incorporated crop residue treatment under non-inversion tillage."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"The crop residue amounts used in S 100 (CT and NIT trials) and I 100 were the same and were applied annually in both trials. We kept the crop residue types as similar as possible across the years, depending on availability. In 2013 a mixture of winter wheat stubble and radish (Raphanus sativus subsp. oleiferus) was applied, as those were the crops grown in both fields. In 2014 a mixture of winter wheat straw and radish was applied after the removal of sugar beet residues, which was the crop harvested at the time, and in 2015 only winter barley stubbles were applied. Grain crop residues were applied at a rate of 4.7 t ha -1 and radish at a rate of 1.1 t ha -1 (DW) in the treatments S 100 and I 100 of both trials."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"In October 2013, seven weeks before Fall tillage, (sub)adults of L. terrestris (Starfood, Barneveld, The Netherlands) were inoculated in the -+‖ plots of both fields at a density of 20 ind. m -2 . For a week prior to inoculation, the individuals were acclimatized in tempex boxes with a compost substrate provided by Starfood, at 6 °C in a climate chamber. Each individual was carefully checked and the ones not appearing healthy and vigorous were discarded. In each of the -+‖ plots, a 3x3 grid with 2 m spacing (Fig. 1B) was established and around each of the intersects four holes were dug to 40 cm deep, and 20 individuals of L. terrestris were placed in each hole. Soil pits were moistened before and after introducing earthworms, and refilled with moistened soil. The order of the plots to be inoculated was a priori randomized. To prevent predation by birds, flags and cannon sounds were used and upon observing mole activity, mole traps were placed in the fields."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Earthworm sampling","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Earthworms were sampled in Spring (May) and Fall (September) 2014 and in Fall (October) 2015 in the CT and NIT trials. During the first two sampling events three soil monoliths of 30x30x20 (lxbxd) cm were collected in each plot, whereas in the last sampling event, only two monoliths were taken per plot, due to logistical constraints. After digging a monolith, 2.5 l of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) solution (1 ml AITC dispersed in 20 ml 2-propanol added to 10 l of water and mixed thoroughly) was applied to the pit, to expel deep burrowing earthworms. Andriuzzi et al. (2017) have demonstrated that this is a suitable earthworm sampling method for all earthworm ecological groups in arable systems. Individuals expelled by AITC were rinsed and collected alive for further laboratory work. Monoliths were stored separately in plastic bags for transportation and storage in the lab at 2 °C until hand-sorting."}]},{"head":"Earthworm sample processing and body weight measurements","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"Earthworm samples were hand-sorted in the laboratory and individuals were kept alive in pots with moist paper tissue at 16 ˚C for 48 h to void the guts. After voiding of the guts, live body weight and developmental stage (juvenile, subadult or adult) were recorded individually for the Spring 2014 samples. Specimens were then killed in 70% alcohol and identified to species immediately. For the hand-sorted individuals collected in Fall 2014 and 2015, some adjustments were made to reduce sample processing time. Therefore, (part of) the individuals were stored in 70% alcohol immediately after voiding of the guts. In those cases, the dead body weight was measured after placing the specimens in water for 10 minutes, to allow body rehydration. As in Spring 2014, individuals were weighed, assigned to their developmental stage and identified to species. To correct for differences in the method of body weight measurement among different samplings, 20 individuals sampled in Spring 2014 (live body weights ranging from 0.1 to 1.6 g) were re-weighed after being stored for two years in alcohol. A linear regression (Equation 1, adjusted R 2 = 0.90; p = 1.318 10 -10 ) was computed between the rehydrated alcohol-conserved body weight of 2016 (BW ethanol in Equation 1) and the live body weight of 2014 (BW live in Equation 1). Equation 1The regression coefficients in Equation 1 were used as a correction factor to express all body weight values per g live weight. For the purpose of this study, only (sub)adult individuals were used, given that trait values for juveniles are lacking and might differ from adult trait values."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Adult individuals were identified using Sims and Gerard (1999) and juveniles using (Stöp-Bowitz, 1969), and complete individuals, as well as heads, were considered for identification."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Body weight was measured for intact individuals only excluding some 12% of the sampled specimens."}]},{"head":"Functional traits","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"We assessed seven functional traits (five continuous and two categorical) (Table 1) that were expected to respond to resource availability: body weight in grams (measured per individual, corrected for different weighing methods at different sampling occasionssee equation 1and averaged for each species over the study duration), average number of cocoons produced per year, reproductive strategy, typhlosolis shape, average time to maturity in weeks (Hedde et al., 2012a), and cuticle and epidermis thickness in µm (Briones and Álvarez-Otero, 2018). Body weight was used as an indicator for the condition of the individuals and relates to the energetic investment in growth; reproductive strategy and number of cocoons relate to the investment in reproduction, thereby reflecting the potential for population recovery after disturbance; typhlosolis shape relates to the nutrient uptake efficiency (Pelosi et al., 2013); time to maturity reflects the investment in individual development, and often represents a trade-off with reproductive investment (Stearns, 1976); finally, tegument thickness (cuticle and epidermis) reflects the burrowing ability of the species (Briones and Álvarez-Otero, 2018)."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Taxonomic and ecological group approaches","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Earthworm species densities and ecological group densities (epigeic and endogeic) of subsamples were averaged per plot for each sampling period and expressed as number of individuals per meter square. Shannon diversity index was computed per plot, as a measure of species diversity (richness and relative abundance)."}]},{"head":"Trait-based approach","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Functional diversity was assessed by community weighted means (CWM) and Rao's quadratic entropy (RaoQ). CWM was calculated for each trait, as the mean of trait values for each species in the community, weighted by the relative abundance of the species associated with that value (Lavorel et al., 2008). RaoQ was calculated for the complete set of traits as the dissimilarity between pairs of species within each plot, weighted by the product of the relative abundance of both species (Leps et al., 2006)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The taxonomic, ecological group and trait data were analysed using univariate and multivariate statistics. NIT and CT trials were considered separate datasets, to avoid statistical pseudoreplication (Hurlbert, 1984), since the sample size of each tillage system was only one. As we were interested in the effects of inoculation of L. terrestris, we excluded this species from the analyses. The univariate approach consisted of mixed linear models using crop residue application and inoculation treatments as fixed factors. The structure of the split-plot design was incorporated in each model by nesting the crop residue application within the inoculation factor in the random factors. Several response variables were modelled for each sampling season:"},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"(sub)adult earthworm density, Shannon diversity index, epigeic and endogeic densities, CWM for each trait, and RaoQ for all traits combined. If overall linear mixed models were statistically significant at p< 0.05, pairwise comparisons were computed. P-value adjustments to avoid inflation type I errors were considered necessary when the interaction between the fixed effects was significant due to the large number of pairwise comparisons. In those cases, post-hoc adjustments (Tukey HSD) were used. Overall models' distribution and variance assumptions were inspected visually, and if needed, a variance structure was used to avoid heteroscedasticity (Zuur et al., 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"The multivariate approach consisted of testing the centroid -location‖ (Anderson, 2001) and the -dispersion‖ (Anderson, 2006) of the community's species composition. An analogy towards the CWM was made with a multivariate test of the -CWM composition‖. The centroid -location‖ analysis is a non-parametric version of a multivariate ANOVA, whereas the -dispersion‖ analysis tests the homogeneity of multivariate dispersions (Anderson, 2006). Both analyses are based on dissimilarity matrices. For the species composition analysis, a Bray-Curtis dissimilarity matrix was used, after square root transformation of the earthworm density data. For the CWM composition analysis a Gower dissimilarity matrix was used, allowing the combination of categorical and continuous variables. If the centroid location analysis was significant, a nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) was plotted to visualize the results. As in the univariate analysis, crop residue application and L. terrestris inoculation were used as explanatory variables, and the split-plot design structure was incorporated in a permutation scheme that considered our nested design."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"We present the Fall 2015 results in the main text of this article. As most univariate and multivariate tests of Spring and Fall 2014 appeared as not significant, these are presented in the Supplementary materials A (Tables S1 -S9). The raw datasets of all seasons for both experimental trials are available in the Supplementary materials B. All analyses were performed with R 3.3.1 (R CoreTeam, 2014), using packages nlme 3.1-131, lsmeans 2.27-61, FD 1.0-12, ade4 1.7-6 and vegan 2.4-5."}]},{"head":"Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Inoculation of Lumbricus terrestris","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"L. terrestris was found in both experimental trials throughout the sampling seasons (77 individuals in NIT vs. 46 in CT, of which 8 and 5 individuals were (sub)adults, respectively), although the patterns were erratic and unrelated to the inoculation and crop residue treatments (Table 2). Furthermore, besides the inoculated (sub)adult individuals, juveniles were also found (Table 2), already in Spring 2014 (just seven months after inoculation). Highest average juvenile density of 9.3 ind.m -2 was recorded in Fall 2014 in NIT -S 25 -and in CT -S 100 + (Table 2), while highest average densities of (sub)adults reached 2.8 ind.m -2 in NIT -S 25 + and 1.9 ind.m -2 in CT -I 100 +, also in Fall 2014. By the end of the study, in Fall 2015, no (sub)adults of L. terrestris were found in the CT trial, nor in the non-inoculated plots of the NIT trial. However, irrespective of the crop residue treatments, 1.4 ind.m -2 were found in the inoculated plots of the NIT trial."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Juveniles were found in higher densities, particularly in the NIT trial, in erratic patterns unrelated to crop residue treatments."}]},{"head":"Earthworm density","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"In NIT, in Fall 2015, native earthworm (sub)adult density was higher in S 100 than in S 25 and S 0 (60 % and 37%, respectively, Table 3), whereas it was not affected by the inoculation of L. terrestris nor by the interaction between both factors. In CT, native earthworm (sub)adult density was not affected by L. terrestris inoculation, irrespective of residue application (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Species diversity and composition","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Besides the inoculated L. terrestris, (sub)adult individuals of six other earthworm species were found in the two tillage trials: Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny, 1826), Allolobophora chlorotica (Savigny, 1826), Aporrectodea rosea (Savigny, 1826), Eiseniella tetraedra (Savigny, 1826), Lumbricus castaneus (Savigny, 1826) and Lumbricus rubellus (Hoffmeister, 1843)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Among them, only one individual of E. tetraedra was found in each trial in Spring 2014. L. castaneus was not detected during Fall 2014 (both trials), nor in Spring 2014 in the CT trial."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"In both trials in Fall 2015, Shannon diversity index was low (≤ 1.0) and was not affected by L. terrestris inoculation, irrespective of residue application (Table 3). Furthermore, in NIT, local earthworm community composition was not affected by L. terrestris inoculation, irrespective of residue application, whereas in CT, earthworm community composition showed differences in terms of centroid location in the multivariate dimensional space, both with respect to the crop residue application and to L. terrestris inoculation (Table 4, Fig. 2). The community composition showed a separation between the surface-applied (S 100 ) and the incorporated (I 100 ) crop residue treatments vs. the treatment where no crop residues (S 0 ) were provided. The separation between L. terrestris inoculation treatments was less clear (Fig. 2), concurring with the p-value of 0.042, which although significant was rather high."}]},{"head":"Ecological groups' distribution","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The NIT trial, in Fall 2015 showed a pronounced effect of surface availability of crop residues on earthworm ecological groups (Table 3). Epigeics' density was about 2.5 times higher in S 100 than in the other treatments. Endogeics also increased significantly with crop residue availability on the soil surface, although the effect was less pronounced, and the patterns were more erratic."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Endogeics were about 40% more abundant in S 100 than in S 25 , but were not significantly different from S 0 (Table 3). The inoculation of L. terrestris did not affect earthworms in terms of ecological groups (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"In the CT trial only epigeics responded to the crop residue treatments in Fall 2015 (Table 3)."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Epigeic density in S 0 treatment was 20 and 30% lower than when residues were applied on the soil surface (S 100 ) or incorporated into the soil (I 100 ), respectively. No significant differences in density of epigeics were found between S 100 and I 100 (Table 3). Similarly to the findings in the NIT trial, the inoculation of L. terrestris did not affect earthworms in terms of ecological groups (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Trait composition and diversity","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"In the NIT trial, CWM of typhlosolis shape, body weight and epidermis thickness of (sub)adult earthworm species were significantly affected in Fall 2015 by crop residue availability on the soil surface (Table 5). In S 100 , the proportion of species with a bifide typhlosolis was significantly smaller (-15%) compared to absence of crop residues, whereas I 100 did not differ from other treatments (Table 5). Neither body weight nor epidermis thickness, although significant in the overall linear models, showed significant pairwise differences among any of the three crop residue treatments."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"In the CT trial in Fall 2015, the CWM body weight, number of cocoons, typhlosolis shape, and cuticle and epidermis thickness were affected by the crop residue application. The distribution of reproductive strategies was modified by the inoculation of L. terrestris, and the time to maturity by the interaction of both factors (Table 6). CWM of (sub)adult earthworms' body weight was larger in S 100 and I 100 than in the S 0 (16% and 9%, respectively). CWM of the number of cocoons was 22% higher in S 100 than in I 100 , which was, in turn, 40% higher than in S 0 . The proportion of species with a bifide typhlosolis was 52% and 23% higher in S 0 than in S 100 and I 100 , respectively. CWM of cuticle thickness was 33% larger in S 100 than in I 100 , and in turn, it was 57% larger in I 100 than in S 0 . Epidermis thickness was 4% larger in S 100 and 3% larger in I 100 than in S 0 . Inoculation of L. terrestris increased biparental reproduction in the local earthworm community by 6%. Finally, an interactive effect between crop residue and inoculation of L."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"terrestris was found for the CWM of time to maturity: it was 11% higher in S 0 + treatments than in I 100 +, and between 11 to 13% higher in I 100 -and S 0 -than in S 100 -."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Multivariate analyses showed no significant patterns in CWM composition for NIT in Fall 2015, but in CT, plots with crop residues (S 100 and I 100 ) were separated from plots without (S 0 ) (Table 7, Fig. 3). Although significant, trait composition as affected by the inoculation of L. terrestris (Table 7) did not show such a clear separation between plots where L. terrestris had been inoculated or not (Fig. 3)."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Regarding trait diversity in Fall 2015, RaoQ was 2.6 and 3.0 times higher in S 100 and I 100 than when no crop residues (S 0 ) were provided in CT, while not different in NIT (Table 8)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Attainment of L. terrestris inoculation in arable fields","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":306,"text":"Particularly from a farmer's perspective, L. terrestris was successfully inoculated in both experiments, since this species has established and reproduced in both fields. However the success rate depended on tillage regime. The NIT trial provided better conditions for establishment of this species, considering that 1.7 times as many individuals were found compared to the CT trial. Additionally, more reproduction took place in the NIT trial, as 1.7 times more juveniles were found compared to the CT trial. Our ratio of L. terrestris individuals collected between the CT and the NIT trials is much smaller than that of Nuutinen et al. (2011), who found an average of 0.6 ind. m -2 and 4.3 ind. m -2 in conventional tillage and no-till systems, respectively. However, in their study, the time span between L. terrestris inoculation and sampling was 13 years. Surprisingly, in our study, L. terrestris was also found in non-inoculated plots, sometimes even at higher densities than in plots that had been inoculated. We could not enclose the experimental plots with physical barriers, which would have, most likely, minimized the colonization of non-inoculated plots by L. terrestris. The existence of physical barriers would have hampered the use of agricultural machinery, which would not be feasible under conventional agricultural practices. Instead, we maximised the distances between inoculated vs. non-inoculated plots (between 21 and 30 m; Fig 1A) to prevent colonization of non-inoculated plots, but unfortunately this appeared not to be sufficient. Although Mather and Christensen (1988) quantified the length of the surface movement of individuals of L. terrestris at 19 m in one night, Eijsackers (2011) reviewed that in grazed grasslands the population's areal expansion varied between 1.5 and 4 m yr -1 , and therefore the distances between plots in our experiments were expected to be sufficient to avoid the colonization of non-inoculated plots by L. terrestris."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"However, besides active surface dispersal, passive dispersal by tractor tires (Marinissen and van den Bosch, 1992) may also have promoted the occurrence of L. terrestris in non-inoculated plots."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"In both of the two tillage systems in Spring and Fall 2014, crop residue amount or placement had no effect on L. terrestris density, suggesting that L. terrestris populations were not necessarily restricted by crop residue availability, in opposition to our first hypothesis. Instead of becoming established where crop residues were not limiting, it is likely that L. terrestris have burrowed elsewhere and initiated movement to forage (Butt et al., 2003) in the initial phase of experimentation. On the other hand, by the end of the study (i.e. Fall 2015), distribution patterns of L. terrestris, particularly juveniles, seemed to be related to crop residues application, suggesting that the response of this species to crop residue availability takes time. In the NIT trial, densities of juveniles were highest with full crop residue application, as well as in the CT trial, provided that residues were on the soil surface."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Our choice of crop residue for earthworms, both the local communities and the inoculated L."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"terrestris was pragmatic and conformed with common agricultural rotations, i.e., wheat or barley followed by radish as cover crop. Although indoor experiments have shown that earthworms can have good survival rates with those food sources (Al-Maliki and Scullion, 2013;Frazão et al., 2019;Giannopoulos et al., 2010), there is also evidence that earthworms, and in particular L. terrestris, show dislike for feeding on species belonging to the Brassicaceae family (Valckx et al., 2011), when subjected to food choice experiments. However, wheat and barley straw applications have been shown to increase L. terrestris densities in natural populations (Stroud et al., 2016), while cover cropping with radish has shown no effects on populations of this species (Stroud et al., 2017)."}]},{"head":"Crop residue management and earthworm communities","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Our results demonstrate that the local community of adult earthworms was affected by crop residue availability and position, both in NIT and CT systems, although crop residue effects were not similar between the tillage types. We were not able to infer effects of the inoculation on the existing earthworm communities since L. terrestris colonized non-inoculated plots via active or passive dispersal."},{"index":2,"size":331,"text":"In CT, neither the amount nor the position of crop residues affected (sub)adult total earthworm density or Shannon diversity (Table 3). However, as long as crop residues were applied, either at the surface or incorporated at ploughing depth, epigeics' density was 3.5 to 5 times higher than in absence of residues. A similar response was found for species composition which differed between plots with and without crop residues (Fig. 2). These results suggest that under conventional tillage the application of crop residues, rather than the position in the soil profile, plays a larger role in shaping earthworm communities. These outcomes were unexpected as we hypothesised that epigeics, being known to feed on decaying litter (Bouché, 1977;Curry and Schmidt, 2007), would only profit from crop residues applied on the soil surface. Furthermore, as we anticipated that the most important responses in community composition due to crop residue availability would be found for epigeics, we had expected that when studying species composition in the multivariate space, plots without residue would be more similar to those in which the crop residue was incorporated. Incorporation of crop residues under conventional tillage is often claimed as a reason for the unsuitability of arable fields for epigeics (Kladivko, 2001). Furthermore, in a mesocosm experiment, Frazão et al. (2019) demonstrated that the growth and survival of L. rubellus was reduced when crop residues (mixture of wheat straw and radish) were incorporated at 30 cm soil depth. In the NIT system, crop residue amount had a pronounced effect on earthworm density as well as density of epigeics (Table 3), whereas species composition did not differ among the crop residue treatments, which was rather surprising (Fig. 2). Crop roots that were not removed after harvest may have been a food source to the earthworm populations in the no residue treatments. However, this does not explain the differences in epigeic density among crop residue treatments, unless the duration of our trials was not long enough to pick effects on species composition."},{"index":3,"size":362,"text":"In CT, crop residue stimulated trait diversity (Table 8) and modified the community trait profiles (Table 6). However, in analogy to the ecological group and community composition analyses, the trait based approach indicated that the location of crop residue application (soil surface and incorporated) was trivial, in respect to trait diversity and CWM. The observation in the CT trial that trait diversity (RaoQ) was positively affected by crop residue provision suggests some degree of niche differentiation in those communities. Lower competition for resources as well as higher efficiency in resource utilization have been linked to higher ecosystem function (Mason et al., 2005). Applying crop residues, either on the soil surface or incorporated in the profile, contributed to increased earthworm body weight, and shifted the earthworm community towards species with a thicker epidermis and cuticle, a feather shaped typhlosolis, and species with relative high average rates for cocoon production (Table 6). Moreover, earthworm species that, on average, produce more cocoons and that have a relatively thick cuticle profited even more when crop residues were applied on the surface. However, those effects were always smaller in magnitude than when compared to the no residue treatments (Table 6). These findings suggest that crop residue availability, irrespective of position in the soil profile, promotes earthworms with better burrowing abilities (i.e., larger tegument thickness, see Briones and Álvarez-Otero (2018)), higher recovery from disturbance (i.e., higher reproductive output, measured as average number of cocoons), higher nutrient uptake efficiency (i.e., larger proportion of species with a feathered typhlosolis, see Pelosi et al. (2013)). These characteristics may contribute to a higher performance of the earthworm community (i.e., larger body weight). The suggestion of higher nutrient uptake efficiency by the community is surprising, as we expected that removing and not applying crop residues as a food source would select for species with high nutrient uptake efficiency, i.e. species with a feather shaped typhlosolis. However, typhlosolis morphology is unlikely to be the only trait to determine nutrient uptake efficiency. For example Thakuria et al. (2010) highlighted that earthworm species' gut wall-associated bacterial communities shifted according to food sources provided, although these shifts were more strongly determined by habitat type and ecological group."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"In contrast to the CT trial, in the NIT trial crop residue treatments did not affect earthworm trait diversity (Table 8) nor modified the trait profiles, with the exception of typhlosolis shape (Table 5), where patterns were similar to those observed in the CT trial."},{"index":5,"size":197,"text":"Functional responses have been amply studied in plants (e.g., D az and Cabido, 2001), while little attention has been given to soil organisms. Nevertheless, earthworm functional response to disturbances has been studied, in relation to tillage intensity (Pelosi et al., 2013;Pelosi et al., 2016), flooding of floodplains (de Lange et al., 2013;Fournier et al., 2012), and soil pollution (Hedde et al., 2012b;Pérès et al., 2011). To our knowledge, this is the first study in the field focussing on earthworm functional responses to crop residue availability and position. Studies that have focused on the relationship between earthworm communities and crop residue availability with more traditional approaches, such as community composition, ecological groups or total density are also rare (but see Eriksen-Hamel et al. (2009)). The latter authors did not find, however, any differences between high vs. low crop residues input in earthworm abundance or biomass. Contrary to Pelosi et al. (2013) who obtained dissimilar results with different approaches in studying earthworm community responses to tillage, in our study, analysis of species composition, ecological groups and trait diversity and composition resulted in consistent outcomes in terms of response to crop residue availability and position in NIT and CT systems."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"Therefore, the additional value of trait-based approaches in assessing the response of earthworms to crop residues management was not fully confirmed with this study. Nevertheless, since functional traits represent explicit links between biology and environment, it remains useful to better understand which traits are affected by crop residues, and in that respect our trait-based approach has added value. In general, in CT, the provision of residues had an effect on several facets of earthworm communities, whereas in NIT, residue quantity had small effects on earthworm communities."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"Finally, further research should focus on the hypothesis that increasing earthworm functional diversity, mediated by crop residue application, enhances soil functioning. However, earthworm effects might be less straightforward, as Frazão et al. (2019) found evidence of trade-offs between earthworm-mediated soil porosity and formation of large water-stable macroaggregates related to crop residue placement in the soil profile."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Our study clearly illustrates different earthworm community responses to crop residue availability in arable fields under contrasting tillage regimes. The inoculation of L. terrestris was successful, but the success was inconsistently related to crop residue management. In contrast, the type of tillage played an important role in terms of the success of inoculations, with less intensive tillage systems providing better conditions for this species than conventional mouldboard ploughing. The largest differences in earthworm community responses were observed between no residues vs. available residues in the CT trial when using the species composition, ecological groups and trait-based approaches, whereas in the NIT trial, only the use of an ecological group approach enabled us to show an effect of crop residue amount on earthworms. Our results suggest that in arable fields earthworms are more affected by the amount of crop residue than by its position in the soil profile. Zuur, A., Ieno, E.N., Walker, N., Saveliev, A.A., Smith, G.M., 2009. Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R. Springer, New York. Tables Table 1 Literature "}]},{"head":"Figure captions","index":23,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. A) Scheme of the experimental design of the CT and NIT trials and list of treatments. B) "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) of (sub)adult earthworm communities for "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) of CWM for the main factor crop residues "},{"text":" Figures "},{"text":" acquired and measured (body weight) trait values of the species sampled in both trials. Earthworm species are arranged by ecological groups (first three species are endogeics; and last three are epigeics). "},{"text":"( "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 2 Mean, standard error (SE) and occurrence in number of plots (Freq) of the density of (sub)adult and juvenile individuals of L. caliginosa 0.33 27 biparental bifide 55 0.46 34.19 caliginosa0.3327biparentalbifide550.4634.19 A. chlorotica 0.22 27 biparental bifide 36 1.60 27.39 A. chlorotica0.2227biparentalbifide361.6027.39 A. rosea 0.18 35 parthenogetic bifide 55 0.67 # 32.68 # A. rosea0.1835parthenogeticbifide550.67 #32.68 # E. tetraedra 0.08 72 parthenogetic simple 13 1.74 # 27.27 # E. tetraedra0.0872parthenogeticsimple131.74 #27.27 # L. castaneus 0.20 65 biparental feather 24 1.74 # 27.27 # L. castaneus0.2065biparentalfeather241.74 #27.27 # L. rubellus 0.54 106 biparental feather 37 3.21 39.42 L. rubellus0.54106biparentalfeather373.2139.42 † measured in this study † measured in this study ‡ Hedde et al. (2012a) ‡ Hedde et al. (2012a) § Briones and Álvarez-Otero (2018) § Briones and Álvarez-Otero (2018) # Not measured in Briones and Álvarez-Otero (2018). Expert knowledge of Prof. Dr. Maria # Not measured in Briones and Álvarez-Otero (2018). Expert knowledge of Prof. Dr. Maria Briones Briones "},{"text":"Freq Mean (SE) Freq Mean (SE) Freq Mean (SE) Freq Mean (SE) Freq Mean (SE) Freq "},{"text":"Table 3 Mean and standard error (SE) of earthworm (sub)adult density, density of epigeics and endogeics (ind. m -2 ) and Shannon 687 diversity index of the non-inversion tillage (NIT) and conventional tillage (CT) trials in Fall 2015. For legend of the treatments, see 688 Figure 1. F-statistics and associated p-value of best fitted linear mixed model of earthworm densities and Shannon diversity index.Capital letters show significant pairwise differences within the main factor Crop residue application and small letters within the main 690 690 691 factor L. terrestris inoculation. 691factor L. terrestris inoculation. NIT trial NIT trial "},{"text":"Table 4 F and p-values from non-parametric permutational multivariate analysis of variance (Location) and from multivariate homogeneity of variances (Dispersion) of (sub)adult earthworm community composition for each of the main factors (crop residues and inoculation of L. terrestris) and their interaction in the case of Location, of the non-inversion tillage (NIT) and terrestris) and their interaction in the case of Location, of the non-inversion tillage (NIT) and conventional tillage trials (CT), for Fall 2015. Inoculated L. terrestris was excluded from conventional tillage trials (CT), for Fall 2015. Inoculated L. terrestris was excluded from distance matrices. Dissimilarity matrix calculated using the Bray-Curtis distance, and densities distance matrices. Dissimilarity matrix calculated using the Bray-Curtis distance, and densities were square-root transformed. were square-root transformed. NIT trial CT trial NIT trialCT trial Location Dispersion Location Dispersion LocationDispersionLocationDispersion F p F p F p F p FpFpFpFp Crop residues 1.474 0.082 0.490 0.520 3.555 0.013 1.126 0.217 Crop residues1.4740.0820.4900.520 3.5550.013 1.126 0.217 Inoculation 1.064 0.559 0.141 0.778 1.886 0.042 2.315 0.223 Inoculation1.0640.5590.1410.778 1.8860.042 2.315 0.223 Crop residues x Crop residues x 0.335 0.794 - - 2.095 0.072 - - 0.3350.794--2.0950.072-- inoculation inoculation "},{"text":"Table 5 Mean and standard error (SE) of community weighted means (CWM) for the trait values in the non- "},{"text":"inversion tillage trial (NIT), for Fall 2015. Earthworm community taken into account for the computation excluded inoculated L. terrestris. For legend of the treatments, see Figure 1. F-statistics and associated p-value of best fitted linear mixed model of CWM. Both categorical traits only had two trait values, therefore, only one is shown. Capital letters show significant pairwise differences within the main factor Crop residue application and small letters within the main factor L. terrestris inoculation. Time to Time to Body weight No. of cocoons Reproductive Typhlosolis Cuticle Epidermis Body weightNo. of cocoonsReproductiveTyphlosolisCuticleEpidermis maturity maturity (g) (per year) strategy † shape ‡ thickness (µm) thickness (µm) (g)(per year)strategy †shape ‡thickness (µm)thickness (µm) Treatments (weeks) Treatments(weeks) S 100 - 0.37 (0.01) Aa 49.02 (1.55) 0.93 (0.05) 0.72 (0.03) Aa 48.40 (1.55) 1.30 (0.11) 34.87 (0.39) Aa S 100 -0.37 (0.01) Aa49.02 (1.55)0.93 (0.05)0.72 (0.03) Aa48.40 (1.55)1.30 (0.11)34.87 (0.39) Aa S 100 + 0.35 (0.02) Aa 43.00 (4.77) 0.95 (0.03) 0.78 (0.06) Aa 50.37 (1.43) 1.01 (0.17) 34.70 (0.64) Aa S 100 +0.35 (0.02) Aa43.00 (4.77)0.95 (0.03)0.78 (0.06) Aa50.37 (1.43)1.01 (0.17)34.70 (0.64) Aa S 25 - 0.36 (0.02) Aa 42.21 (6.46) 0.95 (0.04) 0.81 (0.08) ABa 50.77 (1.69) 1.04 (0.23) 34.78 (0.54) Aa S 25 -0.36 (0.02) Aa42.21 (6.46)0.95 (0.04)0.81 (0.08) ABa50.77 (1.69)1.04 (0.23)34.78 (0.54) Aa S 25 + 0.33 (0.01) Aa 36.99 (2.48) 0.92 (0.05) 0.88 (0.03) ABa 50.14 (1.35) 0.97 (0.06) 33.71 (0.68) Aa S 25 +0.33 (0.01) Aa36.99 (2.48)0.92 (0.05)0.88 (0.03) ABa50.14 (1.35)0.97 (0.06)33.71 (0.68) Aa S 0 - 0.36 (0.02) Aa 41.51 (6.05) 0.96 (0.02) 0.82 (0.07) Ba 51.09 (0.90) 1.00 (0.18) 34.82 (0.58) Aa S 0 -0.36 (0.02) Aa41.51 (6.05)0.96 (0.02)0.82 (0.07) Ba51.09 (0.90)1.00 (0.18)34.82 (0.58) Aa S 0 + 0.33 (0.01) Aa 35.37 (4.59) 0.91 (0.04) 0.90 (0.05) Ba 51.22 (1.20) 0.87 (0.13) 33.83 (0.67) Aa S 0 +0.33 (0.01) Aa35.37 (4.59)0.91 (0.04)0.90 (0.05) Ba51.22 (1.20)0.87 (0.13)33.83 (0.67) Aa F p F p F p F p F p F p F p FpFpFpFpFpFpFp Crop Crop 4.310 0.039 3.746 0.055 0.044 0.957 4.710 0.031 1.444 0.274 1.267 0.317 4.915 0.028 4.310 0.039 3.7460.055 0.044 0.957 4.7100.0311.444 0.2741.2670.3174.9150.028 residues residues Inoculation 1.860 0.266 1.239 0.347 0.801 0.437 1.217 0.351 0.103 0.770 1.321 0.334 0.902 0.412 Inoculation1.860 0.266 1.2390.347 0.801 0.437 1.2170.3510.103 0.7701.3210.3340.9020.412 "},{"text":"Table 6 Means and standard errors of community weighted means (CWM) for the trait in the conventional tillage trial (CT), for Fall 2015. Earthworm community taken into account for the computation excluded inoculated L. terrestris. For legend of the treatments, see Figure1. F-statistics and associated p-value of best fitted linear mixed model of CWM. Both categorical traits only had two trait values, therefore, only one is shown. Capital letters show significant pairwise differences within the main factor Crop residue application and small letters within the main factor L. terrestris inoculation. When only small letters are provided, significant differences refer to the interaction between both treatments. Time to Cuticle Time toCuticle Body weight No. of cocoons Reproductive Typhlosolis Epidermis Body weightNo. of cocoonsReproductiveTyphlosolisEpidermis maturity thickness maturitythickness (g) (per year) strategy † shape ‡ thickness (µm) (g)(per year)strategy †shape ‡thickness (µm) Treatments (weeks) (µm) Treatments(weeks)(µm) S 100 - 0.40 (0.02) Ba 61.67 (5.21) Ca 0.89 (0.05) Aa 0.57 (0.07) Aa 46.51 (1.46) ab 1.71 (0.19) Ca 35.98 (0.53) Ba S 100 -0.40 (0.02) Ba61.67 (5.21) Ca0.89 (0.05) Aa0.57 (0.07) Aa46.51 (1.46) ab1.71 (0.19) Ca35.98 (0.53) Ba S 100 + 0.39 (0.01) Ba 55.87 (7.29) Ca 0.97 (0.03) Ab 0.63 (0.10) Aa 47.26 (2.32) abcd 1.50 (0.27) Ca 35.57 (0.34) Ba S 100 +0.39 (0.01) Ba55.87 (7.29) Ca0.97 (0.03) Ab0.63 (0.10) Aa47.26 (2.32) abcd1.50 (0.27) Ca35.57 (0.34) Ba I 100 - 0.36 (0.01) Ba 41.51 (2.27) Ba 0.93 (0.05) Aa 0.82 (0.03) Aa 51.81 (0.53) cd 0.96 (0.08) Ba 35.02 (0.19) Ba I 100 -0.36 (0.01) Ba41.51 (2.27) Ba0.93 (0.05) Aa0.82 (0.03) Aa51.81 (0.53) cd0.96 (0.08) Ba35.02 (0.19) Ba I 100 + 0.38 (0.01) Ba 54.72 (4.19) Ba 0.90 (0.06) Ab 0.65 (0.06) Aa 47.65 (1.18) ac 1.47 (0.14) Ba 35.37 (0.40) Ba I 100 +0.38 (0.01) Ba54.72 (4.19) Ba0.90 (0.06) Ab0.65 (0.06) Aa47.65 (1.18) ac1.47 (0.14) Ba35.37 (0.40) Ba S 0 - 0.33 (0.01) Aa 34.68 (2.38) Aa 0.90 (0.01) Aa 0.91 (0.03) Ba 52.36 (1.04) cd 0.78 (0.11) Aa 34.12 (0.18) Aa S 0 -0.33 (0.01) Aa34.68 (2.38) Aa0.90 (0.01) Aa0.91 (0.03) Ba52.36 (1.04) cd0.78 (0.11) Aa34.12 (0.18) Aa S 0 + 0.35 (0.01) Aa 34.24 (4.21) Aa 1.00 (0.00) Ab 0.91 (0.05) Ba 52.72 (0.79) bd 0.75 (0.13) Aa 34.44 (0.45) Aa S 0 +0.35 (0.01) Aa34.24 (4.21) Aa1.00 (0.00) Ab0.91 (0.05) Ba52.72 (0.79) bd0.75 (0.13) Aa34.44 (0.45) Aa F p F p F p F p F p F p F p FpFpFpFpFpFpFp Crop Crop 17.000 0.0003 25.566 <0.00001 0.579 0.575 53.564 <0.0001 16.291 0.0004 13.743 0.001 19.060 0.0002 17.000 0.0003 25.566 <0.00001 0.579 0.575 53.564 <0.0001 16.291 0.0004 13.743 0.001 19.060 0.0002 residues residues "},{"text":"Table 7 F and p-values from non-parametric permutational multivariate analysis of variance (Location) and from multivariate homogeneity of variances (Dispersion) of CWM for each of the main factors (crop residues and inoculation) and their interaction in the case of Location, of the non-inversion (NIT) and conventional tillage (CT) trials, for Fall 2015. Inoculated L. terrestris was excluded from distance matrices. Dissimilarity matrix calculated using the Gower distance. NIT trial CT trial NIT trialCT trial Location Dispersion Location Dispersion LocationDispersionLocationDispersion F P F p F p F p FPFpFpFp Crop residues 0.939 0.262 0.0495 0.960 9.690 0.002 1.0216 0.177 Crop residues0.939 0.262 0.0495 0.960 9.690 0.002 1.0216 0.177 Inoculation 1.834 0.336 0.0433 0.868 1.306 0.043 0.0513 0.834 Inoculation1.834 0.336 0.0433 0.868 1.306 0.043 0.0513 0.834 Crop residues x Crop residues x 0.085 0.949 - - 1.779 0.260 - - 0.085 0.949--1.779 0.260-- inoculation inoculation "},{"text":"Table 8 Mean and standard error of RaoQ in the non-inversion tillage (NIT) and conventional tillage (CT) trials, for Fall 2015. Earthworm community taken into account for the computation excluded inoculated L. terrestris. For legend of the treatments, see Figure 1. Fstatistics and associated p-value of best fitted linear mixed model of RaoQ. Capital letters show significant pairwise differences within the main factor Crop residue application and small letters within the main factor L. terrestris inoculation. Treatments NIT trial CT trial TreatmentsNIT trialCT trial S 100 - 0.10 (0.01) 0.12 (0.01) Ba S 100 -0.10 (0.01)0.12 (0.01) Ba S 100 + 0.07 (0.01) 0.10 (0.02) Ba S 100 +0.07 (0.01)0.10 (0.02) Ba S 25 -/ I 100 - 0.06 (0.02) 0.07 (0.01) Ba S 25 -/ I 100 -0.06 (0.02)0.07 (0.01) Ba S 25 + / I 100 + 0.06 (0.01) 0.11 (0.01) Ba S 25 + / I 100 +0.06 (0.01)0.11 (0.01) Ba S 0 - 0.06 (0.02) 0.04 (0.01) Aa S 0 -0.06 (0.02)0.04 (0.01) Aa S 0 + 0.05 (0.01) 0.03 (0.02) Aa S 0 +0.05 (0.01)0.03 (0.02) Aa F p F p FpFp Crop residues 3.731 0.055 17.717 0.0003 Crop residues3.7310.05517.7170.0003 Inoculation 2.756 0.196 0.138 0.735 Inoculation2.7560.1960.1380.735 Crop residues x Crop residues x 0.511 0.613 2.792 0.101 0.5110.6132.7920.101 inoculation inoculation "}],"sieverID":"7fa415ee-217d-4ebe-8c8d-bb017c69ef90","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0297f3dcceeaccfdb010a69b9f98d785","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/192642f1-a90f-452e-9bb3-4489f8f65c30/retrieve"},"pageCount":43,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"This study was commissioned by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT to assess the viability of enhancing forage selection and dissemination and targeting breeding and selection efforts focusing on the specific needs of South-East Asian farming systems. The opportunity to be assessed is to strengthen the Alliance's collaboration with the Thai government in the framework of improved Tropical Forages. The study aims to address bottlenecks for forage seed supply systems for: a) the internal Thai market; b) for export in the SEA region, specifically to Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"This study thus aims at providing a good understanding of the forage seed systems in Thailand, its links with the wider SEA region, and reviews high-level stakeholder engagements with government authorities and the private sector. It provides an overview of forage seed certification options available in-country to ensure seed quality (e.g., purity and germination), requirements for varietal registration, and regulations for import/export of seeds."}]},{"head":"Forages in Thailand","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":325,"text":"The numbers of beef cattle decreased by about 30% between 2005 and 2015 as a result of land use changes related to intensifying food-feed-bio energy crop production. This development has limited livestock grazing areas as well as household labor availability. During the same time, the growth of the dairy cattle population and milk production had witnessed an opposite trend, with the largest number of dairy cattle in the central region (an average of 30 cattle per farm on 3.2-hectare land holdings, milk production totaling ca. 967,844 tons per year) (AMIS, 2014). Since then, these trends have reverted though and now, both beef cattle and dairy numbers, have increased strongly again, having risen from 509,524 for dairy and 4,407,108 heads for beef in 2015 to 812,235 dairy cattle and 9,394,111 heads of beef in 2022 (Department of Livestock Development data). While in the beef sector, more than 1.3 million farmers own 1-20 cattle, only 367 own more than 200, indicating a strong dominance of smallholder production. Dairy producers tend to be larger but large producers still produce only an estimated 25-30% of the total volume, with producers up to 100 heads producing the lion's share. Ruminant feeding systems are traditionally largely based on local agro-industrial by-products and the native/naturalized grasses found in mixed farming systems. For dual purpose cattle, a shortage of feed, both in terms of quantity and quality, has become a major constraint. Where high quality roughage is of short supply, dairy farmers are forced to supplement rice straw, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts and/or low-quality roughage with concentrates, which leads to underperformance of the animals (AMIS, 2014). Recently, smallholder farmers have started to use concentrates and/or total mixed ration (TMR) bought through dairy cooperatives to feed their dairy cattle. Whilst the main roughage remains rice straw, an increasing number of farmers are also producing forages such as Napier and Ruzi grass, and buy corn silage, by-products, cassava pulp, etc. (Department of Livestock Development data)."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"The costs incurred by such supplementation are unclear. Feed prices had a slight tendency to increase in 2022 (Error! Reference source not found.), ranging between 8 and 16 THB per kg depending on feed, and above 23 THB for soybean meal. Nevertheless, feed imports have been increasing strongly before COVID-19 started to strangle economic activities in 2021 (Table 2). In dairy production ration include 5-15 kg of concentrate per day, while fresh grasses are supplied at 30-40 kg/d (Guinea, Ruzi, Napier, or Para). During the dry season fresh feed is replaced with silage, hay, rice straw, and other residues and by-products (personal communication). By-products suitable as feed come from paddy, field crops, orchards and plantation, and vegetable gardens. Cassava, sugar cane, pineapple, oil palm, and corn are produced in upland areas while land of low fertility is used for ruminant grazing. For non-ruminants, (broilers, layers, meat ducks and pigs) commercial compound feed from corn, soybean, fishmeal, cassava, and rice bran are used with some of the ingredients being imported in large quantities (Table 2). The availability of feed and roughages for ruminants often remains restricted in the dry season."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Interest in quality forages in the region has therefore significantly increased over the past decade."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Whereas for example in 2012 of the 130t of forage seeds produced by Ubon Seeds Co. Thailand, 95% were exported overseas and only 5% were sold locally and regionally, this proportion is reversed now, with most produce sold regionally. The production volume for 2023 is estimated to be about 100t. Forage seeds in Thailand and the SEA region"},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"The Asia and Pacific Seed Association (APSA, https://web.apsaseed.org/), of which the CGIAR (esp. CIMMYT and IRRI) is a stakeholder, was established in 1994, with the aim of promoting quality seed production and marketing in the Asia and Pacific Region. Today, it is the largest network of companies, associations and government bodies relating to seeds in the Asia Pacific region, including Thailand (with DOA, DOAE, NSTDA and KU as national stakeholders). It serves as a platform for sharing ideas and knowledge for better understanding, collaboration, and business growth."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"However, on a national level, Thailand is the only country in continental SE-Asia with a national seed association (http://seed.or.th/english/eng_index.html). Additionally, the Thai Seed Trade Association (THASTA, https://thasta.com/en/home/) has 155 members, from R&D, production, marketing, import/export, wholesale, and retail entities."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"THASTA promotes good relations between their members and builds links to other related associations who are interested in seed or seed technology. They also disseminate information on related topics and technologies to members and the general public and facilitate the development of the Thai seed industry on governmental and private sector level (e.g., regulations etc.). Furthermore, they provide advice to businesses on regulations and other seed sector related matters."},{"index":8,"size":172,"text":"The Forage Seed Production Association of Thailand, based in Khon Kaen, provides a knowledge exchange platform and is linked to the Thailand Pasture Seed Producer Club and its activities (see below). It is a less formal and much smaller arrangement than the previously mentioned associations and is mainly maintained through personal commitment of professionals in the field of livestock development and animal feeds. However, figures on forage seed production or sales as far as available in a compiled form, come from the Department of Livestock Development (Table 3). The Thailand Pasture Seed Producer Club has an office close to DLD and is supported by them. The club started in 2003 with about 3000-4000 farmers, with the idea of linking farmers to buyers acting similar to a cooperative. The club would provide purification and sorting equipment, as well as packaging machines, and farmers would pay a small percentage of their sales to the club. Over the past 3-4 years, Panicum maximum has become very popular, with demand outstripping supply and driving prices up."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"Traders often approach farmers directly and offer high prices, so farmers now often sell straight to middlemen, which has led to a decrease in club members. Most of the Panicum is resold in Thailand."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"Currently, about 2000 farmers remain and produce 31t of Ruzi, 9t of Simuang (P. maximum), 1.5t Mombasa, 2.5t Paspalum, and 13t of Stylo. DLD Mahasarakham checks the seed quality, but the sales price is still lower than from private sector companies."},{"index":11,"size":54,"text":"Many farmers produce and sell forage seed by themselves, some even export to Myanmar and Vietnam. The Bureau of Animal Nutrition started a project in 2022 that aims at expanding farmer forage seed production area to a total of 4,800 ha. Farmers joining the project will plant Napier, Pangola, or Ruzi grass, or maize."},{"index":12,"size":49,"text":"Ubon Forage Seeds, a private operation, has in 2022 harvested 71 tons of Mun River and 25 tons of Mombasa, a smaller amount of Purple Guinea, 7 tons of Ubon Paspalum, 6 tons of Mulato II, and 5 tons of Ruzi (the latter three bought from producers in Laos)."},{"index":13,"size":124,"text":"Other companies focus exclusively on one species, such as Arachis pintoi or Crotalaria juncea which they produce for niche markets or in large quantities with low margins. However, while Arachis finds some use as cover plant and crop, the Crotalaria market in SEA lies barren still. Producers rather take advantage of the diverse climatic conditions Thailand has to offer and produce for overseas buyers in Europe, the USA, Australia and more recently Africa. To satisfy future demands of these buyers, some producers (such as Isaan Seeds) venture into exploring other species, such as Lablab purpureus, Clitoria ternatea, Canavalia ensiformis or Centrosema pubescens, some of which could, in the wake of climate change, offer new options for farmers in more temperate parts of the globe."},{"index":14,"size":9,"text":"Some dedicated forage seed producers in the country are:"},{"index":15,"size":160,"text":"1. A major problem in Thailand, as reported by actors in seed value chains working with smallholder farmers as seed producers, is disloyalty in the form of breaches of contract. As in other countries in the region too, law enforcement in the agricultural sector is weak, which gives both farmers and investors little legal security. Complaints about breaches of contract are therefore very common and a major constraint to contract farming. Dishonest and opportunistic traders try to capitalize on this setup by actively luring farmers into selling contracted produce to them, paying a better price and then trying to sell the produce online at high prices, but without the necessary expertise to provide a high-quality product. In consequence, grass seed that was snatched away from contractors in this manner, got offered uncleaned and unscarified at the open market, leading to low uptake and potential reputational problems for the crop, especially among farmers who venture into forages for the first time."},{"index":16,"size":31,"text":"Similarly, high prices of alternative cropping options such as cassava can lead to many farmers shifting from forage seed production to higher profit crops, leaving buyers and processors scrambling for produce."},{"index":17,"size":21,"text":"The building of strong long-term relationships is thus essential to a healthy cooperation, but still does not provide guarantees for compliance."}]},{"head":"Forage seed selection or breeding in-country","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"About 15-20 years ago, forage species selection and evaluation were carried out by few Thai individuals from universities or government departments, but they would only assess biomass yield and seed yield."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"During the Forage for Smallholders Project (Werner Stür and Peter Horne (CIAT) funded by ACIAR, 1995ACIAR, -99 & 2000-02)-02), Brachiaria (now Urochloa) seed from CIAT was evaluated for drought tolerance in Thailand. Werner Stür brought the seed into the country and Mulato was found to perform well. However, Mulato had not been registered at this time and once IPRs had been established and the hybrid was released, work was not continued. A new plant variety can be registered by a Thai plant breeder. A juristic person which has its head office in Thailand is treated as a Thai entity. A non-Thai plant breeder or a foreign entity may seek protection under the Act if they are a national of a country that is a party to the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, which currently stands as the only international convention or treaty on plant varieties to which Thailand adheres (Siriwat, 2016). Thailand is currently, though, preparing to join UPOV (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants)."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"In the words of the Plant Protection Act 2542 (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Thailand, 1999) an applicant for registration of a new plant variety shall be a breeder with the following qualities:"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"(1) being of Thai nationality or being a juristic person having a head office in Thailand;"},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"(2) being of the nationality of a country allowing Thai nationals or juristic persons having head offices in Thailand to apply for protection in that country;"},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"(3) being of the nationality of a country which is a party to an international convention or agreement on the protection of plant varieties to which Thailand is also a party;"},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"(4) having a domicile or carrying out real and effective industry or business in Thailand or in a country which is a party to an international convention or agreement on the protection of plant varieties to which Thailand is also a party."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"The conditions for protection of new plant varieties are similar to those included in the UPOV Convention."},{"index":9,"size":145,"text":"In addition to the requirements of DUS (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability Testing), new plant varieties must not have been distributed in or outside the Kingdom by the breeder or with the breeder's consent for more than one year prior to the date of application. This condition is roughly equivalent to the concept of commercial novelty included in the UPOV Conventions and many countries' plant variety protection laws. The rights conferred with respect to new plant varieties are also roughly equivalent to those provided under UPOV 1991, although the protection periods are shorter than those established by UPOV 1991, lasting for 12 years for plants giving fruits within a period of not over two years of the cultivation, 17 years for plants giving fruits after more than two years of cultivation, and 27 years for treebased plants giving fruits after two years or more of cultivation."},{"index":10,"size":74,"text":"Going beyond the UPOV Conventions, the Thai law requires applications for new plant variety protection to include details about the origin of the genetic material used for breeding, as well as a proof of a profitsharing agreement when general domestic or wild plant varieties have been used for breeding of the variety. Varieties for which Plant Breeder Rights (PBRs) were granted are written into the national register of protected varieties (Gagné and Ratanasatien, 2016)."},{"index":11,"size":120,"text":"In practice, experiences vary, probably depending on crop and expectations. Registration was reported to be a complicated and lengthy process that requires a lot of expert knowledge, often more than private sector players can offer or are willing to afford. Even large companies of cash crops, such as oil palm, reportedly abstain from going through the process of registration to obtain PBRs, being considered too lengthy and difficult. Other companies have produced the data necessary to apply for PBRs in other countries (e.g., Australia) through partner companies who would use them for the Plant Variety Rights application. The application in Thailand requires an in-depth description of botanical differences of the new variety, including very detailed leaf, stem and flower measurements."},{"index":12,"size":120,"text":"Given the differences in plant material, the application process is not uniform, but specific for each species. For material of species that have previously been registered, existing guidelines can be used (right process in Figure 1). This would now be the case for Pennisetum or Brachiaria materials. Other species that have not previously been registered will require the full process (both sides in Figure 1), starting with requesting to enter the genus in the plant protection list and then developing guidelines suitable for the actual testing. While this is not a difficult process, it is time-consuming and should be started early on, maybe already during the selection and evaluation phase for new varieties, several years ahead of an expected registration."},{"index":13,"size":267,"text":"The registration of a newly developed Brachiaria hybrid as a result of the collaboration between DLD and JIRCAS is currently in progress. The Department of Agriculture is responsible for the registration of the new plant material but has little experience with forage, as mostly cash crops get registered. This makes the process more difficult now, but it is expected that the second registration of a forage species would already benefit from this first. However, the regulations seem to be developed for each genus and currently exist for Napier grass and Brachiaria (it is not clear if the renaming to Urochloa will cause complications) and other species might face slower processes than these two. For other crops, upon submission, DOA will carry out a DUS test (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability Testing) by itself, but for forage species, it delegates this task to the Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development. For the two species mentioned above, the plot tests take two years, and data will be assessed by a committee from DOA and selected specialists, deciding the eligibility of the material, which will lead to approval or rejection. Since the Act also sets out specific rules on access and benefit sharing, a person who collects or gathers wild plant varieties for commercial research must obtain permission from the Ministry and sign a profitsharing agreement. The income accrued from the varieties gathered under the agreement will go into the Plant Varieties Protection Fund for plant conservation purposes (Siriwat, 2016). Though this is unlikely to be the case for CIAT's activities, it might still be an option, and thus should be considered."},{"index":14,"size":35,"text":"Plant species for which protection under the Breeder Rights Law was granted by the year 2016 are listed in the Annex. They include Pennisetum and an application for Brachiaria (see above) as forage grass species."}]},{"head":"Import and export of seeds","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Officially, all seeds entering Thailand must be accompanied by phytosanitary and GM-free certificates, both of which must be issued by an approved authority. Seeds not accompanied by such certification are subject to analysis to confirm their phytosanitary and GM-free status by government quarantine laboratories. Their import is also liable to tax. However, small quantities of seed (less than 100g) for research purposes are tax free. While bringing small amounts of seeds into the country bypassing the official channels is against regulations, it is effectively very common with the assumption being that small quantities from a reliable source for research in a controlled environment are unlike to cause harm. However, political motives may lead to delays or constraints, as was experienced in some sectors (see below under Difficulties and Risks)."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"Export is unhampered from the Thai side but import conditions of the destination country need to be observed. Most countries in SEA seem to follow similar policies as Thailand, though, and require seed quality certification and fumigation (phytosanitary certification) which will be done by the Department of Agriculture. Some logistics companies act as facilitators for import and export procedures. However, importing countries have different procedures, all of which can be complied with very quickly or in a couple of weeks. The exception is if a PRA (Plant Risk Analysis) is demanded for the introduction of new materials, in which case the process can be very slow from the Thai side. Even though the process is only moderately complex, not requiring more than a few days of a government agent to be completed, it can take years before action is taken."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"An independent issue is shipping costs, which rose due to COVID more than 5-fold from 3500 to 19000 USD per container. Whilst this presented less of a problem for short-distance exports, such as to Cambodia or Laos, overseas transportation has become a concern, especially for bulk producers, whose margins are entirely consumed by shipping costs, forcing them to double their prices and reducing their potential competitiveness. However, this situation may be of a temporary nature."}]},{"head":"Farmers needs","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Grasses","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"While in the past farmers did not choose forages actively but rather tried out what was cheapest and most available, many are now choosing more carefully. Seed availability still shapes decisions, as do social media, especially Facebook and WhatsApp groups. Farmers who are new to forages often ask in such groups for advice on forage species, yields, crude protein content etc. The answers are, however, not always adequate since they do not consider the differences in environment, including soils, temperature, rainfall, etc., and are based on individual experiences."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Advertising, either by the private sector or governments, is also targeting this segment of farmers, and often distorts reality. Words like hybrid and super have been added to common varieties (e.g., Super Mombasa F1) by private firms, proclaiming them to be far superior to their commonly named twins."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Similarly, new materials such as Cayman, Cobra, Camello, or Mestizo, have been introduced in the market with high promises, few of which so far were found to be significant for farmers (e.g., waterlogging tolerance in Cayman, or more upright growth in Cobra). Cobra in fact was often disliked by farmers because similar to Mulato II, it itches when harvested. Camello was not yet seen as competitive to other grasses by many farmers due to its shorter growth and was additionally disliked by seed producers because it seeds throughout the wet season, making production very difficult."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Sweet grass (also Israel Sweet grass), a type of dwarf Napier grass, has found its way into farming systems by cuttings. It was and is, like many other Napier grasses, promoted by local government agencies in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Although it has fairly good protein levels, it only grows well on fertile soils, as other Napier materials too, and no good research comparing it to other materials has been done. While it certainly does have its space in farming systems, guinea grasses and Mulato II are seen as superior materials by local experts."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"While this does not do direct harm, it apparently increases the number of options, making it harder for farmers to distinguish between real and imagined progress."},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"Panicum maximum cultivars, such as Simuang, TD 58 (Tanzania), and Mombasa, are cherished especially as cut-and-carry forages and are widely planted in the region. While Ruzi used to be the entry level forage, it has been largely supplanted by these Guinea grasses now. Mulato II is now entering increasingly the market, with farmers realizing its value, despite the high cost of seeds. The forage quality Mulato II produces, its drought tolerance and its grazing tolerance, convinces farmers that it is worth the premium. Still, Mulato II is hairy and many smallholder farmers who focus on cut-and-carry complain about itchy arms when cutting the plants."},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"The criteria farmers in the region generally consider in forages are high yield, good quality, and easy establishment. Specific criteria may depend on local conditions and farming/livestock system; they include issues such as the hairiness of Mulato II, already mentioned, and sharp leaves especially in older Paspalum, as well as its perceived inferior performance in the uplands."},{"index":8,"size":72,"text":"Thailand's neighbouring countries (especially Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam) rely to some degree on forage seed production and imports from Thailand. Farmers in the Philippines are already further progressed in their diversification from Guinea grasses and buy equal quantities of Mulato II and Mombasa each year. In Vietnam, Cambodia and Malaysia, Mombasa is still the preferred material, whereas Indonesian and Burmese farmers prefer Mulato II. Laos imports Mombasa, Mulato II and Ubon stylo."}]},{"head":"Legumes","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Demand for legumes can be divided into regional and global demand. On a regional level, the demand for existing materials is currently rather low, though potential demand is high if materials suitable for local needs were on offer. Stylo, Desmodium, Centrosema, Pueraria, and to a lesser extent Crotalaria and Arachis are all being sold across the region but in comparatively small quantities, though exact figures do not seem to exist. Large seed companies such as East-West Seeds are encouraging growers to grow Crotalaria as nematode control. One major limitation of current legumes on offer is their inability to compete with forage grasses in mixtures, depriving tropical systems of an equivalent to a ryegrass-clover pasture in temperate climates. Professionals in the livestock and seed sector in Thailand see this as a huge potential market, but admit that making it work, could be challenging."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"International demand for legumes, especially in subtropical and temperate areas outside the region, is high. Production of Crotalaria juncea can currently not meet demand, and production output is doubling on a yearly basis. However, to supply markets in developed countries, high quality standards need to be met and weed contamination needs to be eliminated as far as can be expected. It is likely that other materials will become interesting in the future as a consequence of climate change, including Stylo, though creating interest for new materials is often challenging. Experience with Canavalia ensiformis shows that the few farmers who did try it, found it excellent material, and Lablab and Canavalia were very successfully introduced in Spain. Also, new pathways are being explored by some enterprises in Europe and the US, where for example Crotalaria is sometimes used for biodiesel (Italy), as intercrop in sugarcane (US, EU), or replaces hemp for some applications. Its ability to fix N while otherwise having many similarities to hemp makes it for some farmers preferable."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Generally, especially winding legumes such as Clitoria, Canavalia, or Centrosema require not only the development or suitable material but also the presentation of a functioning system, since they cannot simply replace prostrate species. Hence, producers find it often challenging, in addition to material selection and production, to also find ways of integrating such materials into existing farming systems."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"The number of systems and potential uses also makes it difficult to define the properties of an ideal material. Some materials also depend on specific pollinators, such as carpenter bees in order to produce seed, which can limit their production in some areas. However, some properties specific to an ideal forage legume would be:"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• Easy to establish and maintain;"},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"• Perennial;"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Endures regular cutting or grazing;"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• Combines with forage grasses into a reasonably stable community;"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• Produces seed easily and during the dry season;"},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"• Produces small seeds, as they are more efficiently transported."}]},{"head":"The location Thailand","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Potential for collaboration","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The DLD Laboratory in Mahasarakham province has ambitions to become a forage seed hub. They already have machinery for purification etc. but have for now no collaboration with other companies. They are planning to offer quality checks and certification services in the future."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development has 33 centers in every region of Thailand. They also have several sections of interest, including a Forage Seed Development section, which is responsible for research and development of seed technology, conditioning, storage and quality testing. The forage seed quality testing laboratory provides seed quality testing and certification for forage seed following ISTA rules. Seed quality reports include seed moisture content, seed purity, 1,000-seed weight, and germination rate."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Experience from the cassava program, working on cassava and waxy cassava germplasm in Thailand was from an institutional collaboration point of view quite positive. Formal collaborations with Kasetsart University (KU) and the Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI) were very reliable, fruitful and honest, including thorough crediting of contributions, even in publications that were not authored by and had no contribution from CIAT. The work relationship was generally described as cordial and supportive."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Communication in Asian countries generally works different from the west, being less based on email and more relying on face-to-face interaction and fast communication tools such as messaging apps and teleconferences. However, collaborators were found to be generally reliable in producing results, even if they did not report back on current progress."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"However, expert resources for most tasks need to be imported from outside the country."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"The private sector is generally very open to potential collaboration as long as such does not deviate too far from their business model. Due to the lack of public private partnerships in Thailand, private firms are currently undertaking research and plant selection themselves as far as possible within their means. Support for these endeavors would be welcome."}]},{"head":"Production setup","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Seed production in Thailand is generally performed by smallholder farmers in a contract farming agreement. Due to the very limited farm sizes in Thailand of only about 4 ha, producing substantial amounts of seed requires a large number of farmers, creating high transaction costs. Since in such large groups some people always try to cheat, trying to sell low quality seed or mixing seed with foreign material, control mechanisms through sampling need to be set up, which is complex and costly. Other places such as Brazil, or Australia can produce at a much larger scale, with one farm being able to produce the entire amount of what a seed producer would export in a year."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"It is common in many Asian societies, and the same is true for Thailand, that even though IPRs may be protected by law, business approaches will be copied, and market share stolen through unfair and dishonest practices. Company staff are known to use, for example, farmer networks built by the company, to which they gained access during their work, in order to buy the commodities produced for the company at a slightly higher price from farmers and then attempting direct sales to the company's clients. Such attempts are mostly unsuccessful in the long run, but do cause economic damage and create friction in the relationship between the company and its network. Equally the theft of know-how, for example on seed processing for a specific species, is a constant threat."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The strong uptake of Panicum maximum varieties in recent years might mean that market penetration for a new forage grass could be difficult at present. If Panicum results for most farmers in satisfying results, it is unlikely that they will make the investment to switch to another grass though there may be new varieties, unless it provides significant advantages, or new pressures require system change."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Thailand as location seems a reasonably good choice in the region, providing relative stability and security, good physical infrastructure, a wide range of services, reasonable human resources, and a cultural attitude of commitment and the honoring of agreements. The legal system gives a fair degree of leverage compared to its neighbors, though the bureaucratic apparatus tends to be rather cumbersome and can present occasional obstacles. Corruption, though not uncommon in the country and according to official statistics getting worse since the change in government, is still at a level that can be dealt with."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Provided that potential problems have been identified beforehand and addressed in an MoU with partners and the government, Thailand seems a safe choice. Such issues include the facilitation of germplasm imports, an agreement on the procedures for research products, their ownership and the policies related to them, as well as potential profit sharing, if applicable. This will have to be discussed especially in the light of international and national funding sources, or, more complicated, a combination of both."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Assuming that the research focus will be on livelihood improvement for smallholder farmers, new grasses are less in demand, with the current materials satisfying most needs already. Good legume materials that tolerate frequent cutting and grazing, comparable to white clover in the temperate zone, however, are still needed, to overcome the clear limitations of Stylo. The ideal would be a legume that combines well with Mulato II or one of the Panicum materials, either as a supplementary feed or, in the best case, as part of a mixed pasture. However, this is for now a remote goal and more immediately, legumes just present an interesting opportunity for improved protein supply."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"As to potential markets, Vietnam seems the most promising market for improved forages, with its large number of farmers and a thriving cattle production sector. While there may be opportunities in Cambodia, Myanmar, and to a much lesser degree in Laos, Thailand itself also offers a maturing forage market. However, the development of this sector in SE-Asia is hard to predict given the fast-paced political, economic, and social development in the region. Since many of these improved forage-based systems are only emerging, it might be the right time to start the development of more advanced systems now, to be deployable in 10-15 years."}]},{"head":"Annex","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Thailand, Additional information as referred to above "}]},{"head":"Conceptual framework","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Ruzi grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis) with high crude protein and digestibility is one of the most promising forage grasses in tropical regions including the Indochinese peninsula nations. Therefore, for not only tropical beef cattle but also dairy cattle in these countries, improving the productivity of Ruzi grass is important. Furthermore, in order to make a new variety which is suitable for their countries, it is also important to create the hybrid of Ruzi grass and Brachiaria spp. and to extend adaptability. JIRCAS made tetraploid variety of Ruzi grass (referred to as Ruzi grass (x4)) by the joint research of Miyazaki University and Okinawa Prefecture. We think that this is a promising variety because of its high productivity more than original variety (diploid). Therefore, we want to release the new variety using the Ruzi grass (x4) as mother material plant."}]},{"head":"Objective of research","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"In order to make a new variety of Ruzi grass which suited the climate of the Indochinese peninsula nations, JIRCAS will conduct the research as follows:"}]},{"head":"Selection of promising lines of Ruzi grass (x4)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"We will carry into Thailand the F1 seeds made by crossing within the F0 population of Ruzi grass (x4)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Then the promising lines with high productivity are selected from the F1 population which germinated from seeds"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Selection of promising lines of hybrid Brachiaria spp."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"We will carry into Thailand the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. brizantha cv. Mulato I, and the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. decumbens cv. Basilisk. Then the promising lines with traits suited climate and soil of the Indochinese peninsula nations are selected from the hybrid individuals which germinated from the seeds."}]},{"head":"Scope of research","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Development of Feed Resources and Forage Crops for the Domestic Livestock in the Rural Areas of Indochina"}]},{"head":"Research methodology","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Selection of promising lines of Ruzi grass (x4)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"We will carry into the Thailand the F1 seeds made by crossing within the F0 population (6 plants) of Ruzi grass (x4). Each seed will be sown in each plastic pot with a number label (Photo. 1). After one month from the germination, each seedling will .be transplanted from the pot to the experimental field."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Each seedling with a number label will be arranged with 1.5m intervals, then, we will support its growth with spraying water. We will conduct the evaluation test which measured characteristics, such as at flowering date, productivity, seed productivity, and a ratio of the leaf. Then we will choose the superior individuals with the highest productivity in the population (Photo. 2)."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"These superior individuals will be isolated, the seed produced within isolated population is sown into the experimental field, and a growing test will be conducted. In the growing test, the traits of the superior individual population will be checked by comparing with other superior Brachiaria spp. and the application for variety registration of the population as superior line of Ruzi grass (x4). Simultaneously, the evaluation of nutritive value will be conducted by analysis of a protein content or digestibility."}]},{"head":"Selection of promising lines of hybrid Brachiaria spp.","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"We will carry into the Thailand the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. brizantha cv. Mulato I, and the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. decumbens cv. Basilisk. Each seed will be sown to plastic pot with a number for each mother plant (about fifty plants). When each seed germinates and grows well, three superior seedlings will be selected out of the same mother's seedling population, respectively. Then, these seedlings will be transplanted to the experimental field. We will conduct the evaluation test by the same method of 1), and chose the superior individual with traits suited climate and soil of the Indochinese peninsula nations."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Hereafter, the superior individual will be evaluated by the same method as 1), and applied for variety registration as superior line of the hybrid Brachiaria sp."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"In addition, we will check them apomixis or not by embryo sac analysis because apomixes is important character for agriculture. Furthermore, since the convenience of DNA marker selection method is high to the judgment of apomixis, we are going to transfer the technology to Thailand."}]},{"head":"Research plan","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The project will cover a period of five years (2011-2016)"}]},{"head":"Needs to conduct research in Thailand","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Climate and soil conditions in the Thailand are very different from those in Japan which is the temperate zone. Therefore, it is necessary for this project to be carried out in the tropical zone. In addition, we want to make new cultivar of tetraploid Ruzi grass and hybrid Brachiaria which suited the climate of Thailand. "}]},{"head":"Cambodia","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Forages in Cambodia","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Traditionally, cattle is raised on rice straw and grazing natural areas. Forages have been successfully introduced to smallholders (especially for cattle), mainly for improved animal nutrition and to reduce labor requirements. The country is currently home to about 3 million heads of cattle and buffaloes, but no data exists to estimate the current demand for forages. Over the past years the demand has been steadily increasing though, hand in hand with the use of improved animal breeds increasing too, and more and more farmers grow forages for their own livestock, particularly in Takeo, Kampong Cham and Kandal provinces."}]},{"head":"Seed production in Cambodia","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Most seed companies in the country are smaller local companies who produce or import seed. The main seed production is for rice, vegetables, maize, soybean, and mung bean. Export of seed is rare."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"SmartAgro Sustainable Innovations Company Limited, a local company, is engaging in forages. The company was registered in January 2018 to commercialize cover crops and is the first to do so in Cambodia. From 2018 to mid-2019, the Mekong Inclusive Growth and Innovation Program (MIGIP) led by Swisscontact, supported SmartAgro to scale-up cover crop seed production and to test its products on the market. From 2019 onward, SmartAgro's production kept increasing year by year from 5 tons to 20 tons in 2020 to nearly 80 tons in 2022. The company has imported small quantities of seed of 15 forage species to start their production as part of MIGIP without certification but is currently in the process of trying to get certification for their production output. There are official seed certification schemes for all kinds of crops in Cambodia, which are all issued by the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). These schemes certify variety identity and purity of agricultural seed moving from or into Cambodia and are generally not very expensive."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Whereas certification of food legumes is possible, there is currently no certification scheme for forages (grasses or legumes) in place. Though some forages have been introduced to Cambodia, these entered without certification as part of projects and include Panicum maximum cv. Simuang, Brachiaria hybrid cv. Mulato II, Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu and Paspalum atratum cv. Terenos, as well as Stylosanthes guianensis cv. Stylo184."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Same as for import procedures, to get certified, one has to apply with the Department of Crop Seed after getting the Phytosanitary certification from the Crop Protection, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Department."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Cambodia has a Quality Declared Seed System (QDSS) 1 , which FAO supports for seed production and quality control for cassava, maize, mung bean, and soybean."}]},{"head":"Institutional setup for research centers","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The A gene bank of cover crops holding about 45 species and more than 200 cultivars is managed by GDA/DALRM and located at the Bos Khnor CA research station with the main objectives to provide high quality genetic materials to farmer communities and the private sector."}]},{"head":"Import and IPR procedures","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"While CARDI for example has breeding programs on banana and cassava for which it has imported seeds for research purposes, they have no experience with forages."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The Law on Seed Management and Plant Breeder's Right which was adopted by the National Assembly on April 8th of 2008 covers all plant seeds and vegetative planting materials. Whilst the purpose of the law is to manage and control the plant breeding, release for use, production, processing, registration, distribution, import and export of seeds, and to protect new plant varieties in Cambodia, it is not fully implemented."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Seed importers have to get a phytosanitary certificate from the Crop Protection, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Department and need to register with the Department of Crop Seed and get the material inspected before being allowed to import seed."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Imports can be processed as batch, so that even if large numbers of varieties are imported at once the importer only needs to apply for one import permit. For research purposes, one permit will only grant an import volume of 100 kg of seed or planting material without additional fees, while larger quantities will be considered as for business purposes and incur fees. The import process takes 1-2 months depending on each case, whilst the export process is much faster."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"Intellectual property rights are granted by the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME) for the protection of new plant varieties. MAFF, however, manages and controls new plant varieties as well as seeds. So far only two crop varieties have been registered in the country: Fragrant Rice (Sen Kra Ob 01) and Hybrid Maize (CHM 01). The process to secure intellectual property rights has been described as easy, also for international organizations. However, Cambodia is still not a member of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), and therefore granted breeder's rights are legally recognized only in Cambodia. The Cambodian government, though, recognizes rights from neighboring countries as well as other ASEAN countries."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"On a wider social level, the idea of Intellectual Property Rights is rather new to Cambodians, even though they formally existed since the 1960-1970 in Cambodia which joined in 1995 the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). IPR infringement can be easily controlled in Cambodia."}]},{"head":"Law and Regulations","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The Law on Seed Management and Plant Breeder's Rights from 2009 sets the regulatory framework for plant breeding and selection criteria in Cambodia, if those are intended to be leading to variety registration and intellectual property rights."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Article 6 states:"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"To be eligible for protection, new varieties of plants shall satisfy the following criteria:"},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Varieties are considered to be new as long as they have not been sold or circulated in the market. However, with the agreement of the breeder, new varieties may be sold or circulated in the market in the Kingdom of Cambodia, for a period not exceeding one year, or for varieties which come from outside the Kingdom of Cambodia, a period of six years for vines and trees, and a period of four years for all other crops, in all cases starting from the day of applying for the right of protection (Article 7)."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"Varieties are considered to be distinct if they are clearly distinguishable from any other varieties which are generally known and recognized on the date of applying for the right or the priority right (Article 8)."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"A natural person or legal person who has bred or discovered and developed a new variety and has the intention to protect the intellectual property of that variety shall file an application in the MIME. All documents of application shall be submitted to the MAFF to evaluate the technical outcomes in compliance with the provision of this law. The owner of a new plant variety shall have the right to sell or transfer its ownership. Selling or transfer made to a natural person or legal person shall be made in writing and signed by the party concerned and recorded at the MIME and also giving notice to the MAFF (Article 14)."},{"index":7,"size":129,"text":"Acts in respect of propagating material of a protected variety for the production or multiplication, conditioning for the purpose of propagation, offering for sale, selling or other marketing, exporting, importing and stocking for any the purposes shall require the authorization of the breeder. The breeder may make this authorization subject to conditions and limitations. Making a business as stipulated in paragraph 1 of this article, or using harvested products arising from the unauthorized use of a protected variety, shall require the authorization of the breeder. The owner has proper opportunities to exercise his rights. If the owner knows of the unauthorized use or business in the harvested products of a protected variety but did not exercise his right, then he will lose the file a complaint to the court."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"The plant breeder's right also covers the varieties listed below:"},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"• Varieties which are essentially-derived from a protected variety, where the protected variety is not itself an essentially-derived variety • Varieties which are not clearly distinguishable from a protected variety • Varieties whose production requires the repeated use of a protected variety (Article 15). The Breeder's Right shall not extend to:"},{"index":10,"size":35,"text":"1. Acts done for experimental purposes 2. Acts done privately and for non-commercial purposes 3. Acts done for the purpose of breeding other varieties, except where paragraph 4 of article 15 of this law applies."},{"index":11,"size":55,"text":"Based on the legal protection of interest and limitation of the owner's right of the new plant variety, the MIME shall cooperate with the MAFF to issue regulations that limit the rights of owners of protected varieties in order to permit farmers to use those varieties for propagating purposes, on their own holding (Article 16)."},{"index":12,"size":103,"text":"As stated in paragraph 4 of article 15, the owner of a protected variety shall lose the right of protection, if the owner or person authorized by the breeder sells or circulates them in the market in the Kingdom of Cambodia. The right shall not be lost if the protected variety is used for further propagation or for an export of materials of the variety, which enables the propagation of the variety in a country which does not protect varieties of the plant genus or species to which the variety belongs, unless the exported materials is exclusively for final consumption purposes (Article 17)."},{"index":13,"size":79,"text":"While using the right, the owner of a protected variety has a responsibility to provide seed samples which can be grown and which show the characteristics as stated in the application form for the grant of protection as required by the competent authority In order to retain protection of the variety, the owner is also obliged to give information on the protected variety and make it easy for the competent authority to inspect material of the variety (Article 18)."},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"The validity of the breeder's right is twenty years from the date of the grant of breeder's right or twentyfive years for trees and vines (Article 19). "}]},{"head":"Sources","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"III.","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Laos","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Forages in Laos","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":279,"text":"Demand for forage seed in Laos persists, particularly in the north, though figures are not available. Farmers get exposed to forages mostly though government agencies or projects and then may contact seed traders directly. Most of the forage seed market is informal and self-organizing, with few traders using Facebook pages to allow seed orders online via chat. The provision of detailed information on forage characteristics and use is very limited and generally no specific advice is provided or available. Farmer choice is almost exclusively determined by price, with Ruzi being the by far cheapest option since seed is being produced in-country and sold by many people in the northern provinces. In recent years the forage seed landscape in Laos has narrowed further due to a number of factors, all related to a strong reduction in seed imports. The first is a significant drop in demand due to COVID-19 and its economic implications. One major importer of forage seeds now only sells about 2-3 tons of forage seed per year in total, whereas pre-COVID, Ruzi was the top selling grass, with about 5-6 tons per year, followed by 1-2 tons of Stylo. All other materials had little to no demand, except for Pennisetum, which is not propagated by seed. Furthermore, with the strong decline of purchasing power of the LAK over the past 12 months, buying seed from Thailand is not an option for most smallholders anymore. Thus, smallholder forage seed demand is now even more than before fed locally, almost exclusively with Ruzi. A change to this situation is not expected to happen within the next 10 years at least, since local production systems cannot compete with neighboring countries."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"While Stylo is requested also by smallholders directly, it is not clear for which exact purpose they buy it. Since goat meat is popular in Laos and the confinement of goats to prevent crop damage is increasingly demanded, Stylo might find use as goat feed for fully confined goat production systems. The demand for Stylo by projects, however, is often so high that supply cannot keep up with it. In the past, large projects such as impact mitigation components of hydropower projects, but also major development agencies such as CARE International bought large quantities of forage seeds, but this is not the case anymore. This posed problems for seed traders, since farmers often waited for projects to come and provide seed, rather than undertaking the investment themselves."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The opening of the Laos-China railway has led to the establishment of commercial cattle farms in several northern provinces, especially Bokeo and Luangnamtha, aiming at the Chinese market. One of these farms is 1000ha large and hosts a 500-cattle grazing system, with planned extension. However, no detailed information on these developments could be obtained."}]},{"head":"Seed production in Laos","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Many private individuals are buying and selling seed in Laos at the moment, but no international company is working in this sector, nor are there official government engagements yet. The activity is mainly driven by the prohibitive exchange rate with other currencies, the LAK having lost about 50% of its value over the past 12 months, putting other seed sources effectively out of reach for smallholders."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Local seed producers are mostly farmers, government officials from the livestock sector, or traders, any of whom now harvest seed of forage crops they have already established and that are easy to process. This puts Ruzi at the forefront of local seed production, mainly in Luang Prabang, Xiengkhouang and Huaphan, with about 500 tons of Ruzi seed being produced annually. This limits farmer choices mainly to this species and Pennisetum cuttings which are popular too. Mulato 2 seed is produced in Oudomxai, mainly for export to Thailand, where it can be processed. The vegetative proliferation of other materials does not seem to play a major role."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Forage material testing is currently funded in Laos through Chinese and Australian projects, testing a range of materials; legumes such as Stylo, Arachis, Centrosema etc., and forage grasses such as Nile grass, Pangola grass, Star grass etc., but also Brachiaria, Pennisetum, Paspalum and Panicum materials. These trials are ultimately aiming at developing forage production systems for feed export to China (i.e., hay bales, bricks, or pellets), developing seed production systems, and finding new forage options for local smallholders."}]},{"head":"Seed certification","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"No official seed certification is available or generally requested by buyers. Seed testing is possible and test results will be provided on request, but they cannot be seen as equivalent to official certification schemes, providing no guarantees to buyers."}]},{"head":"Institutional setup for research centers","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Since CIAT is already established in the country, operation would be formally simple. However, not having land at its own disposal, CIAT would require MoUs with national research centers to use their facilities and conduct selection in collaboration with them."}]},{"head":"Import and IPR procedures","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Import of seed into the country by traders is mainly done informally, requiring no procedures such as phytosanitary certification or the likes. While official procedures for the importation of seeds in general do exist, they are not observed in daily cross-border trade."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Registration of materials can be done through the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF) and has been granted for local forage materials three years ago, namely Ruzi c.v. Namsuang, Guinea c.v. Namsuang and Stylo c.v. Namsuang. The process is not difficult, involving a request to be sent to DLF, the presentation of research findings and a justification, after which, if found adequate, registration will be granted. It is, however, questionable in how far this registration is recognized beyond the country borders. IV."}]},{"head":"Sources","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Interviews","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Vietnam","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock and Forages in Vietnam","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The story of forage adoption in Vietnam is tied more closely to the development of the livestock sector than in most other countries in the region. Improved forages were introduced to Vietnam several decades ago, with the earliest projects related to CIAT going back to at least the early 1990s. Until recently, livestock production in the country was almost exclusively smallholder based, and mostly a typical asset-based farm element, rather than a commodity focused production approach. Animals were kept as living bank accounts in free-grazing systems, without major inputs on animal health or care, leading to slow growth rates, seasonal weight and herd size fluctuations, and stagnant productivity."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"Local Yellow Cattle made up the overwhelming majority of the cattle herd in the country, due to their robustness and adaptation to local conditions. The adoption of improved forages in these systems seemed a ludicrous proposition to smallholders, who argued with project implementers that they did not need to waste time on planting grass, it was growing naturally all around them, and feeding animals higher quality feed would still not prevent disease and death, which was the biggest factor of loss to farmers. With project interventions, adoption of forage grasses and animal production systems based on a commodity approach was seen locally, but the management of such systems was still far below their potential. A market environment marked by belief-led consumer preferences such as beef from local breeds being tastier, frozen meat being tasteless and unhealthy etc., prevented more fundamental system change."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"In the early 2010s large companies started to invest in cattle production in Vietnam. Now, Vinamilk, Campina, TH milk, and Ba Vi milk are the large names in the dairy sector, which is entirely industrialized. While Vinamilk adopted a complete package approach, all other companies chose a cooperative business model in which farmers contribute feed (mainly Napier and maize) based on oral agreements, rather than true contract farming. This model is especially developed in the Mekong delta. Some of the companies investing in beef rather than dairy are importing large numbers of live beef cattle for fattening. These companies require big amounts of forages, but also complement with agricultural by-products such as rice straw. This demand for good quality feed has led many farmers within reach of production sites to grow forages for direct sale, with some of them specializing on forage production for large livestock producers. Forage sells for 1400-2000 VND per kg of fresh matter, depending on location."},{"index":4,"size":693,"text":"The smallholder beef sector started changing dramatically in 2016, when the deterioration of pork prices drove many farmers away from pig production and to venture into cattle production. This led to an intensification in 2017 that got turbocharged when ASF hit Vietnam in 2020, and a large number of farmers who had remained in pig production changed to beef cattle. In parallel, a new generation of affluent urban consumers making up a significant market share, made higher quality, safe beef in supermarkets (rather than wet markets) a demanded commodity, opening the door to more productive cattle breeds. From being virtually absent 15 years ago, now 60-90% of all cattle are crossbreeds in the majority of regions, with higher body weight and growth rates. This change demands high quality feed sources, which has been leading to a fundamental change in smallholder production, livestock management and land use allocation to produce forages. No accurate data on actual forage areas exist though, since forage production does not figure as a separate item in national statistics and is recorded under \"other land uses\". Recent estimates put the average forage area in Vietnam at 0.28 ha (Leyte et al., 2021), but farmer numbers are significant, ranging in the several thousands per district, though large differences exist between provinces (Huyen et al., 2022). In the Northern Coast provinces, concentrated production areas and large commercial farms have been established. Supplying to these operations, almost 8,000 ha of forages are grown in Thanh Hóa and more than 2,500 ha in Quang Binh provinces (Huyen, 2019). Local yellow cattle still dominate mountainous areas where natural grazing land is available, while crossbred cattle are now dominant in the lowlands and hilly uplands, areas where forage cultivation is more widespread. Cattle management changes from grazing, to semi-grazing and pen feeding. Inefficient rice land is converted to alternative crops such as maize or forages, assisting with the intensification of beef cattle production. In the Central Highlands, beef cattle production has been traditionally of importance. Local yellow cattle is the dominant breed, but the number of crossbred cattle is increasing and so do forage areas, though production is still moderate: 1140 ha in Dak Lak, 780 ha in Gia Lai, 350 ha in Dak Nong, and 1210 ha in La Dong. Detailed cattle statistics are provided in Table 4 (Huyen et al., 2022). While these data are not extensive, together with the change in herd composition they suggest massive expansion of dedicated forage production areas. The main forage materials used are In addition to Pennisetum hybrid 'VA06', Pennisetum purpureum 'Napier', Panicum maximum 'Simuang' and 'Mombasa', forage maize, which is grown widely for commercial dairy and beef farms. Some commercial farms also use forages such as 'Mulato II' and forages mixtures for grazing. The susceptibility of Pennisetum species to prolonged drought poses problems for farmers during the dry season, and in addition many have also started to pay more attention to forage quality rather than only quantity. The dry season feed gap has spurned the adoption of silage from forages and feed maize. Currently, about 20% of beef producers in the country make silage, using small choppers and manual compression in 500 kg silage bags. Some farmers are also starting to experiment with other by-products, such as cassava leaf silage. This has led to less pronounced seasonal fluctuation in herd sizes over the past 5 years, since farmers manage their feed resources more actively and therefore can maintain a more continuous production level. Also, due to traditional beef dishes during the Tet holiday in February, the demand and price of beef increases, incentivizing farmers to keep production going despite the dry season. The adoption of other grass varieties might currently be on-going, but no data exists. Legumes are not used, except where they were introduced in pilots. Even though many projects tried to introduce them they never found much uptake. It can be expected that their adoption may become of interest when production systems evolve further. Poor seed supply systems seem to have severely restricted the expansion of forage species that were adopted locally, but some supply chains have developed over the past 10 years (Yadav, 2022)."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Since COVID prevented export of beef to China over the past years, the pace of the beef value chain development slowed somewhat, shifting to serve domestic demand. This has become possible, due to the change in consumer preferences, which leads to higher beef consumption relative to pork, compared to 10 years ago. The beef sector is predicted to still grow at least 2-3% per annum for the next 10 years."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Overall, the farmers' attitude toward cattle production has changed profoundly, who now see cattle as a production value which they try to protect and take care of."},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"Goats are still seen are specialty meat, only consumed in restaurants or on special holidays. Their herd size has been stable and no particular market opportunities seem to exist, including little export. In some parts of the country, where salinity increases, goats are promoted as a climate change adaptation strategy to move away from beef, but the market does not have the absorption capacity to expand this on a larger scale."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"Similarly, buffaloes are consumed as dry meat specialty (jerky), which has recently led to a slight increase in numbers again after the majority of the national herd collapsed due to the shift from draft animals to mechanized solutions. However, little expansion opportunities exist for this value chain."}]},{"head":"Seed production in Vietnam","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Seed production by farmers does, unlike in Thailand and Laos, currently not happen in Vietnam."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Farmers do here and there harvest seed to share it with others, but no organized seed value chain exists, and no equivalent to Ubon Seed in Thailand operates in the country. There is some contracted production by companies but mostly, private sector businesses of all sizes are importing and distributing forage seed without processing or quality control. Between 2019 and 2021, Vietnam imported about 2-3 million USD worth of grass seeds per year. Major importers are listed in Table 5. "}]},{"head":"Seed certification","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"In general, seed quality must follow basic standards according to the law on standards and regulations."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Organizations and individuals self-certify in accordance with these standards and can be held responsible for their actions. However. No official quality control or enforcement mechanism is applied. Some private companies issue official quality certificates in accordance with the law for their own products. These issuers need to follow certification standards and procedures, and certification criteria need to be transparent. However, such certification is normally only done within a business and certification is not provided as a service."}]},{"head":"Institutional setup for research centers","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"There are no engagements between government authorities and the private seed sector."}]},{"head":"Import and IPR procedures","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"For common materials that are already in official circulation, seed can be imported like crops, following the same customs and phyto-sanitary procedures. For these materials a valid PRA will be available. Materials which are new and for which no PRA has been completed yet, such a procedure needs to be undertaken first and material is put under quarantine meanwhile. New materials that are only imported for research and testing, additional import permits and usage reports are required. This applies if the material to be imported is not on the list of agricultural plant varieties permitted to be produced and traded in Vietnam issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, or if the importing agency is not licensed by the Department of Crop Production to work with the respective material. The application for such an import license has to be submitted to the Department of Crop Production, usually takes 10-30 days if the documentation is in order, and the procedure is not difficult and follows a clear process including sample documents. The importation of seeds is handled in batches, making the procedure easier for the importation of larger numbers of materials for testing purposes."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Before import, it is required to register for plant quarantine online on the Vietnam National single window, https://vnsw.gov.vn. You will have to submit a phytosanitary certificate from the exporting country, a plant quarantine license, and a registration certificate. Then a plant quarantine sample will be taken at the import border gate. If the results are favorable, procedural and customs fees will have to be settled. Those include the customs service fee, the fee for applying for an import plant quarantine license, phytosanitary fees, storage costs (if incurred) and eventual other costs."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The validity period of a plant variety import license is 12 months from the date of issuance."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Plant variety testing must be carried out by a plant variety testing organization carrying out 3 tests:"},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"1. Experiments to confirm variety (growth, yield, quality, tolerance to external conditions) 2. Technical test experiments 3. Advertising production experiments Finally, the administrative procedures for granting a decision on recognition of circulation of plant the variety follow."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"Regarding IPRs, the securing of ownership for new materials in Vietnam is currently easy and reliable, but limited to commercial rights. The process is clear and public but not easy to follow, requiring a lot of preparation and taking a minimum of 2 years, based on the UPOV approach. Nevertheless, very large numbers of materials have been granted protection certificates for large numbers of plant species. The rights protection follows international conventions to which Vietnam is a signatory and thus applies beyond the borders of the country."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"IPRs are well respected in the seed sector, and in the rare cases in which violations occur they are normally low-level. The biggest problem is to identify violations, which is made especially difficult due to the ease with which pirated products can be sold online. Once identified, perpetrators are normally quickly persecuted."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"Regulations "}]},{"head":"Conditions for protection of intellectual property rights for plant varieties","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"A plant variety to be protected by IP rights must satisfy the conditions of novelty, distinctiveness, stability, and appropriate name. Specifically, in Article 158 and Article 163 of the 2019 Intellectual Property Law, accordingly, the IP conditions for plant varieties are:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Protected plant variety means a variety that has been selected, created or developed on the list of plants protected by the State promulgated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"• Novelty: If the propagating material or the harvested product of the plant variety has not been sold or distributed by the right holder or its licensee by other means for the purpose of exploiting the variety in the territory of Vietnam one year before the date of application for registration, or outside the territory of Vietnam 6 months before the date of application for registration of woody and vine species, and four years for other plants."},{"index":4,"size":406,"text":"• Distinctiveness: If it is clearly distinguishable from other plant varieties that are widely known at the time of application, or on the first date if the application enjoys priority. A plant variety is widely known when it is one of the following: a plant variety whose propagating or harvesting material is widely used on the market in any country at the time of filing the application for protection; or plant varieties that have been protected or included in the List of plant varieties in any country; or the plant variety is the subject of an application for protection or an application to the List of plant varieties in any country, provided these applications are not refused. • Homogeneity: if there is the same expression of the related traits except for deviations within the allowable range for some specific traits in the breeding process. • Stability: If the relevant traits of the cultivar remain in the original description, unchanged after the propagation medium or after each propagation cycle in the case of cycle propagation. • Relevancy: The name of the plant variety is also very important when considering the conditions of IPR protection for the plant variety. The registrant must propose a suitable name for the plant variety to the state management agency in charge of the rights to the plant variety, which must be the same as the name already registered for protection in any of the contracting countries. • The name of a plant variety is considered appropriate if it is capable of easily distinguishing the names of other widely known cultivars of the same or similar species. • The name of the plant variety is not considered appropriate in the following cases: Only include numbers, except where the number relates to the characteristic or formation of the variety; violate social ethics; It is easy to cause misunderstanding about the characteristics and characteristics of that variety; easily misleading the author's identity; identical or confusingly similar to a protected trademark or trade name before the date of publication of a plant variety protection registration application; Affects the prior rights of other organizations and individuals. • When the name of a plant variety is combined with a trademark, trade name or indication similar to the name of a plant variety that has been registered for sale or put on the market, the name must still be able to identify a particular variety in an easy way."}]},{"head":"Term of IPR protection for cultivars","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Pursuant to Article 169 of the 2019 Intellectual Property Law stipulates:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• The plant variety protection certificate is valid throughout the territory of Vietnam."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"• Plant variety protection certificates are valid from the date of grant to the end of 20 years for woody plants and vine trees; up to the end of 12 years for other crops. • Plant variety protection certificates may be suspended or canceled in accordance with the provisions of Articles 170 and 171 of this Law. Thus, the IPR protection certification for plant varieties is protected throughout the territory of Vietnam. The effective date is from the date of grant to the end of 25 years (for woody plants, grapes) and 20 years for other plants. However, in some cases, this protection license may be suspended or invalidated in the following cases: • The protected plant variety no longer meets the conditions of uniformity and stability as at the time of grant of the license. • The owner of the protection certificate does not pay the fee to maintain the validity as prescribed."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"• The protection certificate holder fails to provide necessary documents and propagation materials to maintain and store the plant variety according to regulations. • The protection certificate holder does not change the name of the plant variety at the request of the state management agency in charge of the rights to the plant variety."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"A plant variety protection certificate is invalidated in the following cases:"},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"• The application for registration of plant variety protection is in the name of a person who does not have the right to registration, unless the right to a plant variety is transferred to the person having the right to registration. • The protected plant variety does not meet the requirements for novelty or distinctiveness at the time of granting the plant variety protection certificate. • The plant variety does not meet the conditions of uniformity or stability in the case where a plant variety protection certificate is granted based on the results of technical testing conducted by the registrant."}]},{"head":"How to register intellectual property rights for plant varieties?","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"In order to have their rights to plant varieties protected, organizations and individuals must submit a protection registration application to the state management agency in charge of plant variety rights."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Organizations and individuals that have the right to register for plant variety protection include:"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• The author directly chooses to create or discover and develop plant varieties with his own efforts and expenses."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Animal feed prices per kg for 2022 in Thailand (provided by Department of Livestock Development, Thailand). "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Application process for breeder rights. If a species has not been registered previously both pathways have to be taken, the left in order to develop the guidelines for registration, the one to the right for the actual registration. "},{"text":"• Expansion of the superior Ruzi grass pasture • Production expansion of beef and milk • Seed production expansion of the superior Ruzi grass Impact to Thailand 1) Stable supply of the high nutrition grass for improved beef cattle and daily cattle 2) Establishment of variety registration for herbage plant in Thailand 3) Introduction of the DNA maker method to Thailand II. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 : Number of animals per producer for beef and dairy cattle inThailand (2022). Number of heads 1-20 21-100 101-200 > 200 Number of heads1-2021-100101-200> 200 Number of farmers (beef) 1,362,288 49,666 1,074 367 Number of farmers (beef)1,362,28849,6661,074367 Number of farmers (dairy) 8,759 14,755 538 65 Number of farmers (dairy)8,75914,75553865 "},{"text":"Table 2 : Import statistics for grains and animal feeds into Thailand for three consecutive years (Thai import statistics 2022). 2019 2020 2021 201920202021 "},{"text":"Table 3 : Their production is generally between 80 and 100 tons of seed per year. They produce foundation seed and breeder seed, but mostly about 24t of certified Ruzi seed. Other species include Stylosanthes. Leucaena, Pinto peanut (Arachis pintoi), Panicum maximum (now Megathyrsus maximus), Paspalum atratum and several more. Province Stylo cv. Mombasa Purple Mulato II Ruzi P. atratum ProvinceStylocv.MombasaPurpleMulato IIRuziP. atratum verano guinea guinea veranoguineaguinea Yasothorn 934 361 Yasothorn934361 Amnatchareun 9,090 6,050 Amnatchareun9,0906,050 Kalasin 6,240 Kalasin6,240 Nakhonpanom 1,020 Nakhonpanom1,020 Mahasarakham 9,300 643 93,500 Mahasarakham9,30064393,500 Roied 7,650 21,750 Roied7,65021,750 Skonnakhon 2,020 Skonnakhon2,020 Prae 2,100 Prae2,100 Lampang 5,731 Lampang5,731 Sukhothai 20,160 Sukhothai20,160 Total 16,950 9,090 15,887 21,750 122,511 361 Total16,9509,09015,88721,750122,511361 "},{"text":"Requirements for varietal registration All An ongoing research project collaboration between JIRCAS (Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences) and DLD, \"The Development of Feed Resources and Forage Crops for Domestic Livestock in the Rural Areas of Indochina\", was the first such project in Thailand in recent years. It is a component of a larger project (\"The Establishment of the Sustainability and Independence of Farm Household Economy in the Rural Areas of Indo-China\"), which ran from April 2011 to March 2016. The rationale was that, whereas most tropical improved materials occupy vast areas of South America and Australia as superior pasture grasses, these cultivars were developed for large-scale pastures with extensive management and are less suitable for intensive small-scale pastures as common in SEA. Additionally, pronounced dry seasons put specific demands on pastures in the region, for which high seed production as focus, rather than high productivity was seen as important, arguing the importance to regenerate pastures regularly. The objective hence was to select a new tetraploid Brachiaria ruziziensis variety suited for the regions climate with high seed yield, crude protein and digestibility, by comparing the characteristics and nutritive values of promising materials at Nakhonratchasima Animal Nutrition Research and Department Center (NANRDC) and the Department of Livestock Development (DLD). A more detailed description of the research approach can be found in the annex. member countries of the World Trade Organization (WTO) are obliged to introduce laws that allow their integration into WTO and the world economic community. Regulations on seed management and plant breeder's rights are one such obligation. All nations in SE-Asia have joined the WTO. Forage seed certification options Forage seed certification options Certification options for seed including forage seed exist in Thailand and follow ISTA (International Seed Certification options for seed including forage seed exist in Thailand and follow ISTA (International Seed Testing Association) rules. ISTA Orange certification for seed for example can be obtained by accredited Testing Association) rules. ISTA Orange certification for seed for example can be obtained by accredited institutions. Three staff of the Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development have been trained in seed testing institutions. Three staff of the Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development have been trained in seed testing for certification at Massey University, New Zealand. The Department of Livestock Development has for certification at Massey University, New Zealand. The Department of Livestock Development has forage seed laboratories in Mahasarakham and Phitsanulok provinces. As common practice, these often The Department of Agriculture (DoA) is responsible for the enforcement of the six Regulatory Acts under forage seed laboratories in Mahasarakham and Phitsanulok provinces. As common practice, these often The Department of Agriculture (DoA) is responsible for the enforcement of the six Regulatory Acts under just provide a report on seed quality for a submitted sample, which is accepted by buyers in-country, but the Department's jurisdiction; namely the Plant Quarantine Act B.E. 2551 (2008), Plant Variety just provide a report on seed quality for a submitted sample, which is accepted by buyers in-country, but the Department's jurisdiction; namely the Plant Quarantine Act B.E. 2551 (2008), Plant Variety provides no actionable guarantee of quality. Protection Act B.E. 2542 (2009), Fertilizer Act B.E. 2550 (2007), Plant Variety Act B.E. 2550 (2007), provides no actionable guarantee of quality. Protection Act B.E. 2542 (2009), Fertilizer Act B.E. 2550 (2007), Plant Variety Act B.E. 2550 (2007), Rubber Regulation Act B.E. 2542 (2009), and the Toxic Substances Act B.E. 2551 (2008)# Rubber Regulation Act B.E. 2542 (2009), and the Toxic Substances Act B.E. 2551 (2008)# In Thailand, plant varieties are protected under the Plant Varieties Protection Act B.E. 2542 (1999), In Thailand, plant varieties are protected under the Plant Varieties Protection Act B.E. 2542 (1999), which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. The Act aims to incentivize plant which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. The Act aims to incentivize plant breeding and the conservation of plants and germplasm. breeding and the conservation of plants and germplasm. The Act classifies plant varieties into four groups, including local domestic plant variety, wild plant variety, The Act classifies plant varieties into four groups, including local domestic plant variety, wild plant variety, general domestic plant variety, and new plant variety. This article discusses how a new plant variety can general domestic plant variety, and new plant variety. This article discusses how a new plant variety can be protected under the law. be protected under the law. Currently, the Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development still has two projects on forage species Currently, the Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development still has two projects on forage species improvement one on mass selection for Pennisetum purpureum (now Cenchrus purpureus), the second improvement one on mass selection for Pennisetum purpureum (now Cenchrus purpureus), the second on Brachiaria (Urochloa) in which they plan to cross tetraploid Ruzi with Brachiaria decumbens cv. on Brachiaria (Urochloa) in which they plan to cross tetraploid Ruzi with Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk. Basilisk. "},{"text":"1. Plant varieties currently registered as protected under Breeder Rights in Thailand: 2. 2. acacia (Acacia auriculaeformis A. durian palm oil acacia (Acacia auriculaeformis A.durianpalm oil Cunn. ex Benth) Cunn. ex Benth) acacia (for timber) eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) papaya acacia (for timber)eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)papaya (Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. Ex (Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. Ex Benth., A. mangium Willd., A. Benth., A. mangium Willd., A. aulacocarpa A.Cunn. ex Benth. aulacocarpa A.Cunn. ex Benth. and A. crassicarpa A. Cunn. ex and A. crassicarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth) Benth) adenium eucalyptus pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) M adeniumeucalyptuspineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) M aglaonema gourd plumeria aglaonemagourdplumeria angled gourd (Luffa acutangula guava (Psidium) pomelo angled gourd (Luffa acutangulaguava (Psidium)pomelo (L.) Roxb.) (L.) Roxb.) anthurium jade plant (Euphorbiace-ae) pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata anthuriumjade plant (Euphorbiace-ae)pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne) Duchesne) banana (Musa) lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) rambutan banana (Musa)lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)rambutan bitter gourd lime (Citrus aurantifolia) rice bitter gourdlime (Citrus aurantifolia)rice brassica (B. alboglabra) longan rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) brassica (B. alboglabra)longanrubber (Hevea brasiliensis) brassica (B. chinensis) lychee sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) brassica (B. chinensis)lycheesesame (Sesamum indicum L.) broad bean (Phaseolus vulgaris mango snake bean (Vigna) broad bean (Phaseolus vulgarismangosnake bean (Vigna) L.) L.) caladium (Caladium bicolor) marian plum (Bouea) soybean caladium (Caladium bicolor)marian plum (Bouea)soybean cassava melon (Cucumis melo L. cv. star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) cassavamelon (Cucumis melo L. cv.star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) Cantaloupensis and Cucumis melo Cantaloupensis and Cucumis melo L. cv. Reticulatus) jackfruit L.cv.Reticulatus)jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) (Artocarpus heterophyllus) chili mung bean (Vigna radiata) sugarcane chilimung bean (Vigna radiata)sugarcane corn napier grass (Pennisetum tamarind cornnapiergrass(Pennisetumtamarind purpureum Schumach.) purpureum Schumach.) cotton (Gossyppium hirsutum L.) orange (Citrus reticulate) teak (Tectona grandis) cotton (Gossyppium hirsutum L.)orange (Citrus reticulate)teak (Tectona grandis) crown of thorns (Euphorbiaceae) orchid (Catlleya Lindl) tomato crown of thorns (Euphorbiaceae)orchid (Catlleya Lindl)tomato cucumber orchid (Dendrobium) vetiver cucumberorchid (Dendrobium)vetiver curcuma flower (Curcuma sp.) orchid (Phalaenopsis Blume) water lily curcuma flower (Curcuma sp.)orchid (Phalaenopsis Blume)water lily custard apple (Annona) orchid (Vanda sp.) water spinach (Ipomoea aquatic) custard apple (Annona)orchid (Vanda sp.)water spinach (Ipomoea aquatic) watermelon watermelon Source: (Siriwat, 2016) Source: (Siriwat, 2016) "},{"text":"Development of Feed Resources and Forage Crops for the Domestic Livestock in Rural Areas of Indochina project document "},{"text":" Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) is mandated to conduct agricultural research in Cambodia. It runs provincial research stations and works with the provincial department of agriculture, forestry and fishery. The government funding into the center aims mainly at supporting rice, corn, some field crops, and some industrial crops but not forage crops. CARDI engages with the private seed sector by providing technical know-how. "},{"text":" Khmer citizen or a foreign citizen who has resident status in the Kingdom of Cambodia, or b. has a permanent residence in signatory state of the Convention of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants or in any state which has a memorandum of understanding with the Kingdom of Cambodia regarding plant variety protection (Article 13). 1. Granting the certificate of protection of a new variety 1. Granting the certificate of protection of a new variety 2. Transferring ownership 2. Transferring ownership 3. Declaring nullity or cancellation 3. Declaring nullity or cancellation 4. Accepting forms for registering, changing, or canceling a variety denomination 4. Accepting forms for registering, changing, or canceling a variety denomination 5. Issuing licenses 5. Issuing licenses 6. Registering contract licenses. 6. Registering contract licenses. An applicant for the protection of a new plant variety shall: An applicant for the protection of a new plant variety shall: a. be a a. be a "},{"text":" InterviewsMr. Mak Chanratana, Deputy Director, Department of Crop Seed (DCS), General Directorate of Agriculture (GDA), MAFF, Cambodia. Phone: +855 12 767 312, Email: [email protected] Mr. Orn Chhourn, Deputy Head of Plant Breeding Division, Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute MAFF, Cambodia. Phone: +855 78 222 114, Email: [email protected] "},{"text":"Table 4 : Current status of forage development(Based on DARD livestock population data, Oct. 2018 and a review byHuyen (2019) inHuyen et al., 2022.) While dairy farming is concentrated in Lam Dong province and Moc Chau district (Son La province), beef production is concentrated in the Northern Central Coast and Southern Central Coast (40% of the total cattle population), and accounts in the Northern Mountains for 17%, the Central Highlands, Mekong River Delta, and Red River Delta together for 11-13%; and in the South East for only about 7% of total production. Agro-ecological regions Large ruminants (heads) Buffalo Dairy cattle Beef cattle Percent crossbred beef cattle Provinces with Highest population Substantial forage of beef cattle and buffalo development Agro-ecological regionsLarge ruminants (heads) Buffalo Dairy cattle Beef cattlePercent crossbred beef cattleProvinces with Highest population Substantial forage of beef cattle and buffalo development Red river delta 121,242 32,026 467,886 87 Hà Nội, Vĩnh Phúc Hà Nam, Ninh Bình, Red river delta121,24232,026467,88687Hà Nội, Vĩnh PhúcHà Nam, Ninh Bình, Thái Bình, Hưng Yên Thái Bình, Hưng Yên Northern 1,367,045 28,685 994,019 26 Sơn La, Hà Giang Sơn La, Điện Biên Northern1,367,04528,685994,01926Sơn La, Hà GiangSơn La, Điện Biên mountains mountains Northern central 784,679 75,628 2,290,251 62 Nghệ An, Thanh Thanh Hóa, Quảng Northern central784,67975,628 2,290,25162Nghệ An, ThanhThanh Hóa, Quảng coast and southern Hóa, Bình Định, Bình, Quảng Trị, Bình coast and southernHóa, Bình Định,Bình, Quảng Trị, Bình central coast Quảng Ngãi Định central coastQuảng NgãiĐịnh Central highlands 87,278 23,891 747,187 37 Gia Lai, Đắk Lắk Đắk Lắk, Gia Lai Central highlands87,27823,891747,18737Gia Lai, Đắk LắkĐắk Lắk, Gia Lai South East 38,696 98,173 296,734 83 Tây Ninh, Đồng Nai Tây Ninh South East38,69698,173296,73483Tây Ninh, Đồng NaiTây Ninh Mekong river delta 26,165 35,979 712,448 95 Bến Tre, Trà Vinh Bến Tre Mekong river delta26,16535,979712,44895Bến Tre, Trà VinhBến Tre Total 2,425,105 294,382 5,508,525 62 Total2,425,105294,382 5,508,52562 "},{"text":"Table 5 : Major forage seed importers in Vietnam Company Address Kind of seed CompanyAddressKind of seed Farmseeds Trade Manufacturing 112A Linh Dong Street, Linh Dong Ward, Thu Ruzi Farmseeds Trade Manufacturing112A Linh Dong Street, Linh Dong Ward, ThuRuzi Co., Ltd Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City Paspalum Co., LtdDuc City, Ho Chi Minh CityPaspalum (+84) 2862 86 87 89 Alfalfa (+84) 2862 86 87 89Alfalfa (+84) 775 3456 99 Stylo (+84) 775 3456 99Stylo (+84) 765 3456 99 Lai sudan (+84) 765 3456 99Lai sudan Mombasa Guinea Mombasa Guinea Mulato II Mulato II Bemuda Bemuda Beef Import Export and 17A Lane 38 Quang Trung Street, La Khe, Ha Ruzi Beef Import Export and17A Lane 38 Quang Trung Street, La Khe, HaRuzi International Trade Co., Ltd Dong, Hanoi Paspalum International Trade Co., LtdDong, HanoiPaspalum (+84) 966 732787 Alfalfa (+84) 966 732787Alfalfa Stylo Stylo Lai sudan Lai sudan Mombasa Guinea Mombasa Guinea Mulato II Mulato II Oat Oat "},{"text":" on IP rights for plants are reflected in the 2005 Intellectual Property Law revised 2009 and 2019. According to this, a plant variety is a population of plants belonging to the lowest level of plant subspecies that is morphologically homogenous, stable over propagation cycles, and individually identifiable by the expression of traits due to genotype or genetic variation. According to Clause 5, Article 4 of the 2019 IP Law, intellectual property rights to plant varieties apply to organizations or individuals to plants they choose to breed or develop or ownership rights through transfer contracts. IPRs to plant varieties are established on the basis of decisions on grant of plant variety protection certificates by competent state agencies according to prescribed registration procedures. "}],"sieverID":"e38455a8-536a-4656-9203-5a5b89a11f41","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"031a7ea949a88c11deb7e6f88c40a9cb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb8e12c8-7f32-4cba-91ff-c70f34b00e06/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Brachiaria grass The forage for more milk and meat production in sub-Saharan Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Climate-Smart Brachiaria Project","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"In 2012, the Biosciences eastern and central Africa -International Livestock Research Institute (BecA -ILRI) Hub initiated a collaborative research project on Brachiaria grass to increase livestock productivity in East Africa by increasing the availability of quality forages."}]},{"head":"Why Brachiaria?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Brachiaria is drought tolerant. • Performs well in low fertile soils."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• It is palatable and nutritious to livestock."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• It has high biomass production potential (30t DM/ha) • Sequesters carbon from the atmosphere into soils (3t/ha). • Enhances nitrogen use efficiency."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Helps in soil conservation."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Reduces greenhouse gas emission and groundwater pollution."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• When fed to livestock, it increases milk and meat production."}]},{"head":"Achievements Achievements","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Feeding animals on Brachiaria grass increased milk production between 15 to 40%."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The livestock gained weight by up to 50%."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"The project trained 2,000 farmers and provided Brachiaria seeds to over 6,000 farmers. 20 researchers from Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda received trainings on forage biosciences."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"The Brachiaria grass has been the preferred forage for farmers, extension agents and researchers due to its high biomass production potential, higher nutritive value than local forage (e.g. Napier and Rhodes grasses), instant increase in milk production and improved animal health."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Since the project's inception, farmer to farmer distribution of Brachiaria grass has been the preferred dissemination method."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) coordinates two main livestock development initiatives; in Kenya (2015Kenya ( -2018) ) and in Mali (2016Mali ( -2019)). The dissemination of Brachiaria varieties is one of the main forage activities in both initiatives. Currently, over 40,000 households in Kenya and Mali are growing Brachiaria grass under these two initiatives. Farmers have been producing Brachiaria grass and making hay for their own use and for sale (USD2.5-3.5/20 kg bale)."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"Many non-livestock farmers including women and youth are also engaged in Brachiaria farming as a source of income generation. These farmers sell hay and planting materials to fellow farmers."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"Currently, the climate-smart Brachiaria project is implemented in 12 countries of Sub-Saharan Africa and the varieties identified by the project are grown by farmers from 18 countries. This is a flagship project undertaken by BecA -ILRI Hub; it collaborates and supports the African national agricultural research systems (NARS) in areas of research and capacity building on tropical forages biosciences, and disseminates Brachiaria technologies."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"The project also conducts discovery research with the aim of exploring the potential of plant beneficial microbes for drought tolerance, water, and nutrient uptake; and the management of disease in Brachiaria grass."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Through the farmer's participatory variety evaluations in Kenya and Rwanda, five Brachiaria varieties (B. brinzantha cv. Marandú, B. brinzantha cv. MG-4, B. brinzantha cv. Piatã, B. brinzantha cv. Xaraés and B. decumbens cv. Basilisk) were identified as suitable for East Africa. "}],"sieverID":"9e24250b-efef-487f-a21c-b3ccff460fb0","abstract":"Livestock is a great source of food, nutrition, crop production input, income, employment, and livelihoods for the majority of people in sub-Saharan Africa and contributes 40% of the total agricultural GDP of the continent. Livestock reduces the risk of food insecurity that rises from frequent crop failures particularly in the arid and semi-arid lands. Despite the importance of livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa, livestock productivity in this region is the lowest in the world. Seasonal availability and low-quality forages are accountable for the lowest livestock productivity. Forages of African origin have been instrumental in the transformation of the livestock sector in tropical America, Australia, and East Asia. For example, Brachiaria pasture was footing for the intensification of beef production in Brazil. However, the potential of native forages to alleviate livestock feed shortage in Africa has had minimal exploration."}
data/part_5/03b87d283bd545cd27941f3d8e69e5bc.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"03b87d283bd545cd27941f3d8e69e5bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2c8173ed-918a-4f22-82f1-afc1c13786ab/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Priorities for Research on Gender Equality, Climate Change, and Agriculture in the MENA Region: A Policy Brief","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is extremely vulnerable to climate change and is also the most gender unequal region in the world. According to the Global Gender Gap report, the gender gap is highest in the MENA region (60.9 percent progress toward parity), and \"at the current relative pace, it would take an estimated 142.4 years to close\" (World Economic Forum, 2021: 26)."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Agriculture in the MENA region is becoming increasingly feminized, with women representing more than 50 percent of agricultural workers in some countries (Abdelali-Martini and de Pryck 2015; Najjar et al. 2018). Reducing gender inequality has been identified as an important response area requiring strengthening to enable the MENA region to adapt and build resilience toward climate change. Since women are participating out of choice and necessity in such large numbers in the agricultural workforce of the MENA region, they must be enabled and empowered to serve as active agents in climate change mitigation, adaptation, and resilience."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Although we must be wary of over-generalizing women's needs and experiences across the diverse set of geographic, ecological, cultural, socio-economic, political, and institutional contexts that constitute the MENA region, the existing body of research on gender and climate change in the region does enable us to confidently comment on what we know and do not know about the opportunities and challenges in women's experiences in agriculture, the gendered effects and outcomes of climate change upon agriculture, and the roles women have played and could play in the future in adapting and building resilience to climate effects. Based on this existing scientific literature, we also identify gaps in evidence and knowledge in this policy brief and make practical recommendations for future research and public policy."}]},{"head":"What We Know","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"n Despite their growing contributions to agriculture and food security in the MENA region, women remain almost invisible in official labor statistics and in policymaking. n Migration as a coping strategy to diminishing returns from agriculture is more widely available to men."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Women often increase their contributions to agriculture to compensate for the outmigration of men, but without commensurate gains in financial or decision-making power. n Women remain severely marginalized in land ownership, leading in turn to weaker access to credit and capital, training, technology, and other inputs into agriculture. n There is widespread evidence of gender-based wage inequity and sexual harassment in agricultural wage labor. n Women have fewer opportunities than men to organize, mobilize, and form agricultural collectives."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"n There is very little research on how to optimize participation of youth in agriculture despite evidence suggesting that youth in the MENA region are increasingly disinterested in agriculture as a livelihood strategy. n There is no existing research on how to adapt or apply policy lessons about livelihood security and social protection learned from the global COVID experience to the agricultural sector in MENA."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for Future Research","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"These are summary actionable recommendations aimed specifically at advancing gender equity in climate adaptation and resilience for agriculture in the MENA region: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" To enable legal recognition of women's contribution to the agricultural sector, we recommend collection and analysis in different MENA countries and contexts of gender-disaggregated data on women's formal and informal participation (including home-based work) in agriculture. n To enable social recognition of women's contribution to agriculture, we recommend public awareness campaigns aimed at validating and making women's contributions to agriculture and food security in MENA countries visible. n To promote gender equity in landownership, we encourage reform of male-biased inheritance, land titling, and distribution practices. As an example, joint titling of land in the names of male and female household heads would give large numbers of women in MENA countries a legal claim to land and a source of collateral for credit, other banking and financial services, and inputs into agriculture. n To design public policy to enhance women's ability to acquire non-land assets as complementary sources of income and livelihood security. n To enforce equal pay legislation for women and men in agriculture along with zero-tolerance for sexual harassment. n To introduce and expand social protection programs (pensions, maternity, basic income, and childcare) to enable women to benefit optimally from their work in agriculture.n To enable women to participate in cooperatives, unions, and collective organizations aimed at improving wages and working conditions in the agricultural sector. n To conduct more research aimed at understanding the experiences of existing cooperatives and producer groups in the MENA region, as well as in culturally comparable regions such as South Asia and of replicating or adapting them in MENA. n To carry out more research in different MENA countries and contexts to understand how to enable women to participate optimally in public institutions and decisionmaking in agriculture. n To conduct more research in different MENA contexts (rangelands, for example) on how best to enable women to participate in irrigation. The limited existing research in Egypt on gender and irrigation in MENA identifies land ownership, educational attainment, training and other institutional support from government, donors, and NGOs, and access to training in irrigational technologies as factors that enable women to optimally undertake irrigation. n In addition to enabling women to participate optimally in irrigation, more research is needed to identify opportunities for climate resistant \"green\" agriculture and rangeland cultivation. n To enable women in pastoral communities and rangeland cultivation in MENA countries to adapt and build resilience toward climate change, we need more empirical research aimed at understanding the roles they play in their communities, and the challenges and opportunities they face. n To conduct more research and to identify public policy intervention in anticipation of mechanization displacing agricultural wage work and training those affected in other skills, with particular attention to training women. n To conduct more research in specific countries and contexts in the MENA region to understand how best to deploy and maintain in-person and digital extension services. n To conduct research aimed at understanding how to reduce risks for farmers of reduced agricultural productivity and crop failure via instruments such as crop, livestock and asset insurance, green bonds for agriculture, and payment of ecosystem services. Focused attention must be paid within such research projects to ensure equity between landowners (predominantly men) and land users and renters (among whom women are often overrepresented). n The MENA region is home to some of the largest refugee populations in the world. Research aimed at understanding the challenges faced by refugee farmers in the MENA region is presently very limited but critically urgent. Specific attention must be paid to the needs of refugee women in such research projects. n To better understand youth perceptions of agriculture, more research is required in different MENA contexts. Research and responsive policies aimed at revalorizing agricultural labor to make it more compatible with contemporary aspirations of youth are urgently needed. n A deeper structural revalorization of the importance and necessity of the agricultural sector within MENA is also required so that agricultural labor does not continue to be perceived as an occupation of last resort. Public awareness campaigns may be one strategy for accomplishing this. n To design research to better understand how livelihood security and social protection schemes (basic income guarantees and paid sick leave, for example) introduced in different countries around the world during the COVID 19 pandemic might be introduced or adapted to benefit the agricultural labor force in MENA countries. n To build the capacity of local research institutions to create evidence-based solutions for gender equality in agriculture and climate resilience, in partnership with NGOs and intergovernmental organizations including CGIAR. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"86a5cbd9-b09f-47d7-8e4f-9c8daf3961ae","abstract":"This research was carried out by ICARDA and conducted as part the CGIAR Generating Evidence and New Directions for Equitable Results (GENDER) Platform and the CGIAR Initiative From Fragility to Resilience in Central and West Asia and North Africa. We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund."}
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The evidence does not support the idea that nancial inclusion programs transform people's lives."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"-"},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"The effects of nancial services on core economic poverty indicators at the household level are small and inconsistent, and there is no evidence that behavior-change outcomes driven by nancial inclusion programs lead to any positive effects."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"- The effects of nancial services on women's empowerment appear to be generally positive. However, these positive impacts mostly depend upon program features other than the nancial service itself-such as education about women's rights, cultural and geographical factors, and which aspects of empowerment are considered when evaluating the program."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"-As a silver lining, access to savings opportunities appears to have small but much more consistently positive effects for poor women and men and bears fewer risks than credit."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"-Financial inclusion programs are widely seen as an important tool in the quest to alleviate poverty and empower women. They seek to increase people's access to nancial services such as credit, savings, insurance and money transfers."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"The bene ts attributed to nancial inclusion include improving the welfare of poor households by allowing them to grasp more opportunities, mitigate economic shocks and strengthen the voices of women."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"Some advocates suggest that they also advance macroeconomic development which, in turn, is expected to bene t poor households. More recent studies have highlighted behavioral changes-such as improving nancial knowledge or changing spending patterns-as impacts in their own right."},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"The evidence base is contested"},{"index":11,"size":35,"text":"The body of evidence to assess the impacts of nancial inclusion programs has grown tremendously over the last decade, and systematic reviews now dominate the evidence landscape. They investigate economic, social, behavioral and gender-related outcomes."},{"index":12,"size":32,"text":"However, they vary considerably in scope, scale and quality. This may lead to policymakers, researchers and practitioners focusing on speci c aspects that suit their purposes rather than investigating the full picture. "}]},{"head":"The impacts of financial inclusion programs are mixed","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"We identi ed 11 reviews that are of medium and high con dence. Taken together, they paint a nuanced picture of the impacts of nancial inclusion programs. This is not surprising given large variation in service delivery modalities across programs, which leads to mixed impacts for people who may live and work in very different contexts."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Overall, we found that:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Overall, almost all the effects that were reported were very small and do not indicate transformative change."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Many effects had strong variations across studies; over time; and between places, populations, gender, ethnicity and interventions. This means that positive ndings were"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"generally not replicated from one context, intervention type or study to another. At least as many ndings were mixed or inconclusive as were positive."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Moving forward: What aspects of financial inclusion programs work best for whom? Where and how they should be delivered?"},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"The ndings of this study did not come as a surprise to many, and contribute to a newfound realism among policymakers, practitioners and researchers who increasingly recognize that simply providing access to nancial services does not transform people's lives."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"The solution is not to abandon programs that deliver nancial assistance to the poor."},{"index":9,"size":60,"text":"Instead, it is necessary to uncover what kinds of programs work best for whom and where, and how best to deliver them. The many valid alternatives to nancial inclusion Impacts are more likely to be positive than negative, but the effects vary, are often mixed, and appear not to transform women's empowerment or reduce poverty in either scope or scale."},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"-Impacts largely occur in the early stages of accessing nancial inclusion programs, such as changed behaviors or increased microentrepreneurship."},{"index":11,"size":25,"text":"-However, the effects of nancial services on core economic poverty indicators further along the causal chain-such as people's incomes, assets and spending-are small and inconsistent."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"-"},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"The effects on health and other social outcomes appear to be small or non-existent. -There is no evidence that changes in behavior lead to any positive effects. -"},{"index":14,"size":40,"text":"The effects on women's empowerment appear to be generally positive, but they depend on program features that are often peripheral to, or unrelated to, the nancial service itself. They also depend on context and what aspects of empowerment are considered."},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"Assessing women's empowerment is confounded because studies conceptualize and measure women's empowerment in different ways."},{"index":16,"size":25,"text":"-Accessing savings products appears to have small but much more consistently positive effects for poor people and bears fewer risks for clients than accessing credit."},{"index":17,"size":27,"text":"programming include a wide range of livelihood and graduation interventions that can deliver livelihood and empowerment impacts, but further evidence is also needed about many of them."},{"index":18,"size":26,"text":"Our study uncovered a few gaps in evidence that are worth researching to improve nancial inclusion programs offered to people in low-and middle-income countries. These include:"},{"index":19,"size":51,"text":"assessing debt levels or patterns of indebtedness rigorously examining whether and how nancial inclusion programs lead to macroeconomic development assessing the impacts of service-and amenity-nancing programs (such as watermicro nance, sanitation loans or credit for microsolar systems) and the notion of \"green micro nance\" (providing nancial services to improve environmental conditions)."},{"index":20,"size":11,"text":"systematically exploring the area of digital nancial inclusion, including mobile payments."},{"index":21,"size":1,"text":"-"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"af94b80d-4d40-48d3-b56b-93f4267d3f36","abstract":"Financial inclusion programs seek to improve the welfare of poor and low-income people by increasing their access to nancial services such as loans, savings, insurance"}
data/part_5/040d11dc25d5cae7151fae1a1cb4ad97.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"040d11dc25d5cae7151fae1a1cb4ad97","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5f91c4f1-19e5-4b82-8b6c-ef3dbbbb50b1/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Ap, AEREO 67-13, CAlL COlONBIA TRABAJO PRESCNTADO EN EL 1 SEHINARIO DE PREVEN~AO","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"RESUItEtl","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Este trab~Jo dpscrlbe un proyecto colaboratlvo entre <. Por las características edafo-cllmárlcas de la Costa Atlántica de Co-lombIa, el CUltlV0 de la yuca es uno de los más dI fundidos en la reglón y su potenCial de expanSión es conslderable,slempre y cuando se solUCionen los problemas de comercIalizaCIón y mercadeo derivados de la característIca pere-Clbll Idad de las raíces de yuca después de ser cosechadas Un mercado Importante para la yuca en la reglón lo constItuye la demanda creciente de yuca seca para ser utilizada en la Industria de alimentos balanceados para animales, espeCIalmente para aves y para cerdos."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Con el fin de estudiar la factibilidad técnica y económica del procesamiento de la yuca para la alimentaCión animal, el Programa DRI y la ACOI formaCIón sobre los aspectos dE-cun~rclal 17¿¡CIÓn y mercadeo de la yuca Seca ron la experienCia e Informac¡ón aLufl'uhdd5 en Ids fases 1 y 2, se ha proce-dIdo a ejecutar 10$ estudIOS Je fdCclbllldad económica, los oLales respaldarán la tercera fase de enfoque comercial a través de l<J repllcoclón dc otras plilntas de sec')do natural de yuca en la reglón, ~sta tercerl fase se Implemen ta rá en 1983"}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS Y DISCUSION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"En la fase 1 se pr0cesaron 19 toneladas de yuca fresca para obtener un total de 7 5 toneladas de yuca seca, durante esta fase se obtuvo Informa-CIón exper'mental tanto de secado en piSO como en bandejas Inclinadas y se estudiÓ la organizacIón de los agricultores para las actIvidades a desarrollarse en la fase 2 En esta fase se logró procesar 1009 toneladas de yuca fresca en un período de 65 días para obtener cerca de 39 toneladas de yuca seca en un total de 27 lotes procesados Las actividades de la Planta Piloto en las fases 1 y 2 han permitido organizar las operaciones de secado de una forma que se adapten a las con- Los estudios de factibil idad econ6m ica para plantG5 Ju secado natural de y uca (Janssen y Ospina, comunicaci6n per so~a l) tomanco en conside ración la informaci6n obtenida en l a Planta P iloto, la situ<Jción de los ot ros mercados para la yuca, los precios que se obtienen en 1;) re9i ón, la demanda y los pre c ios para la yuca seca y las caracte ristica ~ de la producción del cultivo en la regi6n, sugieren que la operación de secado nJtural es econ6micamente factible para plantas con áreas de piso de 500 y 1,000 m 2 y haciendo uso de las facil idades crediticias vigentes en Colombia."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Los esludios econ6micos para una planta de 500 m 2 de piso de secado indican que las inve rsiones serían del orden de $820 ,000 pesos (~US$12,600)"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"con un capital de trabajo de aproximadamente $300,000 (~US$II,600). La fi-nanclaci6n de este tipo de planta puede hacer se utilizando los pr~stamos Que otorga la Caja Agrarin en Colombia, a un plazo de 6 años y con un periodo de gracia de 2 años, a un interés anual del 21%."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" figures and to demonstrate the economlc feaslblllty of repl¡catlog the process In other areas of the reglOo In 1983 From the experlence obtalned to date It can be concluded that for the Successful establishment of drYlng plants, the followlng condltlons should be net al the ;electlon of a processlng technology that may be easlly controlled and managed by the farmers themselves, b) the processlng and marketing actlvltles and "},{"text":" Ion de mDqulnarsa senclf la, mejoras de la eficiencia de seeildo), ,,¡ Ii,ok\"cntaclón de SIó>tem<:l5 crediticIOS adecuados (estudios de factlbllld<,d C'conó\"1l<_a, costos de capital de InverSiones y de capital de Opef1lCIi5n), d) CO\"lerCldl rzoclón de las raíces frescas y del producto seco (estudiOS de oferta I demanda para otros usos, mercados disponibles, suministro de materld prl~a en relaCión a otros mercados), y el trans-ferenCIa de tccnolog,a <: l nivel de técnICOS de Cdnpo O extenslonlstas y de los agrlcul tares.Por la amplitud del Proyecto, el presente documento se limIta a los factores directamente relaCionados con las activIdades de procesamIento y comer-CializaCión y una ligera IntrodUCCión a los resultados de estudiOS de faetlbl-1 I dad económl ea Por es tas razones, de este trabajO son los siguientes los obJet I vos específicos de l proyecto matena a) determinar los factores y condlclones necesarios para crear plantas pequef\\as y medianas para el secado natural de yuca en la Costa Atlántica, b) desarrollar y adaptar la tecnología apropiada para estos nIveles de procesamiento, e) obtener la InformaCión báSica requerIda para los estudiOS de factibilidad económIca del proceso y d) capacitar a profeSionales y técniCOS de las entidades regionales qUIenes prestarán aSistenCIa técnica a los productores de yuca de la reglón ----------------. "},{"text":", 1 ' 1 \\b FIGURA I CURVA DE SECADO NATURAL DE TROZOS DE \"AlCES DE YUCA "},{"text":" 1 Programa de Desarrollo Rural Integrddo de ColombIa (DKI), el ~oblerno de Canadá a travé, se deben cumplIr los sIguientes requIsitos de procesamIento que pueda ser aSimilada, controlada y manejada fáCilmente al seleCCión de Una tecnología por los mISmos agrIcultores, bl Implementación de programas Integrados de procesamIento, prodUCCión y comercialIzación que dIsmInuyan los rIesgos y A partir del ~ño 1976, el Goblerro de Colombia ha venIdo ImpJe~~ntando el Programa de Desarrollo Rural Integrado (DRI) por medIO del cual se coordi-nan las acciones de entidades estatales para Incrementar la prodUCCión agrí-cola y mejorar la situacIón SOClo-eLonómlca de la poblaCión rural del país A través de la transferencia de tecnología, de las fac¡] Idades de crédIto y del mejoramiento de los sIstemas de mercadeo, el Prograwa DRI trata de aumen-tar la productIvidad agrícola y consccuent ... mcnle Incrementar los Ingresos reales del pequeño productor campesIno Las actlvldade, DRI Se han venIdo desarrollando en Cinco zonas que com-prenden un total de nueve departamentos En la zona 4, la cual Incluye los departamentos de Córdoba y Sucre, el Gobierno de Canadá a través de la Agen-Cia Canadiense para el Oesarrol lo Internacional (ACOI) se ha vinculado a los esfuerzos del Gobierno Colo~blano mediante un préstamo de 13 5 mi llones y una donaCIón de O 8 ~Illones de dólares canadienses Entre las actividades del Programa ORI/ACDI en la Zona 11 se destaca la creación del Plan Maestro de Post-cosecha (PMPC) como una estrategia Orien-tada a solUCionar los problemas de comercializaCIón de los productos agríco-las de la reglón Entre los obJetiVOs báSICOS del PMPC se pueden citar al dismInUir las pérdidas de postcosecha, b) redUCir los costos del proceso de comerCializaCión e IncentIvar la partIcipaCión del pequeño productor en dicho proceso, y el IntrodUCir tecnología apropIada a nIvel rural que re-aumenten los Ingresos netos de los agricultores, t tHRODUCC ION duzca los riesgos de pereclbll Idad de algunos productos agrícolas se deben cumplIr los sIguientes requIsitos de procesamIento que pueda ser aSimilada, controlada y manejada fáCilmente al seleCCión de Una tecnología por los mISmos agrIcultores, bl Implementación de programas Integrados de procesamIento, prodUCCión y comercialIzación que dIsmInuyan los rIesgos y A partir del ~ño 1976, el Goblerro de Colombia ha venIdo ImpJe~~ntando el Programa de Desarrollo Rural Integrado (DRI) por medIO del cual se coordi-nan las acciones de entidades estatales para Incrementar la prodUCCión agrí-cola y mejorar la situacIón SOClo-eLonómlca de la poblaCión rural del país A través de la transferencia de tecnología, de las fac¡] Idades de crédIto y del mejoramiento de los sIstemas de mercadeo, el Prograwa DRI trata de aumen-tar la productIvidad agrícola y consccuent ... mcnle Incrementar los Ingresos reales del pequeño productor campesIno Las actlvldade, DRI Se han venIdo desarrollando en Cinco zonas que com-prenden un total de nueve departamentos En la zona 4, la cual Incluye los departamentos de Córdoba y Sucre, el Gobierno de Canadá a través de la Agen-Cia Canadiense para el Oesarrol lo Internacional (ACOI) se ha vinculado a los esfuerzos del Gobierno Colo~blano mediante un préstamo de 13 5 mi llones y una donaCIón de O 8 ~Illones de dólares canadienses Entre las actividades del Programa ORI/ACDI en la Zona 11 se destaca la creación del Plan Maestro de Post-cosecha (PMPC) como una estrategia Orien-tada a solUCionar los problemas de comercializaCIón de los productos agríco-las de la reglón Entre los obJetiVOs báSICOS del PMPC se pueden citar al dismInUir las pérdidas de postcosecha, b) redUCir los costos del proceso de comerCializaCión e IncentIvar la partIcipaCión del pequeño productor en dicho proceso, y el IntrodUCir tecnología apropIada a nIvel rural que re-aumenten los Ingresos netos de los agricultores, t tHRODUCC ION duzca los riesgos de pereclbll Idad de algunos productos agrícolas "},{"text":" han Il1lClildo un proyecto cooperativo con el Progrilffia de Yuca del Centro Internarlonal de Agrlculturil Tropical (CIAT) orientado a establecer pequeñas empr(,sds dgroll1dustro ales en la Costa At 1 án ti ca, medIante 1 a demos-tracIón dLl proreso a nIvel de una Planta PI loto para secildo natural de la yLCil en el Deoarcanento de Suere El pres~nte trabajo describe ln5 expe-rIencias adqUirIdas hJsta la fecha I dIscute las perspectIvas futulas del proceso en la reglón PRODUCCION tIna re Id::' c..0nuIClone~ loc:ll,,~s en donue se prouucc este cultivo Sin c.mbargo, tenJendo en cuenta los creCimientos 3Duales de L:ts prod'lGeloncs agrí,ol;:;s y pecuarta> en ¡\\nér.cn Latina en genelal y de Colombia en parll<..ular durante las dos últimas déc;:¡dils, el des¿llrollo de la Indu,lrla avícola (yen m\"flor grado de la producción porelnn) e~ uno de lo, mS<, a 1 tos, conJecu<..oterrcntc la prod\"cclón de all!1'entos balanceados clece a ESTRAfEGIA y O~ CTIV03 _Spr~lrlr03 DEL PROYECTO El ubJctlYO s_ncnl del I'/oyo:, té) es b¿¡~t'nte amplIo y para ,r;;;tar de lograrlo 52 l~qUI~IC de Id arCI~ll ~o~Jurto Y coordinada d~ las InstItuciones Aglarra (C[cOR,~) cnr.Jr!.F'ld\" <.le los dspedos de COI1'CrCldllz2c,ón y fr2rcadeo y la Caja Agr;:¡r¡¿1 PIl lo 1\"lilc,on'uo il las mater'ClS flnancler25 y credltlCIGS que a Su, ;-oI IF'l SL5 , ... (\"1 (/tcl.-<d S '1 t tvcl tC1tooal Y que integren el Piograma que a Su, ;-oI IF'l SL5 , ... (\"1 (/tcl.-<d S '1 t tvcl tC1tooal Y que integren el Piograma D'll, tal\"s <amo el IIIJ' ,tuto fel, m' ¡¡no \"<aropC'ClI1 -10 (I~ \\) pan les I rdb\"Jos D'll, tal\"s <amo el IIIJ' ,tuto fel, m' ¡¡no \"<aropC'ClI1 -10 (I~ \\) pan les I rdb\"Jos macla'11ente 1¡55,000 toneladas de sorgo (f\\lvera ,1982) La harina de yuca macla'11ente 1¡55,000 toneladas de sorgo (f\\lvera ,1982)La harina de yuca puede reemplazar 20 al 30% del sorgo en alimentos balanceados para aves y puede reemplazar 20 al 30% del sorgo en alimentos balanceados para aves y del 30 al I¡OZ en alimentos balanceados para cerdos, en formulaCión de die- del 30 al I¡OZ en alimentos balanceados para cerdos, en formulaCión de die- tas de costo mínimo y conSiderando un precIo eqUivalente al 80% del precIo tas de costo mínimo y conSiderando un precIo eqUivalente al 80% del precIo del sorgo (Gómez et al, 1982) La SubstitUCión de sorgo por harina de yuca del sorgo (Gómez et al, 1982)La SubstitUCión de sorgo por harina de yuca en alimentaCión animal es pues un ~ercado muy atractivo para las reglones en alimentaCión animal es pues un ~ercado muy atractivo para las reglones productoras de este cultiVO productoras de este cultiVO En base a IdS consld~racfones anteriores, el objetiVO prinCipal del teña o procesadas, a nIvel casero, espeCialmente en la forna de \"bollos de yuca\" (masa de yuca COCida) proyecto cooperativo DRI/ACDI-CIAT es Investigar la factibilidad técnica y Además, eXiste un mercado Industrial para la e~tracclón de almidón para usos como p~gante y adheSIVO económica de prodUCIr trozos secos de yuca o harina de yuca en las condi-Una encuesta rea-ciones eXistentes en la Costa Atlántica de Colombia y específIcamente en En base a IdS consld~racfones anteriores, el objetiVO prinCipal del teña o procesadas, a nIvel casero, espeCialmente en la forna de \"bollos de yuca\" (masa de yuca COCida) proyecto cooperativo DRI/ACDI-CIAT es Investigar la factibilidad técnica y Además, eXiste un mercado Industrial para la e~tracclón de almidón para usos como p~gante y adheSIVO económica de prodUCIr trozos secos de yuca o harina de yuca en las condi-Una encuesta rea-ciones eXistentes en la Costa Atlántica de Colombia y específIcamente en "},{"text":"• 7 OCSfR 1 pe 1 0,1 DE LA HETODOL0G 1,\\ DE TlIAB¡\\JO P3ra lo~Jf,_t 105 ObJe ... pfÚ C~}r>(\"íflcOS t! ~5t{,.. tr':lb2jO la:> é:ctt ¡¡clud~3 fLelon dtVldld~~ en cr'$ f,~cs, ~ ~~ocr 1) r,~~ ~ ppr¡n~~t,l) 2) r~sc sem\\una P1.. .. ota PlletO para el ser il ... O rntural di! yUC.J, Cf..,¡1'3ISlcntc eH un lrcu de 300 01 2 de' p ISO de ccrrcnlo) una r.dqUjn~ rnC;JdOrl o LiOZ;:3dorD de yLVl de tipO Tul1 1lidla y lo:> Ilrplem-..nto..l de tlab.JJo y se u-,ó lIl~¡ bodc~<..1 de ,1lT'1CCflan'cnto ¿Ispcnlble en la fln<..1 >1o~lañl tl de Setul'a neS fl'eron r''l\"llcl\"dlS con fond)o pro/rfllentcs dc ACOl y la rl_lnla O~<HÓ de Febn.ro a Abril de 1981 con la partll;lpaclón d<.l grupo de agrlculto\"cs mlemblos (15) de la A,oc,¡¡c'ón de Proo~,-t,)re~ de Oetulla (¡\\PROBE)Ln f --,Se SLffi!- ('\"onLr(~¡¿d y 3) tlfe,!!J:::: COllc'\"'\"rl.:t1 ('\"onLr(~¡¿d y 3) tlfe,!!J:::: COllc'\"'\"rl.:t1 Pala la CJ _-UCI(Jf1 ,'_ 1<:1 h e c r\", ~cntql el proyecto D\"I/ACOI-CIAT Pala la CJ _-UCI(Jf1 ,'_ 1<:1 h e c r\", ~cntql el proyecto D\"I/ACOI-CIAT "}],"sieverID":"c20a7fd0-33b4-4a4d-9ef0-43b966b80235","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"048e63eb4add1a4827ab95c0d60f1b6c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c6e7ad1a-0d93-453a-b7a9-b287d5e5ece3/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Tools for understanding the agricultural production systems and their socio-economic context in target regions for the introduction of new banana cultivars Seasonal calendar focus group discussion Developed for the project \"Improvement of banana for smallholder farmers in the Great Lakes region of Africa\"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"BACKGROUND","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Within the framework of the IITA-led project \"Improvement of banana for smallholder farmers in the Great Lakes region of Africa\" (also known as the \"Breeding Better Bananas\" project, http://breedingbetterbananas.org), Bioversity International and partners conducted baseline research in the target regions of Luweero and Mbarara in Uganda, and Bukoba, Meru, Moshi and Rungwe in Tanzania during 2015-2016, prior to conducting on-station and on-farm evaluations of new NARITA banana cultivars (http://www.promusa.org/NARITA+hybrids)."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Five tools were used to characterise the banana and agricultural production systems, and the socioeconomic context of these systems, in the target regions. The research used a mixed-methods, participatory and sex-disaggregated approach to ensure that the knowledge, experiences and opinions of as many people as possible were obtained."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"The understanding gained from the baseline research will:  be fed into the banana breeding pipeline at multiple entry points to assist with breeding banana cultivars that better meet the requirements of the users. Some of these entry points are: setting of breeding targets; selection of parent material; evaluation in regional on-station and on-farm trials; participatory varietal selection taking into account the criteria (or 'trait preferences') that are important to multiple and different users; facilitating access to and adoption of the new cultivars by farmers and other end-users through scaling up the supply of clean planting materials and ensuring equitable distribution of these through the 'seed' systems;"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":" inform the ongoing adaptive management of the project activities to ensure fair participation and decision-making by people in the affected communities;"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":" provide the baseline to evaluate, in conjunction with the endline, the impact of adoption of the new cultivars on households, and individuals within, in the target regions."},{"index":6,"size":150,"text":"The five tools developed and/or adapted from existing tools for the baseline research were: \"Thank you for coming today to participate in the seasonal calendar exercise where we will discuss the agricultural activities that take place in a typical year. We are ____________, ____________ and ____________, and we work on behalf of Bioversity International on a project where new matooke/ndizi (banana) hybrids, produced by NARO and IITA, will be tested for their performance in different regions of Uganda and Tanzania. If any of the varieties perform well, they will be recommended for official release and made available to farmers. Before we start this project, however, we would like to ask farmers in different regions about their banana production systems, banana varieties, banana products, households and communities -and that is why we are in your village at the moment to conduct household surveys and a number of different focus group discussions."},{"index":7,"size":106,"text":"In the seasonal calendar exercise that we will do today, we will discuss the agricultural activities that take place in a typical year, including -the seasons, the crops grown in this village, the activities required to produce the most important crops, who does these activities, and other important times of the year. We expect that this activity will take around 90 minutes. The information that we gather during the exercise will help us to understand your production systems and all the activities and division of labour related to these, and will help us to plan any subsequent project activities that may take place in the village."},{"index":8,"size":54,"text":"We would like to record what is said today so that we can make notes later, and we may take some photographs. Also, as some sensitive information might be shared within the group that could cause disharmony in the wider community, we ask you not share any information discussed here outside of this group."},{"index":9,"size":46,"text":"Your participation today is entirely voluntary and you are free to leave now before we start, or at any time during the discussion.\" \"Now we will map these activities onto the seasonal calendar so that we know which activities take place in which seasons and months.\""}]},{"head":"D15. When does \"Activity 1\" (as identified) take place?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"-When does \"Activity 2\" (as identified) take place? -When does \"Activity 3\" (as identified) take place?"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"~**~ Repeat question as required until all activities listed in D14 have been mapped onto the seasonal calendar."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"~**~ Record the number of the activity in each month that it takes place, i.e. if \"Activity 1\" occurs in August, September, February, and March then record a \"1\" under each of these months, so that the calendar has \"1\" recorded four times."}]},{"head":"~~~***~~~","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"\"Now that we have mapped all the activities involved in cultivating banana onto the seasonal calendar, the final stage is to go back to the list of activities and designate who does each activity -the men or the women or both. To do this we have four stars that we designate between men and women to the activity:"},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"-if the men are the only ones who do that activity, then they receive all four of the stars; -if the women are the only ones who do the activity, then they receive all four of the stars; -if the men and women share that activity equally, then the men receive two stars and the women receive two stars; -if an activity is mostly done by one group but the other group also helps a little, then the allocation of stars would be three to one. Does everyone understand how we allocate the stars to men and women to show who participates in each of the activities?\" ~**~ Use different coloured markers to denote the stars allocated to the men and to the women. Remember to include the coloured stars and which group they represent in the legend."}]},{"head":"D16. Who does \"Activity 1\" (as identified)? How should the four stars be allocated between the men and the women?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"~**~ For questions D16, D17, and D18, use different coloured marker pen to denote the stars allocated to the men and to the women. Remember to include the coloured stars and which group they represent in the legend. \"Now that the calendar for banana is complete, let's map the activities for the second most important crop from our list.\""}]},{"head":"D17. Who does this activity in a female","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"~**~ Repeat questions D14-D19 for the second most important crop in the list (D8). These activities do not need to be in as much detail as banana activities, e.g.:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":" planting  management  harvest  post-harvest processing and/or selling activities."}]},{"head":"~~~***~~~","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"\"Now that the calendar for the second most important crop is complete, let's map the activities for the third most important crop from our list.\" ~**~ For questions D22, D23, and D24, record the events on the seasonal calendar, underneath the activities of the three crops."}]},{"head":"D22","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":". Is there a time of the year when there is an abundance of food in this village? D23. Is there a time of the year when there is a shortage of food in this village? D24. Is there a time of the year when other important events happen in this village? For example:"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":" holidays  social events  community events  religious events  Off to one side, hang another sheet of flip chart paper. This sheet will be used for generating lists that group members will need to refer to or keeping other relevant information that remains to be discussed (as a 'parking space' for issues to return to)."}]},{"head":"Points to remember","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":" The discussion starts with identifying the seasons in a year, and characterizing each season and the activities that occur, to create a very specific calendar for the particular village."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":" Remember to record the symbols used on the calendar in a key/legend.  Remember to list the crops grown in the village on a separate flip chart sheet. It is important to achieve consensus on the three most important crops for the village before moving on to make the calendar for the crop-related activities."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":" Remember to use the prompts to guide the participants through the exercise. The goal is to record as much information as possible."}]},{"head":"Roles and responsibilities","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"During the exercise","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"During the exercise, the facilitator and note taker have distinct roles and responsibilities:"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Facilitator: In addition to facilitating the discussion, which includes drawing information out participants, making sure that everyone has a chance to speak, and moving a constructive discussion forward, the facilitator also will draw the calendar and maintain the lists."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Note taker: The note taker makes sure that each and every participant is read the Section B: Introduction and Individual informed consent, and that the roster is completed with their details. The note taker will also take notes during the discussion.  Proverbs/adages: language is culture! If there are local sayings that people use in their local languages that express relevant cultural ideas about bananas, agriculture, weather, gender roles, etc. ---please include these."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"There will be NO English translation for these sayings, but you should note them down in the local vernacular language and then give what the 'gist' or the meaning of the saying is in English."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":" Calendar icons: make sure that at the end of the exercise there is a comprehensive \"legend\" in the notes so that all the icons/symbols are defined."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"At the end of the exercise  These notes are extremely important to analyzing the calendar information at a later date. Therefore, please try to be as complete and clear as possible!"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" single, 2 = cohabitating, 3 = married (monogamous), 4 = married (polygamous), 5 = divorced, 6 = widowed, 7 = don't know, 8 = other, please specify. #2: 1 = no formal education, 2 = nursery, 3 = primary, 4 = secondary, 5 = post-secondary, 6 = don't know, 7 = other, please specify. #3: 1 = agriculture, 2 = livestock, 3 = business, self-employed, 4 = construction, bricklaying, 5 = transportation, 6 = timber, charcoal, wood products, 7 = non-timber forest products, 8 = housework, 9 = salaried professional, 10 = casual temporary labour, 11 = studying, 12 = no occupation (adult), 13 = don't know, 14 = other, please specify. Breeding Better Bananas, Seasonal calendar FGD, 2015 "},{"text":" does this activity in a male-headed household where no spouse is present? ~**~ Repeat questions D16-D18 for each activity in the list (D14). ~~~***~~~ D19. Is the seasonal calendar and the activities for banana complete? ~~~***~~~ Breeding Better Bananas, Seasonal calendar FGD, 2015 "},{"text":"~ **~ Repeat questions D14-D19 for the third most important crop in the list (D8). ~~~***~~~ D20. For the three crops that we have mapped on the calendar, can we say whether they are considered to be mens' or womens' crops? D21. If yes, why -what is it about the crop(s) that make them a man's or a woman's crop? ~~~***~~~ \"We now have an overview of agriculture activities for three important crops in the village. Let's look at other important events\" ~**~ If time is running short, it's OK to end the session now. "},{"text":"1. Baseline intra-household survey English "},{"text":"2. Trait preferences for banana products and varieties focus group discussion English version; Kiswahili version English version; Kiswahili version 3. Seasonal calendar focus group discussion 3. Seasonal calendar focus group discussion English version; Kiswahili version English version; Kiswahili version 4. Weekly and daily calendar focus group discussion 4. Weekly and daily calendar focus group discussion English version; Kiswahili version English version; Kiswahili version 5. 5. "},{"text":"Community wealth ranking focus group discussion English "},{"text":"~~~***~~~ B1. Do you have any questions for us? B2. Having heard all of this information, are you still happy to participate in the seasonal calendar exercise? All participants must consent to be interviewed if they wish to take part in the exercise (C1). If a participant does not consent to being photographed (C2), please inform the supervisor and ensure that no photographs are taken during the exercise. C1. Does the C2. Does the C3. Name of participant C4. Age of C5. Marital C6. Level of C7. Main C1. Does theC2. Does theC3. Name of participantC4. Age ofC5. MaritalC6. Level ofC7. Main participant consent participant consent to participant? status of education of occupation of participant consentparticipant consent toparticipant?status ofeducation ofoccupation of to participate in the being photographed? (Years) participant? participant? participant? to participate in thebeing photographed?(Years)participant?participant?participant? exercise? (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (See code #1) (See code #2) (See code #3) exercise? (Yes/No)(Yes/No)(See code #1)(See code #2)(See code #3) "},{"text":"D6. How are the seasons characterized? What is the following weather like in each of them: You can record the intensity of the weather types by increasing or decreasing (as appropriate) the size or the frequency of the symbols used to represent the weather type, e.g. three suns or one large sun to denote very high temperatures, whilst one sun or a small sun to denote low temperatures. Make sure the symbols and the signifier used to convey information about intensity are recorded in a legend.  rainfall  rainfall  temperature  temperature  humidity  humidity  wind  wind  storms  storms  anything else distinctive?  anything else distinctive? ~~~***~~~ ~~~***~~~ "},{"text":"~~~ D8. Which crops would you say are the 3 most important crops in the village? "},{"text":"Why did you choose these crops? What makes them the most important? "},{"text":"2015 D10. Which crops would you say are the 3 most important crops in the village when it comes to you as [men / women "},{"text":"the village? Would they be the same three crops as already selected (D8) or different? D11. Why did you choose these crops? What makes them the most important for you as [men / women (as appropriate)]? (as appropriate)]? ~~~***~~~ ~~~***~~~ D12. Which D12. Which "},{"text":"crops would you say are the 3 most important crops in the village when it comes to your spouses as [men/women "},{"text":"the village? Would they be the same three crops as already selected (D8) or different? D13. Why did you choose these crops? What makes them the most important for your spouses as Next we are going to map the activities involved in banana cultivation across the year onto the seasonal calendar. First we need to know -what activities are involved in banana cultivation, from planting a new plot, through to harvesting the bunches.\" [men/women (as appropriate)]? [men/women (as appropriate)]? ~~~***~~~ ~~~***~~~ \" \" "},{"text":"D14. What are all the activities involved in cultivating banana, from preparing the land for a new plot to harvesting the bunches?  watering the plants  watering the plants  mulching the plants  mulching the plants  weeding the plot  weeding the plot  deleafing, desuckering, debudding, etc.  deleafing, desuckering, debudding, etc.  managing the following suckers  managing the following suckers  removing sick plants  removing sick plants  propping or staking banana plants  propping or staking banana plants  harvesting the bunch for home consumption  harvesting the bunch for home consumption "},{"text":"Seasonal calendar FGD, 2015 SECTION E: INFORMATION FOR FACILITATOR & NOTE TAKER Materials you will need  at least 5 flip chart pieces of paper to write down what is discussed during the FGD  sticky tape to tape the flip charts on to a wall or other vertical surface that the whole group can see  markers of different colours to write on the flip charts Hang 2 sheets of flip chart paper next to one another on a wall (horizontally / landscape). Make sure that the papers are firmly secured to the surface of the wall with tape.  a clipboard for the note taker  a clipboard for the note taker  a printed copy of Section A: Exercise information  a printed copy of Section A: Exercise information  a printed copy of Section B: Introduction and individual informed consent  a printed copy of Section B: Introduction and individual informed consent  a printed copy of Section C: Roster of participants  a printed copy of Section C: Roster of participants  lined A4 paper for taking notes  lined A4 paper for taking notes  pens to take notes  pens to take notes  a stapler to staple Sections A, B, and C, and the notes together  a stapler to staple Sections A, B, and C, and the notes together  sticky labels to write the exercise code on and stick this to each of the flip chart pages used by the facilitator,  sticky labels to write the exercise code on and stick this to each of the flip chart pages used by the facilitator, and to the pile of stapled papers collated by the note taker and to the pile of stapled papers collated by the note taker Getting the space ready Getting the space ready "},{"text":" It is important to record what is said -if you can also indicate who said it that is important too. Body language -you might notice that as a particular person is speaking, someone else \"rolls\" his or her eyes -such language is telling. If such occasion arises, you may record what the body language was and what was being talked about when that particular 'body language' occurred. "},{"text":" The facilitator and note taker should sit together to read, discuss together, enhance and expand upon the notes taken during the exercise. Based on what you both recall about the exercise, please add any information that is missing.  Make sure that the icon legend is complete.  Please translate the calendar into English.  Remember to put the code of the exercise on both the flip charts and the notes.  Photograph the calendar before folding it and giving to the supervisor for safe keeping.  Finally, write up your assessment of the exercise -what worked well, what you would try next time to increase participation, etc. "}],"sieverID":"a8890a2a-50df-4629-a9c9-7e0d4e64df8b","abstract":"SECTION A: EXERCISE INFORMATION A1. Date of interview (dd/mm/yyyy) ______/______/__________ A2. Start time (hh:mm) ____________________________________________________________________ A3. End time (hh:mm) _____________________________________________________________________ A4. Name of enumerator 1 (facilitator) _______________________________________________________ A5. Name of enumerator 2 (note taker) ______________________________________________________ A6. Name of enumerator 3 (if applicable) _____________________________________________________ A7. Country _____________________________________________________________________________ A8. Region (UG only) _____________________________________________________________________ A9. Region (TZ)/District (UG) _______________________________________________________________ A10. District (TZ)/Sub-county (UG) __________________________________________________________ A11. Ward (TZ)/Parish (UG) ________________________________________________________________ A12. Village _____________________________________________________________________________ A13. Please indicate the category of respondents for this focus group (W = women; M = men, B = both women and men) _______________________________________________________________________________ A14. Tool use number (the number of times the tool has been conducted) ___________________________ A15. Exercise code 1 _____________________________________________________________________________"}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04962c3ad6af4dac4add9111383217e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/21cbd627-f549-4dc2-984f-a1fd7eda35bd/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Aim","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"The aim of the data collection and calculations described in this protocol, which is based on Goopy et al. (2018a) and Ndung'u et al. (2019), is to generate region-specific emission factors (EF) for enteric methane emissions of cattle; i.e. the amount of methane (CH 4 ) in kilograms produced per head of animal per year based on a Tier 2 approach (for more information on the Tier 2 approach and related methodology, see IPCC 2006, IPCC 2019). Tier 2 EFs are commonly derived locally and more precise than the currently used Tier 1 EFs. This is particularly necessary as countries (including low-and middle-income countries) are requested to report their national greenhouse gas inventory at minimum following the Tier 2 approach under the Paris Climate Agreement. The approach described in this protocol accounts for seasonal differences in feed availability, feed quality and related liveweight fluxes as often found in sub-Saharan Africa (Goopy et al. 2018a, Ndung'u et al. 2019). The calculations are based on or modified from equations published in 'Nutrient Requirements of Domesticated Ruminants' (CSIRO 2007) and thus use metabolizable energy requirements in contrast to the equations cited in IPCC (2006) which are based on net energy system."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Please note that this protocol is currently designed for cattle only. For small ruminants, partially different equations are required. An updated version of this document is foreseen in the near future. In addition, the two example studies cited here (Goopy et al. 2018a andNdung'u et al. 2019) were conducted in two study regions in western Kenya in a context of mixed crop-livestock systems. Studies that aim at using this protocol in a different context (e.g. pastoral systems) need to make certain adjustments which are not fully considered in the present protocol."}]},{"head":"Data requirements","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The aim is to produce region-specific enteric methane EFs. If the field data collection cannot cover the entire region, the study sites need to be chosen carefully in order to be representative for the region. A stratified randomization based on agroecological zone (AEZ) and/or land use weighed by population (human or animals) is recommended (Goopy et al. 2018a andNdung'u et al. 2019). Further classifications can be done by types of livestock systems, for instance."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Tier 2 estimates are based on feed characteristics and animal-specific performance data to calculate the feed intake from the energy required for different performance and activity parameters. The intake, together with methane conversion factors, can be used to calculate daily methane production and enteric methane EF. The approach of Goopy et al. (2018a) and Ndung'u et al. ( 2019) is based on continuous direct measurements of different performance and activity parameters on a large subset of individual animals on a seasonal basis, as well as seasonal assessments of quantity and quality of diet. For this, the following data is collected in the field."}]},{"head":"Data on animal characteristics and weights","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Animal identification and animal characteristics","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Animal identification: because continuous measurements are carried out on the same animal throughout the data collection period which covers a year, it is important to be able to clearly identify the individual animals. Numbered ear tags are an easy method for identifying the experimental animals. In this case, ear tags, ear tagger and disinfectant for the tagged ear are required. National regulations need to be checked beforehand. Alternative forms of animal identification could be numbered collars. Cow-calf pair identification: for lactating animals, the daily milk yields need to be recorded and the milk amount suckled by the young calves calculated. Therefore, it is important to include the respective calves in the live weight (LW) measurements (mean LW and LW gain of the calves are needed for Equation 9) and to identify the cow-calf pair (i.e. which calf belongs to which mother)."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Physiological status: if the animal is pregnant, lactating, both lactating and pregnant or neither of those, the lactation stage, i.e. days in milk, that can alternatively be calculated from the age of the respective calf, is information partially needed for the calculation of energy expenditure for lactation (MER L )."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Additional data: additional data that is not needed for the actual methane EF calculation but might be needed for later modelling and upscaling approaches can be collected during the weighing events. Additional data might include parity (number of calves born to a cow, information given by the household owner). Herd dynamics (i.e. animals coming on and off the household by being sold, slaughtered, born etc.) can be recorded at every weighing event, if needed. This additional information is given by the household owner and can be collected at every weighing event."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"The livestock production system (e.g. agropastoral, pastoral) or the AEZ (Ndung'u et al. 2019) the animals are kept in, or the type of feeding (e.g. barn-fed, grazing) might be of interest and recorded during the data collection when further classification of the animals into different subgroups takes place based on management or feeding situation, apart from the age/sex categories outlined above, to calculate EF for different subgroups of cattle within the study region covered."}]},{"head":"Live weight per animal (in kg)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The animal's live weight (LW) should be preferentially measured with a calibrated animal weighing scale (see Photo 2). A reference weight should be used in between the measurements to crosscheck accuracy during weighing. A good weighing time is during the morning hours before the animals are fed or released for grazing from barns or bomas."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Ropes might be needed for animal handling. A single-cabin pickup truck could be used if needed for transporting the weighing scale to the different households where the animals are going to be weighed."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Photo 2. Cattle LW measurement in the field using a portable weighing scale If no animal weighing scale is available, heart girth measurements (see Photo 3) and respective algorithms can be an (although less precise) alternative to estimate LW, e.g. Goopy et al. (2018b) which was developed for cattle types of West and East Africa. A measurement tape is required to measure the circumference of the experimental animals in centimetres. The tape needs to be fixed directly behind the forelegs and looped behind the hump (for humped animals). However, certain constraints of heart girth measurements when aimed at capturing seasonal liveweight fluxes need to be considered (Goopy et al. 2018b)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Photo 3. Heart girth measurement in the field using a measurement tape"},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"The LW is assessed at the beginning/end of each season and should cover all seasons throughout the year. For example, in an area having four seasons, in total five LW measurements are performed at the beginning of each season per animal throughout the data collection period (Goopy et al. 2018a andNdung'u et al. 2019). In an area having only two seasons, three LW measurements per animal are required in order to have an equal number of seasonal LW fluxes (i.e. LW change between beginning and end of a season). The measurement dates have to be recorded, as the number of days between the measurements are needed to calculate average daily LW changes."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"The mean seasonal LW per animal, which can be generated by the average LW measured at the beginning and end of each season, is needed for Equation 3, 12 and 13 (if applicable). LW change per season and animal is needed for Equation 6 and 7."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"The animal characteristics and LW data can be entered in field books, field sheets or open source data collection tools such as Open Data Kit (ODK: https://opendatakit.org/). In this case, a mobile phone or tablet is needed."}]},{"head":"Data on milk yield and milk quality","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Daily milk yield per lactating animal (in litre)"},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"For calculating energy expenditure for lactation (MER L ), the daily milk yield per season is needed for the individual lactating animals (see Equation 11). Daily milk yield of the lactating animals included in the study could be recorded by the farmers (Goopy et al. 2018a andNdung'u et al. 2019). Calibrated measurement jugs and field books for recording the milk yield on a daily basis per animal and throughout the entire data collection period are required per household. How to do milk yield and data recording in the record books might need to be explained and/or training might be provided. The daily milk production records of individual lactating animals from the household owner's record book should be copied regularly (for instance, by taking pictures with a cellphone or tablet) to another datasheet to avoid backlog and loss of data. The data can be cross-checked with data from milk collection hubs."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The daily milk yield of all lactating animals should be ideally recorded on a daily basis throughout the entire data collection period."}]},{"head":"Milk quality per lactating animal, household herd or breed type/season","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"For the calculation of the milk energy content (E Milk , Equation 10, a parameter needed for the calculation of MER L , Equation 11), certain milk quality parameters are required such as milk fat, density, protein or solid nonfat (SNF), depending on the equation to be used in Step 2.9.3 for the MER L calculation. Depending on the situation and the resources available, the seasonal milk quality can be assessed during a household visit either per animal or by using a mixed milk sample per household using, for instance, a portable milk analyzer. If it's not possible to perform the analysis in the field, the sample should be cooled on ice (for example, using an ice box) and analysed as soon as possible. The analysis can also be done in a milk factory or cooling plant nearby. The milk samples to be collected for analysis should be carefully homogenized (no heavy shaking of the milk samples, but thorough mixing)."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Milk quality assessments should ideally be done on a seasonal basis."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Alternatively, and if resources are limited, default milk energy values can be used for European breeds. For local breeds, few subsamples can be collected and analysed, and an average value can be used to calculate E milk (see Equation 10)."}]},{"head":"Data on feed availability and feed quality","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"For calculating the 'feed basket', which is the proportionate contribution of the single feed item to the seasonal diet (see Steps 2.1-2.5), the amounts of the different feedstuffs available per household and season need to be calculated."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The approach followed by Goopy et al. (2018a) and Ndung'u et al. ( 2019) in smallholder mixed crop-livestock systems of western Kenya was based on household sketches to collect information on fodder and crops produced on the farm and sizes of pasture and cropping land. The underlying assumption here is that what is produced on farm in terms of pasture, fodder and byproducts of cultivated crops is used for animal feeding, and that the diet of the animals is based on what is produced by the household."}]},{"head":"Sizes of pasture and cropping land collected per household","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"In mixed crop-livestock systems where most of the feed resources for the cattle are produced on farm, a small farm survey/sketch drawing can help to indicate how the farm has been subdivided and what kind of plants have been allocated in each cropping area/plot (see Figure 1 as an example). Locations and boundaries of the plots (for the different areas of pasture, different cropping areas, fallow lands etc.) are to be provided by the farmers. For example, generic laser range finders or tape measures can be used for size estimations. The best time for the sketch drawing is during the cropping season/s."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Additional parcels of land apart from the household land that is covered by the sketch, such as cultivated areas or grazing land somewhere else, need to be included in the calculation."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The number of farm sketches depends on the number of cropping seasons, especially for the major crops grown in the study region."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"This sketching approach was suitable in a mixed crop-livestock system (Goopy et al. 2018a andNdung'u et al. 2019) but might not be applicable in other contexts such as pastoral systems, or when the cropping areas are far away from the homestead where the animal and biomass measurements are realized. Where crop plots are far from the homestead, farmers may provide information on the sizes/estimated sizes under different crops."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"For the collection of more detailed household information, a modified Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIS: www.rhomis.org) can be used."}]},{"head":"Biomass yield of pasture and cropping lands","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Biomass yield from pasture lands can be measured directly by using exclosure cages and harvesting the biomass from the cages at the beginning and end of each season. The cages can be locally made from wire mesh with a size of 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 m for estimating both quantity and quality of pasture biomass (Goopy et al. 2018a andNdung'u et al. 2019) (see Photo 4). The exclosure cages should be established at the start of the data collection period in pastures or rangelands used for grazing of the experimental animals per household, sublocation or village, depending on the number of households, exclosure cages available and study design. Placement of the exclosure cages should be done in a randomized manner. The biomass yield harvested from the exclosure cages can be extrapolated to larger units like hectare (ha) (see Step 2.2.). Harvesting of the biomass grown in the exclosure cages should be done at the beginning/end of each season to calculate pasture biomass yield on a seasonal basis."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Information on yield of fodder grasses or crops/crop residues used for ruminant feeding can be provided by the household owner. Additionally, the farm sketches can be used to identify what crops and crop residues are available."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"For crop residues used for cattle feeding, information on grain yield provided by farmers and harvest indices for these crops from the literature (Goopy et al. 2018, Ndung'u et al. 2019) could be used to produce an estimate of crop byproduct biomass produced (and fed) on the farm."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"If 'cut and carry' is practiced, the amount of fodder brought into the farm can be calculated by counting and weighing the bags in which the fodder is transported. The fresh matter weight should be recorded and a fodder sample from the bags collected for later analysis of DM content. This can be extrapolated for the number of bags used in that season and taken into account when calculating fodder availability on the farm (see Step 2.3). This also applies for every other feed purchased and moved to the farm, like dairy meal."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Photo 4. Exclosure cage for pasture biomass yield estimations"}]},{"head":"Quality of pasture and feed samples","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The quality of the different feed components of the seasonal feed basket is needed to calculate the dry matter digestibility (DMD) (Equation 1) and then seasonal mean DMD (SMDMD) (Equation 2). For the equation used in this protocol, contents of acid detergent fibre (ADF) and nitrogen (N, all in g/100 g DM) are needed (see Equation 1)."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The content of gross energy (GE, MJ/kg DM) is needed for Equation 14. If GE content cannot be analysed, it could be assumed to be an average value of 18.1 MJ/kg DM (Ndung'u et al. 2019and Goopy et al. 2018a, citing CSIRO 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The pasture biomass harvested in the exclosure cages can be analyzed to get an indication of the seasonal quality of the pasture grass. After each harvest, the cut and dried samples are ground to pass through a 1 mm sieve and subjected to proximate analysis in a state laboratory or in the facilities of a local university."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"It has to be noted that the nutritional quality of the cage grass samples do not fully represent the quality of the pasture vegetation actually ingested by the grazing animals as the animals express selection behavior and the diet selected usually has a higher nutritive value compared to random pasture sampling. Pasture protected from grazing inside the exclosure cages might also be more mature than the pasture on grazed pastureland containing some regrowth of higher nutritional value. Additional sampling from these grazed lands might be recommendable in this case."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Feed samples that form part of the seasonal feed basket should be collected separately per feed and analysed for chemical composition. When the feed samples are collected, additional information could be provided by the household owner on amounts fed per season, relative proportion of feed items in the daily diet, and/or duration (days) of feeding the different feed items."},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"Feed and pasture samples need to be dried in a dry place. A conventional (domestic) oven can be used for drying the samples at 50°C for a minimum of 24 hours. Weight should be recorded for fresh, sun-dry and oven-dry weights. Sundrying is used if there is no other alternative. In this case, care has to be taken that the temperature does not get too hot. Feed sample collection should be done during at least one rainy and one dry season."}]},{"head":"Activity data Distance travelled","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Locomotion data of the animals that are allowed to graze, such as distance travelled per day in the different seasons, are needed for Equation 12. The data can be collected for selected focal animals with the use of global positioning system (GPS) collars. These collars can be left on the animals for two to three consecutive days (Goopy et al. 2018a, Ndung'u et al. 2019) and help to quantify distance travelled as well as change in altitude during travelling. Since all animals cannot be sampled, representative animals are selected in advance. When selecting representative animals and defining the number of data to be collected and the periods of data collection, factors that might affect the distance travelled such as the livestock production system, feed and water availability or seasonal differences should be considered. The GPS data can be used for calculating average distances travelled during 24 hours for different seasons, livestock systems or AEZs, if applicable."}]},{"head":"Work hours","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"If an animal is used for ploughing or traction, the working hours per day and the days of work per season need to be recorded (required for Equation 13, if applicable). This information can be collected per animal at every weighing event for the respective season."}]},{"head":"Field data analysis and calculation of methane EF","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Step 2.1. Calculation of area under pasture or cropping (in ha) per relevant season (feed basket calculation for mixed crop-livestock systems)"},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The area under pasture or cropping can be calculated for each household for the relevant seasons by using the information collected with the farm sketches (see Section 1.3 'Sizes of pasture and cropping land'). All areas that are used directly (pasture areas for grazing, plots used for growing fodder grasses) or indirectly (fields planted with crops whose byproducts are used for feeding) for feeding the targeted ruminant species need to be considered. The data can either be analysed separately per household and then be averaged and/or summed up to generate one average value per livestock system and/or AEZ, if applicable."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Step 2.2. Calculation of available pasture biomass (in t per ha) per season (feed basket calculation for mixed croplivestock systems)"},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"The available pasture biomass can be estimated by using the DM weight of the biomass sampled from the exclosure cages (see Section 1.3 'Biomass yields of pasture and cropping lands). The seasonal biomass yields (in g DM) recorded from cutting the areas of 0.25 m 2 covered by the exclosure cages can then be extrapolated to tons (t) of DM per ha on a seasonal basis."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"These values, per household, sublocation or village, can then be averaged and extrapolated to generate one value for pasture DM biomass yield per reference unit (e.g. t per AEZ) and season, together with the information on land area under pasture calculated in Step 2.1."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"'Available pasture biomass was estimated for the sampled farms in each zone by season (t dry matter (DM)/ha) by extrapolating sample mass by area under pasture for each farm and aggregating areas for all farms in the survey, by zone.' (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 73) Step 2.3. Calculation of available fodder grass biomass (in t per ha) per season (feed basket calculation for mixed croplivestock systems)"},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"If the yield of the different fodder grasses grown are not measured (see Step 2.2 for pasture biomass harvested using exclosure cages) the yield (t DM/ha) can be alternatively estimated by using yield information for these fodder grasses grown under comparable circumstances published elsewhere."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"Together with the information on land area used to grow fodder grasses (see Step 2.1) the amount of fodder grasses available per season and reference unit (e.g. AEZ) can be calculated. If fodder grass is brought into the farm by 'cut and carry', this needs to be taken into account (see 1.3 'Biomass yields of pasture and cropping lands')."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Step 2.4. Calculation of available crop residue biomass (in t per ha) per season (feed basket calculation for mixed croplivestock systems)"},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"Here, crop residues refer to residues from crops that are used for feeding the targeted livestock species to be estimated for the total area under the respective crop per reference unit (e.g. household, sublocation, village or AEZ)."},{"index":11,"size":45,"text":"Information on the yield of the different crops can be collected from the household owners and harvest indexes could be used from the literature to estimate on-farm biomass availability of crop residues that are used for feeding (Goopy et al. 2018a, Ndung'u et al. 2019)."},{"index":12,"size":25,"text":"Step 2.5. Calculation of proportionate availability of the different feedstuffs in the feed basket (in percent) per season (feed basket calculation for mixed crop-livestock systems)"},{"index":13,"size":79,"text":"The amount of all single feed items fed to cattle, for instance pasture (Step 2.2.), cultivated fodder grass such as Napier or Rhodes grass (Step 2.3) and crop byproducts (Step 2.4), need to be listed and the proportions of each feed item in the respective season and reference unit (e.g. AEZ) to total feed availability can be calculated. The different proportions per season and reference unit (e.g. AEZ, if applicable), represent their contribution to the respective seasonal feed basket."},{"index":14,"size":74,"text":"'Feed resources (i.e. pasture, crop stovers, Napier grass, etc.) were pooled by type of feed for the farms surveyed in each zone and each season and the representation of each feedstuff in the notional diet was deemed to be proportional to the availability of the different plant biomass in each zone/season.' (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 74) Step 2.6. Calculation of the digestibility of the individual feedstuffs per season and reference unit (e.g. AEZ)"},{"index":15,"size":25,"text":"Feed digestibility can be calculated using an equation by Oddy et al. (1983) per feedstuff per season and per reference unit (e.g. AEZ), if applicable."},{"index":16,"size":11,"text":"For the calculation, the following values are needed for each feedstuff:"},{"index":17,"size":12,"text":"• ADF content of the single feed items (in g/100 g DM)"},{"index":18,"size":12,"text":"• N content of the single feed items (in g/100 g DM)"},{"index":19,"size":27,"text":"The equation reads as follows (from Oddy et al. (1983) The DMD should be calculated for each feed item separately per season and reference unit (e.g. AEZ)."},{"index":20,"size":26,"text":"DMD g 100 ⁄ g DM = 83.58 − 0.824 * ADF g 100 ⁄ g DM + 2.626 * N g 100 ⁄ g DM"},{"index":21,"size":16,"text":"Step 2.7. Calculation of the seasonal mean dry matter digestibility (SMDMD) per reference unit (e.g. AEZ)"},{"index":22,"size":19,"text":"The SMDMD of the feed basket can be estimated using the following equation (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 74):"}]},{"head":"Equation 2","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Where % diet of individual feedstuff is estimated in Step 2.5 and DMD (%) of the individual feedstuff is estimated in"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Step 2.6."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Step 2.8. Calculation of the average distance travelled per season and reference unit (e.g. AEZ)"},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"The distance travelled, used for calculating the energy spent for locomotion needs to be taken into account for all animals that are sent out for grazing. GPS transponder fixed on collars can be used to track the distance covered per day and animal and average values can be calculated for different seasons, reference units (e.g. AEZ) and/or different livestock systems, if applicable (see Section 1.4. 'Distance travelled'). The average value can then be used in equation 12."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Step 2.9. Calculation of the total metabolizable energy requirements (MER T ) per individual animal and season"},{"index":6,"size":109,"text":"The total energy expenditure is calculated individually for all single animals per season and can later on be averaged per animal category (i.e. females > two years; males > two years; heifers (one to two years); young males (one to two years); calves (males and females < one year)), season and reference unit (e.g. AEZ, if applicable). Total energy expenditure is calculated by summing up the metabolizable energy requirements (MER) for maintenance (MER M ) and growth (MER G , could be negative in the case of weight loss), lactation (MER L ) for lactating animals and travelling/ locomotion (MER T ) or ploughing/traction (MER P ), if applicable."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• MER for maintenance (MER M ) (see Step 2.9.1)"},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"• MER for growth (negative in case of weight loss) (MER G/-G ) (see Step 2.9.2)"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"• MER for lactation (MER L ) (see Step 2.9.3)"},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"• MER for travelling/locomotion (MER T ) (see Step 2.9.4)"},{"index":11,"size":10,"text":"• MER for ploughing/traction (MER P ) (see Step 2.9.5)"},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"• MER for thermoregulation (only needed when animals are kept partially outside of their thermoneutral zone."},{"index":13,"size":46,"text":"If the daily temperatures are likely to be outside the subject animals' thermoneutral zone, which should be determined in advance of the data collection period, the increased energy expenditure in animals outside of their thermoneutral zone can be calculated by e.g. equations cited in CSIRO 2007)"},{"index":14,"size":35,"text":"• MER for gestation/pregnancy (not covered here as included in the LW changes for the pregnant animals, see below) SMDMD = & % diet of individual feedstuff * DMD % of the individual feedstuff 100"},{"index":15,"size":148,"text":"'Energy requirement for thermoregulation was not considered, because in the area surveyed environmental conditions were such that animals should mostly have been in a thermo-neutral zone year round (Mean annual temperature:17.0 (min)-29.4 (max) °C). Energy requirements for gestation were not specifically included, as this is only of significance with respect to energy requirements in the final 8-12 weeks of gestation and is partly captured in the dam's LW change. Calves under 3 months were treated as pre-ruminant (therefore not emitting CH 4 ) and the milk required for their maintenance and growth attributed to the milk production of the dam and included in the total energy expenditure for the dam. Calves over the age of three months were deemed to be weaned and on pasture.' (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 74) Step 2.9.1. Calculation of the energy requirements for maintenance (MER M , per individual animal and season)"},{"index":16,"size":55,"text":"Equations 3 and 4 can be used to calculate MER M per single animal and per season. This calculation is based on three equations that were published in CSIRO 2007 (equation 1.20, 1.21 and 1.12A) and were combined into a sole equation (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 74 and Ndung'u et al. 2019, p. 1138):"},{"index":17,"size":2,"text":"Equation 3"},{"index":18,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":19,"size":31,"text":"• K: 1.3 for crossbred cattle, i.e. the intermediate value of the value 1.4 that applies for Bos taurus breeds and 1.2 for B. indicus breeds (see CSIRO 2007, equation 1.20)"},{"index":20,"size":52,"text":"• S: 1.0 (for female and castrated cattle), 1.15 (for noncastrated male animals) (see CSIRO 2007, equation 1.20) • M: 1 (when there is zero per cent milk in the diet) or for calves, when the dietary proportion of milk is unknown, M can be calculated (for further details, see CSIRO 2007)"},{"index":21,"size":50,"text":"• Mean live weight (MLW): (the average LW in kg per season calculated as: (LW Start of season + LW End of season )/2 (Goopy et al. 2018a andNdung'u et al. 2019) • A (stands for age): to be given in years (for additional explication see CSIRO 2007, equation 1.20)"},{"index":22,"size":44,"text":"• M/D: stands for metabolizable energy (ME) content of the seasonal diet, in MJ ME per kg diet DM, to be calculated by the following equation (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 74 and Ndung'u et al. 2019, p. 1138citing CSIRO 2007 (equation 1.12 A)):"},{"index":23,"size":2,"text":"Equation 4"},{"index":24,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":25,"size":23,"text":"SMDMD is calculated with equation 2. Step 2.9.2. Calculation of the energy requirements for growth (MER G/-G , per individual animal and season)"},{"index":26,"size":41,"text":"In the following, the energy requirements for growth (MER G , i.e. weight gain/loss) per animal and season are calculated. At first, the seasonal daily weight gain (or loss) has to be calculated per animal (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 74):"},{"index":27,"size":2,"text":"Equation 5"},{"index":28,"size":51,"text":"If the LW change in the respective animal and season is positive, equation 6 and 4 can be used for calculation; when it is negative then equation 7 is used (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 75 and Ndung'u et al. 2019, p. 1138f, based on CSIRO 2007 (equations 1.29 and 1.36)."}]},{"head":"Equation 6","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Equation 7"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• LW change is calculated from equation 5"},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"• EC (stands for energy content of the tissue (in MJ per kg)). Here, the value 18 can be used for all seasons and all animal categories, which is a mid-range value (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 75, citing CSIRO 2007) • M/D: stands for metabolizable energy (ME) content of the diet, in MJ ME/kg diet DM, which was generated by equation 4."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Step 2.9.3. Calculation of the energy requirements for lactation (MER L , per individual animal and season)"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"The energy expenditure for lactation is calculated for all lactating animals using the equation 11. where:"},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"• DCMC (l) stands for daily milk consumption (in l) of pre-ruminant calves (i.e. those ≤ 3.5 months, Ndung'u et al. 2019) required for all lactating females accompanied by a young calf, which is calculated by the following equation 9 (based on Table 4 of Radostits and Bell (1970)):"},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":"Equation 9"},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":10,"size":69,"text":"• 0.107 (in l/kg calf weight), i.e. per 1 kg of birth weight (if not available, life weight measured during the first 3.5 months can be used) the calf needs 0.107 l of milk (status quo, maintenance), value derived from Table 4 of Radostits and Bell (1970) by dividing 2.92 (milk requirement in l for a calf with a birth weight of 27.2) by 27.2 (birth weight in kg)."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"• LW is liveweight of the calf (in kg)"},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"• 0.00339 (l per day) is the extra amount of milk needed for calf growth, i.e. per 1 g of liveweight gain the animal needs 0.00339 l of milk, value derived from where:"},{"index":13,"size":23,"text":"• F stands for milk fat (in g/kg milk), using the value analyzed per animal (or per household herd) of the respective season."},{"index":14,"size":34,"text":"• SNF stands for solids nonfat (in g/kg milk), using the value analyzed per animal (or household herd) of the respective season. If needed, SNF can be calculated following Bector and Sharma (1980) where:"},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"• MY (l) is the daily milk yield per season as calculated with equation 8"},{"index":16,"size":23,"text":"• M/D: stands for metabolizable energy (ME) content of the seasonal diet, in MJ ME/kg diet DM, which was generated by equation 4"},{"index":17,"size":17,"text":"• E milk stands for energy content of the milk (in MJ/kg) as calculated with equation 10"},{"index":18,"size":17,"text":"Step 2.9.4. Calculation of the energy requirements for travelling/locomotion (MER T , per individual animal and season)"},{"index":19,"size":93,"text":"The energy expenditure for travelling/locomotion is calculated based on the information on distance travelled (in km) collected in the field using GPS collars in different seasons (see Section 1.4 'Distance travelled') by using the average value generated in Step 2.8 for different seasons and reference units (e.g. AEZ), if applicable. The following equation is used for calculating MER T (Goopy et al. 2018a, p. 75, Ndung'u et al. 2019, p. 1139, based on CSIRO 2007): Step 2.9.6. Calculation of the total energy expenditure (MER TOTAL , summing up, per individual animal and season)"},{"index":20,"size":44,"text":"The calculation for MER TOTAL is to be done separately for each animal and season. The following compilation is based on Ndung'u et al. ( 2019) and needs to be adapted to the respective situation (e.g. if animals spent energy on ploughing, traveling etc.)."},{"index":21,"size":7,"text":"For adult females (i.e. lactating animals): where:"},{"index":22,"size":41,"text":"• GE, gross energy of the diet (in MJ per kg DM). If not analysed, it could be assumed to be 18.1 MJ/kg DM (Ndung'u et al. 2019and Goopy et al. 2018a, citing CSIRO 2007) • SMDMD (calculated with equation 2)"},{"index":23,"size":22,"text":"• 0.81, the factor for converting metabolizable energy into digestible energy (Ndung'u et al. 2019and Goopy et al. 2018a, citing CSIRO 2007). "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Example of household sketch (Y=yard) "},{"text":" , cited in Goopy et al. (2018a), p. 74 and Ndung'u et al. (2019), p. 1138): Equation 1 "},{"text":" MER TOTAL (MJ per day) = MER M (result of equation 3) + MER G/-G (results of equation 6 or 7) + MER L (result of equation 11) + MER T (result of equation 12, if applicable) For the adult and young males and heifers: MER TOTAL (MJ per day) = MER M (result of equation 3) + MER G/-G (results of equation 6 or 7) + MER T (result of equation 12, if applicable) + MER P (result of equation 13, if applicable) For calves: MER TOTAL (MJ per day) = MER M (result of equation 3) + MER G/-G (results of equation 6 or 7) Step 2.10. Calculation of the Dry Matter Intake (DMI) per animal per season DMI per season is calculated separately for each animal using the following equation (Ndung'u et al. 2019, p. 1139): Equation 14 "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Therefore, the age of the animals needs to be recorded. If no reliable data on birth dates is available, the age of the individual animal can be estimated from dentition, e.g. followingTorell et al. (1998) (see Photo 1). This information is used later to classify the experimental animals into the sex/age categories outlined above for separate calculation Sex/age class: the enteric methane EF are reported for five different sex/age classes, i.e. adult females and adult males Sex/age class: the enteric methane EF are reported for five different sex/age classes, i.e. adult females and adult males (> 2 years), heifers and young males (1-2 years) and calves (less than one year old) (Goopy et al. 2018a, Ndung'u et al. (> 2 years), heifers and young males (1-2 years) and calves (less than one year old) (Goopy et al. 2018a, Ndung'u et al. 2019). 2019). "},{"text":" At first, data on daily milk yields (in l) per season is needed, which can be calculated by using the following equation(Ndung'u et al. 2019(Ndung'u et al. , p. 1139): Equation 8 Equation 8 LW #$%&'( k g d ⁄ = LW /&0 12 3(%41& kg − LW 36%76 12 3(%41& kg Number of days between the measurements LW #$%&'( k g d ⁄ =LW /&0 12 3(%41& kg − LW 36%76 12 3(%41& kg Number of days between the measurements MER $ M J d ⁄ = LW ,-./01 * 0.92 * EC 0.043 * M D ; MER $ M J d ⁄ =LW ,-./01 * 0.92 * EC 0.043 * M D ; MER $% M J d ⁄ = LW -./012 * 0.92 * EC 0.8 MER $% M J d ⁄ =LW -./012 * 0.92 * EC 0.8 "},{"text":" Table4ofRadostits and Bell 1970 by calculating 2.92 -2.15 = 0.77, i.e. which is the amount of extra milk to grow 227 g per day and dividing 0.77 by 227, which is the extra amount of milk needed to grow 1 g/day.• LWG is the live weight gain of the calf per day (in g)The milk energy content (E milk , in MJ/kg), needed for equation 11 is calculated by using the following equation for cow's milk(Ndung'u et al. 2019, p. 1138, citing Tyrrell and Reid 1965) if data on milk protein is not available: Equation 10 Equation 10 MY l = Total milk recorded per season l Number of days in season l + DCMC l MY l =Total milk recorded per season l Number of days in season l+ DCMC l DCMC l = 0.107 * LW kg + 0.00339 * LWG g DCMC l = 0.107 * LW kg + 0.00339 * LWG g "},{"text":" (see Ndung'u et al. 2019). Alternatively, if values for fat, protein and lactose are available (e.g. if milk samples were measured using a portable milk analyser), other equations could be used as well (see further equations cited in CSIRO 2007, e.g. equation 1.40). See also further alternatives outlined in Section 1.2 'Milk quality. MER L is calculated individually for all lactating animals and per season by using the following equation (Ndung'u et al. 2019, p. 1139, based on CSIRO 2007 equation 1.43)): Equation 11 Equation 11 "}],"sieverID":"6e24caab-cbca-4278-95b9-cc1b863867ca","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04bf0c85bfe74b2b56705f3e924fcd1b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e81dc5ec-03a3-4c1a-a4ed-858e9c873896/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"A training guide for small-scale dairy farmers, milk traders, transporters and processors in Eastern Africa MODULE 6 Fundamentals of marketing and dairy business management A Programme of the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The Dairy Development Authority (Uganda), the Kenya Dairy Board, the Rwanda Animal Resources Development Authority and the Tanzania Dairy Board thank the following individuals and institutions whose untiring efforts led to the successful compilation of this training guide:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• National resource persons nominated by the aforesaid institutions for collecting information that helped in drawing up the harmonised generic training guide and curriculum:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"❍ Mr Isha Muzira (Uganda)"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"❍ Dr Philip K Cherono (Kenya)"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"❍ Dr Michel Ngarambe (Rwanda)"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"❍ Mr Obed Ndankuu (Tanzania)"},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"• The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) through its Programme for Agricultural Policy Analysis (ECAPAPA) for funding and providing leadership to the two-phase project on Rationalisation and harmonisation of policies, standards and regulations in the dairy industry in Eastern Africa from 2002 to 2005."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) for collaboration through its research theme on market-oriented smallholder dairy."},{"index":9,"size":35,"text":"• Prof Lusato Kurwijila of Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania for sharing his technical expertise and knowledge of the dairy industry in Africa that was instrumental in developing the harmonised training guide and curriculum."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"• Dr Amos Omore (ILRI) for coordinating the work of the national resource persons and facilitating dialogue and exchange of experiences in improving the quality of milk sold in the informal sector."},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":"• Ms Tezira Lore (ILRI) for editing, proofreading and designing the layout of the guide."},{"index":12,"size":7,"text":"• Ms Lilian Ohayo for providing illustrations."},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"• US Agency for International Development (USAID), Regional Economic Development Services Office for East and Southern Africa, for financial support."},{"index":14,"size":59,"text":"It is our desire and hope that the use of this guide in training programmes will contribute to the improvement of milk quality along the marketing chain and provide income generation opportunities for those involved. We look forward to continued collaboration with the above institutions as we strive to strengthen the dairy industry and cross-border trade in the region."}]},{"head":"Foreword","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"As a small-scale dairy farmer, milk trader, transporter or processor you know very well how important it is for you to carry out your business activities in a profitable manner. For this reason, you need to be equipped with basic skills in business management and planning. The guide is intended to give you some basic concepts of business management and marketing that you can apply in your dairy business. The aim of this guide is to help you become competent in the following areas:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Carrying out a feasibility study"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Preparing a business plan"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Distributing and retailing of dairy products "}]},{"head":"FEASIBILITY STUDY","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Before establishing any business, a thorough feasibility study must be carried out in order to explore if the venture is viable and avoid the disappointment of your business failing. The different types of businesses and some of their advantages and disadvantages are shown below."}]},{"head":"Type of business Advantages Disadvantages","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sole proprietorship","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Owned and controlled by one person."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The business owner cannot be legally separated from the business, which can be registered in the owner's name or in a different name."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Business owners are their own bosses thus have total control."}]},{"head":"•","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Personal contact enhances customer satisfaction."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Initial capital requirements are usually low."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Business owner keeps all the profits."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Difficult to raise high capital requirements alone."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• Unlimited liability."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Skills and abilities limited to one person."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Business ceases to exist when owner dies."}]},{"head":"Partnership","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"A group of two to twenty people who pool their resources and abilities in order to carry out a business for profit. Partners share profits equally, unless stated otherwise in the partnership agreement."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• More money may be available."}]},{"head":"•","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Losses and risks can be shared."}]},{"head":"•","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Partners plan together and discuss problems or issues before making decisions."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Partners share in control of the business."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Profits must be shared by all partners."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Partners are jointly responsible for poor decisions made by one partner."}]},{"head":"Cooperative society","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"A group of persons who voluntarily come together to start a business to produce or supply goods or services in order to promote the wellbeing of the members."}]},{"head":"•","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"It is easy to raise money."}]},{"head":"•","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Liability is limited to the business."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Profits are shared based on individual contributions."}]},{"head":"•","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The business may employ managers with relevant experience and qualifications."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Control of the business is shared."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• All members must accept the decisions of the board of directors."}]},{"head":"Limited company","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"A body corporate, formed by two or more people, that is recognised by the law as being distinct from its owners."}]},{"head":"•","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Stockholders have limited liability."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"•"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"The business has a perpetual life."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• It is easy to expand and transfer ownership."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• It may be applied to both large and small businesses."}]},{"head":"•","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"It is an expensive venture."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Capital stock tax is involved."}]},{"head":"Principles of conducting a feasibility study","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"After selecting a business opportunity or enterprise, the activity that follows is a feasibility study to determine whether the proposed project is a sound business idea. Because putting together a business plan is a significant investment of time and money, you want to ensure that there are no major roadblocks facing your business idea before you make that investment. Identifying such roadblocks is the purpose of a feasibility study."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"A feasibility study looks at three major areas where key questions must be addressed:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"1. Market analysis 2. Organisational and technical analysis"}]},{"head":"Financial analysis","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Market analysis Organisational and technical analysis Financial analysis","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• What is the right organisational structure for your project?"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Who will serve on the board of directors if any?"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• What qualifications are needed to manage this business?"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Who will manage the business and what are the other staffing needs?"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• What are the technology needs for the proposed business?"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• What other equipment does your proposed business need?"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Where will you obtain this technology and equipment?"},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• How does your ability to obtain this technology and equipment affect your start-up?"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• How much will the equipment and technology cost?"},{"index":10,"size":14,"text":"• What is the current or projected demand for your proposed products or services?"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"• What are the target markets for this product or service?"},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"• What demographic characteristics do your potential customers have in common?"},{"index":13,"size":7,"text":"• How many of them are there?"},{"index":14,"size":15,"text":"• What is the projected supply of the products or services needed for your project?"},{"index":15,"size":7,"text":"• What competition exists in this market?"},{"index":16,"size":21,"text":"• Can you establish a market niche that will enable you to compete effectively with others providing this product or service?"},{"index":17,"size":24,"text":"• Is the location of your proposed business likely to affect its success? If so, is the identified site the most appropriate one available?"},{"index":18,"size":37,"text":"• Start-up costs: These are incurred in starting up a new business and include capital goods such as land, buildings, equipment etc. The business may have to borrow money from a lending institution to cover these costs."},{"index":19,"size":23,"text":"• Operating costs: These are the ongoing costs, such as rent, utilities and wages that are incurred in the operation of a business."},{"index":20,"size":17,"text":"• Revenue projections: How will you price your goods or services? What is the estimated monthly revenue?"},{"index":21,"size":13,"text":"• Financing: Which bank or other lending institution can you approach for financing?"},{"index":22,"size":18,"text":"• Profitability: Will the business break even, lose money or make a profit? How can profits be increased?"}]},{"head":"PREPARATION OF A BUSINESS PLAN","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"If the feasibility study indicates that your business idea is sound, the next step is a business plan. The business plan continues the analysis at a deeper and more complex level, building on the foundation created by the feasibility study. A business plan minimises the risk associated with a new business and maximises the chances of success through planning."}]},{"head":"Basic elements of a business plan","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"A business plan can be divided into four sections:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"1. Organisational plan 2. Management plan 3. Marketing plan"}]},{"head":"Financial plan","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A business plan helps to increase the chances of your business succeeding"}]},{"head":"Organisational plan","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In this section, provide a detailed description of your business. An excellent question to ask is: \"What business am I in?\" and in answering this question, include your products, market and services as well as a thorough description of what makes your business unique. This section can be divided into three parts: the business description, the product or service you are offering and the location of the business."}]},{"head":"Business description","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Form of ownership and organisation: sole proprietorship, partnership, cooperative, etc."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Business type: merchandising, manufacturing or service?"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• What licences and permits are needed?"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Is it a new independent business, a takeover, an expansion, a franchise?"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• What are the growth opportunities for the business?"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• When will your business be open?"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Who will manage the business?"}]},{"head":"Product or service","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Describe the benefits of your goods and services from the perspective of your customers:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• What are you selling?"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• How will the product or service benefit the customer?"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• What is different about the product or service your business is offering?"}]},{"head":"Business location","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Your business location should be considered with your customers in mind."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• What kind of space will you need?"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Why is the area desirable?"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• Is the location easily accessible by public transport?"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Does the location provide a sense of security?"}]},{"head":"Management plan","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Your management plan should answer questions such as:"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• How does your background/business experience help you in this business?"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• What are your weaknesses and how can you compensate for them?"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Who will be on the management team?"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"• What are their strengths/weaknesses?"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• What are their duties?"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Are these duties clearly defined?"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• What are your current personnel needs?"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"• What are your plans for hiring and training personnel?"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• How are you going to remunerate your staff?"}]},{"head":"Marketing plan","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The key element of the marketing plan is to know your customers-their likes, dislikes and expectations. By identifying these factors, you can develop a marketing strategy that will allow you to meet your customers' needs. The marketing plan should also address your pricing strategy and how you will deal with business competition. Here are some questions you can consider:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Who are your customers (target market)?"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Are your markets large enough to expand? Are they growing, steady or declining?"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• Is your market share growing, steady or declining?"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• How will you attract, hold or increase your market share?"}]},{"head":"Financial plan","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"This is the heart of the business plan. Sound financial management is one of the best ways for your business to remain profitable. To effectively manage your finances, prepare realistic budgets by determining the actual amount of money needed to open your business (start-up budget) and the amount needed to keep it open (operating budget). You will need to address the following questions:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• How much money do you have? How will you secure funding?"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• How much money will you need for start-up?"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• How much money will you need to stay in business?"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• What type of accounting system will you use?"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• What are your projected sales and profits for the coming year?"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• What will be your break-even level of production?"},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• What will be your monthly cash flow during the first year?"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"• What kind of inventory control system will you use?"}]},{"head":"DISTRIBUTION AND RETAILING OF DAIRY PRODUCTS Costing and pricing","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Setting product prices is not so easy. However, the following guidelines may be useful:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Consider costs: Decide on the lowest price you are prepared to consider."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"There must be a minimum price below which sales are simply not worth pursuing. However, this is the only stage at which costs enter the price-setting equation."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"• Watch the customer: Prices should be related to demand in the market place and not just to costs. Try to take account of the non-price benefits that your customers will gain by using your products or services, and estimate what they will be prepared to pay for them. If possible, obtain field research information from potential customers, but treat the findings with caution since surveys on buying intentions can be hard to interpret."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Price your dairy products well so that your products are affordable and your business makes a reasonable profit"},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"• Watch the competition: Weigh the good and bad points about your product and compare them with others on the market. Then decide on where to position your product on the market and where its price should be, relative to others."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"• Do not under price: If you are offering a better product than others on the market, you charge a premium price for it. It is much easier to set prices relatively high to start with and reduce them later."}]},{"head":"Marketing skills","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Marketing of dairy products is an important component of dairy-oriented businesses."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The aim is to get the best price possible. Marketing of raw milk may not present much of a problem especially where there are processors ready and willing to buy the produce. However, marketing of processed dairy products presents more of a challenge due to competition from several products in the market."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"To promote the demand of your products in the market, here are some points to consider:"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Quality: The quality of your products/services should be consumer-driven. Your business should be associated with high quality."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"• Value addition and product diversification: You can add value to raw milk by processing it into products like yoghurt or cheese. If you diversify your products you are likely to get better returns and capture more market."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• Know your customers: Understand the needs and purchasing power of your customers in order to produce products that meet their expectations at a price they can afford."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• Pricing: The prices of your commodities should be competitive."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"• Packaging: Packaging should be attractive, convenient, protective to the product and well-labelled. It should carry the necessary nutritional information and, above all, be cost effective."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"• Branding: Proper banding of processed milk products will help customers to easily identify your products."},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"• Customer care: Always respond promptly to customer complaints and maintain good relations with your customers. Happy and satisfied customers will always return and thus keep your business going."}]},{"head":"Distribution skills","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The main distribution channels for milk and milk products are:"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"• Producer-consumer"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"• Producer-cooperative society-processor-distributor-consumer"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• Producer-milk trader-consumer"},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"The distribution channel you choose will depend on several factors such as: the level of demand for raw vs. processed milk products; the presence of large processors or a functioning cooperative; the quality of road infrastructure; distance to outlet centres and the nature of regulations on marketing of raw milk ."}]},{"head":"Maintain good relations with your customers","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Whatever distribution channel is in place, there are certain factors that need to be observed by small-scale dairy operators:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"1. Always ensure that milk and dairy products are transported to the market quickly and efficiently. Since raw milk and dairy products are highly perishable, you should deliver them to the point of sale as fast as possible."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"2. Distribute your products as close as possible to your potential customers."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"3. Train your distributors on how best your products should be handled and stored to avoid contamination and spoilage."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Ensure that milk and dairy products are transported to the market quickly"}]},{"head":"RECORD KEEPING AND CREDIT MANAGEMENT","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"By keeping proper records, you will be able to track the sales, expenses incurred, profits made and other issues of concern to your business. Well-kept records will also help you to make sound decisions geared towards a well-managed business that makes high profits."}]},{"head":"Types of records","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farm records","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Some of the records that should be kept at the farm level include:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Milk delivery card indicating the quantity of milk delivered per day "}]},{"head":"Milk delivery card","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Farmers' groups should record in a milk journal the quantity of milk collected from individual farmers. This helps in calculating the payments for milk supplied, assessing the performance of various business activities and sharing profits."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The milk journal should bear the following details:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Name of the group"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Code/name of the farmer"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"• Amount of milk delivered"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• Signature of collecting clerk"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Here is an example of a milk journal for a milk producer group:"}]},{"head":"Village milk producer group","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"No. Name of Producer Amount delivered (kg) Signature 3."}]},{"head":"Milk journal","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"2.","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"a.m. p.m. TOTAL"}]},{"head":"Keep a record of milk collected from individual farmers","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milk collection centre records","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Milk collection centres need to keep records of milk supplied by farmers, milk delivered to processors and payments made. An example of a milk supply record is shown below."}]},{"head":"Milk trader and transporter records","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Milk traders and transporters should keep a daily record of milk supplied by farmers or cooperatives. This record should indicate the name of the supplier, volume of milk supplied, date and time the milk was supplied and the price paid for the milk. Also needed are records of milk deliveries and maintenance schedules of transportation vehicles (bicycles, pick-ups, lorries)."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"In addition, the following measurements and basic quality tests may be carried out on raw milk and the results recorded by the milk transporter:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Temperature of the milk"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Density of the milk Milk supply record"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Upon delivery to the point of sale (milk bar or shop) or processing factory, the following details should be recorded in a daily milk delivery sheet as below: "}]},{"head":"Monthly payment record","index":44,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The Milky Cow Dairy Ltd","index":45,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Month ___________________________________ Total","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Whether you are a farmer, milk collection centre operator, milk transporter, smallscale milk trader or processor, here are some important things to remember when keeping records:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"• Enter information accurately in the relevant record books every day. Some record books are available in bookshops but you can design and adapt your own. The important thing is that you must keep correct and up-to-date records."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• Keep your records safe and make sure you can access them easily whenever you need them. If your business has two or more people, you may appoint a specific person to be responsible for some records."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Make monthly summaries of your records."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• When in doubt about how to keep or interpret records, you can contact your nearest business development service provider for advice."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• It is good to keep a copy of the records you are giving out so that you can remember details of the information going out."}]},{"head":"Credit management","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"As a small business owner, you may at some point find that you have to extend credit to your customers. Most customers will pay on time and you will probably never get into the credit management process with them. However, some of your customers will not be so prompt in settling their debts, so an efficient debt collection system becomes very important."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Here are some tips to help you manage slow paying customers and collect your debts."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Prevent debts from becoming overdue: Review your customer accounts each month to quickly identify those that are late in paying. Track your clients on a 30-60-90 day basis or on a control sheet."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Collect overdue debts before they are seriously late: Once 45 days have elapsed, call your customers or send out reminders to follow up outstanding payments. Remember to treat your customer with courtesy at all times, despite the inconvenience you may be going through because of the late payment. Possible legal action: After a 90-day credit period, if no payment is forthcoming, you may speak to a lawyer about your rights and how you should proceed with the debt collection process."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"For more information on how to manage your small-scale dairy enterprise, please contact the Business Development Service provider or micro-finance institution nearest to you. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" dairy business management for small-scale dairy farmers, milk traders, transporters and processorsF U N D A M E N TA L S O F M A R K E T I N G A N D D A I R Y B U S I N E S S M A N A G E M E N T "},{"text":"• Cash flow records (showing income and expenditure)• Schedules of artificial insemination and deworming The following is an example of a milk delivery card: "},{"text":"F U N D A M E N TA L S O F M A R K E T I N G A N D D A I R Y B U S I N E S S M A N A G E M E N T "},{"text":"A T R A I N I N G G U I D E F O R S M A L L -S C A L E D A I R Y F A R M E R S , M I L K T R A D E R S , T R A N S P O R T E R S A N D P R O C E S S O R S I N E A S T E R N A F R I C A : M O D U L "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Towards this end, the following training guide was developed through collaboration between dairy regulatory authorities in Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda; the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) through its Programme for Agricultural Policy Analysis (ECAPAPA) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). "},{"text":"in basic marketing and dairy business management. This certificate is however not mandatory for licensing of small-scale dairy operatives to handle or process milk. However, there are separate training guides that have been developed to cover the minimum competencies for hygienic milk handling and processing, whose certification is a prerequisite for licensing. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Running a successful dairy business requires both technical and business Running a successful dairy business requires both technical and business management skills. Before starting out, you must carry out a thorough feasibility management skills. Before starting out, you must carry out a thorough feasibility study to find out if your business will be profitable. A business plan is also needed study to find out if your business will be profitable. A business plan is also needed to guide the project through its beginning stages. As you run your business, you Machira Gichohi need a variety of skills in marketing, distribution and record keeping, among other Managing Director areas. This manual highlights some basic business management skills that you can Kenya Dairy Board apply to help you to run your small-scale dairy business successfully. to guide the project through its beginning stages. As you run your business, you Machira Gichohi need a variety of skills in marketing, distribution and record keeping, among other Managing Director areas. This manual highlights some basic business management skills that you can Kenya Dairy Board apply to help you to run your small-scale dairy business successfully. Theogene Rutagwenda Theogene Rutagwenda Director Director Rwanda Animal Resources Development Authority Rwanda Animal Resources Development Authority Charles Mutagwaba Charles Mutagwaba Ag. Registrar and Chief Executive Officer Ag. Registrar and Chief Executive Officer Tanzania Dairy Board Tanzania Dairy Board Nathan Twinamasiko Nathan Twinamasiko Executive Director Executive Director Dairy Development Authority, Uganda Dairy Development Authority, Uganda Nairobi, February 2006 Nairobi, February 2006 "},{"text":"no. Milk Milk Price/kg Payment Signature delivered (kg) grade Aside from records for specific dairy products, one important record to be maintained by milk processors is the daily milk intake record. An accurate daily record of the weight of milk received from each supplier is necessary for the calculation of monthly payments. A sample monthly payment record is shown below: Daily milk delivery sheet Daily milk delivery sheet Customer Name Time of Quantity Milk delivery delivered (kg) temp-erature Milk density test Organoleptic Alcohol test Customer NameTime of Quantity Milk delivery delivered (kg) temp-eratureMilk density test Organoleptic Alcohol test Milk processor records Milk processor records Supplier Supplier "}],"sieverID":"000965a9-f728-4eae-b52b-15869288dc87","abstract":"Fundamentals of marketing and dairy business management: a training guide for dairy farmers, milk traders, transporters and processors in Eastern Africa."}
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Communities already affected by conflict and food insecurity are particularly vulnerable. When faced with these disasters, these communities' businesses and homes are often damaged or destroyed, livelihoods lost or damaged, and lives uprooted."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"As climate events have become more prevalent, governments and humanitarian organizations have stepped in to support those worst affected by offering in-kind assistance, temporary shelter, basic services, and increasingly, cash. One-off cash transfers have become increasingly popular in light of extensive research showing that simply giving people cash is an effective way to alleviate poverty, improve food security and boost resilience in the face of emergencies 2 . Cash is also relatively easy to deliver to households. In crisis settings, the standard practice is to deliver cash after a disaster strikes. Recently, however, humanitarian actors have begun to ask, in cases where a disaster can be 1 UN OCHA, 2021. 2 See, for example: Bastagli, F., Hagen-Zanker, J., Harman, L., Barca, V., Sturge, G., Schmidt, T. and Pellerano, L., 2016. \"Cash transfers: what does the evidence say? A rigorous review of programme impact and the role of design and implementation features. \" London: ODI, 1(7)."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"predicted, if transferring cash or providing in-kind support to vulnerable households before the peak impacts of a disaster (\"anticipatory actions\") may be more protective. However, little evidence exists on the impacts and costeffectiveness of this approach, and none from fragile or conflict-affected settings."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"The International Rescue Committee (IRC) is committed to generating evidence about what works in humanitarian contexts to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of policies and practices in these settings, and ultimately to improve the lives and livelihoods of people affected by crisis. The study described in this brief was the first to use randomized research design to test how anticipatory cash transfers compare to the conventional approach of providing cash after a disaster in a conflict-affected setting."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION VERY HIGH","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"HIGH","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LOW","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FLOOD HAZARD LEVEL RIVER BENUE","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FUFORE THE CONTEXT","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Nigeria is highly vulnerable to climate-related shocks, especially flooding, and ranks among the countries most susceptible to the effects of climate change. Flooding hazards have led to more displacements than any other climate disaster in Nigeria. In 2012, Nigeria experienced one of its largest floods in a century, causing the displacement of over 2.3 million people, 363 deaths, and impacting the livelihoods of over 16 million people 1 . Total economic losses were estimated at $16.9 billion 2 . Adamawa state, in northeastern Nigeria, where this research took place, is among the most flood-affected states in Nigeria, with an estimated 260,000 people exposed to floods and around 1,000 square kilometers of land submerged across the state each year 3 . In 2022, severe flooding occurred in Adamawa following heavy rainfall that triggered an overflow of the Benue River and spillage from the Lagdo dam in neighboring Cameroon."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The challenges brought on by the floods are compounded by food insecurity and conflict in the region. Communities largely rely on subsistence farming and livestock herding for their food and livelihoods, making them highly vulnerable to natural calamities. Protracted and frequent conflict, including the Boko Haram insurgency, further disrupts agricultural activities and food supply chains that worsen food insecurity and malnutrition."}]},{"head":"FILLING THE RESEARCH GAP","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"With funding from Google.org, the IRC partnered with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the Center for Disaster Protection to pilot and evaluate the effects of early warning systems and anticipatory cash interventions to protect the livelihoods of smallholder agro-pastoralists that are threatened by an increasing occurrence of severe flooding in the northeastern state of Adamawa."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Through a randomized evaluation, the research team measured the impacts of providing cash transfers to households before the onset of peak flooding shocks compared to the standard practice of providing cash transfers after the shocks occur to households in six communities in Fufore local government area 4 . This study provides the first experimental evidence from a randomized evaluation on how anticipatory cash compares to the conventional approach of post-shock cash transfers in a conflict-affected environment."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"In partnership with the Upper River Benue Basin Development Authority, the Nigerian Meteorological Agency and the Nigeria Hydrological Services Agency, the IRC created a flood-risk monitoring platform that incorporated indigenous knowledge, hydrological data, meteorological data and satellite information to set forecast-based thresholds and provide evidence on hydrological and meteorological parameters (water level, discharge and rainfall) for triggering anticipatory cash payments. Data on flood risks was shared with community members and local stakeholders through a network of community-based early warning information workers."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"During the 2022 agricultural season, the pilot project delivered one-time lump-sum cash payments of N195,000 naira (equivalent to $400) to 1,450 households randomly assigned to one of two groups. The treatment group consisted of 725 eligible households who received their cash when triggered by the flood monitoring platform's risk thresholds (e.g., when river water volume exceeded a certain amount and the probability of a flood was high). An equal number of comparable households (\"control group\") received equal cash payments after the flood hit. The intervention also included early warning messages to all households before the floods through community-based early warning workers."}]},{"head":"DATA COLLECTION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The research team conducted a baseline survey of the 1,450 participating households before the intervention, between April 25 and May 31, 2022. The anticipatory cash transfers were delivered in person by the United Bank of Africa (UBA) and the IRC between July 27-28, 2022, and the standard post-shock transfer was delivered on November 7, 2022. Figure1 shows the flooding calendar, trigger development and forecast monitoring, and windows of interest for early warning and cash transfer interventions."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The endline survey was administered five months after the baseline survey, in December 2022. In both surveys, heads of households, sometimes accompanied by their spouses, were asked a range of questions related to household socio-demographics, food security conditions, sources of income, food and non-food expenditures, assets holdings (durable assets, land and livestock), subjective well-being, households' climate resilience (climate-adaptive actions, livelihood diversification), and various coping strategies."}]},{"head":"KEY FINDINGS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Households that received cash transfers either before or after the flood had much better food security and used fewer negative coping strategies like reducing meals and selling off assets than before the transfers. At baseline, only 35-37% of survey households reported acceptable levels of food security (Fig. 2a) and around 58-60% were already adopting stress-coping strategies to get by at that time (Fig. 2b). In the endline survey, about 94% of households moved to acceptable food security levels, and a much higher proportion of households in both groups reported being food secure (64% and 59% of control and treated households, respectively). Similarly, the percentage of households that used stress and crisis coping strategies notably reduced in both groups."}]},{"head":"JAN","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The anticipatory cash transfers improved households' coping strategies related to securing enough food and protecting their livelihoods, compared to households that received cash after the flood."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Households that received cash payments before the peak of flooding were less likely to resort to reducing the number of meals or portion sizes or borrowing to meet food needs. They were also less likely to resort to measures like selling livestock or other assets, taking on debt, or spending their savings to meet basic needs."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The anticipatory cash transfer had a significant impact on the number of pre-emptive actions taken by households in anticipation of flood shocks, including harvesting early, stockpiling food and evacuating one's household. However, the number of post-shock actions taken was not significantly different across the groups."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"The anticipatory cash transfer increased productive investments, including agricultural assets and productive livestock, on average, relative to the group that received the cash transfers afterward. Since productive investments could enhance a household's future income-generating capacity and reduce its vulnerability to future shocks, this result suggests that anticipatory cash may help build long-term resilience capacity."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"The households that received anticipatory cash took certain actions to diversify their livelihoods that the standard transfer group did not, namely labor re-allocation such as migrating for work. Offering the transfer before rather than after did not spur other livelihood diversification measures -which can help dampen the impact of climate shocks for farming households-such as crop diversification, mixed croplivestock diversification and non-farm business activities."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"The lack of impact on these areas is likely due to the short timeline of the study and/or a concern that these investments could be damaged by flooding."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"As noted above, the timing of the cash transfer did not seem to have significant impacts on shortterm food security and non-food consumption expenditures compared to post-shock cash transfers, nor did it impact subjective well-being. The absence of differences between the groups on these outcomes may be attributed to the fact that the cash transfer is large enough to allow pre-shock households to invest in productive assets and still remain with some cash to spend on food and other basic needs after the flood."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"photo: Anticipatory cash transfers increase the instances of positive pre-emptive actions such as harvesting crops early and stockpiling food."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"The IRC and IFPRI gratefully acknowledge the generous support of Google.org, which made this research and its learnings possible."},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"For more information, please refer to the working paper. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"cover photo : Floods are ravaging farmland, destroying crops and forcing thousands of people to abandon their homes in communities like Imburu in Adamawa State. Radeno Haniel/ AFP via Getty Images "},{"text":" "},{"text":" › there is quality data to predict a highprobability climate shock and › there is adequate time to intervene ahead of the onset or peak effects of the shock based on predictions, allowing households time to safely act and have sufficient resources with which to act.2. As climate shocks continue to worsen andhumanitarian funding needs remain unmet for both emergencies and early recovery, anticipatory approaches may be critical to meeting the short-and longer-term needs of climate-and conflict-affected households.3. Future research should examine the impacts of different size cash transfers and gather more granular, high-frequency data to understand how anticipatory cash interventions may influence food security and well-being throughout the course of the flood season. RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Given that anticipatory cash improved climate 1. Given that anticipatory cash improved climate resilience capacity and was just as effective resilience capacity and was just as effective at supporting households to meet basic needs at supporting households to meet basic needs as standard cash programming, we suggest as standard cash programming, we suggest humanitarian agencies and governments humanitarian agencies and governments consider using anticipatory cash transfers consider using anticipatory cash transfers where suitable. Not all humanitarian contexts in where suitable. Not all humanitarian contexts in which climate shocks occur will be conducive which climate shocks occur will be conducive to anticipatory action, however. Agencies to anticipatory action, however. Agencies should weigh the feasibility of anticipation should weigh the feasibility of anticipation action against other climate risk mitigation action against other climate risk mitigation and resilience activities and should strongly and resilience activities and should strongly consider anticipatory action if: consider anticipatory action if: "}],"sieverID":"fed3541f-0fa9-4afd-93e4-7e35830eecb7","abstract":"In flood-prone communities in Northeast Nigeria, we used a randomized evaluation to measure the impacts of providing cash transfers to households before the onset of a shock (\"anticipatory cash\") compared to the standard practice of providing cash transfers after a shock occurs.› Results indicate that providing anticipatory cash to households in flood-prone areas reduced negative coping strategies, increased pre-emptive climate adaptive actions, and enhanced investment in productive assets compared to households that received cash after peak flooding occurred."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0538a5773042ce6d1343460974989c95","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4192/d4e5b6025958dc911792887fe2591e00.pdf"},"pageCount":39,"title":"FISH CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY REVIEW WORKSHOP REPORT","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The approved FISH CRP proposal defined different components contributing to the CapDev (ToC, partnerships, strategic actions, etc.) and a preliminary strategy was drafted and included in the proposal (see page 24 of the FISH CRP Proposal)."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"In the FISH CRP proposal, it was stated that CapDev will be continuously refined based on the outcome evaluation that will track assumptions and risks regarding mechanisms of change and our effectiveness in addressing them. Impact assessment will measure quantitative progress towards achievement of our SLO and flagship outcome targets, disaggregated to track benefits for men, women and youth. Outcome evaluation and impact assessment will drive program-level learning and adaptation, and we will periodically adjust investment in our research areas and geographies as we gather evidence on results."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The CapDev activities implemented along the FISH CRP impact pathways are contributing to the following crosscutting sub-IDOs at the CRP level: enhanced institutional capacity in public sector and private research organizations and improved capacity of women and youth to participate in decisionmaking. Moreover, each flagship has identified crosscutting capacity sub-IDOs within its theories of change guiding strategic CapDev actions."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The Capacity Development Workshop goal, which was held at WorldFish's Head Quarters on the 23 rd and 24 th of May, 2019, was to review the effectiveness of the Capacity Development strategy by stimulating scientific dialogue around the framework to strengthen the FISH approach to capacity development. The overall key questions addressed during the workshop to assess the validity of the strategy were:"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"1) What is needed? (Need);"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"2) What is available and adequate to meet the needs? or, what has been successful, and can be built upon (Availability);"},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"3) What is missing or needs improvement in order to meet the needs? (Missing/gaps); 4) What actions are needed? (Actions)."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"The workshop objectives were to (1) assess the capacity development activities supported by the FISH CRP (2017 -present); (2) establish formally a Capacity Development Community of Practice (CoP) to coordinate/accelerate Capacity Development in FISH; and (3) revise and agree on the elements to include in the FISH Capacity Development Strategy review (see agenda in annex 1)."}]},{"head":"A five-stage self-assessment process was proposed","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The workshop and the actions proposed to establish an effective approach to CapDev in the FISH CRP followed a five-stage self-assessment process:"},{"index":2,"size":294,"text":"1. The CapDev and the M&E Leaders performed a first CapDev assessment based on the information collected during the annual reports drafting processes (for 2017 and 2018) and on the data harvested from MEL and OCS (presented during the workshop).  Discuss and agree the scope of the CapDev activities supported by the FISH CRP (group discussion: SWOT analysis; Analysis of the Need/Availability/Gaps/Actions required for Cap Dev; Three-dimensional framework for assessing capacity needs; contribution to internal and external CapDev; partnerships for building capacity; contribution to Sub-IDOs);  Revise all the outputs from the points above and revise the CapDev Framework;  Establish a Community of Practice (CoP) internally to the FISH CRP and WorldFish: during the workshop the CoP members will be nominated (one member per focal/scaling country);  The CapDev leader will introduce a second self-assessment exercise that each country will have to carry-out in the following months, to address more detailed aspects of the identified elements based on their national needs;  MEL Capacity Development module training will be organised. 3. The newly appointed Cap Dev CoP members have to complete the self-assessment reports and return them to the Cap Dev leader within an agreed period. 4. The Cap Dev leader will coordinate the compilation of the final self-assessment draft report; and based on the latter and the discussions had during the workshop she will draft the FISH CRP Capacity Development Strategy. The strategy will be then circulated for comments to the Cap Dev CoP, FISH CRP Management Committee and Directors. 5. Based on the comments received, a final reviewed FISH Capacity Development Strategy will be prepared and published by Cap Dev leader. The process may take longer than expected if the feedback from countries and key researchers is not submitted timely."}]},{"head":"Partnership and Capacity Development Strategy","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Partnerships for Impact","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Partnership are critical to the achievement of CGIAR's goals, especially given the disparity between the magnitude of the problems and the resources that CGIAR alone can bring to bear on them. CGIAR partnerships will be increasingly diverse, extending beyond the system's traditional collaboration with national and regional research and extension programs to a broadening circle of advanced research institutes, development agencies, NGOs, policy bodies and private-sector companies. The contributions of all partners will be explicitly recognized, and the general expectation will be of burden sharing and parallel finance, rather than internal transfer from one partner to the others."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"According to the CGIAR strategy, CGIAR partnerships will be guided by the following principles, based on relevant lessons from experience:"},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":" A common agenda -All partners must share a vision for change, including a common understanding of the problems and a joint approach to solving them.  Shared measurement -Collecting data and measuring results consistently across all locations ensures that efforts remain aligned and partners hold each other accountable.  Mutually reinforcing activities -Partners should have distinct roles, which need to be coordinated through a mutually reinforcing plan of action."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":" Continuous communication -Consistent and open communication lines are critical in order to build trust and ensure the realization of shared objectives.  Backbone support -Creating and managing collective impact requires a designated entity with staff and specific skill sets, to serve as the backbone for the partnership."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"In some cases, particularly where countries have recently emerged from conflict or crisis or national research systems are severely under-resourced, the capacity of partners may not be sufficient to support relationships as defined above. In such cases, CGIAR will, upon invitation, work with implementation partners (often international NGOs or development organizations) and national clients to define the knowledge agenda and capacity development needed to accompany a development intervention."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"CGIAR research program theories of change now explicitly acknowledge the role of the private sector. CGIAR can make important contributions in the pre-competitive space for innovations that will eventually be taken up and spread by private firms. Further work on intellectual property and related matters will be needed to harness the full potential of these growing partnerships."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"Multi-stakeholder platforms and alliances convened around major global issues are promising instruments for involving partners from the private sector, as well as others."}]},{"head":"Scaling Up","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Achieving impact at scale is one of the greatest challenges facing the development community."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Research by CGIAR and its partners can support the drive to disseminate innovations, but the scaling up effort must be led by national institutions, supported by regional or international development organizations where appropriate. The private sector also has a major role to play."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"To support scaling up the CGIAR proposes to adopt a five-fold strategy of:"},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":" Deliberate prioritization of research efforts to target constraints of wide applicability and regions of concentrated poverty and hunger;  Close alignment of efforts by centers and CRPs in selected areas, to capture synergies;  Coordinated planning with implementation partners so that the knowledge of CGIAR and the financial and programmatic resources of these partners complement each other;  Commitments from clients and national partners to make complementary investments and policy reforms where CGIAR is investing; and  Institutionalization of a culture of regular monitoring and evaluation to gauge progress towards impact and to learn from experience."}]},{"head":"Capacity Development","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Capacity development is a strategic enabler of impact for both CGIAR and its partners. "}]},{"head":"FISH CRP CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT ROLE IN IMPACT PATHWAYS","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Role of capacity development in the FISH Theory of Change","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"The FISH Theory of Change (ToC) centres on the role of multidisciplinary research addressing the challenges outlined for the priority geographies, and the steps from research to development outcomes. It is in response to clearly identified needs of poor producers and consumers of fish along with those women and men whose livelihoods depend upon aquaculture and SSF value chains. Impact pathways for the delivery of outcomes stem from research in two closely integrated flagships: (1) sustainable aquaculture, and (2) sustaining small-scale fisheries, both focusing on securing sustainable supplies of fish, improving livelihoods of fisheries and farmers and ensuring a contribution of fish to the nutrition and health of the poor. Local adoption and dissemination of technologies and management practices comprises the initial application of gender-responsive innovations and technologies, such as improved breeds, feeds and disease management practices in aquaculture; equity-and effectiveness-enhancing governance innovations in fisheries management; and new processing technologies to reduce postharvest waste and loss and produce fish-based products for women and children. These are achieved through implementation partnerships and capacity development in selected sites within our focal geographies, including government and NGO partnerships. The mechanism also includes the spread of these technologies and practices through research innovation platforms at subnational or national levels, and their exchange through regional networks."}]},{"head":"b) Capacity of private investors to identify appropriate opportunities and enterprises to adopt innovative business models:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Private sector investment and replication of innovative and gender-inclusive business models include actions by small-and medium-scale entrepreneurs, reached directly through our capacity development partnerships, as well as large-scale aquaculture enterprises that we partner with to demonstrate the feasibility of a package of investments at scale. It also includes subsequent scaling aided by robust evaluation of the financial returns and broader social, economic and ecological sustainability of new business models, and communication of these through industry associations and regional networks."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"c) Public sector capacity to design and implement policy and regulatory measures that affect the viability of scalable technologies, management practices and organizational innovations:"},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Public sector policy improvement and institutional strengthening comprises improvements in the policy and regulatory measures that affect the viability, scalability and equity implications of technologies, management practices and organizational innovations. These include, for example, regulations addressing land use and agricultural intensification, allocation of fishing rights and approval of new fish-based products by food and health regulatory bodies. Recognizing that the design of appropriate policies does not in itself ensure effective implementation, this mechanism takes into account the institutional capacity development that is often required for public sector agencies to fulfil their roles in these technical domains."}]},{"head":"d) Civil society capacity to promote solutions drawing on research evidence, as well as the capacity of development agencies to integrate these into their programming and investment priorities:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Influence on policies and priorities of civil society and development agencies includes actions such as NGO partners incorporating gender-responsive and inclusive aquaculture technology packages, fisheries management and livelihood development strategies, or behavioural change communication tools for early childhood nutrition as part of their broader programming in our focal countries and beyond. It also includes influence on the priority-setting of bilateral and multilateral development agencies operating in the fields of agricultural innovation, rural livelihoods and food security in coastal and aquatic landscapes, reflected in higher levels of investment in the solutions validated by program research."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Capacity development will be continuously refined based on the outcome evaluation that will track assumptions and risks regarding mechanisms of change and our effectiveness in addressing them. Impact assessment will measure quantitative progress towards achievement of our SLO and flagship outcome targets, disaggregated to track benefits for men, women and youth. Outcome evaluation and impact assessment will drive program-level learning and adaptation, and we will periodically adjust investment in our research areas and geographies as we gather evidence on results."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"We test the assumption that careful selection of partners in target countries and collaboration with policy stakeholders and regional institutions will influence favourable policy and institutional changes to promote adoption of innovations at scale. The ToC also assumes synergies realized with other elements of the overall CGIAR portfolio through site integration and joint research on cross-cutting challenges, such as natural resource governance (PIM), climate change impacts (CCAFS), food and nutrition strategies (A4NH) and landscape-level resource competition (WLE)."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Capacity development implemented along FISH impact pathways will contribute to the following crosscutting sub- In pursuing the program's capacity development strategy, we will draw upon the comparative advantage and experience of managing partners in specific areas of science and practice, while working through national and international partners to implement specific capacity development activities."}]},{"head":"CapDev activities in the FISH CRP ToCs: insights from Countries","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"In 2018 FISH CRP MC supported a country level exercise to defining the ToCs in different focal countries where FISH operates. A set of workshops were then implemented for identifying and reviewing the plausibility and consistency of the plan that each country has to achieve and contribute the impact targets both at country level and for the FISH CRP."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The ToCs developed focused on understanding the relevance and causality behind research products, outputs and outcomes, but also around the achievements of development outcomes and impacts targets until the year 2022. Generally, this has been key to inform the Result-Based Management system of the FISH CRP and for reflecting on the change mechanisms, on what is necessary to unlock or to enable in the context where we operate to achieve for greater impacts. More specifically, this has also important implications for the monitoring and evaluation of the FISH investments, including those related to the different enabling factors or change mechanisms such as capacity development. "}]},{"head":"Elements of Capacity Development","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"CGIAR has adopted a systems-thinking approach to capacity development. The main innovation from this is that emphasis is placed upon defining the system as a whole, which is made up of interacting parts. It is also about recognizing complexity and knowing that one cannot always predict outcomes so one has to have the capacity to learn and adapt along impact pathways. Capacity development is hence a multifaceted process combining elements across several dimensions, which themselves are interrelated. In addition, capacity development is also linked with improved governance critical to outcomes. This framework proposes nine key elements of capacity development, illustrated in figure 3. Each CRP should adapt and utilize the elements according to its needs and the particular setting of each CRP, guided by the requirement to attain the cross-cutting capacity development IDO. Although CRPs do not have to include all nine elements in its capacity development strategy, the CGIAR advised that a minimum set of elements should be applied to convincingly achieve expected outcomes. The FISH CRP CapDev strategy identifies how each of the elements will be pursued to develop the capacities required to ensure quality implementation and support movement along the impact pathways (see next section for specific interventions in each flagship)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"In designing and implementing the FISH capacity development strategy, we draw upon learning from the L&F and AAS CRPs, which supported development of the CGIAR framework, as well as our work through bilateral projects."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Specifically, the strategy will use a systems approach to capacity development, building on learning from the AAS CRP (Apgar et al. 2015) and associated methodologies that include working across individual, institutional and organizational spheres, which have been used successfully to develop capacity in gender research and practice (Sarapura et al. 2015). We will build on capacity development within fish value chains in Bangladesh through L&F and its use of novel training methods and strategies, such as developing husband and wife family teams and career progression for national scientific staff. We will use the high quality learning materials developed with partners through bilateral work on aquaculture technologies in Bangladesh, and build on the strong track record for training African researchers in aquaculture technologies at the Abbassa aquaculture research and training center in Egypt. To build capacity around small-scale fisheries, we will continue to use training materials developed through work on community based marine resource management in the Pacific (WorldFish 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"At the program level, there are three ways in which capacity development will involve cross-flagship coordination:"},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"1. monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of capacity development (element 7) will be integrated into program M&E through identification of specific capacity indicators and tracking for learning and progress as theories of change are evaluated;"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"2. development of FISH and managing and implementing partners' capacity to collaborate (element 3) will support the partnerships strategy; and"},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"3. geographic and thematic coordination of capacity development activities across flagships will be managed through coordination among capacity development leads in each flagship."},{"index":8,"size":98,"text":"Capacity development interventions are also instrumental to the FISH program's gender and youth strategies. Specifically, capacity development will enable interventions in gender sensitive technologies and innovation processes, women-targeted opportunities, and gender-transformative strategies contributing to gender outcomes, including improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making. Further, capacity to implement quality gender research will be developed through work with the cross-flagship gender team. FISH will promote youth engagement in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture by using age-relevant skills training methods and content, including on fingerling production and distribution, feed and handling methods, and co-management and youth leadership."}]},{"head":"Strategic capacity development actions within FISH flagships","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"In the FISH CRP proposal, each of the FISH flagships will implement a program of capacity development activities organized around the nine elements of the CGIAR framework. This will enable quality implementation with local stakeholders and partners and consequently support the change mechanisms and sub-IDOs identified in their theories of change. Table 1 provides a summary of the prioritization of the nine elements for each flagship from the proposal. Criteria used to prioritize include the importance of the element to successful implementation of research activities and change mechanisms and the level of investment required."}]},{"head":"Flagship Elements of the CGIAR Capacity Development Framework (as numbered in","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Figure 3) In the FISH CRP proposal, four elements are proposed to be implemented at high intensity through activities in all flagships (needs assessments, intervention strategies, and innovative learning materials and approaches that are gender-and youth-sensitive, and work on institutional strengthening), while two will be implemented with medium intensity (developing CRP partnering capacity and M&E of capacity development). Clear outputs and indicators that could be used to track progress and contribution to CapDev sub-IDOs were identified as in Table 2. "}]},{"head":"Implementation strategy within flagships","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The FISH CRP CapDev implementation strategy includes four dimensions that combines 7 elements out of 9 of the CGIAR CapDev proposed framework elements, as outlined below:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"(1) Needs assessment and intervention strategy, learning material and approaches, gendersensitive approaches, and M&E (elements 1, 2, 5 & 7)"},{"index":3,"size":394,"text":"These four elements of the framework are understood as part of a capacity development process that starts with identifying specific capacity needs of critical stakeholders and intervention strategies (CGIAR Capacity Development Framework element 1) to provide the foundation for operationalizing the impact pathways. An assessment of the internal capacity needs (element 1) has shown that major cost drivers are scientific personnel, travel, consumables and capital equipment. Scientific personnel costs include those of flagship and cluster leaders, principal investigators and cluster research teams, including those at WorldFish HQ (Malaysia) and our key research hubs in the focal countries Bangladesh and Egypt. During the implementation of the flagship we plan to increase allocation of funds to focal country programs in Africa (Nigeria, Tanzania, Zambia) and Asia (Cambodia, Myanmar), while maintaining the core cluster investments in scientific personnel. Investments are also made in personnel for leading/coordinating key cross-cutting dimensions of flagship activities, including gender, youth and capacity development. We anticipate funding a coordinator for flagship 1 activities in each focal country where we operate. Scaling to countries beyond the core program countries will be through bilateral funding. Travel includes investments in field visits and assessments, planning and review meetings/workshops, partner consultations and scientific supervision. Capital equipment includes items for the tilapia breeding program necessary to upgrade their efficiency and to support experiments in Egypt (Abbassa), automated fish measuring systems for genetics research, genomics analysis software and associated large data hardware (with M&E component of the CRP), and fish health and feeds equipment for cluster 2 research in the Abbassa aquaculture research and training center in Egypt. Consumables include the costs for molecular characterization of fish stocks and diseases, which are a fundamental part of the research. It will focus on capacity of smallholders to demand and adopt aquaculture technologies and use improved management practices, as well as needs of service providers to supply inputs, knowledge and skills targeted at men and women fish farmers. Resulting interventions will use innovative learning materials and approaches (element 2) such as partnering with IT providers to pilot the use of mobile financial services in Bangladesh and training in aquaculture technology and policy development and entrepreneurship for Africa. All materials and approaches will be gender and youth sensitive (element 5) in line with our gender and youth strategies. Monitoring and evaluation of capacity development (element 7) will be integrated into program-level M&E."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"Each flagship has already broadly identified the target stakeholders and thematic areas that will inform more detailed capacity needs assessments to be carried out at the outset where necessary. In conducting these assessments, and designing targeted capacity development activities in response, each flagship will give careful consideration to how the program can best leverage partnerships, comparative advantage, and the principle of subsidiarity. Our working assumption is that the managing partners will draw upon their experience and comparative advantage to design the program's approach to capacity development, but that wherever possible, specific training activities will be conducted by other program partners at national and local levels."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"FP1 will focus on the capacity needs of smallholders to effectively demand and adopt new aquaculture technologies and apply best management practices, as well as the needs of service providers to effectively supply inputs, knowledge and skills targeted at men and women fish farmers. In Africa and Asia, a focus on enhanced capacity for aquaculture technologies research in partner organizations will continue."},{"index":6,"size":138,"text":"FP2 will focus on the needs of natural resource management NGOs and government agencies, multistakeholder networks, regional and intergovernmental agencies, and individual researchers within national research institutes in focal countries. The flagship will assess the following capacity areas: gender-sensitive and transformative approaches, learning and governance networking, community livelihood and co-management interventions, and responsive and accountable institutions. Across all interventions, the learning methods and materials used will be gender and youth sensitive. Implementation will use a blended learning methodology across three phases of learning: learning in, from and for action (Garison and Kanuka 2004;Wilson and Biller 2012). This will build on experience of developing quality materials in past work. M&E will be integrated into CRPH level learning processes, including annual reviews within flagships to revisit capacity needs and inform annual planning of interventions and monitoring of capacity development indicators."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"(2) Developing CRPs' and Centers' partnering capacities (element 3)"},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"Development of the capacity for FISH, participating CGIAR centers, and managing and implementing partners to work together will be implemented within each flagship by working with multi-stakeholder partnerships designed to harness emerging science in aquaculture and fisheries. Aligning with the program's partnerships strategy, our needs assessment will identify gaps and interventions to increase the capacity of scientists to partner (element 3)."},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"(3) Institutional strengthening (element 6)"},{"index":10,"size":93,"text":"The program aims to develop public sector capacity to design and implement policy and regulatory measures that affect the viability of scalable technologies, management practices and organizational innovations for aquaculture, fisheries and nutrition outcomes. To achieve this, each of the flagships will focus on specific interventions with associated institutions. Institutional strengthening (element 6) will focus on strengthening public and private sector capacity in fish breeding and dissemination of new technologies in extension and outreach programs. This will include multi-stakeholder dialogues to inform improved policy and legal frameworks in the countries where we work."},{"index":11,"size":74,"text":"FP1 will focus on strengthening public institutions and private sector organizations, such as farmer associations, to manage fish breeding programs, integrate new technologies into extension and outreach programs, and achieve research and development outcomes at scale. Interventions will use policy dialogues associated with multi-stakeholder forums and innovation platforms (in Egypt), engaging decision-makers through the research process (in Bangladesh), and conducting participatory action research with partners to test and adapt new institutional arrangements (in Zambia)."},{"index":12,"size":78,"text":"FP2 will work towards institutional strengthening in two modes. First, it will develop the capacity of learning and governance networks and platforms to realize impact (i.e. to become more than the sum of their parts) through multi-stakeholder engagement. Second, it will increase the capacity of institutions (national public institutions and regional intergovernmental institutions) to help secure the ecological sustainability, food security and poverty alleviation functions of small-scale fisheries through targeted capacity development, multi-stakeholder dialogues and strategic planning activities."},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"(4) Develop future research leaders (element 4) conferences and workshops, field events and other events for research and scaling activities."},{"index":14,"size":53,"text":"After the 2017 annual report, the CGIAR SMO communicated to the CRP leaders that annual reporting on this indicator was generally limited and poorly evidenced. Few CRPs were able to provide this information because the CRPs rely on Centres for the reporting, and different Centres collect different types of information on capacity development."},{"index":15,"size":45,"text":"In the annual reporting template for 2018 the CGIAR SMO sent an update on reporting requirements for capacity development for 2018. As a quick corrective measure, they requested all CRPs/Platforms to report the indicator already used in 2017 of the CRPs in the following way:"},{"index":16,"size":21,"text":" Numbers of people trained, disaggregated into men and women and 'long term' (academic degree training) vs 'short term' (everything else)."},{"index":17,"size":14,"text":"This 'lowest common denominator' was done to ensure that everyone was able to report."},{"index":18,"size":59,"text":"As our organisation is also collecting to some extent information on academic degrees awarded, we also reported the number of men and women awarded different types of degrees: Post-doc, PhD, Masters, and Bachelors. In the future, we will be asked also to report information such as numbers by geographic location, type of training, topic of training, type of trainees."},{"index":19,"size":79,"text":"The CGIAR-SMO would like to develop much better harmonised reporting on capacity development for the future, but this will take a substantial cross-CGIAR exercise to come to an agreement, in particular about indicator(s) and 'disaggregates', drawing on the work already carried out by the previous capacity development community of practice 5 . They anticipated that they will work with the MIS developers early in 2019 to see how we could facilitate such 'optional' reporting through their systems into CLARISA."},{"index":20,"size":149,"text":"Prior to the workshop a mapping exercise of all Capacity Development activities reported in MEL was performed. Informal training included a wide range of activities during the year, such as aquaculture learning platforms in Egypt and Bangladesh, knowledge exchange at international and national conferences and workshops, field events and other events for research and scaling activities, in all involving 20,727 participants during the year. With this focus three key initiatives were organized: 1) A write-shop hosted by the Zambia office provided a space for students of the FishTrade project to finalize their manuscripts and articles mentored by WorldFish scientists and submitting them to international journals; 2) a writeshop entitled \"Science writing and communication skills week\", hosted by the HQ in cooperation with many partners; 3) and a series of short instructive videos designed to reduce the mystery around successful scientific publication was released on the new FISH CRP website."}]},{"head":"Capacity development -2017","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capacity development -2018","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Gender integration was also given further special attention during the year, building on the FISH gender strategy and associated gender integration guidelines. The cross-CRP \"Gender & Breeding Post-Doctoral Fellows (PDF) Capacity Development Initiative\" provided mentoring as it focused on a cross-Flagship review of lessons for gender-inclusive livelihoods and value chains. Statistics and gender training were also organised by the PDF project during 2018."}]},{"head":"Capacity development -2019 and beyond","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The majority of the reported capacity development activities under the FISH program and in its bilateral projects are related to organizing trainings and mentoring students. Even if not fully defined, Capacity Development in our FISH CRP embraces many activities that go beyond trainings and students, and include for instance communications and media, governance restructuring, infrastructure development, partnership mediation and collaboration, and many more with the goal of strengthening the capacities of individuals, organizations and systems and provide enabling environment for development."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The program is pursuing an integrated body of research in six focal countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, Nigeria, Tanzania and Zambia. Two additional countries constitute a focus for particular areas of research: Egypt as a research hub and training centre for our sustainable aquaculture (SA) Capacity Development in Africa, and Solomon Islands as a hub for our learning networks on smallscale fisheries (SSF) governance in the Pacific. A recent meeting in the latter also suggested expanding this role towards SSF in Small Island Developing States (SIDS)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"This multi-centre research program makes a strength in its geographical representation and will make its scientific research relevant by fostering the leap from individual learning to sustainable livelihood outcomes and impacts through an integrated cross-country Capacity Development approach paying particular attention to gender issues and women's empowerment."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"To ensure implementing a coordinated approach for Capacity Development in 2019 more attention will be given to establish a defined framework with the revision and final drafting of the capacity development strategy for the FISH CRP, building off what was approved in the proposal, combined with the first 2 years' experience of implementing the CRP. Attention will be also given to establish a Community of Practice to monitor its implementation, facilitate sharing of learning and develop a methodology to monitor its impact on the targeted stakeholders. A capacity Development leader was recently assigned to ensure a standardized and coordinated approach for capacity development."}]},{"head":"WORKSHOP OUTPUTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Capacity development is embedded into all projects, but often very difficult to assess results and impacts generated from those dedicated activities. A rigorous mapping of all the Capacity Development activities that are delivered by our bilateral projects is fundamental to achieve a coordinated approach in our Capacity Development initiatives. This mapping exercise and a coordinated approach at program level will allow us to assess the impact that will be generated by our activities in the long-run. The MEL system includes a module for Capacity Development that will help in identifying all the projects deliverables related to Capacity Development. The CGIAR in 2017 performed an Evaluation of Capacity Development Activities, and several recommendations were drafted. The purpose of this evaluation was to understand better the contribution that CD has made, and can make in the future, to reaching CGIAR's aims and help CGIAR Centers, CRPs and the CGIAR system to improve the relevance, comparative advantage, effectiveness of CD activities and sustainability of the results; it was also to provide CGIAR partners and donors with essential evaluative information, extract relevant insights, draw conclusions and produce useful recommendations."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The report suggested eight good practice statements that represent principles related to the three main evaluation criteria used in the report are:"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Relevance 1. CD needs to be based on participatory needs assessments and understanding of the organization and institutional context. 2. CD is not an end in itself but must contribute to strategic development goals."}]},{"head":"Effectiveness","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The pedagogic design of CD interventions must be appropriate for the specific developmental context needs. 4. Resolving development challenges requires multiple individuals and entities working together","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"and linking capacities at the individual, organization and institutional level. 5. CD is a voluntary process where ownership, self-esteem, respect and accountability are critical. 6. CD requires learning lessons from implementation and subsequent adjustment. They have identified as principal challenges: 1) Funding CapDev expert positions and CapDev support units -most CRPs do not have a dedicated staff position; 2) CGIAR's matrix structure of CRPs and Centres makes it difficult for Centres engaged in many CRPs to plan and manage CapDev activities in a systematic way."}]},{"head":"Key recommendations were as follows:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Recommendations 1-3: Strategic prioritization of CapDev activities Our strategy identifies how each of the elements will be pursued to develop the capacities required to ensure quality implementation and support movement along the impact pathways"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"In designing and implementing the FISH capacity development strategy, we draw upon learning from the L&F and AAS CRPs, which supported development of the CGIAR framework, as well as our work through bilateral projects."}]},{"head":"Capacity Development elements review:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Among the nine elements, four elements were selected to be implemented at high intensity through activities in all flagships:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1. "}]},{"head":"Medium (previously identified as low)","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Capacity to innovate will be addressed within research promoting aquaculture innovation platforms (FP1) and capacity for social-ecological resilience (FP2)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"This element needs to relate to the way we want to project our CapDev activities toward the future."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Reviewing the elements, participants also stressed the need of avoiding grouping the elements as done in the first strategy. The categories can be perceived as constraining and, in some cases mutually interlinked or interdependent. The elements were grouped as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Group 1: Elements that address how we plan and manage capacity development. Element 2 -Develop and deliver a plan to meet that need c)"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Element 5 -And in doing so, make sure that a gender-inclusive approach is taken. d)"},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Element 7 -And in doing so, put in a system that will tell you and, more importantly, the people whose capacity is being strengthened, whether it has worked or not."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"Group 2: Elements that address who will be receiving the capacity development Element 6 -Institutions -OK, so it says 'Institutional Strengthening'. However, that is a catch-all phrase, where the one solid(ish) element is the institution."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"Group 3: Elements that address what the capacity development will address "}]},{"head":"Recommendations from the participants:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":271,"text":" These were the main CapDev activities undertaken in 2018, but how can we have trained 67,687 people, 25,270 of them women? This number is not concomitant with the activities that are described in the report.  How many capacity development activities were undertaken as a result of a carefully thoughtout strategy, based on a needs assessment, how many were based on 'We have the facilities, let's use them' and how many on 'Carpe Diem'. In the revised action plan we should acknowledge that CapDev activities can also be performed based on using assets or seizing the moment.  Even though we make much of institutional strengthening in various documents, the reports do not suggest that we have actually done much on this to date. Considering it very important, strengthening working activities with future research leaders and partners is key.  Training needs to be thought out, thus based on needs assessment. Those needs assessment have to result in an effective plan and it is important that any plan is gender inclusive. Also, it is important to recognize scale as needs assessments vary a great deal in depth.  The main need by far is to ensure that the CapDev strategy and plan is framed in an effective planning and management like in the MEL system. Before any system can be effective, people need to know how to use it. Therefore, building the capacity of people to use the system that we are using must be top priority, and that is why it has been proposed to upgrade the importance of M&E.  The CapDev must be both internal and external."}]},{"head":"SWOT ANALYSIS:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The SWOT analysis was developed as a surevy with several options STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS to grade with a score from 0 to 5 (0= not aware, 1 =strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree and 5=strongly agree) -results of the SWOT analysis can be found in ANNEX 2: Among the strengths, participants have recognised that capacity development has always been integral part of the researchers' work; that WorldFish/FISH have successful modalities and tools currently used in capacity development activities; that the alumni of our capacity development activities who are now occupying leading positions in different places are good ambassadors to the quality of our capacity development activities; and our strong network with NARS, fishermen associations and different stakeholders support the success and reaching out of our capacity development activities."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Among the weaknesses, participants have recognised that capacity development is mainly offered through workshops /group sessions and does not make use of other available modalities that may prove of more benefit in certain situations and that the weak data collection does not help reaching out to Alumni of our previous capacity development activities for support in their environments."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Among the opportunities, participants have highlighted that there are many opportunities for building capacities in the following sectors where we work: Food Security, natural resources management, gender equality and ending poverty are major issues especially in developing countries. Moreover, Capacity development is an expressed need of the partners and leverage our joint CD activities with managing partners could increase research outputs. The focus of the donors on capacity development is an opportunity to strengthen the role and widen the coverage of capacity development. All the research teams are collecting all the basic cap dev indicators (e.g. trainings, policy recommendations, etc.) but still need support from the organisation."},{"index":4,"size":316,"text":"Among the threats, participants have highlighted that CGIAR-CRPs members may miss realising the wider-scale provision of capacity development if they insist on implementing capacity development themselves rather than channelling some of the activities through capable partners. Also, the unending financial crisis, competition over funds, Inter-centers' competition and potential outside partners unwillingness to participate unless they have a direct interest themselves may negatively affect capacity development  The leadership support of researchers at country level and building up teams around clusters help internal Capacity Development;  The focus on the MEL found to be useful to measure achievements of the activities and its follow up improvement program -all these are useful to measure the efficiency in implementation and therefore, for capacity development;  Now major steps are gradually been undertaken on how the capacity development activities of the bilateral projects could be mapped under the major FISH CRP program, by the allocation of a CapDev Leader, this will be useful to achieve the IDOs related with CD;  Along with the emphasis on flagships the crosscutting issues such as; gender, youth, environment are becoming extremely important and capacity development is one of them coming as equally important, the workshop on the development of strategy on CD is thus important steps for this.  The FISH CRP activities itself support the implementation of the IDOs, but the lack of human and financial resources is a limiting factor in achieving targets.  All CD efforts can be linked/mapped to IDOs and Sub-IDOs, but realistic attribution is not going to be easy. This is where measuring the baseline level of knowledge and capacity, doing needs analysis and then specifically designing CD activities that will contribute to IDOs assumes importance.  By defining the nine elements to help organize plan and implement capacity development activities using systems approach to capacity development, building on learning, and working across individual, Institutional and organizational."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"institutions and universities to register students under WorldFish programs for undertaking their PhD or masters research. Examples are PhD of Kabir (completed) and PhD of Partho (ongoing). This is also a career development path for young national scientists, which is missing as a strong focus in WorldFish. And also projects like CIRCLE -DFID funded -that targeted senior researchers. https://devtracker.dfid.gov.uk/projects/GB-1-201871/documents  If possible, using FISH CRP funds (or funds not tagged to a specific project) to hire staff member(s) for each country office with skills/donor proposal experience and a significant proportion of their FTE dedicated to securing additional funding -internal capacity development.  Developing an online platform to ensure some of our capacity building materials can reach a wider audience, generating more impact in the long run."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"What are the areas of comparative advantage in capacity development that we should focus on?"},{"index":7,"size":308,"text":" The CapDev activities have to be fully integrated under the three key themes of our research: SA, SSF, and VCN, and related cross-cutting themes. But a clear strategy from design to implementation needs to be adopted in a coherent and coordinated way.  As now the bilateral projects proposals also developed in line with the WorldFish Strategy, it is also useful to align the bilateral project activities with FISH CRP as well as the capacity development strategy.  The key organisation that we would target locally is with national government partners, particularly the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources.  Over the years, the private sector is playing a major role in using the business and entrepreneurship model to provide necessary services to farmers and other users. This practice has been found to be very effective and sustainable during time.  National fisheries related organization (gov and non gov) especially those who deliver extension services have proven to be an asset in delivering and widely disseminating key messages.  Any organization that can provide fund/support in many/different areas where capacity building is needed.  Existing national and international partners (PACT, NAG, GRET, HKI, CSO, Government entities etc.) are currently targeted to have impact at scale. Building their capacity on technical areas, social aspects, research and extension are the key at this point as these are the areas where donors wanted us to pay more attention as these would help impacting on food security, gender and other cross cutting components.  Smallholder fish farmers in order to avail them appropriate skills and knowledge so they would improve production levels. Work with communities under CBFM and Co-Management scenarios.  WorldFish team members in order to improve our potential in whatever we are mandated to do.  In the specific context of FISH CRP, our main focus should be to:"},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"o Build the capacity of policy makers to use our research outputs to frame better policies o Build the capacity of those engaged in the value chain to do better business as a result of our research outputs."},{"index":9,"size":61,"text":"How to strengthen the cooperation with managing partners for cap dev activities and leveraging partnerships in support of capacity development processes implementation?  It is useful to involve the partners in development of the capacity development strategy, highlighting how it is useful to achieve the common national and global priorities e.g. Country Investment Plan, Blue Economy, the sustainable development goals (SDGs)."},{"index":10,"size":222,"text":" FISH CRP partners and other CG centres should conduct annual cap dev fora for sharing expertise, challenges and achievements.  Regular communication is also very important to bring them in action and share the outcomes of every activity to create their ownership of capacity development activities. Developing Cap dev. guidelines and other documents to follow among the managing partners would be helpful for a better implementation of the activities. Regular feedback through follow-up of managing partner activities, meeting, joint presentations at international conferences, exchanging learnings and workshop will be helpful to strengthen cooperation in diverse activities. Also secondment to each other's organizations of scientists with complementary skills for specific joint work. This will result in working together toward a common goal and have better synergies. These processes will help refining the partnership strategy and seizing benefits and impacts in the long run.  Write good proposals with a focus on capacity development for national partners and funding, and discuss potential joint proposals. Without good funding support, CapDev cannot be pursued and promoted. Also, specific funding (in addition to bilateral project funding) for exchange visits by scientists from each centre/organization.  Undertaking small CapDev activities under bilateral projects is OK, but will not really create big impacts.  Put in an effective planning and management system and train us in its use."},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"Other recommendations? Please specify."},{"index":12,"size":143,"text":" Overall, it is important to develop a strategy for Capacity Development with plan of actions for short, medium and longer term for the implementation of key activities supported by an allocated budget.  The workshop itself has been a very good and timely initiative which would streamline the capacity building activities as an integral part of the organization.  Our work is all about capacity development at every conceivable level -especially where entities are not aware or are badly informed about fish, fisheries, aquaculture and post-harvest aspects.  Food safety aspects need to be focussed more along with HACCP work.  Seems useful to be more specific in talking about capacity building -why, what capacity specifically, for whom, where, when, how -and to look 'bottom-up' (i.e. starting with specific WorldFish needs in specific countries) as well as 'top-down' (CGIAR needs and strategies)."},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"Annex 2: SWOT ANALYIS RESULTS"}]},{"head":"Strengths Scoring","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"Tot  Presence of research centers and facilities of WorldFish (e.g. Abbassa in Egypt) useful to use for capacity building of participants with regional and global focus  The provision to hire and engage relevant experts as consultants from other institutions to work with the team members of WorldFish and partner institutions useful to increase capacity development in relevant fields  The successful capacity development programs that our team has delivered over the last 2 decades are well recognized and appreciated among the fish sector actors, stakeholders and related institutions  Collaboration with high ranked institutes and universities led to organize high quality capacity development as MSc and PhD  WorldFish Cambodia's Country Director (Yumiko) and Aquaculture Scientist (Olivier) both have long continuous experience in and institutional knowledge of Cambodia, and are often consulted by many consultants / other organizations as part of TORs, concept notes, research etc. they are developing.  Project teams have both relevant technical knowledge and good working relationships at subnational and national levels in relation to their specific project activities.  WorldFish's experience in and results achieved by the Rice Field Fisheries projects are seen as useful and important for fisheries conservation and food and nutrition security"}]},{"head":"Weaknesses Scoring","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Tot. Average Capacity development is mainly offered through workshops /group sessions and does not make use of other available modalities that may prove of more benefit in certain situations Additional Opportunities:"},{"index":2,"size":242,"text":" The focus on creating impacts from our research encourages us to work beyond and that demands lot of capacity development programs of farmers for scaling and adoption of research findings  Opportunities identified in WorldFish Cambodia's theory of change  Seconding WorldFish staff (not only staff from Cambodia) to work within key partner organizations -not only Fisheries Administration, but potentially Min Agriculture and even private sector organizations  'Decentralizing' -some WorldFish Penang staff relocate to country offices where they could provide on-the-job technical and other support.  Prioritizing the engagement of medium-term (12 month term minimum) volunteers, including HQ dedicating additional funding and in-kind support for high-level liaison with sending organizations (universities and managing service contractors) and helping to advertise for volunteers. Volunteers who have appropriate skill sets can have a dedicated capacity building mandate (this is already a requirement by Australian Volunteers for all their volunteers), and could even work within WorldFish partner organizations (Fisheries Administration etc.).  Hiring or partnering with organizations specializing in areas like human-centered design, social behavior change communication, etc.  Important in countries where the Fisheries Administration / Min Ag. Receives budget support from donors. They may be unwilling to share this with other organizations, but if WorldFish can provide someone with very relevant / desirable skills, s/he can help WorldFish gain entry points for our proofs of concept / technologies etc.  Generally, I see these skills could complement WorldFish's technical knowledge very well."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"My perspective is that we have a lot of technical knowledge to, for example, produce BMP guidelines etc. But it may benefit us to have external help to make these much more 'usercentered / user-friendly', and to promote these through strategic entry points into other programs and sectors.  E.g. how the Save the Children-led NOURISH project in Cambodia has partnered with the Manoff Group for behavior change communication. Their work (including work on producing small fish powder) is very visible and well-known in Cambodia due to e.g. the project's national TV campaigns."}]},{"head":"Threats Scoring","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Tot. Average CGIAR-CRPs members may miss realising the wider-scale provision of capacity development if they insist on implementing capacity development themselves rather than channelling some of the activities through capable partners 2 4 4 3 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 3.9"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The unending financial crisis , competition over funds, Inter-centres' competition and potential outside partners unwillingness to participate unless they have a direct interest themselves may negatively affect capacity development 2 5 3 5 5 4 5 4 4 4 5 2 4.0"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Political changes and uprisings limit the ability to reach out to certain populations 4 4 3 5 3 3 4 5 5 2 2 3 3.6"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"The diversity of regions served and of needs expressed challenge our CD efforts 3 4 4 5 3 4 3 5 5 2 4 2 3.7"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 2. The CapDev leader organized a Capacity Development workshop and invited key FISH CRP staff involved in Capacity Development activities, with the following objectives:  Present a CapDev background document based on the approved FISH CRP proposal;  Present the preliminary self-assessment analysis performed by the CapDev leader;  Present the draft ToC developed based on documents a & b by the CapDev and M&E leaders; "},{"text":" As a strategic enabler of impact, CapDev in each of these domains aims to influence change through the four change mechanisms incorporated into the FISH ToC and is required to support movement from research outputs of the two flagships to research outcomes and ultimately to development impacts. The four change mechanisms of the ToC include that the FISH CRP identifies capacity development interventions of key stakeholders along the pathway as follows: a) Capacity of aquaculture farmers to assess technology needs and apply improved practices and fishing communities to implement co-management: "},{"text":" 10 "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Rapid assessment and learning loops of the FISH CRP Capacity Development ToC "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Elements of Capacity Development "},{"text":"Sustainability 7 . CD is a long-term process that requires continued engagement and support across different interventions and modalities. 8. Key change agents on both sides of the knowledge exchange, and their linkages and networks require support. "},{"text":" Work out what capacity development is needed in our target audience through a process of capacity needs assessment b) "},{"text":" Specifically working with the CRP and associated centers. b) Element 4 -Future Research leaders c) "},{"text":" Review the grade of priority given to each of the 9 CGIAR's Cap Dev elements: All our training activities should have come about as a result of a needs assessment. This should have led to the development of a bespoke training plan, duly advised by our inclusivity policy.  Where possible, this should have linked to our M&E system, although not quite such a high priority.  We should have set a really high priority on working with institutions, but not forgetting the CRP partners and future leaders. In the strategy it wasn't specified what our training would address. What capacity development activities have been undertaken based on the Annual Reports of the FISH CRP? They are listed as follows:  Joint training of Masters and PhD students with LUANAR , wearing their Centre of Excellence hat  Cooperation with TAAT (to strengthen)  Training of 40 trainers at Abassa  Launching of a vocational aquaculture training and entrepreneurship program in Zambia  Strong cooperation with National partners in Asia and Pacific (to strengthen)  Provision of tools for small scale fish farmers with low or no numeracy in Sierra Leone  Mentoring of young researchers in a write-shop in Zambia  Mentoring of young researchers in a write-shop led by JCU  Publication of instructional videos on the FISH Web Site. "},{"text":" ADDITIONAL RECCOMENDATIONS FROM THE PARTICIPANTS BASED ON KEY QUESTIONS: How far do the FISH CRP current capacity development activities support the implementation of the IDOs (refer to the FISH Cap Dev Strategy and CGIAR Strategy)?The FISH CRP is gradually strengthening the research in development activities useful for capacity development to support the implementation of the IDOs. It includes the following major activities: "},{"text":" The short contract and uncertainty in continuation of the jobs of staff create problem in capacity development of staff  The limited coordination of the capacity development activities carried out in different projects/programs not clearly reflected the strength of the capacity development program  The lack of coordination between different CG centers and among the different offices of one center to deliver joint cap dev programs "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" It goes far beyond the transfer of knowledge and skills through training, and cuts across multiple levelsindividual, organizational and institutional. To support implementation of this broader concept of capacity development, we have a Capacity Development Framework. and Central African bio-scientists. CGIAR can further leverage its capacity development by strengthening whole organizations and institutions, not just individuals. This means significant institutional changes are needed within CGIAR as well as in our relationships with our partners. The multiple dimensions of this change include: mainstreaming previously under-resource areas such as nutrition, data management, information technologies, gender and resilience in research programs; engaging stakeholders and partners in new ways to ensure research leads to development; creating a culture of accountability and results-based management; and developing skills in resource mobilization and partnership building.Efforts to mainstream new capacities in partner institutions should yield high returns. Activities will be embedded in ongoing research programs and will target key skill sets requested by partners, as well as by CGIAR itself. Alongside new approaches to enhancing the capacity to innovate, tried and tested mechanisms such as staff exchanges, sabbaticals and post-doctoral programs will continue to play a role in ensuring that CGIAR and its partners are equipped to deal with today's rapidly evolving research agenda. Stronger academic institutions in low-income countries enables CGIAR to concentrate on developing Stronger academic institutions in low-income countries enables CGIAR to concentrate on developing capacity for strategic and translational research in relevant fields. The system can provide practical, capacity for strategic and translational research in relevant fields. The system can provide practical, hands-on mentorship in well-resourced research laboratories and experiment stations, as well as in hands-on mentorship in well-resourced research laboratories and experiment stations, as well as in "},{"text":" Based on the ToCs developed at country level is then possible to reflect on what best suits the capacity strengthening needs and priorities for the FISH CRP. Figure1shows the different stages -from control to influence -on which is necessary to use different CD elements. Figure2shows rapid assessment and learning loops of the FISH CRP Capacity Development ToC. The ToC has been constructed through a in-depth analysis based on specific indicators as recommended by CGIAR 4 . Capacity Development Indicators for the second phase of CGIAR Research Programs •Inputs for CapDev activities: Coherent Strategy and Framework; Leadership; Tools for CapDev Assessment •Inputs for CapDev activities: Coherent Strategy and Framework; Leadership; Tools for CapDev Assessment Sphere of Control •Activity: Training Package (i.e. GIZ); Training Module (i.e. NORAD); Innovation Platform (i.e. EWFIRE); Digital approaches (i.e. BMGF); Dev Curriculum (i.e. Norad) Sphere of Control•Activity: Training Package (i.e. GIZ); Training Module (i.e. NORAD); Innovation Platform (i.e. EWFIRE); Digital approaches (i.e. BMGF); Dev Curriculum (i.e. Norad) •Effects of direct training to different stakeholders •Effects of direct training to different stakeholders Sphere of •Policy and investment changes for scaling up WF innovation and approaches Sphere of•Policy and investment changes for scaling up WF innovation and approaches Interest Interest •Stakeholder from public and private sector, and civil society have enhanced capacity to use WF innovations •Stakeholder from public and private sector, and civil society have enhanced capacity to use WF innovations and approaches and approaches Sphere of Influence •WF innovations and approaches are integrated in other stakeholder strategies Sphere of Influence•WF innovations and approaches are integrated in other stakeholder strategies Figure 1: Spheres of control, interest and influence of Capacity Development activities Figure 1: Spheres of control, interest and influence of Capacity Development activities "},{"text":"Table 1 : Summary of prioritized elements in each flagship 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 23456789 FP1. Sustainable aquaculture High High Medium Medium High High Medium Low Low FP1. Sustainable aquacultureHighHighMedium MediumHighHighMediumLowLow FP2. Sustaining small---scale fisheries High High Medium Low High High Medium Low Low FP2. Sustaining small---scale fisheriesHighHighMediumLowHighHighMediumLowLow "},{"text":"Table 2 : Indicators for M&E of capacity development Element Implementation Indicators ElementImplementationIndicators 1. Capacity needs All flagships will invest in (Adapted) needs assessment methodologies 1. Capacity needsAll flagships will invest in(Adapted) needs assessment methodologies assessment and detailed capacity needs available in published form assessment anddetailed capacity needsavailable in published form intervention strategy design assessments and intervention strategy design at the start of the CRP2 cycle and revisit throughout through after-action reviews (part of program M&E Proportion of CD budget allocated to interventions consistent with capacity needs assessment recommendations (disaggregated by implementing organization and flagship) intervention strategy designassessments and intervention strategy design at the start of the CRP2 cycle and revisit throughout through after-action reviews (part of program M&EProportion of CD budget allocated to interventions consistent with capacity needs assessment recommendations (disaggregated by implementing organization and flagship) for learning). for learning). 2. Design and All flagships will use a systems Proportion of learning materials developed 2. Design andAll flagships will use a systemsProportion of learning materials developed delivery of innovative approach with blended learning for external audiences piloted with delivery of innovativeapproach with blended learningfor external audiences piloted with learning materials methodology, build on existing representative audiences learning materialsmethodology, build on existingrepresentative audiences and approaches quality materials and develop new tailored materials as required. Participant evaluation of training and workshops to assess increase in knowledge and approachesquality materials and develop new tailored materials as required.Participant evaluation of training and workshops to assess increase in knowledge and skills and skills Number of people trained (disaggregated by Number of people trained (disaggregated by sex, age, job or role, location and literacy) sex, age, job or role, location and literacy) 3. Apply In partnership with the gender Proportion of capacity needs assessments 3. ApplyIn partnership with the genderProportion of capacity needs assessments gender--- teams and youth experts, gender that proactively target women and youth gender---teams and youth experts, genderthat proactively target women and youth sensitive approaches throughout capacity and youth dimensions are incorporated into capacity development activities throughout the flagships. Number of capacity development activities in gender approaches and toolkits initiated (disaggregated by type) sensitive approaches throughout capacityand youth dimensions are incorporated into capacity development activities throughout the flagships.Number of capacity development activities in gender approaches and toolkits initiated (disaggregated by type) development development 4. Institutional All flagships will support the Number of institutional assessments 4. InstitutionalAll flagships will support theNumber of institutional assessments strengthening outcome of public sector capacity conducted with national agricultural research strengtheningoutcome of public sector capacityconducted with national agricultural research to design and implement policy systems (NARs) to design and implement policysystems (NARs) and regulatory measures that affect the viability of scalable technologies, management practices and organizational innovations for aquaculture, fisheries and nutrition outcomes through specific strategies Number of policy decisions informed by engagement and information provided by FISH Outcome evaluation citing improved institutional capacity in achievement of other FISH outcomes and regulatory measures that affect the viability of scalable technologies, management practices and organizational innovations for aquaculture, fisheries and nutrition outcomes through specific strategiesNumber of policy decisions informed by engagement and information provided by FISH Outcome evaluation citing improved institutional capacity in achievement of other FISH outcomes designed as part of their designed as part of their engagement agenda. engagement agenda. "},{"text":" will develop future aquaculture research leaders in both Africa and Asia through internships and masters and PhD programs with discovery and upstream research partners to accelerate national capacity for research and extension. A new partnership with the University of Malawi, as a NEPAD African center of excellence for aquaculture research, provides an opportunity to enhance postgraduate training of aquaculture researchers within sub Saharan Africa. We will develop future research leaders (element 4) through internships and postgraduate programs, such as through partnerships with key universities and at the WorldFish aquaculture research and training centre in Abbassa, Egypt. Capacity development activities are reported into the MEL system complying with the CGIAR SMO Common Results Reporting indicators that was approved in 2017. The indicators include the Number of trainees, type of person trained, gender, and type of training. The type of training was defined as follows:  FORMAL TRAINING: PhD and master's-level researchers, short-term vocational training for farmers, fishers and extension personnel.  INFORMAL TRAINING: learning platforms, knowledge exchange at international and national "},{"text":" During 2017, 53,856 people received formal training, of which 68 percent were women. A further 20,727 people received informal training, of which 34 percent were women.Formal training activities included training for PhD and master's-level researchers as well as shortterm vocational training for farmers, fishers and extension personnel, conducted using various methods and tools via partners. Within the FishTrade project, a regional food systems research activity, 22 master's students from 10 countries (Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Zambia, Malawi, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and South Africa) were supported. The World Bank recently awarded a four-year grant to the Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR) in Malawi to establish an African Centre of Excellence (ACE) in Aquaculture and Fisheries (the AquaFish Centre). WorldFish signed a MoU as partner, providing a mechanism for an expanded cooperation in capacity building of aquaculture and fisheries researchers within Southern and Eastern Africa. Within Asia and the Pacific, a strong cooperation with national partners exists for formal training across FISH focal and scaling countries. Young researcher support was also provided through secondments and partnerships. For example, two postgraduate students received Crawford Fund Awards to support their work with FISH, and three students commenced their PhDs within the Sustaining Small-scale Fisheries flagship with managing partner James Cook University (JCU).Formal training for fish farmers and fishers made up the largest number of participants, with 55,385 farmers/producers involved, largely via partners. Short-term vocational practical training in aquaculture is offered by FISH through the Africa Aquaculture Research and Training Centre in Egypt, which during 2017 provided practical training in aquaculture technologies for 323 people (70 of them women) from 32 countries. A new cooperation with vocational education providers in Zambia was also strengthened during the year, and a coordinated Africa regional vocational training program for aquaculture practitioners will be launched during 2018, with a strong focus on measures and approaches that can equip small-scale farmers with improved management and business skills. "},{"text":" Cooperation with the African Centre of Excellence (ACE) in Aquaculture and Fisheries in Malawi, to support Masters and PhD training was established. FISH is a partner in the Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) Aquaculture compact, which commenced in 2018. Training of trainers was conducted at WorldFish's Abbassa Centre with 40 participants from the 10 TAAT countries in Africa.Training activities in aquaculture were undertaken also with JICA and EICA (Egyptian International Centre for Agriculture) on a regular basis. An Africa regional vocational training program for aquaculture practitioners was launched in Zambia during 2018, with support from NORAD, with a strong focus on equipping vocational schools and small-scale aquaculture farmers with improved training skills in aquaculture operations and business. Knowledge and experiences from Zambia are expected to provide a foundation for expansion elsewhere in Africa during the next 3 years. Within Asia and the Pacific, a strong cooperation with national partners exists for formal training across FISH focal and scaling countries. Young researcher support was also provided through various secondments and partnerships, including new PhDs on fish in food systems with A4NH and aquaculture genetics. Another example of this was the student enrolled in the CCAFS MSc program at the Galway University whom has performed her research on gender issues related to climate change in Bangladesh farmer's households.During 2018 particular emphasis was given to building capacity around communication of research in various domains, key to our research credibility, science quality, and impact pathway (translating research activities to research outcomes). FISH made substantial progress in capacity development activities in 2018, across various dimensions, FISH made substantial progress in capacity development activities in 2018, across various dimensions, including researchers, national partners and communities, at global, regional and national including researchers, national partners and communities, at global, regional and national levels. During 2018, 67,687 people received short-term training through FISH, of which 37% were levels. During 2018, 67,687 people received short-term training through FISH, of which 37% were women (25,270). Long-term training in 2018 included an investment in 19 students (12 PhDs, 6 MSc, women (25,270). Long-term training in 2018 included an investment in 19 students (12 PhDs, 6 MSc, and 1 Bachelors) of which 12 were women. and 1 Bachelors) of which 12 were women. "},{"text":"• Under leadership of System Management Board CGIAR should develop and commit to a comprehensive CapDev agenda • Centres and CRPs should develop clear CapDev strategies and incorporate CapDev more consistently into their Theories of Change • CGIAR should take full advantage of the experience and facilities of Centres and training of local end users and communities should be de-emphasized Centres in collaboration with CRP management and CapDev CoP facilitation should integrate adequate CapDev support into their management systems and approaches • Ensure adequate dedicated CapDev staff at CIFOR with appropriate financing • Strengthen CIFOR-ICRAF collaboration on CapDev • Fund and facilitate re-emergence of CGIAR CapDev CoP to further refine CapDev framework and knowledge exchange between Centres and CRPs Improve systems to capture, archive and retrieve data on CapDev activities Recommendations 7: Monitoring and reporting on CapDev Recommendations 7: Monitoring and reporting on CapDev • The System Management Office should revise CapDev-related reporting requirements and put • The System Management Office should revise CapDev-related reporting requirements and put emphasis on reporting against strategic and annual planning to reflect intended purpose, type emphasis on reporting against strategic and annual planning to reflect intended purpose, type and modilait of CapDev specifying stakeholder groups targeted and modilait of CapDev specifying stakeholder groups targeted • Use qualitative approaches to monitoring and reporting such as long-term tracer studies and • Use qualitative approaches to monitoring and reporting such as long-term tracer studies and outcome case studies outcome case studies • • "},{"text":"The evaluation also highlighted some issues in regards to Capacity development Monitoring & Evaluation: • monitoring information on training in Centers is not standardized, and no systematic monitoring of results takes place for different types of CD; • lack of staff and financial resources for updating and managing data;• fragmented recording of CD activities and low levels and delayed data entry especially for CD implemented as part of research projects; • confusion about CD beyond training and lack of monitoring standards;• risk of duplicating CD records in the Center/CRP matrix;• no clear responsibilities in Centers and CRPs for CD monitoring;• no appreciation of the usefulness of the data and hence limited motivation for tedious data collection work; • more systematic coverage of CGIAR CD reviews to assess CD approach (research) and providing assessment of how CD activities lead to enhanced and sustained capacity of partners, particularly at organizational and institutional levels. • limited availability of core funding has affected resourcing CD units and staff at Centers, in particular, which in turn is likely to affect follow-up and monitoring of CD results. Having taken into account this evaluation, during the FISH CRP CapDev Strategy Review Workshop, Having taken into account this evaluation, during the FISH CRP CapDev Strategy Review Workshop, the participants were asked to: the participants were asked to: "},{"text":"organizations and institutions are you targeting or, you wish to target, with capacity development? Why? They are our key partners at country level and stakeholder in the country program.  The teaching of fish farming in collaboration with professional schools. We should give more emphasis on field level cap dev study. As for e.g. studying the impact of the cap dev. activities in poverty reduction. Innovative/Effective methods of cap dev for the illiterate/women farmer etc.  We as an organization got years of experience on capacity building, this is all what we have been doing since decades.These experiences are the key strength and advantage to achieve our uttermost goal.  Extend capdev activities with innovative tools used at country level such as virtual extension, Facebook, Photo-voice.  Cost-benefit analyses of strategic aquaculture technologies -including very basic/elemental technologies for contexts like Cambodia. Other quantitative analyses that have high potential of influencing policy makers and the private sector.  Quantitative evidence of the successes of innovative methods for participatory gender empowerment / gender-transformative approaches in fisheries and aquaculture. E.g. those shared by Steve Cole from Zambia at a conference in October 2018.  Quantitative evidence of the successes and benefits of innovations around fish-friendly rice or other crop irrigation schemes. (potentially in partnership with IRRI, IWMI)  Strengthen cooperation with managing partners (NRI, WUR and JCU) that are universities and confer internationally recognised awards, which in themselves have a great value (bachelors, masters and PhDs). This is a comparative advantage.  Advanced institutions already under partnership with the FISH CRP as well as others, with which key capacity development activities for WorldFish and partners staff can be targeted. F.i. in Bangladesh in addition to the lined ministries of Government such as; Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries and Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, the Universities, the private sectors at National and International levels working in Bangladesh can be included as partner to play a key role for capacity building. In Myanmar, Department of Fisheries, Department of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Extension, Department of Irrigation, Universities, Private Sector, local NGOs, INGOs with no fisheries experience in the country (Save the Children, HKI +++), water management and e-flow entities, Regional authorities, CBOs, and supermarkets. Others: Fisheries Administration at national level; RFF II project (USAID-funded); 140 Community Fish Refuge committees; Fisheries Administration staff at provincial level; Village chiefs and commune council members; Village Health Support Group workers; Local fisherfarmers  All national development and research institutions in our country of operation dealing with aquaculture and fisheries. Exposing them to global developments, global thinking on new concepts, linking them to our partners can bring out hidden national talents and research ideas to the open.  The learning of fisheries and aquaculture to graduates through entrepreneurship and private sector cooperation.  Researches  Information & communication technology  Fund rising  What  The learning of fisheries and aquaculture to graduates through entrepreneurship and private sector cooperation.  Researches  Information & communication technology  Fund rising  What "}],"sieverID":"c499da91-200d-4b0e-b20c-86f33901f65c","abstract":"Capacity Development (CapDev) is one of the key enablers of the impact pathways for the CGIAR Research Program (CRP) on Fish Agri-food systems (FISH) and one of the key performance indicators for the program's success. The global trend in agricultural research and innovation fora is to strengthen the focus on CapDev as necessary for realizing impact on the ground.Many International Organisations (FAO, IFAD, etc.) have put CapDev at the heart of their mandate, considering the development of capacities of societal institutions and organizations as the core of any development project and necessary for the success and sustainability of development efforts 1 .CapDev in projects contributing globally to Sustainable Development can help researchers, institutions, fishers, and farmers to discover and develop their own expertise and confidence. However, it is through CapDev interventions directly from the communities and organizations in these countries, on these territories, that actions can affect and reduce poverty, food insecurity and environmental degradation 2 .CapDev in the FISH CRP is already included in many activities, such as training, communications and media, mentoring and coaching of students, institutional development, partnership mediation, and many more with the goal of strengthening the capacities of individuals, organizations and systems and provide enabling environment for development.The FISH CRP, being a multi-centre research program, makes a strength in its geographical representation and will make its scientific research relevant by fostering the leap from individual learning to sustainable livelihood outcomes and impacts through an integrated cross-country CapDev approach paying particular attention to gender and youth issues and women's empowerment."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"058f013471c0f06b86272e94e83ceb31","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7722ebaa-bd11-4932-b732-1cf4d5c850aa/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"A partner of the","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"Figure 1: Map of the study area Figure 2: Classification of agricultural water management (AWM) technologies Figure 3: Distribution of small reservoirs according to date of construction Figure 4a: Proportion of fields using SWC in 1993 Figure 4b: Proportion of fields using SWC in 2006 Figure 5: Small reservoirs and SWC Figure 6a: Yield (kg/ha) by region, for major cereal crops Figure 6b: Cultivated area (ha) by region, for major cereal crops Figure 7: Total cereal production per capita Figure 8: Comparison of rain-fed cereal yields with SWC adoption Figure 9: Comparison of rice yield with number of small reservoirs Figure 10: Proportional (%) change in poverty and AWM Figure 11: Rate of coverage of food needs (%) per region Figure 12: Impact pathway for the various aspects of the evolution of AWM projects Figure 13: Distribution of small reservoirs against population density Tables Table 1: Characteristics of recorded reservoirs in Burkina Faso Table 2: Growth of storage volume in small reservoirs Table 3: Summary of the area of SWC measures in use Table 4: Adoption of SWC by region Table 5: Trends in major cereal yields Table 6: Trends in major cereal production per capita Table 7: Characteristics of the trends in cereal yield and SWC adoption Table 8: Characteristics of the trends in rice yield and reservoir construction Table 9: Poverty level and AWM expansion"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":303,"text":"Since the 1970s, significant investments have been made in the Volta basin to develop and promote a range of agricultural water management (AWM) technologies in order to improve food productivity, food security and farmers' income in the face of extreme rainfall variability and severe droughts (Douxchamps et al. 2012(Douxchamps et al. , 2014)). Substantial experimental evidence is available at the field scale showing high potential to increase crop production and productivity (e.g., Zougmoré et al. 2000aZougmoré et al. , b, 2003Zougmoré et al. , 2004Zougmoré et al. , 2005Zougmoré et al. , 2010;;Kaboré and Reij 2004; Barry et al. 2008;Sawadogo 2011). At the same time, a growing body of regional research on the \"greening of the Sahel\" suggests widespread improvement in biomass production, and that this improvement is possibly linked to the uptake and adoption of AWM technologies (e.g., Haglund et al. 2011;Bégué et al. 2011;Olsson et al. 2005;Herrmann et al. 2005). Yet, fundamental data gaps persist, e.g., have smallholder farmers adopted agricultural water management technologies to scale? 1 Whereas it is fairly easy to access information on the amount and locations of land degradation (e.g., the GLASOD project, ISRIC 2013), it is less straightforward to find evidence of where farmers already practice specific AWM technologies to scale. The location and rate of specific AWM technology adoption to scale is neither well understood nor systematically documented. This knowledge gap can lead to various misunderstandings on needs for research and investments in technology out scaling, both by researchers and development agents. The objective of this study is to determine whether evidence can be found at an intermediate scale between the field and the sub-continent for the past and current expansion and impact of AWM technologies. This study is targeted to one level below national, which in Burkina Faso is the administrative unit of regions."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The two questions addressed in this study are;"},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"i) What is the evidence of the adoption and spread of various AWM technologies among smallholder farmers (in areal extent) over the past 30 years? Can adoption be located in space and quantified over time?"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"ii) Can any impacts on crop production (yield) and/or secondary impacts on rural poverty be discerned in relation to the expansion of AWM technologies?"},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"In Section 1, a review approach is applied to address the above mentioned questions, focusing on northern and central Burkina Faso. Section 2 describes the data processing carried out and assumptions made. Sections 3 and 4 present the results of the expansion of AWM technologies and the temporal development of key cereal yields, poverty rates and food security indices in the study area. A discussion follows in Section 5, and a summary and recommendations are presented in Section 6."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"This study used a comparative approach to establish preliminary relationships based on the available evidence and to assess the state of the data to determine what is required for a more rigorous analysis. The scope of the study was guided by the convergence of greening studies on the northwestern part of Burkina Faso, and a typology of AWM interventions used in the Volta Basin. Data on AWM use, crop yields and poverty indicators was collated or derived from secondary sources and then analyzed for relationships between AWM adoption and impact on the well-being of farmers."}]},{"head":"Study Area","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The study area was informed by the convergence of results from greening studies highlighting a 'hotspot' of greening in northwestern Burkina Faso, an area covering parts of the Nord, Plateau-Central, Centre-Nord and Mouhoun regions. The practice of zai and stone rows as soil and water conservation (SWC) interventions is said to have been particularly successful in this area too (Kaboré and Reij 2004;Atampugre 1993). The final study area was expanded to cover the semi-arid area of Burkina Faso, where agricultural water management is an important strategy for enhancing smallholder farmers' income generation and food security (D'haen 2012). The spread of AWM adoption has also been suggested as substantial in this area (Douxchamps et al. 2014). The study area was defined as the regions with more than half their surface area receiving between 400 and 800 mm rainfall per year, according to the mean rainfall isohyets described in Ouedraogo et al. (2006) for the period 1971-2000. The regions, therefore, included in this analysis are Sahel, Nord, Centre-Nord, Mouhoun, Est and the Plateau-Central (see Figure 1). The total surface area studied is 161 865 km 2 . small electric/diesel pumps for smallholder irrigation iii) soil and water conservation (SWC) "}]},{"head":"Small reservoirs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Small reservoirs were defined as dammed reservoirs with a capacity of <1 million m 3 (Cecchi et al. 2009;De Condappa et al. 2008a). Small reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, including irrigation, fishing and livestock watering (Sally et al. 2011). Smaller, ephemeral ponds, which are elusive to record, are particularly important for complementary irrigation during the post-rainy season period. In 2001, there were a total of 881 geo-referenced small reservoirs with a known volume in Burkina Faso. An additional 440 reservoirs are recorded in the database with no known volume. It was suggested by De Condappa et al. ( 2008a) that these reservoirs are most likely small reservoirs. Thus, results of this study are based on the minimum amount of stored water and therefore likely to underestimate the impact of small reservoirs on livelihoods. Note that Venot et al. ( 2012) suggested serious discrepancies in the locations of small reservoirs captured in different data sets, so these records can be considered a \"best estimate\"."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Source: Douxchamps et al. (2012) Soil and water conservation (SWC)"},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Soil and water conservation (SWC) interventions incorporate a range of technologies for reducing soil erosion and improving soil moisture infiltration for crop and plant growth, including the zai (halfmoons), various reduced-tillage practices and tied ridging, earth/stone rows and vegetation strips (live hedges), which are commonly used in the Volta basin (see Figure 2). Two SWC interventions, i) stone bunds (Atampugre 1993) and ii) the revived traditional practice of planting pits known as zai (Reij et al. 2009) in particular, have been substantially promoted in externally-funded projects. AWM interventions using mineral (soil) material and live hedges at the micro-catchment (in-field) level were also included in this study."}]},{"head":"Data Sources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The three principal sources of data that were used in the study to synthesize "}]},{"head":"Available datasets","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The analysis of small reservoir development used a database of reservoirs in Burkina Faso, compiled by Cecchi (2008) as part of the Small Reservoir Project and based on data supplied by Direction Générale des Ressources en Eau (DGRE) and Ministère de l' Agriculture, de l'Hydraulique et des Ressources Halieutiques (MAHRH). This database holds records of dates of construction, total capacity and other characteristics of 1,453 dammed reservoirs (in total), across Burkina Faso that were built up until 2001 and that vary in size from 9.7 million m 3 to 15 m 3 . The database is available on the BFP Volta Data Disc (De Condappa et al. 2008b). A valuable analysis of the database and the small reservoir context was obtained from Cecchi et al. (2009) andVenot et al. (2012)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Consistent quantitative data about soil and water conservation (SWC) adoption by farmers across the country is available from the annual national agricultural survey (Enquête Permanente Agricole, EPA), which records, for each agricultural household sampled, the number of fields on which farmers utilize any form of anti-erosive measures, including stone barriers, earth dams, zai (half-moons) and hedging (live or dead). The proportion of fields utilizing SWC measures provides an indicator for estimating regional adoption of SWC. Statistics for the provincial level (% of fields) are published for 1993 (INSD 1994)."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"The yield (kg ha -1 ) produced and the area planted for major cereal crops were reproduced from the AgriSTAT database series for 1984-2004(DGPER 2008) ) and the INSD regional series for 1995-2008(INSD 2013a, 2012c)). Millet, sorghum, maize and rice were selected as being the main staple crops produced in the region for food and income."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Poverty indices have been published for 1994for , 1998for and 2003for , based on national household surveys (MEF 2000;;INSD 2012b). To complement each poverty index, ownership of agricultural equipment and animal draft power was collated from household and agricultural surveys for 1993for , 2003for and 2007for (INSD 1994for , 2003for , 2007)), following Moll's (2005) analysis of livestock as insurance, financing, a savings mechanism and a status symbol."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"A second complementary index of poverty is food security. In addition to D'haen's research (2012), Botoni and Reij (2009) found that villagers' perceptions of their own poverty level were often defined by characteristics of food security. Regional food security data, estimated by the Institut National de la Statistique et de la Démographie (INSD) as the proportion of cereal demand (in %) met by production and published in regional periodic reports (INSD 2012a), is analyzed for the period 1992-2006."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Soil and water conservation (SWC) adoption for 2006 (% of fields using SWC measures) was calculated from raw EPA survey data (MAHRH and DGPSA 2007). Provincial level adoption was calculated as the number of fields using any form of anti-erosive measure as a proportion of the total number of fields surveyed in 2006/7. Regional level statistics for both 1993 and 2006 were calculated as the area-weighted average of the provincial statistics, using available provincial level cropland area from the Ministère de l' Agriculture et des Ressources Animales (MARA) agricultural survey reports for the closest year (1993( : INSD 1994;;2004/5: MAHRH et al. 2006))."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Academic journal databases (Scopus, Science Direct, ISI Web of Science) were searched for supplementary studies reporting independently surveyed areas of agricultural land (in hectares) on which SWC technologies have been or are still being implemented to complement the national overview of SWC adoption. We used the keywords \"zai\", \"stone bunds\", \"soil and water conservation\", \"anti-erosion\" and \"Burkina Faso\". Of the 75 articles found, most report the results of field trials (see Appendix A2) and do not have a record of the adoption of agricultural water management (AWM) technologies by farmers. Excluded articles were related to work in countries other than Burkina Faso or were not explicitly related to SWC. The project reports published by international organizations responsible for promoting SWC measures since the 1970s (PATECORE 2004;Atampugre 1993;IFAD 2004) provided the number of hectares of agricultural land treated by the projects, although the overall areal extent encompassed by a particular project was not always clearly defined. Using the information available, we derived an estimated percentage of coverage by calculating the hectares treated as a percentage of the total area cultivated with cereals and using available regional level data from the agricultural survey reports for the season closest to the publication of the reports (MAHRH et al. 2006). In project-treated areas covering several regions, the percentage apportioned to each region was area-weighted by the cultivated area. It should be noted that these estimates do not account for any adoption beyond the project's direct intervention and therefore could be underestimates. Nonetheless, the statistics provide a counterpoint to the national statistics presented."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"The yield (kg ha -1 ) was calculated at the regional level from the average total production (t) and average total crop area (ha) of the provinces within each region. Cereal production per person was calculated using regional population statistics for 1996-2006(INSD 2013b)). For all agricultural statistics, a 5-year moving average was calculated, and then the time series was normalized to the first year of the series,before comparing it to the small reservoir and SWC development trends."}]},{"head":"Expansion of AWM Technologies Since 1950","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Small Reservoirs","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Of the 1,453 reservoirs recorded in the Cecchi (2008) database, 881 are small reservoirs with a storage capacity of less than 1 million m 3 ; 74% of those have less than 300 000 m 3 . Although accounting for the majority of reservoirs by number (61% of the 1,453), small reservoirs only hold 3.5% of Burkina Faso's total storage volume (Table 1a) and only 3% of the total storage volume in the study area (Table 1b)."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"Overall the dataset is still incomplete, with 30% of reservoir entries not having information on volume. Moreover, cross-referencing between remote-sensing, field surveys and national reports revealed the difficulties in collecting a comprehensive inventory of reservoirs, with the location of reservoirs being at most 30% consistent between the sources of data (Venot et al. 2012). Nonetheless, the dataset provides a general guideline and the best current estimate of small reservoir development over the past 50 years. In the study area, the rate of development of small reservoirs increased rapidly after the droughts of the 1970s (Table 2, Figure 3). On average, over 85% of small reservoirs were built after 1970, with intense development occurring on the central plateau during the 1980s in particular when 50% of small reservoirs in Nord, Centre-Nord and Plateau-Central were built. The Est region had an early period of higher development (1950s-1960s) in addition to the 1980s boom, which continued into the 1990s. In Sahel, small reservoir expansion started later and continued until more recently, into the 1990s."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"Mapping the locations of the small reservoirs reveals that they are concentrated mainly on the central plateau of Burkina Faso, matching the areas of higher population density (>25 people per km 2 , CIESIN et al. 2011; see Figure 13 in Appendix A1). A higher density of reservoirs is also evident in the arid, northern Sahel region (Figure 3). Figure 3 differentiates the distribution of small reservoirs over time, according to the decades of intense reservoir building: up to 1979 (green); 1980-1989 (red); and 1990-2001 (blue). Data source: Cecchi (2008) The increase in reservoir development on the central plateau in the 1980s mirrors the promotion of soil and water conservation measures on the plateau, which will be discussed in the following section."}]},{"head":"Soil and Water Conservation (SWC)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"Results from the national agricultural surveys show a marked increase from 1993 to 2006 in the proportion of surveyed farmers' fields having at least one SWC measure in place (Figures 4a and 4b; Table 4), particularly in Sahel -the driest region in the study area. It is important to note that often farmers use a combination of measures, which has a greater impact than using one in isolation (Magombeyi et al. 2014;Zougmoré et al. 2003Zougmoré et al. , 2005)). However, this initial study did not disaggregate the data by practice, but instead it categorized fields simply by presence or absence of any SWC intervention. The relatively high 1993 levels of SWC in Nord, Centre-Nord and Plateau-Central reflect the intensive investment in projects focused on that central region since the 1980s, and their continued improvement up to 2006 suggests that the projects and other promotional efforts were successful in increasing SWC adoption. The tripling of SWC presence in Sahel suggests spreading and diffusion of SWC from the central region. Mouhoun and Est, the two regions with large areas in the 800-900 mm rainfall zone, show a lesser increase in the adoption of SWC. The lower proportion of arid and semi-arid areas in these two regions may contribute to explaining the reason for minimal SWC adoption in the locality."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"Analyzing the adoption rates at the provincial level reveals some interesting trends (Figure 4a and 4b). For example, in the provinces that lie within the 600-700 mm rainfall zone in Mouhoun and Est, the share of cultivated land where SWC practices were used increased to 16-18% and 11-15%, respectively, in 2006 while there was no increase (7%), or even a decline (down to 0%), in the provinces receiving more than 700 mm of rainfall per annum. In general, SWC coverage increases across the 400-800 mm rainfall zones. Provinces in the southern parts of Mouhoun and Est, as well as many other southern provinces, show a decrease in SWC coverage from 1993 to 2006. At the provincial level, the highest rates of SWC coverage in 2006 were 35% and 36% in Bam and Sanmatenga, respectively (both Centre-Nord, see Appendix A3 for provincial statistics)."}]},{"head":"CPWF June 2014","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Figure 4a: Proportion of fields using SWC in 1993, as a percentage of total fields sampled and villages where SWC measures have been recorded. An examination of peer-reviewed publications and grey literature for estimates to supplement the national surveys showed few quantitative evaluations of adoption. Most peer-reviewed literature relates to experimental field studies observing the impacts of SWC measures in particular fields. All reported locations of zai or stone bunds having been adopted, from both peer-reviewed and grey literature, are depicted in Figures 4a and 4b (reference details in Appendix A4), highlighting tthat international projects have focussed on the Nord and Centre-Nord regions. Most references to SWC adoption, either in general or specifically zai and stone bunds, are qualitative rather than quantitative and suggest that the technology is \"widespread\" (Batterbury 1996, p15) and that \"every household\" uses it (Sawadogo 2011, p123)."},{"index":2,"size":342,"text":"Some attempts to quantify the total area treated with SWC measures suggest that zais are used on 30,000-60,000 ha in northwestern Burkina Faso (Sawadogo 2011) and that some measure of SWC is used on more than 200,000 ha of agricultural land in central Burkina Faso (Reij et al. 2009). Local adoption rates of 49-60% have been recorded within the Yateng Province (Barbier et al. 2009). However, quantifying adoption at the regional level, for each region, proved challenging. Often project evaluation reports provide the total area treated, for example with stone bunds, but the publications refer to differing and ill-defined areal extents (e.g., Yatenga versus northwestern Burkina Faso), making it difficult to consistently contextualize the reported coverage, and hence it is challenging to compare statistics across years and publications. Therefore, data on documented area of SWC use was extracted only from publications with precise location references (e.g., Yatenga) for which total areas are available. As summarized in Table 3, the area with documented SWC use roughly relates to the total area of cultivated agricultural land in the relevant region, as reported for the agricultural season closest to the publication year of the reference source. Assuming the documented areas per project are complementary, and not overlapping with figures reported for other projects, the combined quantified proportion of cropland using SWC measures adds up to roughly 150,000 ha and 5-20% of the cropland per region by 2004, compared to 8,000 ha and 4.5% of cropland in 1990. These data refer to only the area where projects implemented SWC measures and do not include future spread (or abandonment) of those SWC measures. The literature results are therefore expected to be an estimated minimum, assuming that the literature has not documented all instances of adoption. These literature results are comparable to the adoption rates derived from the national statistics, although lower, especially for Nord province (Table 4). To summarize the expansion of AWM technologies in the study area, the increase in small reservoirs has been complemented by a similar trend in the adoption of SWC (Figure 5). "}]},{"head":"Yield Benefits and Poverty Impact of AWM","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Data sources: Small reservoirs from Cecchi (2008); SWC from INSD (1994), DGPER (2008). Note: The disconnected point on the reservoir curve represents the total number of small reservoirs recorded including those with no date of construction."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"CPWF June 2014"}]},{"head":"Yield Benefits and Poverty Impact of AWM Outscaling","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Field studies and a few village-level case studies have shown that agricultural water management (AWM) technologies can increase yields by more than 100% (Sawadogo 2011;Botoni and Reij 2009); improve soil quality by reducing runoff, sediment loss and nutrient loss (Zougmoré et al. 2010(Zougmoré et al. , 2009)); and possibly improve groundwater levels (Reij et al. 2005). The following section analyzes socioeconomic indicators at the regional level for evidence of AWM impact."}]},{"head":"Yield Changes","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of yield and cropland expansion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Both yield (kg ha -1 ) and crop area planted, viz. with main cereals, have been highly variable over the 25year time series available , but a trend of increase is more or less evident depending on the crop and the region (Figures 6a and 6b, respectively). In general, a normalized time series of the major cereal crops smoothed with a 5-year moving average produce trendlines with a gradient of around 0.03 (3% increase per year) (Table 5). The r 2 values indicate that millet and sorghum yield has had less inter-annual variation than maize and rice, suggesting that this trend is more reliable and that millet and sorghum yields are more stable. Although very erratic, rice yields have increased dramatically since the 1980s, a result of strong increases in both area cultivated and total production. For the rain-fed cereals (i.e., not including rice), Nord and Centre-Nord show high rates of increase most consistently in their trendlines, i.e., 3-4% per year. These are two regions where SWC promotion also has been concentrated."},{"index":2,"size":450,"text":"In terms of evaluating the impact of AWM technologies on improving the yield, it is important to know how much of the perceived increase is due to expansion into new cropland. In central Burkina Faso, the potential for expansion is limited due to its historically high population pressure (Barbier et al. 2009;Marchal 1977). In Plateau-Central and Centre-Nord, cropland expansion has not exceeded 150% of cropland in 1984, except for rice (Figure 6b). However, in the other regions, such as Nord and Sahel rainfed crops (millet and sorghum) have expanded dramatically, i.e., 200-350%. In general, Mouhoun, Est and Sahel, being the regions with lower population density and more land availability, have the highest expansion results. The expansion of the area cultivated for rice, although still small in absolute terms, is an order of magnitude higher than the other crops, suggestive of an initial expansion after introduction, particularly in Sahel. It is interesting to note that the area cultivated has inter-annual fluctuations of up to 100,000 hectares or more. In Centre-Nord in particular, the area planted with sorghum has risen and fallen by 60,000-100,000 hectares several times over the 20-year study period. However, it appears that the fluctuation is to some extent due to the alternation of crops, i.e., sorghum with millet, which is more evident in Centre-Nord than in other regions. While absolute yield improvement is necessary, the improvement must keep up with population growth and surpass it in order to realize a noticeable improvement in local food security and possibly in farmingdependant livelihoods. Analysis of total cereal production per capita (Figure 7, Table 6) shows that there has only been a consistent rise in production per person for rain-fed cereals (millet, sorghum and maize) in Nord and Mouhoun. In Sahel and Centre-Nord, the series varies periodically, with a first peak around the early 1990s and a second rise toward 2006 (end of the dataset). Nord, Centre-Nord and Sahel also have the highest AWM adoption rates, along with Plateau-Central. Rice production rises slowly and consistently only in Sahel and Plateau-Central; in Mouhoun and Est, per capita production is more periodic and declines toward the end of the time series. Production has not kept up with population and has even declined in Plateau-Central and Est for rain-fed cereals, and in Nord and Centre-Nord for rice. However, all regions were producing more than the minimum cereal requirement per capita by 2008. In summary, these results suggest that food security will improve in Nord; will be relatively stable in Centre-Nord; will be potentially rising but variable in Sahel and Mouhoun; and will be potentially decreasing in Plateau-Central and Est. Systematically higher per capita production in both Mouhoun and Est reflects their lower population density. "}]},{"head":"Agricultural Water Management 20","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Table 6: Trends in major cereal production per capita (kgcapita-1, with 5-year moving average). "}]},{"head":"Yield and agricultural water management","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":375,"text":"Millet and sorghum are typically rain-fed crops and therefore more likely to be affected by SWC adoption than by the building of small reservoirs due to direct in-field improvements in soil moisture availability. Comparing millet and sorghum yield with the national survey statistics for SWC shows similar gradients for yield and SWC trendlines (Table 7, Figure 8). All series were smoothed using a 5-year moving average to allow any trends to be seen more clearly and normalized by setting the first data point as 1. Thus, similar gradients imply that the changes in the variable are of a similar magnitude, suggesting a possible relationship that could be further tested when more data is available. With r 2 values mostly greater than 0.5, all regions except Plateau-Central show concurrent increases in yield and SWC over the period of development (though this is not the case for sorghum in Sahel). As highlighted in Table 7, Nord, Centre-Nord and Mouhoun all have very similar gradients of between 1% and 6% increase per year. For the remaining regions, SWC adoption has increased far more (10%-20%) relative to yields (1%-4%). While this simple analysis is not able to differentiate the impacts on yield of SWC versus land expansion, Figure 6b showed that land expansion is least significant for millet, which also has the most consistent improvement in yield and therefore the millet results may be more strongly related to SWC adoption. However, land expansion is an important confounder and should be included in further analyses, particularly in relation to sorghum and in general for Mouhoun, Est and Sahel, which have greater possibility for expansion. Rice benefits more from small reservoirs expansion than SWC adoption, due to the increased irrigation potential. Nonetheless, there are instances of initial experiments using half-moons to cultivate rain-fed rice (Zougmoré, pers. comm.). Small reservoir development was, therefore, compared with normalized, 5-year moving averages of rice yields (Figure 9). As in Figure 8, positive trends of increasing yield can be seen, ranging from around 0.2% per year in Mouhoun to 3% in Plateau-Central and Est and up to 11% in Sahel (Table 8). The most closely comparable rates of increase in reservoirs and rice yields, confirmed by a quick regression, are found in Nord, Centre-Nord and Sahel. "}]},{"head":"Poverty Level","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Burkina Faso has a total population of just over 15.2 million (INSD 2013a), of which the rural population is 11 million (72%). 80% of the working population is employed in the agricultural sector (MEF 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"Poverty analyses of the 1994 and 1998 household surveys show regional poverty levels for the study area remaining the same (40-60%), except for Plateau-Central, where poverty increased from 50 to 55% (Table 9), reflecting the influence of Ouagadougou's higher urban poverty. Recalculations for the national level show that poverty, in fact, declined (Grimm and Günther 2007;World Bank 2014) or at least stabilized (Lachaud 2004) over the study period. However, the econometric methodologies used to produce the national poverty statistics are based on household assets and access to services that are mostly relevant to urban areas -electricity, piped water, electrical appliances, concrete, etc. Testing an alternative, i.e., a non-econometric analysis of poverty that is based on food sufficiency and a food poverty line, D'haen (2012) found that in urban areas nation wide, poverty decreased from 2003 to 2007, but rose slightly in 2005 due to higher food prices brought about by very poor harvests across the country. D'haen (2012) shows that incorporating food sufficiency as a central indicator of household well-being reflects poverty levels more comprehensively across rural and urban areas than is the case of econometric analyses. Food security is therefore explored in more depth below in Section 4.3."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"An additional indicator of rural wealth can be cattle or livestock ownership, representing investment of excess income (Moll 2005;Sidibé 2005). An analysis of ownership of ploughs and livestock for draft power suggest that all regions were much better off in 2007 than in 1993 (Table 9), as there has been a marked increase in agricultural assets, which may be reflecting improved income due to AWM adoption. More data points, particularly between 1993 and 2003, would confirm whether the increase is a result of a consistent linear trend, or whether, for example, 2003 and 2007 are representing considerably higher than average values, due to experiencing an exceptionally good harvest in year 2003 (D'haen 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Table 9: Poverty level and AWM expansion over a short period (1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007). Data sources: i) National poverty incidence (%) by region (MEF 2000(MEF for 1994(MEF and 1998;;INSD 2012bINSD for 2003;;MEF 2009MEF for 2006))."}]},{"head":"Region","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"ii) An indicator of rural poverty -Proportion (%) of households possessing agricultural equipment (INSD 1994(INSD , 2003(INSD , 2007))."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"iii) Estimated adoption of SWC measures (National agricultural surveys: INSD 1994; MAHRH and DGPSA 2007) iv) Total number of small reservoirs recorded (Small Reservoirs Database: Cecchi 2008). Note:* There has been discussion over the calculations used to produce these numbers (see Grimm and Günther 2007;Lachaud 2004), saying they should be lower. (1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007), drawn by the author from the data in Table 9."}]},{"head":"Poverty and agricultural water management (AWM)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"A rigorous analysis of poverty impact resulting from AWM expansion has not been possible with the limited data available, considering also the number of other influences on poverty/wealth, including nonagricultural income sources, improved infrastructure and access to markets, varying demands on income and external shocks. Attributing impact is discussed further in Section 5. However, it is still useful to place the AWM expansion in the context of available indicators of poverty. Rural wealth as indicated by draft ownership has consistently improved alongside AWM expansion (Figure 10) for the period with overlapping data (1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007). However, the relative degree of improvement in wealth compared to AWM expansion varies across the regions. For all regions except Mouhoun, wealth has increased by more than 75% of 1993 values, while the proportional change in SWC ranges from 20 to 70% increase from Note: National poverty incidence data was inverted so that a positive change in national poverty refers to a reduction in poverty incidence (i.e., an improvement)."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"1993 values. Only in Sahel, Plateau-Central and Est do SWC adoption show similar, though lower, rates of change to rural wealth (50-70%). The change in small reservoirs is generally low over the comparison time period (<15%), as most reservoir expansion had already occurred in the 1980s, except for Sahel where 32% more reservoirs were still to be built after 1993. As the comparison time period captures only the tail end of small reservoir expansion (for the current dataset), it is difficult to make comparisons to wealth, because the impact may have occurred before 1993. Although the national statistics for poverty incidence should be viewed with caution, pending more information on the underlying calculations used, the data suggest at least a 25% improvement in all regions except Mouhoun between 1993 and 2003 or 2006. From the small, current dataset, there is no clear correlation between AWM expansion and wealth; longer and more detailed, overlapping time series are required."}]},{"head":"Food Security","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Monitoring food security (INSD 2012a) shows that the northern provinces are mostly able to meet their food requirements (190 kg of cereals per capita) through domestic production, although it fluctuates dramatically from year to year (Figure 11). Overlying the year-to-year variation, larger fluctuations can be seen as minimum and maximum figures decrease from 1993/4 to about 1997/8. Since 1998/9, the minimum rates of coverage appear to have been increasing. This general upward trend is particularly noticeable in the Nord region, which also appears to have a smaller range of fluctuation than the other regions. Centre-Nord has somewhat less inter-annual fluctuation as well, apart from the period 1997-2000."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Potentially, this is a crude indicator that the higher intensity of SWC promotion carried out in Nord and Centre-Nord, compared to other regions, has resulted in a slight buffer against seasonal variations in these regions. It should be noted that until 2001, Plateau-Central included Kadiogo, the district containing the capital, Ouagadougou. Therefore, its food coverage for that time is depressed compared to the period after 2001, when Kadiogo was no longer included in the Plateau-Central region. Similarly, it is clear from the data that Mouhoun is one of the \"granaries\" of Burkina Faso, producing on average 170% of the country's cereal requirements each year. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Despite a wealth of research on the potential benefits of various agricultural production technologies for smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa, there is limited data available on the actual adoption rates and extent of use of these technologies. Hence, there is limited knowledge on their actual impact on smallholder livelihoods. In this report, we focus on two key agricultural water management (AWM) technologies that have generated substantial research and development investments over the past 40 years (Douxchamps et al. 2014) in northern and central Burkina Faso, as identified in an initial study made to address the knowledge gap."}]},{"head":"Small reservoirs expansion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"From the Small Reservoir Database (Cecchi 2008), which holds records of most reservoirs built up until 2001, it is clear that small reservoir development accelerated in the 1980s, with over 60% of the current stock being built in the 1980s in most regions, and progressed into the 1990s in Sahel and Est."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"The highest density of small reservoirs occurs mainly on the central plateau (the most densely populated region) and in the northeast of the Sahel region (the driest part of the country). The summary of statistics from the database highlights that despite accounting for at least 60%, and up to 90%, of all reservoirs recorded in Burkina Faso, small reservoirs only carry around 3% of the total volume of stored water. This has important implications for potential upscaling and restoration of small reservoirs as some studies suggest small reservoirs have marginal impact on the overall basin water balance (e.g. De Condappa et al. 2008a), but enable significant benefits to livelihoods and human wellbeing (Venot et al. 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"In terms of the impact of small reservoir expansion on livelihoods, productivity changes in irrigated cereals (rice) for the same available time period (1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001) suggests a strong increase in rice productivity."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"Reservoir development is suggesting expansion of rice in the region, particularly in Sahel, Plateau-Central and Centre-Nord. This result is to be expected as the reservoirs are often built for the purpose of initiating or servicing rice irrigation schemes. The closest correlations in rice are found in the highly populated Nord and Centre-Nord and in the arid Sahel, which realized a 6-11% per year productivity increase, albeit still producing small overall quantities. A case study of such a rice irrigation scheme (de Fraiture et al. 2014) documents the development of additional small-scale, informal market gardening that is occurring concurrently, which highlights the importance of the reservoirs for supplemental irrigation. Their multiple-use function is especially important for livelihood diversification as a coping strategy in highly populated areas where land availability is limited as well as in dry areas where water is scarce. A detailed multiple regression analysis of the additional benefits of supplemental irrigation in comparison to other crops was not possible in this study. Nevertheless, it is essential for evaluating and establishing the best management strategies to ensure sustained benefits from small reservoirs."},{"index":5,"size":198,"text":"Only a brief comparison between small reservoirs and poverty-related indicators (poverty levels, ownership of agricultural assets and food security) was possible in this review, because the overlap in time between the respective datasets was insignificant (less than 10 years and only two data points for poverty). The most significant reservoir development occurred in the 1980s, which is before the time period covered by the poverty indicators (1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007). Hence, any immediate impacts on poverty would not have not been captured. However, in Sahel, the one region which had significant reservoir expansion after 1990 (about 25% between 1993 and 2001), both national statistics and ownership of agricultural capital (draft animals and equipment) suggest similar or greater improvements in wealth from 1993 to 1998. Nonetheless, this comparison is based on only two data points for poverty, i.e., in 1993 and 1998. Currently it is assumed that there will be large potential benefits from the expansion of small reservoirs in improving water accessibility to smallholder farmers, without having any significant impact on the overall water balance (Venot et al. 2012). However, the benefits must be balanced against reservoirs' hydrological (in)efficiency and the negative impacts of mismanagement and siltation (Venot et al. 2012)."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"It is therefore critical to access better time series that allow a more accurate assessment linking small reservoir development to more sustainable livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":411,"text":"The wide-scale dissemination of soil and water conservation (SWC) technologies began on the central plateau in the 1980s. By 2006, SWC practices had successfully expanded, with evidence of adoption rates (the percentage of cultivated land where SWC is in use) of at least 25% in Plateau-Central and Sahel; 28% in Nord; and 38% in Centre-Nord. Outside of this central area, which has been the core of SWC promotion projects for 30 years or more, and within the remaining study area that receives less than 700 mm rainfall per year, adoption rates were a modest 10-20%. These adoption rates are a minimum estimate derived from the use of anti-erosion measures, predominantly stone and earth bunds, zai pits and windbreaks, in fields surveyed for the annual agricultural survey and represent the proportion of cultivated land enhanced with SWC. The increase in the peripheral provinces, though modest (10-15% adoption), is heartening as some doubled their 1993 rates. The Sahel region, in particular, has by far had the largest increase from around 5% up to 25% adoption. Such a large expansion of SWC measures in an arid environment, particularly if used to rehabilitate degraded land (e.g., Reij et al. 2009), would agree with and explain the evidence of \"greening of the Sahel\" that has been analyzed through remote sensing (e.g., Haglund et al. 2011). Therefore, we speculate that the government support and emphasis on promoting SWC to counter erosion, with the help of the large international projects, has been successful beyond the original geographical scope of the projects. There is also clear evidence of a drop in rates of uptake across the 700 mm threshold of annual rainfall. In the southernmost provinces of Mouhoun and Est, which receive 700-900 mm of rainfall per year, adoption has remained minimal (Appendix A3), which is a consequence of SWC being less productive in higher rainfall regimes where the in-situ rainwater harvesting technologies (stone bunds, zai) retain too much water and cause waterlogging (IEG 2011; Barbier et al. 2009;Roose et al. 1999). Crops may be lost from flooding in more seasons than they benefit from the rainwater harvesting. However, vegetative barriers, as opposed to mineral barriers, are suggested as a means of benefitting from SWC in higher rainfall regimes as they are porous and will use excess water, although they can still cause waterlogging (Spaan 2003;Zougmoré et al. 2009). Vegetative barriers were excluded from this study as competing for water in semi-arid and arid regions, but warrant further study."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Comparing SWC adoption to yield changes, poverty and food security proved somewhat more relevant than for small reservoirs, as the time series overlap well (1980s-2006). Unfortunately, the concrete data on SWC adoption is limited to two data points (1993 and 2006), which limits the potential of the analyses."},{"index":3,"size":241,"text":"Obtaining access to more data points to fill out the SWC time series is key to confirming the initial findings made in this study. Regional yields of major rain-fed cereals have improved over the period 1984-2008, indicating a 1-4% increase per year for normalized 5-year moving averages. Millet presents the most coherent improvements, almost doubling in yield across the study area, as does sorghum in Nord, Centre-Nord and Sahel where SWC has been most widely adopted. Furthermore, yield per capita has increased consistently in Nord. Comparing the magnitude and timing of increases in millet and sorghum yields with SWC adoption suggests closely comparable rates of increase in Nord, Centre-Nord and Mouhoun, which supports the hypothesis that the introduction, adoption and uptake of SWC is successful in improving yields and ultimately livelihoods. Although still increasing together in Sahel and Plateau-Central, the expansion of SWC adoption has far outstripped yields, growing 10% -12% per year compared to yields (1%-4%). Firstly, yields in these two regions are more variable than in the rest of the study area, which depresses the average rate of increase. Furthermore, these two regions are the most constrained for land (Plateau-Central) and water (Sahel), and thus lower yields could be expected. Further data, to extend the time series as well as to fill in gaps, will be important for producing a detailed multiple regression analysis that illuminates how SWC adoption interacts with yield, together with other constraining and enabling factors."},{"index":4,"size":241,"text":"The available measurements of regional poverty levels, ownership of agricultural equipment and food security suggest overall improvements over the past 20 years. However, greater detail in the time series is still required to assess how significant these improvements have been and whether a strong relation can be determined in relation to the normalized yield and outscaling of AWM technologies such as small reservoirs and SWC. Although the SWC statistics do overlap with the poverty statistics, both datasets are only represented by a few data points (1993, 2003, 2005/6), presenting snapshots rather than trends. For example, both 2003 and 2007 yielded very good harvests, whereas in 2005 late rains led to very poor harvests nation wide and low food sufficiency (D'haen 2012, p69), a fact reflected in the worsening of poverty indicators. Greater detail in both time series would allow an assessment to be made as to whether areas with higher SWC adoption were buffered against the crisis in 2005 or not. However, the limited data available suggests that a positive linkage exists. This indicates that, while AWM adoption is intuitively important to poverty reduction, the link between improved yields and reduced poverty levels is very complex and indirect. Hence, more data and analysis is required to shed light on the interaction at the regional level. The benefits of AWM have been proven in field trials. However, more data is required to conclusively link widespread regional AWM adoption to improved regional yield."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"Outside the core area of Nord and Centre-Nord, Sahel, in particular, has higher and more consistent yield improvements in rain-fed cereals and rice compared to the other regions. This may be an indirect benefit of both small reservoirs and SWC measures retaining water in a landscape with highly temporal variation of rainfall and thereby contributing to groundwater storage. However, this is an issue for more detailed, future research."}]},{"head":"Attribution of impact","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":405,"text":"This study provides a starting point for exploring the link between improving agriculture (AWM adoption) and achieving widespread impact on livelihoods, in the form of regionally improved food security and poverty reduction, via increased yields. However, the study has only analyzed the startand end points in the outcome-impact pathway (Figure 12). It has also only covered a limited number of aspects of the pathway. Douxchamps et al. (2014) explain how achieving sustainable impact from AWM uptake and outscaling is contingent on the successful achievement several other components, beyond simply introducing the AWM technology. Complementary \"levers of change\" by a range of actors include reinforcing the knowledge base, providing institutional support and using best practices in implementation approach -all set within a conceptual understanding of landscape approaches, with active communication and integration between actors. Furthermore, AWM adoption is one strategy among many factors contributing to enhancing yield, food security and income. For example, rainfall variability is an overriding determinant of actual productivity, with short-term and long-term periodicity clearly evident in the yield data. Moreover, adopting AWM interventions is only one of several options for changing the management of the cropping system to achieve better yields; others include adding fertilizers, managing pest and weeds, using hybrid varieties of seeds and implementing best and most timely mix of crop management strategies. Examples of the drivers of AWM adoption from the other components beyond the technology itself (its effectiveness for improving yield) include the significant external investments, in the order of USD 641 million, which have been allocated over the period 1970 to 2009 toward agricultural water management projects, including SWC, in conjunction with long-term, government-driven programmes (Sidibé 2005;Douxchamps et al. 2014). Similar support may be driving fertilizer distribution or microcredit promotion in particular regions, which needs to be investigated in association to AWM adoption to scale. Are the multiple system interventions enabling yield impact to scale? Or can AWM adoption as a single intervention alone be the contributor to the yield gains? Similarly, as in Botoni and Reij (2009) and Douxchamps et al. (2014), nonfarm income (e.g., remittances), population dynamics, national politics and infrastructure development, including changes in access to markets and information, are all part of the other necessary components for sustainable impact. Roads accessible during all seasons are critical for providing access to markets and their absence therefore hinders the sale of excess production and access to inputs to improve production (e.g., Fan et al. 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Full exploration of the contribution to specific development goals by AWM adoption at a societal scale would require multiple regressions analyses with a more substantive datasets. This was out of the scope of this study due to the lack of consistent data on development as well as on AWM adoption across regions. Such an analysis is a critical next step in gaining a better understanding of how to achieve sustainable impact on livelihoods from agricultural development and investments. "}]},{"head":"Key Messages and Recommendations","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The purpose of this study is to synthesize evidence on adoption of AWM interventions and the contribution to development goals such as yield increase, food security and poverty alleviation. It aims to develop proof of the often assumed causalities between AWM development and yield improvements to scale, to complement the case study literature (e.g., Sawadogo 2011;Reij et al. 2005) that shows, at the field-scale, how successful AWM technologies can be at farmer and community scale. The study set out to provide a sub-national overview of AWM adoption and its impact on yield and poverty in Burkina Faso."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"The preliminary study has shown that"},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"• Soil and water conservation (SWC) technologies have expanded substantially in the study area of north central Burkina Faso between 1980 and 2005 in provinces receiving 700 mm mean annual rainfall or less, with evidence of adoption rates of at least 25-40% coverage of cultivated area in Centre-Nord, Nord, Plateau-Central and Sahel, and a minimum of 10-20% in the rest of the study area"},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"• There has been a gradual increase in regional yields of around 3% per year from the 1980s to 2008, leading to a 150%-200% increase in absolute yields over 30 years until 2010"},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"• Rates of increase between rain-fed cereal yields and SWC adoption in Nord and Centre-Nord are particularly aligned, and there is a close correlation between rice productivity and small reservoir expansion in Nord, Centre-Nord and Sahel"},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"• Poverty and food security indicators suggest improvements in the well-being of farmers since the 1990s with an average 25% reduction in poverty incidence across the study area and an estimated 4% per year increase in food security in Nord and Plateau Central"},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"• To attribute AWM adoption to the outcomes in development is likely an oversimplification. AWM adoption should be further analyzed, taking at least rainfall patterns, crop/seed use and fertilizer management into account over the same time, controlling for co-benefits in yields"},{"index":8,"size":118,"text":"Achieving impact on food security and poverty alleviation via AWM uptake and outscaling is a product of multiple inter-dependent components (technology, knowledge, approaches, institutions, concepts) and just one of many strategies to achieving livelihood improvement. More data and long-term analysis is needed to illuminate the AWM impact pathway at provincial and regional scale to clarify levers of change and \"best bet\" investments in rural development. Further analysis of the regional yield trends and more detailed time series for household wealth and food security indicators is needed to further explore the causal evidence of AWM development and rural food security gains or poverty alleviation effects at a subnational scale. This review, therefore, provides a starting point for future work."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map of the study area. Green shaded provinces are included in the study area. "},{"text":"2. 1 . 1 Typology of Agricultural Water Management Interventions The scope of agricultural water management (AWM) interventions included in this review was guided by the typology of AWM interventions adapted by Douxchamps et al. (2012; after Johnston and McCartney 2010) (see Figure2) and other previous work that identified high potential for adoption and adaptation of three main streams (listed below) of AWM technology, covering the water use spectrum from rainfed to irrigated(Barron et al. 2011;Evans et al. 2012 "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Classification of agricultural water management (AWM) technologies used in the Volta basin. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Distribution of small reservoirs according to date of construction. "},{"text":"Figure 4b : Figure 4b: Proportion of fields using SWC in 2006, as a percentage of total fields sampled and villages where SWC measures have been recorded. Data sources: Percentage of farms using SWC technologies mapped from data in INSD (1994), Tableau 29; villages sourced from various publications (see Appendix A4 for references); mean annual rainfall isohyets for 1971-2000 redrawn from Ouedraogo et al. (2006). *Note: the boundary lines are mismatched because the 1993 data was collected for the old boundaries (30 provinces) and is mapped accordingly. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Small reservoirs and SWC: Development of small reservoirs (number) and proportion of farms using SWC (%) over time (both series normalized to first data year). "},{"text":"Figure 6a : Figure 6a: Yield (kg/ha) by region, for major cereal crops, calculated from production (tonnes) and agricultural area (ha) for time period 1984-2008 (5-year moving average, normalized values). "},{"text":"Figure 6b : Figure 6b: Cultivated area (ha) by region, for major cereal crops, for time period 1984-2008. (All series normalized to first year of data, no smoothing. Note: For rice, Sahel is plotted on a second axis). "},{"text":" Data sources: DGPER (2008) and INSD (2012c). "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Total cereal production per capita (kgcapita-1, 1984-2008, 5-year moving average). "},{"text":" Data sources: DGPER (2008) and INSD (2013b). Note: For the dashed portions of the graphs, population data was not available and was instead calculated backwards from the available data series (1996-2006) using closest-fit polynomial trendline equations. Dashed horizontal line marks 190 kg per capita, the cereal food requirement value used by INSD. "},{"text":" Data sources: DGPER (2008) and INSD (2012c); INSD (1994), MAHRH and DGPSA (2007). * Norm. is an abbreviation of 'Normalized' . Note: * A simple regression of the rice yields (3-year moving average, not normalized) against the cumulative number of small reservoirs for 1984-2001. Data sources: DGPER (2008) and INSD (2012c); Cecchi (2008). "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Comparison of rice yield with number of small reservoirs for period 1949-2008 (5-year moving average, both series normalized). "},{"text":" The official statistics for 2003 and 2006 suggest dramatic fluctuations in poverty, with all regions both better and worse off in either 2003 or 2006 than in 1993 (Figure 10). For example, poverty in Sahel apparently decreased to 37% in 2003, but then rose to 79% in 2006. Discussion in the literature (e.g. Grimm and Günther 2007; Lachaud 2004) suggests that the 2003 results are not comparable to the earlier analyses, because the 2003 analysis (INSD 2003) was based on different expenditure aggregates. The 2006 results may be similarly affected, as they are based on the population census rather than the household surveys. "},{"text":" Data sources: DGPER (2008) and INSD (2012c); Cecchi (2008). "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: Proportional (%) change in poverty and AWM, over a short period(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007), drawn by the author from the data in Table9. "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: Rate of coverage of food needs (%) per region, 1992-2006. "},{"text":"Figure 12 : Figure 12: Impact pathway for the various aspects of the evolution of AWM projects "},{"text":" Source: Douxchamps et al. 2014. Highlight added by author. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 : Characteristics of recorded reservoirs in Burkina Faso a) a) Type Number Known volume (m 3 ) % total known volume TypeNumberKnown volume (m 3 )% total known volume All 1 453 4 962 870 175 100.0 All1 4534 962 870 175100.0 Large (>10 million m 3 ) 14 4 452 435 000 89.7 Large (>10 million m 3 )144 452 435 00089.7 Large/med (>1 million m 3 ) 118 337 262 000 6.8 Large/med (>1 million m 3 )118337 262 0006.8 Small (<1 million m 3 ) 881 173 173 175 3.5 Small (<1 million m 3 )881173 173 1753.5 Small reservoirs built at an 136 (9% of total) 23 857 415 13.8% of the small Small reservoirs built at an136 (9% of total)23 857 41513.8% of the small unknown date reservoirs unknown datereservoirs Unknown volume 440 (30% of total) Unknown volume440 (30% of total) "},{"text":"Storage capacity and date of construction for all reservoirs recorded in the database b) Amount and volume of small reservoirs for the six study areas (Centre-Nord, Est, Mouhoun, Nord, Plateau-Central and Sahel) Type Number Known volume (m 3 ) % total known volume TypeNumberKnown volume (m 3 )% total known volume All 717 2 953 251 565 100.0 All7172 953 251 565100.0 Large (>10 million m 3 ) 10 2 652 700 000 89.8 Large (>10 million m 3 )102 652 700 00089.8 Large/med (>1 million m 3 ) 77 212 386 000 7.2 Large/med (>1 million m 3 )77212 386 0007.2 Small (<1 million m 3 ) 452 88 165 565 3.0 Small (<1 million m 3 )45288 165 5653.0 Small reservoirs built at an 81 (11% of total) 14 019 415 15.9% of the small Small reservoirs built at an81 (11% of total)14 019 41515.9% of the small unknown date reservoirs unknown datereservoirs Unknown volume 188 (26% of total) Unknown volume188 (26% of total) Source: Cecchi (2008) Source: Cecchi (2008) "},{"text":"Table 2 : Growth of storage volume in small reservoirs (% of current volume added each decade) Region Pre- 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Date RegionPre-1950s1960s1970s1980s1990sDate 1950s unknown 1950sunknown Sahel 0 2 0 1 26 43 27 Sahel0201264327 Nord 1 1 5 13 54 9 17 Nord1151354917 Centre-Nord 2 8 13 12 50 9 6 Centre-Nord2813125096 Plateau-Central 0 0 2 3 50 27 18 Plateau-Central0023502718 Mouhoun 0 11 5 3 34 36 11 Mouhoun01153343611 Est 0 14 24 6 20 18 17 Est014246201817 "},{"text":"Table 3 : Summary of the area of SWC measures in use, extracted from peer-reviewed and grey literature. Time period Area of SWC reported, total (ha) Provinces covered in project/ report Area of SWC reported, weighted per region (ha) Area cultivated with cereals, per region (ha) SWC reported as % of cultivated area, per region Literature source -SWC Literature source -cultivated area Time periodArea of SWC reported, total (ha)Provinces covered in project/ reportArea of SWC reported, weighted per region (ha)Area cultivated with cereals, per region (ha)SWC reported as % of cultivated area, per regionLiterature source -SWCLiterature source -cultivated area - 8 000 Yatenga 8 000 176 093 4.54 Critchley Agricultural -8 000Yatenga8 000176 0934.54CritchleyAgricultural and Graham Survey 1993 and GrahamSurvey 1993 Stone bunds (1991); (INSD 1994) Stone bunds(1991);(INSD 1994) Atampugre Atampugre (1993) (1993) - 89 600 Bam; Centre-Nord: Centre-Nord: Centre-Nord: IFAD (2004), Agricultural -89 600Bam;Centre-Nord:Centre-Nord:Centre-Nord:IFAD (2004),Agricultural Namentenga; 32 990 284 708 11.6% Intermediate Survey Namentenga;32 990284 70811.6%IntermediateSurvey Stone bunds Sanmatenga; report of 2004-2005 Stone bundsSanmatenga;report of2004-2005 Passore; Nord: Nord: Nord PS-CES/AGF (MAHRH et al. Passore;Nord:Nord:NordPS-CES/AGF(MAHRH et al. Yatenga; 36 308 325 052 11.2% project 2006) Yatenga;36 308325 05211.2%project2006) Zondoma; Zondoma; Boulkiemde; Centre-Ouest: Centre-Ouest: Centre-Ouest: Boulkiemde;Centre-Ouest:Centre-Ouest:Centre-Ouest: Sanguie 20 302 392 951 5.2% Sanguie20 302392 9515.2% - 60 000 Bam, Centre-Nord: Centre-Nord: Centre-Nord: PATECORE Agricultural -60 000Bam,Centre-Nord:Centre-Nord:Centre-Nord:PATECOREAgricultural Kourwéogo, 28 840 284 708 10.1% (2004), Final Survey Kourwéogo,28 840284 70810.1%(2004), FinalSurvey Stone bunds, Oubritenga Plat.-Central: Plat.-Central: Plat.-Central: report 2004-2005 Stone bunds,OubritengaPlat.-Central:Plat.-Central:Plat.-Central:report2004-2005 zai, earth dams 31 160 163 648 19.0% (MAHRH et al. zai, earth dams31 160163 64819.0%(MAHRH et al. 2006) 2006) "},{"text":"Table 4 : Adoption of SWC by region (1993-2006). "},{"text":"Table 5 : Trends in major cereal yields (tha -1 , normalized values, with 5-year moving average). "},{"text":"Table 7 : Characteristics of the trends in cereal yield and SWC adoption. Trendline Gradient r 2 Gradient r 2 Gradient r 2 TrendlineGradient r 2Gradient r 2Gradient r 2 SAHEL NORD CENTRE-NORD SAHELNORDCENTRE-NORD SWC 0.126 1 0.0211 1 0.0581 1 SWC0.12610.021110.05811 Millet 0.0367 0.7929 0.0425 0.8432 0.0349 0.7074 Millet0.03670.79290.04250.84320.03490.7074 Sorghum 0.0193 0.3099 0.0307 0.8066 0.0365 0.6807 Sorghum0.01930.30990.03070.80660.03650.6807 PLATEAU-CENTRAL MOUHOUN EST PLATEAU-CENTRAL MOUHOUNEST SWC 0.0932 1 0.0228 1 0.1891 1 SWC0.093210.022810.18911 Millet 0.0081 0.2756 0.024 0.7636 0.0296 0.8472 Millet0.00810.27560.0240.76360.02960.8472 Sorghum 0.0067 0.037 0.0161 0.5659 0.0149 0.6865 Sorghum0.00670.0370.01610.56590.01490.6865 Data sources: DGPER (2008) and INSD (2012c); INSD (1994), MAHRH and DGPSA (2007). Data sources: DGPER (2008) and INSD (2012c); INSD (1994), MAHRH and DGPSA (2007). "},{"text":"Table 8 : Characteristics of the trends in rice yield and reservoir construction(1984 -2008). Trendline SAHEL NORD CENTRE-NORD TrendlineSAHELNORDCENTRE-NORD Gradient r 2 Gradient r 2 Gradient r 2 Gradient r 2Gradient r 2Gradient r 2 Small reservoirs 0.7779 0.8542 0.1048 0.8259 0.1673 0.8515 Small reservoirs0.77790.85420.10480.82590.16730.8515 Rice 0.1143 0.4047 0.0905 0.7199 0.0615 0.3303 Rice0.11430.40470.09050.71990.06150.3303 Regression* 1.7904 0.8193 3.9849 0.7881 5.7231 0.821 Regression*1.79040.81933.98490.78815.72310.821 PLATEAU-CENTRAL MOUHOUN EST PLATEAU-CENTRAL MOUHOUNEST Small reservoirs 0.5005 0.7859 0.3288 0.8794 0.9942 0.943 Small reservoirs0.50050.78590.32880.87940.99420.943 Rice 0.0386 0.0962 0.0016 0.0009 0.034 0.5964 Rice0.03860.09620.00160.00090.0340.5964 Regression* 1.1684 0.0892 0.8073 0.229 0.4289 0.2096 Regression*1.16840.08920.80730.2290.42890.2096 "}],"sieverID":"77414d6f-a7dc-489f-bec7-6981bf428112","abstract":"This work is based on the presentation Cases of successful adoption of agricultural water management interventions: What can we learn?' by Barron et al., at the Third International Forum on Water and Food, held from November 14 to 17, 2011, in Tshwane, South Africa, and the review by Douxchamps et al. (2014) Taking stock of forty years of agricultural water management interventions in smallholder systems of Burkina Faso. Ultimately, we seek to address a knowledge gap on what technologies are in use, and what large-scale impacts on yields can be explained by this technology uptake."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0661217c4038aeb52352d992d5b424ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/5479/f33da636e6893a99b5f891a18a48d1d0.pdf"},"pageCount":67,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Malnutrisaun","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Saida mak konsekuénsia husi malnutrisaun/nutrisaun la-di'ak? HUSU HUSU Saida mak ita haree iha imajen ida ne'e? Saida mak sei akontese se labarik oan sira, se manu sira, se ai-horis sira la hetan nutrisaun ne'ebé di'ak?"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Labarik sira la moris/boot ho di'ak Labarik sira moras beibeik Hamenus labarik nia kapasidade atu estuda, aprende no ajuda halo servisu iha uma. Inan isin-rua ne'ebé iha malnutrisaun bele iha bebé ne'ebé todan menus ka bele iha komplikasaun bainhira bebé atu moris."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Nutrisaun ne'ebé di'ak importante tebes ba sira nain tolu hotu (labarik, manu no ai-horis)."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Malnutrisaun bele akontese se ema la konsumu ai-han ho nutrisaun ne'ebé di'ak ka se sira la han ai-han ho variedade oioin Hein resposta husi partisipante sira, hafoin esplika: Hein resposta husi partisipante sira, hafoin aumenta tan ho informasaun sira tuir mai: * Ministériu da Saúde rekomenda katak kada fulan labarik sira tinan 5 mai kraik presiza ba ospitál atu halo teste ba sira nia saúde hodi asegura katak sira nia todan no aas kontinua dezenvolve ho di'ak (hanesan hatudu iha foto)."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Ai-han Haburas: Na'an, Ikan, tempe, forerai, mantolun, no koto (metan, mean, mutin no forekeli)."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Ai-han fó forsa: foos, paun, ai-farina, fehuk, talas, no kumbili."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Ai-han fó protesaun: ai-fuan no modo tahan sira Nota: Susu-been la lista hanesan ezemplu husi ai-han haburas tanba sira la disponivel."}]},{"head":"Grupu Ai-han Tolu","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Saida mak ita hatene ona kona-ba grupu ai-han tolu?"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Ezemplu husi grupu ai-han tolu mak saida deit?"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Esplika katak Ministériu Saúde promove ba ema hotu-hotu atu konsumu grupu ai-han 3 loro-loron."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Ai-han Haburas: Importante tebes ba kresimentu (ajuda ema sai boot) no dezenvolvimentu."}]},{"head":"Ai-han fó forsa: Fornese enerjia ba isin","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Ai-han fó protesaun: Prevene moras sira no ajuda isin atu funu hasoru infesaun/moras oioin."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Grupu ai-han tolu ne'e mak:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Refere ba imajen grupu ai-han tolu:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"11 Hein resposta husi partisipante sira: "}]},{"head":"HUSU HUSU","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"HUSU","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin, asegura katak responde husi partisipante inklui:"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Esplika katak: \"Nutrisaun di'ak depende ba buat barak: saida mak disponivel atu han iha uma, han saida mak ita kuda no sosa, oinsá ita kuidadu ai-an (fase no rai di'ak) no ita nia prátika kulturál. Nutrisaun di'ak bele halo família ida saudavel, kontenti no produtivu.\""},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Han atu bosu deit ne'e La natoon ida Ita nia isin presiza ai-han ho nutrisaun di'ak ne'ebé ita bele hetan liu husi konsumu ai-han ho tipu diferente husi grupu ai-han oioin."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Se ita han atu sente bosu deit ida ne'e bele halo ita la han ai-han sira seluk ne'ebé iha nutrisaun di'ak."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"\"Saida mak ita bele halo atu asegura katak ita nia família konsumu hahán husi ai-han grupu 3 loro-loron?"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin, asegura katak responde husi partisipante inklui:"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Asegura labarik no inan isin-rua sira konsumu ai-han, liuliu ai-han haburas, lorloron"},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Ikan mak fonte importante ida ba ai-han haburas. Importante tebes atu família sira konsumu ikan dala rua kada semana."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"13"}]},{"head":"HUSU","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ai-han Grupu Tolu","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Atividade Jogu Grupu Ai-han Tolu Atividade: Agora ita atu halo jogu ida kona-ba Grupu Ai-han Tolu Esplika katak: Tau poster grupu ai-han tolu mamuk iha rai leten no hatudu foto ai-han oioin ne'ebé fasilitadór prepara antes ona ba partisipante sira."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Fahe partisipante sira ba grupu rua no esplika katak:"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Kada grupu sei deskuti no identifika gropu ai-han ne'ebé pretense : 1. Ai-han Haburas, 2. Ai-han fó forsa no, 3. Ai-han fó protesaun."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Husu ba membru grupu sira atu servisu hamutuk hodi tau foto ai-han hirak ne'e ba grupu ne'ebé loos. Fó minutu 15 ba atividade ida ne'e."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Husu ba kada grupu atu aprezenta fali kona-ba ai-han sira ne'ebé sira koloka ona ba kada grupu no tanba sá."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Fasilitadór no grupu seluk observa aprezentasaun husi kada grupu."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Fasilitadór halo konkluzaun katak \"grupu ai-han sira hotu importante tebes no se ita la han ai-han husi grupu ida, ita nia família sei la hetan nutrisaun importante ne'ebé sira presiza.\""}]},{"head":"Komitmentu sira:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Husu partisipante sira atu ko'alia sai komitmentu ne'ebé sira bele halo relasiona ho lisaun ohin. Asegura katak komitmentu hirak ne'e nu'udar asaun ida no detallu duni."}]},{"head":"Grupu Ai-han Tolu","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"\"Tipu ai-han saida mak ita nia família konsumu beibeik no tambasa?\""}]},{"head":"HUSU","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Sira sei la hetan nutrisaun hotu ne'ebé sira presiza atu boot no dezenvolve ho di'ak."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Sira bele sente bosu se sira han deit etu no modo maibé sira sei la hetan nutrisaun hotu ne'ebé sira presiza atu isin di'ak nafatin."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Sira iha risku boot atu moras beibeik. (Labarik ho ema adultu sira)"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Tanba labarik sira sei boot no ida ne'e bele halo sira nia dezenvolvimentu isin no dezenvolvimentu kakutak LA atinji kapasidade ne'ebé óptimu."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Inan isin-rua ka inan sira ne'ebé sei bele isin rua sei LA hahú faze isin-rua ne'ebé saudavel."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"Ida ne'e sei tau sira iha risku boot atu hetan bebé ne'ebé malnutrisaun (ho nutrisaun la-di'ak). Ai-han ne'ebé Kompletu Ai-han husi grupu hira mak ita haree iha kada bikan ida ne'e?"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Bikan ida ne'ebé mak iha grupu ai-han tolu hotu?"}]},{"head":"HUSU","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Sasoro tanan: Grupu ai-han ida deit. Grupu ai-han fó forsa. Batar da'an kahor koto: Grupu ai-han tolu hotu, iha marunggi tahan no senoura husi grupu ai-han fó protesaun, batar husi grupu ai-han fó forsa no koto no fore-rai husi grupu ai-han haburas."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Ikan, Etu, no modo: Grupu ai-han tolu hotu, etu husi grupu ai-han fó forsa, ikan husi grupu ai-han haburas, modo tahan matak husi grupu ai-han fó protesaun."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Etu no modo: Grupu ai-han rua deit. Etu husi grupu ai-han fó forsa no modo husi grupu ai-han fó protesaun."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"1. 2."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"3."}]},{"head":"4.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia resposta Resposta ne'ebé loos mak bikan númeru 2 no 3."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"21 HUSU 1 2 3 4"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Atividade: Riin 3"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Esplika ba partisipante sira katak ita sei halo atividade ki'ik-oan ida."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Tau ai-riin ne'ebé hakerek ona naran ai-han grupu 3 nian iha lolon:"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"Nota: Tau boneka no ai-riin 3 ne'e iha fatin ne'ebé hanesan ka tetuk. Labele forma ai-riin 3 ne'e besik malu se lae boneka la monu."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Esplika: \"Jogu ne'e nu'udar ezemplu oinsá hahán balansu importante ba ita nia isin.\""},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"Husu: \"Se ita-nia hahán loroloron mak sei falta grupu ai-han protesaun [vitamina no minerál] karik, saida mak akontese?\""},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"Dehan: \"Voluntáriu ida mai hasai ai-riin ai-han protesaun.\" Husik nia hasai ai-riin hodi halo boneka haliis atu monu."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"Tau fali ai-riin ne'e atu boneka tuur fali iha leten."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"Husu: \"Se ita-nia hahán loroloron sei falta ai-han grupu haburas [proteína] karik, saida mak sei akontese?\" (halo hanesan iha leten.)"},{"index":12,"size":5,"text":"Rona partisipante sira nia resposta."},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"Dehan: \"Atu hetan isin no saúde di'ak, tenke han hahán balansu hosi grupu ai-han 3 nian.\""},{"index":14,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"2.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"3."}]},{"head":"4.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"5."}]},{"head":"6.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"7."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"8."}]},{"head":"9.","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"10. "}]},{"head":"Benefísiu husi Konsumu Ikan","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Anota katak wainhira ikan disponivel, ne'e importante atu konsumu tamba nia ajuda fornese nutrisaun ne'ebé di'ak ba bebé sira ne'ebé seidauk moris, ajuda bebé ninia kakutak atu dezenvolve, ida ne'e sei ajuda bebé atu sai matenek bainhira nia moris mai, no ajuda inan no oan atu saudavel (isin-di'ak) nafatin."}]},{"head":"HUSU","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia resposta:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Buka responde ne'ebé atu hanesan ho:"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Esplika ba partisipante sira katak: \"Bainhira disponibilidade, konsumu ikan hanesan parte ai-han saudavel ida ne'ebe importante ba saude liu-liu ba labarik sira ne'ebe idade tinan lima mai kraik.\""}]},{"head":"HUSU","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Tanba sá ita presiza enkorja inan sira ne'ebé isin no sira ne'ebé fó susu bebé atu konsumu ikan?"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia resposta:"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Iha sa tinan mak labarik bele hahú han ona ikan?"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Bainhira mak Labarik bele Komesa Han Ikan?"}]},{"head":"HUSU HUSU","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Esplika katak: \"Bainhira labarik sira fulan 6 ona, sira bele ona hahú han ikan. Inan-aman presiza asegura katak ikan sira ne'e te'in no hamoos halo di'ak ba labarik sira tinan rua mai kraik (e.g., hasai didi'ak tiha nia ruin antes fó ba labarik)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia resposta:"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Responde loloos: Bainhira labarik fulan 6 ona *Keta haluha katak bainhira labarik sira seidauk to'o fulan 6 sira so presiza deit mak inan nia susubeen.\""}]},{"head":"Semana ida ita presiza han ikan dala hira?","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia resposta:"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Buka responde ne'ebé atu hanesan ho: Rekomenda tebes atu konsumu ikan pelumenus semana ida dala rua. Ai-han haburas sira hanesan ikan ne'e importante tebes ba labarik sira tinan 5 mai kraik ba inan isin-rua sira no feto sira ne'ebé isin-rua."}]},{"head":"2 3","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Esplika katak: \"ita bele fornese ai-han ho nutrisaun kompletu ba ita nia família liu husi asegura katak ai-han husi grupu ai-han tolu inklui iha hahán ne'ebé ita prepara. Pelumenus inklui ai-han ida husi:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin:"}]},{"head":"Ai-han Haburas no Ikan","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Oinsá mak ita bele asegura katak ita nia família konsumu ai-han ho nutrisaun ne'ebé kompletu? HUSU HUSU Iha semana ida nia laran ita nia presiza han ikan dala hira?"}]},{"head":"Komitmentu sira:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Husu partisipante sira atu ko'alia sai komitmentu ne'ebé sira bele halo relasiona ho lisaun ohin Asegura katak komitmentu hirak ne'e nu'udar asaun ida no detallu duni."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin, asegura katak responde hirak ne'e inklui: pelumenus semana ida dala rua liu-liu ba labarik sira no inan sira ne'ebé isin-rua ka fó susu hela bebé.\" Esplika katak: \"Ikan fresku, ikan maran no ikan lata ne'e opsaun di'ak hotu.\""},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Ai-han Haburas: na'an, ikan, tempe, fore-rai, mantolun, koto (mutin, metan, mean) no fore-keli. Ai-han fó forsa: etu, batar, ai-farina, talas no fehuk."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Ai-han fó protesaun: Lakeru, ai-dila, tomate, no modo tahan matak."}]},{"head":"Lisaun 3: Konsiénsia kona-ba Jéneru no Alokasaun Rekursu","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Asegura katak diskusaun kobre:"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Halo Desizaun Hamutuk kona-ba Saida mak Família Uma-laran Han Iha uma-laran, se mak halo desizaun kona-ba atu sosa ai-han saida no atu han/konsumu ai-han saida?"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Feen no La'en presiza halo diskusaun hamutuk kona-ba ai-han saida mak sira planu atu kuda, no ida ne'ebé mak sira presiza atu sosa."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Oinsá sira nia intensaun kona-ba atu han ka fa'an ai-han hirak ne'ebé sira kuda ona."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Importante tebes atu foka liu-ba iha fó ba membru família sira atu han ai-han saudavel hirak ne'ebé sira kuda antes fa'an hahán hirak ne'e."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Bainhira kaben-na'in sira foti desizaun hamutuk kona-ba ai-han saida mak sira atu kuda, atu fa'an, no ida ne'ebé mak sira atu han iha uma laran, ida ne'e bele halo família moris saudavel, kontenti no produtivu liu tan."}]},{"head":"HUSU","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin "}]},{"head":"Ijiene","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Tuir ita nia hanoin iha tempu ida ne'ebé mak importante tebes atu ita fase liman ho sabaun?"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"HAFORSA: Importante tebes atu inan-aman sira ajuda labarik fase sira nia liman ho sabaun iha tempu importante hirak ne'e. Ida ne'e ajuda atu prevene sira husi moras."}]},{"head":"HUSU","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Hein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"2.","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"3."}]},{"head":"4.","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"5."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"6."}]},{"head":"7.","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"55"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Hein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin: Esplika katak: \"Maioria ema iha Timor-Leste konsumu barak liu mak ai-han husi grupu ne'ebé fó-forsa. Ema ladun han ai-han haburas, liu-liu ikan.\"\"Saida mak sei akontese se ita nia família (liu-liu labarik no inan isin-rua sira) la konsumu/han ai-han husi grupu tolu ne'e lor-loron?HUSUHein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin, asegura katak sira nia responde inklui: kona-ba inklui ai-han haburas iha hahán ne'ebé família han lorloron.Komprende benefísiu husi konsumu ikan ba membru família hotu liuliu ba labarik no inan isin-rua sira husi Ai-han Haburas no Benefísiu husi Konsumu IkanHein partisipante fahe sira nia hanoin, asegura katak diskusaun kobre: "},{"text":" PHOTO of three sticks/pillars representing Carbohydrate, Protein and Vitamin and Minerals, with a doll on it "},{"text":"Fase liman antes prepara hahan Fase liman antes han (fó-han bebé) Fase liman hafoin uza sentina Fase liman hafoin hamoos bebé nia kidun Fase liman hafoin kuidadu ema moras Fase liman hafoin kaer animal ruma Fase liman hafoin mear ka fani Tempu importante atu fase liman ho sabaun: Esplika: Iha tempu 7 ne'ebé mak importante tebes atu ita fase liman ho sabaun ho durasaun segundu 20 (20 detik) (koko hahú sura bainhira ita fase liman). "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"han Nutrisaun Di'ak \"Nu'udar parte ida husi prátika nutrisaun ne'ebé di'ak, tuir ita nia hanoin han atu sente bosu deit ne'e natoon ona?\" "},{"text":" Foos no mina sosa fulan ida dala ida, la'os lor-loron Númeru ema iha uma Segunda Tersa Kuarta Kinta Sesta Sabado Domingo Númeru ema iha umaSegundaTersaKuartaKintaSestaSabadoDomingo Batar da'an Ikan Tomate Tempe/tahu Mantolun ho Tomate Na'an ho koto Sopa ikan Koto kahur ho modo tahan Batar da'anIkan TomateTempe/tahuMantolun ho TomateNa'an ho kotoSopa ikanKoto kahur ho modo tahan Koto: $0.50 Ikan: $2.00 Temepe: $0.50 Manu tolun: Koto: $0.50 Fehuk ropa: $0.50 Modo tahan: Koto: $0.50Ikan: $2.00Temepe: $0.50 Manu tolun:Koto: $0.50Fehuk ropa: $0.50Modo tahan: $1.00 $0.50 $1.00$0.50 5 Fore rai: $0.50 Tomate: $0.50 Tahu: $0.50 Tomat: $0.50 $0.50 Fehuk ropa: Senoura: $0.50 Koto: $0.50 5Fore rai: $0.50Tomate: $0.50Tahu: $0.50Tomat: $0.50$0.50 Fehuk ropa:Senoura: $0.50Koto: $0.50 Batar fai: $1.00 Modo tahan: Tomate: $0.50 Marunggi $0.50 Senoura: $0.50 Ikan :$2.00 Batar fai: $1.00Modo tahan:Tomate: $0.50Marunggi $0.50Senoura: $0.50Ikan :$2.00 $0.50 $0.50 Marunggi : $0.50 Modo tahan: Na'n ruin: $2.00 Modo tahan: $0.50 Marunggi : $0.50Modo tahan:Na'n ruin: $2.00 Modo tahan: $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 Total $ 2.50 $ 3.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 3.50 $ 3.50 $ 1.00 Total$ 2.50$ 3.00$ 2.00$ 2.00$ 3.50$ 3.50$ 1.00 "}],"sieverID":"95322368-e1a3-4726-bf3d-427324a3b61e","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"06939690409ece0b750de1044d38dab6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/19837fec-dc90-4f19-993c-7e1c03f2bf01/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"This Initiative aims to maximize CGIAR and partners' returns on investment in breeding, seed systems and other Initiatives based on reliable and timely market intelligence that enables stronger demand orientation and strengthens co-ownership and co-implementation by CGIAR and partners. Protocol for evidence synthesis of market intelligence: Application to rice in the global South","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":354,"text":"The CGIAR Initiative on Market Intelligence aims to render crop breeding more market-driven and impactful by engaging transdisciplinary teams of social scientists and crop breeders in the implementation of market intelligence research (CGIAR 2023). Critical to the success of demandoriented breeding is the availability of reliable and timely insights on the evolving preferences and requirements of value chain stakeholders. This strategic information and insights help support alignment and prioritization of breeding pipelines and seed systems (Donovan et al 2022). The Initiative has established a basic framework to organize and generate market intelligence (see Market Intelligence Brief 1). It has currently identified more than 450 seed product market segments (SPMSs) that include all crops for which the CGIAR currently has breeding investments in the global South (Rutsaert et al 2023). This effort stems in part from the fact that while there are many empirical studies that provide important insights on understanding varietal preferences, differences in study contexts (e.g., research design, methodology, interventions) and trait typologies have resulted in inconsistent findings and limited opportunities for consolidation and comparative analysis (Donovan et al 2022). Since many empirical studies aimed at understanding the requirements of farmers and consumers exist, evidence synthesis of stakeholders' requirements for seed products can be a useful first step in market intelligence research. Specifically, a synthesis can provide for (1) the identification and revision of current and future market segments, (2) the design of target product profiles (TPPs) and their alignment to stakeholder preferences in the SPMSs, and (3) the identification of evidence gaps that may inform discussions on the expectations and future requirements of stakeholders. One of the advantages of a systematic literature review (SLR) is its reproducible methodology, which allows the approach to be replicated and scaled to other crops. The systematic approach also minimizes selection bias in article selection and captures relevant studies in a comprehensive manner. This brief provides a practical guide for conducting an SLR on stakeholder requirements for seed products with an application to the rice sector. The next section presents a simplified protocol implemented by the authors, followed by the key insights that emerged from an SLR."}]},{"head":"Practical guide: Systematic literature review as a tool for evidence synthesis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"This section provides a protocol that researchers can use to conduct an SLR. The full protocol was published by Custodio, Demont, and De Steur 2023 (see Table 1 for a step-by-step summary). This protocol can be adapted and applied to generate a global scan of market intelligence for seed products for a specific crop or for specific market segments. Here we will demonstrate how it can be used to generate a global scan of market intelligence for rice."}]},{"head":"Useful frameworks in conducting systematic reviews","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"SLR is a tool for synthesizing empirical evidence in which the existing literature in a research area is compiled, organized, and evaluated (Paul, Khatri, and Kaur Duggal 2023). Such reviews can provide a comprehensive and unbiased summary of the current state-of-the-art evidence, research gaps, and potential areas for future research. When conducting a well-structured SLR, the development of a protocol is essential to ensure that the methodology is reproducible. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) is one of the most commonly used protocols for reporting results (Page et al 2021, PRISMA 2020, Liberati et al 2009). PRISMA can be used in conjunction with another framework such as the PICOS framework, which helps to define and report the participants or population of interest (P), the intervention included in the review (I), the comparison group or control (if applicable) (C), the outcomes of the studies included in the review (O), and the context or study design (S). When using the PICOS framework to develop the search syntax, the search terms may be structured based on a combination of keywords related to (1) the population of interest (e.g., value chain stakeholders such as consumers, farmers, processors, traders, etc.), (2) the \"intervention\" of interest (e.g., seed product, such as rice), and (3) the outcome indicators (e.g.,"}]},{"head":"Table 1. Steps for conducting a systematic literature review","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Steps","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Practical notes 1. Prepare a protocol based on the specific research questions"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• PRISMA and PICOS frameworks are useful frameworks that help in structuring the research questions and review protocol."}]},{"head":"Develop the inclusion and exclusion criteria","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• These criteria will guide screening of articles."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"3. Develop a search strategy and apply in selected databases"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"• It is ideal to use the free text fields of the advanced search in the electronic databases. • Translate the search syntax based on the specific requirements of the selected electronic databases. 4. File records in the reference manager"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Export the records, save the files, and import them into the reference manager."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Batch exports are possible in the WoS and Scopus."}]},{"head":"Identify and screen records","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Remove duplicate records."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Screen the remaining records based on (1) title, (2) abstract, and (3) full text."}]},{"head":"Extract data and synthesize results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Develop a data extraction form to systematically record variables of interest."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Extract, check, and summarize the information on identified methods and results."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Note: Additional guide may be found at https://guides.library.cornell.edu/evidence-synthesis."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"step is to skim all titles and remove those that are clearly out of scope. The second step is to scan the abstracts of the remaining records. The third step is to read the full text and identify the final records to be included in the review. The process of screening and removing ineligible records should be based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria."}]},{"head":"Data extraction","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"A data extraction form may be created as a tool to systematically record variables of interest from the studies included in the review. SLRs that include different study types and methods generally extract, check, and summarize information on determined methods and identified results (Kamrath et al 2019). In the rice case study, the key information in the data extraction form was the year of data collection and publication, country of study, urban/rural setting, cropping season (if applicable), target respondents, sample size, data collection approach, outcome indicators, and specific rice attributes."}]},{"head":"Categorization of extracted variables","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The extracted variables may then be categorized depending on the analysis the researchers want to conduct. In the rice case study, data were categorized mainly based on geographical coverage and attributes."},{"index":2,"size":197,"text":"The regional categories were based on the United Nations (UN) Classification of Major Areas and Regions (UN 2022) and CGIAR subregions. The regions in the case study were grouped into six: West and Central Africa (WCA), East and Southern Africa (ESA), Eastern Asia (EA), Southeastern Asia (SEA), South Asia (SA), Latin America and the Caribbean, Northern America, Europe, and Oceania (LNEO) (Figure 2). preference, acceptance, adoption, willingness to pay). To illustrate the use of PICOS in developing a search strategy, the following syntax was used to identify the rice stakeholder studies from the Web of Science (WoS): TS=((rice* OR \"oryza sativa\") AND (pref* OR accepta* OR adopt* OR lik* OR choice* OR choos* OR purchase OR valuation* OR sensory OR hedonic OR \"willingness to pay\" OR \"WTP\" OR \"willingness to accept\" OR \"WTA\" OR \"willingness to adopt\" OR \"willingness to try\" OR uptake OR evaluation*) AND (consum* OR shopper* OR buyer* OR panel* OR \"purchas* decision*\" OR farmer* OR \"farming household*\" OR \"primary producer*\" OR producer* OR landholder* OR processor* OR processing OR retail* OR market* OR \"value chain\" OR stakeholder*)). After extraction of studies, inclusion and exclusion criteria should be developed to guide the screening process."}]},{"head":"Selecting the databases and journals","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The selection of electronic databases and journals is an important step because the relevant studies that will be included in the review determine the outcome of an evidence synthesis research (Gusenbauer and Haddaway 2020). Some of the most important criteria that may be considered are the subject area/s supported by the search system, the resource types (e.g., articles, books), the functionality when using Boolean operators, and the allowed length of the search syntax. Some SLRs also extend their search to specific databases, such as an organization's publications archive."}]},{"head":"Article selection process","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Article selection mainly involves (1) identifying records from the databases using the search syntax and (2) screening records (e.g., Figure 1). The screening process involves three steps based on (1) title, (2) abstract, and (3) full text. The first Market Intelligence Brief 6 4"}]},{"head":"Application to the rice sector, key insights","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"This section summarizes key findings from the SLR of studies on stakeholder preferences in the global rice sector to illustrate how systematic evidence synthesis can help provide inputs for discussions on the requirements of value chain stakeholders and the implications for current and future market segments and product design. Evidence gaps are also discussed that can be used to provide inputs on the discussion of potential areas of future research. Readers are referred to the scientific paper for the full discussion (see Custodio, Demont, and De Steur 2023)."}]},{"head":"Key insights from the synthesis of consumer studies","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Consumers have shared preference for whiteness, soft texture, and aroma. Comparison of consumer studies across regions and study years revealed a growing preference for whiteness (polished), soft texture, and aroma. This finding supports the previous proposition of a \"jasminization\" trend, which may be partly responsible for the shared preference for the distinct quality attributes of jasmine rice exported by Thailand, as the market leader in the export of high-quality jasmine rice, followed by Vietnam and Cambodia."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Consumers have heterogenous preferences for taste, swelling capacity, and proportion of broken grains. Heterogeneity of preferences was observed for several intrinsic attributes."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Taste is context-specific, and descriptors used were inconsistent. Swelling capacity (i.e., high volume expansion after cooking) is generally preferred in African regions but is not most preferred in Asian regions. Rice with a high proportion of broken grains was discounted by consumers in SEA and EA. This may stem from consumers' perceived importance of high head rice, which was partly due to upgrading of milling and parboiling technology in Asia. However, preferences for this attribute and WTP premiums for it were observed among consumers in WCA, which was partly due to the long-term importation of cheap broken rice from Asia brought about by colonial importsubstitution policies."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"Consumers have positive evaluation for provitamin A, folate, and zinc, but we found limited evidence on other nutrition attributes. We found limited studies that targeted evaluation of biofortified rice and most reported positive results, especially for provitamin A, folate, and zinc. Consumer evaluation of other micronutrient-enriched rice and low glycemic index rice is missing. Assessment of consumers' acceptance of rice with higher levels of micronutrients, higher levels of antioxidant properties, and lower glycemic index are potential areas of future research that will inform discussions on the identification of potential future market segments."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"Consumers in South Asia have heterogeneous preference for size and shape. Studies conducted in SA provide evidence on the importance of physical traits in consumers' evaluation of rice (i.e., grain size, shape, color). Heterogeneity in preferences for grain size and shape was also found within the region and was more pronounced in SA than in other regions."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Consumers in Western and Central Africa consider eating and cooking quality, high swelling capacity, whiteness, and cleanness as important. Consumer studies in WCA revealed shared preference for imported rice due to better physical attributes such as whiteness and cleanness (e.g., absence of impurities) as well as eating and cooking quality (i.e., ease of cooking, taste, aroma, swelling capacity). This is partly due to consumers' long exposure to Asian imports."}]},{"head":"Key insights from the synthesis of farmer studies","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Farmer requirements for agronomic traits across regions focus on yield, maturity, plant height, lodging tolerance, and tillering ability. Synthesis of farmer studies in SEA suggests that the agronomic traits considered important by farmers are yield, uniform plant height, uniform tillers, long panicles, and reduction in shattering. In SA, farmers prioritize yield, plant height, early maturity, and rice straw quality. Farmers' preferences for tall and medium stature were specific for flood-tolerant varieties and for the wet season, respectively. Preference for lodging tolerance was observed, particularly during wet season. Rice straw yield was considered in several studies, which was almost unique in SA. In WCA, farmers also prioritize yield, early maturity, and tall plant height. Studies conducted before the 2000s identified yield, plant height, high tillering, ease in threshing, and early maturity as significant attributes that influenced adoption of improved varieties."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Farmers jointly consider yield and early maturity as priority attributes. Yield and early maturity were considered priority attributes across regions and study years. For many of these studies, yield and early maturity were jointly considered as most preferred, especially in SA, WCA, and ESA. It was also observed that early maturity may be prioritized over yield in certain growing conditions, such as in lowland agroecology."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Early-maturing varieties offer several benefits for the farmers, the climate, and the environment, which may partly explain farmers' preference for this trait. Short duration varieties take 100−120 days to mature relative to 160−200 days for traditional varieties, which are highly susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change. Growing earlymaturing varieties facilitates timely sowing of a succeeding crop, such as wheat, which allows for better crop rotation that farmers can employ relative to traditional varieties."}]},{"head":"Information gaps in terms of geographical and stakeholder representation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"To check representativeness of the primary studies included on the SLR (Figure 3a, outer ring), we compare the regional distribution of these studies with the allocation of rice production (Figure 3a, middle ring) and undernourished population (Figure 3a, inner ring). In SA, the share of consumer and farmer studies suggests underrepresentation of evaluation studies relative to both indicators. Within the African regions, although studies in WCA and ESA appear to be overrepresented relative to their production levels, they seem to match the share of the global undernourished population. In terms of stakeholder representation, the reviewed studies focus on either upstream (farmers) or downstream (consumers) stakeholders along the value chain, while missing midstream actors (processors, traders)."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"In the consumer studies, urban consumption zones are adequately represented as sources of end-market opportunities for farmers to tap into demand (Figure 3b). "}]},{"head":"Conclusion and","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Understanding current and future requirements of farmers, processors, and consumers for rice provides inputs for discussions on the design of seed products and the priorities for breeding investments. Before market intelligence teams undertake new data collection efforts, it can be important to review the existing information available from different sources. We designed a protocol conducting an SLR as a tool for evidence synthesis. The protocol may be adapted and applied to generate global scans of stakeholder requirements for seed products of a crop or at lower granularity for specific market segments. We applied this protocol to rice with the aim of uptake by market intelligence researchers for other crops."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"In Table 2, we corroborate the SLR's main findings with the current SPMSs and TPPs included in GloMIP ( 2023). The review suggests that farmer requirements for agronomic traits focus on yield, maturity, plant height, lodging tolerance, and tillering ability. The synthesis of consumer studies suggests that consumer requirements relating to grain quality include head rice recovery, texture, aroma, and color. These findings are consistent with and reflected in the rice SPMSs and TPPs, i.e., maturity, texture, and grain color are basic criteria for market segmentation, and plant height, lodging resistance, and head rice recovery are generally included as essential traits in the rice TPPs (Table 2). At the global level, our findings suggest that the traits preferred by stakeholders are generally considered in the current portfolio of rice market segments and TPPs. However, this analysis needs to be scaled down to the market-segment level to assess whether the traits proposed in the TPPs are in line with stakeholder requirements and fully tap into the impact opportunities presented in each market segment."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"While the main objective of this brief is to present a protocol for conducting a systematic literature review to assess stakeholder requirements for current and future rice seed products, we recommend applying this method at the market-segment level to assess the alignment of breeding pipelines, through their TPPs, with market segments. Potential areas of future research are also identified."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"For instance, chalkiness is included in the rice TPPs, but evaluation of this trait was lacking in the reviewed stakeholder studies. More importantly, evaluation of nutrition attributes also received limited attention in the reviewed studies, possibly because stakeholders do not yet think of nutritionally enhanced rice, which is an emerging product in global rice markets. Future market intelligence studies may target these traits to inform market segmentation, especially as several new nutrition-related attributes such as iron, zinc, vitamin A and low glycemic index are being developed for rice to address micronutrient deficiencies and non-communicable diseases (NCDs). On the other hand, volume expansion (which refers to swelling capacity) may also be considered in some TPPs, as it has been found to be a source of heterogeneity in consumer preferences across subregions and market segments. Currently, volume expansion is not included in the rice TPPS."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"Finally, the involvement of midstream stakeholders in assessing stakeholder requirements could provide additional insights in identifying essential grain quality traits that may be included in the TPPs. The gaps identified in terms of geographical representation relative to their production level and undernourished population (Figure 3a) suggest further exploration of impact opportunities in South Asia, in Western and Central Africa, and in East and Southern Africa to address nutrition and food security challenges. Note: SLR = systematic literature review; SPMS = seed product market segment; TPP = target product profile."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Example of article selection flow diagram. (Source: Custodio, Demont, and De Steur 2023.) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Maps showing the geographical distribution of the stakeholder preference studies included in the systematic literature review. Values refer to the number of studies. Maps were generated using QGIS software (QGIS Development Team 2020).WCA = West and Central Africa; ESA = East and Southern Africa; EA = Eastern Asia; SEA = Southeastern Asia; SA = South Asia; LNEO = Latin America and the Caribbean, Northern America, Europe, and Oceania. (Illustration by Neale Paguirigan (IRRI), Jhoanne Ynion (IRRI), and Norielli Palomares (University of the Philippines Los Baños)). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Example output: (a) share of regions based on study locations of farmer and consumer studies (outer ring), production levels (middle ring), undernourished population (inner ring); and (b) share of consumer studies conducted in urban and rural settings (outer ring), proportion of urban and rural population (inner ring). (Source: Custodio, Demont, and De Steur 2023.) "},{"text":"Table 2 . Comparison of essential traits identified in stakeholder preferences studies with the current rice seed product market segments and target product profiles Trait SLR SPMS criterion b TPPs b Trait requirement b Agronomic Yield   Essential: Improve/Threshold YieldEssential: Improve/Threshold Maturity    Essential: Threshold MaturityEssential: Threshold Plant height   Essential: Threshold Plant heightEssential: Threshold Lodging   Essential: Threshold LodgingEssential: Threshold Tillering ability a   N/A Tillering ability aN/A Grain quality Grain quality Head rice recovery   Essential: Improve Head rice recoveryEssential: Improve Cooked grain texture    Essential: Threshold Cooked grain textureEssential: Threshold Aroma   Essential: Threshold/Nice to have AromaEssential: Threshold/Nice to have Grain color   Grain color Volume expansion/swelling capacity  Volume expansion/swelling capacity Chalkiness  Essential: Threshold ChalkinessEssential: Threshold Nutrition Nutrition Zinc content (polished rice)  Essential: Threshold/Nice to have Zinc content (polished rice)Essential: Threshold/Nice to have Iron content (polished rice)  Essential: Threshold/Nice to have Iron content (polished rice)Essential: Threshold/Nice to have Protein content (unpolished rice)  Essential: Threshold/Nice to have Protein content (unpolished rice)Essential: Threshold/Nice to have "}],"sieverID":"e98663fa-d767-479c-87cd-d898f09374d8","abstract":"Demand-oriented crop breeding relies on market intelligence to support market segmentation, target product profile (TPP) design, alignment of breeding pipelines, and prioritization and allocation of investments. Synthesis of existing evidence such as stakeholder preferences (e.g., consumers, farmers) is needed to inform discussions on the expectations and requirements of actors along rice value chains and the implications for current and future rice markets segments and product design. We designed a protocol carrying out a systematic literature review (SLR) as a tool for evidence synthesis. We used this protocol to review and synthesize current stakeholder requirements for rice seed products in the global South. The protocol can be used by researchers to synthesize market intelligence for specific market segments and/or other crops. At the global level, our findings suggest that the traits preferred by stakeholders are generally considered in the current portfolio of rice market segments and TPPs. This analysis can be scaled down to the market-segment level to verify whether the traits proposed in the TPPs are in line with stakeholder requirements in each market segment. Broadly, maturity, texture, and grain color are considered important in the reviewed farmer and consumer studies, and these are among the basic criteria for market segmentation. Specifically, farmer requirements for agronomic traits focus on yield, maturity, plant height, lodging tolerance, and tillering ability. These are generally included as essential traits in the rice TPPs. Through the systematic approach, potential areas for future research have been identified. In terms of geographical regions, we found that peer-reviewed publications on farmer evaluation of seed products and consumer preferences for rice are underrepresented in South Asia and in Africa. In terms of value chain stakeholders, we found limited evaluation by midstream stakeholders (i.e., processors). In terms of attributes, evidence on evaluation of chalkiness was missing in the reviewed studies. Limited evaluation of nutrition-related attributes was also found, which suggests that more research to identify future market segments for nutrition attributes."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"06ece5d6147acbb3b7762bc3739fded6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7ec0dc66-39ee-4f19-b2eb-4ea2c46bd70d/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish aims to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together four CGIAR Centers: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the WorldFish Center with a mandate on aquaculture; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; and the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Under the direction of Tom Randolph, the Scientific and Partnership Advisory Committee (SPAC) met for the first time at ILRI. The purpose of this meeting was to acquaint the members of the SPAC with the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish (CRP 3.7: More meat, milk and fish by and for the poor). This ambitious large program involves four CGIAR centers: ILRI, WorldFish, CIAT and ICARDA. The program can be described as a research and development effort to better understand and develop value chains for the poor, improve output, production efficiency, food security and poverty reduction and manage the transition of structural transformation."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The 9 value chains selected build on the strengths of previous (referred to as 'legacy') research at these centers and on the potential for future efforts to develop and transform these value chains. The introductory remarks and the talks that followed were devoted to providing a framework for the SPAC to understand the program and to provide meaningful feedback. In total, there are 6 components: Animal Health, Genetics, Feeds, Value Chain Development, Targeting Sustainable Interventions and Gender and Learning. Discussion of these and a list of recommendations follow below."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"At this first meeting, the SPAC appointed Max Rothschild as the Chair."}]},{"head":"SPAC interaction and involvement with the Livestock and Fish program","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"This first meeting was designed to inform the SPAC of the aims and status of the program, and to develop a strategy for information to be shared by program with the SPAC and for the SPAC to respond to this in a timely and effective manner. It was agreed that face to face meetings together with email and other communications would be the basis for sharing information, with direct responses and recommendations by the SPAC in the form of short reports. It is assumed that after reports from the SPAC are submitted to the program, that management and component leaders will reply and address each of the questions and recommendations raised. An agreed process and review cycle would be necessary to provide the best balance between staff and SPAC time and effectiveness of action. The use of 1 or 2 meetings yearly will likely be the primary vehicle for such face to face exchanges and some meetings may be devoted primarily to certain themes. Further exchanges are encouraged between program and component leaders on the one hand and on the other hand those in the SPAC who may have expertise in the specific areas."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"All main meetings should comprise science reports, partnership updates and value chain (VC) progress."},{"index":3,"size":175,"text":"To make such meetings effective for the SPAC the program should share the yearly report or at least a draft of it at least 14 days prior to the meetings. Additionally, the Program Director should share brief quarterly summaries of progress and other issues related to the program. SPAC members will also use the program website (http://livestockfish.cgiar.org), its wiki (http://livestock-fish.wikispaces.com) and the Livestock and Fish Newsletter to update themselves. Where used, communication from component leaders can be addressed to the SPAC member most likely to have knowledge on the subject matter but other SPAC members should be copied in to keep lines of communication open and complete. Future meetings at value chain locations would be considered as would individual or teams of SPAC members to do site visits prior to group meetings. The next meeting is due to be in mid-April 2013, and it will be useful to draft an outline agenda by the end of February. Discussions will be held between the Program Director and the SPAC on SPAC members' attendance at this meeting."}]},{"head":"Components","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Animal Health","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The animal health component comprises two types of activity, the high-end technology and the VC assessment respectively. The technology component would be carried out at ILRI Nairobi and leverages existing activities and expertise in vaccine research and development. Five diseases have been selected to dovetail with 3 of the chosen VCs. These are:"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":" Tanzanian dairy -East Coast Fever (ECF), Contagious Bovine Pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP)  Uganda pigs -African Swine Fever (ASF), Cysticercosis  Ethiopian small ruminants -Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR)"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Additionally there is a proposal to develop biosecurity measures for the aquaculture VC components, particularly addressing the introduction of new stocks."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"The diseases chosen are highly relevant to the selected VCs above. However the nature of the intervention will differ depending on the disease, e.g. Muguga cocktail vaccine for ECF possibly including acaricide and pharmaceutical treatments. In the absence of suitable vaccines, CBPP control will probably rely on the development of biosecurity protocols. Equally, control of ASF in pigs in the short term will depend on biosecurity as there is no vaccine. There are current opportunities for diagnostic tests, therapy and vaccination in relation to cysticercosis, though this is a public health issue and not a clinical disease of the pig, so that outputs and outcome measures will need to be determined accordingly. PPR vaccination of small ruminants in Ethiopia could form an integral part of field testing of a candidate vaccine developed at ILRI."}]},{"head":"Genetics","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":286,"text":"Technologies related to animal breeding and genomics represent efforts to reduce the yield gap in livestock and fish production due to lack of either identifying the correct genotypes or in using animal breeding and genomic strategies to maximize yield in smallholder situations. Smart breeding strategies will be needed to maximize improvements by scale. In particular, genetic potential is commonly not realized due to nutritional and environmental constraints, and this requires to be better recognised in practical applications. Research questions include: what are the available breeds/strains and how appropriate are they for the targeted systems; can novel phenotyping and genomics approaches provide enhanced evaluations and lead to improved productivity, and will the use of regional resources compared to imported lines and breeds be better. Finally are there important constraints in the value chains (gender, market inputs/outputs and preferences) that limit progress in using new strains, and these need to be more fully realised and addressed. Three outputs are expected for both livestock and fish species. These include development, assessment and testing of tools for establishing and implementing breeding strategies, development of genetically improved strains and conservation of genetic resources, and the creation of break-through technologies for improved use of genetic resources. Primarily using legacy projects, quick wins in the value chains will be made by implementing well proven breeding approaches, better phenotyping and recording strategies and use of genomics for livestock. In fish, efforts to improve methods of phenotyping, mating systems, selection and breeding strategies will be employed. Gaps exist between genetics and genomics research and their use in value chains may not be the limiting factor in providing success. Linking genetic and genomic strategies effectively within value chains will be essential to longer term productive success."}]},{"head":"Feeds","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"CIAT is in charge of developing new high protein grasses and legumes for feed stuffs for swine, cattle and small ruminants. Legacy research is well developed as is the beginning of activities related to value chain work in Latin America. The use of crop residues is an increasingly important issue in many animal production systems, and a better contextual understanding will be needed to define ways to optimize use, understand market and value consequences, and resolve competing needs such as maintaining soil condition. Breeding for improved crop residue by ICARDA/ILRI is also well underway and has the potential to support environmental sustainability, for example by reducing net greenhouse gas output per unit of production. Difficult tradeoffs between yields, residue-based feed quality and feeding levels also need to be explored in various VCs. In addition, ILRI, CIAT and ICARDA should explore specific nutritional constraints within the targeted VCs and develop appropriate interventions for each of them and their further delivery to the target value chains. Cross-over issues such as animal genetics, health and feeding strategies also need to be further developed."}]},{"head":"Value chains and targeting sustainable interventions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"From the smallholder producer's perspective, value chains have an input supply component and an output marketing component, while for consumers, access to product, and hence the marketing component is significant. For those involved in provision of inputs and support services, both components are relevant. The Livestock and Fish program has the aspiration 1) to supply relevant technologies from the fields of health, genetics and animal nutrition to (poor, subsistence smallholder) farmers, preferably benefiting women and 2) to identify ways in which output marketing chains can be organized so that poor farmers, women and poor consumers benefit, and that the output marketing becomes an incentive for the farmers to increase their livestock production. The legacy projects are starting to open their eyes to incorporate value chain delivery in their work but the feeling exists among the SPAC members that the high-tech/top end research (which is often less appropriate technology for subsistence farmers) is still the most inspiring for the scientists. Since value chain theory and its applications are relatively undeveloped, the program should be regarded as a laboratory to develop these, and to build capacity and motivation amongst scientists and their development partners."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"A particular concern is that to be effective and sustainable, focusing of input supply research activities (health, genetics and nutrition) will require in-depth knowledge of the farming systems in the value chains and of the output marketing chains. The program components 4 (Value Chain Development), 5 (Targeting Sustainable Interventions) and 6 (Gender and Learning) will eventually have developed such knowledge, but this will require time. Additionally, these value chain components of the program are already broad but will also have to explore issues such as postharvest losses and informal/local market mechanisms and methodologies to assess sustainable impacts ex ante and ex post. While the VC approaches are likely to become more targeted and efficient as experience is gained over the longer term, practical means will have to be found, either through 'best bets' or other means, to connect current input research effectively with early VC scoping and definition."}]},{"head":"Gender and Learning","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":337,"text":"Gender: The program has a well-articulated goal of having improved and more equitable access to affordable animal-source foods through gender equitable interventions for poor women, men and marginalized groups. There are four outcomes related to: capacity building, gender and value chains, gender in society, and gender and consumption. For the capacity outcome, there will be a need to identify service providers that can provide this capacity to programme partners. Links with such initiatives such as IIRR and AWARD will be crucial for this. This capacity needs to focus on gender and diversity, gender analysis and gender programming. The program has made a good attempt to integrate gender in existing value chain assessment tools and there seems to be a good reception of these tools by the team working on value chain assessments. While it is crucial to understand the role of men and women in these selected value chains, and to identify opportunities and constraints through these tools, it is important that the results of this analysis are carried into the value chain development process. Given the diversity of teams that will be doing the value chain development process, development of some principles around this, using experiences from other value chain programs (by research and development organizations) will be helpful. There is a proposal to use gender transformative approaches under the third outcome of the gender component. There needs to be a broadening of this concept in the program and a common understanding of what this takes across the program. A suggestion is to use the Kabeer framework of Agency, Skills and Relations. Transforming gender relations in the society will need a very clear articulation of how to combine this social agenda (transformation) with the economic agenda (value chains) and a sequencing of these in a way that is effective and efficient. A framework for this needs to be better articulated within the program than it currently is and should include clear research questions about the interrelationships between the social and the economic realms of the program."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Learning: This was one of the less articulated aspects of this component. There is something to build on in the sense that the program has an articulated impact pathway in the proposal and the team has made the initial investment in defining the intermediate development outcomes. Note has also been made in other components of the vital role of learning and capacity building amongst researchers, with development partners, and in program beneficiaries. Given the stage of implementation of the program, the M&E and Impact Assessment Framework and the indicators that go with this need to be set out and defined as a matter of urgency. Capacity either from the partners, or from external organizations would need to be brought in to get this done in a timely manner. This should include lessons learnt from evaluating other value chain programs. More broadly, the process for learning within, across and beyond the program also needs to be developed."}]},{"head":"Cross cutting issues","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Aquaculture","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":253,"text":"Although not a formal component in its own right, the Livestock and Fish program-related aquaculture agenda as described by the WorldFish team clearly provides an important crosscutting function in the wider program framework and its future research strategy and performance. It is currently based on two VCs (Egypt and Bangladesh [to be confirmed]) where fish and aquaculture have substantial development presence, a relatively good level of legacy and related research context, potential donor support and considerable challenges of expansion and intensification. One of the original aquaculture VCs in Uganda has recently been dropped, as its development status and support potential proved inadequate for program aims, and another Sub-Saharan country is to be identified. It may be important to recognize that as in the case of Uganda, VC development in the fish/aquaculture sector is likely to be complex, problematic and potentially dysfunctional, and research issues would need to be built up around a realistic understanding of these possibly adversarial conditions. Together with local partners the aquaculture program has already developed some valuable insights into VC development (in Egypt), builds on a relatively well provisioned research base concerning poverty, vulnerability and food security issues (in Bangladesh) and has the potential to offer lessons, or at least notable comparison points for other sectors. Technically, as also noted in the component sections above, there are useful cross-cutting issues concerning feeds, genetics and health, and there is potentially good scope for building up more robust technical, economic and organizational and other connections across to the corresponding livestock sectors."}]},{"head":"Partnerships","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"The issue of partnerships had been raised on numerous occasions in program discussions, whether concerning arrangements for setting up research processes with local producers and communities, or with scaling up and creating impact from the wider program. Distinctions would also be required between research-focused partnerships, those interacting with producers (e.g. via NGOs, co-operatives) to support and promote change, or public-private partnerships where commercialized relationships would be employed to commit resources to research and deliver marketable benefits to producers and national economies. Strategic partnerships that will be required to move the value chains to achieve wide impact (which is a critical component of the program goal) need to be clearly identified as well as the mode of engagement with such partners. In this light, the objectives of partnerships would also need to be clarified, and over the intended program lifespan (e.g. potentially 8 to 10 years) a more explicit partnership strategy would need to be built up. Ideally this would need to be done at program level, developing and applying coherent principles and practices across sectors and VCs, with objective performance measures as needed."}]},{"head":"Issues, observations and recommendations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"It is believed that a response to these items would be useful for the program and the SPAC. Will new projects come on line after the legacy projects end and is there a process to be sure they conform with the value chain approach? "}]},{"head":"General","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Where do post-harvest losses (PHL) fit into value chain development? Will research efforts be devoted to ways to reduce PHL and does expertise exist to do so?  Several of the component leaders seem unsure of value chain issues, and other areas of innovation may also require capacity strengthening. Will there be training in value chains and other relevant issues for all researchers to help them prioritize and focus their activities?"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Environment  How will environmental sustainability be more widely incorporated into the program and how will it be measured?"},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Animal Health and Genetics  ILRI focuses on upstream research and in animal health, potentially valuable products such as vaccines may require further development and the appropriate regulatory clearances for use in the field, requiring close collaboration with external partners with policy experience. Does sufficient expertise exist at ILRI for these activities?  Are there planned activities at WorldFish which include an animal health component, vaccine production and biosecurity, and how would these be delivered?  Herd health is a new area for ILRI. Would it be better to work through partners who have that expertise if available and if so have they been identified yet?  Is there really a need for more epidemiologists or could there be some flexibility from existing roles?"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" Are all included legacy projects well suited for present and future activities of the program? Has the transition from former research been adapted to meet a value chain approach?   Alignment of objectives, planning, research and value chain activities among all Alignment of objectives, planning, research and value chain activities among all internal partners e.g. ILRI, WorldFish, CIAT and ICARDA will be critical to progress. Is internal partners e.g. ILRI, WorldFish, CIAT and ICARDA will be critical to progress. Is the program management team able to influence these activities positively? the program management team able to influence these activities positively?  Has there been consideration to bring in outside advisors to facilitate planning and Has there been consideration to bring in outside advisors to facilitate planning and management changes, especially given the reorganization happening at ILRI? management changes, especially given the reorganization happening at ILRI?  It is clear that some of these research activities are already on going (legacy) and are It is clear that some of these research activities are already on going (legacy) and are funded. How will there be transparent accountability as to what is the program vs. funded. How will there be transparent accountability as to what is the program vs. other funding is supporting, and how will outputs be attributed? other funding is supporting, and how will outputs be attributed? Partnerships Partnerships  Development of useful partnerships and collaborations are crucial to the success of Development of useful partnerships and collaborations are crucial to the success of the program. Is there a strategy for defining effective partnerships and for the program. Is there a strategy for defining effective partnerships and for evaluating it? evaluating it?  Have partnerships with universities including PhD training been considered for all Have partnerships with universities including PhD training been considered for all aspects of the research and development of this program? aspects of the research and development of this program? Value chains Value chains   "}],"sieverID":"b1be32c8-14ef-48f7-b203-10a27152cf3c","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."}
data/part_5/07a3628b73adb2ad9bb650100bd510ad.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"07a3628b73adb2ad9bb650100bd510ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4862fd35-3f50-448d-8976-48a2fbad17a2/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"A Participatory and Inter-institutional Project to Enhance the Sustainability of Cassava Production in Thailand, Vietnam and China: Its Impact on Soil Erosion and Farmers' Income 1","keywords":["cassava","erosion control","farmer participatory research (FPR) and extension (FPE)","Thailand","Vietnam","China"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is usually grown by smallholders in upland areas with poor soils and low or unpredictable rainfall. In some countries the crop is grown on steep slopes, but in others it is grown mainly on gentle slopes; in both cases,soil erosion can be serious. Moreover, cassava farmers seldom apply adequate amounts of fertilizers or manures to replace the nutrients removed in the harvested products. Thus, both erosion and nutrient extraction can result in a decline in soil fertility and a gradual degradation of the soil resource."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"The fact that farmers do not apply sufficient fertilizers and do not use soil conservation practices when the crop is grown on slopes is more a socio-economic rather than a technical problem. Research has shown many ways to maintain or improve soil fertility and reduce erosion, but farmers usually consider these practices too costly or requiring too much labor. To overcome these obstacles to adoption it is necessary to develop simple practices that are suitable for the local situation and that provide short-term benefits to the farmer as well as long-term benefits in terms of resource conservation. Being highly site specific these practices can best be developed by the farmers themselves, on their own fields, in collaboration with research and extension personnel. Thus, a project was initiated, with financial support from the Nippon Foundation in Tokyo, Japan, to develop a farmer participatory methodology for the development and dissemination of more sustainable production practices in cassava-based cropping systems, that will benefit a large number of poor farmers in the uplands of Asia."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"1. First Phase (1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998) The first phase of the project was conducted in four countries, i.e. China, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam. The project was coordinated by CIAT and implemented in collaboration with research and extension organizations in each of the four countries. During an initial training course on farmer participatory research (FPR) methodologies, each country designed a work plan to implement the project."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The steps in the process, from diagnosing the problem to adoption of suitable solutions, are shown in Figure 1. The outstanding feature of this approach is that farmers participate in every step and make all important decisions. "}]},{"head":"Farmer Participation and Decision Making","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"b. Demonstration plots","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Each year demonstration plots were laid out on an experiment station or a farmer's field to show the effect of many alternative treatments on yield, income and soil erosion. Farmers from the selected pilot sites visiting the trial were asked to discuss and score the usefulness of each treatment. From this range of many options farmers usually selected 3-4 treatments that they considered most useful for their own conditions. Some farmers then volunteered to test these treatments in FPR trials on their own fields."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"In both the demonstration plots and FPR erosion control trials on farmers' fields, a simple methodology was used to measure soil loss due to erosion in each treatment. Plots were laid out along the contour on a uniform slope; along the lower side of each plot a ditch was dug and covered with plastic."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Small holes in the plastic allowed runoff water to seep away, while eroded sediments remained on the plastic. These sediments were collected and weighed several times during the cropping cycle. After correcting for moisture content, the amount of dry soil loss per hectare was calculated for each treatment."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"This simple methodology gives both a visual as well as a quantitative indication of the effectiveness of the various practices in controlling erosion (Howeler, 2001;2002)."}]},{"head":"c. FPR trials","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The FPR trials did not only involve soil conservation practices, but also new varieties, intercropping systems and fertilization, with the objective of developing a combination of practices that would increase farmers' income, reduce erosion and improve soil fertility. During the first phase of the project, farmers in the four countries conducted a total of 177 FPR erosion control trials, 157 variety trials, 98 fertilizer trials and 35 intercropping trials, for a total of 467 trials. At time of harvest, field days were organized in each site to harvest the various trials by the participating farmers and their neighbors. The yields of cassava and intercrops, the dry soil loss due to erosion, as well as the gross income, production costs and net income were calculated for each treatment and presented in a joint meeting to the farmers."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"After one or more years of testing in small plots, farmers quickly identified the best varieties and production practices for their area and started using those on larger areas of their production fields (Howeler, 2002)."}]},{"head":"Second Phase (1999-2003)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The second phase of the project was conducted in collaboration with five institutions in Thailand, six in Vietnam and three in China (Table 1). During the second phase the emphasis shifted from participatory research (FPR) to extension (FPE) in order to reach more farmers and achieve more widespread adoption. Once farmers had selected certain practices and wanted to adopt those on their fields, the project staff tried to help them; for instance, in setting out contour lines to plant hedgerows for erosion control, or to obtain seed or vegetative planting material of the selected hedgerow species, intercrops or new cassava varieties."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"During both the first and second phase of the project some collaborative research continued onstation in order to develop better technologies that farmers could test on their own fields."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"First Phase (1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998): Farmer Participatory Research (FPR) et al. (2001)."}]},{"head":"a. FPR trials","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"b. Scaling-up and adoption","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"After having selected the most promising varieties and production practices from FPR trials, farmers generally like to test some of these on small areas of their production fields, making adaptations if necessary. Some practices may look promising on small plots, but are rejected as impractical when applied on larger areas; this may be due to lack of sufficient planting material (like vetiver grass) or lack of markets for selling the products (like pumpkin or lemon grass). Dry Yield (t/ha) Gross Product. Net Slope soil loss -----------------income 2) costs income Treatment 1) (%) (t/ha) cassava peanut Since the objective of the second phase was to achieve widespread adoption of more sustainable production practices by as large a number of farmers as possible, it was necessary to markedly expand the number of pilot sites and to develop farmer participatory extension (FPE) methodologies to disseminate the selected practices and varieties to many more farmers."}]},{"head":"a. Farmer participatory research (FPR)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Implementing the project in collaboration with many different institutions in China, Thailand and Vietnam (Table 1), and with generous financial support from the Nippon Foundation, it was possible to expand the number of pilot sites each year. In 2001 the project was working in about 50 sites, and this further increased to 99 sites by the end of the project in 2003 (Figure 2). Once the benefits of the new technologies became clear, the number of sites increased automatically, as neighboring villages also wanted to participate in order to increase their yields and income. "}]},{"head":"Figure 2. Location of FPR pilot sites in China, Thailand and Vietnam in the Nippon Foundation cassava project in 2003.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"• Whenever the project extended to a \"new\" site, the process outlined above was re-initiated, i.e. an RRA was conducted, interested farmers visited demonstration plots and/or made a cross-visit to an already established site, they conducted FPR trials, discussed results and eventually adopted those varieties or practices they had selected as most suitable for their own conditions. Table 3 shows the number and type of FPR trials conducted in China, Thailand and Vietnam during the second phase of the project. While initially farmers were mainly interested in testing new varieties, fertilization, intercropping and erosion control practices, during the later part of the project they also wanted to test the use of organic or green manures, weed control, plant spacing and even leaf production and pig feeding. During the second phase of the project a total of 1,154 FPR trials were conducted by farmers on their own fields. "}]},{"head":"b. Farmer participatory Extension (FPE)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The following farmer participatory extension methods were found to be very effective in raising farmers' interest in soil conservation, in disseminating information about improved varieties and cultural practices, and in enhancing adoption of soil conserving practices:"}]},{"head":"i. Cross-visits","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Farmers from new sites were usually taken to visit older sites that had already conducted FPR trials and had adopted some soil conserving technologies. These cross-visits, in which farmers from the older site could explain their reasons for adopting new technologies was a very effective way of farmer-tofarmer extension. After these cross-visits, farmers in some new sites decided to adopt some technologies immediately, while others decided to conduct FPR trials in their own fields first. In both cases, the \"FPR teams\" of the various collaborating institutions, together with provincial, district or subdistrict extension staff, helped farmers to establish the trials, or they provided seed or planting materials required for the adoption of the new technologies."}]},{"head":"ii. Field days","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"At time of harvest, field days were organized at the site in order to harvest the trials and discuss the results. Farmers from neighboring villages were usually invited to participate in these field days, to evaluate each treatment in the various trials and to discuss the pros and cons of the various practices or varieties tested."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"In a few cases, large field days were also organized with participation of hundreds of neighboring farmers, school children, local and high-level officials, as well as representatives of the press and TV. The broadcasting or reporting about these events also helped to disseminate the information about suitable technologies. During the field days farmers explained the results of their own FPR trials to the other visiting farmers, while literature about the project and the results obtained was distributed."}]},{"head":"iii. Training","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Research and extension staff involved in the project had previously participated in Training-of-Trainers courses in FPR methodologies, including practical training sessions with farmers in some of the pilot sites. While some participants were initially skeptical, most course participants became very enthusiastic about this new approach once they started working more closely with farmers."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"In addition, 2-3 key farmers from each site together with their local extension agent were invited to participate in FPR training courses. The objective was to learn about the various FPR methodologies, the basics of doing experiments as well as the implementation of commonly selected technologies, such as setting out contour lines or the planting, maintenance and multiplication of hedgerow species. By spending several days together in these courses, the farmers and extensionist got to know each other well, and they were encouraged to form a local \"FPR team\" to help other farmers in their community conduct FPR trials or adopt the new technologies."}]},{"head":"iv. Community-based self-help groups","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Realising that effective soil conservation practices, such as planting of contour hedgerows, can best be done as a group, farmers from some sites decided to form their own \"soil conservation group\"."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"These community-based self-help groups are similar to \"Land Care units\", that have been very effective in promoting soil conservation in the Philippines and Australia. In Thailand, the Dept. of Agric. Extension has encouraged farmers to set up these groups as a way of organizing themselves, to conduct FPR trials, to implement the selected practices, and to manage a rotating fund, from which members of the group can borrow money for production inputs. Thus, by 2003, a total of 21 \"Cassava Development Villages\" had been set up in the pilot sites. Each group needed to have at least 40 members, elect five officers to lead the group, and establish their own bylaws about membership requirements, election of officers, use of the rotating fund, etc. The formation of these groups helped to decide on collective action and to strengthen the community, while people gained confidence and the group became more self-reliant. When necessary, the group could request help from local or national extension services, obtain information about certain production problems, or get planting material of vetiver grass or other species for hedgerows or green manures. Some groups started their own vetiver grass nurseries to have planting material available when needed."}]},{"head":"Effect of New Technologies on Cassava Yield and Soil Loss by Erosion","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Farmers are interested in testing new technologies only if those technologies promise substantial economic benefits over their traditional practices. Thus, strategic and applied research need to continue to produce and select still better varieties, better production practices and new utilization options. As such, some collaborative research in the area of agronomy and soil management continued."}]},{"head":"Long-term fertility maintenance:","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Long-term NPK trials were continued in four locations, one each in north and south Vietnam, one in Hainan island of China and one in southern Sumatra of Indonesia. Figure 3 shows the effect of annual applications of various levels of N, P, and K on the yield and starch content of two varieties during the 13 th year of continuous cropping in Hung Loc Center in south Vietnam. It is clear that, similar to most other locations, the main yield response was to the application of K, while there were minor responses to the application of N and P and mainly in the higher yielding variety SM 937-26. The combined application of 160 kg N, 80 P 2 O 5 and 160 K 2 O/ha increased yields from about 10 to 30 t/ha. Figure 4 shows the absolute and relative response to application of N, P and K as well as the change in P and K status of the soil during the entire 13-year period. Initially there was no response to any nutrient as the organic matter, P and K levels were still adequate and root yields were relatively low. With the introduction of new higher yielding varieties in the 4 th year, the root yields increased and nutrient depletion, especially K, increased, leading to an ever more pronounced response to K application. Even after 13 years soil-P remained above the critical level, which explains the lack of a P-response. "}]},{"head":"Combined use of animal manure and chemical fertilizer","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Table 4 shows the effect of combining various rates of farmyard (=pig) manure (FYM) with chemical fertilizers, in this case N and K, in Thai Nguyen University in north Vietnam. Without manure or fertilizers the yield was only 3.25 t/ha; with the application of only 80 kg N and 80 K 2 O/ha yields increased to 15.47 t/ha; with a high rate of 15 t/ha of manure it was 13.11 t/ha, while the combined application of 10 t/ha of manure with N and K produced the highest yield of 18.70 t/ha. However, the combination producing the highest net income was 5 t/ha of manure with 80 kg N and 80 K 2 O/ha. From this and other trials it is clear that farmers can increase yields and income by reducing their application of pig manure as long as it is combined with adequate levels of N and K in chemical fertilizers."}]},{"head":"Green manures and/or chemical fertilizers","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Table 5 shows the 1 st year results of a green manure experiment conducted in Khaw Hin Sorn station in Chachoengsao, Thailand. In this case all green manure species were intercropped between cassava rows and planted one month after planting cassava; they were pulled out and mulched two months later. Highest yields were obtained when cassava was planted without green manures but fertilized with either 25 or 75 kg/rai of 15-7-18 fertilizers. All green manures, but especially Crotalaria juncea and Mucuna, reduced cassava yields due to competition for light, nutrients and water. Among the various green manures, Canavalia ensiformis was the least competitive resulting in a slightly higher net income than the high rate of 75 kg/rai of chemical fertilizers. It is expected that the beneficial effect of green manures will increase over time, but no data are yet available."}]},{"head":"Long-term effect of contour hedgerows on yield and soil loss by erosion","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Figure 5 shows the long-term effect of contour hedgerows of vetiver grass and Tephrosia candida on relative cassava yields and soil loss as compared to the check plot without hedgerows; data are average values from three FPR erosion control trials conducted for nine consecutive years in north Vietnam."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Although the results are rather variable, there is a clear trend that the two types of hedgerows caused a 20-40% increase in cassava yields and reduced soil losses by erosion to 20-40% of those in the check plots without hedgerows. Vetiver grass tended to become more effective in reducing soil losses than Tephrosia, firstly because the grass is more effective in filtering out suspended soil sediments, and secondly because"},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Tephrosia hedgerows need to be replanted every 3-4 years, in contrast to vetiver grass which is more or less permanent. While farmers claim that Tephrosia improves the fertility of the soil more so than vetiver grass, the data show that vetiver increased cassava yields more than Tephrosia, probably by reducing losses of top soil and fertilizers and improving water infiltration and soil moisture content. (t/ha) (t/ha) (%) --------------(baht/ha)-------------- 24.5 1) Prices: cassava baht 1.0 /kg fresh roots at 30% starch; 0.02 baht reduction per 1% starch reduction."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"2) 1 ha = 6.25 rai Figure 6 shows similar results from a soil erosion control experiment conducted for six consecutive years on about 15% slope at Hung Loc Agric. Research Center in south Vietnam. In this case, contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Leucaena and Gliricidia all increased cassava yields as compared to the check plot without hedgerows; they also decreased soil losses by erosion. Leucaena was the most effective in increasing yields by supplying nitrogen in leaf prunings, while vetiver was the most effective in reducing erosion. Similar to the data from north Vietnam in Figure 5, the effectiveness in controlling erosion increased over time. During the 6 th year, the soil loss with vetiver hedgerows was only about 20% of that Year after planting hedgerows without hedgerows. These two sets of data indicate that hedgerows of vetiver grass are among the most effective ways to control erosion, and that the effectiveness of all types of hedgerows increases over time."}]},{"head":"ADOPTION AND IMPACT","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"After conducting their own FPR trials, or after a cross-visit to another village where those trials were being conducted, farmers often decided to adopt one or more technologies on their production fields with the hope of increasing yields or income and protecting the soil from further degradation."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"In Thailand, practically all of the cassava area is now planted with new varieties and about 75% of farmers apply some chemical fertilizers (TTDI, 2000), although usually not enough nor in the right proportion. As a result of the FPR fertilizer trials, farmers started to apply more K, while the official fertilizer recommendation for cassava was changed from an NPK ratio of 1:1:1 to 2:1:2. After trying various ways of controlling erosion, most farmers selected the planting of vetiver grass contour hedgerows as the most suitable. Table 6 indicates that by the end of 2003, about 1083 farmers had planted a total of 1.63 million vetiver plants, corresponding to about 145 km of hedgerows."},{"index":3,"size":361,"text":"Table 7 shows how in Vietnam the number of households in the pilot sites adopting the various technology components increased over time, with most farmers adopting new varieties. This is partially due to the testing in FPR variety trials, but is also due to the planting of new varieties by nonparticipating farmers in or near the pilot sites. During 2002 and 2003 farmers in Van Yen district of Yen Bai province in north Vietnam planted a total of 500 km of double hedgerows of Tephrosia candida or Paspalum atratum to control erosion, and they planted about 3000 ha of new cassava varieties with improved fertilizer practices. This increased average yields from 10 t/ha to about 30 t/ha. 8 indicate that adoption of soil conservation practices in all sites in Vietnam increased yields from 13.5% in 2000 to 23.7% in 2002. Table 8 also shows that the gross income, both per ha and per household, as a result of the adoption of soil conservation practices also increased very markedly over time. Results from both FPR trials and on-station research also indicate that the beneficial effect of contour hedgerows in terms of increasing yields and decreasing erosion increases over time (Figures 5 and 6). This is mainly because contour hedgerows, almost independent of the species used, will result in natural terrace formation, which over time reduces the slope and enhances water infiltration, thus reducing runoff and erosion. Well established hedgerows also become increasingly more effective in trapping eroded soil and fertilizers. Unfortunately, most FPR erosion control trials are conducted for only 1-2 years at the same site, so farmers do not quite appreciate the increases in beneficial effects that accrue over time. This, coupled with the fact that planting and maintaining hedgerows requires additional labor (and sometimes money for seed or planting material) while hedgerows take some land out of production and have initially little beneficial effect on yield, has hampered the more widespread acceptance and adoption of these soil conservation practices. 1) Cassava area with hedgerows and hedgerow length are approximate, as some hedgerows were damaged by tractor while others needed to be partially replanted because of poor establishment due to drought."}]},{"head":"Data in Table","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Table 9 shows that during the past eight years the average cassava yields in all three countries increased; this increase ranged from 0.83 t/ha in China to 6.73 t/ha in Vietnam. The increased yields resulted in annual increases in gross income received by farmers of about 150 million US dollars in the three countries, and about 250 million US dollars in all of Asia. In addition, farmers in Thailand received higher prices due to the higher starch content of the new varieties. This was achieved by the collaborative effort of many researchers, extensionists, factory owners and farmers with strong support from national governments. The development of high yielding improved varieties and more efficient agronomic and soil conservation practices, as well as the use of a farmer participatory approach, all contributed to the widespread adoption of new varieties and improved practices in many countries in Asia, resulting in reduced erosion and improved livelihoods of cassava farmers. 2) In addition, farmers also benefited from higher prices due to higher starch content"}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Research on sustainable land use conducted in the past has mainly concentrated on finding solutions to the bio-physical constraints, and many solutions have been proposed for improving the long-term sustainability of the system. Still, few of these solutions have actually been adopted by farmers, mainly because they ignored the human dimension of sustainability. For new technologies to be truly sustainable they must not only maintain the productivity of the land and water resources, but they must also be economically viable and acceptable to farmers and the community. To achieve those latter objectives farmers must be directly involved in the development, adaptation and dissemination of these technologies. A farmer participatory approach to technology development was found to be very effective in developing locally appropriate and economically viable technologies, which in turn enhances their acceptance and adoption by farmers."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The conducting of FPR trials is initially time consuming and costly, but once more and more people are trained and become enthusiastic about the use of this approach -including participating farmers -both the methodology and the selected improved varieties or cultural practices will spread rapidly. The selection and adoption of those farming practices that are most suitable for the local environment and in tune with local traditions will improve the long-term sustainability of the cropping system, to the benefit of both farmers and society at large."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Farmer participatory model used for the development of sustainable cassava-based cropping systems in Asia. "},{"text":"Figure 3 .Figure 3 .Figure 4 .Figure 4 . Figure 3. Effect of annual applications of various levels of N, P and K on the root yield and root starch content of two cassava varieties grown at Hung LocAgric. Research Center, Thong Nhat, Dongnai, Vietnam in 2002/03 (13th year). "},{"text":"Figure 5 .Figure 5 .Figure 6 . Figure 5. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass or Tephrosia candida during nine consecutive years of cassava cropping. Data are average values for one FPR erosion control trial in Kieu Tung and two trials in Dong Rang in North Vietnam from 1995 to 2003. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Leucaena leucocephala or Gliricidia sepium in comparison with the check without hedgerows during six consecutive years in Hung Loc Agric. Research Center in South Vietnam from 1997 to 2003. "},{"text":"Problem diagnosis with farme rs Researchers show technology options in FPR demonstration plots Fee d back to rese arch Adopt and disseminate Adapt new practice and scale-up to production fie ld Farmers re try and reselect Farme rs select best options Farme rs evaluate and select most suitable options/practices Farmers test options in FPR trials on own fields "},{"text":"Farmer Participation and Decision Making Problem diagnosis with farme rs Researchers show technology options in FPR demonstration plots Fee d back to rese arch Adopt and disseminate Adapt new practice and scale-up to production fie ld Farmers re try and reselect Farme rs select best options Farme rs evaluate and select most suitable options/practices Farmers test options in FPR trials on own fields Farmer Participation and Decision Making Problem diagnosis with farme rs Researchers show technology options in FPR demonstration plots Fee d back to rese arch Adopt and disseminate Adapt new practice and scale-up to production fie ld Farmers re try and reselect Farme rs select best options Farme rs evaluate and select most suitable options/practices Farmers test options in FPR trials on own fields a. Pilot site selection Suitable pilot sites were pre-selected in areas where cassava is an important crop, where it is grown on slopes and erosion is a serious problem. Detailed information obtained through Rapid Rural Appraisals (RRA) in each site have been reported byNguyen The Dang et al. (1998),Utomo et al. (1998),Vongkasem et al. (1998) andZhang Weite et al. (1998). After conducting the RRAs, one or two suitable pilot sites (villages or subdistricts ) were selected to work with farmers in the development and dissemination of suitable varieties and production practices. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Partner institutions collaborating in the second phase of the Nippon Foundation cassava project in Asia. 1. Research and extension organizations in Thailand -Department of Agriculture (DOA) -Department of Agriculture (DOA) -Department of Agricultural Extension (DOAE) -Department of Agricultural Extension (DOAE) -Land Development Department (LDD) -Land Development Department (LDD) -Kasetsart University (KU) -Kasetsart University (KU) -The Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI) -The Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI) 2. Research and extension organizations in Vietnam 2. Research and extension organizations in Vietnam -Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry (TNUAF) -Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry (TNUAF) -National Institute for Soils and Fertilizers (NISF) -National Institute for Soils and Fertilizers (NISF) -Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute (VASI) -Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute (VASI) -Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry (HUAF) -Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry (HUAF) -Institute of Agricultural Sciences of South Vietnam (IAS) -Institute of Agricultural Sciences of South Vietnam (IAS) -Tu Duc University of Agric. and Forestry (TDUAF) -Tu Duc University of Agric. and Forestry (TDUAF) "},{"text":"3. Research and extension organizations in China -Chinese Academy for Tropical Agricultural Sciences (CATAS) -Chinese Academy for Tropical Agricultural Sciences (CATAS) -Guangxi Subtropical Crops Research Institute (GSCRI) -Guangxi Subtropical Crops Research Institute (GSCRI) -Honghe Animal Husbandry Station of Yunnan -Honghe Animal Husbandry Station of Yunnan "},{"text":"Table 2 shows a typical example of an FPR erosion control trial conducted by six farmers having shows a typical example of an FPR erosion control trial conducted by six farmers having adjacent plots on about 40% slope. It is clear that contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Tephrosia candida adjacent plots on about 40% slope. It is clear that contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Tephrosia candida or pineapple reduced erosion to about 30% of that in the check plot, while intercropping with peanut and or pineapple reduced erosion to about 30% of that in the check plot, while intercropping with peanut and planting vetiver hedgerows markedly increased net income. Results of many other FPR trials have been planting vetiver hedgerows markedly increased net income. Results of many other FPR trials have been reported by Nguyen The Dang et al. (2001), Huang Jie et al. (2001), Utomo et al. (2001) and Vongkasem reported by Nguyen The Dang et al. (2001), Huang Jie et al. (2001), Utomo et al. (2001) and Vongkasem "},{"text":"Table 2 . Effect of various crop management treatments on the yield of cassava and intercropped peanut as well as the gross and net income and soil loss due to erosion in a FPR erosion control trial conducted by six farmers in Kieu Tung village of Thanh Ba district, Phu Tho province, Vietnam in 1997 (3 rd year). "},{"text":". Second Phase (1999-2003): Farmer Participatory Research (FPR) and Extension (FPE) Farmers Farmers 1) -------(mil. dong/ha)----- ranking 1) -------(mil. dong/ha)-----ranking - - 1. C monocult., with fertilizer, no hedgerows(TP) 40.5 106.1 19.17 - 9.58 3.72 5.86 6 1. C monocult., with fertilizer, no hedgerows(TP) 40.5 106.1 19.17-9.583.725.866 2. C+P, no fertilizer, no hedgerows 45.0 103.9 13.08 0.70 10.04 5.13 4.91 5 2. C+P, no fertilizer, no hedgerows45.0 103.9 13.080.7010.045.134.915 3. C+P, with fertilizer, no hedgerows 42.7 64.8 19.23 0.97 14.47 5.95 8.52 - 3. C+P, with fertilizer, no hedgerows42.7 64.8 19.230.9714.475.958.52- 4. C+P, with fertilizer, Tephrosia hedgerows 39.7 40.1 14.67 0.85 11.58 5.95 5.63 3 4. C+P, with fertilizer, Tephrosia hedgerows39.7 40.1 14.670.8511.585.955.633 5. C+P, with fertilizer, pineapple hedgerows 32.2 32.2 19.39 0.97 14.55 5.95 8.60 2 5. C+P, with fertilizer, pineapple hedgerows32.2 32.2 19.390.9714.555.958.602 6. C+P, with fertilizer, vetiver hedgerows 37.7 32.0 23.71 0.85 16.10 5.95 10.15 1 6. C+P, with fertilizer, vetiver hedgerows37.7 32.0 23.710.8516.105.95 10.151 7. C monocult, with fert., Tephrosia hedgerows 40.0 32.5 23.33 - 11.66 4.54 7.12 4 7. C monocult, with fert., Tephrosia hedgerows 40.0 32.5 23.33-11.664.547.124 1) Fertilizers = 60 kg N + 40 P 2 O 5 , + 120 K 2 O/ha; all plots received 10 t/ha pig manure 1) Fertilizers = 60 kg N + 40 P 2 O 5 , + 120 K 2 O/ha; all plots received 10 t/ha pig manure TP=farmer traditional practice TP=farmer traditional practice 2) Prices: cassava (C) dong500/kg fresh roots 2) Prices: cassava (C)dong500/kg fresh roots peanut (P) 5000/kg dry pods peanut (P)5000/kg dry pods 1US$ = approx. 13.000 dong 1US$ = approx. 13.000 dong 2 2 "},{"text":"Table 3 . Number of FPR trials conducted in the 2d phase of the Nippon Foundation Project in China, Thailand and Vietnam. Country Type of FPR trial 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total CountryType of FPR trial19992000200120022003Total China Varieties 9 9 20 69 20 127 ChinaVarieties99206920127 Erosion control 3 5 8 17 - 33 Erosion control35817-33 Fertilization - - - 4 - 4 Fertilization---4-4 Intercropping - - - 9 - 9 Intercropping---9-9 Pig feeding - - - 59 - 59 Pig feeding---59-59 12 14 28 158 20 232 12142815820232 Thailand Varieties 11 16 16 19 25 87 ThailandVarieties111616192587 Erosion control 14 10 6 - 11 41 Erosion control14106-1141 Chemical fertilizers 16 6 23 17 17 79 Chemical fertilizers16623171779 Chem.+org fertilizers - - 10 11 11 32 Chem.+org fertilizers--10111132 Green manures - - 13 11 15 39 Green manures--13111539 Weed control - - 17 5 10 32 Weed control--1751032 Plant spacing - - 3 - 2 5 Plant spacing--3-25 Intercropping - - 16 7 - 23 Intercropping--167-23 41 32 104 70 91 338 41321047091338 Vietnam Varieties 12 31 36 47 35 161 VietnamVarieties1231364735161 Erosion control 16 28 29 30 23 126 Erosion control1628293023126 Fertilization 1 23 36 24 24 108 Fertilization123362424108 Intercropping - 14 32 31 26 103 Intercropping-14323126103 Weed control - 3 - - 3 6 Weed control-3--36 Plant spacing - 1 7 19 8 35 Plant spacing-1719835 Leaf production - - 2 2 1 5 Leaf production--2215 Pig feeding - - 11 16 13 40 Pig feeding--11161340 29 100 153 169 133 584 29100153169133584 Total 82 146 285 397 244 1,154 Total821462853972441,154 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Effect of the application of FYM 1) and chemical fertilizers on cassava yield and economic benefit at Thai Nguyen University of Agric. and Forestry in Thai Nguyen province in 2001 (2 nd year). Cost of cassava cultivation: 2.8 mil. dong/ha; cost of chemical fertilizer application: 0.10 mil. dong/ha Gross Fert. Product. Net GrossFert.Product.Net income 2) costs 2) costs 3) income income 2)costs 2)costs 3)income "},{"text":"Table 5 . Effect of greenmanures and/or chemical fertilizers on the root yield and starch content of cassava, KU 50, as well as the gross and net income when grown at Khaw Hin Sorn research station in Khaw Hin Sorn, Chachoengsao, Thailand in 2002/03. Root GM Starch Gross Product. Net RootGMStarchGrossProduct.Net yield fresh yield content income 1) costs income yieldfresh yield contentincome 1)costsincome Treatments 2) Treatments 2) "},{"text":"Table 6 . Extent of adoption of vetiver grass contour hedgerows for erosion control in various FPR pilot sites in Thailand in 2003. Adoption of vetiver grass hedgerows Adoption of vetiver grass hedgerows Cassava Vetiver Vetiver CassavaVetiverVetiver No. of area with (no. of hedgerows No. ofarea with(no. of hedgerows "},{"text":"Table 7 . Trend of adoption of new cassava technologies in the Nippon Foundation project sites in Vietnam from 2000 to 2003. Number of households adopting Number of households adopting ---------------- ---------------- "},{"text":"Table 8 . Extent of adoption of soil conservation practices and the estimated increase in yield and gross income of farmers in the FPR pilot sites in Vietnam from 2000 to 2003. Number Area with Cassava yield (t/ha) Percent Increase in gross income Number Area withCassava yield (t/ha)PercentIncrease in gross income of soil conser. Farmers' With soil yield (mil VND) 2) ofsoil conser. Farmers'With soilyield(mil VND) 2) Year farmers (ha) practice 1) conservation increase per ha total per household Yearfarmers(ha)practice 1) conservation increase per hatotalper household 2000 62 21.12 12.11 13.75 13.5 0.574 12.123 0.196 20006221.1212.1113.7513.50.57412.1230.196 2001 200 59.87 16.50 19.95 20.9 1.112 66.596 0.333 200120059.8716.5019.9520.91.11266.5960.333 2002 222 88.85 20.60 25.48 23.7 1.952 173.728 0.782 200222288.8520.6025.4823.71.952 173.7280.782 2003 831 612.00 20.60 3) 25.48 2) 1.561 955.699 1.150 2003831612.0020.60 3)25.48 2)1.561 955.6991.150 Total 831 612.00 1,208.146 Total831612.001,208.146 1) Farmers' practice includes most new technologies except soil conservation 1) Farmers' practice includes most new technologies except soil conservation 2) Fresh root price: in 2000 350 VND/kg 2) Fresh root price: in 2000 350 VND/kg in 2001 350 VND/kg in north, 200 in central and 290 in south in 2001350 VND/kg in north, 200 in central and 290 in south in 2002 400 VND/kg in 2002400 VND/kg in 2003 320 VND/kg (estimated) in 2003320 VND/kg (estimated) 3) Yields estimated from 2002 3) Yields estimated from 2002 Source: Tran Ngoc Ngoan, 2003 Source: Tran Ngoc Ngoan, 2003 "},{"text":"Table 9 . Estimation of the annual increase in gross income due to higher cassava yields resulting from the adoption of new cassava varieties and improved practices, in China, Thailand and Vietnam, as well as in Asia as a whole. Total Cassava yield Increased gross TotalCassava yieldIncreased gross cassava (t/ha) 1) Yield Cassava income due cassava(t/ha) 1)YieldCassavaincome due Country area ------ increase price to higher yields Countryarea------increasepriceto higher yields (ha) 1) 1994 2003 (t/ha) ($/tonne) (mil. US $) (ha) 1)19942003(t/ha)($/tonne)(mil. US $) China 240,100 15.21 16.04 0.83 27 5.4 China240,10015.2116.040.83275.4 Thailand 1,030,000 13.80 17.55 3.74 22 86.4 2) Thailand1,030,00013.8017.553.742286.4 2) Vietnam 329,900 8.44 15.17 6.73 25 55.5 Vietnam329,9008.4415.176.732555.5 Asia total 3,486,502 12.93 15.81 2.88 25 248.0 Asia total3,486,50212.9315.812.8825248.0 1) Data from FAOSTAT for 2003 1) Data from FAOSTAT for 2003 "}],"sieverID":"f257f0d8-160e-4a10-9b6c-85dd61e6d0f2","abstract":"Farmers in Asia like to grow cassava because the crop will tolerate long dry periods and poor soils, and will produce reasonable yields with little inputs. Most farmers realize, however, that cassava production on slopes can cause severe erosion, while production without fertilizer inputs may lead to a decline in soil productivity. Research has shown that cassava yields can be maintained for many years with adequate application of fertilizers, and that there are various ways to reduce erosion. Adoption of erosion control practices, however, has been minimal as farmers generally see little short-term benefits of these practices.To enhance the adoption of soil conserving practices and improve the sustainability of cassava production, a farmer participatory research (FPR) approach was used to develop not only the best soil conservation practices, but also to test new varieties, fertilization and cropping systems that tend to produce greater short-term benefits. The FPR methodology was initially developed in 2-3 sites each in China, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam, but has now extended to about 99 villages in Thailand, Vietnam and China. The methodology includes the conducting of RRAs in each site, farmer evaluation of a wide range of practices shown in demonstration plots, FPR trials with farmerselected treatments on their own fields, field days with discussions to select the best among the tested practices, scaling-up to larger fields, and farmer participatory dissemination to neighbors and other communities. Based on the results of these trials, farmers have readily adopted better varieties, fertilization and intercropping practices, and many farmers have now adopted the planting of contour hedgerows to control erosion. The resulting increases in cassava yields in Asia over the past eight years have increased the annual gross income of cassava farmers by an estimated 250 million US dollars."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"089df14d129b67cc64e0074fa0e53f7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H043840.pdf"},"pageCount":18,"title":"REORGANIZING IRRIGATION: LOCAL LEVEL MANAGEMENT IN THE PUNJAB (PAKISTAN)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Although the irrigation system had originally been built in order to transform drylands into highly productive farmland, the productivity of large areas has been either destroyed or significantly reduced by salinity and a rising water table. A considerable proportion of the population now lives under the threat of this type of desertification. Some surveys show that more than half the approximately 13.5 million hectares of irrigated land in the lndus Basin are affected by varying degrees of waterlogging and salinity (Clyma et al. 1975a;Malik 1978). The situation is regarded so seriously that newspapers carry learned and often passionate articles by experts and frequent editorials urging more action."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"There is considerable controversy concerning the seriousness of waterlogging and salinity in Pakistan, and whether the situation is deteriorating or improving. Two factors are responsible for the controversy: first, the relevant information is inadequate, inconsistent, and subject to different interpretations; second, because s.uch large funds are involved in the various programs for controlling the problems, the whole question has become a political issue."},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"The process of deterioration is generally blamed on the twin menace of salinity and waterlogging. In order to reverse it, several programs have been launched to reclaim waterlogged and saline land by means of drains and high capacity tubewells to lower the water table (referred to as the Salinity Control and Reclamation Program or SCARP), and to flush salts out of the soil. Until recently, all the irrigation projects in Pakistan emphasized large-scale capital-intensive construction: SCARP tubewells, link canals, and damsculminating in the Tarbela Dam Project on the Upper lndus River. This dam is billed as the largest earth-filled dam in the world. It is financed by huge foreign loans and is designed for both irrigation water control and the generation of electricity. It is important to note that these projects were ba.sed on research that was in turn based on certain assumptions about local level water management. The loss of water in watercourses before it reached the crops was assumed to be minimal, and due mostly to evapotranspiration. It was not thought to be adding to the water table. In particular, it was assumed that most of the water delivered to tertiary irrigation ditches (watercourses) reaches the root zones of the crops."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"In the early 1970s research teams from Colorado State University, in cooperation with Pakistani organizations, especially the Mona Reclamation Experimental Research Project (supported by funding from the United States Agency for International Development), began to explore the possibility that a major cause of the twin menace should be sought a t the farm level."},{"index":5,"size":185,"text":"They started by measuring watercourse and field application efficiencies. These studies demonstrated a wide variety in the delivery efficiencies of watercourses, but on the whole they were shown to be substantially lower than had previously been assumed. Overall, delivery efficiencies of watercourses seem to be less than 60% -often substantially less; that is, 60% or less of the water entering the watercourses reaches the fields. Unlevelled land, fragmented plots, and lack of knowledge about plant-soil-water relations reduce the efficiency of water use even further. Early studies in a SCARP area demonstrated that wastage of water in these areas is especially high, SCARP tubewells pump the ground water into watercourses where it mixes with canal water, increasing the available irrigation water, while lowering the water table. However, because of poor watercourse construction and maintenance, most of the water returns to the groundwater, minimizing the effectiveness of the SCARP program in reducing waterlogging. Overall, Pakistan's irrigation system is estimated to be operating at less than 30% efficiency; that is, less than 30% of the water diverted from the rivers is stored in root zones for crop use.'"},{"index":6,"size":192,"text":"These findings led to the development of pilot projects designed to improve the efficiency of water delivery and usage in order both to increase agricultural productivity and to reduce waterlogging and salinity. A key component of these projects was an attempt to induce local water users to cooperate in reconstructing and maintaining their joint watercourses. This component has also proved to be a major obstacle: it is quite difficult, though not impossible, to organize farmers to co-operate on a short term improvement project, but it is even more difficult to induce them to continue cooperating for maintenance and management of the watercourse on a longer term basis. This paper presents a case study of a reconstruction project on one watercourse and identifies the impediments preventing its successful completion. It also summarizes the results of a larger survey of organizational problems on improved watercourses. The basic argument is that a major source of the severe technical problems of Pakistan's irrigation system is ineffective organization of management especially at the local level; and attempts to improve the system so far have been hindered by the failure to recognize this social dimension of the problem."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"The \"lndus Food Machine\": History and Development Plans"},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"The history of the development of Pakistan's irrigation system is not long, but it is complex. The best recent account is that of Michel (1967), which draws on older histories of irrigation in Punjab plus British and Pakistani administrative and technical documenis. and post-Independence research. Only a brief summary is possible here."},{"index":9,"size":299,"text":"Environment. The lndus plain is a vast piedmont alluvial plain; the lndus River system has a mean annual flow of 175,156 million cubic meters in Pakistan, twice the mean annual water production of the Nile River (Johnson et al. 1977). The climate is predominantly arid and semi-arid: in the northern regions annual evaporation averages about 152 centimeters (cm) while in the south it is about 190 cm; annual precipitation ranges from 50 cm in the north to 7.5 cm in the south. The combination of low and unpredictable rainfall and sub-tropical arid to semi-arid climate makes irrigation a necessity for successful agriculture. Because the major portion of the modern system. The Punjab plains are crossed by six rivers, the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. Since the implementation of the lndus Waters Treaty of 1960 between India and Pakistan, Pakistani Punjab has been utilizing the waters of the western rivers -the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab; the bulk of the others rivers' water is utilized by India. The rivers are silt-laden and, because of the deposition of heavy silt particles, the beds are usually higher than the flood plains. The flood plains were (and still are) subject to flooding during the summer monsoon. The land between the rivers includes areas in the central portions that are above the flood plains. These high areas are called bar. Before the modern irrigation system these bar were covered by grassy and woody vegetation. They were exploited by semi-nomadic people with large herds of camels, sheep, goats, and cattle. These people also engaged in some rainfall agriculture, and cultivated small parcels of land irrigated by Persian wheel wells, an endless chain of pots worked by a gear and shaft mechanism and powered by yoked animals. These wells were often 15 -30 meters deep."},{"index":10,"size":198,"text":"Development of the System. The British began planning canal projects even before the annexation of Punjab in 1849. The first modern canal in Punjab, the Upper Bari Doab Canal, was opened in 1859 and irrigation commenced in 1861. Thereafter the British continued building increasingly sophisticated and large-scale canals, with stock-taking interludes between them, until the end of their rule. Since 1947, Pakistan, with the aid of international donors, has completely remodeled and expanded the system. Aside from several new canal projects, two huge dams (Mangala and Tarbela) have been completed, and link canals constructed to carry water from the western to the eastern rivers and canals to replace water retained by India. According to the official figures, there are some 62,790 kilometers of canals in Pakistan; and there are 88,000 watercourses, irrigation ditches that carry the water to the farmers' own lateral ditches and to their fields. These average over three kilometers in length. Of 14 million hectares of cultivable land with access to river water for irrigation, about 10 million hectares are irrigated and cultivated every year. It is no surprise that the system has been referred to as the \"lndus Food Machine\" (ibid.; Planning Commission 1978:3)."},{"index":11,"size":67,"text":"The British engineers who built the system had no previous experience in building irrigation works. When they began, they had little theoretical knowledge of hydraulics, and knew little about groundwater hydrology and the like (Michel 1967:50-51). Furthermore, modern construction technologymachinery and building materialswas not available at first. By trial and error and experiments they developed many of the basic formulas and techniques now used throughout the world."},{"index":12,"size":216,"text":"The system uses barrages to divert water from the rivers into the canals. The canals are designed for continuous operation at or near full capacity, some year-round (perennial canals), some for only the summer season (non-perennial). They are designedto maintain a \"stable regime;\" that is, silting and scouring ultimately balance in the main canals (Michel 196751 ). But the amount of flow cannot be regulated on demand and it may sometimes be interrupted during floods or repair work. Water flows continuously from canals into distributaries, through concrete modular outlets (mogha) into watercourses (which often have several branches). and finally into farmers' laterals and onto the fields (Fig. 1). The mogha is designed to deliver a fixed quantity of water when the canal is flowing at full capacity. Each watercourse commands from 60 -250 hectares of land, generally cultivated by from 10 to over 150 farmers. The Irrigation Department is directly responsible for the operation and maintenance of the barrages, canals and distributaries, to the mogha. It also lays out the route and commanded area of the watercourse, but its operation and maintenance are the joint responsibility of the farmers cultivating land in its commanded area. Individual farmers (or small groups) build and maintain small ditches (laterals) to carry water from the watercourse to their own fields."}]},{"head":"Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of canal system","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Each farmer has a right to water proportional to the size of his land holding. Water is distributed on a time basis: each farmer is alloted a period of time to take water, usually on a weekly rotarion basis. Originally the watercourse rotations (warabandil were devised by mutual agreement among the shareholders. Shareholders who cannot agree on a rotation system may apply to the Irrigation Department to'establish a fixed legal system; most watercourses have now been converted to this pakka warabandi. Because it is a continuous flow system farmers receive the same share every week regardless of needswhich leads to periodic over-and under-irrigation. Trading of water among farmers is illegal because it causes waste, but it is commonly practiced."},{"index":2,"size":261,"text":"The system was originally designed to operate with a minimum of human regulation or interference. For example, water is regulated at the head of the canal, but it is not possible to vary the flow into watercourses. Aside from engineering considerations, undoubtedly the British knew that recruitment of competent and responsible people would be difficult and a flexible system of water distribution would lead to uncontrollable abuses. They were also concerned to keep operational costs at a minimum since they were interested in recovering their investment quickly. These considerations also underlay the policy of minimal local intervention: farmers were expected to build and maintain their watercourses and settle disputes among themselves. The Irrigation Department retains considerable residual power, set out i n the Canal and Drainage Act of 1873 (Jahania 1973). This power is used only when the shareholders appeal to the Irrigation Department. Similarly, the extension of irrigation included no instructions to the farmers on irrigation techniques. Farmers were left to their own devices (Johnson et al. 1977(Johnson et al. :1257)). The major method continues to consist of the flooding of small basins. There is no adequate means of communicating information from the users to the higher level managers, or even from the top-down. Finally. no efforts have been made to organize farmers locally on either a formal or informal basis to manage the watercourse. The watercourse is a collective or \"public good\" which benefits all farmers using it, but there is no mechanism to insure that each contributes his share to its maintenance (Olson 1965;Lowdermilk et al. 1978 [ll]:119-29)."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The British had several motives for building the canal system. In the beginning there was an idealistic and enthusiastic desire to extend irrigation to demonstrate the benefits of European science. A decisive motive for the first canal was to give employment to potentially disruptive Sikh army veterans. Another more important and lasting motive was to improve the agricultural value and thus the revenue-producing capacity of the newly annexed lands. Yet another motive was fear of famine (Michel 1967:65-66)."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The earlier canals were mostly designed to improve agriculture in already settled areas. Later projecis emphasized settling new waste lands, which involved not only canal building but laying out of new villages, cities, roads, railroads, etc., and distribution of land to settlers. The British hoped to reduce famine in India by making Punjab the \"granary of India\" and to relieve overpopulation in the eastern districts of Punjab by settling farmers from these areas on new lands."},{"index":5,"size":164,"text":"Characteristics of Modern lndus Basin Development Plans. Michel (ibid.) provides a detailed account of all the programs that have been proposed to solve the problems of the lndus Basin irrigation system, and the results of their implementation up to the mid-1960s. In this section I do not discuss these programs per se but focus on certain common characteristics of the proposals and policies. Since the Independence of Pakistan and especially since the signing of the lndus Waters Treaty in 1960 with India, a series of distinguished panels and study groups have produced long and detailed reports on the problems of the lndus Basin and their solutions. Perhaps the most influential reports have been the so-called \"Revelle Report\" (White House 1964) and the World Bank report (Lieftinck et al. 1969). A more recent panel, of which Revelle was a member, has reviewed the Revelle Report's recommendations and progress (or lack thereof) so far, and offered a series of research guidelines and topics (Planning Commission 1978)."},{"index":6,"size":181,"text":"While these panels have suggested a wide variety of solutions to the problems of Pakistan's irrigation system, all of their recommendations share several basic characteristics. The first is that they all have emphasized engineering and technological programs: large-scale tubewell projects, dams and link canals, and the like. The White House (1964) report recommended a massive integrated extension program to get farmers to adopt modern technology, but this program never materialized. The second characteristic is that all of the advice offered has required massive capital outlays, mostly of foreign origin. Michel discusses Pakistani criticism of the SCARP tubewell programs made on this basis in the early 1960s -criticism that was not heeded and that Michel himself dismisses (1 967:470-72). The thirdcharacteristic is that the implementation of the proposed projects requires continuous input from foreign experts; that is, foreign consultants financed by major donors to Pakistan have advised Pakistan to adopt highly capitaland foreignexpertintensive solutions, many of which have been and are being implemented. Michel discusses this point and defends the use of foreign consultants, but his arguments are not entirely convincing (ibid.:357-64)."},{"index":7,"size":250,"text":"The final major characteristic of the advice given in the Revelle and World Bank reports concerns the administration and organization of the system. Neither panel included any kind of social scientist other than economists. No research data on organization were available, but there is no indication in the reports that this was perceived as a handicap. Both reports were written after the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) had been set up to execute the large scale water, power, and reclamation projects envisioned by Pakistan's planners; in fact, Michel suggests that one motivation for establishing WAPDA may have been to attract foreign aid (ibid.:350). The few pages devoted to advice on organizational matters (White House 1964:179-84;Lieftinck et al. 1969 [11]:186-91) suggest further centralization of planning and management at the highest levels, and better co-ordination of the various organizations involved. No serious consideration seems to have been giveneither by the foreign advisors or by the Pakistani planners and administrators -to the problem of the relationship between the users of the irrigation water and the managers of the system; all assumed that the problems and their solutions were ones the planners understood best and could impose from above. One short paragraph in the Revelle Report, entitled \"Long Range Goals,\"does suggest that \"a central hope for the future should be the gradual emergence of associations forfarmers ....\" (White House 1964:184), but this obviously was for the future, after the system had developed; it was not recommended as a strategy for developing the system."},{"index":8,"size":119,"text":"More recently, for the first time in Pakistan's history, research has begun to focus on local level water management, This research has identified local level waste and mismanagement of irrigation water as a key constraint on improving agricultural production as well as a cause of waterlogging and salinity. Research on a similar irrigation system in India suggests that certain characteristics of the administration of the system itself result in farmers' uncertainty about their water supply, and this is a major constraint on productivity (Reidinger 1974;Gustafson and Reidinger 1971). All of this research has resulted in a recognition of the importance of local organizational factors, and recommendations for forming local farmer organizations (Water Management Research Project 1976 Planning Commission 1978)."},{"index":9,"size":121,"text":"Many of these recommendations, however, retain the \"engineering mentality\" of earlier advisors; that is, farmer participation and organization are viewed as being of the same order as technological problems: the function of research is to discover the appropriate organization of design -\"the solution\"and introduce it. Just as the problems of rising water-tables, salinization, and inadequate supply of irrigation water are \"solved\" by installation a network of tubewells, so, it seems to be assumed, inadequate organization can be solved by installing a new farmer organization. Furthermore, only the formation of local organizations with vaguely defined but limited responsibilities have been suggested. There has been no consideration of the dynamics, the adequacy, or the consequences of the present organization of the irrigation system."},{"index":10,"size":233,"text":"Most of the high-powered recommendations and the policies pursued to date, then, share the same characteristics: an orientation toward purely technical solutions, designed and implemented from the top down, with the financial and advisory aid of foreign organizations, and an assumption that the experts know best what the problems are and how to solve them. Although the major reports and recommendations are thick and comprehensive, none have seriously addressed the most fundamental problem of all for the future of the lndus irrigation system: how should it be organized? What should be the role of its users in its management? What have been the consequences of the present organizational structure? Policy based on faulty assumptions about the goals, values, ability to co-operate, and behaviors of local users is bound to fail. For example, if local irrigation associations were established in Pakistan and the legal framework for these organizations were to specify Western rules and procedures, such as decision-making by majority vote and some version of Robert's Rules of Procedure, these organizations would probably not work in the way envisioned by the planners. Such procedures are inconsistent with local users' decisionmaking patterns as well as with the prevailing stratifled socio-economic structure of rural society. The remainder of this chapter illustrates the potential of an approach from social science towards the problems of designing and evaluating programs to involve the farmers in local irrigation improvement projects."}]},{"head":"Watercourse Reconstruction: A Case Study","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"Gondalpur (a pseudonym) is a village in central Punjab, on the Chaj Doab, the area between the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers. This area has traditionally been called Gondalbar, because historically the Gondal tribe dominated the area. In the flood plains among the rivers, intensive agriculture based on flooding by the river, inundation canals, and wells, has been practiced for centuries. Being located above the flood plain, Gondalpur had no canal or inundation irrigation before 1904. The vegetation of this semi-arid area consisted of various small and deep-rooted trees which provided fuel, fruit, and fodder, and a variety of grasses on which the ancestors of the present inhabitants raised large herds of cattle. At the time of the first British survey in 1857. there was one Persian wheel well irrigating 7 hectares; irrigation was also practiced during the monsoon by catching runoff in a low place, and planting primarily millets, By the 1880% 30 years after British rule was established in the area, there were 3 Persian wheel wells. The wells tapped a water table 15 -25 meters deep, so that even with good oxen or buffaloes, only about one-fifth of a hectare could be irrigated in a 12 hour turn."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Informants claim that animals, not land, were wealth: a man's standing in his community depended mainly on the size and quality of his herd. Agriculture was meant to supplement a diet which was based on dairy products and meat. The British land records show that the short-lived previous regime of Ranjit Singh had imposed a head tax on animals and no tax on land in this village. The British discontinued this policy and imposed a moderate (in their eyes) land revenue. This meant that land had to be registered in individuals' namesan innovation. Informants say that their ancestors regarded this as an unfair burden and some sold or gave their land rights to others for almost nothing. Stories are told of how people in nearby villages punished their enemies and servants by having land registered in their names."},{"index":3,"size":185,"text":"During the 49 years between the first British land settlement and the arrival of the canal water in Gondalpur. however, there was a substantial rise in population and a gradual extension and intensification of agriculture (Table 1). Population grew far more rapidly than did the extent of cultivable land, mostly as a result of immigration. There was also a fairly large-scale transfer of control over land to outsidersand a concomitant increase in tenancy. The Lower Jhelum Canal was officially opened in 1901, but its water did not reach Gondalpur until the 1904-05 winter /rabbi) growing season. Its impact was immediate: scores of hectares of land came under cultivation during both the summer (kharif) and winter growing seasons. Former cattle keepers and part-time farmers became full-time farmers, either on their own land or as tenants on others' land. The area available for grazing animals declined while the number of animals increased, so that even a few years before the canal was introduced most farmers had begun devoting a substantial percentage of their land to growing fodder for their animals. Other changes since the introduction of canal "}]},{"head":"3","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":". r irrigation.include: a further rise in population; increasing fragmentation of land holdings;,major changes in diet; increasingly intensive agriculture; and a rise in the water table of 12 to'20 meters, so that today nearly everywhere it is less than 6 meters below the surface, and in some it is less than a meter and a half. A large low-lying tract in Gondalpur has become waterlogged and an adjacent previously productive area is now saline and unproductive. The major crops today are wheat and fodder crops in the winter, and rice, sugar cane, fodder crops, and some melons and cotton in the summer. Most of the land is double-cropped every year.3"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Watercourse Social Organization'. The dominant landowners in Gondalpur, the Gondals. are divided into four named biradari, brotherhoods which are local co-resident groups based on a combination of patrilineal descent and marriage (Alvi 1972). The biradari are concentrated on different watercourse branches (Fig. 2). "}]},{"head":"*","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":293,"text":"Table 2 shows the relationship between biradari ana watercourse branch. The Gondal biradaris are Khirarane (branch B), Muradke (branch C), and Khudaya and Miane (branch D). The first three so dominate particular branches that they are known by their names. Besides the Gondals, families belonging to other groups or zaL6 also have land on various branches. A few Awan have very holdings on branches B and C; two have some land on branch 6, as do three Sayid families; and some Muradke and Khudaya have land on branch 6, though most of this land is either waterlogged or saline, or too high for irrigating. On branch D, aside from the Khudaya, a few Pindi farmers also have land, as do the religious leaders of Gondalpur, the Miane. The numbard# and his family, who have relatively large holdings (20 -30 hectares) are Khudaya; the Miane holdings are also.relatively large (about 10 hectares for each of three households), while the other two Gondal biradaris are mostly small farmers (2 -8 hectares). Ehattis outnumber Gondals in the village as a whole as do the Massali laborers, but the former are mostly tenants and the latter landless and poor. Bhatti biradaris in Gondalpur with a total of 9 0 households and 416 people as of 1977. e/These biradaris did not play an important role in the improvement projecttheir major holdings are on other watercourses; they generally acted together on this project. 5Zar is a cognate of the word usually translated as \"caste\" or \"sub-caste\" in North India, but caste is not a proper translation of zat here since 1.115 as understood in Gondalpur are not endogamous or systematically ranked vis-a-vis each other. For a complete discussion of ceste in Gondalpur (and Pakistan Punjab) see K. Merrey (1983)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"'Numbardar is a hereditary position created by the British: he CoIIecD the land revenue and irrigation fees for the govern ment. keeping a percentage for himself, and acts as an intermediary between the villageis and government officials."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"At the head of branch A, where it passes through Chak Aziz, are four related households of Kharal zat. One is a very large landowner (about 122 hectares), having bought much land in a nearby village. His brother has about 20 hectares on branch A and their half-brother's two sons have about 20 hectares between them. these two brothers often quarrel with each other, they did not during the watercourse project. I shall refer to them collectively as the \"stepnephews.\" Following the Kharal, on Gondalpur land, branch A irrigates the land of several very small farmers (0.5 -9 hectares) of Langah zat. The members of this zat, though poor, have marriage relations with the Khuydaya, Some of the land belonging to the Miane is after the Langahs by branch A, and finally, at the tail, branch A irrigates small portions of the relatively large holdings of several Pindi families."},{"index":4,"size":208,"text":"Watercourse Conditions Before Reconstruction. At the time of the study (1 976-77). the level of maintenance of all the branches on the watercourse was extremely poor. A SCARP tubewell had been installed at the head of the watercourse in the mid-1960s. doubling the amount of water flowing through it. As is generally the case in the SCARP areas, the intensity of cultivation increased substantially as a result of the increased water supply. Most land is now double-cropped each year on this watercourse. However, the capacity of the watercourse was not increased. Furthermore, for some years after the installation of the tubewell, there was no perceived shortage of water. According to informants this led to a decrease in maintenance efforts, atrophying the already weak sanctions enforcing participation in watercourse cleaning. Further, fragmentation of plots has led to increased numbers of illegal (that is. not sanctioned by the Irrigation Department) cuts in the main water channels. The watercourse on all branches was choked with grass, bushes, and trees; leaked through rat holes, thin banks, and at junctions; and water remained standing in many low sections after irrigation. On branch A, since the Chak Aziz land is relatively high, the Kharal owners actively sabotaged efforts to cleanthe head of the watercourse."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"Silting raised the water level, and thus their ability to irrigate their high land, but it blocked a large percentage of the water from reachingthe middle and tail farmers."},{"index":6,"size":136,"text":"The Reconstruction Process. The lack of watercourse maintenance, combined with increasing pressure to raise production (in part limited by the water supply), had created considerable dissatisfaction with the condition of the watercourse by 1976. In response to this dissatisfaction, I was instrumental in arranging for the Mona Reclamation Experimental Project to choose this watercourse for an experimental improvement program.' In this program, the Government supplies technical advice, supervision, and materials such as concrete outlets (nakka). The farmers are responsible for supplying all labor for the earthen improvements, masons for installing outlets, concrete sections, and culverts, and for subsequent maintenance. Some Gondalpur farmers had heard about the success of the improvement program in other villages: according to a survey they were aware that the losses from their watercourse were high and they were eager to improve it."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"The improvement program on this watercourse undoubtedly faced more problems than is usual on a single watercourse, but this makes it an important case to study as all of the problems encountered characterize other watercourse reconstruction efforts to various degrees. A description of all that happened during the six months of active improvement work would constitute a book in itself; a brief summary will show the kinds of problems faced by the project."},{"index":8,"size":117,"text":"At a farmer meeting in June 1977. two committees were set up: one, for branch A, included a Kharal representative from Chak Aziz (the youngest of the two step-nephews), a Gondalpur Langah, and Pindi numbardar. For the main branch and branches B, C, and D. one Khudaya, one Khizarane. and an Awan were chosen. The branch C Muradke refused to take part in the improvement program on their branch and therefore had no committee member. There were several reasons for their refusal: they did not perceive much of a water shortage; they preferred to continue cutting their watercourse freely; and, because they were angry at their Awan relatives over issues, they opposed any program the Awan supported."},{"index":9,"size":117,"text":"Work began on branch Abut on the land allotments under' the land consolidation program in Gondalpur; therefore, only Chak Aziz shareholders were present at the work site and they successfully pressured the Government engineer to start work on a new route for the watercourse that was parallel to the distributary around their village (see inset on Fig. 2). This route had been discussed previously and opposed by the middle shareholders, but now it became a fait accompli and they could not oppose it. Because old route had passed through the step-nephews' land and another Kharal's courtyard, while the new one is on Government land and higher than the old one, the Kharal benefited substantially from this change."},{"index":10,"size":114,"text":"Over the next few months work continued fitfully on branch A, and the engineer had branch D and B work begun even though he had not yet done a survey to indicate the route, width, and depth. The farmers on B and D noticed that their water supply was reduced as a result, leading to considerable tension between them and the engineer. At the meeting with the farmers, the engineer accused the farmers of not co-operating with him and gave them an ultimatum -t o follow his instructions without argument or he would abandon the project. The farmers were angry bdt agreed to his demands. These branches were then surveyed and the work redone.'"},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"A number of disputes broke out among the farmers (aside from a series of continuing disputes between the farmers and government officials):"},{"index":12,"size":79,"text":"1. On branch D, two Khudaya, the numbardar (supported by the Miane), whose lands were at the head and middle, and his paternal cousin, a watercourse committee member most of whose land is at the tail, disputed over how far towards the tail the improvement work should go. The numbardar and Miane wanted the work to stop about 300 meters short of the cousin's land, so that no improvement work would be done on the section through their land."},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"When the tail cousin refused to cooperate unless his demands were met the numbardar agreed, though the Miane continued to protest and refused to cooperate on the work."},{"index":14,"size":72,"text":"The Miane, near the middle and tail of D, continued to dispute with Khudaya over how far the improvement should go and over the route of the watercourse. The engineer, based on his survey, wished to straighten it. Because it skirted the edge of Mianes' land and over the years had shifted, increasing their land, moving it would have reduced their land slightly. It was straightened, finally, but over their continuing protest."},{"index":15,"size":20,"text":"On branch B, the Khizarane leader frequently argued with Muradke, Khudaya, and Sayid shareholders over the division of the work."}]},{"head":"2.","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"3.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"' 4."}]},{"head":"5.","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"6.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"7."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"On branch A, the Pindi shareholders and Miane were lax about doing their share of the work, leading to conflict with the others and long delays in completing the section."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"The Langah committee member and the Kharal member disputed over the route changes in branch A demanded by the Kharal, as as the division of work shares. Because of his weak position, the Langah pursued these issues more with the engineer than with the Kharal won because both the government officials and other farmers feared the consequences of the Kharal not cooperating given their strategic position on the watercourse,"},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"The Kharal step-nephews, who had traditionally taken unauthorized wateF from the main branch, successfully sabotaged the work on that branch, including preventing the removal of trees and straightening the route. There seemed to be three reasons for their obstructionism: they realized that taking illegal water from the main branch would be more difficult; they would lose a little of the land they had occupied if the watercourse were straightened; and they were jealous. They opposed any program that would benefit the weaker Gondalpur people, perhaps fearing they would become independent."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"The Kharal demanded and, by threatening to sabotage the project, obtained extra nakkas and double-sized culverts for their land but even after getting them the two step-nephews in particular continued to sabotage the work."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"A project that was expected to be completed in less than two months was not finished in December 1977. the sixth month, when I left. When I returned in May 1978, I discovered that some sections still had not been reconstructed, especially in the middle and tail sections of A and B; some of the sanctioned nakkas had not been installed and several of the installed ones had been damaged; and no cleaning or maintenance had been done. All the branches were choked with weeds and silt and leaked from new unauthorized cuts in rebuilt banks. Even in October 1978, the normal watercourse cleaning in preparation for the winter season had only been haphazardly done."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"The sections completed up to December 1977, immediately after reconstruction, did not leak, and farmers enthusiastically reported up to five times as much water reaching their fields as before. However, by October 1978. the water delivery had drastically declined to only slightly above pre-improvement rates. The watercourse sides, because of both poor construction and very poor maintenance, had deteriorated considerably and were leaking badly; much water remained standing in the ditch after irrigation and many farmers felt discouraged about the prospects of m'aintaining even the present level of efficiency."}]},{"head":"Punjabi Culture: The Game of lzzat","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"There is no doubt that one source of the problems faced by this project is the relationship that developed between the farmers and the government officials supervising the program. Although some of these engineers and extension workers have rural backgrounds, their education has seemiTgly made them unfit for rural work. Possessing a formal degree and a respectable position in the government bureaucracy, they are \"officers.\" They create barriers between themselves and their clients by wearing western clothes, speaking an urban dialect, and doing all they can to create the impression that they possess a superior knowledge and position which ought to be respected. When the clients assert .themselves and refuse the officer the respect (read obeisance) he claims, conflict arises and the officer's low opinion of his clients is confirmed in his mind. This kind of relationship between government officials and farmers is not confined to Pakistan."},{"index":2,"size":236,"text":"Another factor was that the potential benefits of the program were not perceived as equally distributed (Doherty and Jodha 1977). Indeed, equal distribution of benefits in a watercourse reconstruction program is impossible to achieve because of differences in size of landholdings, differences between owners and tenants, and most crucial, the relatively greater benefits accruing to farmers with land at the tail than to those with land a t the head of the watercourse. Even if the benefits of reconstruction were distributed equally. could argue that any rational individual will minimize his contribution toward such a collective good because he cannot be denied its benefits even if he does not invest in the project (Olson 1965). However, the active attempts by the step-nephews to sabotage the program, even on other branches in order to prevent others from benefiting, and the disputes that developed among persons whose benefits were about equal, suggests these factors are insufficient as explanations of the problems encountered, A major source is t o be sought within the social organization and culture of rural society. Punjabi rural society is characterized by a set of values and structural mechanisms whichin relation to their irrigation systemencourage conflict, make it endemic and unavoidable, and thus tend to discourage co-operation on a long term basis. These values may have been adaptive before the irrigation system but have continued to operate even though they appear maladaptive under present conditions."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"The ancestors of the Gondalpur farmers who were cattle herders and part-time farmers were probably not permanent residents of Gondalpur before the British settlement. This settlement awarded permanent rights that had not existed before. One characteristic of pre-British Gondal society was relative mobility of individuals and families: larger local groups were unstable as people were free to move and often did move with their animals. The type of situation now known as the \"tragedy of the commons\" (after Hardin 1968). in which individual herdsmen continue to increase the size of their individual herds even after the carrying capacity of commonly owned grazing lands had been exceeded, did not arise because people were able to leave for less crowded, if not greener, pastures. It seems likely that under these conditions it was not necessarily recognition of overgrazing per se that triggered dispersion but rather a high incidence of social conflict maintained dispersion."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"The most fundamental concept or theme in rural Punjabi culture, in terms of which much of Punjabi behavior can be understood. is i2zatg lzzat may be glossed as \"honor,\" \"esteem,\" \"reputation,'' \"status,\" or \"face.\" It is a \"limited good\" (Foster 1965) and one acquires it only at others' expense. As in a zero-sum game, the success of one person is a threat to all the other players, a characteristic that generates competition and jealousy. For example, when government officials agreed to a very reasonable request for a double-width culvert for truck access to one of the Kharal's brick kilns, his step-nephew demanded a double-width culvert for himself. Informants said his izzat was at stake: if he got less than his step-uncle he would lose izzat. Government personnel, not accepting the rules of the local izzat game, rejected his demand, which led to further problems with the man."},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"All men wish to avoid losing izzat. but many men also attempt to increase their own izzat or reduce others'. One acquires and increases one's izzat by several different strategies. First, one must have the ability and, more importantly, the willingness to use force. There is a famous Punjabi saying, \"Whoever holds the stick owns the buffalo.\"This does not necessarily mean force is resorted to frequently; it is enough to create the impression that one is willing and able to use force and, in times of tension, much calculation and speculation revolves around this issue. The Kharal step-nephews were feared because they had demonstrated their willingness to use force in previous fights. The Bhattis of Gondalpur. mostly tenants and poor, in the past also had a high izzat for the same reason. On the other hand, the Khudaya numbardar, despite land holdings, his official position, and several adult brothers, had less izzat then he might have had because it was known he feared violence. This was not an unreasonable fear since his father had been murdered in 1962."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"A second means acquiring izzat is possession of inftuence with government officials, and willingness to use it for one's supporters and against one's enemies. The Kharal step-nephews, some Pindi landlords, and a recently deceased poor and landless Bhatti leader before his death, all had a substantial amount of izzat from this source (as did the author). A third source is willingness to entertain guests lavishly, whether they are government officials or relatives at a weddingeven to the point of bankruptcy. The deceased Bhatti leader mentioned above kept himself bankrupt but high in izzat by this strategy."},{"index":7,"size":126,"text":"Success in competition, whether in organized games such as kabadi or in a fight, is another source of izzat. Winning, not a valiant loss, is the key. Another source is generosity. not to the general public, but towards individuals (who are obliged then to render support).\" Finally, successful one-upmanship, including revenge for a previous defeat or insult is important. For example, disputes are often taken to the police; the person or group that can avoid jail or being beaten by the police, while getting the opponent punished and spending the least money doing it, \"wins.\" Such cases often become very long, involved, and expensive but they continue even when people are aware that after so much trouble and expense they will have nothing tangible to show."},{"index":8,"size":151,"text":"In order to improve izzat, tagaf (strength or power) is needed, but taqat alone is insufficient; it is also necessary to use this power to help clients or defeat enemies. The richest of the Kharals has less izzat than one would predict from his wealth and government contacts because he is unwilling to use his position in this way. A person whose taqat and izzat are increasing attracts followers and allies who hope to benefit, but he also attracts the jealousy and fear of others who are likely to band together behind the scenes to plot strategies to limit or reduce him. If a group (such as a biradari) or several brothers become too powerful, efforts are made to sow dissension and thus weaken their unity. Because individuals' primary loyalties are to themselvesand each one assumes this to be true of othersefforts to divide groups, or even two brothers, often succeed."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"People informally recognized as leaders are supposed to work for the benefit of their followers as a group. But more often than notsuch persons keep their own interests in mind first and attract clients by aiding individuals (against their enemies or with the police, for example) who are then obliged to them. Only infrequently do leaders work for the benefit of a group or community as a wholeand even when they do, others may accuse them of seeking only their own benefit."},{"index":10,"size":137,"text":"Opposition is often expressed verbally in terms of issues, but in fact the issue is nearly always a pretext: men oppose or support decisions and programs based on their perceptions of their competitors' position. For example, even though all farmers suffered the exactions of a corrupt tubewell operator, they did nothing because, informants explained, if one man or group proposed petitioning for his removal, others would oppose. This would be done not out of love for the tubewell operator but to prevent the others from gaining some advantage from the issue or to pursue some long-standing grudge. This can he carried further: the non-cooperative behavior of the Kharal on branch A during the watercourse reconstruction was interpreted by informants as based on a desire to prevent others from benefitingeven if it means foregoing their own potential benefits."},{"index":11,"size":45,"text":"There is a Punjabi saying, \"If my neighbor's wall falls, it is goodeven if it falls on me.\" Opposition is never legitimate in the western parliamentary sense: it is always personal (or interpreted as personal) and aimed at weakening others or strengthening one's own position."},{"index":12,"size":29,"text":"\"Religious generosity such as building a mosque earns one \"respect\" iabadl for piety. but is not itself a source of izzat; pious acts score points in a different game."},{"index":13,"size":101,"text":"There is a strong ethic of loyalty to one's kinsmen; one ought to be prepared to make sacrifices for their benefit. Marriage within the biradarisiblings and cousins exchange childrenis intended to cement their affections and relationships. Divisions within the community, in Gondalpur and villages, are usually between biradaris. This was the case for most disputes over the watercourse reconstruction program. There is a feeling that a biradari's izzat must be protected from others' attacks, and if a man's izzat suffers at the hands of a of a different biradari, all of his close kinsmen may unite in opposition to the \"enemy.\""},{"index":14,"size":192,"text":"Nevertheless, despite the emphasis on loyalty to one's kinsmen, tensions among biradari members are always present. Patrilateral cousins and brothers often have tense and competitive relationships and do not completely trust each other. One's brother's or cousin's personal izzat is not necessarily one's own: hence, a man is apt to be jealous of and feel threatened by a brother's success. Tension is also generated among biradari members by joint potential rights in land. One of the worst cases of conflict in Gondalpur history, resulting in two murders and three executions, occurred within the Khudaya biradari over land: one branch attempted to deprive another branch of rights to some land. Tensions built up and the latter finally took action by murdering the numbardar and his brother. The amount of land involved was in fact not great; the real issue was izzat. If the second group had allowed itself to be deprived of the land, its members' izzat would have been severely damaged.' ' During the improvement process there was much petty conflict among biradari members over work shares and the like; the Kharal are seriously divided, and the Khudaya only slightly less so."},{"index":15,"size":36,"text":"The Awan and Muradke, though separate biradaris in one sense, are closely intermarried, yet. at the time of this project, they were involved in conflict over several issues which prevented them from cooperating on the project."},{"index":16,"size":186,"text":"The sense of community within the village is real but alsct intertwined with izzat. In opposition to outsiders, villagers will act together in a stick fight or a competitive game to preserve the izzat of the village. However, cooperation within a community to achieve a mutually beneficial goal is very difficult as people fear others may benefit more than they or the leaders will gain undue influence. In some villages there are leaders who are sufficiently trusted (or feared) to insure that farmers cooperate t o maintain their watercourse, but this is not true of most communities and is not a permanent characteristic of any community.'2 \"The numbardar and the cousing with whom he argued over the extent of work on the watercourse are the sons of the two murdered men; their relations are tense in part because of jealousy and idssatisfaction over the subsequent partitioning of their fathers' land; and in part because each fears the other will gain an advantage. An exchange of sisters would seem to be called for here but each branch is marrying matrilaterally (outside the villagel. thus accentuating the division."},{"index":17,"size":289,"text":"\"One Pakistani commentator on an earlier draft of this chapter, as well as one of my Gondalpur informants with whom I discussed my conceptualization of ikat. suggested that I have confused what my informant calls \"false izzat\" with \"true izzat.\" \"True\" izzat refers to the more positive characteristics included in the concept. while \"false: izzat includes more negative behaviors such as undercutting others, and creating fear in others. It is important to note that my informant hers is one of the Langah. who are not acfive participants in the main game of izzat. Other Gondalpur informants. while understanding the distinction. insist neverlheless that obstructionists like the step-nephews do have izzat in most peoples' eyes; men who are feared to as badmash (bad character, trouble-maker, bully) are also respected (even admired) and regarded as having inat: and the badmash themselves believe they are increasing their izzat by their behavior, Social Organization on Other W a t e r c o ~r s e s ' ~ During 1.978, I collaborated in a study of the social organization of ten reconstructed watercourses in Punjab. We deliberately chose our sample so as to include several problem and several model watercourses. We also chose watercourses which a maximum period of time had elapsed since improvement (the range was four months to two years), and which represented several different agronomic areas of the province. The purpose of the study was to identify those sociological characteristics of rural society that both promote and inhibit effective cooperation on watercourse rehabilitation and maintenance. The results complement the intensive research reported above. Mirza and Merrey (1979) provide a detailed discussion of the methods and results of the research. Here only a brief summary of the conclusion is possible."},{"index":18,"size":82,"text":"We discovered that both the ease and completeness of the actual reconstruction process, and the quality of the maintenance after improvement, vary considerably. Furthermore, there are systematic relationships between the relative success of improvement and maintenance quality, and also between these and certain sociological characteristics. Watercourses whose improvement was completed without significantdelay or disruptive conflict are generally better maintained than those where the improvement process has been difficult. The better maintained watercourses tend to have all or most of the following characteristics:"},{"index":19,"size":59,"text":"1. A large percentage of farmers with the landholdings in the 2.5 to 70 hectare range. We defined holdings in this range as \"small but economically viable\" in irrigated Punjab. Watercourses dominated by farmers below this range seem to be very difficult to organize for cooperative programs, perhaps because they are less committed to farming as a full-time occupation."},{"index":20,"size":36,"text":"Larger farmers usually have laborers do their share of the watercourse work, with the result that it is often done carelessly. Large farmers are also more able to violate sanctions, and are more involved in conflict."}]},{"head":". Relatively equal distribution of power and influence among farmers on a watercourse. \"Power","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"and influence\" was measured by asking sample farmers to rate all the other farmers on the watercourse and adding the scores. Where influence is more equally distributed, and one or a few farmers do not dominate, farmers seem to cooperate better on collective projects. 0 3 . A large percentage of farmers being perceived by fellow shareholders as having some influence andpower. On some watercourses, power and influence scores were uniformly lowno one commanded any respect. Cooperation on such watercourses was much less than on those where the scores were higher across the board; that is, where most shareholders have at least some standing and respect."}]},{"head":"Concentration of power and influence at the tail or at the tail and middle of the watercourse.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Farmers at the tail of a watercourse usually receive the greatest benefits from improvements and are thus more highly motivated. If these farmers have comparatively greater influence, they often insure maximum cooperation by others."}]},{"head":". Progressiveness of the community.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"This is measured as the percentage of farmers with a better than primary education, number of institutional services available in the community, and percentage of farmers who listen to the radio regularly. These three components together were used as a measure of community attitudes toward modernization and change."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"6. Previous history of co-operation on community projects, and lack of serious recent conflict."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Communities that had successfully cooperated on previous projectssuch as building a schooland which had not been divided by serious conflict in recent years, cooperate more effectively on watercourse rehabilitation and 7. A small number of shareholders on the watercourse. On the watercourses with the largest number of shareholderseven if they all belonged to one biradarigetting the farmers to work together to rebuild and maintain their watercourse proved very difficult."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"8. Membership of most of the shareholders in a single biradari, In reality the ideal characteristics listed above are not found very often in rural Punjab. None of the watercourses in our sample were well-maintained, but those which were comparatively better maintained share more of these characteristics than those which were in poor condition. None of the watercourses had an effective organizational mechanism to insure that all shareholders did their share of the cleaning. On five of the ten watercourses studied, the reconstruction work had not even been completed because of conflict among the shareholders or between the farmers and government engineers. Our study shows that quality of improvement and maintenance is closely related to sociological characteristics of the watercourses, but it also shows that present forms of organization are not adequate to insure good maintenance of the system, even on relatively conflict-free watercourses."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Punjab villages exhibit a considerable variety of structural forms: single, double, and multibiradari villages; villages with strong leaders and those with weak leaders; villages with no recent history of serious conflict and others where murders occur yearly; and villages of small, medium, and large farmers, as well as owners and tenants; and, a few villages.,where landholding distribution is fairly equal and many where the pattern is highly skewed in favor of a few farmers. Gondalpur's social organization included all of the characteristics shown in the later study to be least conducive to successful cooperation on a watercourse reconstruction project."},{"index":6,"size":159,"text":"However, in contrast with the variation in social organization, there is relatively little variation in cultural va)ues: the concept of izzat is shared to a large extent by all rural Punjabis but it leads to the pursuit of different strategies depending on the social context. Both of the studies together show that the organizational and cultural impediments to a cooperative programsuch as watercourse reconqtructionare serious indeed, and even if the watercourse is successfully rebuilt, the inability of the users to maintain it means the investment in reconstruction may be wasted. However, one can go further than this: these organizational and cultural impediments, together with the ineffectiveness of the overly centralized bureaucratic management structure of the system, are at the root of the low productivity of the system; the minimal payoffs from the huge amount of capital invested in dams, canals, and SCARP tubewells; and, to an undetermined but probabiy very large extent,the waterlogging and salinization -the processes of desertification."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"For decades, research and development projects on Pakistan's irrigation system have focused solely on the perceived technical problems and on their solution by means of large scale capital."},{"index":2,"size":298,"text":"intensive purely technological approaches. The users of the waterthe farmershave beBn ignored. In the 197Os, as a result of the research efforts of a number of American and Pakistani scientists, local-level problems and inefficiencies began to be recognized. However, initially this research too focused solely on technical problems such as watercourse leakage and rehabilitation. Experience with pilot watercourse reconstruction projects soon demonstrated that farmer cooperation was the key to the success of the projects. The focus on farmer cooperation, on which little research had been done, led to an increasing level of collaboration of sociologists and anthropologists with the engineers, agronomists, and irrigation specialists in an attempt t o develop and effective watercourse program. It was expected that about a dozen experimental Water User Associations would be'organized under existing laws and their activities monitored. The end-product was to be recommendations for forms of organization to be used for establishing associations irrigators for improving local level water management (see Mirza and Merrey 1979). However, the cut-off of American aid to Pakistan in 1980, as well as various political developments in that country, made it seem extremely unlikely that this program would be carried out in the foreseeable future.14 This work was based on the assumption that such tinkering with the system could be effective in improving its productivity as a whole, and reversing the process of decline and desertification in the form of declining levels of maintenance at all levels, and waterlogging and salinity. This assumption now seems highly questionable. The technical problems of the system cannot be solved as if they were isolated from the larger social, cultural, and economic context. This point may appear obvious to a social scientist but it does not generally characterize development policies and programs, especially of relatively conservative countries such as Pakistan."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"The \"engineering mentality\" has been carried over from the older style development projects such as dam construction to the more people-oriented programs. For example, the planners of the pilot watercourse reconstruction project in Pakistan believed their own rhetoric that farmers' perceptions of their self-interest in watercourse reconstruction would overcome long-standing social and cultural impediments. The social scientists were called in somewhat later and expected to carry out rapid surveys (complete with statistics) to identify the problems and propose solutions to insure the success of the project. Social scientists, can, it is true, often identify social and cultural impediments to seemingly useful projects, and social and cultural factors involved in processes of environmental deterioration, and, having identified the problems, they can suggest strategies to overcome them. There are undoubtedly many situations where this narrowly conceived role is quite adequate, but Pakistan's irrigation system is not one of them."},{"index":4,"size":178,"text":"In my discussion of the various recommendations and development projects in the lndus Basin, I have drawn attention to the fact that none have dealt with the most fundamental issue: the organization of the system. The study of organization comprehends the nesting of local systems in larger systems, and the complex relationships among social structure, values, technology, and environment. A beginning has been made in this direction with the various proposals to decentralize the management of the system and to organize water users into viable a s ~o c i a t i o n s . ~~ but these are very preliminary and are based on as thin a data base as are many of the technological.solutions now being implemented. A great deal more research is needed on the organization of the system at all levels, and especially on social constraints and cultural perceptions and motivation. Such research can be used to develop a more comprehensive and realistic model of how the lndus system actually operates. Based on this model, alternative forms of organization can be suggested."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Pakistan's irrigation systemindeed that nation as a wholeis in crisis. Poor management and maintenance of the system at all levels, waterlogging and salinization, low productivity despite capital-intensive inputs (e.9.. dams, wells, fertilizer, tractors), and the socio-economic inequalities which have increased in recent years as a result of \"green revolution\" technological changes (Nulty 1972) are all facets of the same fundamental problem: inadequate and inappropriate organization. Capital-intensive technologica1,projects are unlikely to lead to any substantial development of the lndus Food Machine unless accompanied by substantial and effective social and economic reorganization."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" as well as the research reported here, are centered on what is now the Province of Punjab in Pakistan, the remainder of this paper focuses of this area. 2The findings of the Colorado State University research are reported in Corey and Clyrna (1975); Clyrna et 81. (1975a and b): Reuss and Kernper (1978); Johnson et al. (1 977); Eckert el 81. (1975); and others. "},{"text":"Sources: All data are from unpublished village records except the 1961, 1972, and 1977 population figures. The 1961 and 1972 population figures are from the District Census Handbooks for those years; the 1977 population is based on a census carried out by the author and his wife in February-March 1977. \"Na\" means \"not available.\" a/ The figures for area harvested are 1968-69 figures, the closest ones available to the 1972 population figure. b/ The figures for area harvested are for 1975-76. "},{"text":" Fig. 2. Sketch map of Gondalpur watercourse branches. "},{"text":" Figure 2. "},{"text":" There were significant differences among the branches in the organization and efficiency of the work. Except for a few portions of branch D done collectively. the work on each portion of all the branches were divided among the shareholders proportionally to the amount of land they irrigated. The large farmers at the head and tail of branch A had their tenants and servants do the work, while the small farmers in the middle did their own shareand did it more quickly. Most of branch D was doen by tenants, servants, and hired laborers, and more time was spent smoking and gossiping than working, significantly slowing the work. All but a few of the branch B shareholders did their own work, and theirs was completed very quickly. "},{"text":"' lzzar is the most common and broadest term; there are others but they tend to have more restricted meanings. The term has obvious affinities, conceptual and historical with the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean concept of \"honor\"(see Peristany 1966 and Campbell 1964 for examples). "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table f . Changes in population and cultivated area in Gondalpur since 1857. Year Population Areas of C ~O P S harvested to hectares Rainfed Irrigated Total Well Canal 1857 67 18.8 7.3 0 26.1 1890-91 310 87.1 17.2 0 104.3 1901-02 568 69.3 18.2 0 87.5 1905-06 na 4.5 0 194.4 198.8 1910-1 1 565 0 0 233.7 233.7 233.7233.7 1921 767 2.0 0 315.1 317.1 19217672.00315.1317.1 1931 758 133.4 0 139.7 273.4 1931758133.40139.7273.4 1951 914 40.5 0 242.6 283.1 195191440.50242.6283.1 1961 1117 25.9 0 313.9 339.8 1961111725.90313.9339.8 1972a/ 1246 36.5 0 384.3 420.8 1972a/124636.50384.3420.8 1977b/ 1450 21.4 5.2 356.2 382.8 1977b/145021.45.2356.2382.8 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Biradaris involved in watercourse reconstruction?' Number of Watercourse\" Position on Number ofWatercourse\"Position on Households People branch branch HouseholdsPeoplebranchbranch "}],"sieverID":"12258297-cf27-4960-950d-52a97792718f","abstract":"Discussions of the problems facing irrigated agriculture in Pakistan usually begin with an irony: despite the favorable climate, fertile land, hard working farmers, and possession of the largest integrated irrigation system in the world, agricultural production is very low. It is low by any standard in relation to similar situations in other countries, to the potential demonstrated year after year on demonstration plots andeven more soto the needs of Pakistan's rapidly growing population.Before World War 11, the area which is now Pakistani Punjab was a major exporter of wheat. By Independence in 1947 exports had ended. Output per capita continued to decline until the mid-1960s. By the early 1970s. with the adoption of high yielding varieties of wheat, per capita productivity had returned to the levels of the late 1940s. but during the 1970s it stagnated. In most years up to 1978 Pakistan had to import about one quarter of its wheat requirements. Although the figures have improved significantly since 1978, mainly as the result of the introduction of improved rust resistant varieties, yield per hectare remains low.'Social Scientist. International Irrigation Management Institute. Digana Village via Kandy. Sri Lanka 'The arrangement was that I would observe, but not participate in. the process; in fact. people often sought my intervention to influence the engineers and upon occasion I did offer suggestions to the Mona Project personnelwhich were rarely followed."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"09571ef8de26abddba9af60976e0c9af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b291600a-37dc-4881-a66b-6a9c4e1f7633/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"With effect from 1 December 2006, IPGRI and INIBAP operate under the name \"Bioversity International\", Bioversity for short. This new name echoes our new strategy, which focuses on improving people's lives through biodiversity research. Bioversity International is an autonomous international scientific organization that seeks to improve the well-being of present and future generations of people by enhancing the conservation and the deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests. It is one of 15 centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. Bioversity has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 countries worldwide. The Institute operates through four programmes: Diversity for Livelihoods, Understanding and Managing Biodiversity, Global Partnerships and Commodities for Livelihoods","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Traditional farming systems and conservation of local cultivars and associated indigenous knowledge are under threat and growing pressure resulting in genetic erosion of crop diversity. These systems are an essential component of sustainable crop production, household income and human nutrition for many of the poor farmers found in fragile semiarid ecosystems of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). With the signing of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992, in situ conservation for crops and their related genetic resources has been given prominent mention in global and national policies for biodiversity conservation. In situ strategies are an important and complementary component of the overall agrobiodiversity conservation efforts that aim to conserve not only crop genetic resources but also crop evolutionary processes. However, policy support of the science and practice of in situ conservation, lag behind CBD commitment in much of SSA"},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"The need for activities on in situ conservation of plant genetic resources is emphasized in the CBD and in Agenda 21. Article 2 of the Convention specifically includes reference to domesticated or cultivated species. This is also anticipated in Article 8, which requires signatory nations to \"preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity …\" Agenda 21 reflects this commitment to in situ conservation as an essential component of sustainable agriculture, and in Chapter 14, notes the need for establishing programmes and policies to strengthen in situ conservation. In its second meeting, the Conference of the Parties to the CBD (COP 2) identified implementation of Article 8 of the CBD as a high priority and reaffirmed the importance of regional and international cooperation for the implementation of this Article. It also stressed the importance of the exchange of relevant information and experience among all stakeholders on measures taken for its implementation (Decision II/7 of COP 2)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Many national PGR programmes in SSA are unable to meet their obligations towards in situ (more specifically on-farm) conservation as stated in the CBD and the GPA because of ineffective enabling of national policy environments that do not support traditional farming systems and in situ conservation on-farm."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"The countries involved in the project were Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Uganda and Zimbabwe. Through case studies, the project analysed farming systems in semi-arid ecosystems in these countries, focussing on how these systems supported the conservation of landraces of local and global significance. The methodology described in the present publication was designed within this project to draw out 'best' practices on how landraces have been incorporated into farming systems and/or national agricultural policies and biodiversity conservation strategies. On one hand, the farmer or resource user determines what makes the practice the 'best one', and they base their choices on a survival strategy or utilitarian point of view. On the other hand, the scientists on the project primarily judged how effective the practices are in conserving agrobiodiversity at different levels. The project attempted to reconcile the two views in developing frameworks for the determination of 'best practice'."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"Our hope is that the lessons learnt from project experiences will be used to develop models to begin to integrate and incorporate the approaches into national decision-making strategies on PGR at policy level. This is in accordance with article 6b of the CBD of which the COP of the CBD has requested the GEF to take action thereby advancing global efforts to safeguard the world's plant genetic resources. "}]},{"head":"Emile Frison","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Preface","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"This report is a product of a Bioversity coordinated project conducted in semi-arid ecosystems in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Malawi, Uganda and Zimbabwe with implementation support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and co financing from the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The authors would like to thank the United Nations Environment Programme and the Global Environment Facility for their financial and technical backing."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The project that generated this report benefited enormously from the input of many experienced unnamed individuals especially farmers and communities around Africa who provided much information of value to the project. The authors would like first to thank them and the members of the National project teams in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Malawi, Uganda and Zimbabwe, particularly their country focal persons:"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Mr Nasser Baco, Dr Didier Balma, Professor Edwin Gyasi, Mr Godfrey Muthamia, Dr Amadou Sidibe, Mr Kingslay Kapila, Mr John Mulumba Wasswa and Mr Claid Mujaju. We are grateful to all the participants-from farmers to development workers, researchers and government officials-who helped to shape the thoughts expressed in this report."}]},{"head":"Mikkel Grum","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Genetic Diversity Scientist Diversity for Livelihoods Programme Bioversity International United Nations Avenue, Gigiri PO Box 30677 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 20 7224505 Fax: +254 20 7224501 Email: [email protected] It is without a doubt that plant genetic diversity is important for food security and rural livelihoods. Crop genetic diversity in itself is a resource that has local, national and global significance. For a multitude of generations, farmers have drawn on hundreds and hundreds of different plant genetic resources for food and agriculture 1 in order to breed the major crops that today feed the world. The further development of agriculture and the world's continued food security will depend on farmers and breeders continuing to have access to the plant genetic resources necessary to face new environmental and agricultural challenges."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Throughout generations, and prior to the introduction of ex situ conservation 2 methods, farmers used to conserve crop genetic diversity in situ 3 , on-farm 4 , with traditional local cultivars being the initial and principal beneficiaries. Today, traditional local cultivars embody substantial diversity, and continue to provide an essential component of sustainable crop production for many of Africa's poor. This is the case especially in marginal agricultural areas where modern crop varieties and inputs are less available and less effective for resource-poor farmers. Thus the continued use of local cultivars or farmers' varieties contributes to stable food production and income."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"It can thus be seen today that traditional local cultivars embody substantial diversity, and continue"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"to provide an essential component of sustainable crop production for many of Africa's poor. This linkage between diversity and food security provides the rationale for enhancing the availability and use of local crop varieties in the fragile ecosystems of arid and semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Farmers often need diversity for three main reasons: to provide security against unstable ecological and socio-economic conditions; to enhance optimum use of the varied land resources and of the labour and capital available to the farmer; and, to meet different dietary, culinary and other consumer requirements. Farmers face multiple challenges and have different needs and concerns. The use of diversity is seen as a way of farmers solving problems or addressing concerns and meeting needs using their agricultural systems` and diverse crop varieties."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"For farming communities to maintain genetic diversity of the traditional varieties on-farm, they engage in certain practices 5 . These practices vary from community to community. If the use of the best of these practices within a community is scaled up throughout other communities, then on-farm genetic diversity of farmers' varieties would not only be maintained or enhanced, but would be scaled up as well. To do this, these best practices would need to be recognized or institutionalized at policy level."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Simply defined, policy means a line of argument rationalizing the course of action of a government, or a plan of action adopted by an individual or a social group. Thus policy is broader than the formal rules and regulations that a government promulgates to the governed; it includes the rationale for promulgation. This further means that policy does not necessarily have to be in written form for it to be effective."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Policy does not only apply to government but extends to individuals and social groups and institutions. Thus individuals can set policies on how to go about chores; organizations can set policies on 5 For the purposes of this paper, a practice is defined as a system, organization, process or behavior that, systematically repeated in a given space (from the local levels of resolution through the national and regional through to global) and over time, maintains, enhances or creates crop genetic resources and ensures their availability to and from farmers and other stakeholders for improved livelihoods on a sustainable basis."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"how to achieve organizational objectives; and, profitmaking organizations can set policies on how to go about doing business and principally, making profit. Thus policies, in this context are plans of action."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"The rationale for individuals, groups or governments laying policies, is social order. Without social order, governance would be difficult, if not impossible."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"For individuals and organizations, without policies, achieving goals, whether profit-oriented or not, would again be difficult."},{"index":9,"size":70,"text":"The process of moving best practices to policies to enhance conservation of genetic diversity of landraces on-farm involves identification of those barriers that hinder the spread of the practices and, examination of policy processes, instruments or mechanisms that exist that can be applied in the transformation process. This paper also provides a process guide or framework that can be applied in testing the process of transforming best practices to policies."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"Local communities in arid and semi-arid areas have overtime, developed ways of methods of conserving crop landraces within their diversity. The development of these ways and methods is dictated by various factors. These include but are not limited to the value the communities place on the crops, cultural orientations, land tenure, and climatic conditions."},{"index":11,"size":39,"text":"Some of these practices may be effective in conserving genetic diversity if practiced by other communities. These practices may, thus, be termed as 'best practices'. However, barriers arise that hinder the widespread of these best practices to other communities."}]},{"head":"Levels","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The barriers occur at various levels: local, national and regional levels. Further, the barriers may be classified into various categories, these being environmental; cultural; political; and, aesthetic."}]},{"head":"Local","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Local barriers refer to impediments in the spread of best practices amongst local communities that are as a result of a community's indisposition to a practice. Thus, a community may not be enthusiastic in adopting a practice from another community simply because that community does not prefer doing things the way the other community does. While this could be closely related to cultural orientations and beliefs, it may also be because it is the practice in itself that sets the difference between the communities. For example, the Luo community living on Rusinga Island has a cultural practice known as 'ngweloruok'. This is a ritual that requires the head of the homestead to spend a night with his wife prior to him tasting the harvested sorghum crop before the rest of members of his homestead cultivating on the same piece of land are allowed to consume the harvest of the season. Young farmers must therefore wait until their head of the household performs Ngweloruok to harvest their own crops. 'Ngweloruok' has been found to threaten the diversity of a sorghum landrace variety locally known as 'gopari' 6 ."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Thus a community such as the Luo may be reluctant to adopt another practice that does not threaten the diversity of the sorghum landrace in favour of 'ngweloruok'."}]},{"head":"National","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"National barriers refer to impediments that hinder the spread of best practices as a result of a country's indisposition to a practice. A country's indisposition to a practice may be factor of the existing different legal systems between a country of export of the practice and the country of import; colonial lineage; and, system of governance. However, and more importantly, national barriers are also influenced by national legislation systems that exist in a country. The most obvious of these are national seed legislation systems, which in many situations lay out rules on what seed a farmer may use, where to buy it, and whether the farmer may save and exchange the same with other farmers. For example, in Kenya the Seeds and Plant Varieties Act, categorizes seed and requires that a farmer may only plant certified seed, and does not create or address uncertified seed, a common source of seed, particularly with regard to landraces. 7 Another example is land tenure. As in many countries there are different systems of holding land 8 , these land tenure systems also act as barriers in the sense that a particular system of holding land determines what individuals or communities may use it for. Thus practices only associated with particular land tenure systems may be hard to cross over to other land tenure systems."}]},{"head":"Regional/Global","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Regional or global barriers refer to those impediments that are a result of regional or global processes, whether political or otherwise. While political processes such as regional integration (for example, the East African Community or the European Union process) may facilitate the spread of best practices amongst practices, others do not."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"7 Seed for landraces is often commercially unviable, as the number of farmers who grow landraces are usually not many and often concentrated in arid areas such that commercial seed and plant breeders see no economic advantage in producing or breeding them."}]},{"head":"Barriers Hindering the Spread of Use of Best Practices in Local Communities","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Every nation is a party to one international instrument or another. In the context on conservation of genetic diversity generally, there are a number of international instruments or processes that are key in influencing the spread of best practices within communities not only within a country, but also between countries. While the relevance of these instruments as regards conservation of genetic diversity on-farm by local communities is analyzed in Section 4, suffice to say, where a country is a signatory of one and another is not, implications arise as to how they would relate and exchange information. For example, the ITPGRFA establishes a multilateral system of exchange of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture for certain crops (the Annex 1 crops) and thus reduces transaction costs between member countries. Similarly, the TRIPS Agreement obligates WTO member countries to establish a sui generis system for protection of plant varieties. These international instruments or processes have implications on national policies and a country that is not a member of say, the CBD may find itself in difficulty while importing a practice to conserve genetic diversity on-farm from a country that is a member."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Regional pacts and instruments such as the Treaty establishing the East African Community (EAC), the African Regional Industrial Property Organization (ARIPO), the African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI) 9 and COMESA Protocol may have similar implications as well."}]},{"head":"Categories","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The basis for this categorization of the barriers that hinder the spread of practices within farming communities is that results from the studies show that the motivation to conserve is more influenced by the uses for the crop than it is on the storage and ownership of the seed. This list of categories is not exhaustive but rather is a dictate of the results so far received from the field studies."}]},{"head":"Environmental","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"This refers to those barriers that are an influence of the agro-ecological condition in which a certain crop variety grows, and thus a practice is linked to the soil and ecological conditions of a particular crop. For example, the practices that are associated with cultivation of rice in Mali cannot be used by the banana cultivating communities in Uganda, because rice grows in totally different conditions as does bananas. 11 Only Zea mays (maize/corn) landraces that are red in colour are used for the treatment. The maize is ground into mealie meal at the victim's homestead, and then porridge is prepared using the red corn. The porridge is thereafter mixed with small pieces of copper wire (relatively small pieces able to pass through the gut, even of small children). The porridge is also blended with traditional herbs. The whole family feeds on the porridge under the supervision of the traditional healer. Human's ability to remedy lightning confirms the social belief that this is man-made. As reported by Claid Mujaju and Fred Zinanga. Report on file with the authors."}]},{"head":"Cultural","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"eared maize is a lightning deterrent, the landrace shall survive in farmers' fields. Thus members of the Tsholotsho community have used for several years, local maize landraces for self-protection, based on cultural beliefs and food security."}]},{"head":"Political","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Political influences refer to situations where the manner in which a government of the day advances its policies, based on the political machinery available does ultimately, influence the spread of practices. For example, the Zimbabwean agricultural system had a recent significant paradigm shift. The government extension service is now emphasizing the restoration of traditional systems, which recognize farmers' varieties (landraces) that had been neglected. Local chiefs are being mobilized to start collecting and conserving various traditional landraces through community seed banks, an idea initially mooted through NGOs. 12 This paradigm shift is based on the fact that about 70% of Zimbabwe's population lives in communal areas. The population is growing at about 1.5 % per year and depends on agriculture as a source of income, food and livelihood. This sector is affected by drought, shortage of inputs and limitations of labour. Drought results in decreased diversity managed by the communities, hence the need to maintain a broader genetic base of preferred crops both on farm and ex situ."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Thus by the government using chiefs (a political and government machinery) to spearhead the collection and conservation of landraces, the genetic diversity of these crops is not only being maintained but also enhanced."}]},{"head":"Aesthetic","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Aesthetic herein is taken to mean preferences based on such factors as likes and tastes. It is clear from the foregoing studies in the eight countries that some local communities conserve landraces because of the uses that they have for those landraces. For some, when cooked, they taste better than others or make better bread than others. In this sense, the reason to conserve is driven more by the use, or aesthetical value of the landrace than anything else. For example, for many reasons, the women farmers 13 of 12 As reported by Claid Mujaju and Fred Zinanga. Report on file with the authors."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"13 Gore women farmers have names for all the indigenous rice varieties they cultivate. For example, Mariama, Peter and Mr. Moore varieties are named after the farmers who first introduced them to the community, while Agona refers to a town in the Ashanti region of Ghana. Agongula Gore, a rural area in Ghana's Bawku District, prefer local rice to the improved exotic varieties due to its certain unique qualities."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"First, the grain of Oryza glaberrima rice type 14 has high gluten content and is pleasantly filling when cooked. This highly diversified rice can still be found with many farmers, especially women in northern Ghana."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Secondly, the women farmers also consider several attributes of indigenous rice varieties to be superior to modern varieties, which is another reason for their maintenance. Some rice varieties have short cooking time, others are suitable for traditional dishes, such as waakye (cooked rice and beans), rice balls, etc."},{"index":5,"size":136,"text":"Other types are suitable as weaning food for babies. Thirdly, many local rice types do not shatter easily when left in the field after the optimum harvest time. This characteristic enables farmers to make the most advantageous use of their labour force and is different from improved rice varieties, which must be harvested at optimum moisture content of the grain for the best results. Furthermore, livestock readily eats local varieties' straw, while the improved rice types usually are short, with little straw available for animal consumption. Finally, indigenous rice varieties are used for parboiling. Parboiling of local rice is an important industry that engages thousands of women in Northern Ghana, providing them with income. Parboiled rice from Upper East Region of Ghana fetches high prices on the market because of its high quality processing 15 ."},{"index":6,"size":160,"text":"While qualities attributed to uses of landraces are useful in conserving genetic diversity of these crops and may be easier to replicate in scaling the practices to conserve, others are not and in fact, accelerate genetic loss or erosion. For example, in Kenya's Suba District, a sweet-stalked sorghum, 'Nyaniang' has disappeared because children love to chew it like sugar cane. 'Nyaniang', which means \"the child of sugar cane\" in Luo, has been destroyed on-farm, mostly by children and intruders. In the past, this variety of sorghum was popular for chewing during the period before the millet head was fully formed. Exploiting it at this stage meant poor harvests. With time, many farmers abandoned 'Nyaniang' to avoid famine. 16 means short grain of rice in the local Kusal language, while Mui-sablic refers to the dark colour of the husk. Another variety is named 'help me buy dress'. As reported by G. Kranjac-Berisavljevic and PB Tanzubil. Report on file with the authors."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"14 Tropical and sub-tropical Africa is the centre of diversity for a range of crops including the African rice, Oryza glaberrima."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"15 As reported by G. Kranjac-Berisavljevic and PB Tanzubil. Report on file with the authors."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"16 As reported by Evans Mutegi. Report on file with the authors."},{"index":10,"size":98,"text":"In conclusion, what emanates from the levels and barriers that hinder the spread of best practices among local communities is that for the best practices to spread, the barriers would need to be overcome. How a country or a community would go about overcoming these barriers is dependent upon the policy choices the policy makers may make. Put differently, there are a number of policy tools that exist, that policy makers may employ to overcome these barriers. The policy tools of relevance in conservation of landraces on-farm and the principles underlying them are considered in the following section."},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"Policy tools are basically, those policy mechanisms or processes that are at the disposal of policy makers that they may employ in the process of instituting positive actions. These actions include conservation of landraces on farm. In this section, the various policy tools that exist are outlined as are the principles that a policy maker must consider while employing the tools. It must be stated that the policy tools are analyzed in their order of flexibility."},{"index":12,"size":124,"text":"This essentially means that the least flexible tool is the constitution while the most flexible tools are budgetary measures. A constitution (particularly a national constitution) is the least flexible tool in the sense that the process of making, amending or repealing a constitution, is lengthy, financially exhausting and involves almost, if not the whole population. Besides, national constitutions as usually written are limited to general principles and rules, rather than details and procedure. As such particular measures that a government would want to take to promote conservation of landraces would not ordinarily be written in the constitution. What one would normally find in a constitution are general principles relating to conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Needless to say, landraces are natural resources."},{"index":13,"size":183,"text":"Policy tools may be classified into two: 'hard' policies and 'soft' policy tools. 'Hard' policy tools herein refer to those tools which if not observed, obeyed, or obligations not met, legal sanctions are instituted. In this category fall the constitution, legislation, subsidiary legislation and some government administrative actions. In these tools, legal obligations are created and failure to meet these obligations is met with either criminal or civil sanctions. On the other hand 'soft' policy tools refer to those tools which if not observed, criminal sanctions are not meted but civil sanctions or some other form of sanctions may be meted. In this category one finds some government administrative actions, public institutional actions, user/market/enterprise actions and budgetary measures. For example, if a public institution fails to implement a particular policy in one financial year, it may in the following year receive less budgetary allocations from the central government. Criminal or civil sanctions may not be taken against its employees. However, the same case would not apply if an individual fails to observe the law. He may be prosecuted for criminal or civil action."}]},{"head":"Tools","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Constitution","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"In the broadest sense, a constitution is a body of rules governing the affairs of an organized group. A parliament, a church congregation, a social club, or a trade union may operate under the terms of a formal written document labelled a constitution. This does not mean however, that all of the rules of an organization are in the constitution, for usually there may be other rules such as by-laws and customs."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Invariably, by definition, the rules spelled out in the constitution are considered to be basic, in the sense that all other rules must conform, or must be consistent with its provisions. Implicit in the concept of constitution is that of a higher, if not the highest law, that is operative, a law that takes precedence."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Every national state has a constitution, at least in the sense that it operates its important institutions according to some fundamental body of rules. In this sense of the term, the only conceivable alternative to a constitution is a condition of monarchy, or anarchy to the least. Constitutions may be written or unwritten. For example, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Uganda and Kenya all have written constitutions, whereas England has an unwritten constitution. Constitutions may also be simple or complex; they may provide for vastly different patterns of governance."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"As a policy tool, a constitution sets out rules that take precedence over all others. Thus a constitution exists as a supreme law and all other rules must not only flow but also be consistent with it. Because a constitution is said to be made by the people it governs (not by the state or institutions such as parliament), its enactment and amendment process is ordinarily lengthy. For example, Kenya has in the past five years been engaged in the process of repealing its constitution. This process is yet to be completed."}]},{"head":"Policy Tools of Relevance in Conservation of Landraces","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"On-farm and the Underlying Principles"}]},{"head":"Legislation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"This refers to laws made under the authority of parliament. In parliament, legislative power is exercisable by bills passed by the national assembly to become law. A bill is described as a draft of a proposed Act of Parliament. In many nations, once a bill is passed by parliament to become law, it must be presented to the President for his assent, or to be decreed as law. The procedure followed in passing bills to become law varies from parliament to parliament. For example, in Kenya a bill must receive three readings in the national assembly, with detailed discussions as to its content taking place at the relevant committee of parliament."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Once a bill is passed as law, it binds everybody in the country otherwise it would be discriminatory, contravening the constitution and thus becoming void. In many jurisdictions, an Act of Parliament applies to a future event and cannot be applied retrospectively. 17"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Parliament as sovereign can make, amend or repeal any law subject to the constitution. The enactment of legislation is generally required to keep up with the needs and demands of a developing society."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"One advantage that legislation has over a constitution as a policy tool is that the process of enactment is much shorter, especially if there has been a consensus as to the need to enact before a bill is taken to parliament."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Thus legislation is able to respond to anticipated situations quicker than a constitution would do, as a policy tool."}]},{"head":"Subsidiary Legislation","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Subsidiary legislation is also known as delegated legislation. Parliament when enacting legislation has authority to delegate its legislative function to another body or person. Most of the legislation enacted by parliament contains provisions delegating authority to make law especially with regard to procedural functions to another body or person. For example under the Kenya's Seeds and Plant Variety Protection Act, the Minister in charge of implementing the Act has power to make rules of procedure say, with regard to the process of certifying seeds. Local authorities are also enabled by the parent statutes to make by-laws and rules. For example, the City Council of Nairobi has power to make City Council By Laws and this power is derived from the Local Government Act. 18 The rationale behind parliament delegating its powers to make law to other bodies or persons is that it saves parliamentary time."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Like legislation, subsidiary legislation must be consistent with the constitution and the parent statute."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Besides consistency, process of enacting subsidiary legislation must conform to the procedure laid down in the parent statute otherwise the subsidiary legislation is ultra vires 19 ."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Subsidiary legislation as a policy tool responds to national needs faster than legislation, and by far, than the constitution. Another advantage of subsidiary legislation is that it is more flexible (as it can be made and revoked more quickly) and allows experts to be involved in making rules and regulations on different issues. However, too much delegated authority, and thus subsidiary legislation creates legal uncertainty as it is invariably difficult if not impossible to keep up with speed of enactment."}]},{"head":"Government Administrative Actions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Government administrative actions refer to those actions carried out by the executive arm of the government in providing public services or governance to the populace. As policy is not limited to legislation or pronouncements, at times, government departments do adopt plans of actions for public good. These may range from simple actions as limiting movement of goods and services or laying emphasis say, in promoting or encouraging cultivation of certain crops in agro ecological areas that suit them. For, example a ministry of agriculture may order its agriculture extension officers to encourage communities in arid and semi-arid areas to cultivate landraces, or a gene bank may on its own volition mutiply seedlings for endangered crops."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"A case in point is that of 'phara' leafy vegetables (mogoro/imifino). In the course of interviewing the farmers (mostly women), it occurred to one of the interviewees that only one farmer in the two villages had a few seeds left of the 'phara' vegetable. A decision was taken that the farmers would start collecting seeds of this vegetable variety the following season."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Currently, 'Phara' seed is conserved in the National Plant Genetic Resources Centre (NPGRC) Genebank and ARC-Roodeplaat Genebank. A base collection is stored at the NPGRC Genebank and the working collection is stored at ARC-Roodeplaat for research purposes. Seed is multiplied at ARC-Roodeplaat Genebank with a view to supply the communities with more seed and to have sufficient seed for conserving in the genebank. 21 An advantage that government administrative actions have over other policy tools that emanate from government is that they can speedily be put in place without being bogged down by legislative procedures. Thus it is discernable from this that government administrative actions can be influential tools in policy formulation and especially in cases where wide use of best practices needs to be encouraged."}]},{"head":"Public Institutional Actions","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"For the purposes of this discussion, public institutions refer to statutory corporations (parastatals); nongovernmental organizations; and, international organizations. These are institutions, which are nonprofit making; mostly produce public goods, and are indirectly or minimally controlled by government."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Public institutions in their own action plans do have policies that may dictate outcomes within communities and thus steer communities towards certain directions that may impact on decision-making, and ways of life in general."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"For example, a non-governmental organization may initiate within a community, a programme in promoting an environmentally sustainable farming method. For example, the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) an intergovernmental organization has promoted a farming system where maize is intercropped with napier grass to control the maize stemborer. 22 Another model is that adopted by the Southern and East African Network on Underutilized Crops (SEANUC) in promoting and commercialising underutilised crops with a view to alleviate food insecurity in Southern Africa. 23 This refers to actions by individuals or enterprise institutions, so long as they are within the law. As a policy tool, these actions may include an individual's resolve to say, consume certain plant varieties, or for an enterprise to market products based on landraces."},{"index":4,"size":117,"text":"For example, in Uganda, the presence and importance of bananas make them a major source of local wine and beer. Bananas are one of Uganda's most important crops. 25 Specific varieties of the East African Highland banana are used in the production of beer in Uganda. In Mbirizi, a community in Masaka District, their use in brewing beer has been one of the main factors ensuring the conservation of nine banana landraces. Banana brew is in high demand for social functions, boosting the incomes of both the farmers who grow the bananas and the brewers who brew the beer. The local beer is called omwenge, which can be further distilled to produce a commercial spirit called waragi."},{"index":5,"size":144,"text":"In these rural communities, beer is important for other socio-economic reasons. Currency is often limited, so locally brewed beer is used as a liquid currency. It is often used as payment for community-based labour, such as the construction of feeder roads to connect fields and farms with markets and villages. Local beer also plays a major role in gatherings such as funerals and festivals. On these occasions, people contribute either beer or bunch of bananas to be prepared and eaten during the event. In many parts of Uganda, a man must contribute banana beer to his future in-laws before a dowry is accepted. Commercially manufactured banana beer is also making inroads into the urban market in Tanzania and Kenya. 26 Thus in these communities, individuals and institutions may opt to grow certain varieties of banana as they are a source of income and livelihood."}]},{"head":"Budgetary Measures","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Budgets are important policy tools as they set the basis upon which resources are allocated and shared, and utilized. There are three kinds of budgets: household budgets; firm budgets; and, government budgets."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"First, a household budget is a household's planned income and expenditure for a given period and depends upon disposable income that a household has. 27 Household budgets as policy tools dictate the amount of capital that an individual spends and 25 According to an FAO report, Uganda produced in excess of 10 million tons of bananas in 2001; this was more than 38% of Africa's total banana production and second only to India. Bananas are so important Uganda, and throughout East Africa, that the word \"matooke\" means both \"banana\" and \"food\"."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"saves. Thus in the context of local communities, the amount of disposable income that the communities have dictate the amount of resources that is be spent on farming and other activities. For example, in Uganda, where beer brewing from certain varieties of bananas is an income generating activity, the amount of resources that a farmer invests in the activity largely affects the income that the farmer earns."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"Secondly, a firm's budget is a firm's planned revenues and expenditures for a given future period. 28 Annual or monthly sales, production, cost and capital expenditure budgets provide a means for the firm to plan its future activities, and by collecting actual data about sales and product cost, to compare with budget the firm can control these activities more effectively. 29 Budgets play important roles in execution of public institutional and user/market/ enterprise actions, as expenditures in execution of policies are planned for in advance. This case is more discernable in situations involving public institutions that do not generate their own incomes such as nongovernmental organizations and intergovernmental organizations. For these institutions' projects and other core activities are donor or government funded, and thus propagation of policies by these institutions is subject to the purpose for which funds are disbursed by the donor."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Finally, a government budget is a government's financial statement of the government's planned revenues and expenditures for the fiscal year. 30 The main sources of a government's revenue are taxation, principally income and expenditure taxes, fees and fines, domestic and external borrowings and grants. On the other hand, the main outgoings of a government's expenditure are the provision of public goods and services (principally wage payments to health, education, security and other public service employees), transfer payments (oldage pensions, interest payments on the national debt, etc.) and social security benefits."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"A government budget has two main uses: it forms the basis of the government's longer term financial planning of its own economic and social commitments; and it is an instrument of fiscal policy in regulating the level and composition of aggregate demand in the economy. Ordinarily, a government does not make expenditure on items that are not budgeted for. Thus in executing its policies, resources for expenditure must be provided for in the budget."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"For, example, in Kenya, when a bill is published for 28 Id., p. 44."},{"index":8,"size":4,"text":"29 Id., p. 45."},{"index":9,"size":2,"text":"30 Id."},{"index":10,"size":99,"text":"presentation to parliament for enactment as law, the Attorney General (or the Minister moving the bill) is required in the memorandum to the bill, to indicate whether implementation of the bill (once it becomes law) will occasion additional expenditure of public funds, and if so, whether a provision of this expenditure will be provided for in the Finance Bill or in the estimates. 31 Thus given that the constitution, legislation, subsidiary legislation, and government administrative actions are the main policy tools that a government wields in executing its policies, a government budget is a vital tool in policy implementation."}]},{"head":"Underlying Principles","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Legitimacy","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The policy tool should be legitimate, either in law or other form of recognized basis. A policy must be justifiable and evidence presented that the policy seeks to address a present problem."}]},{"head":"Relevance","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The policy tool should be relevant, either in relation to existing policies or to international instruments (treaties, conventions) already ratified or to be ratified in fulfilment of international obligations."}]},{"head":"Harmony","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Because policies, or proclamations do not exist in isolation, the policy tool should as much as possible be in harmony with other policies. At the least, there should be a balance between the proposed policy 31 For example, see the memorandum to The HIV and AIDS Prevention and Control Bill, 2002."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"and other existing policies."}]},{"head":"Co-ordination","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"None of the policy tools in section 4 operates in isolation. Therefore the lead institution must as much as possible consult the other stakeholder institutions."}]},{"head":"Efficiency","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"It important for the right policy tool to be sought so that maximum efficiency in decision-making and implementation is achieved."}]},{"head":"Flexibility","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Policies are not cast in stone. They should be made such that if required to be changed due to changing circumstances, the change should be cost-effective and least time-consuming."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"In conclusion, making policy choices or choosing what tools to employ involves quite a number of processes and is dependent on what policy level the intervention is sought. Also, a policy tool that one would ordinarily employ to influence policy is one that falls within his sphere of influence. Employing a policy tool within one's sphere of influence does not only ensure flexibility, but also relevance (the sphere of influence vis-à-vis mandate and level of authority) but also efficiency."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"International processes have a bearing on the extent local communities can and are involved in the conservation of landraces on-farm. Among the outcomes of international processes are conventions and international agreements, some which are of direct relevance to on-farm conservation of landraces in arid and semi-arid areas. "}]},{"head":"CBD","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an ambitious attempt to integrate previously distinct policy goals. It recognizes the importance and distribution of biodiversity and requires protection of all biodiversity in all types of ecosystems and habitats. The CBD has three main objectives: the conservation of biological diversity; the sustainable use of its components; and, the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from such use. 32"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The CBD is largely a framework treaty that sets out the general parameters of the obligations and rights of member states but leaves the actual implementation of much if its components to decisions of the Conference of Parties (COP) and to the parties."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Significantly, the Convention's provisions, including the access and benefit sharing stipulations, do not apply to genetic resources collected prior to the convention's entry into force. Thus, seed banks and ex situ collections in existence before it came into force do not require the equitable sharing of benefits that was envisaged under the convention."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"In so far as conservation of genetic diversity of landraces generally is concerned, a number of Articles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promotion of their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices. This essentially means that not only are the traditional practices and lifestyles of local communities in maintaining crop genetic diversity recognised, but also calls for their scaling up. The role of indigenous local communities, often found in arid and semi-arid areas is also recognised. Another Article, 8 (k), calls for parties to the CBD to, as much as possible, develop or maintain necessary legislation and/or other regulatory provisions for the protection of threatened species and populations. This has direct policy relevance, as essentially, it calls for governments to put in place policy processes to protect threatened species and populations, noting that these would ordinarily include landraces in arid and semi-arid areas."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Secondly, Article 10 (c) calls for each contracting party to, as far as possible, protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Undeniably, practices developed overtime by local communities in arid and semi-arid areas in conserving genetic diversity of landraces on-farm fall within the rubric of \"traditional cultural practices\" 34 . The express reference to \"encourage customary use….\""},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"33 Article 8 (d), CBD."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"34 Ngweloruok is such an example. See footnote 6."}]},{"head":"Some International Instruments of Relevance to Local Communities in Conservation of Landraces","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"in the Article again, infers that there is legitimacy engaging in efforts to scale up community best practices that enhance the conservation of genetic diversity of landraces."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Finally, Article 11 provides for incentive measures 35 . Essentially, these incentive measures are often contained in the policy instruments that the governments and governmental institutions put in place to ensure conservation and sustainable use of components of biological diversity."}]},{"head":"TRIPS","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The TRIPS Agreement includes three items related to agriculture: geographical indications (Articles. 22-24); patent protection of agricultural chemical products (Articles. 70.8 and 70.9); and plant variety protection (Article 27.3(b)). Article 27. 3 (b) is the most relevant to the debate on conservation of genetic diversity."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Art 27.3(b) states that plants and animals as well as biological processes may be excluded from patentability. However, it imposes an explicit obligation on WTO member states to provide protection for plant varieties \"by patents or by an effective sui generis 36 system or any combination thereof\"."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Therefore member states are given considerable flexibility in providing protection to plant varieties. They can develop sui generis forms of protection, which are consistent with their interests (provided that it is \"effective\"). For instance, systems can be created that explicitly deal with the issue relating to the conservation and sustainable use of plant biodiversity, or that contribute to a nation's ability to address food and livelihood security for its citizens."},{"index":4,"size":202,"text":"Despite the flexibility to frame a regime for the protection of plant varieties and to determine the scope, level and form of protection to be conferred, such a regime would have to comply with the minimum standards established by the TRIPS Agreement. First, the regime would need to recognize the National Treatment principle whereby like products are treated the same regardless of their origin. Second, it would also have to respect the Most Favored Nation standard, which requires that any advantage accorded to nationals of a WTO member country has to be extended to any other member country. Third, the regime would also have to confer \"effective\" protection. This qualificationcontained in the body of Art 27.3(b) -is ambiguous since the Agreement provides no criteria to judge the \"effectiveness\", nor does it define what a sui generis system is. It could be argued that the qualification goes not to the level of protection but to the availability of legal mechanisms to enforce them. This ambiguity provides some flexibility in the sense that countries are left free to determine what is 'effective' for them. Finally, in the absence of an exception, the protection should also be granted to varieties of all genera and species."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"The granting of a patent on a plant variety implies that parties seeking to use the plant or plant variety for any purpose in that jurisdiction must obtain permission from the owner of the patent, which may introduce both administrative and procedural hurdles that can interfere with the flow of genetic resources."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"Furthermore, the obligation imposed by Article 27.3(b) to establish a legal regime that grants proprietary rights over plant varieties, whether through patents or a sui generis system means that TRIPS not only affects recognition of biodiversityrelated local technologies, innovations, and practices, but it also in a sense, precludes collective ownership of these resources by local communities for the common social good."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"Nonetheless, there is general agreement that Article 27.3(b) gives members some leeway in fashioning national laws that are consistent with their interests and contribute to their ability to address food and livelihood security for its citizens. Indeed, many countries have taken advantage of the sui generis option for the protection of plant varieties."}]},{"head":"ITPGRFA","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The FAO adopted the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) in November 2001 at its Thirty-first session. The Treaty entered into force on 29 June 2004, ninety days after it received its fortieth ratification, and now supersedes the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"The principal objectives of the Treaty are spelt out in Article 1.1: \"the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security\". It aims at ensuring that the inherited capital that PGRFA represent is conserved, and continues to supply the flow of services on which food security and development depend. Access to plant genetic resources and equitable benefit sharing therefore lies at the heart of the Treaty. This is ensured through a Multilateral System 37 of Access and Benefit Sharing in which the sovereign rights of states over their own genetic resources are recognized."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"While the Multilateral system covers only certain listed plant genetic resources, the Treaty sets a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of all PGRFA and establishes the institutional machinery to oversee the implementation of its provisions. This obviously includes, landraces. 38 It is essential to note that, from the outset, the ITPGRFA expressly states that it is compatible with the CBD 39 . It provides, in harmony with the CBD, for the special needs of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (hereafter referred to as \"PGRFA\"). In particular it allows for the conservation and continued flow across national boundaries of the plant genetic resources most important to sustain food security and on which all countries are interdependent."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Several Articles of the Treaty are of direct relevance to the maintenance of genetic diversity on-farm, by local communities. First, Article 5.1 (c) calls for each Contracting party to, subject to national legislation, and in cooperation with other Contracting Parties where appropriate, promote an integrated approach to the exploration, conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and shall in particular, as appropriate \"promote or support, as appropriate, farmers and local communities' efforts to manage and conserve on-farm their plant genetic resources for food and agriculture\"."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"Paragraph (c) calls for promotion or support of farmers and local communities efforts to manage and conserve their PGRFA on-farm. Where such 37 The Multilateral System includes the PGRFA listed under Annex 1 of the Treaty, which are chosen on the basis of their importance for food security and the degree to which countries are interdependent on them. The list currently covers 35 food crops, and 29 forage genera, representing more than 80% of the world's calorie intake."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"38 Article 2 defines PGRFA as \"any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture\"."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"39 See the preamble to the Treaty."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"efforts are lacking, then the Contracting Parties should strive to promote them. Where they do exist, the Contracting Parties should support those efforts, presumably through technical and financial support."},{"index":9,"size":108,"text":"The extent to which this support is provided, and the means by which it is provided, is left to the individual Contracting Parties to determine. An example of how this kind of support can be provided is the activities of the UNDP/GEF project in Ethiopia to promote \"A Dynamic Farmer-based Approach to the Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources\". 40 After constructing 12 community gene banks, the project is now working to link these to locally used seed storage systems in order to strengthen the seed supply and enhance its viability. This helps to preserve the traditional storage system and link it to national research stations, universities and ministries."},{"index":10,"size":287,"text":"Secondly, Article 5.1 (d) calls for contracting Parties to, subject to national legislation and where appropriate, promote in situ conservation of wild crop relatives and wild plants for food production, including in protected areas, by supporting, inter alia, the efforts of indigenous and local communities. The focus of this paragraph is the \"in situ conservation of wild crop relatives and wild plants for food production\". The wild relatives of crop plants, which include the progenitors of crops, as well as species more or less closely related to them, constitute an increasingly important resource for improving agricultural production and for maintaining sustainable agro-ecosystems. While most farmers and plant breeders normally prefer to work with existing cultivars or advanced breeding materials, as they are more productive and relatively easier to interbreed, they sometimes need to search further a field to find specific traits when faced with new or evolved pests and diseases or other ecological challenges. Wild relatives of crops are generally more difficult to work with, in that undesirable traits already present may be difficult to separate from the desirable trait. But where they are used, they can have quite dramatic results. Historically, they have contributed many useful genes to crop plants, and modern varieties of most crops now contain genes from their wild relatives. In modern varieties of potatoes, wheat, barley, rice, maize and oat, among other crops, traits from wild relatives have improved productivity as well as tolerance to pests, disease and difficult growing conditions. The paragraph specifically acknowledges the efforts of indigenous and local communities. At the same time, there is a clear statement that supporting the efforts of local communities is only one of many ways in which in situ conservation can be promoted."},{"index":11,"size":153,"text":"Finally, Article 9 provides for farmers' rights 41 . In Article 9.1, the enormous past, present and future contributions of farmers in conserving and developing plant genetic resources, particularly in centres of origin and crop diversity, and their fundamental importance to modern food and agriculture production is acknowledged. Article 9.2 makes it clear that under the Treaty the realization of Farmers' Rights is a matter for national governments. Under Article 9.2, each Contracting Party is encouraged, \"in accordance with their needs and priorities…as appropriate, and subject to its national legislation\", to take measures to protect and promote Farmers' Rights. The various limiting epithets are central to the meaning of the provision. Decisions regarding the measures, if any, to be taken to protect and promote Farmers' Rights are decisions that each government is to take as appropriate in the context of its own needs and priorities and in accordance with its own national legislation."},{"index":12,"size":81,"text":"The \"core\" content of Farmers' Rights at the national level is identified in paragraphs (a) to (c) of Article 9.2, as the protection of traditional knowledge, the right to participate in benefit sharing, and the right to participate in making decisions at the national level regarding PGRFA. It is important to note, however, that paragraphs (a) to (c) are only illustrative of the various components of Farmers' Rights, and do not exhaust the modalities by which Farmers' Rights may be realized."},{"index":13,"size":216,"text":"41 Article 9 provides as follows: \"9.1. The Contracting parties recognize the enormous contribution that the local and indigenous communities and farmers of all regions of the world, particularly those in the centres of origin and crop diversity, have made and will continue to make for the conservation and development of plant genetic resources which constitute the basis of food and agriculture production throughout the world. 9.2. The Contracting Parties agree that the responsibility for realizing Farmers' Rights, as they relate to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, rests with national governments. In accordance with their needs and priorities, each Contracting Party should, as appropriate, and subject to national legislation, take measures to protect and promote Farmer's Rights, including: (a) protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture; (b) the right to equitably participate in sharing of benefits arising from utilization of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture; and (c) the right to participate in making decisions, at the national level, on matters related to the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. 9.3 Nothing in this article shall be interpreted to limit any rights that farmers have to save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed/propagating material, subject to national law and as appropriate.\""}]},{"head":"UPOV","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"The UPOV system of plant variety protection 42 came into being with the adoption of the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants by a Diplomatic Conference in Paris in 1961 43 . This was the point at which there was recognition of the intellectual property rights of plant breeders in their varieties on an international basis. The UPOV exists to provide and promote an effective system of plant variety protection, in order to encourage the development of new plant varieties. The rationale for protecting new plant varieties is that breeding new varieties of plants requires a substantial investment in terms of skills, labour, material resources, and money, and may take many years. A new variety, once released in the market can in many cases be readily reproduced by others so as to deprive its breeder of the opportunity to profit adequately from his investment. The granting to a breeder of a new variety the exclusive right to exploit his variety both encourages him to invest in plant breeding and contributes to the development of agriculture, horticulture and forestry."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"The UPOV Convention has five main functions. First, it sets the standard rules for the grant of protection (novelty, distinctive, uniformity, stability and appropriate denomination). Secondly, it sets the minimum scope for protection. Thirdly, the Convention provides the minimum period for protection of plant varieties (20 years for plants and 25 years for trees and vines). Fourthly, it provides for the minimum number of plant genera and species whose varieties must be protected. Finally, the convention provides for rules for national treatment and priority, which regulate relations between member States."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The UPOV Convention is silent on the subject of traditional knowledge of local communities and genetic resources. However, the Convention does not forbid the granting or creation of rights in respect of traditional knowledge, or categories of plant material which are not plant varieties protected under the UPOV Convention. UPOV member States are free to establish a special system for the purpose of the protection of traditional knowledge so long as it does not conflict with the UPOV Convention."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"The plant variety protection system under the UPOV Convention has several special features relevant to the protection of the interests of farmers and local communities. The first feature lies in one of the conditions set for granting protection: distinctiveness."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"A plant variety in order to be protected must among others be distinct. Article 7 of the 1991 Act to the UPOV Convention provides that \"The variety shall be deemed to be distinct if it is clearly distinguishable from any other variety whose existence is a matter of common knowledge at the time of the filling of the application…\" Variety\" is defined in Article 1(vi) of the 1991 Act in such a way that plant groupings which do not satisfy the requirements for protection, e.g. some landraces, may still be varieties which are a matter of common knowledge for distinctness purpose. 44 This means that new varieties that are candidates for protection should be distinct from all other known varieties including those landraces and traditional varieties, as well as commercialized or protected varieties, which meet the definition of Article 1(vi) and have a reasonably fixed identity when reproduced. The UPOV system is designed to ensure that breeders cannot legally seek protection for existing landraces or local varieties as such or for varieties that are not clearly distinguishable from such landraces or local varieties."},{"index":6,"size":177,"text":"Secondly, in order to grant and enforce plant variety protection, the physical identity of the variety must be fixed in such a way that material of the variety can be identified as such, for example, in the field or in the seed cleaning plant. If necessary, as a last resort, it must be possible to convince a judge in a court of law that particular plant material is material of a particular protected plant variety. The UPOV Convention analyzes the question of varietal identity into the components of distinctness, sufficient uniformity and stability (Articles 7 to 9 of the 1991 Act). A variety must be distinct from other known varieties in order to be protected. Establishing the distinctness of a variety requires that it be sufficiently uniform in its relevant characteristics to enable a description to be prepared which will distinguish the variety from other varieties of the same species. It seems obvious that once this description is established, the variety must, when reproduced, continue to exhibit these characteristics, that is to say, it must be stable."},{"index":7,"size":113,"text":"If its physical characteristics change whenever it is reproduced, it will have no fixed identity to which a 44 Article 1 (vi) of the 1991 Act of the UPOV Convention provides that 'variety' means a plant grouping within a single botanical taxon of the lowest known rank, which grouping, irrespective of whether the conditions for the grant of a plant breeder's right are fully met, can be defined by the expression of characteristics resulting from a given genotype or combination of genotypes; distinguished from any other plant grouping by the expression of at least one of the said characteristics; and, considered as a unit with regard to its stability for being propagated unchanged."},{"index":8,"size":201,"text":"legal right can be attached. Uniformity and stability are not, as such, objectives of the UPOV Convention; they are criteria, which are essential to identify the subject matter of protection and to enable its effective enforcement. Some have proposed alternative criteria to distinctness, relative uniformity and stability, such as \"identifiability\" for the protection of plant varieties, especially for categories of plant material other than new varieties protected under the UPOV system. However, such suggestions fail to consider in any detail how varieties are distinguished from each other in practice. Consideration should be given as to whether such alternative approaches can, in practice, effectively fix the identity of the protected material and enable its effective protection. 45 Thirdly, breeder's exemption. In order to ensure the continuity and further development of plant improvement, under the UPOV Convention, a protected variety must be available without restriction, for use by others (other breeders, farmers, local communities etc) as starting material for the development of other new varieties. 46 The breeder of the resulting new plant variety must also be free, with one narrow exception 47 , to market his new variety without payment to the breeder of the protected variety used as the germplasm source."},{"index":9,"size":96,"text":"The UPOV concept is that, if the breeder of a variety uses the variety of another breeder as a germplasm source, his own variety should in its turn be freely available. Without this concept, the overall progress in plant breeding and therefore benefits for society will be greatly inhibited. It can be suggested that this needs to be carefully considered for any system of protecting traditional varieties or knowledge. The UPOV system is often contrasted with the patent system in which protected plant material may not be available for use by others as a germplasm source."},{"index":10,"size":56,"text":"The UPOV system takes into account the nature of plant breeding and endeavors to balance the interests of breeders/contributors to the improvement of genetic material throughout different generations. This principle of free access to protected varieties can be considered as a form of benefit sharing from 47 The exception is the case of essentially derived varieties."},{"index":11,"size":54,"text":"The 1991 Act extends the breeder's right to varieties that are essentially derived from the breeder's variety. The new principle is designed to protect the breeder in circumstances where others make a discrete change in his variety (e.g., the addition of a single gene by genetic engineering) and seek to exploit the changed variety."},{"index":12,"size":9,"text":"the utilization of genetic material, which is already available."},{"index":13,"size":122,"text":"Fourthly, article 15 (2) of the 1991 Act to the UPOV Convention provides that each Contracting Party may, within reasonable limits and subject to the safeguarding legitimate interests of the breeder restrict the breeder's right in relation to any variety in order to permit farmers to use for propagation purposes, on their own holdings, the protected variety. This article allows member states to, in light of national circumstance, exclude from the breeder's right the saving of part of the harvest of a holding for re-use as seed on the same holding. In this respect member states are free to establish appropriate provisions to balance the interests of both farmers and breeders in light of common practices in the country and national circumstances."},{"index":14,"size":67,"text":"Finally, The 1991 Act of the UPOV Convention contains a provision in Article 15(1) which requires States which accede to the 1991 Acts to shelter from the effect of the protection right all acts carried out for private and non-commercial purposes. As a result of this provision all acts with a protected variety of indigenous and local communities for subsistence purposes clearly fall outside the breeder's right."},{"index":15,"size":29,"text":"Equally it would seem possible for States, if they so wish, to exclude informal non-commercial seed exchanges between farmers from the effects of the breeder's right under this provision."}]},{"head":"African Model Law","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":282,"text":"The establishment of the African Model Legislation for the Protection of The Rights of Local Communities, Farmers and Breeders, and for the Regulation of Access to Biological Resources (\"The African Model Law\" (AML)) was an initiative of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), currently known as the African Union. Developed as a sui generis system, its main aim is to provide members of the African Union with a legal framework for the formulation of a legal instrument relevant to their national interest while providing for the protection of new plant varieties as required by the TRIPS Agreement. The principal objective of the Model Law is to \"ensure the conservation, evaluation and sustainable use of biological resources, including agricultural genetic resources as well as associated traditional knowledge in order to improve their diversity as a means of sustaining the life support systems.\" The AML recognizes \"the rights of local communities over their biological resources, knowledge and technologies that repre sent the very nature of their livelihood systems and that have evolved over gen erations of human history, are of a col lective nature and, there fore, are a priori rights which take precedence over rights based on private interests\". 48 As far as conservation of genetic diversity of landraces on farm by local communities is concerned, the AML contains the following relevant provisions: first, in article 16, the States recognize the rights of communities over, inter alia their biological resources; the right to collectively benefit from the use of their biological resources 49 ; their innovations, practices, knowledge and technologies acquired through generations; and, the right to use their innovations, practices, knowledge and technologies in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Secondly, Article 17 provides for the protection of these community rights. This is important because for every right granted in law, protection must be offered 50 ."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Thirdly, Article 21 provides that local communities shall exercise their inalienable right to access, use, exchange or share their biological resources in sustaining their livelihood systems as regulated by their customary practices and laws, and that no legal barriers shall be placed on the traditional exchange system of the local communities in the exercise of their rights and in other rights that may be provided by the customary practices and laws of the concerned local communities. The right for communities to particularly exchange or share their biological resources is at the heart of conservation and maintenance of plant genetic diversity."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Fourth, community intellectual rights are recognized and protected. with rules of practice as found in, and recognized by, the customary practices and laws of the concerned local farming communities, whether such laws are written or not."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"The AML is soft in nature, meaning that it is intended to provide a model which Africa countries drafting legislation on matters covered by its scope can rely on. Several African countries have relied on the AML in drafting legislation and regulation, particularly that relating to access to genetic resources. An example is Uganda and Ethiopia."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"The rationale for this process guide is to aid countries in linking up best practices to policies with a view to conserve diversity of landraces, at different community levels. It is based on the assumption that once a community in a country, identifies a best practice and the barrier hindering its widespread amongst other communities, then, the next logical step is to take measures to ensure that the best practice is scaled up. This in return will scale up the conservation of genetic diversity of landraces onfarm."},{"index":7,"size":100,"text":"Another assumption made is that the group of persons (or participants) employing this guide do understand what policy is, and are in a position to somehow, influence the policy making process in the community or country otherwise the exercise would be rendered futile. Finally, an assumption is made that during the plenary sufficient awareness is created on the current policies in the country and how they affect conservation. This aids in facilitating debate, especially in phase II step 2 hereinbelow (where participants consider the impact each policy instrument will have in conservation of genetic diversity of landraces on-farm within communities)."},{"index":8,"size":151,"text":"Essentially, the process of testing this thematic guide is through an exercise, and in phases. The participants in this exercise should include farmers, or at least farmer representatives, as farmers are the ultimate beneficiaries of the formulated policy processes. Annex II provides a list of stationery and other material that is used in the forum where this guide is used, essentially a workshop. • Once all the participants have listed the areas, the next step involves the participants, engaging in a brainstorming session, and with the guidance of a facilitator, clustering the areas written by each participant, into a number of groups 53 . While clustering the areas written by the participants, participants should not criticize what each or the other has written. An approach that what each participant has written is correct should be taken so as to bring out, as wide as possible, those areas that require policy intervention."}]},{"head":"Phase I: Group Work","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• Following the above, the facilitator divides the participants into a number of smaller groups, each group having not more than 6-7 participants 54 ."}]},{"head":"Phase II: Individual Groups Discussions","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• Each group, having been assigned or chosen a cluster area to deliberate, retires for discussions."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Prior to commencing individual group discussions, each group must immediately appoint a chair to lead the discussions. The chair also is responsible for reporting the proceedings and the outcome of the discussions at the plenary after the conclusion of the discussions."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Each group is required to approach discussions with regard to the cluster areas that require intervention by taking the following steps:"},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"1. Identify the policy instruments that are required in instituting policy in the areas that require intervention. The rationale for this process is for participants to think as broadly as possible, and NOT limit themselves to legislation as the only tool that may be used for intervention. For each area in the cluster that requires intervention, members of the group are required to tabulate their answers following the format given in Annex 1."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"53 The clustering of the areas is dependent upon the number of groups the participants can form with each group having not more that 6-7 persons to as to ensure maximum participation amongst members of each group."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"54 While forming the groups, the facilitator should bear in mind that each group should be composed of persons from as diverse professional and experience backgrounds as possible, so that as diverse as possible experiences are brought out in the discussions."}]},{"head":"A Process Guide for Identifying Policy Instruments","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Required to Sustain or Scale-Up Best Practices and Developing Mechanisms for their Implementation 2. The next step involves the participants considering the impact each policy instrument will have in conservation of genetic diversity of landraces on-farm within communities."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"3. The group thereafter considers what windows of opportunity currently, or in the near future, will exists within the country's policy making process that they may be able to influence or take advantage of. It should be borne in mind during this step, that while more windows of opportunity exist during the policy formulation process, they may also exist during policy implementation."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"4. Who could provide the intervention? This requires the participants in the group to identify those individuals, institutions or organizations that are in charge of the policy making process, the windows of opportunity having been identified."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"5. The participants thereafter consider how the individuals, institutions or organizations incharge may be influenced in the policy making process so that the areas that require intervention are captured in the policy being formulated."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"6. The next consideration that the participants make is the time frame that is available, or would be required to effect the policy. The policy instrument or processes to be employed dictate time frames. For example, if say, a bill in parliament is identified as a window of opportunity, then the participants could establish how relevant amendments would be made before the bill becomes law. This would ordinarily take a longer time than say, if the window of opportunity that exists is a public institution that is initiating a project in the relevant area."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"7. Finally, the participants identify the next immediate steps that they will take either individually or collectively, with a view to achieve the desired goal in putting the policy into effect."}]},{"head":"Phase III: Reporting and Plenary Discussions","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Each group chair presents the results of the group discussions to the plenary in a flip chart."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"At the end of each presentation, members of each group are asked by the plenary facilitator to make comments on the presentation made by the group chair."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"• After all the group chairs have made their presentations, the facilitator requests all the participants to deliberate on the priority areas that they would like to follow up from the results listed on \"next steps\". The rationale for prioritizing the next steps is based on the acknowledgement that resources are always limited and the idea here is for participants to come up with realistic steps from which tangible goals will be achieved."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Once the participants agree on the next steps, the facilitator thereafter closes the session."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"There is without doubt, a pressing need to strengthen best practices that motivate farmers to conserve crop genetic diversity and landraces in particular. One way of strengthening these practices is by linking them to national policies. The practices outlined in this paper have been obtained using research based evidence. The better use of research-based evidence in development policy and practice, it has been stated 55 , can help save lives, reduce poverty, increase food security and improve lives."},{"index":6,"size":134,"text":"In this regard, for research to be effective in influencing policy, researchers need to develop a detailed understanding of the policy making process, the nature of the evidence they have, or hope to get, and all the stakeholders involved in the policy arena. 56 By giving a step by step process guide for identifying policy instruments required to sustain or scale-up best practices and developing mechanisms for their implementation, this study is a tool which researchers can use to influence policy. The importance of conserving crop genetic diversity cannot be understated. With nations continuing to recognize the value multilateral systems have in improving food security (for example, the ITPRGFA), and debates of linkages between farmers' knowledge, food security and improved livelihoods continuing, research-based evidence cannot do any better than provide the rationale for conservation."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"Finally, as this study has shown, research is a very influential tool in policymaking process. Thus a consideration should be made on whether all research conducted ought to have a linking-research-to-policy component. If this was promoted, the perception that researchers and policy makers live in parallel universes would cease, and policy makers would stop bemoaning the inability of many researches being inaccessible and digestible in time for policy decisions. 57 57 Id."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The diversity of practices that drive landrace conservation Project Background and Summary"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Community-based management of onfarm plant genetic resources in semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"This IPGRI coordinated project is conducted in semi-arid ecosystems in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Malawi, Uganda and Zimbabwe with implementation support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and co fi nancing from the Global Environment Facility (GEF)."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"In marginal agricultural areas where modern crop varieties and inputs are less available and less effective, resource-poor farmers continue to use traditional cultivars or landraces to contribute to stable food production and income. The use of varieties adapted to particular microniches is one of the few livelihood strategies available in semi arid areas. Farmers have, over generations, identifi ed, developed and maintained useful genetic diversity within their local agroecosystems as a means to increase or maintain production. However, in the 20 th century a wide range of plant diversity was lost as farmers abandoned their traditional cultivars as a result of pressures from increased population, poverty, land degradation, environmental change and the introduction of modern crop varieties. The project is designed to better understand why farmers -even faced with such pressures -continue to maintain and use some landraces."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"In general, practices are grouped into management practices that looked at the processes that contribute to the maintenance of landraces on farm, and uses that maintained particular landraces. A practice is linked to at least one landrace and that practice is essential to the survival of a specifi c landrace in a specifi c case study or environment. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"45 Greengrass, B., 'Plant Varity Protection and the Protection of Traditional Knowledge'. Paper presented during the UNCTAD Expert Meeting on Systems and National Experiences for Protecting Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices. Geneva, 30th October-1st November, 2000. Paper on file with the authors. 46 Article 15 of the 1991 Act to the UPOV Convention. "},{"text":" diversity of practices across Africa, often strongly ro that drives landrace conservat be maintained to ensure con and use of landraces. Creating that recognizes, appreciate learns to build on the pos landraces and the practices conservation is probably the practice identifi ed.So why do some landr persist?Taste, convenience and ma case of rice in northern Gh Tropical and sub-tropical Afric diversity for the African rice O The grain has high gluten n s of indigenous rice varieties t modern varieties, which is a p their maintenance. These att the short cooking time requir their suitability for traditional waakye (cooked rice and bean so on. Indigenous rice varietie suited to parboiling, a proce rice grains by soaking, steam to reduce grain breakage at m local rice is an important w in Northern Ghana, engagin women and providing them Parboiled rice from the Uppe Ghana commands a high pric at all times. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"c1bd6d21-05db-41f2-ac98-55bdeffb4d1f","abstract":"Financial support for Bioversity's research is provided by more than 150 donors, including governments, private foundations and international organizations. This report is a product of a Bioversity coordinated project conducted in semi-arid ecosystems in Benin,"}
data/part_5/09882e3f6769773a059a7ed7ab8a389f.json ADDED
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1
+ {"metadata":{"id":"09882e3f6769773a059a7ed7ab8a389f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28cf4cf8-de70-4f08-acdd-e201e71d9682/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• Use only certified seeds produced in MLN free areas for each growing season • Avoid using grain as seeds, and seeds from previous infected maize plants or fields."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Clean farm equipment/tools using disinfectants before and after use to eliminate MLN virus contamination."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• Monitor the field every week for presence of insect vector population. A high insect vector population increases chances of MLN infection. • Maintain a clean farm by removing grasses, weeds and other alternative hosts from fields."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"• Scout weekly for MLN viral symptoms for early detection and control of insect vectors. Uproot MLN symptomatic plants and destroy them through burning. • Do not feed MLN-infected plants to livestock, such as cattle."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"• Control of insect vectors can be done using recommended insecticides (once every 1-2 weeks). • Spray insecticides either in the morning or evening but not in hot and windy period. Before roguing plants, spray systemic insecticides."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• Practice crop rotation for at least one season by growing noncereal crops preferably legumes (beans, soybean and peas). The CGIAR Plant Health Initiative will continue to focus on mitigating the threat of MLN in sub-Saharan Africa through partnerships with national and regional partners on:"},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"1. Monitoring and surveillance of MLN by the NPPOs. 2. Implementing an integrated disease management strategy, including MLN-free commercial seed production and deployment, and promoting awareness of farming communities on MLN and its management. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" • Avoid continuous cropping of maize ensuring a closed maize season of at least 2 months where possible • Make sure the soil in the farm is fertile at all times. This ensures crop are healthy thus can fight disease infections. • Remove and incinerate previous crop debris if the previous crop was noticed with MLN suspected maize plants. Ensure all the farm free from volunteer maize or cereal plants. Training to partners on Harmonized checklists for MLN-free commercial seed production at Kitale, Kenya. ▪ MLN Phytosanitary Community of Practice, including Researchers, Seed producers and the NPPOs. ▪ MLN management checklist for seed companies to produce MLN-free seed. ▪ Training of stakeholder on the use of the checklists. ▪ Disseminating communication materials on MLN disease management in local languages ▪ Creating awareness among the diverse stakeholders in the maize value chain on SOPs for producing and exchanging MLN-free commercial seed. • \"MLN Screening Facility\" established by CIMMYT and Kenya Agricultural and livestock Research Organization (KALRO) in 2013. Over 230,000 row of maize germplasm, including breeding lines and populations, have been screened so far. • 19 CIMMYT-derived MLN-tolerant/resistant maize hybrids have been released by partners in eastern Africa. • Around 53 parents of present commercial hybrids were improved for MLN resistance by trait introgression. ▪ 1. Disseminating information on farming practices for minimizing MLN incidence and update in MLN web portal. ▪ 2. Establishing an MLN Phystosanitary Community of Practice for sharing of learning, MLN diagnostic and surveillance protocols, and best management practices for MLN control in Africa. ▪ 3. Strengthening capacities of national plant protection organizations (NPPOs) on MLN diagnostics, monitoring and surveillance system. Web portal: mln.cimmyt.org 1. Periodical surveillance in breeding site at Kiboko from CIMMYT and KEPHIS team. 2. Testing every single seed entry at CIMMYT lab, Nairobi. 3. Testing the seeds at KEPHIS lab and get Phyto-certificate. 4. After seed arrival, testing the seeds again at Harare, Zimbabwe. 5. Growing these germplasm in quarantine facility Mazowe and testing the seeds and finally distribute to all nonendemic countries. 1. Optimization of MCMV diagnostic protocol using immunostrip and surveillance system using digital ODK platform. 2. Training NPPO's, SME's and NARS for MCMV diagnosis and disease surveillance. 3. Conducting MCMV surveillance in ESA during 2016-2019. 4. Updating the MLN surveillance data (country wide) in MLN web-portal. The Maize Lethal Necrosis (MLN) disease of maize emerged in eastern Africa in 2011-2012, affecting the food security and livelihoods of several million smallholder farmers. Intensive efforts by CGIAR, together with national and international partners, helped in implementing a modern surveillance and monitoring system, spread improved agricultural practices for the disease control, deploy MLN-tolerant/resistant varieties, and curb the spread of the disease through safe germplasm exchange and distribution. An MLN Phytosanitary Community of Practice was established among national plant protection organizations and commercial seed sector. MLN is still prevalent however in eastern Africa. Continued efforts are needed through the CGIAR Plant Health Initiative to implement MLN monitoring and management strategies to contain the disease in eastern Africa, and prevent its spread to other regions in sub-Saharan Africa. Prasanna et al. (2020). Maize lethal necrosis (MLN): Efforts toward containing the spread and impact of a devastating transboundary disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Virus Research https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.197943 . "},{"text":"3 . Strengthening partners' capacity on MLN surveillance, diagnostics, and management. "}],"sieverID":"1ec030cb-9d56-4606-81f3-5a7523639211","abstract":"• Selection of the field with careful study on cropping / disease history. • Avoid maize planting, where neighbor field is with older maize crop with suspected MLN symptomatic plants. 2 Preparation of Field 3 Use of Certified -MLN disease free seeds 4 Use of Clean / disinfected farm tools and equipments 5 Scouting, rouging, and clean crop cultivation 6 Managing insect vectors 7 Rouging and incinerating infected plant parts 8 Crop rotation and Host free period"}
data/part_5/09d6f489511b4a63d42ca4a670990f0b.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"09d6f489511b4a63d42ca4a670990f0b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ecc3ab24-df0e-4187-9e05-b3881ddce987/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Realistic assessment of irrigation potential in the Lake Tana basin, Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Ethiopia has a large potential of water and land resources that could be easily developed for irrigation. Instead, the country continues to receive food aid for about 10% of the population who are at risk annually (Makombe et al. 2007). Ethiopia's irrigable land is underutilized; only 4 to 5% of the potential 3.35 million hectares has been developed (Seleshi et al. 2007). The Government of Ethiopia is committed to solving this paradox through an agriculture-led development program that includes irrigation development as one of the strategies. While the Ethiopian highlands are contributing more than 80% the Nile flow in Egypt, only a tiny portion of the Nile waters are being used in Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"In the 2010-2015 Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP), Lake Tana in the upper Blue Nile Basin is considered a development corridor for economic growth. To optimize the use of the renewable water resources, comprehensive, reliable and timely information on the agricultural resources is required. Therefore, the aim of this study is both to identify potential areas suitable for irrigation using a multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) and to quantify the available surface water potential for surface irrigation by analysing past river discharges."}]},{"head":"General objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The general objective of this research is to assess the irrigation potential based on river discharge and land suitability in the Lake Tana Basin. The specific objectives of this study are:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Quantifying river discharge available for irrigation in the major rivers of Lake Tana Basin and their potential for surface irrigation."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Mapping of areas suitable for irrigation based on a GIS based multi-criteria evaluation by ranking and pairwise comparisons."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Identifying medium-and large-scale areas over 200 ha, those that are suitable for irrigation and areas that can be irrigated with existing river discharges."}]},{"head":"Description of study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The study is carried out in the Lake Tana Basin, with a total catchment area of around 15,000 km 2 , of which the lake covers around 3000 km 2 . The lake is located at 12º00'N, 37º15'E in the northwest highlands of Ethiopia (Abeyou 2009). The elevation of the watershed ranges from 1786 to 4107 masl and the slope ranges from 0 to 167%, with an average slope of 47%. The mean annual rainfall (1992−2006) is 1430 mm at Bahir Dar Station, south of the lake and 1090 mm at Gondar Station north of Lake Tana."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Suitable irrigable area determined by land suitability"},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Land evaluation involves the execution and interpretation of basic surveys of climate, soils, vegetation and other aspects of land in terms of the requirements of alternative forms of land use (FAO 1976 and1981). Based on GIS techniques pioneered in the Abaya-Chamo Basin by Wagesho (2004) and in the Beles subbasin by Hailegebriel (2007), this study evaluates land suitability for irrigation by mapping major factors such as climate characteristics like river proximity, soil type, land use, topography/slope and market outlets."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Factor vector maps consisting of the basin's road network, river network and towns are projected in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 37 N. These maps are interpolated by Euclidian distance to determine road, water and town proximity. In addition, the daily aggregated long-term average monthly rainfall and potential evaporation data are interpolated by Thiessen Polygon method to determine the spatial distribution of the rainfall deficit, by subtracting rainfall from the evapotranspiration. The monthly deficits are accumulated to estimate the annual deficit and to represent the annual irrigation water requirement. Finally, land use and soil maps of the study area are reclassified to four different ranges of suitability groups based on their suitability and FAO soil definition (FAO 2006) and the slope map is computed from a 90 m SRTM DEM pixel by pixel."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Weighting of decision factors are determined based on the importance of each variable in determining the irrigation potential and are mainly based on expert knowledge. In this study, two types of weighting approaches are applied: the ranking technique and pairwise comparison technique. The ranking involves ordering of decision factors in their relative order of importance. (Rossiter et al. 1999). To calculate the weights, the pairwise matrix is prepared comparing factors head-to-head using pairwise comparison scale (Saaty 1977). The overall weights of the factor maps are then distributed to the suitability classes by equal interval ranges technique. The reclassified and weighted factor maps are overlain and a preliminary surface irrigation area suitability map is computed for two different weighting scenarios by the Weighted Overlay tool of ArcGIS Spatial Analyst Toolbox. Using Equation 1 the preliminary suitable area is mapped."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"where S: is the pixel value in the preliminary suitability map, f i : factor map and W i : weight of the factor map, n : number of factors."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"An additional constraint map is prepared for those areas that are defined as permanently not suitable by FAO (1976 and1981) framework, are mainly consisting of water bodies, wetlands, urban areas, forest and protected areas. These maps are than filtered for identifying large and small-scale continuous areas that are suitable for irrigation."}]},{"head":"Surface water availability","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Information on low-flow is required for the amount water available for surface water irrigation application during the dry monsoon phase. The low flows were calculated for the major tributaries (i.e. Gilgel Abay, Gumara, Ribb and Megech rivers) with daily averaged discharges for the years 1980-2007. These four rivers contribute more than 93% of the total lake inflow (Kebede et al. 2006). The daily discharge data were obtained from the Ethiopian Ministry of Water and Energy. Low-flow characteristics were estimated using a flow duration curve and by determining the 90 percentile available flow and is described as the flow exceeded for 90% (Q90) of the time. The flows were determined by ranking all daily discharge (Reilly and Kroll 2003;Saeid et al. 2010)."}]},{"head":"Irrigation potential area determined by water availability","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The irrigated area was estimated as the quotient of the Q90 (discharges exceed 9 out of 10 years) and the maximum crop water requirement during the growing season of the crop. The dominant crops in the Lake Tana basin include barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum, teff, beans and rice. According to FAO '56' (Richard 1998), the maximum value of the crop coefficient for the dominant crop is 1.15 which is for rice. In the calculation of the consumptive use, we consider the evaporation of the crop (rice in this case), inefficiencies in irrigation water application and water requirements for special application such as land preparation and leaching were taken into account. Irrigation efficiency considering all losses was assumed 60% of the total crop water requirement. The crop evaporation is computed using Penman-Monteith by multiplying the potential evaporation by 1.15 (crop coefficient of rice at the mid-season) which is the maximum value. The total crop water requirement can then be computed as:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"where CWR: Crop Water Requirement; ET: Crop Evapotranspiration; ETo: potential evaporation and Kc crop coefficient."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Weighting of factors and suitable areas for irrigation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"The pairwise matrix was constructed first. It consists of the first eight columns in Table 1. Eight factors are listed ranging from soil to slope. The pairwise matrix compares the importance for surface irrigation of each of the factors on the left to another factor on the top. Thus, for example in Table 1 'river proximity' is much more important factor than land use for determining the suitability of a particular piece of land for irrigation. Hence, we assign the value of 7 (the highest number but the actual value is arbitrary) at the intersection of the row of 'river proximity' and the column of land use. Conversely, 'land use' the left of the Table 1 is much less important than 'river proximity' on the top and we assign the reciprocal of 7 (i.e. 1/7) to the intersection of these two factors. In Table 1 we can see that river proximity is the most important factor since it has all integer values followed by road proximity that only has one value less than 1 in its row and that is in the column with river proximity. The least important factor in considering surface water irrigation is land use with all values in the land use row being less than 1."},{"index":2,"size":257,"text":"Next, the weights were computed by pairwise weighting according to Saaty (1977) and ranking method by Rossiter et al. (1999) and as described above. These calculated weights are listed in the last two columns of Table 1 where the greater the value, the more important the factor. The sum of each of the last two columns is 100. Both weighting approaches ranked the factors in the same order: river proximity was the most important factor followed by proximity of the road and slope of the land. Land use as expected was the least important factor. The factors' weights in pairwise comparison have a higher standard deviation than ranking technique (11 and 5 respectively). The weights of each factor in the last two columns of Table 1 are further subdivided into four intervals for each map pixel to indicate how favourable the pixel is in determining the irrigation suitability. For example, the 'river proximity' factor in the pairwise weighting method the pixels closest to the river are given a value of 32. The pixels at greatest distance from the river are assigned a value of 32 divided by four or eight. By summing all the modified weights of each pixel, a preliminary surface irrigation area suitability map is computed using the Weighted Overlay Tool available in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst Toolbox. Subsequently, the non-suitable areas according to FAO are taken into account, followed by filtering and thresholding to determine continuous suitable areas for irrigation that are greater than 200 ha. More detail is given in Worqlul et al. (2013)."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"In Table 2 the irrigated areas suitable for irrigation and larger than 200 ha for the pairwise weighting methods are shown for each of the major tributary rivers of Lake Tana Basin. These areas are in the same range as Seleshi et al. (2007) and capture reasonably the existing irrigation area on the Fogera and Dembia flood plains. For that reason, the pairwise weighting is preferred above the ranking weighting technique. The distribution of the suitable areas for each basin are shown in Figure 1, where the green colour indicates the areas suitable for irrigation in the Gilgel Abay basin, yellow are the areas suitable in the Ribb, light blue for the Gumara and the intermediate blue of the Megech."},{"index":4,"size":249,"text":"The dark blue colour is the Lake Tana. Table 2 and Figure 1 show that the Gilgel Abay has the largest suitable area of 54,900 ha but at the same time, the smallest portion of the total basin (12%) compared to the other basins. Table 2 also indicates that the highest portion of suitable area of 19% is in the Megech watershed but at the same time has the lowest total area. Most of the large and medium scale command areas suitable for irrigation areas are in the Gilgel Abay basin (see Figure 1 and Table 2). and that is exceeded 9 out of every 10 years are given in Table 3. The Gilgel Abay has the greatest Q90 flows has also the largest drainage basin. The Megech has the lowest Q90 and has the smallest suitable area. The irrigation potential of the 90 percentile available water is computed by dividing the available water by the total crop water requirement. The result indicated, November has the maximum irrigation potential of approximately 4100 ha and April has the minimum potential of 3000 ha. In Figure 2, the irrigation potential of the 90 percentile available flow are shown in red and are located in the most desirable places mainly based on distance to the river and access to the markets. Figure 1 also indicated the irrigation potential of the available water is very small especially, the irrigation potential of the available water in the Ribb and Megech basin is almost insignificant."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"In this study, surface water irrigation potential of Lake Tana Basin is mapped based on landscape related factors such as proximity to river, slope and soil of the areas that were suitable irrigation projects larger than 200 ha in the Lake Tana basin. We found that less than 3% of this potentially irrigable land could actually be irrigated with the available flow in the river at the end of the dry monsoon phase. We conclude that the main limitation for surface irrigation in the Ethiopian highlands is the available water and not land suitable for irrigation. Future estimates of irrigation potential should take into account that run off of the river systems can only be expanded to a limited degree and that future expansion should involve building of reservoirs, or sustainable use of groundwater if available."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure Surface irrigation potential of Lake Tana indicated by green for the Gilgil Abay yellow for the Ribb, light blue for the Gumara and the intermediate blue of the Megech. The red area is that can be irrigated during the dry monsoon phase for 9 out of 10 years and are located in those areas that have the greatest irrigation potential. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Flow duration curves for the Gilgel Abay, Ribb, Gumara and Megech for 1980 to 2007 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Pairwise comparison matrix and weighting by ranking technique Factors Soil Land River Urban Road Rain Slope Pairwise Ranking FactorsSoilLandRiverUrbanRoadRainSlopePairwiseRanking use proximity proximity proximity deficit weighting weighting useproximityproximityproximitydeficitweightingweighting Soil 1 4 1/3 4 ½ 2 1/3 12 15 Soil141/34½21/31215 Land use 1/4 1 1/7 1/2 1/6 1/3 1/5 3 7 Land use1/411/71/21/61/31/537 River Proximity 3 7 1 6 2 4 2 32 20 River Proximity37162423220 Urban Proximity 1/4 2 1/6 1 1/5 1/2 1/4 4 9 Urban Proximity1/421/611/51/21/449 Road Proximity 2 6 1/2 5 1 2 2 22 18 Road Proximity261/251222218 Rain deficit 1/2 3 1/4 2 ½ 1 1/3 8 14 Rain deficit1/231/42½11/3814 Slope 3 5 1/2 4 ½ 3 1 19 17 Slope351/24½311917 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Spatial distribution of irrigation area suitability of the major tributaries of Lake Tana Basin Suitable Area Number of large scale Number of medium scale suitable Percentage of Suitable AreaNumber of large scaleNumber of medium scale suitablePercentage of (ha) command areas (>3000 command areas suitable area (ha)command areas (>3000command areassuitable area ha) (>200 ha and < 3000 ha) ha)(>200 ha and < 3000 ha) Gilgel Abay 54,894 4 78 12 Gilgel Abay54,89447812 Ribb 31,780 3 4 16 Ribb31,7803416 Gumara 24,805 2 16 14 Gumara24,80521614 Megech 19,029 2 8 19 Megech19,0292819 Total 130,508 11 106 Total130,50811106 "},{"text":"Table 3 . Flow duration curves the major tributary rivers of Lake Tana Flow exceedance Gilgel Abay Gumara Ribb Megech Flow exceedanceGilgel AbayGumaraRibbMegech probability (m 3 /s) (m 3 /s) (m 3 /s) (m 3 /s) probability(m 3 /s)(m 3 /s)(m 3 /s)(m 3 /s) 90% 1.90 0.70 0.12 0.06 90%1.900.700.120.06 Areas suitable for irrigation vs. surface water availability Areas suitable for irrigation vs. surface water availability To calculate the crop water requirement a potential evaporation rate was calculated by Penman Moenteith approach To calculate the crop water requirement a potential evaporation rate was calculated by Penman Moenteith approach and it ranges from 2.8 mm in June (cold and rainy) to 4.4 mm in April (the warmest and driest month). The total crop and it ranges from 2.8 mm in June (cold and rainy) to 4.4 mm in April (the warmest and driest month). The total crop water requirement computed on monthly basis with Equation 2 ranges from 5.2 mm/day in the rainy season to a water requirement computed on monthly basis with Equation 2 ranges from 5.2 mm/day in the rainy season to a maximum of 8.1 mm/day. maximum of 8.1 mm/day. "}],"sieverID":"8c37f2e2-d8e9-425d-826a-5b76a9dbd1ac","abstract":"Although Ethiopia has a large potential to develop irrigation, only 5% of the 3.5 million hectares of land potentially available has been developed. To examine the underlying causes, this study evaluates the suitability of surface water irrigation for the Lake Tana Basin development corridor. Surface water availability and land potentially suitable for medium and large-scale irrigation development (200 ha and larger) was considered. Surface water potential was examined by considering river discharges. Land suitable for irrigation was determined with a GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation (MCE), which considers the interaction of various factors, such as climate, river proximity, soil type, land cover, topography/slope and market outlets. The result indicates that nearly 11% of the Lake Tana Basin is suitable for surface irrigation. However, by analysing 27 years of river discharge, less than 3% of the potential irrigable area (or less than 0.25% of the basin area) could be irrigated consistently by run-of-the river-systems. Thus, the irrigation potential in the Lake Tana Basin can only be met by increasing dry season flows (if proven feasible) and by supplying water from existing or future reservoirs or by using water directly from Lake Tana.Media grab: Ethiopia is blessed with extensive land areas suitable for irrigation, but actually irrigated area is limited by very low river flows at the end of the dry monsoon phase. Thus, expanding the irrigated area can only be achieved by overcoming the low flow constraints by either increasing base flow or by using water stored during the rainy monsoon phase in reservoirs or from existing lakes."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a4e2008dafa1353dc9032c1bde76918","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/assessment/files_new/publications/ICRISATReport43.pdf"},"pageCount":38,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Executive Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"In order to meet increasing demands of food due to increasing population and income, food production in India and other South Asian countries need to be increased. However, lately there has been a signifi cant slow-down in the growth rate in the cultivated area, production and yield. Potential yields in experimental areas are also stagnating. It is, therefore, important to secure the past yield gains and further increase the potential yield of major food crops. It is also very important to know how much additional food can be produced in different regions to meet the increasing demand. In view of such stagnations, we need to know if the genetic yield ceiling have been reached for critical crops or are there some other factors that are not allowing yields to increase. Estimates of these potentials can assist in quantifying the carrying capacity of agro-ecosystems."},{"index":2,"size":213,"text":"Rain-fed agriculture in India is practiced on 94 million hectares (M ha). These regions have low grain yields and are, therefore, considered to have great potential for increasing production in future. The main objective of this analysis is, therefore, to estimate the rain-fed potential yields of rice, wheat, mustard and cotton crops in different regions, considering the spatial and temporal variation in climatic features and available agricultural technology. These yields can be interpreted as the upper limit that can be achieved by the current varieties in a rain-fed scenario with soil and weather as the only yield reducing factors. In this analysis, we have used InfoCrop, a generic dynamic crop simulation model with sensitivity to variety, agronomic management, soil, weather, fl ooding, frost and pests, for quantifi cation of rain-fed potential yields in different regions. The model has been calibrated and validated in typical rain-fed and irrigated areas' cultivating crops considered in this analysis. Yields in technology maximization experiments (plant breeder's fi elds) and onfarm technology demonstration plots (frontline demonstrations) have also been used as additional measures of potential yield. Yield gaps have been quantifi ed by comparing these yield levels with the region's average yield. The difference between potential rain-fed yields and measured regional yields is considered as the biophysical yield gap."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"In rice, the results showed that irrespective of the defi nition of potential yield, there is considerable yield gap across all states, indicating a large scope for increasing rain-fed yields in future. On an average, the yield gap relative to simulated rain-fed potential was close to 2500 kg ha -1 . The all India mean gap for rain-fed rice was at least 1670 kg ha -1 . Overall, the gaps were generally smaller in West Bengal and it was the highest in Uttar Pradesh."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"In cotton, the mean yield gap between simulated rain-fed potential yield and state average yield was 1120 kg ha -1 . This yield gap at the experimental station level was only 640 kg ha -1 . At the on-farm level, the gap was somewhat similar to that of the experimental stations. In the main rain-fed cotton producing states, there is suffi cient gap that can possibly be bridged by improved management in future. To summarize, yield gap is high in Gujarat and Maharashtra, modest in Andhra Pradesh and relatively low in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"The results showed that in mustard the gaps between simulated rain-fed potential yield and the state average yield was 860 kg ha -1 . Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal having large mustard cultivation showed considerable yield gap due to their large simulated rain-fed potential yields. The gap was, however, generally small at the experimental station level as well as on-farm. vi In wheat, since the measured yields were signifi cantly large due to confounding effect of irrigation, the calculated yield gaps were either nil or rather small. Karnataka, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh showed a gap of 80 kg ha -1 to 800 kg ha -1 at different scales."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"These studies have shown that there are still considerable yield gaps in rain-fed crops that can be bridged in future to meet the increasing food requirements. In all the crops, these gaps would be larger than our calculations if the yield data from irrigated areas could be separated from the measured state data."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"The production of food grains in India increased considerably since 1960s due to increase in arable area, large-scale cultivation of high yielding semi-dwarf varieties and increased applications of irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides. India became food secure in the last three decades, at gross level, because of increase in food production. The food security of India and other countries in South Asia is, however, now at risk due to increase in population. By 2050, India's population is expected to grow to 1.6 billion people from the current level of 1.1 billion. This implies a greater demand for food. Although, the world as a whole may have suffi cient food for everyone, it would need to be produced in the region itself due to socio-economic and political compulsions (Rabbinge 1999). The cereal requirement of India by 2020 will be between 257 and 296 million tons (Mt) depending on income growth (Kumar 1998;Bhalla et al. 1999). The demand for rice and wheat is expected to increase to 122 and 103 Mt, respectively, by 2020 assuming a medium income growth (Kumar 1998). This will have to be produced from the same or even shrinking land resource. Thus, by 2020 the average yields of rice and wheat need to be increased by about 60%. Similar is the scenario for many other crops."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Although, there is a pressure to increase production, lately, there has been a signifi cant slow-down of the growth rate in the cultivated area, production and yield. The annual rate of growth of cereal production and yield showed a peak during the early years of the green revolution but since 1980s there has been a decline (Sinha et al. 1998). Adding to the worry of food planners, is the stagnant grain yields in experimental farms. The potential yield of rice in the tropics has not increased above 10 t ha -1 since IR 8 was released 30 years ago, despite making signifi cant achievements in attaining yield stability, increasing per day productivity and improving grain quality (Aggarwal et al. 1996). In wheat, some studies have shown an increase in yield potential with time (Nagarajan 1998;Rajaram 1998). However, a review of data of the regional statistics, agronomists' experiments, long-term fi eld trials, breeders' variety evaluation trials and simulation studies also showed stagnation of yields in rice and wheat in northern India (Aggarwal et al. 2000)."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The gradual increase in environmental degradation through intensive cropping systems is further compounding the problem. There is now a great concern about decline in soil fertility, change in water table depth, rising salinity, resistance of harmful organisms to many pesticides and degradation of quality of irrigation water in north-western India (Sinha et al. 1998)."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Thus, there is a tremendous challenge facing agricultural scientists to develop technologies to increase food production in the coming decades. There is an urgent need to increase the potential yield of major food crops. It is very important to know how much additional food can be produced in different regions to meet the increasing demand. In view of such stagnations, we need to know if the genetic yield ceiling has been reached for critical crops or if there are some other factors that are not allowing yields to increase. Estimates of these potentials can assist in quantifying the carrying capacity of agroecosystems."},{"index":5,"size":161,"text":"Rain-fed agriculture in India is practiced on 94 million hectares (M ha). These areas generally have bypassed from the benefi ts of green revolution and as a result, grain yields remain low. These areas are considered to have vast untapped potential for increasing production in future by upgrading rain-fed agriculture (Rockstrom et al. 2007). For population rich and low-income rain-fed regions, it is important to know where and at what cost the additional food can be produced with current technology and/or what alternative technologies will be needed to meet the desired production targets. The main objective of this analysis is, therefore, to estimate the rain-fed potential yields of rice, wheat, mustard and cotton crops in different regions, considering the spatial and temporal variation in climatic features and available agricultural technology. These yields can be interpreted as the upper limit that can be achieved by the current varieties in a rain-fed scenario with soil and weather as the only yield reducing factors."},{"index":6,"size":292,"text":"Determination of potential productivity of a crop requires thorough understanding of crop growth and development. The latter, in turn, are dependent upon several cli matic, edaphic, hydrological, physiological and management factors. The major factors affecting crop growth and development are radiation, temperature (yield determining), water, nutrition (yield limiting) and pests and diseases (yield reducing). In addition, productivity is also determined by many other factors such as cultivar, its physiology and crop management that interact with weather and soils to infl uence yield level. In irrigated and well-managed crops, productivity is primarily determined by radiation and temperature whereas in rain-fed areas, precipitation and soil moisture storage are considered important. A large number of experiments have been done to understand these interactions and their results can be used to quantify potential yields. The results of such experiments conducted in different locations/experiments/seasons are, however, often confounded because of inadequate consideration of interactions with genotype, climatic factors and their variability, and agronomic management. Crop growth models by integrating the effects of different factors on yield provide a unique opportunity to supplement the results of fi eld trials. Such models have been used in the past for identifying options related to technology generation, technology evaluation and technology extension and for understanding the reasons for adoption (or no adoption) of technology (Penning de Vries et al. 1993;Teng et al. 1992;Kropff et al. 1996). In this paper, we have used such a crop growth simulation model for quantifi cation of rain-fed potential yields in different regions. Yields in technology maximization experiments (plant breeder's fi elds) and on-farm technology demonstration plots (frontline demonstrations) have also been used as additional measures to know potential yield. Yield gaps have been quantifi ed by comparing these yield levels with the region's average yield."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Potential rain-fed yields","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"There are several ways to estimate potential yields. Dynamic simulation models are very commonly used for this purpose (Penning de Vries et al. 1993;Aggarwal et al. 1995, Bhatia et al. 2006, Murty et al. 2007). In addition, there are several experimental approaches that can also provide knowledge about the genetic potential of varieties. Plant breeders typically do their experiments in small plots in ideal conditions of management and pest control to fi nd the best genotype. The selected varieties are further assessed for their performance in large plots in farmer's fi elds (frontline demonstrations). These trials are used for technology demonstration to farmers. In general, it is expected that simulated potential yields will be the highest since there is total control of yield regulating factors. Plant breeder's trials come close to these simulated yields but are often lower due to some location-specifi c yield regulating factors. In front-line demonstrations done in farmer's fi elds, there are invariably some uncontrolled yield-reducing factors and hence these yields are generally lower than the other two methods. In our study, we have used simulated rain-fed potential yields, experimental potential yields (plant breeder's trials in rain-fed environment) as well as on-farm potential yields (frontline demonstrations in rainfed environment) as the three different expressions of potential rain-fed yields."}]},{"head":"Simulated rain-fed potential yields","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"InfoCrop model (Aggarwal et al. 2004) was used for simulating potential rain-fed yields. This is a generic dynamic crop simulation model with sensitivity to variety, agronomic management, soil, weather, fl ooding, frost and pests. The model simulates all major processes of crop growth, soil water and nutrient balances, greenhouse gases emission and crop-pest interactions. It is used to estimate potential yields and yield gaps, assess impact of climatic variability, optimize management -dates of planting, variety, irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer, assessing interactions among genotype, environment, management and pests, yield forecast, yield loss assessment due to pests and greenhouse gases emission. The model has been calibrated and validated in typical rain-fed and irrigated areas' cultivating crops considered in this analysis (data not shown, for details refer to Aggarwal et al. 2006;Hebbar et al. 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Several representative locations in different states for which weather data was available and which have reasonable cultivation of rain-fed crops were selected. Care was taken to select stations from different meteorological sub divisions in each state (Fig. 1). The required soil profi le data for each of these locations was collected from the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning and other available reports. Simulations were done using the weather data for 10 to 20 years of each location. Standard sowing dates, varieties and other management practices were considered in these simulations. The average of the yields of all years was used as the simulated rain-fed potential yield for a location. The simulated rain-fed potential yield for the state was the arithmetic mean of all locations in that state. "}]},{"head":"Experimental potential yields","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The available data from several breeders' trials was collected from the recently published reports of the All India Coordinated Improvement Projects of the respective crops. Only those locations and trials were considered that were totally rain-fed. The values used in this paper are the averages of all such data, which include different seasons, varieties and locations within a state (note that individual varieties and locations may have higher values than the ones used in the present analysis)."}]},{"head":"On-farm potential yields","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The on-farms yields were obtained from the frontline demonstrations data, available for different crops over the recent years. These yields are also average across different locations, seasons and varieties within the state. However, such data was available only for a few years and sites."}]},{"head":"Measured yields","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The cultivated area, production and yield of different crops were obtained from the published data of the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. These yields were considered as the measured yields to calculate yield gaps. It may be noted that state averages are the means of irrigated and rainfed areas and hence rain-fed yields will be overestimated, especially in crops such as wheat where irrigated areas are large."}]},{"head":"Yield gaps","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The yield gaps were calculated from all three expressions of potential yields as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"1. Simulated rain-fed potential yield gap = simulated mean rain-fed potential yield -measured yield (state average). 2. Experimental yield gap = experimental potential yield (plant breeder's trials) -measured yield (state average). 3. On-farm yield gap = on-farm potential yields -measured yield (state average)."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The average of these yield gaps was also calculated as the expression of overall gap."}]},{"head":"Options to bridge yield gaps","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"There could be several approaches that can be used to bridge yield gaps. We have used simulation model to evaluate three major options for this purpose: Supplementary irrigation: From the simulation results, the maximum simulated potential yield in any given year was noted for each location. These yields were generally of those years when rainfall was well distributed and adequate to meet crop water requirements. A comparison of these with the mean rain-fed potential yields indicates the gap that can be bridged by additional water availability."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Ensuring timely planting: Farmers of rain-fed areas have a problem in sowing seeds on time due to delay in onset of monsoon. Simulations were done for each location in which sowing date (transplanting date in case of rice) was determined by the onset of monsoon (implemented by ensuring suffi cient moisture at planting). A comparison of the mean yields across different years of such simulations with the simulated mean rain-fed potential yields (this considers timely planting all the times) indicates the gap that can be bridged by ensuring timely planting. The latter is possible by providing irrigation at the sowing time."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Improved nitrogen management practices: Additional simulations were done for each location in which the nitrogen management was according to the current practices of farmers in the rain-fed areas. The difference of these yields with the simulated mean rain-fed potential yields (calculated with the assumption of no nitrogen stress at any given time) was considered to develop a strategy to bridge yield gap due to improved nitrogen management, including quantity and time of application."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"In addition to nitrogen management, recent studies have shown existence of widespread defi ciencies of micronutrients such as zinc and boron and secondary nutrients such as sulfur in 80-100% farmers' fi elds in rain-fed areas of different states in India (Rego et al. 2007;Sahrawat et al. 2007). Application of balanced nutrients (micro-and macro nutrients) in farmers' fi elds increased crop yields up to 100 per cent (Rego et al. 2007)."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rice Current distribution and yields","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Rice in India is grown almost throughout the country except in the arid eastern parts of Rajasthan (Fig. 2). It is grown in extremely diverse hydrological environments such as irrigated, rain-fed uplands, lowlands, as well as under deep-water conditions. Of the 44 million hectares (M ha) of harvested rice area, almost 54% is irrigated. Most of the rice producing areas of Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are irrigated (Table 1). Rain-fed rice is grown in several states such as West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand (Fig. 2)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The production of rice in India has increased from 20 million tons (M t) in 1950 to 93 M t in 2002. This has been due to an increase in area under rice in the fi rst few decades and later due to increase in irrigation coverage as well as yield per hectare (Fig. 3). Today, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Orissa alone account for 60% of the total rice production and almost 50% of the total rice cultivated area in India (Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"The average yield of rice is more than 3000 kg ha -1 in several districts of Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Fig. 4). In some areas of these districts, yields have increased by 50-100% in the past two decades due to higher input use. Farmers in these states have much higher per capita income than the traditional rice-growing states of eastern India. The yields are generally less than 2000 kg ha -1 in central Indian states such as Madhya Pradesh and in eastern Indian states such as Orissa, Bihar and Jharkhand (Table 1 and Fig. 4). Since rice is mostly rain-fed in these states, the production is strongly dependent on distribution of rainfall. The transplanting is largely dependent upon the date of onset of monsoon. In some eastern states, erratic rainfall leads to drought during the vegetative period, but later on, the crop may be damaged by submergence due to high rainfall. Other constraints are soil acidity in southern and eastern India, salinity and alkalinity in northern India. "}]},{"head":"Simulated rain-fed potential yields","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"The simulation results showed that the yield across different locations in major rain-fed states could vary considerably depending upon rainfall, soil and other location specifi c factors. At all locations, mean rain-fed potential yield appeared to be reasonably large. The mean yield across different years varied from a low of 2700 kg ha -1 in Indore and Nagpur to more than 5000 kg ha -1 at several locations in Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh (Table 2). The variance in yields ranged from 16 to 38% depending upon location. There was a small trend of variance being low in high rainfall areas but this relationship was not strong (Table 2)."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"In some years, the yield could go very low. For example, the minimum yield was less than 1500 kg ha -1 in Bangalore and several locations in Madhya Pradesh (Table 2). In fact, in some years, when the rainfall was low, delayed or erratic, crops failed altogether in many locations (data for individual years is not shown). The maximum yield across different locations varied from 4250 kg ha -1 in Indore to 7320 kg ha -1 in Bangalore. These yields were obtained when rainfall was good and well distributed. At the state level, the mean rain-fed potential rice yield as simulated by InfoCrop varied from 3500 kg ha -1 in Madhya Pradesh to 5000 kg ha -1 in Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 5). The simulated rain-fed potential yields were intermediate in other states. The average rain-fed potential for India was calculated to be 4550 kg ha -1 ."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The experimental potential yields showed a large variation. It was only 1400 kg ha -1 in states such as Maharashtra whereas it was as high as 4300 kg ha -1 in Uttar Pradesh. In other states, the average yield in breeder's plots varied from 2500 kg ha -1 to 3700 kg ha -1 (Fig. 5). On an all India basis, these yields were 3300 kg ha -1 ."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"The on-farm potential yields showed relatively less variation across states, possibly because of large plot size of the demonstrations and the data being the average of several trials. The yields in Bihar and Madhya Pradesh were 2300 kg ha -1 and 2550 kg ha -1 , respectively. In Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal, these yields varied from 3500 kg ha -1 to 3750 kg ha -1 . On an all India basis, these yields were 3000 kg ha -1 . In some states such as West Bengal and Orissa, the on-farm potential yields were more than those obtained in the breeder's plots (Fig. 5). Such differences could be due to the variety of sources used in the present calculations, For example, differences associated with genotypes, planting dates and management used in different trials."}]},{"head":"Measured yields","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The mean yields at the state level showed considerable variation (Fig. 5). These were the lowest in Madhya Pradesh and was followed by Bihar and Orissa. All these states are largely rain-fed (Table 1). By comparison, the average yields in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal were more than 2000 kg ha -1 . It is diffi cult to draw any meaningful conclusion from such states' average yields because a considerable fraction of these were from irrigated areas. Nevertheless, rain-fed yields in these states shall be still lower than the values presented here. On an all India basis, measured yields were 2000 kg ha -1 ."}]},{"head":"Yield gaps","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"The results showed that irrespective of the defi nition of potential yield, there is considerable yield gap across all states, indicating large scope for increasing rain-fed rice yields in future. On an average, the gap relative to simulated potential was close to 2500 kg ha -1 (Table 3). It was more than 3000 kg ha -1 for Bihar and less than 2000 kg ha -1 for West Bengal. At the experimental station level, the gap varied from 740 kg ha -1 (in West Bengal) to 2230 kg ha -1 (in Uttar Pradesh). This value was around 1500 kg ha -1 in all other states. On-farm yield gaps were surprisingly nil in Maharashtra. Possibly, the on-farm trials have always experienced some constraint. In Orissa, however, the gap was more than 2000 kg ha -1 , almost close to the gap with simulated rain-fed potential yields. Overall, the gaps were generally smaller in West Bengal at all levels and the highest in Uttar Pradesh. The average yield gap was the smallest (1240 kg ha -1 ) in Maharashtra and the highest in Uttar Pradesh (2160 kg ha -1 ). The all India mean gap for rain-fed rice was at least 1670 kg ha -1 . 1. Gaps calculated would be higher than the actual for rain-fed conditions in all cases because the measured yields included data from irrigated areas as well."}]},{"head":"Options to bridge yield gaps","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In rain-fed areas, water resources can be augmented through rainwater harvesting and by adopting community watershed management approach (Wani et al. 2003). The result showed that the main strategy required to increase rain-fed yields is to provide supplementary irrigation. This was evident in all states when the mean rain-fed potential yields were compared with the maximum yields obtained in a specifi c year (Fig. 6). The later were generally obtained in those years where rainfall was well distributed throughout the rainy season. Ensuring timely planting at the beginning of the season by providing irrigation for transplanting when monsoon is delayed can also bridge yield gaps to some extent. Improvement in nitrogen management, which includes providing optimal amounts at the desired times, can also bridge the yield gap to considerable extent. "}]},{"head":"Cotton Current distribution and yields","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":298,"text":"Cotton in India is grown in rainy season in semi-arid regions (Fig. 7). The crop is grown in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat followed by Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. In north Indian states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, the crop is irrigated whereas in other states, it is partially irrigated or rain-fed (Table 4). Almost the crop is rain-fed in Maharashtra, that accounts for 34% of the cotton area and 27% of national production. The total production of cotton in India is 10 million bales (170 kg each) from nine million hectare area. As is therefore obvious, the productivity of seed cotton is very low, ranging between 300 kg ha -1 and 1200 kg ha -1 among states. However, in a few districts of Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the seed cotton yield exceeds 1200 kg ha -1 (Fig. 8), although the state averages are much lower (Table 4). The production of cotton during the last 50 years has increased from three million bales to almost 15 million bales today (Fig. 9). The major reason for this increase has been the coverage under irrigation, which changed from 8% to 35% by 2000 (Fig. 9). As a consequence, the seed cotton yield increased from 300 kg ha -1 to 1000 kg ha -1 . The total area under cultivation has remained by and large constant during the last fi ve decades. In the rain-fed areas, the cotton yield is strongly dependent on the date of onset of monsoon, which affects planting date. The cotton soils are generally clayey and rainfall is modest. The crop is exposed to drought as well as fl oods. Both of these reduce crop yields depending upon the stage of growth. Pests and diseases, especially bollworms, are the other major yield-reducing factors."}]},{"head":"Simulated rain-fed potential yields","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Simulation results showed reasonable rain-fed potential yields of rain-fed cotton in different regions."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The mean potential yield varied from 900 kg ha -1 to 2400 kg ha -1 . There were large variations within the same state as is evident from Table 5. For example, in Andhra Pradesh yields varied from 1080 kg ha -1 to 2410 kg ha -1 ."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"The maximum yields across different locations varied from 1730 to 2750 kg ha -1 . In most locations, except in a few places in Madhya Pradesh, the maximum yields were always above 2000 kg ha -1 . Such high yields were obtained in those seasons when rainfall was well distributed and the onset of monsoon was timely. The minimum yields in rain-fed situations were highly variable across locations. At times, the crops failed altogether in some areas such as in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh in Maharashtra (Table 5). In a few locations in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh where rainfall was relatively higher, the minimum rain-fed potential yields in any given year were also more than 1000 kg ha -1 ."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"At the state level, the simulated rain-fed potential yields varied from 1400 kg ha -1 to 1800 kg ha -1 . The lowest potential was in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, whereas the highest yield was in Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 10). All India average potential yield was 1648 kg ha -1 . The coeffi cient of variation in yields ranged from 12 to 74%. There appears to be a negative correlation of this with rainfall in general, CV was less than 20% when seasonal rainfall was 1000 mm or more (Table 5). The experimental potential yields also showed considerable variation. On an average, the yields were between 1000 and 1100 kg ha -1 in all states except in Andhra Pradesh where the yields were more than 1600 kg ha -1 (Fig. 10)."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"The on-farm potential yields also showed a similar trend. Surprisingly, in many states these yields were slightly higher than the yields obtained in breeder's trials (Fig. 10). These differences could possibly be due to different data and sources used in this calculation, especially related to locations, seasons, varieties and planting dates in two types of data."}]},{"head":"Measured yields","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The mean cotton seed yield at the state level was the lowest in Madhya Pradesh (366 kg ha -1 ). This was followed by Maharashtra and Gujarat, where the yield level reached up to 500 kg ha -1 (Fig. 10)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"In Karnataka, the average yield was 600 kg ha -1 and was the highest in Andhra Pradesh. However, the actual rain-fed yields in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh were lower than these fi gures because the reported yields also included the data from irrigated regions."}]},{"head":"Yield gaps","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The results showed that mean yield gap between simulated rain-fed potential yield and the state average yield was 1120 kg ha -1 . The lowest gap of 790 kg ha -1 was recorded in Karnataka while the maximum was in Gujarat with 1220 kg ha -1 ."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"At the experimental station level, the gap was maximum in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat while Karnataka had the lowest gap (Table 6). The mean gap at this scale was only 640 kg ha -1 . 1. Gaps calculated would be higher than the actual for rain-fed conditions because the measured yields include data from irrigated areas as well."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"At the on-farm level, the gap was somewhat similar to that of the experimental stations (Table 6)."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"There was no gap in Madhya Pradesh whereas all other states had a gap between 500 and 850 kg ha -1 . Thus, in the main rain-fed cotton producing states, there is suffi cient gap that can possibly be bridged by improved management. The yield gap is high in the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra, modest in Andhra Pradesh and relatively low in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh."}]},{"head":"Options to bridge yield gaps","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"As in the case of rice, the results showed that the main strategy to increase rain-fed yield is to provide supplementary irrigation when rainfall is defi cit. This is illustrated by a comparison of simulated mean rain-fed potential yield (with average distribution of rainfall) and maximum simulated yield with well-distributed rainfall (Fig. 11). Nutrient management and ensuring irrigation for timely planting of cotton were relatively minor options to bridge yield gap."}]},{"head":"Mustard Current distribution and yields","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"Mustard in India is grown mainly in the northern and eastern India (Fig. 12). It is grown in rabi season on stored soil moisture with 2-3 supplementary irrigations, whenever and wherever possible. Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana are the main mustard producing states (Table 7). These states account for 63% of the total area under India and 70% of the total production. Only 1/3 rd of the total mustard area (1.7 M ha) in India is rain-fed. The major area under rain-fed cultivation is in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Uttar Pradesh (Table 7). Mustard yields vary considerably across different states (Table 7). The highest yields were recorded in the largely irrigated state of Haryana (1490 kg ha -1 ) and the lowest yields were reported from eastern Indian states, where a reasonable proportion of area is rain-fed. The yields in other states were between 900 kg ha -1 and 1200 kg ha -1 ."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"There is considerable difference in district yields within the states. For example, in some districts of Punjab and Haryana, district yields were much higher than 1000 kg ha -1 whereas in some districts the yields were between 500 kg ha -1 and 1000 kg ha -1 (Fig. 13). In other states, the differences across districts were generally smaller."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Over the last 50 years, mustard area has gradually increased from 2 M ha to 5 M ha. There has been considerable expansion of irrigation in mustard since 1950s. From a low of 10 percent irrigated area in 50s, it has become 65 percent in early 90s. Ever since, the area has not increased (Fig. 14). As a direct consequence of this, the grain yields have also improved from 400 kg ha -1 to 1000 kg ha -1 . "}]},{"head":"Simulated rain-fed potential yields","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Results showed that the simulated yield across locations in rain-fed area varied between 480 kg ha -1 and 3890 kg ha -1 depending upon the season (Table 8). The mean simulated yields varied from 960 kg ha -1 to 2520 kg ha -1 (Table 8). The locations in Madhya Pradesh showed lower potential yield as compared to locations in other states. The locations of West Bengal showed high yields because of relatively lesser drought periods experienced during the crop season. The coeffi cient of variation in yields ranged from 22% to 72% depending upon locations. However, this had no clear relationship with the mean rainfall during the season (Table 8). The maximum simulated rain-fed yields across locations varied from 1910 kg ha -1 to 3890 kg ha -1 (Table 8) in comparison to rain-fed rice and cotton, where minimum yields could go very low. At least 400 kg ha -1 yield was always recorded at any location in mustard. In both locations of West Bengal, where rainfall during the cropping season was more than 100 mm, the average minimum yields were at least 1180 kg ha -1 ."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"At the state level, the mean simulated rain-fed potential yields varied from 1200 kg ha -1 in Madhya Pradesh to 2400 kg ha -1 in West Bengal. Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh states with large mustard area followed closely (Fig. 15). The average rain-fed potential yield of mustard was calculated to be 1860 kg ha -1 . The experimental potential yields also showed a large variation across the states. Bihar, Rajasthan and West Bengal had yields lower than 1000 kg ha -1 (Fig. 15). The highest yields in breeder's experiments were reported in Haryana. These were almost similar to the simulated rain-fed potential yields. In Madhya Pradesh, the experimental potential yields were slightly higher than the simulated potential yield. The reasons for this were not clear."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"The variation in the on-farm potential yields was as large as in the experimental potential yields. The lowest yields were reported in Bihar and the highest were in the state of Haryana. The other states showed intermediate values."}]},{"head":"Measured yields","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The mean yields at the state level showed considerable variation. The differences among the states were generally smaller than the experimental yields (Fig. 15). The lowest yields were reported in the state of West Bengal, followed by Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The mean yields were about 1000 kg ha -1 in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, respectively. Haryana reported the highest average at 1490 kg ha -1 . It may be noted that the state average is the mean of irrigated and rain-fed areas."}]},{"head":"Wheat Current distribution and yields","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Wheat in India is grown on 26 M ha. It is cultivated throughout India except southern and northeastern states (Fig. 17). Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan are the major wheat producing states and account for almost 80% of the total production in India (Table 10). Only 13% of the total wheat area is rain-fed. The major rain-fed wheat areas are in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Karnataka. Wheat yields in different states vary tremendously due to different technologies adopted by the farmers and the agro-climatic characteristics of the region. Yields in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Uttaranchal were less than 2000 kg ha -1 due to relatively higher temperatures in these states, limited irrigation availability and small quantities of fertilizers applied. Comparatively, yields in Punjab and Haryana were more than 4000 kg ha -1 due to favorable weather during crop season and recommended applications of irrigation and fertilizers."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"In Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and other important wheat producing states, average yields were between 2000 kg ha -1 and 3000 kg ha -1 due to slightly warmer temperatures, relatively more rain-fed areas and less fertilizer application (Table 10). There were large variations within a state in terms of yields especially in states such as Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan. In several districts of these states, yields varied from less than 1000 kg ha -1 to as high as 3000 kg ha -1 (Fig. 18). The main reason for this variation was availability of irrigation, other management factors and soil type."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Wheat is one of the main crops, which has benefi tted tremendously from the green revolution technologies. Over the last 50 years, area under wheat cultivation has increased from 10 million to 26 million hectares. During the same period, irrigated area has increased from 30% to 85% of the total area (Fig. 19). Crop yields have been showing a similar pattern of improvement: from 700 kg ha -1 in 1950 to 2800 kg ha -1 today. This increase has been due to increased irrigation facilities, application of fertilizers, improved varieties and socio-economic support provided to the farmers."}]},{"head":"Simulated rain-fed potential yields","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":282,"text":"The results showed considerable potential of rain-fed wheat yields in different regions. The mean simulated yields varied from as low as 810 kg ha -1 in several locations in Maharashtra to 3340 kg ha -1 in West Bengal (Table 11). In general, rain-fed potential yields were lower for most locations in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. The CV in yield across different locations was 19.5% to 86.4%. It was, however, not due to rainfall during the crop season; the latter in any case was very small in most of the locations (Table 11). The minimum yields across different locations also showed considerable variation. These were less than 500 kg ha -1 in some locations spread across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal (Table 11). Comparatively, the minimum yields were more than 2000 kg ha -1 in Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh as well as in Mohanpur and Barrackpore in West Bengal. The maximum rain-fed yields as simulated by the model were as high as 5760 kg ha -1 for Gwalior. Within Madhya Pradesh, there was a large variation: Jhabua had the lowest potential whereas Gwalior showed high potential yield. These were possibly related to temperature differences between these sites. At the state level, the simulated wheat rain-fed potential yield was the highest in West Bengal, followed by Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 20). The lowest potential yield of 1180 kg ha -1 was in Maharashtra. The overall mean rain-fed potential yield in India was 1720 kg ha -1 . The experimental potential yields were also the highest for West Bengal, followed by Madhya Pradesh. The lowest yields were reported in Gujarat (Fig. 20). In the on-farm experiments, the trend was the same. "}]},{"head":"Measured yields","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The state average yields were often higher than the simulated rain-fed potential yields (Fig. 20). This was due to the fact that a large proportion of wheat is irrigated in most states that result in higher measured yields compared to experimental and simulated yields in rain-fed environments. Measured yields were the highest in Gujarat and West Bengal and were low in the southern states of Maharashtra and Karnataka due to warmer temperatures, resulting in shorter crop season."}]},{"head":"Yield gaps","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Since the measured yields were signifi cantly large due to confounding effect of irrigation, in most cases yield gaps were either nil or rather small (Table 12). Karnataka, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh showed a gap of 100 kg ha -1 to 800 kg ha -1 whereas Gujarat and Maharashtra showed no gap at all."}]},{"head":"Options to bridge yield gaps","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The simulation results indicated that the strategy to increase rain-fed yields is to provide supplementary irrigation. This was evident when the mean simulated rain-fed potential yields were compared with the maximum yields (Fig. 21). Improved nitrogen management could reduce yield gaps to a limited extent in most states (Fig. 21). 1. Note that the gaps calculated would be higher than the actual for rain-fed conditions because the measured yields include data from irrigated areas as well. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"These studies have shown that there are still considerable yield gaps in rain-fed crops that can be bridged in future to meet the increasing food requirements. At the country level, the gaps appeared to be the smallest in wheat (70 kg ha -1 ) and the largest in rice (1670 kg ha -1 ). In all crops, these gaps could be larger than our calculations if the yield data from irrigated areas could be separated in the measured state data. Data on rain-fed yields separately at state level was not available. At the same time, the simulated rain-fed potential yields for the state, as calculated in this report, are the arithmetic mean of all locations/seasons/varieties of that state. This could cause some errors because of the relative differences in the edaphic and climatic conditions among different locations and their distribution in the state. To overcome this, a more detailed analysis using GIS is required. This is currently being done in our laboratory. Nevertheless, these small differences are not likely to cause any major change in the assessment of the magnitude of yield gaps."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Executive Summary .................................................................................................. v 1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................1 2 Materials and Methods ...........................................................................................2 2.1 Potential rain-fed yields ..............................................................................2 2.2 Simulated rain-fed potential yields .............................................................3 2.3 Experimental potential yields ......................................................................4 2.4 On-farm potential yields .............................................................................4 2.5 Measured yields ..........................................................................................4 2.6 Yield gaps ....................................................................................................4 2.7 Options to bridge yield gaps ........................................................................4 3 Results and Discussion ...........................................................................................5 3.1 Rice .............................................................................................................5 3.2 Cotton ......................................................................................................12 3.3 Mustard ....................................................................................................17 3.4 Wheat .......................................................................................................23 4 Conclusions ..........................................................................................................28 5 References............................................................................................................29 v "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Meteorological subdivisions of India. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Distribution of rice area by district in India. Almost 80% of the rice in eastern India is rain-fed whereas the entire rice in northern India is irrigated. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Change in area, production and yield of rice in India (average) with time. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Comparison of simulated, experimental and on-farm rain-fed potential yields and the measured state average yields of rice. Please note that the measured yields are average of irrigated as well as rain-fed areas. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Simulated options to increase rain-fed yields in different states. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Distribution of cotton area by district in India. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Change in area, production and yield of seed cotton in India with time. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Comparison of simulated, experimental and on-farm rain-fed potential yields and the measured state average yields of cotton. Note that the measured yields are average of irrigated and rain-fed areas. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Simulated options to increase rain-fed yields in different states. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Distribution of mustard area by district in India. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Variation in mustard yields across districts of India "},{"text":"Figure 14 . Figure 14. Change in area, production and yield of mustard in India with time. "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Comparison of simulated, experimental and on-farm rain-fed potential yields and the measured state average yields of mustard. Note that the measured yields are average of irrigated as well as rain-fed areas. "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. Distribution of wheat area by district in India. "},{"text":"Figure 18 . Figure 18. Variation in wheat yields across districts of India. "},{"text":"Figure 19 . Figure 19. Change in area, production and yield of wheat in India with time. "},{"text":"Figure 20 . Figure 20. Comparison of simulated, experimental and on-farm rain-fed potential yields and the measured state average yields of wheat. Note that the measured yields are average of irrigated as well as rain-fed areas and a large proportion of wheat is irrigated in most states. "},{"text":"Figure 21 . Figure 21. Simulated options to increase rain-fed yields in different states. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Area, production, yield and irrigation coverage for the rice producing states of India. All data except irrigation relates to the 2001-02 season. % coverage under % coverage under Area Production Yield irrigation during AreaProductionYieldirrigation during States (M ha) (M t) (kg ha -1 ) 1999-2000 States(M ha)(M t)(kg ha -1 )1999-2000 West Bengal 6.07 15.26 2510 42 West Bengal6.0715.26251042 Uttar Pradesh 5.88 12.46 2120 66 Uttar Pradesh5.8812.46212066 Andhra Pradesh 3.83 11.39 2980 96 Andhra Pradesh3.8311.39298096 Punjab 2.49 8.82 3550 99 Punjab2.498.82355099 Orissa 4.5 7.15 1590 41 Orissa4.57.15159041 Tamil Nadu 2.11 6.87 3260 93 Tamil Nadu2.116.87326093 Bihar 3.57 5.28 1480 42 Bihar3.575.28148042 Chhatisgarh 3.73 5.13 1370 - Chhatisgarh3.735.131370- Assam 2.53 3.85 1520 8 Assam2.533.8515208 Karnataka 1.42 3.17 2240 72 Karnataka1.423.17224072 Haryana 1.03 2.72 2650 100 Haryana1.032.722650100 Maharashtra 1.51 2.65 1750 28 Maharashtra1.512.65175028 Madhya Pradesh 1.76 1.66 950 25 Madhya Pradesh1.761.6695025 Jharkhand 1.48 1.64 1110 - Jharkhand1.481.641110- Gujarat 0.66 1.03 1550 65 Gujarat0.661.03155065 Kerala 0.32 0.72 2220 60 Kerala0.320.72222060 Others 1.75 3.28 - - Others1.753.28-- All India 44.62 93.08 2090 54 All India44.6293.08209054 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Simulated maximum, mean and minimum rain-fed yield for some important locations in rain-fed states. Also shown is the coeffi cient of variation (CV) of these yields and the mean rainfall during the crop season. Simulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 ) Mean seasonal Simulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 )Mean seasonal Met rainfall Metrainfall State Location sub division Maximum Mean Minimum CV (%) (mm) StateLocationsub divisionMaximumMeanMinimumCV (%)(mm) Bihar Patna 9 5660 3690 1480 36.5 650 BiharPatna956603690148036.5650 Bihar Sabour 9 6130 5620 2200 25.8 930 BiharSabour961305620220025.8930 Karnataka Bangalore 33 7320 5770 1380 28.3 670 KarnatakaBangalore3373205770138028.3670 Karnataka Dharwad 32 4550 3250 2130 25.8 520 KarnatakaDharwad3245503250213025.8520 Madhya Pradesh Indore 19 4250 2780 1060 37.5 870 Madhya PradeshIndore1942502780106037.5870 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur 19 5290 3480 1250 25.6 1210 Madhya PradeshJabalpur1952903480125025.61210 Madhya Pradesh Jhabua 19 5600 4650 1930 25.9 740 Madhya PradeshJhabua1956004650193025.9740 Madhya Pradesh Raipur 19 4420 3230 2010 15.8 980 Madhya PradeshRaipur1944203230201015.8980 Maharashtra Akola 26 6410 4270 1480 28.4 640 MaharashtraAkola2664104270148028.4640 Maharashtra Nagpur 26 5030 2760 1120 37.7 900 MaharashtraNagpur2650302760112037.7900 Maharashtra Nanded 25 8540 5680 2430 26.3 760 MaharashtraNanded2585405680243026.3760 Orissa Bhubaneswar 7 4820 3830 2420 17.6 990 OrissaBhubaneswar748203830242017.6990 Orissa Cuttack 7 4890 3600 1730 27.9 1090 OrissaCuttack748903600173027.91090 Uttar Pradesh Faizabad 10 6810 4600 1730 29.6 830 Uttar PradeshFaizabad1068104600173029.6830 Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 10 6270 5360 3680 15.3 660 Uttar PradeshLucknow1062705360368015.3660 Uttar Pradesh Saharanpur 11 6550 5070 1590 21.0 920 Uttar PradeshSaharanpur1165505070159021.0920 Uttar Pradesh Varanasi 10 5960 4850 2660 19.1 850 Uttar PradeshVaranasi1059604850266019.1850 West Bengal Barrackpore 6 5300 3740 2830 18.0 1050 West BengalBarrackpore653003740283018.01050 West Bengal Calcutta 6 6580 4110 1760 30.7 1120 West BengalCalcutta665804110176030.71120 West Bengal Mohanpur 6 6780 5600 4880 11.2 1030 West BengalMohanpur667805600488011.21030 "},{"text":"Table 3 . Calculated yield gaps of rice from simulated rain-fed, experimental and on-farm potential yields 1 . Yield gap (kg ha -1 ) Yield gap (kg ha -1 ) State Simulated potential Experimental potential On-farm potential Average StateSimulated potentialExperimental potentialOn-farm potentialAverage Bihar 3170 1510 820 1830 Bihar317015108201830 Karnataka 2280 1440 1860 Karnataka228014401860 Madhya Pradesh 2590 1540 1600 1910 Madhya Pradesh2590154016001910 Maharashtra 2480 0 1240 Maharashtra248001240 Orissa 2410 1320 2160 1960 Orissa2410132021601960 Uttar Pradesh 2850 2230 1400 2160 Uttar Pradesh2850223014002160 West Bengal 1970 740 1190 1300 West Bengal197074011901300 India 2560 1480 970 1670 India256014809701670 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Area, production, yield and irrigation coverage for the cotton producing states of India. All data except irrigation relates to the 2001-02 season. States Area (M ha) Production (M bales of 170 kg each) Yield, (kg ha -1 ) % coverage under irrigation during 1999-2000 StatesArea (M ha)Production (M bales of 170 kg each)Yield, (kg ha -1 )% coverage under irrigation during 1999-2000 Maharashtra 3.1 2.69 490 4.0 Maharashtra3.12.694904.0 Andhra Pradesh 1.1 1.87 950 18.0 Andhra Pradesh1.11.8795018.0 Gujarat 1.75 1.7 550 42.0 Gujarat1.751.755042.0 Punjab 0.61 1.31 1210 100.0 Punjab0.611.311210100.0 Haryana 0.63 0.72 640 100.0 Haryana0.630.72640100.0 Karnataka 0.61 0.72 670 14.0 Karnataka0.610.7267014.0 Madhya Pradesh 0.54 0.39 400 40.0 Madhya Pradesh0.540.3940040.0 Tamil Nadu 0.19 0.33 970 35.0 Tamil Nadu0.190.3397035.0 Rajasthan 0.51 0.28 310 100.0 Rajasthan0.510.28310100.0 Others 0.06 0.08 750 - Others0.060.08750- All India 9.1 10.09 620 35.0 All India9.110.0962035.0 "},{"text":"Table 5 . Simulated maximum, mean and minimum yield for some important locations in predominantly rain-fed states. Also shown is the coeffi cient of variation (CV) of these yields and the mean rainfall during the season. Met Simulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 ) Mean seasonal rainfall MetSimulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 )Mean seasonal rainfall State Location sub division Maximum Mean Minimum CV (%) (mm) StateLocationsub divisionMaximumMeanMinimumCV (%)(mm) Andhra Pradesh Anakapalli 27 2730 2360 1570 14.8 950 Andhra PradeshAnakapalli2727302360157014.8950 Andhra Pradesh Rajahmundry 27 2750 2410 1870 16.7 1100 Andhra PradeshRajahmundry2727502410187016.71100 Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 28 2500 1680 510 35.5 850 Andhra PradeshHyderabad282500168051035.5850 Andhra Pradesh Anantapur 29 2520 1080 50 58.0 540 Andhra PradeshAnantapur29252010805058.0540 Gujarat Bharuch 21 2320 1360 450 45.9 790 GujaratBharuch212320136045045.9790 Gujarat Surat 21 2380 2090 1930 12.2 880 GujaratSurat2123802090193012.2880 Gujarat Junagadh 22 2570 1690 410 36.5 770 GujaratJunagadh222570169041036.5770 Karnataka Bijapur 32 2240 1220 0 74.2 610 KarnatakaBijapur3222401220074.2610 Karnataka Dharwad 32 2230 1490 930 26.6 660 KarnatakaDharwad322230149093026.6660 Karnataka Bangalore 33 2190 1480 0 37.6 750 KarnatakaBangalore3321901480037.6750 Madhya Pradesh Gwalior 19 2700 1840 1320 22.9 800 Madhya PradeshGwalior1927001840132022.9800 Madhya Pradesh Indore 19 1730 940 300 50.2 990 Madhya PradeshIndore19173094030050.2990 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur 19 1790 1390 920 17.6 1310 Madhya PradeshJabalpur191790139092017.61310 Madhya Pradesh Raipur 19 2450 1720 1150 18.2 1100 Madhya PradeshRaipur1924501720115018.21100 Madhya Pradesh Sagar 19 2150 1100 0 61.6 840 Madhya PradeshSagar1921501100061.6840 Maharashtra Nanded 25 2580 1390 20 58.0 870 MaharashtraNanded25258013902058.0870 Maharashtra Akola 26 2320 1580 200 33.7 720 MaharashtraAkola262320158020033.7720 Maharashtra Nagpur 26 2530 1770 760 31.2 1030 MaharashtraNagpur262530177076031.21030 "},{"text":"Table 6 . Calculated yield gaps of cotton from simulated, experimental and on-farm potential yields 1 . Yield gap (kg ha -1 ) Yield gap (kg ha -1 ) State Simulated potential Experimental potential On-farm potential Average StateSimulated potentialExperimental potentialOn-farm potentialAverage Andhra Pradesh 970 780 600 780 Andhra Pradesh970780600780 Gujarat 1220 610 760 860 Gujarat1220610760860 Karnataka 790 440 520 580 Karnataka790440520580 Madhya Pradesh 1030 710 0 580 Madhya Pradesh10307100580 Maharashtra 1140 540 830 840 Maharashtra1140540830840 India 1120 640 550 770 India1120640550770 "},{"text":"Table 7 . Area, production, yield and irrigation coverage for the mustard producing states of India. All data except irrigation relates to the 2001-02 season. Production Yield % coverage under irrigation ProductionYield% coverage under irrigation States Area (M ha) (M t) (kg ha -1 ) during 1999-2000 StatesArea (M ha)(M t)(kg ha -1 )during 1999-2000 Rajasthan 1.84 1.94 1060 81 Rajasthan1.841.94106081 Uttar Pradesh 0.85 0.85 1000 71 Uttar Pradesh0.850.85100071 Haryana 0.54 0.8 1490 86 Haryana0.540.8149086 West Bengal 0.44 0.34 770 75 West Bengal0.440.3477075 Madhya Pradesh 0.51 0.46 910 35 Madhya Pradesh0.510.4691035 Gujarat 0.25 0.29 1180 98 Gujarat0.250.29118098 Assam 0.27 0.44 500 1 Assam0.270.445001 Bihar 0.09 0.08 840 34 Bihar0.090.0884034 Punjab 0.05 0.06 1200 84 Punjab0.050.06120084 Others 0.23 0.12 - - Others0.230.12-- All India 5.07 5.08 1000 66 All India5.075.08100066 "},{"text":"Table 8 . Simulated maximum, mean and minimum yield of mustard for some important locations in predominantly rain-fed states. Also shown is the coeffi cient of variation (CV) of these yields and the mean rainfall during the season. Met sub Simulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 ) Seasonal Met subSimulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 )Seasonal State Location division Max Mean Min CV (%) rainfall (mm) StateLocationdivisionMaxMeanMinCV (%)rainfall (mm) Bihar Patna 9 2910 1250 710 38.9 30 BiharPatna92910125071038.930 Bihar Sabour 9 3070 2330 810 13.5 90 BiharSabour93070233081013.590 Delhi Delhi 13 3550 2060 630 36.1 70 DelhiDelhi133550206063036.170 Haryana Karnal 13 3890 1800 760 46.3 110 HaryanaKarnal133890180076046.3110 Haryana Sirsa 13 3330 2110 630 47.7 50 HaryanaSirsa133330211063047.750 Madhya Pradesh Gwalior 19 2900 1800 920 38.0 50 Madhya PradeshGwalior192900180092038.050 Madhya Pradesh Raipur 19 2550 1090 520 48.9 60 Madhya PradeshRaipur192550109052048.960 Madhya Pradesh Ratlam 19 1910 960 620 37.8 30 Madhya PradeshRatlam19191096062037.830 Madhya Pradesh Sagar 19 2160 960 480 55.5 50 Madhya PradeshSagar19216096048055.550 Uttar Pradesh Jhansi 11 2920 1820 590 47.8 50 Uttar PradeshJhansi112920182059047.850 Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 10 2890 2210 910 24.5 60 Uttar PradeshLucknow102890221091024.560 Uttar Pradesh Saharanpur 11 3160 1770 740 44.7 110 Uttar PradeshSaharanpur113160177074044.7110 Uttar Pradesh Varanasi 10 3020 1980 1310 27.7 60 Uttar PradeshVaranasi1030201980131027.760 West Bengal Barrackpore 6 3460 2260 1470 25.1 110 West BengalBarrackpore634602260147025.1110 West Bengal Mohanpur 6 3580 2520 1180 31.5 160 West BengalMohanpur635802520118031.5160 "},{"text":"Table 10 . Area, production, yield and irrigation coverage for the wheat producing states of India. All data except irrigation relates to the 2001-02 season. % coverage under irrigation % coverage under irrigation Area Production Yield during AreaProductionYieldduring States (M ha) (M t) (kg ha -1 ) 1999-2000 States(M ha)(M t)(kg ha -1 )1999-2000 Uttar Pradesh 9.08 25.02 2760 92 Uttar Pradesh9.0825.02276092 Punjab 3.42 15.5 4530 97 Punjab3.4215.5453097 Haryana 2.3 9.44 4100 99 Haryana2.39.44410099 Rajasthan 2.29 6.39 2790 98 Rajasthan2.296.39279098 Madhya Pradesh 3.43 5.63 1640 72 Madhya Pradesh3.435.63164072 Bihar 2.13 4.38 2060 90 Bihar2.134.38206090 Gujarat 0.47 1.14 2440 80 Gujarat0.471.14244080 Maharashtra 0.78 1.08 1390 80 Maharashtra0.781.08139080 West Bengal 0.43 0.96 2220 80 West Bengal0.430.96222080 Uttaranchal 0.38 0.73 1930 - Uttaranchal0.380.731930- Himachal Pradesh 0.38 0.6 1610 18 Himachal Pradesh0.380.6161018 Karnataka 0.26 0.2 750 43 Karnataka0.260.275043 All India 25.92 71.81 2770 87 All India25.9271.81277087 "},{"text":"Table 11 . Simulated maximum, mean and minimum yield for some important locations in predominantly rain-fed states. Also shown is the coeffi cient of variation (CV) of these yields and the mean rainfall during the season. Met Simulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 ) CV Seasonal MetSimulated rain-fed potential yield (kg ha -1 )CVSeasonal State Location sub division Max Mean Min (%) rainfall (mm) StateLocationsub divisionMaxMeanMin(%)rainfall (mm) Gujarat Surat 21 2350 1750 1140 34.5 0 GujaratSurat2123501750114034.50 Gujarat Gujarat Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal Bharuch Junagadh Dharwad Bijapur Bangalore Bellary Raipur Indore Jhabua Jabalpur Ratlam Sagar Gwalior Sholapur Nanded Akola Wardha Nagpur Mohanpur Barrackpore Calcutta 21 22 32 32 33 33 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 24 25 26 26 26 6 6 6 3070 2740 3650 2830 3680 3820 3060 3250 1680 4740 3230 3340 5760 3350 1890 2490 3210 3610 4360 3700 2620 2280 1750 1260 1860 2310 2670 1530 1570 1140 1430 1450 1420 3290 1520 810 1020 1310 1170 3340 2830 1430 1800 1160 460 620 1360 1700 950 860 260 920 870 840 2290 970 370 500 590 680 2290 2180 50 19.5 23.3 73.9 37.1 36.6 26.1 40.4 40.4 24.5 60.3 46.3 55.4 27.9 49.0 86.4 49.7 54.3 53.8 54.3 71.5 23.4 10 8 50 50 80 70 30 30 20 50 30 30 30 50 30 40 50 40 80 70 110 Gujarat Gujarat Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra West Bengal West Bengal West BengalBharuch Junagadh Dharwad Bijapur Bangalore Bellary Raipur Indore Jhabua Jabalpur Ratlam Sagar Gwalior Sholapur Nanded Akola Wardha Nagpur Mohanpur Barrackpore Calcutta21 22 32 32 33 33 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 24 25 26 26 26 6 6 63070 2740 3650 2830 3680 3820 3060 3250 1680 4740 3230 3340 5760 3350 1890 2490 3210 3610 4360 3700 26202280 1750 1260 1860 2310 2670 1530 1570 1140 1430 1450 1420 3290 1520 810 1020 1310 1170 3340 2830 14301800 1160 460 620 1360 1700 950 860 260 920 870 840 2290 970 370 500 590 680 2290 2180 5019.5 23.3 73.9 37.1 36.6 26.1 40.4 40.4 24.5 60.3 46.3 55.4 27.9 49.0 86.4 49.7 54.3 53.8 54.3 71.5 23.410 8 50 50 80 70 30 30 20 50 30 30 30 50 30 40 50 40 80 70 110 "},{"text":"Table 12 . Calculated yield gaps of wheat from simulated, experimental and on-farm potential yields 1 . Yield gap (kg ha -1 ) Yield gap (kg ha -1 ) Simulated rain-fed On-farm Simulated rain-fedOn-farm State potential Experimental potential potential Average StatepotentialExperimental potentialpotentialAverage Gujarat 0 0 0 0 Gujarat0000 Karnataka 800 420 510 580 Karnataka800420510580 Madhya Pradesh 80 80 150 100 Madhya Pradesh8080150100 Maharashtra 0 0 0 0 Maharashtra0000 West Bengal 320 230 110 220 West Bengal320230110220 India 10 0 200 70 India10020070 "}],"sieverID":"645edcb1-89d1-4d9d-b504-1bea21029348","abstract":"In order to meet increasing demands of food due to rising population and income, food production in India and other south Asian countries need to be increased. Rain-fed agriculture in India, practiced on 94 million hectares (M ha), is considered a major source of production increase in future. This report analyses the magnitude of rain-fed potential yield gaps of rice, wheat, mustard and cotton crops, considering the spatial and temporal variation in climatic features. These yields can be interpreted as the upper limit that can be achieved by the current varieties in a rain-fed scenario with soil and weather as the only yield reducing factors. InfoCrop, a generic dynamic crop simulation model with sensitivity to variety, agronomic management, soil, weather, fl ooding, frost and pests and calibrated and validated in typical rain-fed and irrigated cultivating areas of these crops was used for quantifi cation of rain-fed potential yields in different regions. Yields in technology maximization experiments (Plant Breeder's fi elds) and on-farm technology demonstration plots (Front-line demonstrations) have also been used as additional measures of potential yield. Yield gaps were calculated as the difference between these yield levels and the region's average measured yields. The results showed that irrespective of the defi nition of potential yield, there was considerable yield gap across all states in all crops indicating large scope for increasing rain-fed yields in future. On an average, the gap relative to simulated rain-fed potential yields was 2560 kg ha -1 for rice, 1120 kg ha -1 for cotton and 860 kg ha -1 for mustard. Such national average rain-fed yield gaps could not be estimated in wheat because of large percent of irrigated area in all states. The mean yield gap based on the average of simulated, experimental and on-farm rain-fed potential yields was 1670 kg ha -1 for rice, 770 kg ha -1 for cotton, 460 kg ha -1 for mustard and 70 kg ha -1 for wheat. It remains to be quantifi ed if these biophysical estimates of yield gaps can be bridged economically. This publication is part of the research project \"Comprehensive Assessment of Water Scarcity and Food security in Tropical Rain-fed Water Scarcity System: A multi-level Assessment of Existing Conditions, Response Options and Future Potentials funded by the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA) through a grant from the Government of Netherlands to the IWMI."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a4fc87a04c2bc7b568ac2a3389c0e7a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1333/WF_2389.pdf"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Nicholas Dulvy aND EDwarD allisoN I t is well recognized that the world's most vulnerable nations will bear the brunt of escalating greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through reduced food and water availability. But while agriculture and freshwater resources have been central in climate policy discussions, the effects of climate change on fisheries resources -and the implications for health and livelihoods in the developing world -have been largely ignored. Whatever the details of a global climate treaty, it must aid adaptation to climate change as well as minimize its impacts."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Here we ask that aquatic production systems and the people dependent on them are appropriately included in climate adaptation measures considered for coastal zones, water resources management, agriculture, food security and rural development. We put forward a series of policy and research priorities that will enable the fisheries sector to adapt to change as well as contribute to mitigation measures."}]},{"head":"iNcrEasiNg uNcErtaiNty","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":238,"text":"Currently, one-third of the world's 6 billion people rely on fish and other aquatic products for at least one-fifth of their annual protein intake, and catches by subsistence and artisanal fisheries make up more than half of the essential protein and mineral intake for over 400 million people in the poorest countries in Africa and south Asia The physical, biological and ecological impacts of climate change in aquatic ecosystems are becoming increasingly apparent. Coral reefs are bleaching and their associated fisheries collapsing rapidly. Commercially exploited fishes are moving northward and into deeper waters at rapid rates, invading polar seas, and withdrawing from subpolar seas, semienclosed seas and the tropics 2 . Climate change may affect fisheries, and their contribution to local livelihoods, national economies and global trade-flows, through both direct and indirect pathways. Always an unpredictable way to make a living, fishing may increasingly become a lottery as fish migration routes and spawning and feeding grounds change from those that fishers have learnt to harvest. In addition, the growing frequency and severity of extreme events such as floods and hurricanes will increase the vulnerability of fishing communities through disasters that damage infrastructure and threaten human health 3 . The future consequences for global fisheries are uncertain, however, and subject to ongoing analysis. But what is certain is that there will be winners and losers, and we can bet the losers will be those who don't have much already."}]},{"head":"DoublE jEoparDy","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"In a recent analysis 3 , we, together with collaborators, demonstrated that African and southeast Asian countries are the most economically vulnerable to climate change impacts on their fisheries and aquaculture sectors (Fig. 1). This vulnerability arises from a relatively high reliance on fisheries combined with low levels of societal capacity to adapt to anticipated temperature increases. Of the 33 nations identified as being most vulnerable to climate impacts on An oft-forgotten source of food security and livelihoods, fisheries must be included in ongoing discussions of how the world's most vulnerable can adapt to climate change. their fisheries sectors, 19 are among the world's least developed countries, whose inhabitants are twice as reliant on fish and fisheries for food as those of more developed nations. Not only are the most vulnerable countries highly dependent on fish for protein, they also rely on fish and fisheries products as a source of income, producing around 20 per cent of the total tonnage of global fish exports, a fraction worth about US$6.2 billion."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"African and southeast Asian nations face the double jeopardy of high vulnerability to climate effects on both their fisheries and agriculture sectors. By 2050, the global yield of rain-fed maize is forecast to decline by 17 per cent and the yield of irrigated rice by a fifth as a result of climate change, with sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia being the worst hit 4 . Three countries in particular have both the highest national vulnerability to climate impacts on fisheries and 'extremely alarming' global hunger indices: Sierra Leone, Niger and the Democratic Republic of the Congo 5 . Clearly these nations deserve the greatest support for adaptation and development to face off against these challenges."}]},{"head":"policy progrEss","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Until now, the fisheries sector has been rather slow to get involved with both climate change and development issues -one of the reasons why fisheries and aquaculture are often left out of global policy processes. This is changing: partnership and collective action are mots du jour. One example is a collaborative effort of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the World Bank's PROFISH programme -an initiative to tackle unsustainable fishing practices -and international non-profit research group the WorldFish Center in Penang, Malaysia. This coalition aims to share the task of achieving representation for the sector in high-level climate policy dialogues by joining forces with other agencies such as the UN Environment Programme, regional intergovernmental organizations such as the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, and representatives of fisherfolk's organizations worldwide. Such alliances can be used to highlight vulnerability, adaptation needs and mitigation opportunities in the aquatic sector."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Here we identify four key areas where policy responses and associated research are needed, and we call upon delegates and decision-makers participating in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change process to take these on board in considering how best to involve the fisheries sector in mitigation and adaptation efforts [6][7][8] ."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"First, consideration should be given to the ability of aquatic production systems to reduce emissions of CO 2 and other greenhouse gases. Fisheries currently account for about 1.2 per cent of global oil consumption; this is comparable to the fuel consumption of the Netherlands -the eighteenth most fuelintensive economy. Despite this apparent appetite for energy, the fisheries sector is relatively fuel-efficient compared to other protein production systems. The energy content of captured fish is around ten per cent of the fuel used to catch it 9 . Though the sector cannot make a major contribution to global emissions reductions, options should be pursued wherever there are synergies between mitigation, adaptation and sound environmental management. With substantial overcapacity in the global fishing fleet, emissions reductions could be achieved by taking excess capacity out of commission -that is, by reducing fleet size. This could aid efforts towards sustainable fisheries management, and countries could even gain carbon credits for doing so if this could be demonstrated as a legitimate offsetting activity."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"Second, it is important to increase the fisheries sector's socio-ecological resilience and ability to respond to the opportunities and challenges of climate change. This can be done by maintaining larger stock sizes, achieved in part by reducing subsidies that artificially sustain the profitability of dangerously depleted fisheries. While reducing capacity is essential, over-regulation of the activities of the remaining fishers is counterproductive. Management measures should be supported that still allow fishing fleets to be mobile and flexible in what they catch so that they can adapt to anticipated changes in stock distribution and catch composition. Promoting less capital-intensive fisheries enterprises and providing opportunities for fishers to diversify into supplementary or alternative activities are key factors in building capacity to adapt to climate change; they reduce the risk of livelihood failure by spreading risk across more than one income source."}]},{"head":"iNtEgratED Efforts","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Third, there is a need for adaptation approaches that involve managing an integrated portfolio of natural resource sectors such as water resources, forestry, farming, aquaculture and capture fisheries. The poorest people often rely on two or more such sectors to sustain their livelihood. One novel cross-sectoral scheme in the Solomon Islands, funded by the Australian government, is assessing the potential for carbon sequestration by mangrove forests -ecosystems threatened by unsustainable aquaculture -which could then be eligible as a source of carbon credits under the UN programme Reducing Emissions from Degradation and Deforestation, or REDD. Researchers are examining how such an approach might be used to promote conservation, mitigate climate change and help alleviate poverty among people dependent on the mangroves and adjacent marine ecosystems."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Finally, thought should be given to mainstreaming fisheries in wider development processes. Climate change is not the only stress facing fishing and fish-farming communities. Many fishing communities are poorly served by infrastructure, markets and social services, and are thus economically, socially and politically marginalized. Building adaptive capacity to address these multiple stressors will require cross-sectoral approaches implemented through newly decentralized governance approaches. The world's least developed countries are among those eligible for UN funding to engage in long-term adaptation planning through the National Adaptation Programmes of Action. In countries where fisheries are important, sector-specific adaptation needs should be planned and budgeted for in this process. All sectors will be vying for a place at the climate change negotiating table in Copenhagen. The agencies representing the fisheries sector are calling, above all, for fisheries to be remembered when, as is hoped, commitments to funding adaptation are agreed this December. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" nature reports climate change | VOL 3 | JUNE 2009 | www.nature.com/reports/climatechange A place at the table? "},{"text":"1 . Fisheries and aquaculture directly employ over 36 million people worldwide, 98 per cent of whom are in developing countries. Taking into account ancillary occupations and their dependents, there are approximately 520 million fisheries-dependent people. Fisheries and aquaculture also support global trade worth over 78 billion dollars in 2008 (ref. 1). "},{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 unequal vulnerability. the vulnerability of national economies to potential climate change impacts on fisheries was calculated on the basis of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity, assuming slowly increasing global emissions (scenario b2 of the intergovernmental panel on climate change). colours represent quartiles, with dark brown for the upper quartile (highest vulnerability), yellow for the lowest quartile and grey where no data were available. originally published in ref. 3. "},{"text":" african and southeast asian countries are the most economically vulnerable to climate change impacts on fisheries resources. DEDI ADHURI, WORLDFISH CENTER african and southeast asian nations face the double jeopardy of high vulnerability to climate effects on both their fisheries and agriculture sectors. nature reports climate change | VOL 3 | JUNE 2009 | www.nature.com/reports/climatechange "},{"text":" published online: 28 May 2009 doi:10.1038/climate.2009.52 references "}],"sieverID":"157b0998-ea65-47f2-a23a-101db68d3014","abstract":"An informal forum facilitating lively and informative discussion on climate science and wider implications of global warming."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a820b18d6b6422b9befab040c37faeb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31ad301d-e01b-47f5-a073-43ff1912f973/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"CCAFS Baseline Indicators for Kollo/Fakara in Niger, West Africa CCAFS WEST AFRICA Site: Kollo/Fara, Niger","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"This document series compiles key indicators from the three levels of the baseline for each site. Indicators include: demography and basic site characteristics of each site, rainfall distribution, changes in farming practices and land management, income sources, food security and food sources, asset ownership by households and involvement in organisations and more."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"This CCAFS baseline indicator document was developed for the CCAFS site at Kollo/Fakara in Niger. Relative importance in the portfolio of organisations placed on climate or weather related activities"}]},{"head":"Changes in farming practices and drivers of changes in resources","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" and basic site characteristics • Changes in farming practices and drivers of changes in resources • Livelihood diversification • Food security • Collective action in natural resource management (NRM)• Membership of organisations and organisational agendas• Household assets • Networks of information• Organisational priorities Content Introduction Sources Throughout this document the sources of data for the indicators are colour coded as follows: CCAFS Household baseline study CCAFS Village baseline study CCAFS Organisational baseline study The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a strategic partnership of CGIAR and Future Earth led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). CCAFS brings together the world's best researchers in agricultural science, development research, climate science and Earth System science to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and tradeoffs between climate change, agriculture and food security. CCAFS is focusing its research for development efforts in five regions, East and West Africa, South and Southeast Asia as well as Latin America, working in 25 research sites. The regions represent areas that are particularly vulnerable to climate change, and the sites are focal locations to generate knowledge and learning that can be applied and adapted to other regions worldwide.Extensive baselines have been implemented at all CCAFS sites and consist of analysed information collected at three levels: households, communities and organisations. The baselines capture the big picture of how farmers are changing their practices in light of climate change and other pressures. The aim is to revisit the same communities and households in five and again in ten years to document changes in livelihoods, resource management practices and other factors over time and update these indicator documents accordingly. The CCAFS baseline is a key component of the program's monitoring and evaluation system. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"and basic site characteristics Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara Baseline Mid-term Final Ratio of women headed households 4% % households of different sizes 1 0% 10% 2 0% 20% 3 1% 31% 4 2% 42% 5 5% 55% 6 7% 67% 6+ 85% The baseline indicator series is complemented by CCAFS Ratio 6+85%The baseline indicator series is complemented by CCAFS Ratio site atlases, that include site maps with climate information, site atlases, that include site maps with climate information, biophysical characteristics and socio-economic factors. Site biophysical characteristics and socio-economic factors. Site maps are available at: www.ccafs.cgiar.org/atlas-ccafs-sites maps are available at: www.ccafs.cgiar.org/atlas-ccafs-sites Download the baseline tools, data and reports: Download the baseline tools, data and reports: www.cafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys www.cafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys Get in touch: Get in touch: Science Officer Wiebke Förch ([email protected]) Science Officer Wiebke Förch ([email protected]) "},{"text":"of local organisations to total number of organisations named* Area of land cultivated (ha)* 0.00 Baseline Mid-term Final Average (mean) per household (ha) 0.00 Men's group 4/11 Average (mean) per household (ha)0.00Men's group4/11 Women's group 5/15 Women's group5/15 "},{"text":"Highest level of education obtained by any household member No formal education 16% No formal education16% Primary 59% Primary59% Secondary 26% Secondary26% Post-secondary 0% Post-secondary0% "},{"text":"Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara Section 2: Changes in farming practices and drivers of changes in resources % households introducing 3 changes or more Baseline Mid-term Final Baseline Mid-term Final Drivers of changes to crop production and land management % households reporting this driver Markets 56% % households reporting this driverMarkets56% Crop 62% Weather/climate 71% Crop62%Weather/climate71% Water 0% Pest and Diseases 8% Water0%Pest and Diseases8% Soil 13% Labour 74% Soil13%Labour74% Tree/agroforestry 87% Land 94% Tree/agroforestry87%Land94% Livestock 45% Projects 5% Livestock45%Projects5% Adaptation Adaptation % households reporting changes to their agricultural pratices Drivers of changes to livestock production* % households reporting changes to their agricultural praticesDrivers of changes to livestock production* 0-1 change 0% % households reporting this driver Markets 78% 0-1 change0%% households reporting this driverMarkets78% 2-10 changes 66% Weather/climate 15% 2-10 changes66%Weather/climate15% 11 or more changes 34% Pest and Diseases 11% 11 or more changes34%Pest and Diseases11% Mitigation Labour 6% MitigationLabour6% % households doing Projects 0% % households doingProjects0% Tree management* Yes 87% Drivers of change in the community Tree management*Yes87%Drivers of change in the community No 13% No13% Baseline Mid-term Final Baseline Mid-term Final BaselineMid-termFinalBaselineMid-termFinal Soil management None 19% Frequency with which they were mentioned in group discussions Soil managementNone19%Frequency with which they were mentioned in group discussions Some 81% Population Growth 3 2 Some81%Population Growth32 Deforestation 1 0 Deforestation10 Intensification None 10% Pest and Diseases 0 0 IntensificationNone10%Pest and Diseases00 Low 61% Information/Knowledge 0 0 Low61%Information/Knowledge00 High 29% Land Demarcation/fragmentation 0 0 High29%Land Demarcation/fragmentation00 Soil degradation/Erosion 2 2 Soil degradation/Erosion22 Productivity No Increase 46% Rainfall Changes 4 2 ProductivityNo Increase46%Rainfall Changes42 Some increase 54% Charcoal Burning/Fuel 1 0 Some increase54%Charcoal Burning/Fuel10 Government 0 0 Government00 Forest Fire/Bush burning 1 0 Forest Fire/Bush burning10 Overuse 0 0 Overuse00 Spiritual/Cultural/Religious 0 0 Spiritual/Cultural/Religious00 Invasive tree species 0 0 Invasive tree species00 Increase in wealth 0 0 Increase in wealth00 Increase in livestock 0 0 Increase in livestock00 Social/Community conflicts 0 0 Social/Community conflicts00 Infrastructure 1 2 Infrastructure12 "},{"text":"Women Livelihood diversification Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara Baseline Mid-term Final Source of Cash Income other than own farm Employment on someone else's farm 44% Employment on someone else's farm44% Other off-farm employment 12% Other off-farm employment12% Business 15% Business15% Remittances/gifts 2% Remittances/gifts2% Payments for environmental services 3% Payments for environmental services3% Payments from government or other projects/programs 9% Payments from government or other projects/programs9% Loan or credit from a formal institution 4% Loan or credit from a formal institution4% Informal loan or credit 48% Informal loan or credit48% Renting out farm machinery 0% Renting out farm machinery0% Renting out your own land 1% Renting out your own land1% No off-farm cash source 25% No off-farm cash source25% Product diversification Product diversification % of households % of households 1-4 products (low) 41% 1-4 products (low)41% 5-8 products (intermediate) 55% 5-8 products (intermediate)55% 9 or more products (high) 4% 9 or more products (high)4% Selling/Commercialization Diversification: Selling/Commercialization Diversification: % of households % of households No products sold 44% No products sold44% 1-2 products sold (low) 47% 1-2 products sold (low)47% 3-5 products sold (intermediate) 9% 3-5 products sold (intermediate)9% 6 or more products sold (high) 1% 6 or more products sold (high)1% "},{"text":"Food security Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara Section 4: Food security Food Security Index Ratio of local organisations to total number of organisations named in each area of food security work* % households Baseline Mid-term Final Men's group Baseline Mid-term Final More than 6 hunger months/year 9% Availability 0/6 More than 6 hunger months/year9%Availability0/6 5-6 hunger months/ 26% Access 0/1 5-6 hunger months/26%Access0/1 3-4 hunger months/ 31% Utilisation 0/3 3-4 hunger months/31%Utilisation0/3 1-2 hunger months/ 31% 1-2 hunger months/31% Food all year round/No hungry period 1% Women's Food all year round/No hungry period1%Women's "},{"text":"group Baseline Mid-term Final Food security organisational linkages Men groups Access 1/4 Men groupsAccess1/4 Organisation receives Baseline Mid-term Final Utilisation 1/5 Organisation receivesBaselineMid-termFinalUtilisation1/5 Funding 2 Funding2 Capacity Building 0 Capacity Building0 Food 1 Food1 Organisation provides Organisation provides Funding 2 Funding2 Capacity Building 0 Capacity Building0 Food 2 Food2 Women groups Women groups Organisation receives Baseline Mid-term Final Organisation receivesBaselineMid-termFinal Funding 3 Funding3 Capacity Building 2 Capacity Building2 Food 0 Food0 Organisation provides Organisation provides Funding 1 Funding1 Capacity Building 1 Capacity Building1 Food 0 Food0 "},{"text":"Source of food during highest and lowest Baseline Mid-term Final shortage months % households mainly consuming from own % households mainly consuming from own farm in the month of highest shortage 2% farm in the month of highest shortage2% % households mainly consuming from own % households mainly consuming from own farm in the month of lowest shortage 100% farm in the month of lowest shortage100% "},{"text":"of organisations and organisational agendas Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara % households with at least one member belonging to organised groups Baseline Mid-term Final Baseline Mid-termFinal Tree nursery/tree planting 1% Tree nursery/tree planting1% Water catchment/management 1% Water catchment/management1% Soil improvement related 0% Soil improvement related0% Crop improvement related 1% Crop improvement related1% Irrigation 0% Irrigation0% Savings/credit related 7% Savings/credit related7% Agricultural product marketing 4% Agricultural product marketing4% Agricultural productivity enhancement related 5% Agricultural productivity enhancement related5% Seed production 0% Seed production0% Vegetable production 0% Vegetable production0% Other group not mentioned above? 0% Other group not mentioned above?0% No groups 85% No groups85% Baseline Mid-term Final Baseline Mid-termFinal Men's group 0/4 Men's group0/4 Women's group 3/8 Women's group3/8 "},{"text":"Ratio of local organisations involved in Natural Resource Management to total number of organisations involved in NRM* Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara Household assets Section 7: Assets Site NI01: Kollo / FakaraHousehold assetsSection 7: Assets % household with assets by type Baseline Mid-term Final % household with assets by typeBaseline Mid-termFinal Basic level 26% Basic level26% Intermediate level 74% Intermediate level74% High level 1% High level1% % households ownership % households ownership Transport Infrastructure Baseline Mid-term Final TransportInfrastructureBaselineMid-termFinal Bicycle 10% Improved storage facility for crops 1% Bicycle10%Improved storage facility for crops1% Motorcycle 1% Water storage tank 0% Motorcycle1%Water storage tank0% Car or Truck 0% Well/borehole 1% Car or Truck0%Well/borehole1% Production Running/tap water in dwelling 0% ProductionRunning/tap water in dwelling0% Tractor 0% Electricity from a grid 0% Tractor0%Electricity from a grid0% Mechanical Plough 1% Improved housing 0% Mechanical Plough1%Improved housing0% Mill 0% Improved roofing 0% Mill0%Improved roofing0% Water pump/Treadle pump 0% Separate housing for farm animals 0% Water pump/Treadle pump0%Separate housing for farm animals0% Thresher 0% Thresher0% Boat 0% Boat0% Fishing Nets 0% Fishing Nets0% Energy Energy Solar Panel Generator 0% 0% Household Solar Panel Generator0% 0%Household Information Luxury * Organisations have been recoded by CCAFS researchers from original data (participant perceptions of community, local and beyond local) to categories of local and external. Battery 0% Biogas Digester 0% LPG 0% Radio 62% Television 0% Cell Phone 53% Computer 0% Internet Access 0% Refrigerator 0% Air Conditioning 0% Electric Fan 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Energy Information Production Transport Luxury items % households owning at least one asset of the type Infrastructure Information Luxury* Organisations have been recoded by CCAFS researchers from original data (participant perceptions of community, local and beyond local) to categories of local and external. Battery 0% Biogas Digester 0% LPG 0% Radio 62% Television 0% Cell Phone 53% Computer 0% Internet Access 0% Refrigerator 0% Air Conditioning 0% Electric Fan 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Energy Information Production Transport Luxury items % households owning at least one asset of the typeInfrastructure Bank Account 0% Bank Account0% "},{"text":"asset ownership by type Networks of information Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara Site NI01: Kollo / Fakara % of households receiving weather-related information Baseline Mid-term Final % of households receiving weather-related informationBaselineMid-termFinal Start of the rains Forecast of extreme events Forecase of pest or disease outbreak 2-3 month weather forecast Baseline 49% 28% 44% 40% Mid-term Final Allocation of time Very high High Medium 9% 45% 18% Start of the rains Forecast of extreme events Forecase of pest or disease outbreak 2-3 month weather forecastBaseline 49% 28% 44% 40%Mid-termFinal Allocation of timeVery high High Medium9% 45% 18% 2-3 day weather forecast 78% Low 9% 2-3 day weather forecast78%Low9% None 18% None18% Of households receiving information, who in the family receives it Of households receiving information, who in the family receives it Start of the rains Men Baseline 43% Mid-term Final Allocation of staff 2-3 month weather forecast Men Very high Baseline 41% 0% Mid-term Final Baseline Forecast of pest or disease outbreak Men 51% Mid-term Final Start of the rainsMenBaseline 43%Mid-termFinal Allocation of staff 2-3 month weather forecast Men Very highBaseline 41% 0%Mid-termFinalBaseline Forecast of pest or disease outbreak Men 51%Mid-termFinal Women 0% Women High 0% 0% Women 0% Women0%Women High0% 0%Women0% Both 57% Both Medium Low 59% 18% 36% Both 49% Both57%Both Medium Low59% 18% 36%Both49% Forecast of extreme events 2-3 day weather forecast None 45% Forecast of extreme events2-3 day weather forecast None45% Men 54% Men 45% Men54%Men45% Women Both 0% 46% Allocation of budget Women Both Very high 3% 52% 0% Women Both0% 46%Allocation of budgetWomen Both Very high3% 52% 0% High 0% High0% Medium 36% Medium36% Low 36% Low36% None 27% None27% "}],"sieverID":"c4826739-53ca-4a6f-9ed6-aa717b030968","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0ac019f6f355684c2478667c425ec8d8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/870/AAS-3626.pdf"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Making a Di erence","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Early program achievements","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In 2012 improved technologies enhanced productivity of Bangladesh fish ponds and generated: $92m increase in combined annual income "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" achieving transformative changeWorking through Partners to • Improve design and implementation • Enable outcomes at scale • Lead regional scaling in Africa (NEPAD, FARA) "}],"sieverID":"ea1607c4-4725-40ce-af5b-c0543c735be2","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0ae5ac8231c870b55710673c1c4b9bbd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1629/WF_959.pdf"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Economic Valuation of Aquatic Resources in Siem Reap Province, Cambodia","keywords":["Aquatic resources","economic valuation","net economic value method","rural livelihoods"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"resources had substantial value in terms of income, employment, and overall livelihoods to households in both extractive and non-extractive activities. Among others, the study found that (1) fish catch per household was higher in the dry season than in the wet season and among higher wealth households than medium and lower wealth households;"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"(2) livelihood activities earned positive net incomes even when labor was included as part of costs; (3) generally, labor formed a significant part of the costs of livelihood activities; and (4) the presence of fishing lots was the main access issue facing households in the use of aquatic resources. The study explored the implications of the results to the management and sustainable development of aquatic resources in Siem Reap. doi:10.1300/J064v31n01_10 [Article copies available for a fee from"}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"This paper presented an economic valuation of aquatic resources in Siem Reap province, Cambodia. Aquatic resources were defined as freshwater fish, aquatic plants, aquatic animals, and aquatic wood that were harvested by households for livelihood purposes, as well as the water itself that was utilized by households for the provision of public transportation. This study used the market-based net economic value (NEV) method of economic valuation that takes the difference between total revenues and total costs of livelihood activities as measure of economic value."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"The paper was one of the outputs of the Aquatic Resources Valuation and Policies for Poverty Elimination in the Lower Mekong Basin Project (Israel et al., 2005a,b). The project lasted from January 2003 to March 2005, was funded by the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom, and implemented by the WorldFish Center in partnership with the Department of Fisheries (DOF) of Cambodia. The long-term goal of the project was to contribute to reducing poverty and improving livelihoods of the poor people dependent on aquatic resources in the Lower Mekong Basin countries, particularly Cambodia."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"The specific objectives of the paper were to (1) measure the production of fish and aquatic plants and animals among households in selected rural villages of Siem Reap; (2) quantify the direct value of aquatic resources used in various livelihood activities by households;"},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"(3) assess the constraints faced by households to the access to aquatic resources; and (4) derive conclusions and implications based on the results. The paper hypothesized that aquatic resources in general contributed positively to household income and employment in the rural areas and were important to households not just in fishing but also in various other extractive and non-extractive livelihood activities."}]},{"head":"Background of Cambodia and Siem Reap","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Cambodia is located in Southeast Asia. It is bordered in the west and northwest by Thailand, in the east and southeast by Vietnam, in the northeast by Lao PDR (People's Democratic Republic), and in the southwest by the Gulf of Thailand (Figure 1). Its climate is tropical with the wet season generally from May to October and the dry season from November to April. Most of the country comprises low and flat plains with mountains in the southwest and north regions."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The floodplains and other freshwater resources of Cambodia are immense in terms of area coverage. However, these resources have decreased over time, from about 1.87 million hectares in 1985-87 to 1.69 hectares in 1992-93 (Ahmed et al., 1998). Flooded forests, in particular, have experienced severe reduction, from approximately 0.80 million hectares in 1985-87 to 0.37 million hectares in 1992-93 alone."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The average annual gross domestic product (GDP) of Cambodia was 8.2 trillion riels between 1993 and 2001 or US$2.05 billion at the current exchange rate of US$1 = 4,000 riels. The GDP grew steadily at 5.7 percent per annum over the same period (NIS, 2002). GDP growth was retarded during the Asian regional economic crisis of 1997 and 1998 but recovered quickly. Annual GDP per capita averaged 715,000 riels or about US$179 from 1993 to 2001 and grew by approximately 1.5 percent per year."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"By sector, the Cambodian economy was dominated by agriculture, fisheries, and forestry that collectively contributed an annual average of 3.7 trillion riels or US$925 million to the GDP from 1993 to 2001. Agriculture, which was mainly crop production, contributed most to sectoral GDP, followed by fisheries and forestry. Approximately 73 percent of the fisheries GDP were from inland fisheries."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"Approximately 9 million or 82 percent of the population in Cambodia lived in the rural areas (Table 1). The average household size was 5.3 persons and slightly lower for rural areas than urban areas. The female population was a little higher than males population. The age dependency ratio was about 77 percent. The official unemployment rate was 0.6 percent, whereas the average monthly income was 79,000 riels or about US$20. The average monthly income was significantly lower in the rural areas than in Phnom Penh and urban areas."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"The province of Siem Reap had 12 districts, 100 communes, and 882 villages. With a total population of 696,164 people in 1998 and an area of 10,300 square kilometers, the province had a population density of about 68 persons per square kilometer. The other important indicators of the province are presented in Table 2."},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"Siem Reap has vast natural resources, including upland forest resources of 422,082 hectares, flooded forests of 90,833 hectares, freshwater bodies of 5,017 hectares, agricultural land of 400,469 hectares, grassland of 55,236 hectares, and other lands of 80,805 hectares. The main body of water in the province is part of Tonle Sap Lake, which is the largest lake in Southeast Asia."},{"index":8,"size":90,"text":"With the Tonle Sap Lake, Siem Reap is one of the richest provinces in Cambodia in terms of inland aquatic resources. In addition, the province has large floodplain areas and other freshwater bodies. Given these vast aquatic resources, it is understandable that a significant proportion of the Siem Reap population depends on these for subsistence and income generation. Of the approximately 3 million people in the Tonle Sap basin, it was estimated that around half relied on the Tonle Sap lake and its associated wetlands for their livelihoods (ADB, 2003)."},{"index":9,"size":79,"text":"Although inland aquatic resources are highly abundant in the Tonle Sap area, Siem Reap province remains highly impoverished. In general, the Tonle Sap Basin had the highest incidence of poverty, at 38 percent, among all the regions of Cambodia (Keskinen, 2003;MoP, 1999). In addition, the proportion of landless rural households in the area was the highest in the entire country, at 17 percent. This combination of poverty and landlessness drove the poor population to intensively exploit open-access aquatic resources. "}]},{"head":"Review of Related Literature","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":356,"text":"Studies on inland aquatic resources and rural livelihoods in Cambodia and the Tonle Sap area exist (e.g., Keskinen, 2003;ARMP, 2000;Gum, 2000). Furthermore, a number of works have been conducted that estimated the economic value of aquatic resources in the country. Bann (1997a) conducted an economic valuation of the alternative mangrove management strategies in Koh Kong Province using mainly the net economic value (NEV) method. The study found that local fishing benefit per hectare of mangrove area was at about US$84 while benefit in terms of fuel wood was at US$3.50 per hectare. The study further found that shrimp farming was not only environmentally unsustainable but also financially unprofitable with farms typically being abandoned after 5 years of operation. Bann (1997b) conducted another economic valuation study using the NEV method on tropical forestland use options in Ratanakiri Province. The study found that the benefits from the traditional sustainable use of forest resources exceeded the benefits from commercial timber extraction in the study area by at least US$200 per hectare indicating that said areas, especially those with high cultural value and environmental significance, might best be managed by local communities. Hap et al. (2001) employed the NEV method to assess the value of flooded forests in Kandal Province. The results indicated that flooded forest resources had significant benefits in terms of fishing, fuel wood, and vegetable production and were more profitable as they were, to the local population, as compared with when they were converted for other uses, such as for agriculture. Sy et al. (2002) conducted a valuation study on forest use in Chumkiri District, Kampot Province, again using the NEV method. The study found that the net income from forest-dependent activities of local households was significant and formed about 38 percent of the total income. Chamroeun et al. (2002) assessed the environmental and health effects of agrochemical use in rice production in Takeo Province using the productivity change approach and human capital approach. Although the costs were not quantified, the study found that agrochemical use resulted in negative health effects on farmers, lower fish productivity in the rice paddies, and higher production costs in rice farming."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"De Lopez et al. ( 2001) used Contingent Valuation (CV) techniques to analyze policy options for the Ream National Park in Cambodia and found that the park was critical to the livelihood of local communities, the existence of trawlers and illegal fishing operators threaten the livelihood of local communities, and the willingness-to-pay particularly of foreign tourists for a boat ride in the park was high, indicating the great potential of the park as a tourist destination. Roudy (2002) conducted a study on the natural resource use and livelihood trends in the Tonle Sap floodplains mainly using the NEV method and found that the area significantly contributed to the livelihood of the communities there in addition to the contributions of the area to the national economy. This study, however, did not quantitatively measure the contributions of resources based on their numerous uses at the household and village levels."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"In summary, the literature on economic valuation of aquatic resources in Cambodia generally concentrated on the fishing and wood extraction activities. There was only one study (Roudy, 2002) that conducted valuation in the Tonle Sap area where Siem Reap is located. Beyond fishing and wood gathering, the economic value of aquatic resources to a wide range of livelihood activities has not been well investigated in the Tonle Sap. The need for economic valuation is increasing with ongoing and planned economic development involving aquatic resources and livelihoods within Cambodia and the Tonle Sap area (ADB, 2003;TSEMP, 2003)."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Overall, the project had three provincial sites in Cambodia: Siem Reap in the west near the Thailand border, Stung Treng in the north besides the Lao PDR border and Takeo in the south bordering Vietnam (Figure 1). The three provinces were selected based on various considerations, including their diverse aquatic resources and varying aquatic resources-based livelihood activities. Within Siem Reap, six villages in three communes were covered by the project (Table 3). All the communes and villages bordered the Tonle Sap Lake."},{"index":2,"size":241,"text":"For this paper, the data used were from the cross-sectional household survey, longitudinal monitoring, and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) activities done by the project in the villages covered in Siem Reap. The household survey covered all the six villages mentioned earlier. Personal interviews were conducted using a prepared questionnaire and information generated on the demographic, socioeconomic, and other relevant characteristics of the households, their use of aquatic resources and the constraints that they faced to the access to the aquatic resources. The survey was conducted from September 2003 to November 2003. Each household surveyed was classified as lower, medium, or higher wealth households based on various criteria developed by the villagers during focus group discussions (Israel et al., 2005b). From the population of each wealth type in each village, a sample of 10 households was randomly selected for a total of 30 households per village and 180 households in the 6 villages. The total sample of households was 15 percent of the total population of households in the six villages covered (Table 3). The size of the sample was constrained by the resources available and the far distance of the provinces, communes, villages, and households covered by the project. The uniform sample of 30 households per village and 10 households per wealth type per village was decided to generate equal representation among wealth groups and villages. The data on access constraints presented in this paper were generated from the household survey."}]},{"head":"JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"For the longitudinal monitoring, only one of the three communes, Kampong Khleang commune, and its three villages were included. In each village, the household population was again classified into lower, medium, and higher wealth households. In each village, two households were randomly selected for monitoring each wealth type-a total of 6 households per village and 18 in the province. As in the case of the household survey, the number of households covered by the longitudinal monitoring was limited by available resources and the need to spread out resources to cover a full year of monitoring activity. The longitudinal monitoring involved household respondents filling in a questionnaire weekly for a period of one year from November 2003 to October 2004, covering a complete cycle of wet and dry seasons. The data on the quantity of the output of activities performed on a regular basis for a whole year by the households by wealth type, specifically fishing and the gathering of aquatic plants and animals, were collected through longitudinal monitoring. The economic valuation and analysis of production of fish and aquatic plants and animals also used longitudinal monitoring data."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Both the household survey and longitudinal monitoring questionnaires were pre-tested before they were administered by formally trained enumerators coming from the staff of the provincial offices of the DOF and field workers of participating nongovernment organizations in the province. The data gathered were verified through revisits and further interviews at the village sites conducted by the enumerators."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"PRA techniques, particularly key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and personal observations were conducted at the same time that the longitudinal monitoring was done from November 2003 to October 2004. PRA methods were used to gather data on the inputs of production of the regularly conducted activities, the prices of the inputs and outputs, and the inputs and outputs of the activities that were seasonally or irregularly conducted. The seasonally or irregularly conducted activities included fish culture, fish processing, gathering of aquatic wood, and provision of public water transportation. Question guides and other materials were prepared for the conduct of focus group discussions and other PRA activities. Those who gathered the data and information included again the provincial DOF staff and field workers from participating nongovernment organizations. This group was likewise trained before conducting the PRA activities. The gathered data were also verified through revisits and further interviews at the sites conducted by the enumerators. The economic valuation done in the paper used quantity and price of inputs data gathered through PRA."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"Theoretical discussions on economic valuation applied in the analysis of the natural resources and environment abound in the literature. More recent works with explanations of the different economic valuation methods applicable in the study of aquatic resources included Barbier et al. (1996), IIED (1997), De Lopez et al. (2001), CEMARE and SUIFAR (2002). The economic tool used in this study was the market-based approach of the NEV. Non-market valuation was not employed for some reasons. The project covered rural villages where many of the households belonged to low-income groups. Thus, willingness-to-pay and willingness-to-accept values for changes in natural resources and the environment for these households were likely to be low and not reflective of what they would be if the income constraints did not exist. Furthermore, research on economic valuation was new in the sites covered. Since part of the intention of the project was capacity building by way of training local government and nongovernment organization counterparts in economic valuation, a straightforward market-based approach was deemed appropriate."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"The NEV from an economic activity, such as the exploitation of an aquatic resource, was defined as"}]},{"head":"NEV = TR -TC","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"where on a seasonal or annual basis, TR was the total revenue, or the quantity of output generated from the exploitation of the resource multiplied by its market price, and TC was the total costs that included both the financial (quantity multiplied by the market price of the material inputs, hired labor and other purchased cost items) and the nonfinancial costs (quantity and market price of the unpurchased material inputs, such as household labor and other unpurchased items). The term \"economic\" was used to make a distinction from the term \"financial\" that purely meant the accounting of the money costs and returns to production."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"Note that the use of the NEV method has important limitations. First, the prices of the outputs or inputs involved can be underestimated when they were home consumed or provided. Underestimation can likewise occur even when outputs and inputs were traded in formal markets but distortions such as monopolies, subsidies, poor information, and other market imperfections exist. Thus, extra care was needed so prices reflected those of undistorted or freely functioning markets. Second, the NEV approach only estimated the direct-use values of aquatic resources. Indirect uses of resources (such as the breeding and nursing of aquatic species) and non-use values (such as environmental services) were not estimated using the approach. Therefore, results of this analysis provided lower-bound estimates of the value of aquatic resources-based activity. The estimation of indirect and non-use values of aquatic resources were issues for further research."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Quantities of Fish Catch, and Aquatic Plants and Animals Gathered","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"In the discussion in this section, quantities of fish catch, and aquatic plants and animals gathered represented the average for all fish, plant, and animal species caught and gathered. No effort was done to analyze by individual species because of the numerous species and the obvious immensity of work involved. Instead the economic approach of taking average values was considered sufficient for the purpose."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"The average fish catch by households by wealth type in the covered villages in Siem Reap, seasonally and annually, is presented in Figure 2. Between household wealth types, catch was highest among higher-wealth households followed by medium-wealth and lower-wealth households in the dry and wet seasons, and annually. For all household wealth types, catch was higher in the dry season than in the wet season. Average annual catch was about 8.9 tons, 6.6 tons, and 3.8 tons per household for higherwealth, medium-wealth, and lower-wealth households, respectively. The average annual catch for all households regardless of wealth type was about 6.4 tons."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The average aquatic plants gathered by households seasonally and annually in Siem Reap were presented in Figure 3. Between household wealth types, gathering was highest among higher-wealth households during the wet season and among medium-wealth households in the dry season. For all households regardless of wealth type, gathering was higher in the wet season than in the dry season. Average annual gathering was 788 kg, 256 kg, and 87 kg per household for higher-wealth, mediumwealth, and lower-wealth households, respectively. The average annual gathering for all households regardless of wealth type was 377 kg."},{"index":4,"size":181,"text":"The average aquatic animals gathered by households seasonally and annually in Siem Reap were presented in Figure 4. Between household wealth types, gathering was highest among higher-wealth households during the wet season and among lower-wealth households in the dry season. For all households regardless of wealth type, gathering was higher in the wet season than in the dry season but the difference appeared small. Average annual gathering was 561 kg, 183 kg, and 592 kg per household for higher-wealth, medium-wealth and lower-wealth households, respectively. The annual gathering for all households regardless of wealth type was 445 kg. To summarize, average fish catch per household was significantly higher among higher-wealth households than among medium-wealth and lower-wealth households. Across household wealth types, fish catch was higher in the dry season than in the wet season. In general, the gathering of aquatic plants and animals was higher in the wet season than in the dry season. Between household wealth types, the gathering of aquatic plants was higher among higher-wealth households than other households. Lower-wealth and higher-wealth households gathered more aquatic animals that medium-wealth households."}]},{"head":"Economic Valuation of Aquatic Resources","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"This section presented the results of the economic valuation conducted. The following should be noted before proceeding further. Cost and returns data (Table 4) were averages per household. The cost and returns figures were presented in riels to give an accurate picture of the monetary values involved in local terms. Following the theoretical discussion of the NEV earlier, total returns were computed as quantity of output, for example, fish, multiplied by the price of the output. Total costs included production costs (quantity of the input multiplied by the price of the production input) such as labor, gasoline, bait, plus the fixed costs including depreciation and other costs. Depreciation was computed as purchase price of the fixed asset less salvage value divided by economic life. Detailed calculations done to generate the depreciation figures presented in the table were provided in Israel et al. (2005b). Other costs referred to repairs and maintenance, the cost of borrowing money, and miscellaneous costs (which were estimated as 10 percent of production costs plus depreciation). Net income data were calculated excluding (or not subtracting) and including (or subtracting) labor costs. Labor used for the activities was generally household labor and not hired labor. Labor costs were computed at the rate of 5,000 riels per person-day of 8 hours to reflect its true market value. The price of labor was constant across activities and seasons based on PRA information."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Fishing was classified as motorized and non-motorized. Motorized fishing used bigger and motorized boats as well as relatively more sophisticated fishing gears and techniques. Relatively wealthier households conducted motorized fishing in Siem Reap province. Non-motorized fishing, on the other hand, used smaller and non-motorized boats as well as relatively simpler fishing gears and techniques. Poorer households usually practiced it in the province. Of the household activities considered, gathering of aquatic wood was assessed only for the wet season. (Households actually cut the trees illegally, hide them in the bushes in the dry season and then collect them as drift wood in the wet season.) Similarly, fish culture was assessed only in the dry season at time of harvest but entire culture actually took 12 months."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Based on the results presented in Table 4, the following were the important findings of the economic valuation of aquatic resources used in household livelihood activities:"},{"index":4,"size":364,"text":"1. Livelihood activities using aquatic resources earned positive net incomes per household even when labor was taken as part of the costs. This finding suggested that these activities were not just for subsistence but also for income generation. 2. Except in fish processing, labor formed a significant part of the costs of the livelihood activities implying that the activities were labor intensive and an important source of employment for households. 3. Net incomes per household were relatively high in motorized fishing, non-motorized fishing, fish culture, and provision of public water transportation. The households may have conducted these activities mainly for income generation. 4. Although net incomes from motorized fishing done by wealthier households were higher (due to higher catch) than non-motorized fishing done by poorer households, both earned high positive net incomes and had significant labor costs. This implied that fishing contributed to income and employment among households of all wealth types in the villages. 5. Net incomes per household were relatively low in fish processing and the gathering of aquatic plants and animals. Households may have conducted these activities for domestic purposes as much as for income generation. 6. Net incomes from the gathering of aquatic wood were positive and relatively high. This may help explain the continued practice of this illegal activity in Siem Reap. In particular, households may have gathered aquatic wood not only for domestic use but also for income generation. 7. In addition to labor, fingerling and feeds were important cost items in fish culture. Thus, fish culture among households was relatively capital intensive and dependent on linkages to the fingerling and feeds suppliers. 8. The provision of public water transportation was a lucrative livelihood activity for the households. Therefore, the water itself and not just the living aquatic resources in it were used by households for income generation. 9. For motorized fishing, non-motorized fishing, and fish processing, net incomes were higher in the dry season than in the wet season. In contrast, net incomes were higher in the wet seasons for the gathering of aquatic plants and animals and provision of public water transportation. Therefore, seasonality also played an important role in the economic use of aquatic resources."},{"index":5,"size":180,"text":"The average annual values of the aquatic resources-based activities in a typical village in Siem Reap are presented in Table 5. The values were computed by multiplying the economic values per activity and per household presented in Table 4 by the estimated number of households involved in a typical village (see Israel et al., 2005b). It should be noted that although fish culture and the provision of water transportation had high net incomes per household, the contributions per village were small because few villagers actually conducted these activities. In contrast, although the net incomes per household were low for the gathering of aquatic plants and animals, the contributions per village were high because many villagers practiced these activities. Based on the computation, the NEV of aquatic resources with labor costs included in the computation of costs in all the activities per village was 1,781.9 million riels or US$445,500. The computations further showed that, whether it was taken as part of costs, labor significantly affected the NEV value indicating its great importance in the economic use of aquatic resources among households."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"In summary, based on these economic valuation results, it was shown that aquatic resources contributed positively to household income and employment and were important to households not just in fishing but also in other extractive and non-extractive livelihood activities. "}]},{"head":"Constraints to Access to Aquatic Resources","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The constraints to access of aquatic resources identified by villagers in Siem Reap were the payment of access fees and the existence of fishing lots, fish sanctuaries, and closed seasons. The importance of these issues among different household wealth types was considered (Table 6). The following were the important findings:"},{"index":2,"size":254,"text":"1. More of higher-wealth households than medium-wealth households and lower-wealth households said that the payment of access fees was an issue in their village, actually paid for these, and believed that access fees reduced their access to aquatic resources. While a majority of higher-wealth households said payment of access fees existed in their village, only a minority (33 percent) believed that the fees reduced their access to resources. 2. A majority of households of all wealth types said that the presence of fishing lots was an issue in their village. Also a majority of all wealth types thought that fishing lots limited their access to aquatic resources. More medium-wealth households than higherwealth and lower-wealth households believed that fishing lots limited their access to resources. 3. A majority of households of all wealth types said that the presence of fish sanctuaries was an issue in their village but only a few thought that fish sanctuaries limited their access to aquatic resources. More of higher wealth households than medium wealth and lower wealth households believed that fish sanctuaries were an issue in their village. 4. A majority of households of all wealth types said that the imposition of closed season was an issue in their village although only a few of higher wealth households and none of medium and lower wealth households thought that it limited their access to aquatic resources. More of higher wealth households than medium wealth and lower wealth households said that the imposition of closed season was an issue in their village."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"In summary, of the four access issues identified by villagers the presence of fishing lots was the one considered by most households as significantly limiting their access to aquatic resources. The payment of access fess was an issue but was considered as constraining resource access by only a minority of households. Few households thought fish sanctuaries and closed seasons reduced access to aquatic resources in their villages."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"In general, the economic valuation done in this paper found that aquatic resources in both extractive and non-extractive use had substantial value in terms of income, employment and livelihoods to households in the rural villages of Siem Reap. This finding suggested the need for the proper use and management of these resources for their continued use by households."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Since aquatic resources-based livelihoods provide incomes and employment to rural households, they should be promoted by the government for economic development in the aquatic resources-dependent rural areas of Siem Reap, with due consideration to the resource and environmental concerns that accompany economic intensification. In recent years, stakeholder-based community fisheries management has gained ground in theses areas with the implementation of the sub-decree on community fisheries and the establishment of community fisheries committees at the commune and village levels. Supporting this innovative approach of management may not only lead to a balanced rural development with both economic and environmental concerns considered but also allow the full participation of the rural population in the management of local aquatic resources."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The findings indicated that in general, aquatic resources-based activities in the villages of Siem Reap may not be for subsistence alone but also for income generation. Thus, it is worthwhile to consider not just fishing, as what is currently done, but other livelihood activities (excluding the gathering of aquatic wood), for future planning and development."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Special mention may be afforded to fish culture that was found to be relatively profitable in this analysis. The activity has been practiced in some villages of Siem Reap but only in a limited way. Fish culture development may be seriously considered for the province but with due considerations to its potential negative environmental effects and the available resource base."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"The gathering of wood by households from the flooded forests of Siem Reap has been a controversial issue and more so that it was found to be an economically lucrative activity way beyond subsistence."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"That it remains to be practiced by households is an indication of poor monitoring and enforcement by the authorities, among others. This function of pertinent agencies has to be strengthened to save the last flooded forests of Siem Reap."},{"index":7,"size":113,"text":"Other specific findings of the study have relevance to the development of the rural areas in Siem Reap as well. The results here showed that household wealth type and season had important bearings on fish production and the use of aquatic resources. Hence, future programs and activities for the development of aquatic resources to benefit the rural poor households in Siem Reap, such as micro-credit, may have to take account of differences in wealth and seasons to accurately target the intended beneficiaries. For instance, micro-credit programs may be aimed at lower wealth households specifically to promote the gathering of aquatic plants and animals as a livelihood activity in both dry and wet seasons."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"The results further showed that the water itself, and not just the living resources in it, have important economic value to households, specifically in the provision of public transportation. Development programs can explore various other ways of using the water not just for transportation but for other economic activities such as animal raising. In particular, duck raising has been found to be beneficial to households in Takeo (Israel et al., 2005b) and can also be aggressively promoted in Siem Reap."},{"index":9,"size":83,"text":"With fishing lots as the main access issue in the villages of Siem Reap, the fishery reforms that led to the reduction of fishing lots in Siem Reap and other provinces were a step in the right direction. However, more needs to be done as the fishery reforms may also have caused the shift to the intensification of open-access fisheries and the rapid destruction of aquatic resources in the country. The fishing lot system has to be studied to address the remaining problems."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"Finally, the results of this economic valuation are limited to the marketable and direct uses of aquatic-based resources in Siem Reap. A broader understanding of the total economic value of these resources could be developed through expanding this research into non-market valuation to measure the indirect use values and non-use values of these resources."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. Map of Cambodia highlighting the Provincial Sites of the Project. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. Seasonal and annual total fish catch by households in 3 villages in Siem Reap, Cambodia. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. Seasonal and annual aquatic plants gathered by households in 3 villages in Siem Reap, Cambodia. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 . FIGURE 4. Seasonal and annual aquatic animals gathered by households in 3 villages in Siem Reap Province. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Selected demographic and socioeconomic indicators of Cambodia, 1999. Indicator Phnom Penh Other urban Rural Cambodia IndicatorPhnom PenhOther urbanRural Cambodia Population (millions) 0.96 1.17 9.43 11.60 Population (millions)0.961.179.4311.60 Number of households ('000) 174 215 1,780 2,170 Number of households ('000)1742151,7802,170 Household size 5.50 5.40 5.30 5.30 Household size5.505.405.305.30 Percentage of female population 51.9 51.8 51.6 51.6 Percentage of female population51.951.851.651.6 Age dependency ratio 57.0 77.1 79.1 76.8 Age dependency ratio57.077.179.176.8 Adult literacy rate 87.3 72.0 69.2 71.2 Adult literacy rate87.372.069.271.2 Unemployment rate 0.50 0.40 0.60 0.60 Unemployment rate0.500.400.600.60 Monthly income per person (in riel) 220,000 99,000 63,000 79,000 Monthly income per person (in riel)220,00099,00063,000 79,000 Source: Adapted from NIS (2000). Source: Adapted from NIS (2000). "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Selected demographic and socioeconomic indicators of Siem Reap Province,Cambodia, 1998. Indicator Indicator "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . Household population and household samples in the villages covered in SiemReap, 2003Reap, -2004. . Communes/Villages covered Household Household Sample/ Communes/Villages coveredHouseholdHouseholdSample/ by survey population sample Population (%) by surveypopulationsamplePopulation (%) Kampong Khleang Commune Kampong Khleang Commune Ou Ta Putt Village 245 30 12 Ou Ta Putt Village2453012 Chamkar Youn Village 155 30 19 Chamkar Youn Village1553019 Prek Sromoach Village 297 30 10 Prek Sromoach Village2973010 Kampong Phluk Commune Kampong Phluk Commune Kok Dol Village 154 30 19 Kok Dol Village1543019 Dey Krohram Village 153 30 20 Dey Krohram Village1533020 Kaev Pour Commune Kaev Pour Commune Peam Ta Our Village 227 30 13 Peam Ta Our Village2273013 Total 1,231 180 Total1,231180 "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . Seasonal costs and returns of different aquatic resources-based household livelihood activities in Siem Reap, 2004 (riels/household). Item Wet Dry ItemWetDry A. Motorized fishing A. Motorized fishing Total returns 7,074,800 9,346,000 Total returns7,074,8009,346,000 Costs Costs Labor 1,520,000 1,520,000 Labor1,520,0001,520,000 Gasoline 583,200 583,200 Gasoline583,200583,200 Bait 81,000 81,000 Bait81,00081,000 Depreciation 265,000 265,000 Depreciation265,000265,000 Other costs 244,920 244,920 Other costs244,920244,920 Total costs 2,694,120 2,694,120 Total costs2,694,1202,694,120 Net income (incl. labor costs) 4,380,680 6,651,880 Net income (incl. labor costs)4,380,6806,651,880 Net income (excl. labor costs) 5,900,680 8,171,880 Net income (excl. labor costs)5,900,6808,171,880 B. Non-motorized fishing B. Non-motorized fishing Total returns 4,459,700 6,524,000 Total returns4,459,7006,524,000 Costs Costs Labor 1,215,000 1,215,000 Labor1,215,0001,215,000 Bait 0 0 Bait00 Depreciation 232,000 232,000 Depreciation232,000232,000 Other costs 144,700 144,700 Other costs144,700144,700 Total costs 1,591,700 1,591,700 Total costs1,591,7001,591,700 Net income (incl. labor costs) 2,868,000 4,932,300 Net income (incl. labor costs)2,868,0004,932,300 Net income (excl. labor costs) 4,083,000 6,147,300 Net income (excl. labor costs)4,083,0006,147,300 C. Fish culture C. Fish culture Total returns 2,400,000 Total returns2,400,000 Costs Costs Labor 455,000 Labor455,000 Fingerlings 450,000 Fingerlings450,000 Feeds 547,500 Feeds547,500 Depreciation 342,500 Depreciation342,500 Other costs 179,500 Other costs179,500 "},{"text":"TABLE 4 (continued) (continued) "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Annual values of aquatic resources for an average aquatic resources dependent village in Siem Reap, 2004 (million riels). Economic activity Gross value Net income Net income Economic activityGross valueNet incomeNet income (incl. labor costs) (excl. labor costs) (incl. labor costs)(excl. labor costs) Motorized fishing 886.7 595.8 759.9 Motorized fishing886.7595.8759.9 Non-motorized fishing 1,482.8 1,053.0 1,381.1 Non-motorized fishing1,482.81,053.01,381.1 Fish culture 103.2 18.3 37.9 Fish culture103.218.337.9 Fish processing 44.7 3.4 8.4 Fish processing44.73.48.4 Gathering of aquatic plants 77.3 63.9 75.2 Gathering of aquatic plants77.363.975.2 Gathering of aquatic animals 136.8 11.9 124.6 Gathering of aquatic animals136.811.9124.6 Gathering of aquatic wood 41.4 19.3 34.6 Gathering of aquatic wood41.419.334.6 Water transportation 26.0 16.3 19.0 Water transportation26.016.319.0 Total value of aquatic resources 2,798.9 1,781.9 2,440.7 Total value of aquatic resources2,798.91,781.92,440.7 (million riels) (million riels) Total value of aquatic resources 699.7 445.5 610.2 Total value of aquatic resources699.7445.5610.2 (thousand US$) (thousand US$) "},{"text":"TABLE 6 . Access issues faced by households in villages covered in SiemReap, 2004. Access issues Higher wealth Medium wealth Lower wealth Access issuesHigher wealth Medium wealth Lower wealth Payment of access fees (% of households) Payment of access fees (% of households) Issue exits 60 49 27 Issue exits604927 Households that pay access fees 51 40 20 Households that pay access fees514020 Effect of the issue on households Effect of the issue on households Reduces access 33 27 13 Reduces access332713 Increases access 2 2 2 Increases access222 Remains the same 25 22 12 Remains the same252212 No opinion 40 49 73 No opinion404973 Presence of fishing lots (% of households) Presence of fishing lots (% of households) Issue exits 78 77 75 Issue exits787775 Effect of the issue on households Effect of the issue on households Reduces access 62 65 62 Reduces access626562 Increases access 0 3 0 Increases access030 Remains the same 17 10 12 Remains the same171012 No opinion 21 22 26 No opinion212226 Presence of fish sanctuaries (% of households) Presence of fish sanctuaries (% of households) Issue exits 63 58 55 Issue exits635855 Effect of the issue on households Effect of the issue on households Reduces access 3 2 2 Reduces access322 Increases access 10 3 5 Increases access1035 Remains the same 50 53 48 Remains the same505348 No opinion 37 42 45 No opinion374245 Imposition of closed season (% of households) Imposition of closed season (% of households) Issue exits 97 92 88 Issue exits979288 Effect of the issue on households Effect of the issue on households Reduces access 2 0 0 Reduces access200 Increases access 0 5 0 Increases access050 Remains the same 95 87 88 Remains the same958788 No opinion 3 8 No opinion38 "}],"sieverID":"9c9b9813-fcf4-4e2d-943d-90261ae32ea8","abstract":"The direct values of aquatic resources (freshwater) used in livelihood activities by rural households in Siem Reap, Cambodia were estimated using the net economic value method. The constraints faced by households to access these resources were also analyzed. Data used were from cross-section household survey, longitudinal monitoring, and participatory rural appraisal activities done among selected households from 2003 to 2004. In general, the study found that aquatic"}
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Databases for domestic and livestock animals, fish, insects, microbes and pathogens are also represented, as well as resources for breeding tools, ontologies, pathways and genetic variation."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The goal of the Consortium is to increase collaboration and shared best practices among member databases. Founded in 2015, the Consortium was awarded a National Science Foundation Research Coordination Network (RCN) grant in 2021 (# 2126334) to strengthen and expand the network, in particular around the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) principles (1). During the first year of the RCN grant, several working groups (WGs) were established around key priorities, and were tasked with defining actionable problems facing the community, and if possible, providing solutions."},{"index":3,"size":195,"text":"The AgBioData Consortium GGB databases provide tools and services that allow scientists to discover, retrieve and reuse data, and are often curated and integrated by biocurators, with the goal of enhancing knowledge discovery and scientific progress (2,3). There are multiple aspects required for effective discovery, retrieval and reuse of data, including but not limited to the technology that exposes the data to end users or other systems, and annotations of the data to ontology terms that allow the data to be understood outside the context of the database, by both humans and computers. Optimization of both the technology used to expose the data, and ontologies used to understand the exposed data, is worthwhile, due to their central importance for GGB databases. The AgBio-Data Consortium formed two WGs focused on Data Sharing and Ontologies, respectively, in order to identify whether and how technology and ontology use in the Consortium could or should be improved. The Data Sharing and the Ontologies WGs concluded that an updated assessment of data sharing and/or ontology usage, problems and needs in the AgBioData community was necessary in order to provide recommendations to the larger consortium on which problems should be prioritized."},{"index":4,"size":242,"text":"Data sharing is a generic term covering all methodologies for passing information from one system to another, to be used by another person or tool (4). Data-sharing methodologies exist across a spectrum rooted in how much automation is involved in the sharing process. At one end of the spectrum, there is manual sharing, such as shipping files to a collaborator on a hard drive. On the other end of the spectrum, there is full automation (federation) where data can travel between software systems freely and automatically, without human intervention. Data federation refers to a specific type of data sharing between data repositories that are highly automated and invisible to the end user (5). Data federation is driven by a shared data governance structure that is defined centrally, paired with distributed data hosting by local (or repository-specific) teams that have the autonomy to execute and enforce governance standards as appropriate for their specific repository. This allows for a high level of interoperability while ensuring security and compliance. In between these two ends of the spectrum, there are many other methods and technologies. Effective data sharing-among databases and from databases to stakeholders-is a key component towards implementation of the FAIR principles (1). Key to effective data sharing is the ability to programmatically access data, such that data and metadata can be accessed by both humans and computers. The Data Federation/Sharing WG initially focused on data federation but expanded to include topics on data sharing."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"Across the spectrum of agricultural databases and genomics resources, managers, curators and researchers are dealing with exponential increases in the volume of data to manage. One valuable class of tools that have emerged and grown over the past 20-25 years is that of ontologies. Starting in the late 1990s, the Gene Ontology (6, 7) led the way in the biological sciences with the development of a resource which provided a structured, controlled vocabulary describing biological processes, molecular functions and cellular components. These ontology terms are related to one another through a controlled set of relations (8) and form a hierarchy which can be searched and reasoned across using computer software. In addition, ontology terms can be attached to data objects (annotation) in a standardized way, enabling integration and analysis across multiple studies or species (9)."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"Since the advent of the Gene Ontology (GO), there has been a massive growth in the number of biological ontologies, describing all facets of biology from anatomy (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16) to chemicals (17), to traits and phenotypes (18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25) and environments (26,27), among many other domains."},{"index":7,"size":134,"text":"In addition to the reference or species-neutral ontologies such as the GO, there has been a movement toward the development of species-or clade-specific controlled vocabularies (CVs) that are targeted towards breeding communities and their unique needs. A leader in this area, the Crop Ontology (CO; https://cropontology.org/) (28-30) is a collection CVs or trait dictionaries that cover plant anatomy, traits and phenotypes of approximately 35 plant species or clades (as of June 2023). The CO is widely adopted and has become an important component in the plant breeding databases such as the Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP; https://www. integratedbreeding.net/) Breeding Management System, and Breedbase (https://breedbase.org/) at the Boyce Thompson Institute (28). In addition, 11 of the CO trait dictionaries are currently mapped to the Plant Trait Ontology (TO) and integrated into the Planteome Database (https://planteome.org/) (18)."},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"Sites such as the OBO Foundry (https://obofoundry.org/), the Planteome (https://planteome.org/), the NCBI Bioportal (https://bioportal.bioontology.org/) and the EMBL-EBI Ontology Lookup Service (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ols/index) provide curated lists of ontologies for biological data curation and annotation. With the advent of the FAIR principles for data management (1) there is an increased need for the power of ontologies to facilitate data findability, accessibility, interoperability and repeatability."}]},{"head":"Survey goals and methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"A previous survey, conducted in 2017 (31), assessed the status of data sharing and ontology use by the members of the AgBioData Consortium. Since 5 years had passed since the survey was delivered, the WGs saw an opportunity to gauge whether usage of ontologies or data-sharing technologies had improved, and to identify new needs in the community that the RCN grant could address. The Data Sharing WG partnered with the Ontologies WG to construct and distribute a survey designed to gather information about current knowledge, use and challenges to data federation and ontologies. The survey was created as a Google Form and shared with AgBioData members via email and the Slack application (https://slack.com/) in July 2022, and responses were collected through the end of August 2022 to assess the status and needs about data sharing and ontology use. Our target audience was database personnel, and our goal was to receive one response per member database (at the time, 44 databases). The survey can be viewed in Appendix 1. The survey was performed to learn the current practices and future plans of the AgBioData Consortium member databases, and as such, the findings should not be generalized to the larger universe of similar databases which are not AgBioData members. The Ontology results were compared to those found in the 2017 survey."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"The main goals of the Data Sharing sections (6-10) of the survey were to assess: "}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Survey respondents and the types of data Not all the respondents answered all the questions. It is important to note that in the survey results below, the percentage of respondents were not calculated based on the total number of respondents, but based on the number of respondents for that specific question."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The respondents serve a variety of roles within their databases/resources. Out of 33 respondents to this question, the survey takers identified themselves as project principal investigators (48.5%), curators (48.5%), maintainers (45.5%), developers (36.4%) or computational biologists (33.3%). Note that for this question, more than one answer was allowed."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"We asked what data types each database handled. Over two-thirds of the 33 respondents reported working with genetic, genomic (sequence, transcriptome, markers, with annotations) and phenomic data, while several (4 or 12.1%) also reported working with epidemiological, nutrient, scientific text or bibliography information. Of note was the diversity of the genetic and genomic data represented, from reference genome sequences and pangenomes to transcriptomics, QTLs, germplasm/breeding lines, mRNAs and proteins."}]},{"head":"Data-sharing survey results","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Current level of data sharing","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Of the 32 respondents to this question, 87.5% reported that they currently share data with other databases, systems or tools. The remaining 12.5% respondents stated that they either have the capability for sharing but it is not currently being used (9.4%) or it would take significant effort to enable sharing (3.1%). A caveat is that we did not follow up to ask how respondents that replied 'yes' know whether their data were being used. We conclude that AgBioData member and non-member databases do prioritize data sharing."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"That said, 21.9% of respondents stated that sharing can only be done with specific tools. When asked about available mechanisms for data sharing, each of the following technologies was utilized by 60% of the 29 respondents: manual transfer of flat files (through FTP, email or DropBox TM ); hyperlinks to flat files; and discoverable web service application programming interfaces (APIs). A much smaller number of respondents use shared search indices (17%) or direct SQL access (10%), both of which require some expertise in a programming language and/or handling queries from database structures."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"As can be seen in Figure 1A and B, most databases offer more than one well-recognized option for data sharing. Over 80% of those who offer manual transfer of flat files also provide a more automated option such as discoverable web service APIs. This serves as further evidence that AgBioData members do prioritize data sharing and federation. Overall, 25 out of 29 of respondents (86%) used technologies for data sharing where users could access the data programmatically [Discoverable Web Service APIs, Shared search indices, Direct SQL access (or alternate query language, e.g. GraphQL), iCommands-federated data storage and access, Ontology + RDF knowledge graph file, SPARQL endpoint, Specific web services]. Four respondents did not answer the question. This suggests there is an opportunity to improve the extent of programmatic data access among AgBioData databases."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"The survey also delved into the types of datasets shared with other databases (Figure 2). The top three responses are: annotation/ontology files (69%), raw sequence files (52%) and variant files (41%). A third of databases reported sharing phenotypic data (e.g. images, traits) with another third reporting sharing marker data (e.g. PCR, SSR)."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"As we see in Figure 3A and B, of the most common genomic/genetic data types (annotation/ontology, raw sequence, variant, marker), almost 60% of databases represented in the responses received offer more than one data type with many offering three or more data types. Very few databases reported sharing ontologic data in the form of .obo or .owl files or homology information."},{"index":6,"size":151,"text":"With respect to metadata, most databases reported the sharing of data-associated publications and/or the original data source (Figure 2). Some databases (30%) do share information about the material and methods of data collection and a few (10%) share environmental metadata. The survey shows that datasets are shared with information about associated publication(s) (73% out of 26 responses) and/or original data sources (69%). Hence, although sharing datasets is of primary importance, the metadata associated with these datasets are not always as informative. It is unclear whether metadata information is searchable, or if it is generally left to the user to uncover metadata from publications or original sources. While it may appear that over a quarter of respondents do not provide either associated publications or the original data source, all but two responses included at least one of the two. In some cases, more detailed information about materials and methods are provided (31%)."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"The responses reflect how ubiquitous and commonplace genome sequencing, annotation, and variant identification became for biological databases, along with their importance in research."}]},{"head":"Desired level of data sharing","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Section 9 of the survey measured the willingness of biological databases to share their datasets. 91% of the 33 respondents put the importance of data sharing for their database either 'very high or high.' A follow-up question, however, showed that only 73% of the respondents think that their user community considers 'very high/high' about the importance of data sharing (Figure 4)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"However, when the respondents were reminded of the added costs of making data more shareable, the enthusiasm significantly shifts from very high/high to high/medium categories: data sharing was shown of very high importance by 67% of the respondents, but it is a high priority only for 21% of respondents. This is interesting as respondents were either open to suggestions about improving federation or had very concrete ideas regarding how they would like to make their databases more FAIR. These ideas included BrAPI compliant services, semantic web, GraphQL, and tailoring access for producers."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"These seemingly contradictory results could be explained as follows: stakeholders are not pushing for sharing data across databases, and significant budget pressures restrict databases to only prioritize stakeholders' concerns. Hence, we attribute this drop in priority as a reflection of a lack of sustainable funding, i.e. the reality that most databases have fully allocated their available resources and therefore lack the capacity to make additional investments in development of any kind of data sharing. Perhaps increasing the awareness of the importance of data sharing across communities among stakeholders may shift the focus of databases towards devoting more funds for more data sharing."},{"index":4,"size":283,"text":"We also asked what technologies or methodologies were desired to make data more available. Responses were freeform, and included using BrAPI compliant services; exploring GraphQL; microservices; and linked data/semantic web. Only one respondent was concerned with data privacy. Questions 9.5, 9.6, 10.7 and 10.8 focused on types of data or metadata that the respondent would like to be able to share more effectively with external users, organizations, or tools; and conversely, that the respondent would like shared with them. As the response type was free-form, we classified the responses into categories, and tallied the number of responses per category. Responses from questions 9.5 and 10.7 were aggregated together, as were responses from questions 9.6 and 10.8, due to the similarity of the questions. The full results can be seen in Figure 5. There were 32 different data types given as answers. Among the most common responses were phenotypic or phenomic data (11 responses from 7 databases); all data types; gene data and metadata; and genomic data. The largest category of responses was 'singleton' answers (24 total). There were not many differences between data that respondents wanted to share from their own databases, versus data they would like to access from others. The main distinction is that three respondents wanted to access GWAS data from other databases. Also, lack of consistent formatting, or applications of standards among databases, hampered data access from other databases. These results suggest two things: first, that the strongest need among AgBioData databases is for standards for phenotypic data sharing. Second, given the large number of singleton answers, that AgBioData databases provide access to a diverse set of data types, and that therefore we encounter diverse problems with data sharing."}]},{"head":"Barriers to success","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The 32 respondents identified the following as the top four barriers in data sharing: time and resources (81%), funding and return on investments (62%), lack of data standards (50%), and technical knowledge (47%). The rest of the barriers were all below 12% (Figure 6). We recognize that technology can be used to reduce the time and resources needed to do the same amount of work-so these barriers are not necessarily independent categories and could be related. Further, especially for those who work in academia, it is not surprising to see funding/resources as the top barrier to get things done. Usually, increasing resources is out of the hands of researchers (one counter-example may be Phoenix Bioinformatics raising funds from its users to manage TAIR (32). However, the remaining top barriers, i.e. lack of data standards and technical knowledge, are areas that can be remedied through developing data standards and training, where AgBioData can play a significant role."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In spite of the barriers to data sharing mentioned above, a majority of respondents-87% (out of 23 responses)-have imported, linked or shared data programmatically from another database. The respondents were mostly successful in their endeavors, which is encouraging. Most cautionary comments referred to instability of target URLs or data sources; and identifier ambiguity."}]},{"head":"Awareness of tools and technologies","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"All respondents reported a familiarity with manual file sharing, data hyperlinks and digital object identifiers (DOIs), and over half of respondents reported familiarity with APIs (either discoverable, RESTful or programmatic) (Figure 1A and 1B). However, two-thirds of respondents reported a lack of familiarity with other data federation tools such as linked data (e.g. semantic web), client integration of multiple results (e.g. sharing genome browser tracks), index driven search technologies (e.g. ElasticSearch), and large file transfer via services like Globus (Figure 7). Fortunately, respondents reported a desire to learn more about these tools and technologies (such as GraphQL). This desire provides the data federation WG with an opportunity to promote and improve data federation through educational offerings. The WG also recommends that data sharing tools should be made intuitive enough to be used by non-programmers, instead of designed only for people with heavy programming experience."}]},{"head":"Ontology survey results","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Out of 32 responses to this question, 17 worked on databases with plant data, four on animals and 11 on databases with data from all organisms or other types of data (e.g. manure) (Figure 8). Over 93% of the respondents report using ontologies or controlled vocabularies. In the majority of cases, these ontologies are well-known and public such as the GO, Plant Ontology (PO) and the NCBI taxonomy, although over 30% of respondents reported using in-house ontologies or controlled vocabularies. In these cases, the ontology/controlled vocabulary was often species-specific such as SoyBase (SOY) or the Animal Trait Ontology (ATO), with efforts to associate terms with a more general ontology to facilitate cross-specific comparisons. The ontologies are used to annotate both genomic (sequence, structure and function) and phenomic data, as well as species (taxonomy) and breeds."}]},{"head":"Tools used to explore, browse, contribute to or develop ontologies or CVs","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Of the 27 responses, the most commonly used sites to explore or browse ontologies were the EBI-OLS (48%; https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ols/index), followed by the Planteome (37%; https://planteome.org/) and the OBO Foundry (30%; https://obofoundry.org/). A smaller proportion of respondents reported using Agroportal (26%; https://agroportal.lirmm. fr/) and Bioportal (19%; https://bioportal.bioontology.org/). Three respondents replied with none or not applicable."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"When asked about tools for ontology development or maintenance, most respondents (14/29; 48%) report not using any. This may indicate that they are consumers of externally managed ontologies as opposed to creators of ontologies. This is supported by the high usage of externally managed ontologies reported by the respondents."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Of those who are editing or developing controlled vocabularies, the tools usage is concentrated on just three tools: OBO-Edit (33), Protège and a web-enabled version of Protege, WebProtege (34). These programs all are open source and are free. OBO-Edit was designed to operate on ontologies using the OBO file format. The OBO file type is adequate to express simple relationships between terms such as 'is_a', 'part_of', 'has_part', 'regulates', etc. With its limited scope, OBO-Edit is easiest to learn and to apply to locally produced, species-specific ontologies. Protège uses the more expressive file format, OWL. This program is designed to allow the user the ability to more formally express relationships between ontology terms As a result, OWL files have the ability to be 'reasoned' over and are thus more suitable for describing semantic relationships. This power and complexity comes with a hefty learning curve, making the format less suited for smaller ontology projects. The OWL format is currently utilized by a number of widely used ontologies, such as the GO, PO, Phenotype and Trait Ontology (PATO), Plant Trait Ontology (TO), etc."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"About half of the respondents (55%, 18/33) are actively contributing to the ontologies they are using, with the primary method being via GitHub, closely followed by email. Other mechanisms reported were term request tools, web portals and unspecified. Several respondents reported using a combination of these methods for term submission and feedback. "}]},{"head":"Integration of ontologies/CVs into member databases","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"There were 31 responses to this question. Respondents reported using integrated ontologies for annotation, curation, searching and archiving. The GO was the most often integrated followed by the NCBI Taxon Ontology (38.7%). Another 12 ontologies were integrated into more than one database: PO, Sequence Ontology (SO), CO, TO, PATO, Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI), Livestock Breed Ontology (LBO), Clinical Measurement Ontology (CMO), Vertebrate Trait Ontology (VTO), Plant Experimental Conditions Ontology (PECO) and Evidence Ontology (ECO). Twenty-four other ontologies were each reported as being integrated by a single database. Two respondents reported that they don't integrate ontology information in their databases. One respondent said that they don't have any integrated ontologies currently but they are considering this for a new database in the future."}]},{"head":"Use of ontologies in search pages, or to pull/obtain the data from other data sources","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"There were 19 responses to this question. Two respondents answered 'NA' and one answered 'no'. Several ontologies were reported as being used in general text or keyword searches: GO (3), NCBI (3), PO (2), SO (2), LBO (2), VTO (2) and CMO (2). The following ontologies were all mentioned once as being used to pull data from other data sources: BRENDA Tissue Ontology (BTO), CO, ECO, Experimental Factor Ontology (EFO), FlyBase Developmental Ontology (FBdv), Livestock Product Ontology (LPT), other insect ontologies, Wheat Trait Ontology (WTO) and Uberon."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Gene searches used GO ( 6), NCBI Taxonomy (1), PO (1) and CO (1). Marker/QTL/SNP searches used TO (2), VTO (1), LPT (1), CMO (1) and CO (1). Phenotype searches used PATO (2), ChEBI (2), PO (1), PECO (1), CO (1), GO (1), ENVO (1), NCBI (1) and TO (1). Genomics and microbiome data were searchable in one database using the VEuPathDB ontology."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"One respondent addressed the second half of this question. They do not pull data from other sources, but they do provide links out to those sources. The sources linked to were not specified in their response."}]},{"head":"Reasons for not using ontologies/CVs: barriers and needs","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"More than half of the respondents (nine out of 15 respondents) gave a reason for not using ontologies, and the majority of those were related to insufficient funding and expertise to get started. Only two respondents said that they didn't use ontologies because the ontologies themselves were either insufficient or too specific. When specifically asked if they had a need or gap that was not being addressed by ontologies, 60% of the respondents gave an answer, and the majority of those answers mentioned a gap in coverage for anatomy or phenotypes for specific organisms or groups of organisms Only four respondents said that all of their needs were being met, and two were unsure."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Two of the more interesting answers were the inability to fully document mappings between ontologies and the inability to fully represent processes. These answers are interesting because there are newly developed methods for doing both. The SSSOM standard (35) records mappings with full provenance and the GO-CAM method allows for structured representation of biological processes (36). This suggests that information about new developments in semantic engineering are not being communicated to potential users."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"When asked if they have experienced problems using ontologies for data sharing, the vast majority of respondents gave an answer and 63% said no; however, some of these answers are from people who are not using ontologies. About 46% of respondents had some sort of problem using ontologies for data sharing. These problems were about evenly split between issues with terms and issues with the costs of starting up. Specific issues with terms included the following:"},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"• The presence of the same term in multiple ontologies causing confusion. • The time it takes to go from requesting a term to having a usable term is too long. • A required term does not exist or is hard to find."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• It is hard to pick the right term."},{"index":6,"size":134,"text":"Problems with using ontologies for data sharing not only included those already mentioned, a lack of staff time and expertise, but also included the lack of easy-to-use tools and services for curating data, managing ontology versioning and indexing for search. According to this survey, the major barriers to using ontologies include a lack of tools and services to support ontology use, lack of staff training and terminology gaps in the ontologies themselves. The tools and services that do exist have become much easier to use over the past decade, but still require substantial training by staff to be usable. An investment in usability of ontologies and their tools and services, as well as a lower barrier to participation in the ontology development community (such as the OBO Academy (37)), could make a substantial impact."}]},{"head":"Training needs related to ontologies and shared vocabularies","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"There is a general need in the community for training in ontologies, specifically, best practices and matching of ontologies to needs (i.e. where/when to use which ontology). Out of 20 individuals responding to the question, six (30%) indicated they had no training needs. Of the training needs listed in the responses, the respondents mentioned the following: assessing whether an ontology is fit for the purpose; outreach on the uses and benefits of ontologies; general ontology development; tools development and assessment; and general training. Other notable training requests included training for developers as well as several specific areas of interest, ontology and annotation documentation, how to use an ontology in a database, technical training related to ontologies and how to contribute to an ontology."}]},{"head":"Plans for using ontologies/ CVs in the future","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The majority of respondents (86%) (out of 29 respondents) do have plans to use ontologies in the future, with an additional 6.9% stating that they may do so. Of those responding positively, the majority plan to use the GO and PATO (both 42.9%), the PO, CO and PECO (all 23.8%), SO and ENVO (both 19%) and PRO (14%). The other ontologies and in-house CVs represented small proportions."}]},{"head":"Summary of the results of the 2017 survey","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The previous survey of AgBioData member databases in 2017 (31) focused more on the ontologies and less so on data sharing. The survey had a similar number of responses, 25 members representing about 29 different databases or resources."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The results showed the most common use of ontologies for curation was annotating sequence files with GO, SO and PO and various trait ontologies (TO, VT, LPT) for QTLs, phenotypes and germplasm. The respondents mentioned 58 total ontologies of interest. Along with curation, respondents reported using ontologies (mostly GO) to search gene data and trait-related ontologies to search for QTLs, phenotypes, etc. from other sources."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Despite the existence of data standards for curation and software tools, the challenges in applying the ontologies for data curation also centered around the lack of funding for biocuration work at the member databases, lack of suitable tools and a lack of specific publicly available ontologies for certain tasks, forcing data resources to develop in-house vocabularies to address these needs. Thus, it mirrors the present ontology survey results."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The purpose of this survey was to assess the data sharing and ontology needs of the agriculture science community and the most impactful role AgBioData could play in increasing data sharing and ontology use across databases. Overall, the survey received responses from the majority of the AgBioData database community-37 databases responded, and there were 44 databases or resources in the Consortium at the time. Our survey was targeted towards the database personnel, and our goal was to receive at least one response per database. As such, we are fairly confident that the answers in the survey are largely representative of the community. Evaluation of the responses has allowed us to make several recommendations on topics the AgBioData Consortium could focus on in the future in order to improve member databases data sharing and ontology use."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Overall, survey respondents were aware of most data sharing techniques. However, the survey exposed several areas where training is desired: Discoverable APIs; Linked-Data; Client-side integration of results from multiple data sources; Index-driven search technologies; Data Management Systems; and Data Sharing via services (e.g. Globus). The AgBioData consortium should consider focusing on providing training resources in those areas for database personnel."}]},{"head":"Assessment of the extent of and barriers to metadata sharing","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Survey respondents imply that there is a high level of data sharing among AgBioData databases-this result is comparable to a similar question from an AgBioData survey in 2017. However, the method of sharing, and the types of data that are shared, is heterogeneous in the current results. In particular, we recognized from the survey results that there may be barriers to metadata sharing. We suggest that future AgBio-Data working groups study how well metadata is shared among databases."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder education on the benefits of data sharing","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Survey respondents thought that improved data sharing and discoverability was very important, similar to survey results from 2017. However, actually spending time and resources on improving them is likely less of a development priority due to lack of user awareness of its importance. We suggest that promoting an understanding of data sharing and discoverability in the user/stakeholder community should be a high future priority for AgBioData."}]},{"head":"Focus on improvements to phenotypic data sharing","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Seven out of 37 databases stated that phenotypic and phenomic data are still challenging to share-whether providing the data from their own database or pulling from other databases. Phenotypic data represents an extremely diverse class of data-AgBioData should prioritize improvements for specific phenotypic data types and formats in future working groups."}]},{"head":"Lower specific barriers to data sharing","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Funding (62.5%) and time and resources (81.3%) were cited as the main barriers to data sharing. The AgBioData's Sustainability working group may help provide solutions to funding problems for databases, by communicating funding needs for AgBioData databases to policymakers. Technical knowledge (47%) and lack of data standards (50%) were two additional, major barriers where AgBioData could facilitate improvement.. Previous survey questions revealed specific methodologies that AgBioData could provide training for. Identification, promotion or development of data standardssimilar to work that the AgBioData GFF3 working group has performed before (38) could also be a high priority."}]},{"head":"Ontology Training and support for biocurators:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"It is evident from the survey responses that the same barriers exist now that did 5 years ago: a lack of expert biocurator resources, funding to support them, suitable tools to lower the learning activation barrier and an overall understanding of the importance of ontology use. There are several resources available now that can help users who are interested in learning more. Many users are familiar with GitHub as a repository of the ontologies, a change since the last survey. The OBO Foundry (https://obofoundry.org/) and the EBI-OLS (https:// www.ebi.ac.uk/ols4) both offer standards, tools and lists of ontologies by domain. The Planteome has developed a system where the species-specific CO vocabularies are mapped to the reference TO in order to provide a unified overview, while still maintaining the breeder Trait Dictionaries. The OBO Foundry (https://obofoundry.org/resources) lists a number of tools, resources and tutorials for ontology users and developers."}]},{"head":"YOUR PARTICIPATION IS VOLUNTARY AND APPRECIATED.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The survey should no longer than 15 minutes Definitions: Note: If you are familiar with this material, skip to section 2."}]},{"head":"Data sharing","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Data Sharing is a generic term covering all methodologies and technologies for passing information from one system to another, to be used by another person, tool or calculation. Data-sharing methodologies exist on a spectrum of automation. At one end of the spectrum there is very manual sharing like shipping files to a collaborator on a hard drive. On the other end of the spectrum there is full automation where data can travel between software systems freely and automatically, without human intervention."}]},{"head":"Programmatic Access","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Programmatic Access is the ability to read and interact with data using software. If a system or database has Programmatic Access, then someone should be able to write a new piece of code which can access the data in an automated way."}]},{"head":"Data Federation","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Data Federation is a software model where a collection of databases become highly interoperable, to the point where they appear to be parts of a single system to the outside world. An external tool should be able to query all the databases in the federation in the same way. An external tool should also be able to retrieve connected, 1interoperable data from multiple sources in the federation. An end user may not even care which source the data comes from, as long as it is available somewhere in the federation."}]},{"head":"Interoperability","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Interoperability is measure of how easy it is for two or more systems to interact and share data and has three facets: semantics, syntax and protocol."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"• Semantic Interoperability: The ability of computer systems to exchange data with unambiguous, shared meaning. For example, in different systems, 'plant height' may mean the distance from the soil surface to the tip of the inflorescence, to the top leaf or to the top of the stem, excluding leave."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• Syntactic Interoperability: The structure of data and how it is organized. For example, the taxa information might be organized 'genus species sub-taxa' or 'sub-taxa species genus' in different systems, even though they contain the same information."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"• Protocol Interoperability: The mechanism for how data transfers from one place to another. For example, one system only provides file downloads and another system only provides an API. These two systems could use the same semantics and syntax, but are still not interoperable."}]},{"head":"Application Programming Interface","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"An API is the part of a system or database which provides Programmatic Access to the data. There are many different types of API, but typically (in this context) we are referring to Web Service APIs, which use the Internet to provide Programmatic Access to the outside world. Annotations: The association between ontology terms and data objects Data annotation is the process of labeling data objects with ontology terms so that computers can understand the data. Functional Annotations: Functional annotation is the process of attaching biological information, related to the function of the gene or section of the genome, to sequences of genes or proteins, using ontology terms from the Molecular Function branch of the Gene Ontology. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Mechanisms used for data sharing. There were 29 responses to this question. In Figure 1A, mechanisms that allow for programmatic access to the shared data are marked with asterisk (*). In Figure 1B, the four data types with the most responses are shown in a venn diagram. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Types of metadata shared with other databases. There were 26 responses to this question. Singleton answers were collated into the 'Other' category, and metadata categories are abbreviated for this figure. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Data types shared with other databases. There were 29 responses to this question. In Figure 3A, singleton answers were collated into the 'Other' category. In Figure 3B, the four data types with the most responses are shown in a venn diagram. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The importance of data discoverability and availability for respondents/databases (green), users (red), and development priorities (yellow). The respondents ranked the importance from 1 to 5, with 1 denoting the lowest importance and 5 denoting the highest importance. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Desired data and metadata types shared among databases. Free-form answers from the questions 9.5 and 10.7 (what data and metadata would you like to share) were aggregated, with responses in blue; and free-form answers from questions 9.6 and 10.8 (what data and metadata would you like to access from other databases) were aggregated, with responses in red. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Blockers to successful data sharing. There were 32 responses to this question. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Familiarity with data-sharing technologies (blue) and data-sharing technology knowledge gaps (yellow). There were 32 responses to this question. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Use of ontologies in AgBioData GGB Databases, showing the number of respondents that use a particular ontology in their database. Results are shown based on the focus of the database: (A) plant data; (B) animal data; or (C) databases storing both the animal and plant data, as well as other types of data relevant to agricultural genetics, genomics and breeding. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Annotations: Structural annotations are labels applied to physical regions of a genome that encode a genomic feature. Examples of such annotations are genes, mRNA, transcript, repeat sequences, etc. 1. 1.1 Do you have any questions or comments about these definitions? [Free text block] Survey participant information 2. 2.1 What database(s) or data resource(s) do you represent? [Free text block] 3. 2.2 What are your roles in the online database/data resource? (choose all that apply) Check all that apply. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/database/article/doi/10.1093/database/baad076/7424531 by guest on 24 November 2023 4. 2.3 What types of data do you work with, generate, use, or store? (choose all that apply) Check all that apply. Reference genome sequence data Structural and functional annotations Transcriptome data (e.g. RNASeq) DNA resequencing data (GBS, etc) Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) Gene, mRNA, protein (e.g. imported from public repositories or user submitted) Molecular markers QTL Genetic maps Germplasm/breeding lines Phenotypes, and their correlation with specific genotypes Genotypes (SNP's, alleles, etc.) and genetic variation Pangenomes Comparative genomics Other: [free text line] 5. 2.4 Do you use ontologies or controlled vocabularies in your work? Mark only one oval. Yes No Skip to question 14 I'm not sure Technologies and tools in use: Ontologies 6. 3.1 Please indicate which ontologies are currently used in your work or system: Check all that apply. Gene Ontology (GO) Gene Ontology (GO) Plant Ontology (PO) Plant Ontology (PO) Plant Trait Ontology (TO) Plant Trait Ontology (TO) Plant Experimental Conditions Ontology (PECO) Crop Plant Experimental Conditions Ontology (PECO) Crop Ontology (CO_) Ontology (CO_) Phenotype and Trait Ontology (PATO) Phenotype and Trait Ontology (PATO) Sequence Ontology (SO) Sequence Ontology (SO) Environmental Ontology (ENVO) Environmental Ontology (ENVO) Project PI Project PI Project Manager Project Manager Computational Biologist Computational Biologist Developer Developer Curator Curator Maintainer Maintainer User User Other: [free text line] Other: [free text line] "}],"sieverID":"0f2e1809-2557-4c6e-9954-adb4e05e41bf","abstract":"Over the last couple of decades, there has been a rapid growth in the number and scope of agricultural genetics, genomics and breeding databases and resources. The AgBioData Consortium (https://www.agbiodata.org/) currently represents 44 databases and resources (https://www.agbiodata.org/databases) covering model or crop plant and animal GGB data, ontologies, pathways, genetic variation and breeding platforms (referred to as 'databases' throughout). One of the goals of the Consortium is to facilitate FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable) data management and the integration of datasets which requires data sharing, along with structured vocabularies and/or ontologies. Two AgBioData working groups, focused on Data Sharing and Ontologies, respectively, conducted a Consortium-wide survey to assess the current status and future needs of the members in those areas. A total of 33 researchers responded to the survey, representing 37 databases. Results suggest that data-sharing practices by AgBioData databases are in a fairly healthy state, but it is not clear whether this is true for all metadata and data types across all databases; and that, ontology use has not substantially changed since a similar survey was conducted in 2017. Based on our evaluation of the survey results, we recommend (i) providing training for database personnel in a specific data-sharing techniques, as well as in ontology use; (ii) further study on what metadata is shared, and how well it is shared among databases; (iii) promoting an understanding of data sharing and ontologies in the stakeholder community; (iv) improving data sharing and ontologies for specific phenotypic data types and formats; and (v) lowering specific barriers to data sharing and ontology use, by identifying sustainability solutions, and the identification, promotion, or development of data standards. Combined, these improvements are likely to help AgBioData databases increase development efforts towards improved ontology use, and data sharing via programmatic means."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0b71b46f65424c7888afabf9f114c5bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c919a590-08b2-447a-8723-dc5345ad5fcb/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM) Led by Key Challenges and risks during Implementation of PIM 3","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In 2021, 12 CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) and four CGIAR Platforms came to a close. This summary report presents an overview of the work of the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM) between 2017 and 2021 and highlights its key achievements over this five-year period."}]},{"head":"Overview","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"PiM, one of cgiar's global integrating Programs, led action-oriented research to provide support for policies that helped poor farmers improve their lives, produce nutritious and affordable foods, and protect the soil, water, and biodiversity in rural landscapes. its research results and capacity development efforts contributed to poverty reduction, better nutrition and health, and good stewardship of natural resources."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"PiM research helped countries to assess policy tradeoffs, pilot innovative solutions, and evaluate reforms or large-scale programs. it placed special emphasis on africa south of the Sahara, South asia, and selected countries in East asia, Southeast asia, central asia, and Latin america."}]},{"head":"PIM included six flagships:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"1. Technological innovation and sustainable intensification: foresight modeling for climate change, new technologies, and shifts in demand; policy options, investment, and regulatory reform to support agricultural innovation, especially in seed technologies; and new approaches to meeting farmers' needs for information."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"2. Economy-wide factors affecting agricultural growth and rural transformation: policy options to promote inclusive rural growth and transformation; agriculture as a source of jobs as well as food; public investments for vibrant rural areas; and the political economy of agricultural policy reforms."}]},{"head":"Inclusive and efficient value chains:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"making food markets work for the poor; evaluating the impact of trade policies on value "}]},{"head":"Achievements 1","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Between 2017 and 2021, PiM contributions were reported to 13 of the United Nations' Sustainable Development goals (SDgs), with the most contributions tagged to SDg2, zero hunger (19%), and notable contributions tagged to SDg1, no poverty (16%), and SDg17, partnerships for the goals (15%) (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"PiM reported contributions to all three of the System Level Outcomes (SLOs) set out in the CGIAR Strategy and Results Framework 2016-2030: reducing poverty (SLO1), improving food and nutrition security for health (SLO2), and improving natural resources and ecosystem services (SLO3) (Figure 2). "}]},{"head":"Achievements Cont'd","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Examples of PIM achievements include the following:"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"• Ethiopia's Direct Seed Marketing: a 2021 impact assessment found that Ethiopia's Direct Seed Marketing (DSM) -an innovation previously tested by PiM -led to a 26% increase in maize yield compared to locations without DSM, and a 5% increase in the share of maize harvest sold. DSM also led to improvements in seed availability for all three of Ethiopia's major cereals: maize, wheat, and teff."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"• Participatory Rangeland Management (PRM) innovations: in 2021, an independent ex post impact assessment of participatory rangeland management (PrM) innovations funded by PiM and LiVESTOcK in Kenya and Tanzania found that PrM generated multiple benefits for livestock keepers in almost all the communities where it was implemented."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"• System level nutritional outcomes: in 2021, an iFPri synthesis review examined the impacts of nutrition-sensitive programming within social protection programs, a key innovation tested by PiM. The study found clear evidence of positive impacts on women's and children's diet-related out comes from agricultural asset building, and cash and in-kind transfer programs."}]},{"head":"Achievements Cont'd","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"GEndEr 2"}]},{"head":"Examples of PIM work on gender include the following:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• A 2018 paper by an Oxford/IFPRI team debunked four myths about women in agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• A 2018 study in Kenya found that women's empowerment in agriculture significantly increases maize productivity."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"• A 2019 study in Uganda showed that targeting women as recipients of video-based extension enhances their knowledge of management practices for maize, improves their participation in agricultural decision-making and the adoption of recommended practices and inputs, and increases production and marketing of maize by women."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• A 2019 report on gender-transformative approaches in agriculture informed several European Commission-funded projects."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"• A 2020 conceptual framework for women's land tenure security identified relevant dimensions of tenure security and a review of 117 land tenure interventions found that outcomes on women's welfare and empowerment were only evaluated in 18 cases. Analysis of Indonesia's forest tenure reforms showed that national reforms were implemented in a gender-blind manner."}]},{"head":"• In 2021, PIM published Advancing Gender Equality through Agricultural and Environmental","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Research, which reviews and reflects on the growing body of evidence from gender research."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"In collaboration with colleagues from across CGIAR, PIM researchers also produced a review of evidence on gender equality and food systems for the UNFSS."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"• The Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) is now used by 134 organizations in 56 countries. • Difficulty of attributing policy impact to policy research. The focus from donors on quantifiable outcomes generated a risk that PIM's achievements may be underestimated. In response, PIM management enhanced the efforts to develop outcome stories and other communications (such as PIM webinars)."}]},{"head":"Key Challenges and risks during Implementation of PIM 3 Cont'd","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ManagEMEnt of RiSKS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"• Research involving human subjects not meeting ethical standards. This risk was addressed by an update of the PIM policy on Institutional Review Board review. • COVID-19-related risks. To mitigate these, research was reprioritized, work plans were revised, and dissemination efforts were increased through partners and online. To ensure that progress was achieved in a timely way, priority deliverables were identified, tracked, and consolidated. To ensure evidence was available for milestone completion, priority was also given to reviews of evidence, which included commissioning external reviews. in 2021, PBS reported that Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria had been assisted in developing oversight guidelines for genome editing. These guidelines accurately reflect the science and evolving regulatory trends for this game-changing, Nobel-prize winning technology. The PBS team followed a well-planned strategy to achieve policy change driven by local actors. This outcome capitalizes on PBS's nearly two decades of technical assistance aimed at enhancing the skills of decision-makers in agricultural biotechnology regulations."}]},{"head":"• CGIAR Collaborative","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"• Policy research being less prominently included in","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The complete list of reported PiM impact cases can be found on the CGIAR Results Dashboard. "}]},{"head":"Funding and Finance","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Quality of science","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"PIM had a strong footprint in the scientific literature, publishing 395 articles in peer-reviewed journals highly relevant to PiM's focus during 2017-2019. Most top 25 h-indexed authors of PiM-related articles were PiM scientists within cgiar, and these scientists produced between two and five articles yearly. author collaboration reached across 60 countries."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"PiM policies and innovations represented a large variety of public goods: policy studies, analytics, and ensuring policy recommendations or strategic suggestions were directed toward decision-makers. Engaging PiM's next-stage users (government ministries and agencies, nongovernmental and private sector organizations, and multilateral agencies) in partnerships was standard practice at PiM. The 180 members of PiM's research team were diverse in terms of social science disciplines and gender."}]},{"head":"importance of outputs and outcomes","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Significant progress was made against three common outcomes across the flagships:"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"1. PiM developed the research capacity of its institutional partners and the capacity of poor and vulnerable groups. communities of practice were strengthened in the areas of foresight, value chains, natural resources tenure, governance, and gender."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"2. PiM contributed to a more gender-equitable control of assets and resources."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"3. PiM informed policymaking at the global, national, and subnational levels, and to a lesser extent at the regional level."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"PiM played a valuable role in the delivery of system-wide public goods; however, capturing the full extent of its support to policy change was challenging (especially at the country level), owing to attribution and contribution issues. PiM's long-term partnerships with its next users fostered PiM-related outcomes and impact, thanks to the multifaceted and systemic character of PiM's engagement."}]},{"head":"Mechanisms for achieving sustainability","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"PIM's scientific work, stakeholder partnerships, and networking efforts were robust and effective."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"The caS evaluation made the following recommendations to cgiar:"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Maintain a focus on policy and institutional change for sustainable and inclusive agricultural transformation."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Have a better balance between pooled and bilateral funding, which may favor longer-term, strategic partnerships, in particular to facilitate in-country outcomes."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Intensify and further develop the emerging field of research concerned with stake holder involvement, policy influence, and promotion of institutional change."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1. Mapping of PIM contributions to the SDGs, 2017-2021 "},{"text":" Platform for Gender Research. Hosting the platform within a PIM flagship in 2017-2019 carried the risk that the platform would be less visible than the free-standing CGIAR platforms. PIM mitigated this by repeatedly conveying the importance of the platform and investing additional Window 1 (W1)/W2 resources to it. "},{"text":" the post-2021 CGIAR portfolio. PIM demonstrated how its research had led to outcomes and impact and proactively engaged with partners in the development of the new CGIAR portfolio.• One CGIAR transition. To mitigate the uncertainty caused by the transition process on the PIM legacy and job security for staff, PIM researchers participated in One CGIAR task teams, sought clarity on future career opportunities within One CGIAR, and ensured that all PIM publications were entered into permanent repositories. "},{"text":" National agricultural investment Plans have been given more prominence in the context of the comprehensive africa agriculture Development Programme -a continent-wide agenda to transform africa's agriculture and stimulate growth, including a commitment by each country to increase public resources for agriculture to 10% of government spending. at the request of the government of rwanda, a team of PiM researchers studied the evolution of employment patterns in the agricultural sector because of structural transformation and population growth. The authors of the study were also asked to provide comments on the plan before its approval by the government of rwanda in late 2018. Identification of priorities (especially of value chains) in Malawi's National agricultural investment Plan was also informed by PiM research.Payments for agrobiodiversity conservation scaled up inPeru -2019 in the context of unprecedented and irreversible loss of agrobiodiversity, many low-and middle-income countries are faced with a major challenge: How to safeguard biodiversity in the fields of the rural poor, while at the same time meeting those farmers' development needs and rights?To incentivize farmers to preserve agricultural biodiversity, PiM pioneered the implementation of a specific type of payments for ecosystem services -payments for agrobiodiversity conservation services (PACS) -in Bolivia, Ecuador, india, Nepal, and Peru. a PacS is composed of several elements that make the approach effective, including setting conservation targets, facilitating access to threatened seed varieties, exploring value chain development for conserved varieties, and motivating and rewarding farmers for conservation services.PiM impact projections ofCoViD-19 on the Egyptian economy inform the government of Egypt's responses to the pandemic -2020 at the onset of the cOViD-19 crisis, Egypt's Ministry of Planning and Economic Development (MoPED) requested support from PiM to quantify the expected national and sectoral impacts of the pandemic on the Egyptian economy. PiM and MoPED partnered to use PiM's Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) multiplier model for this purpose. The results were published in a brief co-authored by iFPri researchers and Dr. ahmed Kamaly, MoPED's Deputy Minister. The cOViD-19 multiplier impact estimate for april to June 2020 served as the preliminary official figure to inform the government's responses to the pandemic. MoPED then requested PiM to examine the likely pathways for economic recovery and the effects of the policy interventions on the growth rates of the country's gross domestic product and its different sectoral components, with collaboration continuing into 2021. various modern technologies that allow scientists to insert, remove, replace, or modify specific fragments of DNa of organisms or cells. it can provide Impact Snapshots 4 Cont'd new ways of addressing challenges related to food insecurity and climate change. in the context of recent advancement of several CGIAR-led R&D efforts on genome editing, four african partner countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, and Nigeria) requested regulatory policy assistance on this technology from the PiM-supported Program for Biosafety Systems (PBS) team in 2019. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"• Budget uncertainty. Throughout the life of the CRP, uncertainty about funding levels and the need to pre-finance work due to very late receipt of funds resulted in conservative allocation and spending. PIM management used agile management of carryover funds and regular interactions with the Lead Center's Finance team to attempt to mitigate the effects of this structural problem. "},{"text":"Altmetric 564 120 13 SLOs 3 SDGs Contributions: Total Information Products with Altmetric Attention Score 35,726 22,944 1. 2. 3. 1.2.3. SPHERE SPHERE SPHERE SPHERESPHERESPHERE OF CONTROL OF INFLUENCE OF INTEREST OF CONTROLOF INFLUENCEOF INTEREST Outputs Outcomes Impact OutputsOutcomesImpact 3% 3% 7% SLOs 7%SLOs People Trained 58,670 41% 184 innovations 49% Biophysical research People Trained 58,67041%184 innovations49%Biophysical research Social Science Social Science Planned Milestone Status research & communication methodologies and tools Planned Milestone Statusresearch & communication methodologies and tools Production systems and Production systems and management management 1% 1% 2% 1%1%2% 6% 6% 748 Peer reviewed papers Milestones 99 Milestones 60% 76 Oicrs 38% 748 Peer reviewed papersMilestones 99 Milestones60%76 Oicrs38% 92% 92% complete cancelled completecancelled Extended Other ExtendedOther 1% 1% 13% 9% National 13%9%National 7% Multi-national 7%Multi-national 91 Policies regional global Sub-national 91 Policiesregional global Sub-national 70% 70% ExPloRE PiM ExPloRE PiM RESultS on thE CgiaR RESultS on thE CgiaR RESultS DaShboaRD RESultS DaShboaRD "},{"text":"The figures in this report reflect reporting valid as of July 22, 2022. Impact Snapshots 4 PiM's modeling expertise supports the design of agricultural investment strat- egies in Malawi and Rwanda "},{"text":"5 aCCESS MoRE finanCial infoRMation on thE CgiaR finanCial DaShboaRDS Figure 3. Funding sources From 2017-2021, PiM had $285.68 million From 2017-2021, PiM had $285.68 million in total funding. Over this period, Windows in total funding. Over this period, Windows 1&2 represented 28% of funding, Window 3 $15.96M $11.38M $19.80M 1&2 represented 28% of funding, Window 3$15.96M$11.38M$19.80M represented 27%, and Bilateral represented 2021 represented 27%, and Bilateral represented2021 45% (Figure 3). 2020 $15.90M $14.04M $21.72M 45% (Figure 3).2020$15.90M$14.04M$21.72M The crP's top funders include the cgiar Trust Fund, the United States of america, the Bill & Melinda gates Foundation, and the European 2019 2018 $17.08M $14.59M $14.00M $15.72M $27.54M $33.49M The crP's top funders include the cgiar Trust Fund, the United States of america, the Bill & Melinda gates Foundation, and the European2019 2018$17.08M $14.59M$14.00M $15.72M$27.54M $33.49M commission (Figure 4). 2017 $16.62M $20.69M $26.31M commission (Figure 4).2017$16.62M$20.69M$26.31M 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 010203040506070 "},{"text":"Trust Fund United States of America Bill & Melinda Gates Found. European Commission Michigan State University Figure 4. Top funders Figure 4. Top funders $80.18M $80.18M $63.23M $63.23M $18.39M $18.39M $10.53M $10.53M $10.50M $10.50M Germany $9.07M Germany$9.07M Bangladesh $7.13M Bangladesh$7.13M IFAD World Bank United Kingdom $6.30M $5.92M $4.58M Windows 1 & 2 Window 3 IFAD World Bank United Kingdom$6.30M $5.92M $4.58MWindows 1 & 2 Window 3 Australia $4.38M Bilateral Australia$4.38MBilateral FAO $4.37M center Funds FAO$4.37Mcenter Funds World Vision International $3.83M World Vision International$3.83M Russia $3.58M Russia$3.58M Michigan State Univ. $3.47M Michigan State Univ.$3.47M 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0102030405060708090 "},{"text":"2020 Independent Evaluative review 6 aCCESS PiM REViEw bRiEf, full REViEw, annExES, anD PiM ManagEMEnt RESPonSE In 2020, ThE CGIAr AdvISOry SErvICES (CAS) SECrETArIAT EvAluATIOn FunCTIOn COOrdInATEd IndEPEndEnT EvAluATIvE rEvIEwS OF EACh OF ThE 12 CrPS. BElOw IS A SElECTIOn OF KEy FIndInGS FrOM ThE PIM rEvIEw. "}],"sieverID":"c1dd7229-935c-4879-b649-7b6c732e0c67","abstract":"Throughout the course of the program, PIM reassessed its priorities and focus as a result of changing circumstances, opportunities and challenges. Notable adjustments and pivots included the following:Pivoting a substantial component of the work toward addressing challenges created by the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2021) through, for example, ex ante modeling of COVID-19 economic effects, launch of the COVID-19 Policy Response Portal, and studies on the impacts of COVID-19 on value chains.• Prioritizing work on employment in value chains and increasing the focus on opportunities for youth, in recognition of the growing importance of creating decent jobs for rural youth.• Allocating additional funds to expand research on political economy in response to findings from evaluations and directions given by the PIM science and policy advisory group.• Scaling back investment in regional value chain hubs due to an evaluation finding that they were not cost-effective in supporting research-development linkages. A new approach for more collaboration on value chains with other CRPs and implementation partners was initiated at the end of 2018 to replace the hubs.• Increasing focus on nutrition, employment, climate change, gender, and food system transformation in line with the priorities identified for 2019-2021 following a participatory priority-setting exercise.• Forming a CGIAR community of excellence on seed systems development to facilitate learning across CGIAR to begin identifying priorities for One CGIAR on this topic."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0caf22ce25ad853f9879bb1c3c7c06ac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/acdee5fa-3385-403a-b812-57fb99f338a4/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"To cite this report","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Ekepu, D., Nakayiwa, F, Majaliwa, M.J.G, Hansen, J., Grossi, A. 2023. Training "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Climate information services (CIS) are critical for making important decisions in agriculture in order to assess and manage risks associated with climate change and climate variability. The partnership between RUFORUM and IRI aims to develop and increase accessibility of climate information services curricula for training in African universities as well as ensure utilization of among key stakeholders in agriculture such as extension workers and farmers. The CIS for agriculture is piloted to increase awareness and adoption of climate relevant curricula in African Universities."}]},{"head":"Context","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"Climate-driven risk is an ever-present challenge to efforts to improve agricultural productivity, food security, and the well-being of the hundreds of millions of farmers and pastoralists across Africa whose lives and livelihoods depend on agriculture. Climate change is intensifying that challenge by increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme events, and amplifying the already large uncertainty that farmers and other agricultural decision makers contend with. Climate information services (CIS), when implemented well, can improve agricultural performance and the well-being of farming populations by enabling decision makers to better understand, anticipate and manage climate risks; and by supporting interventions such as agricultural extension, index-based agricultural insurance, and food security humanitarian intervention. A growing number of National Meteorological Services (NMS) across Africa provide suites of high-quality, localized, actionable historical, monitored and forecast climate information. However, the benefits of CIS to farmers and the broader agricultural economy have so far been limited in part by gaps in awareness, foundational knowledge, and practical skills among agricultural professionals."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Introduction to Climate Information Services for Agriculture is a response to the need for university undergraduate curriculum content that will strengthen the CIS awareness, knowledge and competencies of future agricultural professionals. Its six sessions cover: "}]},{"head":"CIS/CSA Basics Curriculum","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The module is the first of the three modules to be delivered under the RUFORUM CIS/CSA basics curriculum under the AICCRA program. "}]},{"head":"02.TRAINING APPROACH","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The module was delivered virtually through Zoom video and audio-conferencing platform. Two sessions of the module were delivered for two (2) hours per day for three (3) consecutive days."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The workshop consisted of presentations, discussions and poll questions to test participants appreciation of the knowledge gained for the different topics in the module. An end of training of evaluation was conducted to assess participants' satisfaction with the training material and delivery as well as solicit feedback for improving the content, delivery mechanism and the willingness to deliver the training in the different universities in Africa."}]},{"head":"Description of module sessions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Each of the six sessions of Introduction to CIS for Agriculture module were presented in a chronological order because the topics discussed build on each other adding the required content needed to address issues on Climate Information Services for Agriculture. Poll questions were administered every after two sessions to gauge participants understanding of the concepts presented."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Session 1: This session introduces climate information services (CIS). It covers why CIS are important for agriculture, the \"four pillars of climate services,\" and co-production as a strategy to ensure that CIS are responsive to users' needs. This session covers topics around the definition of climate information services, rationale for climate information services and pillars of climate information services."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"The key learning objectives of this session include:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Describe climate information services (CIS)."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Explain how CIS can contribute to agriculture."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Describe each of the four pillars of CIS."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Define co-production in the context of CIS."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Discuss what is needed for CIS to respond to the needs of farmers and other agricultural decision makers."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"Session 2: This session introduces climate as both a resource for agriculture and driver of agricultural risk. In order to manage risks, farmers and other agricultural decision makers must first understand what they are and be able to anticipate them. This session reviews ways that climate variability and resulting risk impact agriculture. It covers the role that weather and climate play in crop and livestock productivity, risk concepts and terms, and pathways by which climate risk impacts farmer decision making and wellbeing."},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"The key learning objectives of this session are:"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"• List examples of weather and climate impacts on biological productivity."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"• Define variability, risk, hazard (and its synonyms), vulnerability, resilience, coping and adaptation."},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"• Describe pathways by which climate shocks (or extreme events) and climate uncertainty can impact the wellbeing of rural households. • Contrast the typical sequences of cascading impacts from a slow-onset and a rapid-onset climate shock."},{"index":14,"size":22,"text":"• Explain two mechanisms by which the negative impacts of a climate shock can persist long after climate conditions return to normal."},{"index":15,"size":49,"text":"Session 3: This session covers how climate variability interacts with farmers' goals and constraints, the importance of timing, and role of risk aversion in climate-sensitive agricultural decisions. It briefly introduces the role of agricultural modelling and enterprise budget tools to analyse and guide farmer decision making under climate uncertainty."},{"index":16,"size":6,"text":"The objectives of these session are:"},{"index":17,"size":53,"text":"• Explain how differences in household goals and resource constraints can lead different farmers to select different management options. • Identify the time scales of important agricultural management decisions, and climate information that would best support those decisions. • Describe how climate risk and risk aversion could influence farmers' choice among management options."},{"index":18,"size":18,"text":"• Discuss how simulation modelling and enterprise budgets can provide information and insights about farmers' climate-sensitive management decisions."},{"index":19,"size":48,"text":"Session 4: This session highlights a few of the ways that CIS support agricultural risk management. It covers adapting agricultural management strategies to the local climate based on historical data analyses, seasonal forecasts for seasonal farm planning, index-based agricultural insurance, and food security early warning and early action."},{"index":20,"size":4,"text":"Its learning objectives include:"},{"index":21,"size":17,"text":"• Describe ways historical climate data can be used to adapt agricultural systems to local climate conditions."},{"index":22,"size":13,"text":"• Discuss opportunities and challenges to using seasonal climate forecasts for farm planning."},{"index":23,"size":14,"text":"• Explain the key benefits and limitations of index-based agricultural insurance for smallholder farmers."},{"index":24,"size":12,"text":"• Describe the rationale and key features of food security anticipatory action."},{"index":25,"size":17,"text":"Session 5: This session discusses different communication needs and communication channels that are relevant to rural CIS."},{"index":26,"size":7,"text":"The learning objectives of this session are:"},{"index":27,"size":13,"text":"• Explain why weather and climate information time scales require different communication strategies."},{"index":28,"size":43,"text":"• Explain how group participatory processes help farmers understand and use probabilistic climate information. • Describe appropriate roles, strengths and limitations of group participatory processes, digital and broadcast media, and institutional network channels. • Explain the rationale for combining climate service communication channels."},{"index":29,"size":48,"text":"Session 6: This session introduces the concepts of social justice and climate justice, and discusses ways that they intersect with CIS in the context of agriculture. It then covers three CIS equitability issues: data poverty, gender equity, and public-vs. private-goods CIS approaches from the lens of wealth-based equity."},{"index":30,"size":4,"text":"The learning objective include:"},{"index":31,"size":13,"text":"• Explain the concept of climate justice and how it applies to CIS."},{"index":32,"size":9,"text":"• Describe how climate data poverty contributes to inequity."},{"index":33,"size":15,"text":"• Identify causes and potential solutions to inequitable benefits from agricultural CIS based on gender."},{"index":34,"size":16,"text":"• Discuss how the debate between public-goods and private-goods agricultural CIS approaches relates to social justice."}]},{"head":"Participants","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"A total of 828 participants from across RUFORUM member universities and other institutions logged on to attended the training over the 3 day period. Thirty-one (31%) of these were female. The graphs below give a snapshot of participants details by gender, nationality and occupation categorisation. 31% females from 38 countries in Africa, these represent the six (6) AICCRA countries with a wider geographical scope of awareness of Climate information systems across the continent. Nigeria (347) had the highest number of participants, followed by Uganda (85), Kenya (70), Ethiopia (60) and Zimbabwe (37). "}]},{"head":"EVALUATION SURVEY FINDINGS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"An end of training evaluation was conducted for the participants who attended the online training in CIS. The survey using Google Forms data collection platform was conducted at the end of the three-day training. In total, 364 participants responded to the survey to score the relevance, adequacy and provide views on improving future trainings."}]},{"head":"Respondents Demographics","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Age","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Majority of the respondents identified as males (69%) compared to females (31%). This figure corresponds to the overall participation average. It further corresponds to the proportion of African female scientists currently estimated at an average of 30% by different publications . "}]},{"head":"Occupation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"From figure 2, Most of the respondents were Graduate Students (either MSc and PhD) students (35%), followed by Professors (17.3%) and other professions. Graduate students and early career researchers are actively involved in RUFORUM training programmes with a big number holding teaching assistant positions at their universities. "}]},{"head":"Age of the evaluation respondents","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The average age of majority of respondents was in the range of 35-50 years (48%) followed by the 15-35 years range (42%). This indicates that training attracted young and upcoming researchers. Thirty-five (35) 9.7% of the participants who responded to the evaluation were above 50 years. "}]},{"head":"Geographic distribution of evaluation respondents","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Response to evaluation by 364 participants from over 42 countries across the world as shown in figure 4 below. In alignment with overall participation for the training, the biggest concentration of respondents was from Nigeria (160) followed by Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and Benin. "}]},{"head":"Participants' willingness to deliver the training in their training institutions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Participants were asked to indicate willingness to deliver CIS for agriculture module in their respective institutions. Majority (87%) of the participants from the university teaching staff and graduate students indicated that they are willing to deliver the module on Introduction to Climate Information Services at their institutions. This shows that participants have found the curriculum to be interesting and relevant for strengthening curricular and build capacity in their own institutions. Equally, the non-university-based participants indicated a willingness to disseminate information from the training at their respective institutions. Government workers, non-university-based researchers and the private sector/NGOs positively responded. "}]},{"head":"Approaches participants will use to deliver the training in their institutions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Based on responses to the open-ended questions \"describe how you plan to deliver this module in your institution?\" several themes emerged on the ways the CIS module could be delivered in the various institutions."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The themes were quantified to identify the most recurring modes of delivering the module mentioned by participants. The frequencies of the responses were computed and plotted on a bar chart as shown in figure 7."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"The most preferred mode of the delivering the module in participants' institutions is through physical training workshops (short courses) for students and staff (75), followed by Seminars (43), integration as part of teaching curriculum (36), Symposia (21), Outreach to policy makers and end users such as extension workers and farmers (20) and lectures (17). A size number also indicated that they would use Online trainings (11) and apply the module content as reference material for research purposes (9). Only one participant indicated that he would deliver the \"module\" as a full module for undergraduate and postgraduate students. "}]},{"head":"General Feedback","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Duration of the training","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Participants found the CIS module interesting. Some participants however, felt that the time allotted for the training was not adequate for interaction and quizzes. In their words, the participants gave the following accounts:"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"…..The module and training was good and insightful but there should be room for interaction and discussion from the participants. More time should be created for quiz for proper assimilation and feedback of our score-Nigeria ….There needs to be a time allocation for the participants to ask the facilitator directly such that he can be able to gauge their perspectives on climate information services-, Uganda"}]},{"head":"Module content","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Although participants found the training very informative and relevant, they advocate for increased use of local and regional examples/case studies so that they can relate with their own context. Others suggested inclusion of indigenous knowledge in CIS and more relevant perspectives for livestock and fisheries sectors. In their own accounts, participants stated the following: "}]},{"head":"Module delivery approach","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Some participants noted that the training could be more enriching if some participants were also given ample time to share their own wealth of experiences in CIS. They also emphasised that trainings like this are better delivered through physical trainings to allow more time for interaction and hands-on learning. This aligns with the lower rating for participants level of involvement. Some participants gave the following accounts:"},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"…Encourage participants to present their own experiences, challenges, and solutions regarding climate information usage in agriculture. This peer-to-peer learning approach can be very effective. The facilitator can also invite guest speakers (local experts, farmers) who have successfully utilized climate information, and researchers to share their experiences and insights. This can provide a diverse range of perspectives and encourage more interactive sessions-, Participant from University of Khartoum, Sudan ….Assign break out groups and the discussion questions in advance to improve on participation-, Participant from Kenya fisheries service, Kenya"}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Diverse stakeholders from RUFORUM and beyond appreciated content and delivery of the training on Climate Information Services in Agriculture. Many participants indicated that they are willing to deliver the module in their own institutions and suggested various pedagogical approaches to do so including physical trainings, lectures and field demonstrations. Participants recommended that future trainings include more case studies from Africa and more hands-on experiences and interaction."}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The training was a pilot training, the feedback from the evaluation will guide the next steps which will include physical and online delivery of the courses:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"1. Assessment of potential institutional based trainers."}]},{"head":"2.","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Review of content to accommodate any relevant changes as outlined by the peer review mechanism 3. Upload the CIS module on the RUFORUM e-Learning platform so that it is freely accessible as an open access resource."}]},{"head":"4.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Scheduling for the 2 sessions that constitute the CIS/CSA basic curriculum under the AICCRA Program"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Participants by Country (n = 806) Fig1: Log-on by Gender (n = 828) "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Participants by Gender (n = 364) "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Occupations of the participants n=364 "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Age categories of the evaluation respondents n =364 "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Geographic distribution of respondents n=364 "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Participants scores on adequacy of the training n=364 "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Participants' willingness to deliver the training in their institutions n= 201 "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Approaches suggested by participants for delivering the module in their institutions n=364 "},{"text":" …The module is rich enough but I look out for how to incorporate indigenous knowledge in Climate Science-Participant from University of Ibadan, Nigeria …The organizers and facilitators should take inputs from participants during the workshop and incorporate the relevant inputs into the module-, Participant from University for Development Studies, Ghana ...Incorporate more local and regional examples and case studies. This helps participants relate the training to their own experiences and understand the practical applications in their specific context-, Participant from University of Khartoum, Sudan "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Evaluation Report: Introduction to Climate Information Services for Agriculture Module. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) "},{"text":" stakeholders through a virtual training on 12-14 December 2023. The module is one in the series of modules that have been developed by RUFORUM member universities and other AICCRA partners with the aim to mobilise African universities, create awareness and enhance the use of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate information services (CIS) knowledge and products. 1-Climate Basics 1-Climate Basics 2-Introduction to Climate Information 2-Introduction to Climate Information Sciences for Agriculture Sciences for Agriculture 3-Climate Smart Agriculture 3-Climate Smart Agriculture "},{"text":" Table1gives a distribution of log-ons across the days including participants who attended more than one day during the course of training. By implication 50% of the participants attended more than once. Total registration which would be an indication of the demand for the course module was an average of 1500 per day (see table1) Table1: Training module log on by day Table1: Training module log on by day Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 1Day 2Day 3 Registered 1467 1505 1528 Registered146715051528 Attended 573 541 493 Attended573541493 Female 180 166 151 Female180166151 Male 393 375 342 Male393375342 % Female 31.4% 30.7% 30.6% % Female31.4%30.7%30.6% "}],"sieverID":"89f799fb-0d15-482e-83d2-88f4dd60fb72","abstract":"Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. Explore our work at aiccra.cgiar.org aiccra.cgiar.org"}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0cf230cb41b119906ea4584dc7f4792a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2055d7b2-9555-4a75-9145-b2d9c6a6e683/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Information and Communication Support for Agricultural Growth in Nigeria www.ics-nigeria.org","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Step 3. Choose desirable varieties"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"The best cassava varieties:"},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"• Grow fast • Give good yields • Tolerate major diseases and pests • Mature early • Give high root yields (fresh and dry) • Meet end-users quality characteristics • Store well in ground for more than 18 months"},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"For high yielding and healthy planting materials, contact: Step 4. Select healthy cassava stems Select planting materials from healthy cassava plants. These are plants (8-15 months old), which have minimal stem and leaf damage by pests and diseases."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Avoid cassava stems with diseases and pests."}]},{"head":"Select vigorous and healthy cassava plants. Avoid plants showing symptoms of damage by pests and diseases.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Select hardwood portion of stem. Do not select stem cuttings from the top green stems and bottom portions of plants."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Step 5. Prepare and handle cuttings properly"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Handle hardwood stems properly to prevent bruises and damage to the nodes and to improve sprouting. Use hardwood cuttings for planting because they sprout better."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Cut stem into cuttings of 20-25 cm long."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Pack stems (1 meter long) in bundles of 50 and tie for transportation."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Treat your stem cuttings against infection using a broad spectrum fungicide and insecticide e.g. Benlate (fungicide) and Perfeckthion (insecticide)."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Poor preparation and hand-ling of stem cuttings could result in poor sprouting, rooting, and low yield."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"Step 6. Select the correct planting time Planting date recommendations should fi t within local farming calendars."},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"In zones with two rainy seasons, plant at the beginning of the major growing season (April -May) or minor growing season (August)."},{"index":10,"size":14,"text":"In the savannah zones, plant at the beginning of the growing season (May -June)."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"Plant cassava at the correct planting time to ensure: Step 7. Methods of planting cassava cuttings Cassava stem cuttings may be planted vertically, at an angle or horizontally, depending on soil types."},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"Plant vertically in sandy soils with 2/3 of length of cutting below the soil to produce deeper lying storage roots for anchorage."},{"index":13,"size":13,"text":"Plant at an angle in loamy soils to produce more compactly arranged roots."},{"index":14,"size":15,"text":"Improper planting methods could make plants lodge, produce small roots, and diffi cult to harvest."},{"index":15,"size":20,"text":"Bury the stem cutting completely to increase stem production. Storage roots are many but they are comparatively smaller in size."}]},{"head":"GUARD AGAINST LODGING FOR MULTIPLE STEM PRODUCTION FOR EASE OF HARVESTING","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Step 8. Plant at the correct plant spacing"}]},{"head":"Distances between cassava plants mainly depend on the variety and on the cropping system (sole crop or as intercrop).","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"For sole crops plant at 1 m x 1 m for the branching types. For the non-branching types planr at 1 m x 0.8 m."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"For intercropping, plant at a wider spacing, 1 m x 1.5 m for the branching types, and 1 m x 1 m for the non-branching types."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Too wide spacing between cassava plants leads to increased weed competition and poor yields per unit area."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Step 9. Control weeds early Weed competition reduces canopy development and root bulking."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Early weeding prevents weeds from competing with the crop for nutrients, water, light and space. Combine different cultural practices to control weeds."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"[1] Manual weed control (hand weeding)."}]},{"head":"11","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"[2] Use cover crops (Melon) to suppress weeds."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"[3] Use inter-row weeders (mechanical)."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"[4] Use chemicals to control weeds."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Step 9b. Herbicide use in root and tuber crops "}]},{"head":"Step13. Control pests","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"In cold environments (Jos Plateau), harvesting can be delayed until 18-24 months after planting"}]},{"head":"Store cassava stems properly","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Ensure that only mature healthy cassava stems are stored."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Long-term storage of stems is diffi cult because of rapid dehydration. "}]},{"head":"21","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The varieties listed below were carefully selected by IITA to meet agroecological and end-user requirement in Nigeria."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"These varieties are currently being evaluated in collaboration with:"},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"• National Root Crops Research Institute, NCRI • Agricultural Development Programs, ADPs • The Private Investors Information and Communication Support for Agricultural Growth in Nigeria (ICS-Nigeria) is a project which aims to increase the quantity and quality of information available for increased agricultural production, processing, and marketing and also strengthen the capacity of farmer assistance organizations to package and disseminate information and agricultural technologies to farmers for the alleviation of rural poverty."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"In recent past, investment in the support services to Nigerian agriculture has been neglected with the result that this sector has not realized its full potential to contribute to the prosperity and economic development of the country. Meanwhile, increasing population pressure and the accompanying need to intensify agricultural production is leading to erosion of the natural resource base on which agriculture depends."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"The sustainability of production is threatened by a vicious cycle of declining soil fertility and increasing problems of pests, diseases, and weeds. Moreover, the lack of knowledge on how to add value through proper storage, processing, and marketing impedes agricultural growth."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Promising technologies exist to address these problems, but their adoption is constrained by a lack of information packaged in appropriate formats, and poor communication channels for this information, between farmers and the research, extension, and education organizations that are supposed to address these issues."},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"ICS-Nigeria aims to assist in meeting these challenges by developing appropriate-format materials for disseminating information and agricultural technologies to target user groups, while increasing capacity of farmer assistance organizations to produce information materials. At the same time, communication channels will be reinforced so that information fl ow is enhanced."},{"index":8,"size":75,"text":"Agricultural technologies have been selected on the basis that they will lead to agricultural commercialization thereby enhancing rapid income generation for farmers and private sector practitioners. The project is taking advantage of existing agricultural development programs in Nigeria, national research institutes, and international research institutes in and out of Nigeria to identify these technologies. The project is also taking advantage of existing successful partnerships arising from recent and ongoing programs to enhance information fl ow."},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"ICS-Nigeria is funded by the USAID."}]},{"head":"About ICS-Nigeria","index":9,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"4 Start with the right variety, for the right output, and for the right income. "},{"text":" Glyphsate (Roundup) and Paraquate may be used as a pre-planting herbicide to kill fallow vegetation. The latter can be used as post-emergence to kill weeds if shield is used to keep chemical off the crop (Contact Extension offi cer on herbicide use). • PP-Pre-planting • PE-Pre-emergence • PEm-Post-emergence • Delivery Rate = 200 L/ha of chemical solution • Example: To spray Alachlor at 4 L/ha using a 15 L knapsack sprayer, you need 4 x 15 200 • Amount of chemical per spraying tank = product rate (L/ha) x spraying capacity Step11. Intercrop cassava with other crops Sole cassava cropping may result in ineffi cient use of land space.Cassava/Maize and cassava/legume intercrops have been found to give better land utilization, reduce soil erosion and risk of crop loss. "},{"text":"For season, store stems upright in pits under a tree. Apply water whenever the soil becomes dry. "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Dry season planting is not recommended where the rains stop early or the water table is low. • Healthy sprouting • Healthy sprouting • Good crop • Good crop establishment establishment "},{"text":"The Private Investors High yielding resistant varieties-2 These varieties are currently These varieties are currently being evaluated in collaboration with: • National Root Crops Research Institute, NCRI • Agricultural Development Pro-grams, ADPs • Variety Maturity (months) Yield (tons/ha) Disease/pest tolerance Dry matter content Uses 94/0039 95/0379 96/0523 96/0603 96/1569 96/1642 97/0162 being evaluated in collaboration with: • National Root Crops Research Institute, NCRI • Agricultural Development Pro-grams, ADPs • Variety Maturity (months) Yield (tons/ha) Disease/pest tolerance Dry matter content Uses 94/0039 95/0379 96/0523 96/0603 96/1569 96/1642 97/0162 97/0211 97/2205 12 30-35 High High Gari, fufu, starch, ethanol, fl our, & animal feed 97/0211 97/22051230-35HighHighGari, fufu, starch, ethanol, fl our, & animal feed 97/4769 97/4769 97/4779 97/4779 98/0510 98/0510 98/2101 98/2101 98/2132 98/2132 99/3073 99/3073 TME 419 TME 419 "}],"sieverID":"f0b40acc-5b94-428e-9dc8-14ddc3429dfd","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0d5d70c0bd9dc98e2520af54534910bf.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0d5d70c0bd9dc98e2520af54534910bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/317635f5-a2a4-45bf-93b3-21326786f339/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"FOREWORD","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Between 15-19 April, 22 scientists met in Kuching, Malaysia, to launch the Gender Research Fellowship Programme that Bioversity coordinates as part of the CGIAR Research Programme on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry. The five-day inaugural workshop brought together biophysical and social scientists from around the world to discuss why gender considerations matter in research on forest genetic resources."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Participants included Bioversity scientists as well as national partners and gender fellows working on four collaborative projects in Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and Central Asia. Social scientists conducting gender research in other CGIAR centres, including ICRAF and World Fish, as well as academics from the University of Freiburg's Centre for Anthropology and Gender Studies, which co-organized the workshop with Bioversity, also took an active part in the workshop. The workshop was facilitated by Maria Fernandez from International Support Group (ISG)."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Through a participatory, learning-by-doing process, participants identified the major gender considerations relating to their work. Gender fellows also agreed to study several gender issues in a comparative way, across projects and socio-economic contexts; namely, gendered knowledge of tree resources, gendered access to resources and to markets for non-timber forest products, and local organizations that can help women to collectively overcome the constraints they face in their daily lives. The workshop participants' eclectic backgrounds and perspectives stimulated vigorous discussions on these themes throughout the week."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"The workshop also focused on the potential participatory research holds for triggering gender transformative processes that can make tree use and management more sustainable while promoting gender equality. Participants practiced using various participatory methods that encourage learning through action and reflection. They also spent a day in the field acquiring first-hand experience using these methods with women and men from Kampung Kakeng, a village surrounded by a lush forest teeming with biodiversity."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"For many of the participants, this was a first attempt to integrate gender-responsive social analyses in their work on tree genetic resources. For others, it was an initiation to participatory, social learning approaches that can build on local traditions of biodiversity management, and foster positive social changes in the communities where they work. As participants parted ways, they agreed that bridging the social and biophysical sciences, and doing research in a participatory way, are essential to generate relevant, meaningful, and quality research results that promote social equity and the conservation of forest genetic resources."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"This report attempts to capture, largely through the use of photographs, the dynamic interactions and activities that occurred during the week-long workshop. 3. Design of a system of documentation that will allow for sharing knowledge and information with the local communities and other researchers."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Getting to Know Each Other: participant presentations in pairs."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"Rules of the Game: Participants established rules they felt should be followed to make the workshop an optimal forum for discussion Group work: Participants were asked to identify the most important gender knowledge gaps in their projects and to present their findings in plenary. Goal: To reconcile the needs of logging companies and the local people"},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"Observations:"},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"• The role/importance of NTFPs have been overstated, whereas agriculture, hunting, and illegal logging seem to be more important in the study sites. • Competition is mainly for the same resources, different uses."}]},{"head":"Achievements to date:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Better knowledge of the area, good collaboration with local people and concessioners."}]},{"head":"Challenges:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Getting full participation of national partners, lack of funding."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Gender issues needing to be addressed:"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Distribution of work between men and women; gendered access to land, labour, income and decision making. • Gendered changes in access to resources, markets."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Team 2: In situ and on-farm conservation of wild and domesticated tropical fruit tree diversity; South and Southeast Asia Fellows: Ms Faridah Aini Muhammad; Mr Narasinha Hegde National partner institutes: Department of Agriculture, Malaysia; LIFE Trust, India."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Goal: Conservation and sustainable use of cultivated and wild tropical fruit trees to promote sustainable livelihoods, food security and ecosystem services."}]},{"head":"Achievements to date:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"India:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• Identified and conserved endangered varieties of mango and Garcinia spp • Strengthened women's groups involvement in nurseries • Established mango processing activities Malaysia:"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Identified and documented native fruit diversity (Community Fruit Catalogues)"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Established community fruit nurseries • Identified activities on conservation (Diversity Block) and sustainable uses of identified local fruit species, fruit processing and agrotourism"}]},{"head":"Challenges:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"India:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Lack of appropriate knowledge and technology in processing (Garcinia spp. and mango) • Sustainable management of Garcinia spp. and mango Malaysia:"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Engaging local community in conservation activities • Mechanism to sustain activities after project ends"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Gender issues needing to be addressed:"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Women and men may have different priorities for their resources, therefore specific knowledge of women's and men's needs to considered, including in research and development."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Areas to be considered are gendered knowledge, priority setting, roles, power relationships and interests in participating in the project."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"Key aspects identified are: • Women's groups' interest in working together as a team in their community."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Women's voice in decision making must be strengthened."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"• Appropriate methods/tools are required to involve local/indigenous women's groups in resource management and decision making. • Correct methodologies/skills are needed to strengthen women's participation in conserving fruit tree diversity."},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"• How can we measure improvement and equality of women's and men's participation which will contribute to improving livelihoods in the community?"},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"Team 3: Conservation of fruit tree diversity for livelihoods and nutrition; Central Asia Fellow: Mr Kanaat Musuraliev National partner institute: Innovation Centre of Phytotechnologies of National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic, Kyrgyzstan"},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"Goal: Ensure the availability of fruit tree diversity for improved livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Achievements to date:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"• Partnerships established among stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• Knowledge of diversity of fruit trees and distribution, management including traditional knowledge • Regional and national databases, web portals, demo plots and nurseries established."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• Strengthened policy and capacity to conserve fruit tree diversity; new protected areas, ABS guidelines. • Roster on local fruit tree varieties, regional and national training centers, agrotheaters. • Linkages and collaborations at national/regional levels."}]},{"head":"Challenges:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Hesitation of farmers in sharing knowledge with researchers, and researchers' lack of experience in dealing with farmers. • Cultural mentality."}]},{"head":"Gender issues needing to be addressed:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"• Role of women and men in decision making concerning marketing and prices for forest products. Joint consultation on use of fruit harvests (to whom and at what price to sell?). Knowledge on processing and storage of forest products. • What do men and women know about fruit tree diversity (varieties) and farm management (time of planting, pruning etc)? How do they share this knowledge with each other?"}]},{"head":"Presentation on Gender Transformative Approaches Miranda Morgan","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Miranda gave an overview of what is meant by gender transformative approaches and facilitated an exercise asking participants to place statements about ways of doing research along the continuum from gender-blind to gender-aware to gender-transformative Some comments and questions from Miranda's presentation include:"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• How can gender transformations take place and how can this experience be guided?"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Seminars and workshops can be avenues of learning for researchers and participants."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• How can we document gender transformations as part of the research process?"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• How can the community benefit as a whole from gender transformations? It is important for men to know that the whole community benefits from positive gender transformations."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"Presentation on practical case studies of how gender transformations can occur throughout research processes centered on forest genetic resources Bhuwon Sthapit Following Bhuwon's presentation, where examples were given of research approaches facilitating women's empowerment processes, workshop participants were asked to identify events from the presentation that were critical for triggering gender transformation (pink cards in figure 3). These were then placed on a timeline, showing how these events build on each other in the change process."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Participants were also asked to record reflections on how gender transformative approaches to research can lead to transformations in the field, based on Miranda's presentation (green cards in figure 3) Revisiting the most important gender gaps and prioritizing them using rainbow diagrams:"},{"index":8,"size":45,"text":"Working in mixed-project groups, participants were asked to review what they felt were the most significant gender issues needing to be considered across projects (activity from Day 1) and to place these on a rainbow diagram to evaluate their relevance to the participants' research projects."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"Various issues, organized in three overarching categories, were originally agreed upon as requiring immediate research attention in all the projects:"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• Gendered knowledge (of tree resources and management processes)"},{"index":11,"size":64,"text":"• Gendered access to trees and their products, as well as to markets • Gendered tasks and responsibilities Participants were then asked whether answering questions related to these themes would have a low, medium or high potential to foster positive gender-transformations in the communities where they work. Cards listing the different gender issues considered were placed in the appropriate sections of the rainbow diagram."}]},{"head":"Figure 5 -The Rainbow Diagram","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"It was then agreed that an important gender issue was missing from the list: organizations that foster collective action and promoting women's empowerment."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Across projects, the four following themes were then selected for comparative research across projects:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Gendered knowledge of tree resources and management processes • Gendered access to resources (trees and their products)"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Gendered access to markets • Organizations"}]},{"head":"Comments in plenary:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• There was no discussion of women's rights when identifying key issues."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• We must look to the future: what can be done to make things more equitable?"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• How can men and women share useful information on management plans and policy? • There is a connection between knowledge and power."}]},{"head":"• Do people know what they know? How does research value local (gendered)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"knowledge and management systems? • How can we build on local women and men's knowledge and existing strengths?"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Importance of sharing knowledge between men and women."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Platforms can be created for sharing knowledge & information."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Transformations might not happen individually, but collectively."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Must identify interventions with the right questions/tools."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"• Differences between the rich and poor (not just women and men) in access to resources must be examined. • Development challenges within communities are multi-scalar and rest in customary rights as well as with the government and international policies. • What happens after research projects end? How can transformations be sustained? The ToRs were discussed at length in plenary. The idea of producing a collaborative output (one collaborative article co-authored by Gender Fellows or one article per Gender Fellowand project team-and compiled in a special journal issue) was introduced."},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"The discussion centered on:"},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"• The need to define a clear process about how to develop a common product."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"• The time and guidance required to develop a common product."},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"• The need for a writeshop towards the end of the Fellowship Programme Presentation on intersectionality: why other social categories (age, wealth, ethnicity, etc.) must be considered along with gender in social analyses Marion Mangelsdorf, Julia Gerbig, Kristian Gaeckle "}]},{"head":"Design of a Research Strategy","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Working in cross-project groups, participants were asked to design a work plan to address three of the four gender issues listed above to be studied across projects. Before closing the day's activities, each fellow with her/her project team was asked to prepare a work plan and research strategy for their fellowship research, to be presented on the last day of the workshop."}]},{"head":"Day 3 -17 April 2013","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Day 3 focused on a set of participatory tools that can be used to support gender transformative research."}]},{"head":"Presentation on key principles of Collaborative Inquiry Maria Fernandez","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Participants were asked to identify some of the tools used to facilitate the first two days of the workshop. Presentation on participatory scoring and ranking exercises among women and men in an agroforestry project in Sulawesi, and comparing women's and men's perceptions of each other's involvement in different farming activities."}]},{"head":"Elok Mulyoutami","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Presentation on the participatory value chain approach, and ways to make this approach gender-responsive Hugo Lamers"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Presentation on Four cell analysis to examine (and enhance) women's and men's knowledge of biodiversity within their farming and forest systems."}]},{"head":"Bhuwon Sthapit","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Gender-segregated group work: Gendered priorities and knowledge exercise Task: You have US$50 to buy food for the week for your family of 4: make your shopping list! Conclusions: men's and women's perspectives and knowledge can differ; gender also shapes our own lives, not only those of the women and men who participate in our studies. Workshop participants arrived in Kampung Kakeng and met with local community members. Once introductions were completed, workshop participants broke out into four groups; two groups of men and two of women. The men worked with groups of men from the village, while the women facilitated participatory exercises with groups of women from the village."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The participatory tools used to examine issues related to local biodiversity were: Venn diagrams, timelines, and four cell analysis. Local women and men participants appreciated the exercise and presented the results back to plenary."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Lunch was served for all participants, and a torrential downpour prevented the planned visit to the village's biodiversity block and nursery from happening. Workshop participants returned to Kuching after lunch, and debriefed the day's experiences. Members of all the project teams agreed that they would work towards a common product: either an article co-authored by the gender fellows (and other project team members, if appropriate) or separate articles to be submitted as part of a compilation for a special issue to be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal. Other members of the project teams and the Bioversity coordinator reaffirmed their commitment to support Fellows in this pursuit."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Next steps: by 15 May, Fellows should update their respective work plans with:"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Clear MAIN research questions (2 -3 common questions)"},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"• Common research questions about gendered knowledge, access to forest resources, access to markets, and local organizations to be developed (select at least two themes) • Specific sub-questions to be identified for each main question • Tools (minimum 2 -3) chosen for usefulness in the context where fellows will be working • Number of communities with whom the Fellow will be working, numbers of visits to each community, length of time in each; how were communities selected? • How to form focus groups:"},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"o Which differentiating factors (e.g. gender, age, wealth) will be used? o How will participants or groups be selected and invited to participate?"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"A Google group will be established for fellows to communicate throughout the year."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"Workplans should be posted on this Google group."}]},{"head":"Workshop Evaluation","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"What was liked about the workshop?"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• The interactions, group discussions, sharing of ideas and togetherness • Active learning, nice mix of activities (group work and plenary sessions)"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"• Workshop without agenda, group learning, doing things using participatory approaches with active participation for all participants • Dynamic learning process • Stepping into a 'different' field; interesting to see how people work in different fields What was disliked about the workshop?"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Some language barriers • Field visit experience not completely satisfactory • Having subjects to digest and not enough time for in-depth discussions • No discussions on gender impact indicators: empowerment, confidence and decision-making"}]},{"head":"Revisiting expectations","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Participants were asked to retrieve their expectations (cards written at the beginning of the workshop) from the 'expectations' table if these had been met. Interestingly, all expectations were collected (except those of the absentees)!"}]},{"head":"Thank you and closing of workshop","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Marlène Elias"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" an introduction to the workshop and focused on thinking about some of the key gender issues in research on forest genetic resources Welcome and presentation on \"Linking social and biological diversity in forestry research.\" Marlène Elias Keynote address: Introduction to the University of Freiburg team and its role in documenting the workshop; Examining the Fellows' role of bridging the social and environmental sciences Marion Mangelsdorf Expectations: What did participants expect from the workshop? "},{"text":"Figure Figure 1 -Expectations from the workshop "},{"text":"Figure 2 - Figure 2 -Rules of the Game "},{"text":"Figure 3 - Figure 3 -Understanding the key characteristics of gender transformative approaches "},{"text":"Figure 4 - Figure 4 -Gender transformations through the research process "},{"text":"Figure 6 - Figure 6 -Research Questions Identified "},{"text":"Figure 7 - Figure 7 -Demonstrating \"Intersectionality\" "},{"text":"Figure 8 -Figure 9 - Figure 8 -Group Discussion on designing a work plan for conducting comparative gender research "},{"text":"Figure 10 - Figure 10 -Using some of the tools learned in group work "},{"text":"Figure 11 - Figure 11 -Venn diagram on market linkages in Garcinia spp. products value chain "},{"text":"Figure 13 -Figure 15 - Figure 13 -The women's group focused on the daily staples and tried to make some savings "},{"text":"Figure 16 -Figure 17 - Figure 16 -The women's group hard at work doing four cell analysis "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"to share research result with communities Fellows must budget time and money for these types of activities/products (one or more) in their work plan. Ideas: Ideas: • Draw on local talent to disseminate research results • Draw on local talent to disseminate research results • Community Primer (local language) • Community Primer (local language) • Local newspaper/radio/leaflets • Local newspaper/radio/leaflets • Leave organized information in the community • Leave organized information in the community • Participatory film making e.g. on use of resources by gender • Participatory film making e.g. on use of resources by gender • Posters with results and calendar • Posters with results and calendar • Theater performances • Theater performances "}],"sieverID":"ca11bfd4-63c0-47fe-9e3e-e4a7a0c31799","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0d61d8c8f4db15c613dffda2dcf224d4.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0d61d8c8f4db15c613dffda2dcf224d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2866fa95-f1ce-44c9-a684-efb3e631c961/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Farms Will Now Produce Biofuels Innovative project carried out by CIAT to empower small farmers","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) does envision this possibility and is conducting a pilot-scale project in several areas of Colombia that mainly aims to develop low-cost innovative systems to produce bioethanol (fuel alcohol), biodiesel, and pure vegetable oil that will generate rural employment while protecting the environment by reducing air pollution. The project's interinstitutional team, under the leadership of CIAT researcher John Loke, has made important advances in the area of biofuels. John is firmly convinced that it is possible to produce biofuels by tapping numerous energy crops of the tropics and their wastes and by involving small producers so that they produce raw alcohol of low purity that will serve as input to refineries that produce high-quality fuel alcohol."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The Federation of Plantain Producers of Colombia (Fedeplátano) also participates in this project, and has already initiated the pre-market production of bioethanol based on coffee wastes in the country's coffee-growing region. Two prototype plants are currently being validated, one in Valle del Cauca and the other in Quindío. Another plant is mobile and can be strategically used to train producer associations anywhere in Colombia."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"\"The successful management of the prototype plant by Fedeplátano triggered a proposal to set up the same system in Tanzania (Africa)\", highlighted Silverio González, the Federation's President. This innovative way of producing bioethanol will be useful for farmer associations in Latin America, Africa, and Asia."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Project activities include the establishment of castor bean (Ricinus communis) and Jatropha curcas, popularly known as physic nut or the tuba-tuba plant, both shrubs of the Euphorbiaceae family that produce between 1,600 and 3,400 liters biodiesel or pure vegetable oil (also a biofuel) per hectare per year. This alliance involves farmer groups represented by Fedeplátano in Colombia and producers of J. curcas in Tanzania, supported by researchers of CIAT and the Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (CORPOICA) as well as by experts of Diligent Energy Systems B.V., a Dutch company that facilitates the access to biofuel production with a farmer participatory approach."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"\"The production plants proposed are relatively small-scaled; they use renewable energy sources as well as new waste transformation and management techniques as biogas\", says Sanna Hogervorst, researcher of the University of Wageningen, who has been involved in the process. One of the new developments is the transportation of raw material in liquid form, facilitating its transfer in regions with poor road infrastructure."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"Over an 8-month period, different yeasts and enzymes that could be used to produce bioethanol from different raw materials have been evaluated at CIAT laboratories. Although sugarcane is a traditional source to produce this biofuel, according to experts it is also economically and technically feasible to obtain biofuel from cassava, sweet potato, banana, and coffee in regions not suitable for cane production."},{"index":7,"size":75,"text":"Several farmer associations have already expressed their interest in this project in view of the low investment costs in prototype plants. Funding was obtained to build two more processing plants, including demonstration-scale plants, and to establish energy crops at CIAT's headquarters in Palmira and at CORPOICA's facilities in Montería, with the support of Colombia's Ministry of Agriculture and Development, the Latin American and Caribbean Consortium to Support Cassava Research and Development (CLAYUCA), and other entities."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"Contact: Bernardo Ospina ([email protected]), phone: +57 (2) 4450000, ext. 3159, Cali, Colombia."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"e6e6495f-54dc-4682-9399-144828956c1e","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0d6c407eba5f76391e970dfa6e81f37f.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0d6c407eba5f76391e970dfa6e81f37f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/515ddfcc-7c94-4b72-880e-e74b3b3fad96/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"What influences transfer of training in an African Agricultural Research Network?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Ensuring that the training employees receive is transferred back to work remains a challenge for most of organizations around the globe (Grossman & Salas, 2011;Sokhai & Budworth, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Training transfer is the effective and continuing job application of the knowledge and skills gained in training. However, the process of training transfer is complex with a multiplicity of variables (Bates, Holton, & Hatala, 2012) which vary from one training and application context to the other, implying that further research on what enhances or hinders transfer in various contexts is needed."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"A variety of models have been used to study training transfer and training effectiveness as evidenced in articles by the following authors : Chiaburu, van Dam, and Hutchins (2010); Galanou and Priporas (2009); Lim and Morris (2006); Martin (2010); Nga et al. (2010); Nikandrou, Brinia, and Bereri (2009); Nijman et al. (2006); Sofo (2007); Sookhai and Budworth (2010). A number of organizations have been involved in the studies, but agricultural research organizations in Africa lack empirical evidence on training effectiveness. Yet enormous investments are made into training of agricultural R&D actors due to agriculture's centrality to economically and for the livelihoods of its ever-growing population."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"The Learning Transfer Systems Inventory (LTSI) developed by Holton and Bates was developed to aid in holistic measurement of factors that affect training transfer irrespective of type of training, form of organization or part of the world (Bates et al., 2012;Donovan & Darcy, 2011;Holton, Chen & Naquin, 2003;Khasawneh, Bates & Holton, 2006;Yamnill & McLean, 2005)."},{"index":5,"size":156,"text":"However, specific applications of the LTSI in predicting training transfer are still limited and even among those that have endeavored to use the model, a number of varying results have been obtained. The use of the LTSI to determine the factors that predict training transfer has revealed that even the dependent variables so far used have differed. A number of dependent variables are however used in the process. Hutchins, Nimon, Bates and Holton (2013), used the intent to transfer as the dependent variable, while Bates et al. (2007); Devos et al. (2007); Miiro et al. (2012); and Velada et al. (2007), tested actual transfer following training. Bates & Khasawneh (2005) on the other hand measure transfer of training in terms of perceived organization innovativeness. The varying forms of transfer measurements point to the diversity of approaches that can be used and the room for further testing even with other forms of training and unique job/work settings."},{"index":6,"size":228,"text":"In addition to varying dependent variables tested, even the predictor variables in LTSI studies have varied from one study to another. Hutchins et al., (2013) whose study focused on 235 law enforcement personnel trained in leadership development found that 'motivation to transfer', 'transfer design', 'transfer performance expectations', were the strongest predictors of intent to transfer. Miiro et al., (2012)'s study on predictors of training transfer of governance-facilitation skills among 99 leaders of farmers' marketing organizations in Uganda, found 'personal capacity to transfer', 'transfer design', ' supervisor support', and 'feedback' as significant predictors. A study by Devos et al., (2007) in French speaking Belgium, that targeted 106 public and private sector organization trainees, beyond its validation of a French version of the LTSI, sought to identify factors that would predict transfer of training. It found that 'learner readiness', 'transfer design', 'transfer performance expectation', 'performance outcome expectations', 'motivation to transfer', 'self efficacy', and 'opportunity to transfer' to be significantly correlated with the transfer of trained skills. Bates et al., (2007) study of private sector organizations in Germany found 'motivation to transfer', 'personal outcomes positive', 'personal capacity to transfer', 'content validity', 'peer support', and 'learner readiness' as significant predictors. Velada et al., (2007) to change within the organization, personal outcomes positive and personal outcomes negative, and supervisor sanctions (Khasawneh et al., 2006). It is expected that all the above factors will "}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Research approach","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This study was a quantitative cross-sectional survey design that enabled the determination of factors from the LTSI that influenced the perceived transfer of training among trainees of PABRA training programs."}]},{"head":"Context of the Study","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The study focuses on PABRA an agricultural research agency mandated to build capacity of its partner members in Africa. PABRA is a consortium of 3 African-owned regional bean research networks, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture [Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT)] and the donors. The consortium represents 28 national bean programmes as members, it coordinates training and capacity building for bean value chain actors including scientists (Buruchara et al., 2011). The training courses of interest included crop breeding, bean seed systems and marketing, gender, as well as monitoring and evaluation. Scientists from CIAT conducted the capacity building for the target participants. The trainees were from all PABRA member countries and each training lasted between one week and three weeks and took place between 2009 and 2012."}]},{"head":"Sample selection","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"A total of 391 participants from an e-mail list of all trainees including 73 of breeding; 225 of seed systems and marketing; 46 of the gender, and 47 of the monitoring and evaluation training were contacted to participate in the study. These received an online questionnaire via Survey Monkey (www.surveymonkey.net). In return, only 147 participants responded to the online questionnaire from all four trainings giving a response rate of 38%. However, 139 respondents had complete data on key variables. This response rate could reflect respondents with higher motivation and ability to work with internet based surveys (Petty & Cacioppo, 1984) or that had a more positive attitude towards the training, thus suggesting non-response bias. While internet based surveys can enlist low response rates (Kaplowitz, Lupi, Couper & Thorp, 2012), suggesting poor quality data (Rindfuss et at., 2015 ), in this study this can be ruled out on the basis of the regression analysis for a multivariate model that was used, and is known to eliminate potential non-response bias due to the inclusion of control variables in the regression model (Fitzgerald, Gottschalk, and Moffitt 1998)."}]},{"head":"Description of the sample","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Out of the 139 respondents, 33 had received the breeding training, 23 were for the 'Gender' training, 21 for 'Monitoring and Evaluation', while 62 were for 'Seed systems and marketing' training. Out of the overall sample size of 139, 4% were from an International Agricultural Research Organization, 73% were from a National Agricultural Research Organization, 5% were from a private business company, 6% were from Universities, 3% from an International Non governmental organization, the same proportion from a national non-governmental organization, and 6% from a farmers' organization. Sixty eight percent were males, 58% were between the age of 40 to 59, while 37% were between 18 and 39 years, the rest were 60 years and above. Fifty five percent had Masters degrees, 19% had Bachelors degrees, 16% had PhDs, 6% had diplomas while 4% had postgraduate diploma as their highest level of education."}]},{"head":"Measures and instrumentation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":238,"text":"An online self-administered questionnaire was developed. The questionnaire had three major sections:(i) information on the demographic aspects of the trainees, (ii) questions to establish the extent to which the trainees perceived themselves (through self reporting) to have applied the acquired skills back to their work place. This captured the dependent variable. While self reporting on training transfer can be inaccurate as respondents may score themselves highly to impress (social desirability), and due to poorly constructed measurements (Blume, Ford, Baldwin & Huang, 2010;Ford and Weissbein, 1997), in this study, participants were encouraged to be honest with their responses: \"As one of PABRA's esteemed partners and beneficiary kindly provide an honest assessment of these initiatives by participating in this study.\" Inaccurate construction of the instrument was guarded against by focusing the self-reporting on objective measures of behaviorally anchored skill areas linked to trained content. Items were stated in a way that captured behaviorally anchored changes. For example: \"To what extent have you been able to apply the following aspects that you learnt back to your work place/job?\". All the behavioral change aspects were stipulated by the specific trainer of the course increasing the accuracy of self-reporting responses (Ford and Weissbein, 1997). The perceptions of extent of application were measured on a scale of 1 to 5 where \"1\" represented \"very little\", \"2\", represented \"little\", \"3\" represented \"not being sure\", \"4\" represented \"moderate/some extent\", and \"5\" represented \"to a great extent\"."},{"index":2,"size":335,"text":"Section three collected data on the factors that affected the transfer of training. The sets of questions were drawn from the LTSI, the full instrument can be obtained from the authors (Holton & Bates) as copyright regulations do not permit public sharing. Permission to use the LTSI version 3 (Bates et al., 2012) had been granted to the corresponding author by Holton during his PhD study in 2008. Only 11 Out of the 16 factors of the LSTI available in Table 1.0 were identified for use in this study. The five factors were left out to reduce on the amount of time the respondent would need to finish the instrument. Those items that relate to the trainee, were purposively removed. Some LTSI statements were adjusted to suit the context; for example, a statement assessing supervisor support that originally read: \"My supervisor meets with me to discuss ways to apply training on the job.\" was modified to: \"My supervisor/ manager/team leader/Head of Department meets with me to discuss ways to apply training on the job.\" This modification reflected the supervisors that the respondents from the different organizations could have had. The other change had to do with replacing 'is' with 'was' for example 'What is taught in training closely matches my job requirements\" was changed to \"What was taught….\". This would guide the respondent to look back to what happened since the training had already occurred. This is also in line with the measuring of \"far transfer\" and the factors that influenced it. \"Far transfer has been studied in cases in which the transfer context is much different in location from the learning context, such as when conflict management material learned in a classroom would be applied in workplace. For example, near transfer can occur and be studied during the same session as the learning, and far transfer can be studied months or years later.\" (Blume et al., 2009(Blume et al., , pp. 1067)). reference training in general in the respondent's organization (Khasawneh et al., 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"However, because the instrument was to be applied online, there was need to reduce some of the items to fit into the recommended number of questions, the recommended time for self administering the instrument, and consideration of the busy work schedules of the respondents who would not commit a lot of time for the online survey. As a result, 11 constructs including 2,3,4,7,8,9,10,11, from the training related scale constructs, while items 12, 15, 16 from the general scale were selected (Table 1.0). 'Training related scale constructs' are related to the specific training received, while 'General scale constructs' relate to training more generally (Bates et al., 2012). Five trainee related constructs out of 8 were dropped, with three considered as a sufficient representation of personal constructs. A total of 51 items resulted to measure the influencing factors in the LTSI."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Some of the respondents were from French speaking countries of Africa, the questionnaire was translated into French for these respondents. Distinguishing between the English and French speaking trainees was beyond the scope of the study. The questionnaire was pilot tested with scientific staff at CIAT Kawanda for suitability and content validity. Protection of human subjects was ensured by writing to them an earlier notice and providing them room to accept to participate in the study or not in case they find it inconvenient or unnecessary to them."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Data was collected online using survey monkey (www.surveymonkey.com/pabra-study). Prior to data collection an advance letter was sent to the selected respondents requesting them to respond to an incoming online survey questionnaire from CIAT. After issuing the instrument, three to five follow up online notices were sent to the respondents. The data were collected over a 45-day period."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Data analysis proceeded in three major stages before hypothesis testing. The first stage involved obtaining factors that provided an interpretable structure of the LTSI as used in the study, and then running reliability tests for the extracted transfer factor constructs from both the training specific and the general scale items of the LTSI. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.690 for the training specific scales, which qualifies the data set for factor analysis (Coetsee, et al., 2006). The Bartlet's test of Sphericity was 0.561 at P < 0.0001. The second stage included running basic descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations and bi-variate correlations of the independent and dependent variables. The third stage was hierarchical multivariate regression analysis. SPSS for Windows Version 21.0 was used for the analysis."}]},{"head":"RESULTS and DISCUSSIONS","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The extent to which trainees transferred training back to their jobs","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"As shown in Table 2.0, for each of the training areas and their skill areas, Breeding (5 skill areas), Seed Systems and Marketing (7 skill areas), Gender (6 skill areas), and Monitoring and Evaluation (9 skill areas), the mean score (as an average of scores the trainees for each of these courses gave), for each of the skill areas was 3.72, 3.91, 3.72, and 3.73 respectively. This indicates that for each of the training areas, participants perceived themselves to have applied slightly less than a 'moderate extent' -a score of '4'. Translated into percentages by dividing the mean score with the highest possible score, this meant that for each of the training areas, the level of application of skills was 74%, 78%, 74% and 75% respectively. The highest level was registered for 'Seed systems and marketing' while the least were 'Breeding' and 'Gender'. The first model (Table 4.0) shows that 'personal capacity to transfer'a trainee characteristic However, significant positive but however low correlations were registered between several factors and the perceived transfer/application of skills acquired back to the job. For example:"},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"'personal capacity to transfer' (r=0.31, p=0.01), 'motivation to transfer' (r=0.305, p=0.01), 'transfer design'(r=0.255, p=0.05), 'supervisor and peer support' (0.408, 'openness to change' (r=-.312, p=0.01), 'performance self-efficacy' (r=0.434, p=0.001) and 'feedback' (r=0.339, p<0.01). A partial confirmation of the role of these factors in predictors of perceived transfer/application of skills among the trainees was nevertheless obtained."}]},{"head":"Discussions and implications","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"This study was set up to determine the extent to which trainees from several African countries whose training was organized by a regional international agency applied their training to the work context. Additionally, it was to identify the factors that influenced application of training back to job of four training areas 'bean breeding', 'seed systems and commercialization', 'gender' and 'monitoring and evaluation'. On average, each participant perceived themselves to have applied close to 75% of the skills they had been trained in, a very high level of training transfer. This can be explained by opportunities the trainees had to apply the training, and the closeness of these skills to their day-to-day activities."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"'Personal capacity to transfer' was the most significant predictor of transfer in the first two models except in the third and last models. The non significant contribution of the independent variables in the final model, could have been due to some items correlating with each other. Nevertheless important relationships are understood from the study."},{"index":3,"size":231,"text":"Personal capacity to transfer is defined as the \"Extent to which individuals have the time, energy, and mental space in their work lives to make changes required to transfer learning to the job'' (Holton, Bates, Bookter & Yamkovenko, 2007, 398). The first two models reveal that \"personal capacity to transfer\" is critical for one to be able to transfer and apply skills acquired during training back to the job. This is certainly important since the capacity building activity was provided to participants the majority of whom were researchers. This shows that it is important that the participants of the capacity building programs have the ability to transfer skills back to 'someone will have to change my priorities before I will be able to apply my new learning', and 'I always wish I have time to do things the way I learnt/know they should be done'. Thus for the skills acquired in a training to be transferred there has to be minimal interference in terms of time availability, mental and physical capacity, and workload for one to be able to apply these skills in their job. The results are similar to what Bates et al., (2007), and Velada et al., (2007) Supervisor and peer support which seem to operate together in the context of this study, have been confirmed as critical for transfer as in other studies (Chiaburu, 2010;Scaduto et al. 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"The proximity of the supervisors and peers to the trainees is revealed. This underscores why openness to change within the work organization and performance feedback also correlated with training transfer -a sign of the closeness of workers within PABRA partner organizations."}]},{"head":"Theoretical implications","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"This study specifically extends research on the role of transfer system factors in influencing transfer of training. The use of a modified LTSI as a predictive tool for transfer performance is further tested. The most revealing contribution is the fact that the LTSI is a relevant tool for assessing transfer factors in a posttest manner in an international agricultural research network in "}]},{"head":"Limitations","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":348,"text":"The key limitations of this study relate to use of the LTSI, after a seemingly long time has passed, since the training was delivered, yet some variables such as motivation to transfer need to be measured close to the training as possible. In this case the participant had to recall how motivated they were at the time. The other limitation relates to not using the entire set of 16 constructs presented in the LTSI. Five components were not used in order to ensure the instrument was not burden some to respondents and met the standards of on line surveys. There is still need to use all the constructs to see the results. The small sample size of the potential trainees that PABRA works with was also a limitation. If the sample size were adequate, it would have been good to establish for example whether there are variations in the results due to the training types. Incorporating the LTSI as part of course evaluation increase response rate as well as address the issue of immediate testing of the transfer climate. The use of self reported transfer of training is also indicated to have weaknesses (Devos et al., 2007). Other measurements such as supervisors and peers assessments can be explored. Some of the training had taken place over a four-year period; there were chances that respondent recall of transfer system factors was faded. The use of the online survey while it is so resource effective when carrying out surveys over expansive scales created challenges that led to a low response rate. There were several cases of respondent fatigue as they started off filling the instrument and failed to complete it despite more than four reminders. Lastly data analysis has to further explore correlating variables, which might affect the regression model results. transfer in a post test approach. More research will however be needed on measuring training application given that it is time sensitive, and has high proneness to adaptive application if one takes into consideration the perceptions of the trainee and the conditions in which training transfer occurs (Volet, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"systems and bean marketing'. We are also grateful to the trainees that responded to the survey as well as Resty Nagadya and Innocent Obilil for their efforts in consolidating the database of trainees that was used in this survey. Dr. Robin Buruchara, Dr. Matthew Abang, the staff, visiting scholars, the CIAT administrative work, the PABRA partner members, are acknowledged."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" study of 182 employees of grocery market companies in Portugal who were trained in customer service, security, environmental issues and hygiene, found that 'training design', 'performance self efficacy', 'training retention', and 'feedback' significantly predicted transfer. These studies show that different transfer factors of the LTSI will predict transfer of training depending on the context in question. The LTSI factors are based on a theoretical underpinning that views individual's perceived performance improvement from training as a function of four sets of elements containing 16 variables. First, (1) secondary elements including performance self efficacy, learner readiness before the training and job attitudes, (2) ability/enabling elements including content validity, transfer design, capacity to transfer and opportunity to use, (3) motivation elements including motivation to learn, motivation to transfer, transfer effortperformance, performance outcomes and (4) environmental elements including feedback, peer support, supervisor support, openness "},{"text":" have a positive influence and predict the transfer of training within the research context. The objective of the study was therefore to determine the extent to which the level of selfreported and perceived training transfer had taken place. Additionally, it sought to determine the factors that influenced the perceived transfer of training among trainees who attended four trainings offered by the Pan African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA). "},{"text":" Eight factors were specified for extraction from the training-specific section of the LTSI in relation to the 8 constructs that had been retained during the selection of which constructs to place for the online survey. The 8factor solution explained 67.2% of the common variance.Items retained were those whose factor loadings was greater than 0.35. The eight factors that were extracted included 'supervisor and peer support' (=0.907, n=8), Supervisor sanctions (=0.781, n=7), Transfer design (=0.714, n=6), Motivation to transfer =0.684, n=3, Opportunity to use (=0.696, n=4), Resource challenges at work (=0.729, n=2), and Personal capacity to transfer (=0.426, n=2). All the above items loaded onto their expected factors except for news ones which emerged such as 'supervisor and peer support', and 'resource challenges at work', which seem to reflect the flat nature of the research organizations where most respondents came from, and the criticality of resources in those organizations for their job activities to succeed. Such collapse of work environment factors has occurred before, as a reflection of unique training transfer situations, and interconnected transfer variables(Lim & Morris, 2006).The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy for the general section of the LTSI was 0.767, which qualifies the data set for factors analysis(Coetsee et al., 2006), while the Bartlet's test of Sphericity was 483.8 at P < 0.0001. Three factors were specified for extraction from the training in general section of the LTSI in relation to the three constructs that had been retained during the selection of which constructs to place for the online survey. The 3factor solution explained 63.5% of the common variance. Items retained were those whose factor loadings was greater than 0.35. The 3 factors extracted included 'Performance self-efficacy' (=0.853, n=4), 'Performance coaching -feedback' (=0.749, n=4), and 'Openness to change' (=0.568, n=5). "},{"text":"( β=0.302, p<0.05), significantly predicted the perceived transfer/ application of skills, F = 5.53, p<0.05. The second model in which transfer design factors were entered had 'personal capacity to transfer' (β=0.264, p<0.05) significantly predict the perceived transfer /application of skills, F = 4.02, p<0.05. The third model in which 'personal capacity to transfer training', 'transfer design', 'supervisor and peer support', 'supervisor sanctions', 'opportunity to use' and 'resource challenges' were entered had no significant predictor factor of perceived application of skills. In the fourth and last model which accounted for all the factors including trainee characteristics, transfer design, and work environment factors as well as factors from the general scale items including 'openness to change', 'performance self efficacy' and 'feedback' had all of them contributing to a significant model prediction, F = 2.246, p<0.05. However, no single factor contributed significantly to the final model. The adjusted R squared value for the final model indicates that 32% of the variance in the transfer/application of skills to the work place was explained by the model. "},{"text":" their jobs. Personal capacity to transfer was an aggregate of the following items in the LTSI: 'I do not have time to try to use the training', 'my work load allows me time to try the new things I have learned', 'I have time in my schedule to change the way I do things to fit my new learning', "},{"text":" Africa. Certain work environments are likely to have new factors such as 'Peer and supervisor' support which operated as one explanatory factor for training transfer, showing the closeness of peers and supervisors in agricultural research and development settings. Practical implications For agencies whose training management spans multiple countries in the field of agricultural research, it is important to select trainees that have the time, and appropriate work load to facilitate application of training. For positive factors that correlate with transfer such as motivation to transfer, personal self efficacy, training institutions need to pay attention particularly through pre-training dialogue with potential trainees, to increase chances of recruiting trainees with potential to transfer. Ensuring that trainees have the time, personal capacity to transfer, and are motivated to attend training through more objective discussions with the trainees and the training organizers, and supervisors before, during and after the training is critical. National, program and institutional policies that encourage regular studies on training transfer, incentivizing and developing of robust transfer design strategies are needed. Partner organizations whose workers receive training, will through these strategies improve the quality of planning and delivery of training, get greater training transfer , and organization productivity. "},{"text":" This study was conducted to establish the factors from the LTSI that influence the transfer of training of skills to the work place within and among multinational trainees who have benefited from training organized by an international agricultural research network. Personal capacity to transfer has come through as an important factor for successful transfer of training back to the job. Secondly, motivation to transfer, transfer design, supervisor and peer support, openness to change within the organization, performance self efficacy or confidence as well as giving of positive feedback emerge as additional important factors associated with enhancing transfer of training offered by PABRA. The results have revealed that work environments of PABRA partners exhibit unique predictive factors, and thus research to identify such unique factors in transfer of training is always needed. The results offer an initial understanding on what PABRA needs to focus on when building capacity for agricultural research and development among its clients. Importantly, the study has confirmed the cross-cultural and cross organizational fitness of the LTSI to act as an evaluative and predictive tool that can measure factors that enhance training "},{"text":"Table 1 : The 16 factors of the LTSI, which affect transfer of training The LTSI assesses a set of 16 factors that influence learning transfer in organizations (Table1.0). Factor Definition FactorDefinition Training related scale constructs Training related scale constructs 1 Learner Readiness Extent to which trainees are prepared to enter and participate in training. 1 Learner ReadinessExtent to which trainees are prepared to enter and participate in training. 2 Motivation to Transfer Trainees' desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training 2 Motivation to TransferTrainees' desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training program on the job. program on the job. 3 Peer Support Extent to which peers reinforce and support use of learning to the job. 3 Peer SupportExtent to which peers reinforce and support use of learning to the job. 4 Supervisor Support Extent to which supervisors/managers support and reinforce use of 4 Supervisor SupportExtent to which supervisors/managers support and reinforce use of training on the job. training on the job. 5 Personal Outcomes positive Degree to which applying training on the job leads to outcomes that is 5 Personal Outcomes positiveDegree to which applying training on the job leads to outcomes that is positive for the trainees. positive for the trainees. 6 Personal Outcomes negative Extent to which individuals believe that not applying skills and 6 Personal Outcomes negativeExtent to which individuals believe that not applying skills and knowledge learned in training will lead to negative personal outcomes. knowledge learned in training will lead to negative personal outcomes. 7 Supervisor Sanctions Extent to which individuals perceive negative responses from 7 Supervisor SanctionsExtent to which individuals perceive negative responses from supervisors/managers when applying skills learned in training. supervisors/managers when applying skills learned in training. 8 Content Validity Extent to which trainees judge training content to accurately reflect job 8 Content ValidityExtent to which trainees judge training content to accurately reflect job requirements requirements 9 Transfer Design Degree to which (1) training has been designed and delivered to give 9 Transfer DesignDegree to which (1) training has been designed and delivered to give trainees the ability to transfer learning to the job (2) training instructions trainees the ability to transfer learning to the job (2) training instructions match job requirements. match job requirements. 10 Personal Capacity to Transfer Extent to which individuals have the time, energy and mental space in 10 Personal Capacity to TransferExtent to which individuals have the time, energy and mental space in their work lives to make changes required to transfer learning to the job. their work lives to make changes required to transfer learning to the job. 11 Opportunity To Use Extent to which trainees are provided with or obtain resources and tasks 11 Opportunity To UseExtent to which trainees are provided with or obtain resources and tasks on the job enabling them to use training on the job. on the job enabling them to use training on the job. General scale constructs General scale constructs 12 Performance Self Efficacy Trainee's general belief that they are able to change their performance 12 Performance Self EfficacyTrainee's general belief that they are able to change their performance when they want to. when they want to. 13 Transfer Effort- Expectation that effort devoted to transferring learning will lead to 13 Transfer Effort-Expectation that effort devoted to transferring learning will lead to Performance Expectations changes in job performance. Performance Expectationschanges in job performance. 14 Performance -Outcomes Expectation that changes in job performance will lead to valued 14 Performance -OutcomesExpectation that changes in job performance will lead to valued Expectations outcomes. Expectationsoutcomes. 15 Feedback Formal and informal indicators from an organization about an 15 FeedbackFormal and informal indicators from an organization about an individual's job performance individual's job performance 16 Openness to Change Extent to which prevailing group norms are perceived by trainees' to 16 Openness to ChangeExtent to which prevailing group norms are perceived by trainees' to resist or discourage the use of skills and knowledge acquired in training. resist or discourage the use of skills and knowledge acquired in training. "},{"text":"Table 2 .0: The extent of application of skills back to the job Training No. of n TrainingNo. ofn area topics areatopics Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. Mean/Highest Level of MinimumMaximumMeanS.D. Mean/HighestLevel of score and score score possible score application score andscorescorepossible scoreapplication percent (Percent of percent(Percent of equivalent the mean) equivalentthe mean) Breeding 5 20 1.60 (32%) 5.00 3.72 0.88 3.72/5 74% Breeding520 1.60 (32%)5.003.720.88 3.72/574% Seed systems 7 32 2.86 (57%) 5.00 3.91 0.74 3.91/5 78% Seed systems732 2.86 (57%)5.003.910.74 3.91/578% & marketing & marketing Gender 6 20 2.40 (48%) 5.00 3.72 0.67 3.72/5 74% Gender620 2.40 (48%)5.003.720.67 3.72/574% Monitoring & 9 18 2.22 (44%) 4.89 3.73 0.75 3.73/5 75% Monitoring &918 2.22 (44%)4.893.730.75 3.73/575% Evaluation Evaluation "},{"text":"Table 3 .0: Correlations between the independent and dependent factors Mean SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. MeanSD1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10. 1. Skills application 3.77 0.802 . 1. Skills application3.770.802. 2. Personal capacity to use 4.06 0.824 .310 . 2. Personal capacity to use4.060.824.310. ** ** 3. Motivation to transfer 4.33 0.769 .305 .303 . 3. Motivation to transfer4.330.769.305.303. ** ** **** 4. Transfer design 3.93 0.560 .255 .189 .287 . 4. Transfer design3.930.560.255.189.287. * * ** 5. Supervisor and peer support 4.01 0.725 .408 .393 .252 .375 . 5. Supervisor and peer support4.010.725.408.393.252.375. *** ** * ** ******** 6. Supervisor sanctions and 1.78 0.638 -.178 -.061 - - - . 6. Supervisor sanctions and1.780.638-.178-.061---. ability limitations .209 .316 .237 ability limitations.209.316.237 ** * *** 7. Opportunity to use 3.68 0.777 .175 .288 .327 .213 .392 - . 7. Opportunity to use3.680.777.175.288.327.213.392-. * ** ** .032 *****.032 8. Resource challenges to use 3.46 1.077 -.163 -.013 - - - .168 .186 . 8. Resource challenges to use3.461.077-.163-.013---.168.186. .118 .048 .249 .118.048.249 * * 9. Openness to change 2.59 0.650 - -.158 - - - .612 .005 .197 . 9. Openness to change2.590.650--.158---.612.005.197. .312 .300 .276 .206 *** .312.300.276.206*** ** * * * ***** 10. Performance self efficacy 4.31 0.542 .434 .407 .482 .504 .392 - .330 .008 - . 10. Performance self efficacy4.310.542.434.407.482.504.392-.330.008-. *** *** *** *** ** .349 ** .326 **************.349**.326 ** ** **** 11. Feedback 3.79 0.633 .339 .162 .304 .558 .418 - - .002 - .439 11. Feedback3.790.633.339.162.304.558.418--.002-.439 ** ** *** *** .203 .022 .243 *** **********.203.022.243*** * * * P<0.05; **P<0.01; *** P<0.001 * P<0.05; **P<0.01; *** P<0.001 "},{"text":"Table 4 .0: Hierarchical regression for the transfer of skills to the job Dependent variable Dependent variable Transfer/application of skills Transfer/application of skills Model 1 Model Model Model 4 Tolerance VIF Model 1 ModelModelModel 4ToleranceVIF 2 3 23 β β β β for Model 4 ββββfor Model 4 Personal capacity to transfer .302* .264* .176 0.082 .732 1.365 Personal capacity to transfer.302*.264*.1760.082.7321.365 Training design - .292 .140 -0.117 .567 1.764 Training design-.292.140-0.117.5671.764 Supervisor and peer support - - .288 0.199 .508 1.968 Supervisor and peer support--.2880.199.5081.968 Supervisor sanctions - - -.076 0.145 .567 1.763 Supervisor sanctions---.0760.145.5671.763 Opportunity to use - - .014 0.041 .615 1.625 Opportunity to use--.0140.041.6151.625 Resource challenges - - -0.063 -0.081 .777 1.287 Resource challenges---0.063 -0.081.7771.287 Openness to change - - - -0.261 .584 1.712 Openness to change----0.261.5841.712 Performance self efficacy - - - 0.387 .537 1.861 Performance self efficacy---0.387.5371.861 Feedback - - - 0.196 .515 1.943 Feedback---0.196.5151.943 R 2 0.096 0.136 0.214 0.315 R 20.0960.1360.2140.315 Adj. R 2 0.079 0.102 0.114 0.175 Adj. R 20.0790.1020.1140.175 F 5.53* 4.02* 2.131 2.246* F5.53*4.02*2.1312.246* * P<0.05 * P<0.05 "},{"text":" found in relation to 'personal capacity' factor significantly contributing to the transfer of trained skills. It is likely that since the study dealt with mainly research organizations where self-direction and initiative is important, busy schedules and heavy work load(Lynam et al., 2012), as well as multiple opportunities for research and outreach, the issue of personal capacity becomes critical if one is to successfully transfer training back to work. The factors that had a positive significant correlations with training transfer included motivation The factors that had a positive significant correlations with training transfer included motivation to transfer, supervisor and peer support, openness to change, performance self-efficacy, and to transfer, supervisor and peer support, openness to change, performance self-efficacy, and performance feedback. These point to personal and environmental features that are critical in this performance feedback. These point to personal and environmental features that are critical in this context in influencing training transfer. The study reveals that motivation to learn, and context in influencing training transfer. The study reveals that motivation to learn, and performance self-efficacy need enhancement if trainees are to apply what they have learnt. performance self-efficacy need enhancement if trainees are to apply what they have learnt. "}],"sieverID":"075baa38-6b16-4f0d-b248-ea6ed849771a","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0daa619a6e449e5cafcb8e728fe95bb9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8c924d6a-88e1-41d0-8f96-d1608f2b4166/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"A chronicle of ICTs in agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Editorial","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Contents I CT Update started in 2000 as a bimonthly web bulletin featuring short summaries of web pages with news and information on ICTs for agricultural development. At that time, because of the limited web access in most developing countries, CTA also distributed the bulletin in its entirety by email and in print. CTA's partners could retrieve the included web references by email, using so-called web2email service providers in Europe and North America."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"In this special 50th issue we look back at almost nine years of chronicling the progress of many ICT projects and trends in ACP countries and the contributions ICTs have made to agricultural and rural development."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"In early years of this century the international development community strongly believed that ICTs could boost socio-economic development in ACP countries and would connect them to the ever faster globalizing markets. Agencies such as the ITU, UNDP and UNECA, the World Bank and other donors and international NGOs dominated the ICT for development agenda and launched many programmes to promote knowledge sharing, collaborative networking and e-commerce via the internet in ACP countries. And, because in most of these countries connectivity was poor or non-existent, these organizations invested heavily in 'first mile' access solutions that ranged from low-Earth orbit communication satellites to community telecentres in rural areas."}]},{"head":"Local organizations","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Since 2000, ICT Update has followed the international ICT debate, but it has been much more interested in local organizations that were using ICTs to provide services to farmers and their families. ICT Update asked these organizations to tell their own stories, to explain why they had chosen the ICT applications they used, and to share their successes and the challenges they faced."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Over the years, ICT Update has featured programmes and initiatives of agricultural extension services, rural healthcare centres, banking and microfinance institutions, local radio stations, weather stations, and many more. Most of them did not have adequate access to the internet but used other ICTs, including mobile phones, handheld computers or digital personal assistants (PDAs), smart cards, CD-ROM, geographic information systems (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, digital TV and radio, radio-frequency identification (RFID) devices, imaging and acoustic technologies, and of course the web, web 2.0 and email-based programmes."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Often, these initiatives used several ICTs in combination and proved that they could be powerful tools for enhancing agricultural and rural development. They also demonstrated that ICTs could be used at the grassroots level, putting technology in the hands of local organizations and the communities they serve."}]},{"head":"Mobile services","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Certainly one of the most spectacular technological developments in ACP countries in recent years has been the proliferation of the mobile phone. In 2000 it was unthinkable that mobile phone providers would develop their small, patchy networks into today's nationwide networks. With their international connections, these networks now form part of the growing global mobile communication market."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Basically, the mobile phone is a handheld communication device designed not just for telephony, but as a platform for a wide variety of services. Therefore, the pioneer mobile phone providers actually paved the way for many successful ICT-based services for rural communities in ACP countries. Local entrepreneurs easily recognized that, as in the North, everyone in developing countries would also want to have a mobile phone and that many could actually afford to buy one. This realization spurred them to develop mobile services specifically designed to meet local needs and to function under local conditions."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"In December 2002, ICT Update featured Manobi, Africa's first multimodal phone service that pioneered the use of mobile phones for getting up-todate market information to farmers in remote areas, and tailored to their needs. Ever since, ICT Update has followed the growing number of mobile services in ACP countries, and has featured initiatives such as Wizzit, South Africa's first 'mobile bank' for the unbanked, and Celpay's 'mobile wallet', a payment service by mobile phone in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. ICT Update has highlighted many other uses of the mobile phone in agricultural and rural development projects. The feature article in this issue reports on the wide variety of mobile phone services in ACP countries covered by ICT Update over the past nine years."}]},{"head":"Digital assistance","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Another string of ICT applications that has inspired many practical solutions for problems faced by development organizations has involved the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS), often in combination with remote sensing technology, geographic information systems (GIS) and the mobile phone. Originally developed by and for the US military, GPS technology had long been used for navigation by planes, ships and cars."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"But, the GPS application that attracted the attention of local entrepreneurs and practitioners in ACP countries was a small, handheld device that had been designed to enable explorers and rescue workers to determine their exact geographical position. This GPS receiver became immensely popular among hikers, cyclists and surveyors and is now being mass produced for a global consumer market and already widely available in developing countries."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"As early as May 2003, ICT Update featured a story from French Guiana reporting that GPS receivers had been installed in ultralight aircraft for use in the fight against the carambola fruit fly (issue 11). Soon, many other stories about this device began to emerge. Today, in many areas of the Sahel, pastoralists are using GPS with GISbased maps and mobile phones to discuss with other groups of livestock herders the availability of fresh pastures and water supplies, and to decide where they should graze their cattle in order to prevent overgrazing (issue 15)."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"In Botswana, traditional hunters and expert trackers use GPS to gather information about local wildlife. Once downloaded onto a solar-powered PC, the data can be displayed in the form of maps, tables and graphs which are used in the design of game management programmes (issue 28)."}]},{"head":"Influence","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"In Guinea in West Africa, meanwhile, fishermen have traded in their submachine guns for GPS receivers in an attempt to combat foreign trawlers poaching in their traditional fishing grounds (issue 16). In Jamaica, the Forestry Department is using GPS devices to determine the extent of the encroachment into forest reserves (issue 19). In DR Congo, the technology has enabled Mbdendjele Pygmy communities to work together with international logging companies to protect their forest and its resources."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"But possibly the most profound impact of handheld GPS devices has been felt by farmers and their communities seeking formal title to their land. Examples include programmes that are attempting to address territorial disputes (Somaliland,issue 17), to demarcate the boundaries of common lands (issue 42), to gather local knowledge and encourage local participation in natural resource management projects (issue 27 on participatory GIS), and to experiment with the rapidly developing practice of precision farming (issue 30)."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Over the years ICT Update has described many exciting projects that used ICT applications other than those based on mobile phones and handheld GPS devices. There have been several reports, for instance, on communities that are using the camcorder to show to the 'outside world' their environment and livelihoods as they see and experience them. In combination with other ICT applications, such as YouTube and mobile phone messaging, the camcorder has become a powerful tool for organizing local advocacy campaigns, in particular for groups that hope to gain international support (issue 34)."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Other technologies include the radiofrequency identification (RFID) cattle tracking systems that have been introduced as far afield as Botswana and the Pacific island of Vanuatu, in order to comply with the European Union's traceability requirements for meat imports (issues 15 and 32). Or the combination of digital cameras, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and GPS used by Fruiléma, a Malian fruit exporters' association, to gather data from farmers in order to meet international export standards. This information is then published on the web to inform supply chain partners as well as consumers (issue 47)."}]},{"head":"Enterprising","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"From the perspective of subsequent development policies and approaches, the recent proliferation of locally developed ICT applications represents a unique phenomenon. Directly after ACP countries gained independence in the 1950s and 1960s, the former colonial powers embarked on substantial development assistance programmes. Technology transfer was key in their assistance, based on the simple assumption that since technology had brought industrial development to their own countries, it would also produce socio-economic development in their former colonies."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The failure of this so-called 'great technology transfer' had a lasting impact on the thinking of the development community, and its legacy is still felt today. Until recently, any trace of technology, let alone technology transfer, was banished from international development policies. Technology as a tool for development did not feature in the 'basic needs approach' (1980s), or sustainable development policies (1990s)."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"In the Millennium Development Goals, technology, or ICTs, is mentioned only in passing. In the national development plans of most ACP countries, technology as a tool for development is mentioned in footnotes, if at all. In fact, in terms of their 'technology readiness' levels, ACP countries were totally unprepared for the ICT revolution of the late 1990s, and for the efforts of the international community to connect them to this revolution by improving rural connectivity and promoting the internet for agricultural development."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Over the last decade, however, local entrepreneurs and practitioners in ACP countries have found this connection in a rather unexpected way. Some of them rolled out national mobile phone networks. They could do so because the national phone companies with their stifling monopolies of telecommunication markets were kept at bay; and by offering prepaid phone cards they could offer mobile services to everyone, even the poor. Others followed by developing new services to be delivered via the mobile phone. They could do so because mobile phones have three unique features: they are 'unpack-and-use' devices (no need for training manuals), their interfaces are user-friendly and intuitive, and they are cheap."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"With more than 200 stories, with substantial online resources with annotated links to related projects, relevant documents and other information, ICT Update has chronicled the evolving uses of ICTs by development organizations in ACP countries. Its online archive has become a seemingly inexhaustible resource with inspiring accounts of creativity, inventiveness and local entrepreneurship. The archive also details many lessons learned in using ICTs for agricultural and rural development, the challenges that lie ahead, and the success that can be expected."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"In the 1990s, Africa One was an ambitious project to roll out a fibreoptic cable around the African continent. Finally, in July 2009, the $600 million, 17,000 km undersea cable came ashore in Kenya, bringing broadband internet access to East Africa. Entrepreneurs are already exploring opportunities in the profitable IT services and business process outsourcing sector, and the first call centres have already opened their doors."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"By connecting Africa to the global knowledge economy, the cable will provide an enormous boost not only for capitals but also for the rural areas. This time, thanks to the entrepreneurs who pioneered mobile and other ICT services, Africa is far more 'technology ready' than it was 10 years ago. ICT Update will continue to chronicle these innovations for agricultural and rural development in ACP countries and beyond. ■ Web2mail (TechTip, ICT Update issue 10, February 2003) Web2mail is a system to deliver web pages by email. The tool can be useful for anyone with limited web access."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"To obtain a web page, an email containing the link to the webpage to be retrieved is sent to a so-called web2email server, which fetches the web page and sends it back, again by email."},{"index":9,"size":161,"text":"Web2email services were promoted in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Their real potential was never realized because their functioning was regularly frustrated by spam attacks. ➜ http://ictupdate.cta.int/(issue)/10 Related links T his 50th issue of ICT Update magazine comes at a time of many interesting developments. On 23 July 2009, broadband internet access was brought East Africa thanks to the Seacom undersea cable which now links Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa to highspeed networks in Europe and India. By 2010, 21 countries in the East Africa will become connected thanks to the Eastern Africa Submarine Cable System (EASSy). This will have a great impact in a region otherwise dependent on expensive and sometimes unreliable satellite links to the internet. Bandwidth costs will be slashed with cheaper telephony, stimulating businesses and the growth of IT Dr Hansjörg Neun ([email protected]) is director of the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (www.cta.int) enabled services such as call centres and outsourced industries."},{"index":10,"size":95,"text":"The growth of mobile telephony and related services continues to amaze. Mobile financial services, of the type championed by M-Pesa in Kenya and Wizzit in South Africa, are predicted to be worth US$ 5 billion in 2010. And mobile extension services are starting to enter the mainstream with ventures such as Nokia's Life Tools and the Grameen Foundation's AppLab services in Uganda. The fact that rural farmers are now being directly targeted is surely evidence of a sea change in attitudes towards supporting rural communities and of the transformative power of ICTs used for development."},{"index":11,"size":69,"text":"I believe we are currently witnessing 'technology leapfrogging' in action where, in spite of a lack of basic infrastructure, the possession of a mobile phone and access to the services it offers are transforming lives. And ICT innovation continues seemingly unchecked, breaking barriers to human knowledge and education, breaking barriers to participation and social inclusion, breaking barriers to economic opportunity by giving the possibility of equitable benefits for all."},{"index":12,"size":49,"text":"The information tsunami unleashed by Google, blogs, wikis, Twitter and a host of other social media have, in a remarkably short time, profoundly changed the way we access and share information. For an increasing proportion of the world's population, these online resources are becoming indispensable to their daily lives."}]},{"head":"Equality","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"In the area of participation, web tools and services (especially social media) have led to an increasingly animated public sphere. For civil society organizations, the internet and mobile telephony have offered a new medium of political mobilization and participation. And we only have to think of the key role that social media played in the 2008 US Presidential elections, and the role of Twitter in the recent Iranian elections, to realize that times have indeed changed."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Meanwhile, the development of e-services offers an increasing number of opportunities to improve the economy of rural communities"}]},{"head":"Perspectives","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Interesting times in ICTs","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"significantly. The unstoppable proliferation of mobile phones has been fundamental to this growth in services. Another other key factor is the favourable technical environment which has led to the increased power, diversity, affordability and availability of devices. This, together with the spread of web 2.0 tools and applications, has provided opportunities for greater efficiency and effectiveness in organizations working for agricultural and rural development throughout the world."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"These are indeed exciting times to be working with ICTs for development."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"There is no shortage of devices, applications and tools to use, and so providing many possibilities to move seamlessly from an online to an offline world. Given this abundance of riches, it becomes ever more urgent that we work more closely together and share experiences, exploiting ICTs to tackle the pressing issues of the day especially the impacts of climate change on food security and agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"I believe the developments that I have touched on do represent a great opportunity for improving rural livelihoods and greater participation in the social and political sphere. From an ICT for development perspective, it is important that these benefits are shared equitably to avoid digital exclusion and a situation of 'haves' and 'have nots' . New technologies are often seen as disruptive and do alter the status quo (witness the turmoil in the publishing and media industries in coming to terms with the new landscape). However, it is not a blank slate where we have to start from scratch and rewrite the rule book."},{"index":5,"size":130,"text":"Taking a 'people first' approach, by concentrating on capacity building and education, ensuring appropriate regulation and ethical practices and dealing with infrastructural issues as they relate to rural communities, the benefits of the new technologies can be available to all. ICT Update contributes to this process. Over the last 50 issues, it has chronicled the development and growth of ICTs in ACP countries and their use and adaptation at the local level when used in agricultural and rural development. While the future might be uncertain, the opportunities are great and ICTs will continue developing at an incredible rate. ICT Update will certainly continue for another 50, 100 or more issues -who knows? We have just to ensure that it is for the benefit of agriculture and the rural poor. ■"}]},{"head":"ICT Update reporting around the world July 2005 Issue 26: Traditional plants","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Software for natural products chemistry by Robert Lancashire","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The success story of the JCAMP-DX Data Viewer, a computer program developed in Jamaica being used by organic chemists worldwide."}]},{"head":"November 2004 Issue 22: Youth and ICTs","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The Yam Pukri youth forum by Sylvestre Ouédraogo A youth forum on the internet is broadening the horizons of young people throughout Burkina Faso."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"In the 50 issues since 2000, ICT Update has covered almost 200 projects in more than 60 countries, all related to the use of ICTs for rural and agricultural development. The map highlights just a few of these projects. For more details see http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/maps/items "}]},{"head":"Making the village global by John Katz","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The village of El Limon in the Dominican Republic has had wireless internet for almost 10 years. The system continues to expand and have a major impact on the education of young people living there."}]},{"head":"March 2004 Issue 16: Fisheries","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Promoting sound fishing practices by Margot Collett","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Researchers in South Africa's Great Fish River project are using acoustic telemetry to help in the design of conservation strategies for the estuary's fisheries."}]},{"head":"September 2006 Issue 33: Urban agriculture","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kigali's experiment in e-procurement by Vasant-madhav Shenoy","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"In some areas, mobile phones and the internet are connecting urban farmers to markets. This article investigates plans for an 'e-procurement' project between Kigali and Rome."}]},{"head":"June 2006 Issue 32: Traceability","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"From pen-and-paper to RFID tracking by Janette James The island of Vanuatu is set to become only the second country in the world to operate the National Livestock Identification System (NLIS), the Australian tracking system for cattle that is compatible with EU traceability requirements. A recent World Bank report noted that mobile phones were 'the single most powerful way to extend economic opportunities and key services to millions of people' . The report added that in the next few years almost all new customers connecting to mobile phone networks will come from the rural areas of developing countries. They will join the 3 billion people in the South who already use a mobile phone."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In little more than a decade, mobile phones have become the clear technology of choice for communication. SMS (short message service) in particular has become an extremely important way to send and receive information. These short and simple messages are convenient and affordable and, perhaps most important, they are (usually) free to receive."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Another advantage of SMS is that it is possible to set up a system to deliver messages automatically to a large number of people at the same time. This is difficult to achieve with voice messages, which also cost more and rely on the fact that the person receiving the call must have their mobile phone switched on and connected to the network at the time the call is made. SMS is, therefore, an ideal way for organizations and businesses to reach their target audiences, whether they want to sell bank services, promote safe sex or share commodity prices, but especially if they want to get a message across to people with limited or no access to the internet."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Farmers are now far better placed to receive accurate market information on their mobile phone. Small producers no longer have to accept the first price they are offered; with access to up-todate market information, they can negotiate to try to get a better deal. They can also communicate with other farmers more easily, making it feasible for them to set up cooperatives that can explore new markets and sell their products to bigger buyers."}]},{"head":"Positive feedback","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Market information services are now helping farmers in ACP countries by delivering the information they need to build their businesses. Over the years, ICT Update has reported on several initiatives that have continued to innovate and develop their services."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"As early as November 2002 (issue 9), Daniel Annerose described how the Senegalese company, Manobi, delivered market information to farmers. 'Manobi has developed a system that collects data in real time and makes use of internet and mobile technologies to follow the daily price fluctuations and deliveries of produce to markets.' Seven years later, Manobi is still delivering agricultural market information throughout West Africa. 'Throughout every step of production farmers need information on a whole range of topics from access to credit and supplies (seeds, pest control, fertilizers), to contact with extension services, pricing details, processing and packaging, ' said Annerose in 2009. 'If a company can provide this information and can help farmers generate more income then they will have extra money to pay for the communication services. '"},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Like Manobi, the Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange (KACE) realized that farmers need more than simple market information; they need to connect to other businesses involved in bringing their products to market and to consumers. In other words, the farmers need to become part of the market supply chain. KACE helps to link farmers, companies and markets through a network of franchised market resource centres (MRCs). The centres provide KACE with up-to-date market data, which is then distributed via SMS to farmers. The MRCs also offer on-site internet, email and phone facilities."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Also in Kenya, DrumNet operates a network of information access points or 'info-kiosks' that offer marketing, financial and information services for farmers. Each info-kiosk is equipped with an internet connection, a computer and mobile phones, and is connected to a hub in Nairobi. There, information from around the country is aggregated in a central database and is then distributed to the info-kiosks and to the farmers by SMS."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"Similar services are currently operating elsewhere in East Africa. These include the Farmers' Information Communication Management (FICOM) project, which began by supporting dairy farmers in Uganda, and FoodNet, which delivers market information via mobile phone and FM radio broadcasts."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"In West Africa, BusyLab, a group of Ghanaian software developers, launched TradeNet (now known as Esoko), a service that allows farmers to send SMS messages advertising their products. The messages are published on the web and are sent via SMS to subscribers who may be interested in those products. The advantage of this service is that the information reaches a broad audience -anyone with access to the internet -thus encouraging cross-border trade between neighbouring countries and even other continents."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"The National Association of Agricultural Producer Organizations of Côte d'Ivoire (ANOPACI) also uses the TradeNet system and distributes market prices on radio and on information boards in local markets."}]},{"head":"The many uses of mobiles","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"over the years, ICT Update has covered the many ways in which mobile phones are used to promote agricultural and rural development. The technology has proven so useful that it is likely to remain a popular method of information delivery for some time to come."}]},{"head":"Feature","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"With care SMS is also used widely by organizations to deliver health information to rural communities. In April 2009, ICT Update reported on how the Praekelt Foundation, a South African technology company, has developed a way to use the space available in 'please call me' (PCM) messages to deliver targeted health information. PCM is a messaging service where someone can send a free text message asking the recipient to call back. Because a PCM uses only 40 of the 160 characters allowed in a text message, Praekelt developed SocialTxt, which adds messages of up to 120 characters to fill the unused space."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Also in the context of healthcare, the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) has developed a device that holds a mobile phone in position on a microscope. Using the phone's camera function, it is possible to take a picture of a microscope slide (with a sample of malaria infected blood, for example) and then send it via MMS (multimedia messaging service) to a specialist laboratory for analysis and diagnosis. The laboratory then delivers the results to the same camera phone in the form of an SMS message ."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"But while SMS is proving to be a very useful and cost-effective method of providing market and crop data, it also requires that users some level of literacy, and sometimes knowledge of a language that is not their mother tongue. Communication by voice, especially if you can talk in your own language, has many advantages."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Complex and detailed crop production methods or pest control procedures, for example, cannot be explained in the short space available in a typical SMS message. More detailed information has to be delivered in other ways. Radio broadcasts can be a very effective means of explaining detailed processes to many people at the same time. But if a particular radio programme talks about maize harvesting, it doesn't really help the farmer who needs to know how to control a fungal infection in tomato plants."}]},{"head":"Language","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"In December 2007, ICT Update reported on the Banana Information Line, a pilot project in Kenya to provide farmers with specific information as and when they need it. The farmers could call a number and, via a voiceactivated menu, listen to a recording giving the specific information they needed, in either English or Kiswahili."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"That initial experiment led to the development of the National Farmer Information Service (NAFIS) where farmers can now call a dedicated number to get advice on the best ways to grow a wide range of crops (maize, tomatoes, mangoes and chillies) or to raise livestock (cattle, poultry, goats and bees). While a phone call is more expensive than a text message, farmers have the advantage of being able to get the right, detailed advice at the moment they need it. The same information is also available on the web, so that farmers can access it from a telecentre, for example. They can then print out the information they need to read later and to share with other producers."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"In South Africa, the Shuttleworth Foundation, together with the private telecommunications company, Dabba, and a host of other partners, have launched the Village Telco project. The team has developed a basic, low-cost Customers can therefore use an ordinary telephone, which is much cheaper than a mobile phone. The business model for the mesh potato system encourages entrepreneurs to develop their own local telephone network in areas where a mobile network doesn't yet exist. The Fantsuam Foundation in Nigeria is also helping to bring telephone services to rural communities. But rather than mobile phones, the organization uses voice over internet protocol (VoIP) technology for their ZittNet network. Customers can buy a simple plug-andplay system, called 'VoIP in a box', for around US$50. They then plug it into their computer and connect to the network to call other ZittNet customers for free, or buy pre-paid airtime vouchers to make use of the local mobile network to call fixedlines and other mobile users."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Similarly, Connect Africa is setting up payphones in remote parts of Zambia through satellite telephone providers, Iridium Satellite and Thuraya. The real innovation in this system is that it uses zinc-air batteries, which are much cheaper and easier to maintain than normal lead-acid batteries, and means that the payphones can even serve areas where there is no mains electricity supply. And, of course, the spread of mobile"}]},{"head":"Related resources","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"phones has also made it possible for people in rural areas to access financial services such as money transfers, savings accounts, credit and insurance (see page 11 for more on mobile banking)."}]},{"head":"Getting smart","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The next major development in the use of mobile phones for agricultural and rural development will be the continued growth of 'smartphones', such as the Blackberry and iPhone. These devices can access the web over 3G (third generation) wireless networks, which provides greater bandwidth to deliver data and voice services. Smartphones can also access the internet via local Wi-Fi networks, such as those installed in many offices and homes."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"These devices are becoming extremely popular throughout Europe and North America where most people have access to a computer to surf the web and send email. There is also a huge potential for smartphones to supply web services to areas where it would be too expensive to install broadband cable networks. These are early days, but there are signs that smartphones will be useful to many people in ACP countries."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"A recent Unicef report showed that more than 7 million Nigerians are now browsing the web on their mobile phones. In Nigeria, the number of web pages accessed with Opera Mini, a mobile phone browser, increased by nearly 1700% between January and September 2008. But other figures from Opera Mini show that South Africa and Egypt lead the way in mobile web adoption in Africa, followed by Kenya and Nigeria."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Almost all major computer hardware manufacturers now produce small, and steadily cheaper, laptops, also known as netbooks. Many projects are promoting netbooks, especially in education, but perhaps future discussions will not be about whether to use small laptops or mobile phones. It's likely that future developments will make use of both technologies."},{"index":5,"size":176,"text":"It would make sense, for example, if mobile phones and computers had compatible operating systems, allowing users to run the same software and applications on both devices. Integration of technology is surely the most sensible way to reach rural areas and connect with the millions of people who could make such a system economically viable. ■ ISSoUF SAnogo/ Anp W hen mobile phones started to become popular in Africa, people quickly realized that they could use their prepaid airtime credit instead of cash. Rather than use the credit to make calls, a user could transfer the same amount via a text message. The receiver could then use that credit to top up their own airtime, or even transfer it again to a shopkeeper, for example, in exchange for goods. The system wasn't perfect -a percentage of that credit was often deducted as government sales tax -but it did show that people needed a system for transferring small amounts of money. There was demand, and the market responded. The result was mobile banking, also known as m-banking."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"A few banks and mobile network operators (MNOs) were first to supply mobile banking services. In April 2007, ICT Update reported on one of the frontrunners in the business, a South African company called Wizzit. The company began offering mobile banking services in 2004 operating as a division of the South African Bank of Athens Limited, and has continued to expand ever since."},{"index":7,"size":158,"text":"'When we first started many big banks said that mobile banking would never work, ' says Wizzit's founding director and CEO, Brian Richardson. 'No one would accept making payments on their phone, they said. But there has been a complete u-turn since then, and now almost every major bank in the world has its own mobile banking service or is in the process of evaluating the possibilities of introducing one. ' And, he explains, customer demand continues to drive expansion in the sector. 'As people became comfortable buying airtime they started looking at what other services they could get access to, ' Richardson says. 'The first step was to provide the customer with the possibility to make banking transactions, to send and receive payments from one account to another. Once that was established, we then looked at other services including savings accounts, loans and insurance policies. All of these services can now be offered over the phone. '"},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"In fact, mobile banking customers can now open an account, start saving, secure a loan and an insurance policy without ever having to enter a bank branch. Removing the need for customers to travel long distances has been crucial to providing financial services to those living outside the main towns and cities."},{"index":9,"size":146,"text":"'If people in rural areas are to have any chance of having access to banking, then the banks have to go to them, not wait until they come to the banks, ' says Richardson. 'The technology makes that possible as mobile phones are used for so much more than just a means of communication. The phone has become a tool to do so many things, and people are comfortable using them. Mobile banking simply makes use of that tool. ' But while many have welcomed the spread of mobile phones for giving rural communities better access to banks, Richardson is disappointed that the cost of the technology is still beyond so many people. 'Five years ago when we were first starting in this business, I was looking around for a mobile phone costing about US$20, which I would consider to be a reasonable, affordable price. Despite"}]},{"head":"An industry in development","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"the fact that there is a massive market for mobile phone handsets, and that everyone says they're getting cheaper, it's still not possible to buy a handset for less than US$20. The prices haven't come down to a level that would make them affordable to the rural poor. '"}]},{"head":"Competition","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Richardson is still positive about the continued growth of mobile banking. 'People in rural areas are now in a better position to open a bank account than they were two years ago. As long as the companies supplying mobile banking services don't start telling customers that they need a new phone or they have to upgrade or change their network, but make use of what they already have, then people will trust the services they are offered. '"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"With increased competition coming from MNOs and other major banks, even Wizzit, one of the first companies to offer mobile banking, needs to assess its position on a regular basis, and to look at how it can continue to meet customer demands."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"At the moment it is the mobile banking businesses operating in Africa that are learning and innovating more than anywhere else. And as the industry continues to mature, Richardson believes these companies will only improve, and offer better services to their core customers: people with low and irregular incomes."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"'The governments of many emerging economies now realize that providing banking services is an effective way to alleviate poverty. As many countries work their way through the current financial crisis, there is probably no better time to explore different banking models. Wizzit does provide a different model, but it isn't only about technology, or even mobile banking. The most important thing is to think about is how we can offer financial access to people on low incomes in a way that is affordable and convenient'. ■ T he 40th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing was an occasion to marvel. Sending men to the Moon was an extraordinary achievement for those pioneers in 1969, given how primitive some of the technology seems by today's standards. The average desktop computer these days is far more powerful than those used at the Apollo mission control. We are still enthralled by (or alarmed at) the pace of technological change, despite the difficulty of predicting what direction it will take."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"Since ICT Update was launched in December 2000, the technological landscape has changed markedly, and not always as expected. Then, the dominant paradigm was the potential of the internet for rural development, to the extent that the terms 'ICT' and 'the internet' were used interchangeably. What could not be predicted back then, of course, was that in developing countries mobile phones would eclipse the internet in popularity and as a platform for e-services, thanks to technological developments (and market liberalization)."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"The decade has seen the proliferation of a wide range of devices of increasing technical capabilities, coupled with falling prices, greater overall connectivity thanks to infrastructure roll-outs and evolving wireless communications, the advent of cloud or grid computing and the arrival of participatory, social and inclusive web applications as evidenced by web 2.0."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"Mobile phones are the undoubted success story of the last 10 years. They have contributed substantially to"}]},{"head":"A time of technological change","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"ICTs have gone through incredible changes in the last decade, but innovation is not only driven by manufacturers, it often comes from individuals adapting technology to suit local needs."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"reducing the digital divide, something that other ICTs -including personal computers (PCs) and the internethave been unable to do. Once used just for making calls, the mobile phone is now a multipurpose tool -a texting device, camera, music player, calculator and web browser. With a growing range of applications, mobile phones will become even more versatile and multi-faceted."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Importantly, in many ACP countries, mobile phones provide access to a wide range of services, notably financial services (issue 36) and market information systems (issue 47). Most of these services are text/SMS-based due to poor and expensive connectivity and the lack of useable web content. Given the recent growth of mobile telecoms markets, especially in Africa, together with cheaper handsets, lower operating costs and lower taxation, it is likely that in many countries broadband"}]},{"head":"Case study hAnnELIE CoETzEE/Wpn/hh","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Kevin Painting ([email protected]), senior programme coordinator, ICT4D, at CTA (www.cta.int) internet access will be delivered through mobile phones, and offer more web-based services."}]},{"head":"Connections","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"While PCs may have been upstaged by mobile phones, there have been significant developments in mobile computing (laptops, netbooks, etc.), largely inspired by the pioneering work of the One Laptop Per Child Foundation and its ground-breaking XO ('$100') laptop. This a good example of where a development-oriented initiative has changed the wider technological landscape. Since the appearance of the XO laptop, there has been a rush to develop cheap, slimmed down laptops and netbooks."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"The web itself underwent something of a revolution following the dot.com crash of 2001. With web 2.0, there has been a shift away from building websites, to organizing the web around people and their relationships. This has resulted in the popular web-based social networks, social media, social bookmarking and crowd-sourcing, to name but a few. Relationships have also been also factored into web searching, with relevancy scores based also on social value (e.g. ratings or referrals). This focus on using digital media for networking is not particularly new. One only has to look back to the pre-web days of the 1980s and 1990s to appreciate the popularity of bulletin board systems and commercial services such as Compuserve, and later to the use of Internet Relay Chat, ICQ and Instant Messenger for issuing status updates (now called 'tweets'). Nevertheless, digital media for networking only really became part of mainstream culture with the advent of web 2.0, which itself was underpinned by the huge expansion of capacity brought about through cloud and grid computing."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Perhaps we are all still coming to terms with the changes ushered in by the web 2.0 revolution and the abundance of free or low-cost tools, applications and information resources now available online. With the popularity of RSS feeds and microblogging services such as twitter, there is even evidence that the web is becoming a real-time stream of information snippets, shared thoughts, status updates, pictures and videos. These tools allow people to participate in events on a grand scale -recall the influential role of twitter following the 2009 Iranian presidential elections."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Connectivity has always been a problem in developing countries. One of the most significant advances in the past 10 years has therefore been the evolution of wireless technologies that allow a variety of devices to connect to and communicate with each other and share resources, and even access to the internet. Of particular interest have been WiFi for wireless networking (issue 41), Bluetooth for personal networks, mesh networks, and the standards and protocols that provide mobile broadband internet access (e.g. WiMAX, 3G)."}]},{"head":"Convergence","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Access to broadband internet is a distant prospect for many developing countries, but in the meantime effective local connectivity will become a reality. This will inevitably boost the development of locally maintained and shared information resources, supplemented with downloaded internet resources, and complementary media to support rural development such as telecentres and community radio."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"These developments are significant. One consequence of the web 2.0 trend to move the desktop (including applications and data) from the PC to the internet is the problem of connectivity. Along with developments for local networking, efforts are now focusing on creating applications that work seamlessly online and offline, which will be enormously useful in developing countries where poor internet access is a daily reality. Examples include Google Gears, Adobe Air and Microsoft Silverlight."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"To an outsider it seems that the development of ICTs has been driven by rounds of 'lumping and splitting' . The appearance of the PC in the 1980s heralded in an era of 'splitting': resources that had been stored on a central mainframe or mini-computer and accessed through dumb terminals were entrusted to stand-alone PCs, which became popular in the home and offices."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"The need to share resources and to communicate drove the development of PCs being networked in client/server environments in the 1990s, resources being 'lumped' together on one or more central servers. The lumping of data and applications into gigantic, internet-based server environments grew apace with web 2.0 and cloud/ grid computing, evidenced by the appearance of slimmed down netbooks."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"In spite of recent developments such as the undersea cable bringing high-speed internet access to East Africa, most developing countries are still a long way away from an entirely online world as promised by applications such as Google Wave. In the meantime, as the distinction between terms such as 'mobile phone' and 'laptop' has become blurred, we have seen the emergence of a broad range of cheap laptops, netbooks, smartphones, mobile internet devices and ingenious geo-localizable gadgets that connect to each other and, above all, help people connect."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Years ago, we marvelled at the Moon landings and what was possible with the technology then available. Today, we marvel at the resourcefulness of people in appropriating and adapting complex technologies at the local level, something that ICT Update will continue to follow. ■"}]},{"head":"Update","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"When persistence pays off","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"ICT Update reported on the Voices of Africa project in rural Kenya as part of the web 2.0 issue in October 2007. Despite some difficult times, the project continues to help women farmers in the area."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"T he Voices of Africa for Sustainable Development (VOA4SD) project is working to combat rural poverty by bringing technology to remote areas of Kenya. The project began in early 2007 with the Mbambe Rural Resource Management Programme, in the village of Lwanda in Bungoma district, near the border with Uganda. We set up a computer centre equipped with four Inveneo solar-powered computers, two 80 watt solar panels and a small modem."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Unfortunately, amid the violence that followed the national election in early 2008, one solar panel and the modem were lost, bringing the project to a standstill for several months. The violence in Western province forced the evacuation of project staff and volunteers from the area. But this was not the end of the Mbambe programme."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"We reopened the computer centreminus the solar panel and modem -in June 2008, and restarted the computer training courses for villagers. So far, we have trained more than 120 women to use technology to improve their lives, and many of them have already put the centre's resources to productive use. Some are now using spreadsheets to compile their farm inventories, for example, or to draw up lists of vulnerable children in the area who need support. Others have set up their own small school where the teachers make use of the information available online."},{"index":5,"size":131,"text":"The original group of women who we trained in ICTs were empowered to establish a nursery school, called the Mbambe Academy, where the students receive weekly computer lessons. And the Mbambe computer centre has reached out to local schools, providing training to 26 teachers on how to manage their student records, and given ICT training to a further 36 village schoolteachers. Now that we had a successful project underway in a rural village, we wanted to test the how effective the project's approach would be in a poor urban area. So, in August 2008, the VOA4SD offices, including the volunteers, moved to Likoni, a town on the outskirts of the port city of Mombasa. There, we intended to conduct research and then to work with community-based organizations (CBOs) in the area."}]},{"head":"Urban trial","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Likoni is a ferry ride from Mombasa, and is the site of an extensive slum area that has risen from the ground in the last 15 years. The Likoni area has been regularly affected by tribal violence since 1997. As the local economy slowly collapsed, more and more youth looking for opportunities have arrived with hope in their hearts, but often end up living in small shacks or one-room apartments."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The VOA4SD project team first began to network with CBOs and youth groups, and decided to build a Youth Information Empowerment Centre. For almost a year the team continued to look for funding. The project applied for more than 20 grants, but all were unsuccessful. Then, just one day after the landing of the fibre-optic undersea cable at Mombasa, three armed gangsters broke into the VOA4SD office and stole everything in sight. All equipment, files, photos ... everything was gone."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"The project then faced some hard decisions. Should it leave the country? Move to Tanzania? Or keep on fighting? After a meeting with the US ambassador, the organization decided to seek new investors and to build a social enterprise company that would raise funds for VOA4SD's projects. But the US government had still not processed the relevant paperwork, and US funding was not a real option, we decided to approach the private sector."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Once the fibre-optic cable is established in Kenya, many companies will be looking to sell bandwidth to new customers in the rural areas. In order to reach the maximum number of people, VOA4SD has teamed up a number of private enterprises that are already applying new inventions and innovative approaches to reach Kenyan youth. The project has adopted a social enterprise approach to business."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"VOA4SD has undergone a radical transformation in recent months. The team came up with a concept for a prototype vehicle -a mobile classroom, cyber cafe and digital media centre, all in one -to bring ICTs to rural communities, called the Mobile Information Centers Empowering Youth (Micey). A number of private sector partners will participate in building this new invention."}]},{"head":"On the road","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Each Micey will be equipped with a GPS unit so that people can take images with their coordinates and upload them to the web using Google Maps. Miceys are mobile local content generation factories. They will provide all the tools for content development, including a digital camera, a video camera, and high-speed Internet access. Community-based organizations will also be able to generate content for local dissemination, making it accessible to those whose literacy is limited. The content will focus on development issues such as HIV/AIDS, health, income generation and sustainable agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"A large proportion of the content generated will be posted to the VOA4SD website, which is currently undergoing beta testing. The website began as a simple idea to create a Crystal Watley Kigoni ([email protected]) is a graduate student of the Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, USA, and project director of Voices of Africa (www.voicesofafrica.org) forum where young people could write articles about development, but as the organization has grown, the concept for the website has changed. The modified website is currently in development. It is being designed using open source software; a content management system, called Drupal, and CiviCRM to keep a track of customer data."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"We plan to set up a user database, introduce new bloggers, and create blogs focusing on issues such as HIV/ AIDS, health, income generation, sustainable agriculture and peacebuilding. The project will unveil the new website and the Micey prototype at the 2009 Forum of the Global Alliance for ICTs and Development (GAID), ICTs and Innovation for Education, in Mexico in September, as the winners of the World Summit Youth Award in the category 'Education for All'."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"The Micey mobile classrooms will be used to teach villagers about various community development issues and computer skills, beginning with the web. Rather than teaching static applications we will focus on how to use online web 2.0 tools. The seven basic packages will be replaced by Google Applications online. For teachers and CBOs we plan to teach how to search for content, build curricula and teach online. This will boost both the education levels within communities and will build a market for the internet."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"We hope to provide access to knowledge all over the country. In rural areas, courses will focus on skills development and the practical application of technology. Like the projects at Mbambe and in Likoni, we will focus on collecting information within communities and from the internet, and then on teaching to meet the needs of the people."},{"index":6,"size":126,"text":"The Micey will be a big attraction with its computers, solar panels and internet access, we will be able to learn more about what people want, and assist them in finding the information they need. But more important is the content that the youth will be able to generate themselves. With web 2.0 tools and the internet we have a golden opportunity to bring knowledge to those who have been long deprived of access to information and, by doing so, increase the prosperity of the country. Just as in the United States, where 20% of national GDP comes from the knowledge economy, Kenya could follow suit. And it will have to if it is to meet the objectives of Vision 2030, the country's national economic blueprint."}]},{"head":"Prospects","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The future of the Kenyan youth is in ICTs for sustainable development. In order to have the greatest impact, the technology must be diffused throughout the country. Most people with computer knowledge have had to migrate to the city to be able to improve their skills and find employment. It is critical that we are able to diffuse these technologies into the rural areas and the slums if ICTs are to make a difference. What we need is the commitment to the endeavour, and the will to see it through."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"There may be tough times ahead for Kenya, but if we are able to empower the people, the violence that has cost so much in the past may be a thing of history. ■ Read the ICT Update article in issue 39, October 2007 http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/(issue)/39 W hereas web 2.0, known as the 'social web', concentrated on individuals being able to create and share their own content, the main focus for the new generation of internet services is collective intelligence. Developers are now producing applications that can gather information from a variety of userselected sources and deliver it to one dedicated site or even a single web page."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"A more recent development is collaborative network software, which allows a selected group of individuals to access documents and collated information. This type of application, such as Google Docs or Zoho, has been specially designed to allow groups of people to collect and share data. Any member of the group can edit and add information, which is then immediately accessible to everyone else in the group."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"This might sound like the definition of a wiki, but there is a difference. The new collaborative network applications automatically pull data from a variety of sources around the web, enabling users to develop mashups (combinations of web applications) to fit their specific needs. Other benefits of collaborative networks are that members can synchronize data across computers, and they can share multiple files and edit documents that are instantly available to all the other members."}]},{"head":"In the cloud","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Unlike traditional database programs, the data in a collaborative network application are not stored on any one computer hard drive. Instead, the information, even the application itself, is more likely to be hosted on a server computer far removed from any of the users. In effect, the data are stored on the internet, often described in this context as the 'cloud' . And an increasing number of applications now make use of cloud computing. It is, for example, possible to use online applications, many of them free, instead of programs installed on a computer. Examples include the popular email accounts, such as Yahoo!, Hotmail and Gmail. Subscribers to these services don't need an email program but can send and receive messages online."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"More recently, applications like Google Gears, Adobe AIR and"}]},{"head":"What the web will bring next","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Internet technology is evolving rapidly. ICT Update reported on projects using web 2.0 applications in 2007, but the next generation of web services is already available."}]},{"head":"Feature hAnnELIE CoETzEE/Wpn/hh","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Related resources","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Microsoft Silverlight have been bridging the link between traditional desktop software and the web, by making their online applications available even if the user is offline. Microsoft will also launch a web version of its Office software in early 2010."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Among the major advantages of using software in the cloud, the applications are free and are not dependent on the computer operating system. They work with Windows PCs, Apple Macs and Linux computers (for Silverlight a third-party version, Moonlight, is available for Linux users)."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"There are, of course, disadvantages to using online applications and storing data online. Regardless of how reliable the service is, or how reputable the hosting company, things can go wrong and it is possible for the application to be temporarily unavailable or even to lose data. Many of the popular email hosting applications have also been out of action for several hours due to maintenance work or server problems."}]},{"head":"Keeping it real","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Web 2.0 tools have certainly made it easy for people to create and publish and share information online. More and more people are producing content on a regular basis through, for example, simple status updates on social networking sites. Consequently, this steady stream of extra content has lead to increased demand for instant updates. A message posted on Twitter (called a tweet), could be out of date by the time it is picked up by a search engine, since it cannot search and index the entire web every moment of the day. Even RSS feeds, a means of distributing updated information from a website, are not instantly available on feed-reading applications (such as Google Reader or FeedReader) but are refreshed perhaps only a few times an hour."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"To meet this demand for information as it happens, a few 'real-time' applications are now available, but at the moment most are aimed at aggregating details from social networking and bookmarking sites such as Facebook and Digg. The major search engines are now working to incorporate content as it is created, and there are already a few examples, such as Notify.me and OneRiot. Twitter's own search function also provides realtime results."}]},{"head":"Straight answers","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Developers of search engine technology are also working to make their products understand 'natural language' . At present, most search engines only produce lists of websites based on keywords but they cannot deliver a specific answer to a question as they are unable to understand the complexities of human language. The idea is to get search engines to understand the true intention of the search."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Wolfram Alpha, however, does go one step further and tries to provide a direct answer. Strictly speaking, Wolfram Alpha isn't a search engine but a computational knowledge engine. The difference is clear from the results it produces. Type in 'mobile phones Africa' and it provides statistics, graphs and a map showing the distribution of mobile phones throughout the continent."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Other recently launched search engines that try to understand natural language are Bing and Kosmix. Many of these applications use semantic technology to link user requests to the most relevant sites. There are several different types of semantic web technology to make this possible, but most of them work by defining and indexing information on the web so that similar content can be linked and made available to users."}]},{"head":"Getting into semantics","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"One example of a semantic web application is Zemanta, which can be installed as an add-on in a regular browser. When the user is writing a blog post or even an email, Zemanta will try to understand the words as they are being typed and suggest relevant videos, photos, keyword tags and links."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"But all these new developments are useless if there is no access to the internet. Connectivity remains a major problem for millions of people in ACP countries. But the technology to deliver the internet is developing just as quickly as internet technology. The prices of hardware, including mobile phones and laptop computers, are falling steadily. And with the many enthusiasts committed to developing innovative solutions to bring ICTs to rural communities, it is easy to be optimistic. It might not be too long before any smallholder farmer is able to contribute to and benefit from this growing web of collective intelligence. ■ XInhUA/phoToShoT/Anp "}]},{"head":"Cloud computing","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Update ron gILIng / LInEAIr","index":44,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Digital opportunities for change","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Since 2000, the Women of Uganda network has been developed a wide range of initiatives to improve access to ICTs for women farmers and entrepreneurs. R esearch has shown that women in Uganda are three times more likely than men to be aware of and to use information and communication technologies (ICTs). Women are also the main customers of Uganda's many privately owned computer training centres, often as a means to improve their secretarial training -a stereotypical role for a woman -by learning elementary computer skills."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"But few women own or manage any of these private ICT business centres. Although support from the country's Rural Communications Development Fund has contributed to the spread of ICT facilities and services to less privileged areas, far fewer women have benefited from these projects than their male counterparts. If women continue to be excluded from the benefits of ICTs, including being able to use them to improve their social and economic status, then they are likely to become further marginalized as members of their communities."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"In May 2000, several women's organizations in Uganda came together to set up the Women of Uganda Network (WOUGNET), a nongovernmental organization to promote the use of ICTs among women. WOUGNET's vision is of a society in which women use technology to share information and to tackle local and national issues collectively in an effort to promote sustainable development. At present, the organization has more than 90 women's organizations as members, the majority of which are in urban areas and districts where there is some internet access."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"One of WOUGNET's first activities was to develop a web design programme for members so that they could create their own websites and promote their work on the internet. The websites would be a useful tool for making contacts, forging partnerships, fundraising, and marketing services and crafts. Initially, WOUGNET's own website provided the core of internet activity for members, and it still contains the profiles of many local women's organizations plus information on various related topics and projects in Uganda and around the world."}]},{"head":"Debate","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Over the years, the website has continued to develop and, using web 2.0 tools, has become an interactive site for members to share information on many subjects, including ICTs for development, gender and human rights. The site also contains details of initiatives launched by the government and other agencies, as well as relevant news stories. WOUGNET now hosts a number of other websites, including the Kubere Information Centre website and the Women in Business Portal, which are becoming increasingly important sources of information on agricultural production and entrepreneurship, respectively. The organization's electronic mailing lists provide a useful forum for discussing issues related to the use of ICTs for development, gender and human rights. Messages posted on the lists reach a wide audience and often stimulate debates among policy makers, parliamentarians, NGO staff and donor agencies. Some lists, such as such as those of the Women's Movement and the task force of the African Protocol on Women's Rights, are administered by network members, and the issues raised there are often used in advocacy campaigns."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Through the Citizen Journalism in Africa project and other training courses, WOUGNET has equipped some of its members with the skills to use web 2.0 social networking tools such as blogs, wikis, RSS feeds, social bookmarking and media sharing sites."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Other courses cover how to write articles, develop audio and video productions and to publish online. This initiative is aimed at encouraging civil society organizations to use and interaction with a variety of media in order to help them maximize their communication strategies and get more from their research."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Janet C Achora ([email protected]), senior information officer, and Berna Ngolobe ([email protected]) at Women of Uganda Network (www.wougnet.org)"}]},{"head":"Related resources","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Participants of the WOUGNET Lango forum on e-Agriculture."}]},{"head":"Remote","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"In an effort to reach out to members and individuals easily and quickly, WOUGNET uses SMS (short message service). The organization has experimented with a number of different methods of sending messages to large groups of people, including BulkSMS, a web-based application for distributing SMS messages to a group of local subscribers, and FrontlineSMS, a package that can be used to receive and send SMS messages to many mobile phones from a single computer."},{"index":2,"size":230,"text":"With the Enhancing Access to Agricultural Information project, which targets rural women farmers in northern Uganda, the organization uses SMS in combination with a number of other technologies and media including a website, community radio broadcasts and an information centre, the Kubere Information Centre. The project uses this range of technologies to deliver agricultural information to women farmers to help them improve productivity, as well as to provide regular, up-to-date market data to enable them to reach new buyers and thus increase their incomes. SMS messages generated by the participating organizations are translated into the local language, Luo, and sent to the farmers. The women are also able to use the SMS services to contact agricultural experts for advice and to share details about other available information sources. Not all of WOUGNET's activities are web-based. The organization has expanded its efforts to include women who have no access to the internet. In partnership with the Uganda Communications Commission, for example, they now hold regional ICT seminars for girls in eastern, northern and western Uganda. They have also recently received support from the NEPAD-Spanish fund for the empowerment of women, to support and improve the incomes of women entrepreneurs in three districts of Uganda -Ibanda, Apac and Mukono. And WOUGNET is now a regional coordinating office for the Dimitra project, which helps people in rural communities to develop their ICT skills."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"These are just a few examples of how WOUGNET works to improve access to, and the use of, ICTs while also helping to develop and advocate for workable ICT policies. Since its inception in 2001, and that first article in ICT Update in 2002, the organization has grown, and is now implementing a three-year strategy to ensure that it can continue to support women and women's organizations as they apply and further innovate with all the ICT tools available to them. "}]},{"head":"Aviary Phoenix","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Aviary offers a full range of image editing tools, and allows you to make screenshots. Type http://aviary.com before a web address (e.g. http://aviary.com/http:// ictupdate.cta.int) and the page loads with a selection of Aviary's editing tools so that you can select and save a photo of the site. http://aviary.com"}]},{"head":"JayCut","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A video editing application that is still in an early beta stage of development, JayCut offers unlimited data upload with comprehensive, easy to use editing tools. You can also save completed videos directly to Facebook and MySpace. http://jaycut.com"}]},{"head":"A word of caution","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":409,"text":"While web-based applications have their advantages there are also some important disadvantages. They can, for example, take up more bandwidth than a desktop program. It is often quicker, and less expensive, to download your emails using a program like Thunderbird, rather than accessing them via Gmail or Yahoo Mail. But the most obvious drawback is that if your data is stored online you will not be able to access it when offline. You may have a reliable internet service provider who offers a fast broadband connection 24 hours a day, but even the most dependable services can break down from time to time. Similarly, even if you have no problem with your internet connection, but the company storing your data may have maintenance or server problems, and could be temporarily or even permanently offline. This has already happened with the social bookmarking sites Furl and ma. gnolia. Furl offered users up to 5 GB of storage space, but many of them lost their data when the company was taken over by a rival, and a data corruption problem in 2009 meant that many users lost files. ■ hVW JonES / ALAmy serving the public at large and the education sector. That raises two problems. First, these devices tend to wear out quickly or become obsolete. Second, there is the question of how to dispose of the worn out devices, which we are not really in a position to do. Given the current world crises (in food, oil supplies, etc.) and the instability in many ACP countries, the priorities are still health, education and agriculture, much more than advanced technology. In spite of all that, a great deal of effort is being made in to improve the situation, and hopes are high. In all our countries, access to the internet is becoming increasingly desirable, and almost everybody now has a mobile phone. Does this give rural people access to more information, or is it just that they have more ways of accessing the same information? ➜ They do have access to more information. In Senegal, the Ministry of Telecommunications and Information Technology has opened 'community multimedia centres' in rural areas. These centres act as a kind of rural cybercafé, where people can access national and international news and also listen to community radio stations which only broadcast local news. These are extra media resources, in addition to the traditional sources of radio and television, which are also available, of course."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"How can farmers be sure they are getting good, reliable information? ➜ I don't think there's much we can do about this. It's a problem of global governance of the internet, and that calls for global solutions. Whether you live in town or in the country, the solutions must be the same for everyone, nobody must be hurt or be given special advantage."}]},{"head":"What factors are limiting the expansion of rural ICT programmes?","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"➜ First of all, the lack of access to sufficient bandwidth. There's no point having the internet if it takes ages to download anything! Some projects do raise this issue, such as the O3B consortium which, as its name indicates, is aiming to connect the 'other 3 billion' by bypassing the usual access providers."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"But the question which I think is more fundamental is the impact of ICTs on sustainable management in our countries. I think the farming world will only have a future if it can strike the right balance between the technical decisions farmers make and the management of energy supply. ■ Technology (ADIE). As for the farming community in particular, we know how vital it is for farmers' to have market information."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"With 'time-to-market' (T2M), an innovative system developed by Manobi, farmers can get the prices of produce from the markets in Dakar sent directly to their mobile phones. Manobi agents gather and post the prices. Any middleman who goes to the countryside for supplies for the markets will now be dealing with a farmer who has up-to-date information and is in a strong position to negotiate."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"If producers feel they are being cheated, they can always take their produce to the market themselves. This system, which can be directly accessed by farmers, enables them to increase their earnings. Unfortunately, it is limited to certain geographical areas and to two modes of production only: market gardening and fisheries. The introduction of ICTs affects other sectors too: education, registration of births and deaths, land measurement, but above all health and good governance, and we have a key partnership in these two areas with UNDP, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and Dakar University."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"In the past ten years there has been a rapid expansion in the use of mobile phones. Why have they proved such a success in Africa? ➜ Because they meet people's needs so well. Africans don't write, they talk. And they like to communicate. And mobiles offer a way of solving various economic problems such as travel and transport, information and trade. So much is done on mobiles these days. This is why Africa has such a high rate of market penetration for mobiles, at 50% (the same as all the European countries together). I think it will be up to 80% in two or three years. "}]},{"head":"Finding the right balance","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"LAUrEnT gESLIn / hh"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The Pacific Animal Health Information System (PAHIS), a database and decision support system issued on CD-ROM for veterinary officers across the Pacific region. "},{"text":"▲▼ Issue 10: Rural connectivity, 2003There are tremendous opportunities for the development of sustainable community access in Africa. Governments have started to draft new, nationwide telecentre programmes to be implemented in partnership with the private sector, or at least using business-oriented models.Gaston Zongo, formerly of Acacia Initiative▼ Issue 27: Participatory GIS, 2005 With participatory geographic information systems (PGIS), local people can provide their own inputs and contextual information, so that local issues can be discussed and fed into national debates, which in turn may compel public officials to take action. Peter Kwaku Kyem, professor of geography ▼ Issue 36: Financial services, 2007 Pessimists who claim that ICTs will only increase the divergence between rich and poor countries are misinformed. While ICTs should not be seen as a panacea for all development challenges, there is clear evidence that support for this sector produces tangible dividends. Adam Rogers, UN Capital Development Fund Issue 18: Mainstreaming ICTs, 2004 Terrestrial telecom infrastructures provide the cheapest means to connect to the internet. But, it will take at least another 10 years before they are in place in the rural areas of Africa. Wireless internet via satellite is the most promising option to meet immediate needs. Mike Jensen, ICT for development advisor ▼ Issue 20: Agrometeorology, 2004ICTs can be very useful and we must make maximum use of them, but when it comes to the provision of agricultural services to poor and marginal producers, indigenous technologies and local innovations must be our starting point as they represent the existing limitations best. Dr Kees Stigter, agrometeorologist ▼ Issue 39: Web 2.0, 2007 There's so much good stuff out there. Web 2.0 has remarkable tools and they're only going to get better, but I think it takes the NGOs and people who understand the challenges of rural development to get their hands on this stuff and shape it according to their needs and interests. Andrew Keen, author and broadcaster "},{"text":"From your own experience, have you seen how ICTs can improve farmers' livelihoods? ➜ ICTs are not yet in general use in Senegal. We aim to get to that stage by the end of 2010, through the National Local Development Programme (PNDL) and a range of partnerships supported by the State Agency for Information "},{"text":" Every day, the devices get smaller, less expensive and more easily available. How has this pheomenon affected the ICT policies of African governments? ➜ It has had very little effect, because the devices are still relatively expensive. What we are seeing instead is an increasing tendency to use second-hand devices, which are arriving in containers and are used to equip public offices, as well as Q&A Tidiane Seck ([email protected]) is the director of the State Agency for Information Technology (www.adie.sn) in Dakar, Senegal. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"praekeltfoundation.org Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research Manobi Development Foundation Manobi Development Foundation Promotes the use of ICTs for rural Promotes the use of ICTs for rural economic development. economic development. ➜ www.manobidevelopmentfoundation. ➜ www.manobidevelopmentfoundation. org org Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange (KACE) (KACE) Collects and delivers agricultural market Collects and delivers agricultural market information for Kenyan farmers. information for Kenyan farmers. ➜ www.kacekenya.com ➜ www.kacekenya.com DrumNet DrumNet A project of Pride Africa providing business A project of Pride Africa providing business support services to smallholder farmers. support services to smallholder farmers. An independent Dutch research and An independent Dutch research and development institute. development institute. ➜ www.tno.nl ➜ www.tno.nl National Farmer Information Service National Farmer Information Service Provides agricultural and livestock Provides agricultural and livestock information to Kenyan farmers via the information to Kenyan farmers via the phone and on the web. phone and on the web. ➜ www.nafis.go.ke ➜ www.nafis.go.ke Village Telco project Village Telco project A broad partnership of experts working to A broad partnership of experts working to develop a village telecommunications develop a village telecommunications system. system. ➜ http://villagetelco.org ➜ http://villagetelco.org Fantsuam Foundation Fantsuam Foundation Delivers microfinance and ICT services in Delivers microfinance and ICT services in rural Nigeria. rural Nigeria. "},{"text":"wolframalpha.com Real time search Notify.me ➜ www.notify.me OneRiot ➜ www.oneriot.com Twitter ➜ www.twitter.com RSS feed readers Google Reader ➜ www.google.com/reader FeedReader ➜ www.feedreader.com Semantic Zemanta ➜ www.zemanata.com Faviki ➜ www.faviki.com see TechTip on page 23 for examples of collaborative network applications. Google Gears Google Gears ➜ http://gears.google.com ➜ http://gears.google.com Adobe AIR Adobe AIR ➜ www.adobe.com/products/air ➜ www.adobe.com/products/air Microsoft Silverlight Microsoft Silverlight ➜ www.silverlight.net ➜ www.silverlight.net Moonlight Moonlight ➜ www.go-mono.com/moonlight ➜ www.go-mono.com/moonlight Zoho Zoho ➜ ww.zoho.com ➜ ww.zoho.com Search engines Search engines Bing Bing ➜ www.bing.com ➜ www.bing.com Kosmix Kosmix ➜ www.kosmix.com ➜ www.kosmix.com Ask.com Ask.com ➜ www.Ask.com ➜ www.Ask.com Hakia Hakia ➜ www.Hakia.com ➜ www.Hakia.com TrueKnowledge TrueKnowledge ➜ www.TrueKnowledge.com ➜ www.TrueKnowledge.com Wolfram|Alpha Wolfram|Alpha ➜ www. ➜ www. "},{"text":"■ Read the ICT Update article in issue 8, October 2002 http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/(issue)/8 bulkSMS A web application to send and receive one or more SMS messages over the internet. ➜ www.bulksms.com ➜ www.bulksms.com FrontlineSMS FrontlineSMS A low-cost method of sending multiple A low-cost method of sending multiple SMS messages to mobile phones from a SMS messages to mobile phones from a single computer. single computer. ➜ www.frontlinesms.com ➜ www.frontlinesms.com How to use FrontlineSMS How to use FrontlineSMS An ICT Update TechTip on how to install An ICT Update TechTip on how to install and use FrontlineSMS. and use FrontlineSMS. ➜ http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Regulars/ ➜ http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Regulars/ Techtip/(issue)/47 Techtip/(issue)/47 "},{"text":"internationalwomensday.com 16 Days of Activism against Gender- Based Violence "},{"text":"wib.or.ug Kubere Information Centre Kubere Information Centre KIC is a resource centre based in the town KIC is a resource centre based in the town of Apac in northern Uganda which uses a of Apac in northern Uganda which uses a variety of ICTs to provide agricultural variety of ICTs to provide agricultural information to women farmers. information to women farmers. ➜ http://kic.wougnet.org/new ➜ http://kic.wougnet.org/new Citizen Journalism in Africa Citizen Journalism in Africa CJA helps civil society organizations to CJA helps civil society organizations to use online and offline sources to publish use online and offline sources to publish stories, lobby decision makers, network stories, lobby decision makers, network and share knowledge. and share knowledge. ➜ www.citizenjournalismafrica.org ➜ www.citizenjournalismafrica.org Dimitra project Dimitra project This project uses ICTs to develop the skills This project uses ICTs to develop the skills of people in rural communities, of people in rural communities, particularly women, to improve food particularly women, to improve food security and sustainable development. security and sustainable development. "},{"text":"en/ TechTip Computing in the cloud There are many advantages to using applications hosted on the internet, in the 'cloud', rather than traditional software programs. They are available anywhere there is an internet connection, they are often free, and they are accessed only when needed. Organizations with limited resources, or limited hard disk space, no longer need to buy and install software that will be seldom used. Since these applications are available through a web browser, they work regardless of the computer's operating system, and many can be used offline. Invite others to view and edit the document either while you are working on it, or from the homepage, which gives an overview of all your files. Click 'share' and add the email addresses of the people with whom you want to collaborate. You can also set the 'permissions' to allow people to edit, view, or invite others to collaborate. It is possible to work offline with Google Docs when using the Chrome browser or, if you use another browser, click 'offline' in the top right-hand corner of the screen. This will install the Google Gears application plus all the documents onto your computer. Any changes you make offline are synchronized when you reconnect to the internet. http://docs.google.com Splashup With this free application you can edit, resize, enhance and add effects to digital photos. There is no need to registersimply click the button 'jump right in' on the homepage. Go to 'file' to 'open' an image on your computer; start a 'new' file; or 'capture' a photo directly from a webcam. Sharing: Registering with Splashup lets you open and save photos to/from Flickr, Facebook, Picasa, and other photo-sharing sites, or from any web address, or store them on your Splashup account. Offline: By downloading Splashup Light, a small program with fewer editing options, you can also work on your photos offline. addresses of anyone you would like to write blog posts while offline, ready to be addresses of anyone you would like towrite blog posts while offline, ready to be share the file with. They will then be sent published when you reconnect to the share the file with. They will then be sentpublished when you reconnect to the an email with instructions on how to internet. an email with instructions on how tointernet. access your file. Your colleagues can edit www.maneno.org access your file. Your colleagues can editwww.maneno.org online any of the text documents you online any of the text documents you create in Swirrl and can communicate via Image editing create in Swirrl and can communicate viaImage editing 'announcements' . 'announcements' . Offline: Documents created in Swirrl can There are several online photo and video Offline: Documents created in Swirrl canThere are several online photo and video be downloaded, but any uploaded files editing applications, but to upload and be downloaded, but any uploaded filesediting applications, but to upload and can be edited only after downloading work on the material you will need a fast can be edited only after downloadingwork on the material you will need a fast them. broadband connection. them.broadband connection. Zoho Docs Zoho Docs For word processing, spreadsheets and For word processing, spreadsheets and presentations presentations You can sign up for a free Zoho Docs You can sign up for a free Zoho Docs account, which has a 1 gigabyte data limit account, which has a 1 gigabyte data limit (more space is available for US$3 per (more space is available for US$3 per month). month). Sharing: Other people sharing your Sharing: Other people sharing your account must also sign up for a Zoho account must also sign up for a Zoho account, but the process is very simple. account, but the process is very simple. One advantage of Zoho is that several One advantage of Zoho is that several people can edit a document at the same people can edit a document at the same time (these sections are labelled 'read time (these sections are labelled 'read only' while they are working). You can only' while they are working). You can also chat in real time with other members also chat in real time with other members who are logged on. who are logged on. Zoho Docs works in a very similar way to Zoho Docs works in a very similar way to Google Docs; click 'open' or 'new' to open Google Docs; click 'open' or 'new' to open a document, but then click 'edit' to start a document, but then click 'edit' to start working on it and save to the same working on it and save to the same formats and Google Docs. formats and Google Docs. Offline: The offline mode is available only Offline: The offline mode is available only for Zoho writer, the word processing for Zoho writer, the word processing application, which also makes use of application, which also makes use of Google Gears, which you have to Google Gears, which you have to download and install on your computer. download and install on your computer. www.zoho.com www.zoho.com Cloud computing enables anyone to Cloud computing enables anyone to contribute and share information. You can contribute and share information. You can invite colleagues and partner invite colleagues and partner organizations to collaborate in compiling organizations to collaborate in compiling and editing documents. In some cases, a and editing documents. In some cases, a group of people can work on a document group of people can work on a document at the same time while the application at the same time while the application synchronizes the data across all the users' synchronizes the data across all the users' computers. computers. "}],"sieverID":"86752ba3-aa24-47b1-a2f8-c3ae57f0fa02","abstract":"In many ACp countries, mobile banking services have expanded rapidly, giving millions of people in rural areas access to financial services without the need to ever visit a bank."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0dabf98767c35156e93d81797596f6e8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/985de258-8402-4987-83eb-8e9f5e5198fa/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"A production system map for Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Rationale","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Globally, agriculture provides a livelihood for more people than any other industry (FAOSTAT, 2008). Agriculture also has a key role in poverty reduction: most of the world's poor live in rural areas and are largely dependent on agriculture, while food prices determine the cost-of-living for both rural and urban poor (OECD, 2006). Together with the fresh focus on agricultural development triggered by amongst others the latest world development report (WB 2009), the millennium development goals of reducing hunger and poverty, and many regional initiatives such as NEPAD's Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (NEPAD, 2007), this emphasizes the need for higher investments in agricultural research and development, and more specifically in the developing world."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"However, many forms of agricultural production co-exist in developing countries. It is thereby crucial to understand that the characteristics and availability of the environmental and socioeconomic assets that agricultural production is depending upon have an important spatial and temporal dimension. Some geographical areas are endowed with agro-ecological conditions suitable for rain-fed cropping, while in others agricultural activities are limited to irrigation or grazing. Some regions have a well-developed road infrastructure, whilst others suffer from a lack of access to services and markets. Exposure to risk, institutional and policy environments and conventional livelihood strategies all vary over space and time. It is hence very difficult to design intervention options that properly address all these different circumstances (Notenbaert, 2009). Agricultural research for development should, instead, aim at delivering institutional and technological as well as policy strategies that are well targeted to the heterogeneous landscapes and diverse biophysical and socioeconomic contexts the agricultural production is operating in (Pender et al., 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"Development strategies therefore call for approaches that identify groups of producers with broadly similar production strategies, constraints and investment opportunities. Somda et al. (2005), amongst others, propose a characterization of farming systems that can typify similar groups for the purpose of identifying opportunities and constraints for development. Notwithstanding the significant heterogeneity of agricultural production systems, a farming system can be defined as a group of farms with a similar structure, such that individual farms are likely to share relatively similar production functions. A farm is usually the unit making decisions on the allocation of resources. The advantage of classifying farming systems is that, as a group of farms they are assumed to be operating in a similar environment. This provides a useful scheme for the description and analysis of crop and livestock development opportunities and constraints (Otte and Chilonda, 2002). It therefore forms a useful framework for the spatial targeting of development interventions."},{"index":4,"size":264,"text":"For technologies coming out of agricultural research to have real impact on poverty alleviation and development, they must have applicability that has been well documented and goes beyond the local level. Thus, there is -and always has been-a need for research to demonstrate effectiveness and wide applicability (Thornton et al., 2006). The Paris declaration marked a very clear focus on evidence-based policy making, a process that helps planners make betterinformed decisions by putting the best available evidence at the centre of the policy process (OECD, 2006). This evidence includes information produced by integrated monitoring and evaluation systems, academic research, historical experience and \"good practice\" information. The farming systems classification can form the spatial framework within which to organize research and the monitoring and evaluation of interventions. Random, clustered, or stratified sampling techniques can be used to come up with sampling points or survey areas. Case study sites can be selected within or across farming systems (Notenbaert, 2009). System-specific baseline information can be collected, trends monitored, models parameterized for the different farming systems of interest and impacts assessed, both ex-ante and ex-post. This process is, for example, demonstrated in the ex ante impact assessment of dual-purpose cowpea by Kristjanson et al. (2002). This kind of spatial sampling framework is a precondition for any out-scaling effort. Ideally, the moving of technologies to other places requires knowledge about bio-physical and socioeconomic environments. To that effect, the farming systems approach, i.e. a clustering of farms and farmers into farming systems for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate, has been widely applied (Dixon et al, 2001)."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"For the investments in agriculture to have a sustainable impact on food security and poverty, decisions have to be made with respect for the small-holder and the natural environment. Nonsustainable use of the natural capital reduces the long term agricultural productivity. Land degradation, erosion, unsustainable water use and equitable sharing of resources are all important issues. The links between agricultural growth and environmental outcomes depend very much on the type of farming system and a country's economic context. For example, the environmental consequences of intensive farming in irrigated areas are quite different from those of extensive farming in low-potential rainfed areas (Hazell and Wood, 2008)."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"In short, a farming systems classification offers a spatial framework for designing and implementing pro-active, more focused and sustainable development and agricultural policies. And ideally, should be amenable to the modeling of different future scenarios."}]},{"head":"Existing classification systems","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":367,"text":"The classification of agricultural systems has a long history. The coexistence of many different production systems has been described at a global scale before (e.g. Dixon et al., 2001;Seré and Steinfeld, 1996;Pender, 2004). Dixon et al. (2001) defined commodity-specific regions and assessed their potential for agricultural growth and poverty reduction and the relevance of 5 different strategy choices (intensification, expansion, increased farm-size, increased off-farm income and exit from agriculture). Seré and Steinfeld (1996) looked at the farming system concept with a \"livestock lens\" and developed a global livestock production system classification scheme that integrates the notions of crop and livestock interactions with agro-ecological zones. Livestock production systems may be classified according to a number of criteria, the main ones being integration with crop production, the animal-land relationship, AEZ, intensity of production, and type of product. Other criteria include size and value of livestock holdings, distance and duration of animal movement, types and breeds of animals kept, market integration of the livestock enterprise, economic specialization and household dependence on livestock. For detailed reviews of the different criteria that have been used, see Jahnke (1982), Wilson (1986), Mortimore (1991) and Seré and Steinfeld (1996). In principle, there can be as many classifications as there are possible combinations of criteria. Seré and Steinfeld (1996) developed a global livestock production systems classification building on this notion of livestock-crop integration and the agro-ecological zone concept used by FAO. In this classification livestock systems fall into four categories: landless systems (intensive industrial systems), livestock only/rangeland-based systems (areas with minimal cropping), mixed rainfed systems (mostly rainfed cropping combined with livestock) and mixed irrigated systems (a significant proportion of cropping uses irrigation and is interspersed with livestock). All but the landless systems are further disaggregated by agro-ecological potential as defined by the length of growing period, resulting in 11 categories in all. A method was devised to map this classification in the developing world based on LGP, land cover, and human population density (Thornton et al. 2002;Kruska et al., 2003). Because climatic and population variables are used as input data, this has enabled the classification to be re-evaluated in response to different scenarios of climate and population change in the future (Thornton et al. 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"The original systems map has since been updated in various ways. As in any GIS application the key to success is the availability of accurate input data. Most of the updating of the systems maps has therefore been associated with the use of new datasets. Table 1 indicates the data sources that were used. The flow chart in figure 1 shows the process of deriving the different production systems. At the basis of the methodology is the differentiation between mixed systems and livestock grasslandbased systems. This differentiation was done on the basis of land cover products. Largely as a result of the problems of under-estimation of cropland extent, the mapping scheme assigns part of the rangelands to the mixed system category. The rangelands are divided into \"cultivatable\" and \"non-cultivatable\", on the basis of a length of growing period threshold of 60 days. All cultivatable rangelands with a population density greater than 20 people per square km are added to the cropland category, to define the mixed production system category. The remaining area under the rangelands category defines the rangelands/livestock-only category."}]},{"head":"Figure 1: Flow chart of the process used in establishment of the production systems (adapted from Thornton et al. 2002)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"."}]},{"head":"Inclusion of crop-specificity and intensification in the existing classification","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The classification system proposed by Seré et al. (1996) and expanded by Thornton et al. (2002) and Kruska et al. (2003) is amenable in identifying priorities at a regional (e.g. South Asia, West Africa, etc.) and country (e.g. India, Nigeria, etc.) level. This classification has been used previously in poverty and vulnerability analyses (Thornton et al. 2002(Thornton et al. , 2006)), for prioritising animal health interventions (Perry et al. 2003) and for studying systems changes in West Africa (Kristjanson et al. 2004). In addition to that it has been used for disaggregating methane emissions by production system, as they all have different land areas, population densities, number of animals, diets for ruminants and may evolve at different rates (Herrero et al 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"However, an important shortcoming of this typology is that it does not take into account the dominant crops in the various locations as key determinants of mixed farming systems. This shortcoming limits greatly its applicability for development purposes, as it does not offer insights to potential interventions that could improve the livelihoods of livestock keepers. This limitation becomes even more crucial as agricultural intensification occurs, because livestock will increasingly depend on crop residues and less on grazing on range, fallows and marginal areas (McIntire et al 1992, Powell andWilliams 1995;Smith et al. 1997;Naazie and Smith 1997). The inclusion of crop indicators not only enables an explicit link to feed production, it also allows linkages to agricultural water interventions, facilitates estimation of the total value of agricultural production and others. It is envisioned that a more crop-sensitive system classification can form a common framework across the different crop-based CG-centres. More details about the inclusion of crops in Sere and Steinfeld is provided in paragraph 1 below."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"In addition to that, the Seré and Steinfeld livestock system classification has nothing much to say about the location of intensive and/or industrial agricultural systems. This distinction is, however, very important for several reasons: these are systems that may be expected to undergo rapid technological change, exhibit rapid uptake of technology, or be particularly susceptible to the diseases of intensification and/or the emergence of new disease risks, and so on. Parallel to the inclusion of crops, an attempt was made to include a simple intensification proxy into the Sere and Steinfeld classification. Paragraph 2 below describes how this was done."}]},{"head":"Inclusion of crops in Seré and Steinfeld","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"In order to disaggregate the mixed systems category, we integrated global crop data layers with the Seré and Steinfeld system classification. This work was originally done for identifying systems types and feed interventions across the regions where CG centres could jointly work (Herrero et al 2007), although many other applications have spun from it. We used the Spatial Allocation Model (SPAM) dataset (You et al., 2009), which shows the global distribution of the following major crops: rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, millet, barley, groundnuts, cowpeas, soybeans, beans, cassava, potato, sweet potato, coffee, sugar cane, cotton, bananas, cocoa, and oil palm. The combination of both layers allowed us to develop a new hierarchical systems classification that gives a clear indication of the main crops grown. In addition it differentiates between pastoral and agro-pastoral as well as between urban and peri-urban areas."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The SPAM methodology uses a cross-entropy approach to make plausible allocations of crop production statistics for geopolitical units (country, or state) into individual pixels, through judicious interpretation of all accessible evidence such as farming systems, satellite imagery, crop biophysical suitability, crop price, local market access and prior knowledge. For a detailed description of the data sources and the spatial allocation methodology refer to You et al. (2009)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"The resulting dataset contains 5x5 minutes (about 9x9 km2 on the equator) crop distribution maps of 20 major crops, covering over 90% of the world crop land. In addition to these area distribution maps, the dataset includes production and harvested area distribution maps as well as the sub-crop type maps split by production input levels (irrigated, high-input rainfed, low-input rainfed and subsistence). To the best of our knowledge these are the finest resolution global crop distribution maps for the year 2000 available in the public domain."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"The combination of the original Seré and Steinfeld classification, as in Kruska et al 2003, with the SPAM crop distribution layers allowed us to develop a new hierarchical systems classification that greatly improves the amount of information of the mixed categories. It was decided not to include any indication of agro-ecology. The number of classes in a map should be possible to deal with by the reader. Maps with more than 9 classes are too complex for most users (Olson, 1981). In any classification system, there is therefore the trade-off between clarity, readability and the variety of criteria to include. In some cases it is important to know which specific crops are grown, while in others it are the bio-physical conditions that are of interest. It would be too crowded to include crops, intensification and AEZs all in one classification scheme. In addition to the crop differentiation, the proposed classification distinguishes between pastoral and agropastoral as well as between urban and peri-urban areas."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"The first level remains unchanged from Kruska et al's methodology (2003) and splits the land area in rangeland-based systems, mixed rainfed, mixed irrigated, urban and other systems. A second level provides sub-divisions for four of these categories. A third and final level provides information about the major crops in the mixed systems only. These different levels are illustrated in table 3."},{"index":6,"size":277,"text":"The two mixed classes -mixed rainfed and mixed irrigated-were subdivided according to the major crop groups present. The SPAM crop data provides information about harvested area of 20 commodities on a ha/pixel basis: yam, rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, millet, barley, groundnuts, cowpeas, soybeans, beans, cassava, potato, sweet potato, coffee, sugar cane, cotton, bananas, cocoa, and oil palm. As the pixel sizes vary with longitudes, we converted these harvested areas to crop densities, expressed in ha/km2. We then classified these 20 crops into 4 crop functional groups: cereals, legumes, root crops and tree crops. Total crop group densities (ha/km2) were calculated by adding up the densities of the constituting crops. The grouping of crops was done to simplify the classification. In a third hierarchical level details about the actual crops are incorporated. All commodities were added up to calculate a total crop density per pixel. For each of the crop groups their importance as compared to the other crop groups was calculated and expressed as a percentage of total crop densities taken up by this specific crop group. This allowed us to establish which of the four crop groups covered most of the cropped area. This major crop group was then used as the crop identifier in the new system classification. In case this crop group adds up to more than 60% of the cropped area, it dominates and is directly referred to, otherwise it is referred to as e.g. cereals+. The data behind the map in figure 5 contains the details of exactly what other crop groups had to be included to reach the 60% threshold but this information was not included on the map for clarity."},{"index":7,"size":137,"text":"Further detail was developed within the crop group classes. For example, for each of the main crop groups, the main crop per crop group was identified. Parallel to what was done for the crop groups, also here differentiation was also made between more or less \"pure\" crop systems. For example, it was established if the major crop constitutes more or less than 70% of the agriculture within its crop group. Apart from this sub-division of the mixed systems on the basis of crop groups, also sub-division on the basis of crop types and crop categories was done to identify crops of different economic or food security importance and to identify those that could be used as feed resources (Herrero et al 2007) (see table 4). The groupings of crops are different, the methodology however exactly the same. "}]},{"head":"* A second version of crop types was also constructed, the difference being the inclusion of groundnuts with the food crops instead of cash crops","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The rangeland-based systems are subdivided into purely livestock based or pastoral system and agro-pastoral systems where livestock keeping is to a certain extent mixed with crop agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"The SPAM model assigns crops to pixels that are classified as \"Livestock only\". Mostly these have less than 10% of the total available land cropped. These areas are now reclassified as agro-pastoral."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The GRUMP (Global Rural Urban Mapping Project) dataset was used to expand the \"urban\" areas in the S&S classification. One of the GRUMP layers contains the extent of all urban areas with a population of more then 5000 people. The extent of urban settlements with a population of more than 100,000 was selected and classified as peri-urban, whereas the actual build-up areas showing up on the GLC (Global Land Cover) satellite imagery remained classified as urban. "}]},{"head":"Inclusion of intensification","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"To come up with the mixed \"intensifying\" systems, we added in two indicators, one to do with relatively high agricultural potential, and another related to market access, on the basis that mixed systems that are in high-potential areas that are close to large population centres and markets, will have a high potential of intensifying production. Areas with high agricultural potential were defined as being equipped with irrigation (as in S&S) or having a length of growing period of more than 180 days per year (according to the LGP layers of Jones and Thornton). Good market access was defined using the time required to travel to the nearest city with a population of 250,000 or more. We applied a threshold of 8 hours. We used the travel time to Urban Centres with a population of more than 250,000 inhabitants (JRC, 2006). The distinction between extensive and intensive systems presented here is looking at potential intensification. This definition is used for the exploration of impacts of drivers of change on agro-ecosystems services and human wellbeing to 2030 funded by the CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Programme (Herrero et al 2009)."}]},{"head":"Fig. 5: differentiation extensive-intensive","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"The system classification schemes presented in this paper can be used as a sampling framework for data collection and monitoring and evaluation efforts. In addition they can spatially stratify research and development efforts in a wide array of subject areas, such as pest and diseases, climate change vulnerability and adaptation, nutrient cycling, agricultural productivity, sustainable intensification, and assessment of agro-ecosystem services. Environmental problems associated with agriculture also vary according to their spatial context, ranging from problems associated with the management of modern inputs in intensively farmed areas to problems of deforestation and land degradation in many poor and heavily populated regions with low agricultural potential. In general, the impacts of agricultural production on natural conditions strongly depend on specific local conditions. Changes in water or nutrient cycles for example are related to soil conditions, terrain type and local climate condition (Lotze-Campen et al., 2005). The diets of ruminants vary a lot between different types of livestock systems, enabling the development of system-specific methane emission factors (Herrero et al., 2008). In crop-livestock systems the feed supply is defined to a large extent by the biomass produced by crops that could be available for use as livestock feed (Fernandez et al. 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Estimations of feed surplus and deficit areas and links with potential stocking capacity, can give an indication of current and probable future pressure on the natural resource base. Other potential applications include manure calculations, nutrient cycling and land degradation. In summary, we think that the classification schemes presented here provide adequate detail while at the same time being sufficiently generic to be useful to spatially frame the different research and development challenges encountered in the BFP Nile Basin Project."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"Acceleration of economic, technological, social, and environmental change challenges decision-makers of various kinds to learn at increasing rates, and at the same time, the complexity of the dynamic systems in which we live is growing (Sterman, 2000). In agriculture and international development contexts, there are often significant delays in the development and implementation of technologies and policies, and agriculture-based livelihood systems are in constant and sometimes rapid evolution. In order to make technologies and policies better match the future state of these systems, it is necessary to better understand the likely evolution of agricultural systems (Nicholson, 2007). One of the interesting aspects of the ILRI S&S work is that the systems are defined in terms of population density and length of growing period (LGP), two variables for which future projections exist. This means that we can re-derive the classification using different scenarios for population and"},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"LGP in the future, so that we can make broad-brush assumptions about how the production systems may change in the future. In the longer term it will be important to also incorporate the output of landuse models, projections of crop and market accessibility. As in any GIS application, the key to success is the availability of accurate spatial input data. With the advent of more accurate baselines and better projections of all of the building blocks of the classification schemes, improvements of the production systems classifications and projections according to a variety of scenarios will become possible."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"A farming system classification is not the only dataset required for evidence-based, well targeted and sustainable agricultural development. Agricultural performance both derives from and conditions deeper socio-economic and bio-physical realities."},{"index":6,"size":127,"text":"Factors that distinguish the various trajectories of agricultural development exhibit significant spatial variability, such as differences in farming systems and productive capacity, but also population densities and growth, evolving food demands, infrastructure and market access, as well as the capacity of countries to import food or to invest in agriculture and environmental improvement. Agricultural development strategies must recognize such heterogeneity when devising interventions and investments. Areas exhibiting different combinations of these characteristics are often associated with different management practices and livelihood strategies, and thus overall agricultural performance (Omamo et al., 2006). By matching conditions favoring the successful implementation of a development strategy with a spatially referenced database, it is possible to delineate geographical areas where this specific strategy is likely to have a positive impact (Notenbaert, 2009)."},{"index":7,"size":139,"text":"The best way forward might therefore be to provide a database and user-friendly tool that combines everything in easily accessible format so that users can make their own selection of criteria. ILRI developed such a tool using open-source software. GOBLET (Geographic Overlaying dataBase and query Library for Ex-anTe impact assessment) brings together a considerable amount of spatial data from many sources, and allows the user to overlay these spatial datasets to identify target domains. GOBLET is designed for a broad range of stakeholders that, although they may benefit from GIS processing for better targeting and resource allocation, have little or no GIS expertise to do so (Quiros et al., 2009). The different aspects that go into the production systems classifications, one or more standard classifications, together with other relevant datasets could be packaged and distributed in a similar way."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"Finally, all that is presented in this document is work in progress. It is the result of many years of working on livestock production system classification. It will however be necessary to discuss in detail how to improve the usefulness for non-livestock focused users. Agreement of one standard classification ensuring compatibility across the project, decision on how to include available information on water availability and accessibility, while at the same maintaining clarity and securing the dynamic nature of the classification, are all challenging tasks ahead of the project team. The complementary expertise of the different centres, however, presents a unique opportunity for us to exploit."},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"Washington, oktober 2007."},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"You L., Wood S., Wood-Sichra U. (2009). Generating plausible crop distribution maps for Sub-Saharan Africa using a spatially disaggregated data fusion and optimization approach. Agricultural Systems 99 (2009) 126-140"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 :Fig. 4 : Fig. 2: Indication of the main crop group Fig. 3: The most common crop "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 : Data sources for versions 1 and 3 of the Seré and Steinfeld livestock production systems Data Inputs Original version Latest version Data InputsOriginal versionLatest version USGS Global Land Cover JRC GLC2000 Global Land Cover USGS Global Land CoverJRC GLC2000 Global Land Cover Characterization (1 Km resolution at Characterization (1 Km resolution at Land Use/Cover Equator) (1 Km resolution at Equator) Land Use/CoverEquator)(1 Km resolution at Equator) Length of Growing Period 2000, 2030 Length of Growing Period 2000, 2030 Length of Growing Period 2000, 2050 Length of Growing Period 2000, 2050 Length of Growing for Africa (18.5 Km resolution) Jones (1 Km resolution) (Jones and Length of Growingfor Africa (18.5 Km resolution) Jones(1 Km resolution) (Jones and Period and Thornton Thornton/Worldclim) Periodand ThorntonThornton/Worldclim) Highland/Temperate regions 2000, Highland/Temperate regions 2000, Highland/Temperate regions 2000,Highland/Temperate regions 2000, Highland/Temperate 2050 for Africa (18.5 Km resolution) 2030 (1 Km resolution) (Jones and Highland/Temperate2050 for Africa (18.5 Km resolution)2030 (1 Km resolution) (Jones and Areas Jones and Thornton Thornton/Worldclim) AreasJones and ThorntonThornton/Worldclim) "},{"text":"Table 2 : combination of crops in crop groups CROP GROUPS CROP GROUPS Cereals maize, millet, sorghum, rice, barley, wheat Cerealsmaize, millet, sorghum, rice, barley, wheat Legumes Beans, cow peas, soy beans, groundnuts LegumesBeans, cow peas, soy beans, groundnuts Root crops Cassava, (sweet) potato, yams Root cropsCassava, (sweet) potato, yams Tree crops Cocoa, coffee, cotton, oil palm, banana Tree cropsCocoa, coffee, cotton, oil palm, banana "},{"text":"Table 3 : Overview of the different classification levels Broad Class Crop Group Detail Broad Class Crop Group Detail Broad ClassCrop GroupDetailBroad ClassCrop Group Detail Rangeland Based LG/Pastoral / Mixed Irrigated MI Barley Rangeland Based LG/Pastoral/Mixed Irrigated MIBarley LG/Agro-Pastoral / MI/Cereals Barley+ LG/Agro-Pastoral /MI/CerealsBarley+ Mixed-Rainfed MR / MI/Cereals+ Millet Mixed-Rainfed MR/MI/Cereals+ Millet MR/Cereals Barley Millet+ MR/CerealsBarleyMillet+ MR/Cereals+ Barley+ Maize MR/Cereals+Barley+Maize Millet Maize+ MilletMaize+ Millet+ Rice Millet+Rice Maize Rice+ MaizeRice+ Maize+ Sorghum Maize+Sorghum Rice Sorghum+ RiceSorghum+ Rice+ Sugar Cane Rice+Sugar Cane Sorghum Sugar Cane+ SorghumSugar Cane+ Sorghum+ Wheat Sorghum+Wheat Sugar Cane Wheat+ Sugar CaneWheat+ Sugar Cane+ MI/Treecrops Cocoa Sugar Cane+MI/Treecrops Cocoa Wheat MI/Treecrops+ Cocoa+ WheatMI/Treecrops+ Cocoa+ Wheat+ Coffee Wheat+Coffee MR/Treecrops Cocoa Coffee+ MR/TreecropsCocoaCoffee+ MR/Treecrops+ Cocoa+ Oil Palm MR/Treecrops+Cocoa+Oil Palm Coffee Oil Palm+ CoffeeOil Palm+ "},{"text":"Table 4 : combination of crops in crop types and categories CROP TYPES* CROP TYPES* Cash crops Cocoa, coffee, cotton, oil palm, sugar cane, soybeans, groundnuts Cash cropsCocoa, coffee, cotton, oil palm, sugar cane, soybeans, groundnuts Food crops Banana, maize, millet, sorghum, rice, barley, wheat, potato, sweet potato, yams, Food cropsBanana, maize, millet, sorghum, rice, barley, wheat, potato, sweet potato, yams, cassava, beans, cow peas cassava, beans, cow peas CROP CATEGORIES CROP CATEGORIES Food/Feed crops Banana, cow pea, maize, sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, rice, beans, soybeans, Food/Feed cropsBanana, cow pea, maize, sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, rice, beans, soybeans, groundnuts groundnuts Feed crops Sugar cane Feed cropsSugar cane "}],"sieverID":"b54478ce-c0cf-40a6-b48c-9e179193a683","abstract":""}