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+{"metadata":{"id":"002ba72cb735b9a75d3152cc27087003","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1946/Fish&FoodSecurity%20in%20Africa.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Today, in sub-Saharan Africa, one out of every two people (49%) lives on less than $1 -a day (World Bank 2004a). While in other regions chronic hunger is receding, in sub-Saharan Africa malnutrition is still rising in both absolute and relative terms. More than one third (34%) of the sub-Saharan African population is undernourished (FAO 2003)-an increase of 9 million since the 1996 World Food Summit-with dramatic and sometimes irreversible consequences on the physical, social and economic development of the communities concerned. Between 15 000 and 20 000 African women die each year (41-55 every day) due to severe iron-deficiency anemia. Vitamin A deficiency in children is common across the whole continent, contributing to the deaths of more than half a million African children annually (UNICEF 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Fish, as a source of \"rich food for poor people\", can play an important role in improving Africa's food security and nutritional status; more than 200 million Africans eat fish regularly. Fresh, but more often smoked, dried,"}]},{"head":"Direct Contribution of Fish to Food and Nutrition Security","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Protein and calorie intake FAO estimates that fish provides 22% of the protein intake in sub-Saharan Africa. This share, however, can exceed 50% in the poorest countries (especially where other sources of animal protein are scarce or expensive). In West African coastal countries, for instance, where fish has been a central element in local economies for many centuries, the proportion of dietary protein that comes from fish is extremely high: 47% in Senegal, 62%, in Gambia and 63% in Sierra Leone and Ghana (Table 1). Equally important is the fish's contribution to calorie supply. Where there is a lack of alternative locally produced protein and/or where a preference for fish has been developed and maintained fish can provide up to 180 calories per capita per day."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"or even as powder, fish is a critical source of dietary protein and micronutrients for many isolated communities in rural areas. Fish may also be the sole accessible and/or affordable source of animal protein for poor households in urban or peri-urban areas. Nutritionally, fish is therefore one extremely important direct source of protein and micronutrients for millions of people in Africa. But fish also contribute indirectly to national food self-sufficiency through trade and exports. In equivalent terms, 50% of the low-income food deficit countries' import bill for food was paid in the year 2000 by receipts from fish exports."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"Food insecurity remains one of the most visible dimensions of poverty and is generally the first sign of extreme destitution. \"Food security\" , defined by FAO as \"a condition when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life\" concerns not only food production and distribution but also has social, economic and institutional dimensions. A household achieves nutritional security when it has secure access to food (i.e. food security) coupled with a sanitary environment, adequate health services and knowledgeable care to ensure a healthy life for all household members. Box 1. Food security, nutrition and poverty In Africa, vitamin A deficiency kills half a million children annually."}]},{"head":"Micronutrient suPPly","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"The importance of fish as a crucial element in diets, especially the diets of infants, young children and pregnant women, is now widely recognized. In low-income countries, staples such as rice, wheat, maize and cassava make up the bulk of the food consumed by the people, and they supply the majority of energy and nutrients. However some essential nutrients are not found in these staples, or are found only in small quantities, for example, iron, iodine, zinc, calcium, vitamin A and vitamin B. These nutrients must be supplied by other foods. The fish contribution in the supply of these elements can be particularly important (Table 2) as well as in the supply of fatty acids that are necessary for the development of the brain and body. full-time fishers as part of their remuneration share or their daily catch. These fish are also, even mainly, those big or small ones caught by the youngest son on the edge of the river after school hours, or speared in a seasonal pond by the wife(s) or the daughters during collective fishing festivals, or caught by the men in the floodplain during the flood recession season. For these fish, the commercial value (a few dollars) does not reflect the invaluable contribution in terms of proteins, calories and micronutrient intake for the entire family. Studies have shown that in many regions, fish-unlike many other high protein foods-is consumed more equally among household members, including women and children. Additionally, the fact that women may not systematically need men to acquire these fish on a subsistence basis reinforces the fundamental role that fish can play in food and nutritional security in Africa."}]},{"head":"Fish: a rich Food For Poor","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PeoPle","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Over large parts of sub-Saharan Africa fishing for subsistence plays a central role in sustaining human well-being. For those who cannot afford to buy foodespecially not meat-fish obtained through the household's own fishing efforts (subsistence) is essential; it can make the difference between good and bad nutrition, between recovered health and prolonged illness or between food security and starvation. Fish processing and trade provide people with an important source of income with which to buy food."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"In many parts of Africa, small-scale fisheries and related activities (trade, processing) provide income to rural communities where alternative employment opportunities are scarce or even non-existent. In these situations small-scale fisheries, fish processing and trade provide people with an important, and sometimes crucial, form of safety-net that helps protect them against the effects of agricultural product price volatility, macro-economic crises, structural reforms, harvest failures, political turmoil and other factors that threaten rural stability and food security. In this way small-scale fisheries substitute and/or complement other economic activities and help households sustain their standard of living and food purchasing power."}]},{"head":"Indirect Contribution of Fish to Food and Nutritional Security","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Food security through eMPloyMent For the Poor"},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"While fish as a subsistence product is an important source of direct food security for fishing households, the generation of incomes derived from wages in the fisheries sector or from fish trade is often even more important as an indirect contribution to food security. Inland and coastal fisheries and related fish processing and trading provide full or part-time employment to between 6 and 9 million people in sub-Saharan Africa. 1 Using a (conservative) ratio of 1 to 5 for household size, a total of some 30 to 45 million people (men, women and children) in Africa therefore depend indirectly on fish for their livelihoods. 2"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"1. Compiled by the authors from various sources. 2. This estimate does not take into account trans-sectoral linkages to other rural activities and services (multiplier effects)."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Few hundred grams of fish consumed at a subsistence level, can make the difference between good and bad nutrition, between recovered health and prolonged illness or between food security and starvation."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Some 30 -45 million people in Africa depend on fish for their livelihoods."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"provide opportunities for a large number of women, many from the lowest strata of the community where they lack education, literacy and the financial capital to engage in other activities. For them, many of whom are heads of households, fish therefore represent the primary-and sometimes the only-source of income."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"In Western Province of Zambia three quarters of the women involved in the fish trading activities are singleheaded households."}]},{"head":"hiV/aids and Fish in sub-saharan aFrica","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"In several countries in southern Africa (South Africa, Malawi, Zambia) over 30% of the adult labor force live with HIV. Beyond the dramatic impacts on those men and women who are infected, the pandemic also affects the livelihoods of the millions of others (elders, children, wives and husbands) who were initially depending upon this labor force for their livelihoods. This situation is causing an increase in food insecurity in the entire region by breaking the already fragile balance between labor, work and food entitlements. Fish, and in particular cultured fish (e.g. in small garden ponds), can play a mitigating role in this crisis as the work has a low physical labor requirement, the product has high nutritional properties and it can generate cash that can be used to purchase other foods and medication (Box 2)."}]},{"head":"WoMen, Fish Processing and Food security","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"For women in particular fish processing and trading provide a very important livelihood support. In West and Southern Africa women dominate the processing, retailing and local trading. Because smallscale processing and/or trading at local markets require relatively few investments, have generally low operational costs, do not require strong physical strength and can be undertaken by unskilled labor, they"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Many of the women involved in trading lead single-headed households. For them fish represent the primary-and sometimes the onlysource of income to support their livelihood and their children."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"In sub-Saharan Africa, fisheries and fish-related activities represent the main livelihood support for between 6 and 9 million households, providing food security to over 40 million persons through wages and self-generated revenues."}]},{"head":"Fish suPPly in aFrica and its iMPact on Fish Food security","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Fish supply in Africa is in crisis. Per capita consumption in sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in all regions and it is the only part of the world where consumption is declining (Figure 1). The main reason for this decline is the leveling off in capture fish production and the still-growing population. Just in order to maintain the current level of per capita supply of fish in sub-Saharan Africa (6.6 kg/year) up to 2015, fish production (capture fisheries and aquaculture) must increase by 27.7% over this period. This assumes an average annual population growth of 1.9% over the period 2002-2015(World Bank 2004b)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Unfortunately returns from Africa's capture fisheries are stagnating and access to food, incomes and livelihoods for the small-scale fishers who depend upon them are likely to reduce further. As demand for fish and competition for access to fishing areas increases, lower income groups are likely to become marginalized, replaced by more powerful groups with growing interests in these scarce natural resources."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Fish Food Security in Africa: Past, Present and Future BOX 2. Fish farming as a 'Low-Labor Solution' for HIV/AIDS affected households"},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"In Malawi, small-scale fish ponds offer a valuable addition to local farming systems without substantially adding to the labor burden-an option that has been taken up by HIV/AIDS affected households including those headed by widows and orphans. These families show improved nutritional status through fish consumption, and use income from fish sales to obtain further health services, including HIV/AIDS care. In recent nutrition studies, fish has been shown to contain combinations of proteins, vitamins and minerals that help fortify affected persons against the susceptibility to secondary diseases, while improved nutrition also increases the effectiveness of antiretroviral drugs. AIDS orphan groups in Zambia are now following the example set in Malawi."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Africa is the only continent in the world where fish supply per person is declining. An alternative is aquaculture, or fish farming. Worldwide aquaculture provides 38% of total fish production, an increase from 16% only 15 years ago. In sub-Saharan Africa, however, aquaculture supplies less than 2% of fish production. The potential for very substantial growth to reach levels such as those in Asia is extremely high. FAO projections show that with just 5% of the suitable areas used, Africa could meet its fish production target. The task, however, remains enormous. Based on 1997 levels, aquaculture would have to increase by 267% by 2020 to maintain the current fish consumption level in Africa (Delgado et al. 2003)."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Fish trade: econoMic oPPortunity or threat For Food security?"},{"index":7,"size":165,"text":"Historically, income generated through fish food trade has been beneficial for the developing world as a whole, and the international trade in fishery products continues to be of great importance. Between 1980 and 2001 the net receipts from fish trade by developing countries increased from US$ 3.4 billion to US$ 17.4 billion. This is a higher growth rate than the increase in the net exports of other agricultural commodities such as coffee, bananas, rice and tea (FAO 2003). However, while developing countries as a whole are projected to continue to be net fish exporters in 2020, sub-Saharan Africa's current fish trade deficit is expected to worsen 9-fold, increasing from 54 thousand metric tonnes in 1997 to 492 thousand metric tonnes in 2020 (Delgado et al. 2003). In this context careful analysis is required if current export strategies adopted by some African countries to target other continents' markets (Europe, Asia, America) are not to undermine local and regional food security. Two issues are of particular concern."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"While the developing countries as a whole are projected to continue as net fish exporters, sub-Saharan Africa's current trade deficit is expected to deteriorate 9-fold by 2020."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"Framework for investment in Africa's fish food security:"},{"index":10,"size":62,"text":"First, while the fish removed from African markets can in principle be replaced (in theory) by imports, and the foreign exchange earnings generated through fish exports can stimulate national economies in multiple ways, the benefits of international trade versus the stimulus to local economies through increased local processing and national and regional trades have not been fully analyzed or demonstrated (Kurien 2004)."},{"index":11,"size":40,"text":"At the present moment what is certain, however, is that market failure is more the norm than the exception for the rural poor in Africa and efficient redistributing trickle-down mechanisms are yet to be created in much of sub-Saharan continent."},{"index":12,"size":88,"text":"Second, too strong a focus on international export can be detrimental to Africa's local food security because it removes policy-makers' attention, research and management efforts, and donor support away from the small-scale fisheries which supply local, provincial or even national markets, and refocuses these limited resources on the export-oriented industrial or semi-industrial fisheries. This situation has important consequences, in particular where local fisheries contribute significantly to local diets and where local trade provides a powerful economic engine indirectly supporting the food security of small scale processors and traders."}]},{"head":"The Way Forward","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Investments in five major areas will improve the contribution of fish to food security in Africa."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"1. Support small-scale, labor intensive coastal and inland fisheries 2. Promote small-scale rural and peri-urban aquaculture entrepreneurships 3. Improve fish market chains through local small-scale investments 4. Favor local, national or regional fish trades within Africa 5. Monitor the changes and feedback the information into the decision-making process suPPorting caPture Fisheries Capture fisheries will continue to provide the bulk of fish food in Africa for many decades. Sustained efforts are therefore needed to support, promote and protect small-scale labor-intensive (both coastal and inland) fisheries. Investments in applied research and capacity building will be required to improve and strengthen International fish-export strategies don't simply remove fish physically from African markets, they also remove policy-makers attention from 'local' fisheries."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"the socio-institutional mechanisms underpinning the fisheries management process. But investments to improve environmental management are also required to sustain fisheries, especially in inland fisheries where increasing pressure on land and water (through e.g., irrigated agriculture, hydro-power dams) is leading to high environmental degradation. These inland fisheries provide the basis of the livelihoods-and therefore the indirect support to food security-for millions of people, usually amongst the less educated and unskilled labor in Africa."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Because of weak market infrastructure and facilities in rural areas, the majority of the fish-especially in inland fisheries-is still marketed as dried and/or smoked products. Local public and private investments are urgently needed to support small-scale marketing initiatives in these areas. Such initiatives could improve food and nutritional security dramatically for both producers and (rural and urban) consumers, through better income for the producers and better quality and more quantity for the consumers, while also helping to stimulate rural development and foster economic empowerment of women traders."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"increasing beneFits FroM local, national and regional Fish trade Local and regional fish trade in Africa is already very substantial but it has the potential to expand further and help stimulate markets at multiple levels. Regional cooperation and appropriate national policies can have a major impact to foster trade and to reinforce national and regional food security."}]},{"head":"suPPorting decision-Makers With releVant inForMation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Effort should be made to monitor the impacts of fish supply and trade (changes in market structures, changes in prices, etc.) on the food availability and nutritional status of the national population. This monitoringwhich should be made in partnership with national health services-will then have to be fed-back into the fisheries management systems and other relevant decision-making arenas, to improve and strengthen the role of fish as a critical element of food and nutrition security in Africa."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Aquaculture will play an increasing role in food security in Africa. Small-scale integrated fishingfarming systems will provide alternative and/or additional employment opportunities for growing rural populations in remote areas. Closer to the urban centers, in peri-urban areas, opportunist micro or smallscale enterprises will mushroom, driven by the increasing demand of the urban population for higherquality fish products. Finding the appropriate institutional settings (either public, private or public-private partnerships) that ensure the creation and maintenance of efficient extension services to support these new rural and peri-urban micro-enterprises, will require substantial investment and capacity building."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"iMProVing Value-added through better Market chains"},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"In many parts of Africa post-harvest losses exceed 30% of the catch. This has a double impact on food security by reducing income for producers and reducing the total quantity of fish available to consumers."}]},{"head":"deVeloPing aquaculture","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The majority of fish is still marketed as dried or smoked products."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure1. Actual trends and 2020 projections of per capita fish supply in the world and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Source:Delgado et al. 2003.  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . African countries with per capita fish supply greater than 20 kg and/or a fish proteins/animal proteins ratio greater than 20%. Source: Anon. 2000. Fish is an Fish is an indispensable indispensable source of source of micronutrients micronutrients such as iron, iodine, such as iron, iodine, zinc, calcium, zinc, calcium, vitamin A and vitamin A and vitamin B. vitamin B.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Nutritional value of catfish (per 100 g). Source: US Department of Agriculture 2002. Nutrient Quantities Unit NutrientQuantitiesUnit Protein 18.2 g Protein18.2g Iron 0.82 mg Iron0.82mg Calcium 9.0 mg Calcium9.0mg Iodine 0.1 mg Iodine0.1mg Potassium 321 mg Potassium321mg Vitamin A 0.02 mg Vitamin A0.02mg Vitamin B2 0.1 mg Vitamin B20.1mg Vitamin B6 0.2 mg Vitamin B60.2mg Poly-unsaturated   Poly-unsaturated fatty acids   fatty acids Other minerals,   Other minerals, vitamins, micronutrients   vitamins, micronutrients These subsistence catches are not   These subsistence catches are not simply the fish brought back home by   simply the fish brought back home by  "}],"sieverID":"76c34d82-34e4-4ccc-9402-145e9e687c84","abstract":""}

data/part_2/00df285cd9c52ff5e7af11b0ca50ef7e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00df285cd9c52ff5e7af11b0ca50ef7e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b48b189-fc4a-44ad-b3fd-bd2ab15be082/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Listening to Farmers' Perceptions through Participatory Rice Varietal Selection: A Case Study in ViIlages in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Decisions about the adoption oftechnology are conditional to farmers' perceptions ofthe performance of a new technology relative to that of the technology currently being practiced. Farmers may assess a new technology, such as an improved variety, in terms of a range of attributes, such as grain quality, straw yield, and inpu! requirements, in addition to grain yield (Traxler and Byerlee 1993). In Orissa, eastern India, farmers indicated preference not only for the visual appearance of rice grain, but also for attributes such as cooking quality, taste, keeping quality, and straw quality (Kshirsagar, Pandey, and Bellon 1997). If fimners perceive an improved variety to be inferior to traditional varieties in terms of one or more attributes, they are unlikely to adopt such a variety (Adesina andZinnah 1993, as cited by Kshirsagar, Pandey, andBellon 1997). Crop improvement could potentially benefit from farmers' assessments of the relative performance of different varieties under farmer management. Information on the traits desired by farmers and their knowledge of the production system could be invaluable in setting the goals of a breeding program, delineating the target environment, identifying the parents for breeding and defining the management treatment for breeding work (Sperling ･ ｾ ＠ al. 1996; Eyzaguirre and Iwanaga 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":210,"text":"Varietal preferences may differ, not only between socioeconomic groups bu! also by gender.In a farmer-participª1ory breeding (FPB) project on pearl millet in the Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, India, grain yield, early availability of grain, and the case ofharvesting by hand (lower paniele number and lower plant height) were the main considerations for making selections by women. For the men, yield and quality appeared 10 be a stronger eoneern (W' eltzien, Whitaker, and Anders 1996). WhiJe women have traditionally been seed selectors and managers of germplasm in low-input farrning systems, scientists have no! given enough attention to their local knowledge, eriteria for selection, and perceptions regarding new seeds untiJ recently, F or instance, the criteria for selecting seeds, practices of animal care and food processing, and the consequent preferences for different kinds of blending various food materials are useful starting points for building on women'g Thelma R. Paris andJoyce Luis are with the Social Sciences Division and Surapong Sarkarung is in P!ant Breeding. Genetics & Btochem;stry at lhe [ntem.tional Rice Research Institute (IRRIJ. Los Bailos. Phi[ippines. Abha Singh. Han Nalh Singh, Qrnk.r Nalh Singh. aod Sanjay Singh are with Narendr. Dev. Vniversity and Agricultural Technology (NOVA T). Kumarganj, Faiz.had. eastem Vtta, Pradesh, Indía. Ram Kathin Singh i, at IRRI's New Delhi Office."},{"index":3,"size":336,"text":"perspectives in particípatory research (Gupta et al. 1996). Another example is when high labor demands for manual tbreshing may create incentives for women to adopt vaneties that are easier to thresh (Adcsina and Forson 1995). Including women in the early evaluation of varieties ensures that new seeds can be adopted rapidly, Thus, men's and women's entena and preferences for rice vaneties should be well understood and considered in plant-breeding strategies, In March 1997, a farmer-participatory planl-breeding program for raínfed nce was developed at the Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in collaboration with the Indían Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), This project inc\\udes síx research siles representing different nce ecosystems in eastem India, The project is under the umbrella ofthe CGIAR's Systemwíde Initiative on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis. The goal of this iniliative is to develop, test, and refine methodologies of participatory research and gender analysis as they apply to Ihe development ofnew technologies in germplasm and natural resource management. This FPB projecl aims lo test the hypothesis that farmer particípation in rainfed nce breeding can help develop suilable vaneties more efficiently, It is also designed to identifY the stages in a breeding program where farmer ínterfacing is optimaL The project has two components: the first is a plant-breeding component, whích aíms to develop and evaluate a methodology for participatory improvement of rice for heterogeneous environments, and to produce and improve adoption of matenal suíting farmers' needs. The second is a socÍal-science component (including gender analysis) that aims (1) to characterize cropping systems, diversíty ofvanetíes grown, and the crop-management practices ofrice farmers, (2) to analyze male and female farmers' selection criteria and their reactions to a range of cultivars and breeding lines, and (3). to enhance the capacities of national agricultural research systems (NARS) in participatory research and gender analysis in plant breeding andrice vanetal selection (Courtoís et al. 2000), Thís paper focuses on farmers' selectíon cnteria and their reactions to a range of cultivars and breeding lines UIlder particÍpatory vanetal selection conducted on farmers' fields,"}]},{"head":"Characteristics of the villages","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":373,"text":"The results of the socioeconomic and gender analysÍs in the FPB project includes only two villages (table 1): Mungeshpur in the Faizabad district and Basalatpur in the Siddathnagar district, eastem Vttar Pradesh. These sites are among the research sites UIlder the FPB project. A similar study was conducted in the other FPB research sites in Onssa and Madhya Pradesh, Basalatpur represents favorable (but submergence prone) lowland, rainfed arcas, Mungeshpur represents shallow, submergence-prone areas that are favorably rainfed during years of low rainfalL Basalatpur and Mungeshpur have a rugher proportion of lowland fields (70% and 60%, respectively) with heavier soil and good water-holding capacity, The flow of natural resources like rainwater (field hydrological conditions) tbroughout the season has also had a major impact on vanetal selection in these villages, F armers in Mungeshpur have more access to supplementary irrigation, wruch enables them to diversífY into other crops, partÍCularly vegetables and fodder crops, Only one diesel pump exists ín Basalatpur and trus limits crop diversífication. The importance of livestock between the two villages also differs, Livestock in Mungeshpur is more importan! than in Basalatpur, In Mungeshpur, bullocks continue to be used for Jand preparation, and tbreshing is done manually, In contrast, land preparation and threshing in Basalatpur is mechanized with the use of tractors, The degree of market onentatíon is higher in Basalatpur (nearer the cíty) where more rice is sold, The socioeconomic characteristics of the sample households are shown in table 2, Households are classified by official social categoties of caste. Muslims dominate in Basalatpur (55%), followed by scheduled and back:ward castes. In Mungeshpur, the backward and scheduled castes dominate (89%). The Yadavs, a subcaste ofthe backward caste in Mungeshpur, take care ofmilch animals. The majority ofthe farming households are owner-cultivators, and share cropping is oflimited importance. F emale labor participation in rice production is four times hígher than that of males in Basalatpur and three-fourths in Mungesphur. There is wide disparity in terms of access 10 education between men and women. In general, females have lower literacy rates than meno The differences in resource endowments, socioeconomic status, importance aflivestock, degree ofmarket orientation, gender roles and responsibilities in rice production, and family size may determine the choice of rice varieties/cultivars and agronomic management practices."}]},{"head":"Cropping systems","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Rice followed by wheat + mustard is the predominant cropping pattem in al! villages. In BasaIatpur, wheat and oilseed are grown mainly for domestic use, but rice is grown for consumption as welI as marketing. On the other hand, in Mungeshpur, rice 18 mainIy grown for consumption because oflow yields and low marketabIe surplus. Rice is followed by wheat + mustard, which are grown for both domestic consumption and sale. Land preparation for rice is started in June after the arrival afthe monsoon. "}]},{"head":"The gender division of labor in rice production","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The majority of the respondents belong to the lower social class, with small-sized landholdings."},{"index":2,"size":273,"text":"Females are younger and have lower literacy rates, compared to males, and have over 20 years of farming experience. The extent of female participation in rice production is high in both villages. Sorne tasks in rice production and postharvest operations are gender specific. Land preparation and the application of chemicals are men's responsibilities in both villages (10% of fertilizer application is done by women in Basalatpur). In Mungeshpur, women from the lower social status dominate in the work of pulling seedlings (100%), transplanting (70%), weeding (80%), applying farrnyard manure (60%), harvesting (82%), and threshing (82%). In Basalatpur, more men than women participate in pulling seedlings and harvesting. Women do the transplanting of seedlings (100%) and most ofthe weeding (75%), with men doing most ofthe spraying (90%). Women are also mainly responsible for postharvest activities such as cleaning and selecting the seeds for the next season, storage, and processing rice into other food products for home consumption and for sale. They are the primary end-users of rice byproducts and biomass for livestock and other farm use. A village study in eastem India revealed that women from the lower castes provided 60% to 80% ofthe total labor input in rice production (Paris et al. 1996). Aside from their significant contributions in rice production, women also provide labor in non-rice crops, collect green animal fodder, and feed and tend Iivestock. Thus, men's and women'g preferences for specifíc traits in rice varieties may differ, based on gender-specific roles and responsibilities. With inereasing male migration lo cities, women are laking on more responsibilities as farm managers, aside from theír normal household and childcare responsibilities (Paris el aL 1996)."}]},{"head":"Rice varieties","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Varieties grown by ¡armers","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The rice varieties eurrently grown by farrners are shown in table 3. Traditional varieties are more cornrnon in Basalatpur than in Mungeshpur. Although modern varieties (MVs) show higher adoption rates in Mungeshpur, these varieties ofien suffer from submergenee, drought, and stress al reproduetive and ripening phases when the erop is planted late. Most farrners felt that traditional varieties are more tolerant to drought, submergenee, pests, and diseases, while MV s performed well under irrigated conditions. The majority of the farrners indieated that they felt that MVs needed better management lhan traditionaI varieties. Modero varieties need more labor, higher levels of fertilízer, and more irrigation, but more farmers prefer to grow MV s because of their higher yields. "}]},{"head":"Topographical adaptations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":260,"text":"Farrners generally match varieties wíth their environment. For rainfed rice, this means an adaptation to the hydrological conditions of their fields, Each field position in the topo-sequence corresponds to a risk of drought or submergence. The drought risk inercases frorn the bottom to the top of the topo-sequence, while submergence risk decreases along the same path, assocíated with progressively lower water depths and earlier recession of the water. This translates into different ideotypes for the different situations. Table 4 shows varietal diversity according to land type/topography. In Basalatpur, varieties such as Bengalia, Sarya, Oriswa, Kuwari Mashuri, Malwa, and Ghanbhanan are the major traditional rice cultivars grown in the uplands, and Kalamanak, Malasia, Motibaddam, and Malwa are the major varieties grown in the lowlands. Improved varieties, such as NDR-97, PNR-38 1 , and Sarju 52 are grown in the uplands by a few farrners, but the improved variety, Mashuri, occupied more area in the lowlands. In Mungeshpur, the cornrnon local varieties grown on upland fields are Ari, Bagri, 90 days, Sonia, Lalmati, Punjab, Lalbagra, Ashwani, lndrasan, and Bilaspuri. The improved varieties are Saket-4, NDR-80, and NDR-118 in upland and medium fields and Sarju 52, Mashuri, and dwarfMashuri mostly in lowland fields, Medium-duration fields are grown mostly in medium land. Varieties such as Sarju-52. Ashwani. NDR-359. Pant-4. -10, and-12. andIndrasan are grownon the fields thatare located in between upper and lower levels oí land type. Fanners of Mungeshpur prefer to grow these varieties on the these land types on the belief that they need optimum moisture during the growth period. Fields dif-"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"in Basalatpur; therefore, sorne farrners prefer to grow medium varieties on upland fields also."}]},{"head":"Farmers' perceptions of usefol fraits in varietal adoption","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"To determine whether there are gender differences in perceptions of useful traits in varietal adoption, we used graphic illustrations of traits. We first showed cards that illustrate useful traits in selecting rice varieties. We then asked each farmer what traits he or she consider in selecting rice varieties for specific land types-upland and lowland fields. To assess how farmers valued each trait, we asked the question, \"If you had 100 paisa, how much would you pay for each trait? The value in paisa allocated to a particular trait corresponded to the importance given by the fanner. Because many traÍts are interrelated, we rec1assified them in consultation with a plant breeder. For example, we grouped traits such as ease in hullíng and mílling recovery under postharvest quality. Table 2 shows the seleetion eriteria of male and female fanners for different land types and villages."}]},{"head":"F avorahle rainfed low/ands (Basalatpur, Siddathnagar district)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"In the lowland areas in Basalatpur, yield and duratíon are the most important trait5 maJe and female farmers consider in selection rice varieties, In this village, the popular traditional varieties are Bengalía, Oríswa, and Kuwari mashuri. These are short-duration (90-110 days), medium-height varieties, The average yields are 2.5 tons per hectare, Farmers prefer short-duration rice varíeties in the uplands because of the importance of growing early winter crops such as oilseed, linseed, pulses, peas, and potatoes. They prefer to parboil Bengalia; otherwise, its grains break easíly. Women in Basalatpur use traditional rice varietíes for making puffed rice and churra, beaten rice Iike cornflakes .. For women who continue to use the traditional method ofhand-pounding rice, postharvest qualities such as ease ofhulling and mgh milling recovery are additional useful traits. The men did not mention these. The finding that women are more concerned !han men with postharvest traits and milling recovery are similar to the findings in a participatory breeding project in the hígh altitudes in NepaL Sthapít, 10sm, and Wítcombe (1996) also observed that women farmers are particularly skillfuJ in assessing postharvest traits, such as milling recovery, and the cooking and eating quality of rice. They found that the evaluation scores between maJe and femaJe farmers in Chhomrong village showed significant agreement. Women farmers reported ¡hat they would like to decide on varíety selection after the postharvest evaluation. Consumers preferred wmte-grained rice to red-pericarped rice because it saves women time in milling."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"In Basalatpur, both male and female farmers agreed upon the important traits fo! 10wland rice varieties. Grain price is an important cohsiderlltion for farmers here because they seU traditional varíet-¡es in the market. These, like Kalamanak, command a higher price because oftheir good taste and aroma. Kalamanak gives Iow yields of 1.5 to 2 tons per hectare. In contrast, grain price is not an important consideration in Mungeshpur because rice ís mainly used for home consumption and is seldom sold in the market."}]},{"head":"Shallow, suhmergence-prone uplands (Mungeshpur, Faizahad distríd)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"In Mungeshpur, both male and female farmers agreed upon important traits in selecting varieties for the uplands. Women gave more importance to postharvest qualities and grain quality such as bold and pure graíns. For the lowlands, both males and females cited better grain yield, medium duration (125-135 days), bioniass, and resistance to abiotic stress as their selection critería for lowland rice varíeties. Women gave greater weight to better adaptation to specific soH types and to grain quality. Women mentioned additional useful traits for varíeties in the uplands and lowlands that were not mentioned by men: competitiveness with weeds and postharvest quality. Weeds are the major problem in the uplands, particularly when rice is direct-seeded. In the lowlands, weeds are more prevalent during drought. These additional traits are related to the roles and responsibilities of female farnily members (e.g., hand weeding and feeding rice straw to livestock)."}]},{"head":"Farmers' evaluation of new rice genotypes grown in farmers' fields","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"During the 1999 monsoon season, two farmers from each of the villages of Mungeshpur and Saríyawan (rainfed neighboring village) ofthe Faizabad district and from Basalatpur were selected to check the performance of rice genotypes in their fields. The genotypes were (1) advanced lines from a shuttle breeding project from Uttar Pradesh, (2) released varieties, and (3) the most common local varieties. Of the 14 genotypes screened in Basalatpur, two are scented varíetíes (Kamini, which flowers in 136 days, and Sugandha, which flowers in 124 days). Scientists distributed the seeds through the FPB project. In this approach, breeders select the most promising lines with farmers, and farmers are given a \"basket of choices,\" growing several genotypes in their specific environments."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Ten farmers (five women and five men) visited the individual plots and ranked the rice genotypes grown on farmers' fields past the maturity stage. Farmers were asked to rank the rice lines from I (exceIlent) to 14 or 16 (worst) on the basis ofvisual assessment. The rankings ofthe new cultivars by the farmers generated an n x k matrix, where n equals the lines being evaluated and k equals the farmers evaluating the crop performance. KendaIl's Coefficient ofConcordance (W) was used to measure the agreement in rankings arnong male farmers and among female farmers, and the correlation between male and female farmers' rankings. High and significant correlation values indicate cIose agreement on the ranking of the rice genotypes by men and women in the sample."},{"index":3,"size":227,"text":"Tables 5a to 5d show that in the two villages, male and female evaluators were in cIose agreement in the ranking ofthe lines. The Ws were highly significant, revealing that farmers' and breeders' rankings are ofien acceptable. Table 6 shows the surnmary of the ranking of male farmers, female farmers, and plant breeders indicating their choices. Ofthe 14 and 16 varieties ranked in Basalatpur and Mungeshpur, PVS 1, PVS3, PVS7, PVS9, PVSlO, and PVSI5 carne out as the farmers' and breeders' choices in 1999. The traits of these lines are shown on table 7. During the crop season in 2000, several ofthese lines were compared with local check through PVS. Twenty-three farmers in two villages in Faizabad grew three rice lines, while 50 farmers in six villages in Siddathnagar grew six rice lines obtained from PVS trials.      Mrs. Yadav is 53 years old, iIliterate, and a fuIl-time farmer. Her husband is a full-time worker in the 110ur and oil milis. This makes her ¡he de jacto head ofhousehold. She supervises ¡he farm and makes decisions regarding what crops and varieties to grow. Three years ago, she grew mostly local varieties because of a lack of irrigation facilities. We gave her seeds of NDR 97, a new variety, which she planted on 0.10 ha of land. Later she increased the area planted lo this variety lo 0.5 ha."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"She told us the positive traits she likes in this variety, such as suitability ro her land type, good taste, shorter duration, good milling recovery, ease of threshing, and medium height, and negative traits such as less rice straw: 1 don 't like the taste of Sarju52. lt is coarse and does not rema in sofi afier cookíng. Jt also does not have many broken grains afier milling. So we sold Sarju52 and used NDR359 for home consumption. One thing 1 noticed with the straw ofNDR359 is that it is sofi. so instead of storing it for a long time, we had lO feed ít immediafely fo our anima/s. 1/ we keep the straw for two to three months, it will not be very easy lO cut and the animals will refuse to eat ít. lnstead ojleaving the rice stalles to dry in the fie/d. which is our usual practice, we immediately thresh afier harvesting. lis short duration also enab/es me to grow another crop during the rabi season."},{"index":5,"size":145,"text":"Mrs. T. B Singh, 50 years old, belongs to the upper caste. Due lo labor shortages during the peak season and Ihe lack of male labor (her husband is fully engaged in a nonfarm job), she has been forced to provide physicallabor in most of Ihe rice operations. She was able to finish five years in school. She is the decision maker in !he household and is quite knowledgeable about farming. In 1997, she was one of Ihe collaborators of!he project. Afier testing 13 genotypes on her field, she obtained 5.2 tons per ha from PVS5 (NDRSB9730015), so she decided to continue to grow Ihis variety and expand the area during Ihe 1998 kharif season. She expecled to get six tons per ha, but because of drought, Ihere were many unfilled grains. She told us about Ihe variety's positive traits aside from its high yield:"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"1 prefer PVS5 because of Its medium duration; medium bold, cylindrical grain; resistance to pesls and diseases; and better mil/ing recovery."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"In 1995, we gave her new seeda of BKP246."},{"index":8,"size":248,"text":"1 like this variety too because it is suítable for the lowland rainfed area, has good yields, and is not susceptible to diseases. I like the size and the shape ofthe grain-medium and boldo It a/so has the best milling recovery and commands a high price in the market. In 1998, 1 sold four quíntals of paddy at Rs 400 per quintal, while the o/her varieties are Rs 50 less than BFK246. We use Sarju52 and Saket4 for home consumption. Saket4 has fine graíns and matures early, a trait ideal for the uplands. Our agricultural workers prefer coarse graíns, which last longer in the stomach than paddy with finer grains. I observed that the quantity ofstraw ofBFP346 is less, but grain quality is more important 10 USo Mr. Bansat Lal , 42 years old, an ilIiterate father !rom the backward caste, is a full-time fanner. Hís sons are fully engaged in nonfann activíties and his daughter-in-Iaw supervises fann activities and takes part in decision making. In 1997, he was a collaborator in the plant vanetal-selection program and obtaíned good yields. After threshing and mílling, the female members of his household al so agreed that the PVS5 (NDRSB97300 15) and PVS6 (NDRSB9730020) should be grown the following year. Both Mr. Lal and his daughter-in-law have the same criteria for selection, such as better yield, good qualíty of straw, medium height, resistance to pests and diseases, longer and fine grains, no broken grains after milling, softness and expansion after cooking."},{"index":9,"size":72,"text":"My daughter-in-law observed that PVS5 is easy to hull through hand pounding afier parboiling. Jt is a/so good for puffed rice. Mr. Lal shared the seeds ofPVS5 with other fanners. In 1998, he cultivated PVS5 and PVS6 on his 3 bigha (0.3 ha) land area. He was able to obtain a yieldofsix quintals per bigha inone pIot and four quintals in another plot. These yielils were higher than those in nearby fields."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"Socioeconomic surveys revealed that a major determinant of vanetal choice is the eonsCÍous attempt of fanners to match vaneties with the land type. Each field position in the topo-sequence corresponds to a risk of drought or submergence. In Mungeshpur (shallow and submergenceprone) fanners' eritena for selecting rice vaneties are associated mainly with duration (short to medium), for growing rabi crops after rice in the upland fields, and with better yield. A second determining factor is the adaptation to different user needs: food, livestock fodder, thatching, and cash. A third detennining factor is related to different postharvest operations like ease ofthreshing, good taste, high mil!ing recovery (above 65%), good storage capacity, and premium market price. Gender-specific roles and responsibilíties also determine vanetal preferences. For example, women prefer medium or semi-tal! vaneties that are easier to thresh, as well as vaneties that have a good quantity and quality of rice straw for livestock feed. Moreover, they prefer vaneties for the specific rice products that they make. While it may be difficult to combine all their preferred traits into one unique vanety because of genetic correlations, it is ímportant that both men and women have a \"basket of choices\" of vaneties suited to their needs and agroecosystems. elearly, Iistening to fanners' perceptions and involving both men and women fanners in selecting rice varieties at the early stage of breeding can lead to faster adoption of varieties suited to their specific rice ecosysteros and diverse needs."}]},{"head":"armers• Perceptions through Participatory Rice Varietal Seleerían","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"In many regions of the world farmers routinely produce seeds for their staple crops. 111is i5 partículady cornmon in regions where agricultural production is affected by frequent and unpredíctable droughts, as in most areas where pearl millet (PennÍsetum glaucum [L.] R.BL),a cross-pollínating crop, is grown. Under these harsh climatie conditions, fanners have developed landraces that tend to show good levels of tolerance to these environments. 111e farmers have also evolved strategies for maintaining seed during drought years in order to safeguard food production and animal foddeL Given the fuet that formal plant-breeding programs have failed to develop superior varieties for marginallands and low-input conditions, the main objective ofthe study presented here is to better understsnd farmers' own seed-management pmctices as a basis for planning and implementing participatory strategíes that capitalize on fanners' local knowledge. This approach would aliow researchers to then conCentrate on specific weaknesses that farmers' own selection pmctices cannot effectively address."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"To date, these local strategies, including the fanners' needs and preferences, along with details of their cropping systems, are not familiar to scientists involved in conventional breeding programs."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"Kirsten vom Brocke ;, • PhD student al the Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Populatíon Generics, University of Hohenheim. Stuttgart, Germany; Anja Christinck is a PhD ,lUdent at !he In't;tule for Social Seiences of the Agricultural Se<:tor, Department ofCommW1ication and Extension, University ofHohenheim; and Eva Weltzien is a principal scientist witb !he Interna-lÍan.! Crops Researeh Institute for lhe Sem;-Arid Tropios (lCRlSA n, in Bam.ko, Malí (West Amea). The work jll'esented here is part of rhe project \"Enhancing qu.lity, diversity and productivíty of fanners' peorl millet genetic <esoorces in Rajasthan, India,\" which i5 acollaborative acrivity ofthe Intemational Crops Research Instítute forthe ｓ ･ ｭ ｩ ｾ ａ ｲ ｩ ､ ＠ Tropies (ICRlSAn. Hyderabad, Indía; ilS natíonal partner ín,titutlons in Rajaslban, including lbe Central Arid Zone Research Institule (CAZRI), Rajasthan Agriculture University (RAU M.ndor) •• nd lbe N.tianal Bureau for Plant Genetic Resourees (NBPGR), and the Universiry ofHohenheim in Germany. We thank all scientists and staffmembers involved foc their personal support to this study."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"particularly Dr. Thomas Presterl and Prof. Dr. H.H. Geiger (Univer,;ty afHohenheim, lnstitule ofPlant breeding, Seed Science and Popularion Genetícs), Prof. Dr. V. Hoffinann (Agricultural Social Sc;ences, Department of Communication and Extension), Dr. P. BrameI-Cox (lCRlSA n, and Dr. O.P. Yadav (CAZRI). The enlbusiastic and most competen< participation offarmer, from Ibe villages of A'gola;, Udaipur Khurd, Kíchiyasar, and Nunwa in !he workshops ís equally acknowledged. We further thank the German MinislTy for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) for funding through !he German Society for Technical Co-operation (GTZ)."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"The objectives of this projeet are listed below: l. To describe farmers' own crop-improvement activíties in regard to yieJd, quality, and diversity of pearl míllet, with special emphasis on seed-management strategies, such as introgression of modem varieties, seJection, storage, processing, exchange, and procurement 2. To quantifY the effects of farmer activities on the genetic structure and performance ofpearl millet populations"}]},{"head":"Short description of the study area","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Rajasthan ís situated in the northwest ofIndia (figure 1). It is a semi-arid regíon wíth a mean annual rainfaU that ranges !Tom < 250 mm in the westem part (Thar Desert) to > 650 mm in the southeast (figure 2). In this study, we refer only to the westem part ofthe state, where farmers must make do with ¡ess than 350 mm of annual rainfall, with high variabilíty!Tom year to year. Experienced farmers often talk of a 10-year cyc1e in which two seasons have good raíns, two have severe drought with crop failures, and the rest usually have fair to good seasons. Soils are mainly sandy, and sand dunes are common. VilIages are typically scattered across wide areas. Pearl míllet is grown tbree to four months during the monsoon season, mostly in mixtures with other crops, such as legumes and cucurbits. Animal husbandry is another important par! of tbe farmíng system. Social conditions in tbe víllages are govemed by the caste system. Even today, the caste system stilllargely determines people's social status, occupation, income, and access to education and information.  "}]},{"head":"Farmers' seed-management strategies","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Farmer's concept 01 a \"variety\""},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Farmers' seed management can only be evaluated if one fully understands the farmers' concept of a \"variety.\" Ims term, as understood by plant breeders, does not seem lO be fully appropriate for the farmers' pearl míllet seed system in west Rajasthan. In order to learo how farmers perceive \"varieties,\" informal interviews as well as classification and ranking exercises were carried out during workshops with farmers from the study villages. Care was taken to inelude both female and male farmers in the interviewing process. The results demonstrate tha! environrnental adaptation was the main eriterion for farmers' c!assification of pearl millet plants in westem Rajasthan. Potential uses and quality aspeets further eontributed to the farmers' method of grouping different plant types (Christinck and vom Brocke 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"Traditionallandraces that have adapted to the environment show a high basal and nodal tillering ability, indicating toleranee to drought and low requirements for soil fertilíty. If these eharaeteristies are combined with tmn stems, narrow leaves, and thin, compact panicles with srnall grains, farmers will conclude that sueh a plant will grow under low-input eonditions (Le., in their fields) and produce grain and straw of high nutritional quality. In contrast, the characteristics of modem varieties are low basal and nodal tillering ability, tmck stems with broad leaves, and Iarge panicles with relatively large grains Iha! are mostly round in shape. From the farmers' experience, this plant type is not toleranl lo drought stress, requires higher soil fertility, and has inferior food and fodder qualities. Farmers, however, are aware that pearl millet plants showing such characterístics can produce higher yields under favorable conditions (Chrístinck and vom Brocke 1998). Farmers are therefore concemed about the composition oftheir seed stocks, i.e., wmch plant types and, thus, which properties are present. Farmers expect plant types to change over time, in reaction to environmental conditions such as soil quality and raínfall, so Iha! the seed stock generated in one year cannot be exactly reproduced the next season. They have a strong concept of continuous interactions between plant type and environmenl, as evidenced by their belief, or experience, that any pearl millet cultivar, including modern varieties, that is grown in their fie1d for sorne years will eventually become like their local cultivars."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Contrary to the views of professional plant breeders, the farmers' concept of a \"variety\" is not that of a population with more or less uniform and stable plant characterístics based on its genetic background; the term \"variety\" is applied to a plant type that is evolving under or adapting lo certain environmental conditions. This concept is reflected in fue farmers' seed-management strategies."}]},{"head":"What is seed management?","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Seed management comprises all activities of a farming faroily that influence their seed stock, including introgression of modern cultivars (open-pollinated varieties or hybrids), seed selection, processing, storage, exchange, and procurement. In this paper, we refer mainly 10 seed selection and processíng, and the ways in wmch farmers deal with modem varieties frorn the market."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Ways 01 se/ecting or processing seed Farmers in Rajasthan generally employ two main selection methods. The first is winnowing or grading, which entails cleaning and separating seed grains. The rate of selection can vary greatly. It may be lhat only 10% of the threshed and stored grain will be rejected (rnainly husks and broken and insect-infested grains), or more than 50% ifthe grains, for example, are small and not fully developed. Generally, the smaller grains are be used for food."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"The second method, which is also very cornmon, is the selection of panicles that show preferred traits. Farmers usually select for panicles on the threshing ground afier the panicles have been separated from the straw, although sorne farrners prefer to select for panicles in the field before harvesting, taking the entire plant into consideration, e.g., number oftillers, height. Even by inspecting the panicle, farrners can envisage what the plant's other characteristics looked like (or would look like when regrown). Many farmers do not perforrn panicle selection every year, but only in the better seasons, which usually occur every two to four years. In harsher years, they are most likely to use the winnowing/grading method. A third, less cornmon, forrn of selection is to use the harvest of a preferred field-a field considered to be more fertile than others-for sowing the following year."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Using \"improved varieties\" or hybrids from the market If a farrning family does use pearl millet seed from the market, in most cases it will be mixed into the family's own seed stock. In western Rajasthan, farrners without access to irrigation facilities generally do not grow improved varieties or hybrids in pure stands. Market seed is mostly certified or \"truthfully labeled\" seed. Further advanced generations of such seed can be optioned from the market or from other farrners. This grain is not labeled and its origin is ofien unknown. There are two ways in which farmers use seed from the market: l. Occasional introgression of new seed from the market into the previous year' s seed stock: the resulting crop consists of many different plant types (traditionallandrace, market variety, and several generations of progeny). Mixing ratio and frequency can vary widely, ranging from 1:10 up to 50:50."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"2. Regular introgression ofnew seed from the market into the previous year's seed stock, selecting for desired plant types among outcrosses: One or more new plant types will become dominant, and the variability of plant types is less than in the first example. The amount and frequency of mixing new seed, as well as selection intensity, can differ greatly from farmer to farrner and from year to year."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"It is important to understand that most farmers do not use improved varieties to replace their own seed, as is ofien assurned. Rather, they use new seed to increase the variability of plant types in their fields, thereby creating new options for their strategies of selecting for preferred plant characteristics, including grain and straw yield, food and fodder quality, storability, drought tolerance, early maturity, tolerance to adverse weather conditions (heat, sandstorrns, thunaerstorrns), and resistance to bird or locust damage."}]},{"head":"Social aspects of seed management","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"The availability of seed grain at the onset of rains is very important for farmers in western Rajasthan. The success of a crop depends very much on sowing irnmediately afier the first rains of the monsoon. For centuries, farmers have had to deal with crop failures due to severe drought conditions. Therefore, \"taking care ofthe seed\" is considered to be of great importance. Farmers who can successfully maintain their own seed, or be in a position to provide other villagers with seed in times of scarcity, are considered to be good farmers and are respected by al!. There is a special caste in most villages for whom maintaining seed and sharing it with others is considered to be a traditional obligation. Nevertheless, other farrners can also build up a reputation for owning good seed, and \"lending\" or sellíng il to others. Seed management is, therefore, related to aspects of caste and status in vilIage life. Furthermore, ít ís a gender-related actívíty. Selecting the seed, storíng it, and processing it before sowing is traditionally done by women, whereas soil preparation and sowing ís usually done by men. Men also often participate in harvesting, and depending on the family, they can be equally involved in selecting seed. Buyíng seed from the market and obtaining information about market varieties is done almost exeJusively by men."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"Diverse seed-management strategies co-exist ín villages in western Rajasthan, reflecting the diversíty of socíoeconomic conditíons: farmers who grow traditionallandraces with or without selection; families who mix, sometimes orregularly, seed from the market ínto the landrace seed with or without selectíon; and familíes who sow the pure seed of markct varieties. All these seed-management strategies can be found in one village. Even though pearl millet is a cross-pollinating crop, it seems to be possible for a village cornmuníty to maintain a diversity of plant types. The reasons for a farming family using a certain strategy can only be partly explained by soíl conditions and c1imatic factors. Other important factors seem to be the size ofthe landholding (market-oriented or subsistence-oriented), the number and species of animals and their fodder requirements, the aecess to cash income or loans to buy seed, the family tradition and knowledge, and access to information on new varieties, e.g., literacy and mobility. Most ofthese socioeconomic conditions are related to the caste system in Rajasthani villages."}]},{"head":"Quantification of the effects oC farmers' seed-management strategies","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":356,"text":"To quantif)' the effects of farmers' seed management, 69 graín stock samples were collected from 16 farmers located in four different villages in westem and central Rajasthan during 1995-1997. Samples were characterized by the farmer, e.g., as separated seed grain and food grain, and were classified into four main seed-management strategies (rabie 1). These grain samples from farmers, along with 12 modem varieties known to be grown in these víllages, were evaluated under varyíng drought-stress conditions at three research stations in westem Rajasthan (Mandor, Jodhpur, Palí) between 1997 and 1998. Climatíc conditíons in 1997 were generally favorable, whereas in 1998 severe drought affected the plant growth, especíally at Mandor. The fie1d trials comprised 81 entries and were laid out in lattice designs with five replications. The different plant traits that are used by farmers and scientists 10 describe the performance of pearl millet were recorded in order to assess productivity and characteristícs of entries. These plant traits inc1uded noda! tillering, leaf shape, stem diameter, panicle girth, number of productíve tillers, grain weight, straw and grain yield, as well as diversity of plant types withín one entry. Separate analysis of the five test environments revealed a significant phenotypic relationship betwcen grain yield and plant characteristics (table 2). The number ofpanicles and basal tillers, plus nodal tillering and phenotypic diversity ofplant types within one entry, were al! positívely assocíated with grain yield in the stress envíronments and negatively associated in the non-stress environments. Conversely, entries with large stems, large leaves and panicles, and bold grains showed negative correlatíon coefficients with grain yield under stress conditions and positive coefficients in the non-stress environments. A genotype X envITonment (GE) analysis based on grain-yield data was carried out in order to gain an overall view ofthe effects ofthese strategies on the adaptation offarmers' seed stocks to different environments. For this purpose pattem analysis was used to c1assify environments and to assess relatíonships between the entries and between environments, as well as 10 analyze the interrelation between entries and environments. To generate the analysis, the statistícal packet GEBEI was used (Watson et al. 1996). The details ofthis calculation will be published elsewhere."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The phenotypic relationship described in table 2 shows the effectíveness of fanners' seed-management strategies. Entries with plant characteristics that farmers associated with adaptation 10 stress proved to be more productíve under stress conditions than other entries. These findings were supported by the results of the pattem analysis. The analysis indicated that most of the entries classified as LR showed dose interactíon with the preflowering drought stress at Mandor and Jodhpur. Compared 10 the LR entries, entries classified as IGRI tended to show a less specific interaction with the stress envITonments. In contrast to the management groups LR and IGRI, a change in the adaptatíon pattem seemed to be obvious in entries derived from IGR2. The positive interactíon of the samp!es exc\\usively with the preflowering drought environments was mostly eliminated."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Entries also tended to show relatívely high productivity in more favorable environments. Samples grouped in IGR2 thus tended to perform fairIy well in al! the test environments. Entries labeled as modem varieties (MV), indicated almost no positive associatíon with the preflowering drought"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 1. The state of Rajastban in the northwest ofIndia "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. District capitals and zones of mean annual rainfall in the study area "},{"text":"Table 1 . VilIage Characteristics, Basalatpur (Siddathnagar District) and Mungeshpur (Faizabad District),India, 1997     Agroecology Basalatpur. Siddathnagar Mungeshpur, Faizabad AgroecologyBasalatpur. SiddathnagarMungeshpur, Faizabad   Shallow, submergence-prone, favorable Shallow, submergence-prone, favorable  Favorable lowland rainled during years of low rainlall Favorable lowlandrainled during years of low rainlall Total no. of households 140 133 Total no. of households140133 Sample size for surveys 50 50 Sample size for surveys5050 No. of male farmers 30 30 No. of male farmers3030 No. 01 lemale farmers 20 20 No. 01 lemale farmers2020 Land types (%)   Land types (%) Lowland 70% 60% Lowland70%60% Mediumland O 20% MediumlandO20% Upland 30% 20% Upland30%20% Irrígation source (private pump) 1% 10% Irrígation source (private pump)1%10% Importance 01 livestock Low High Importance 01 livestockLowHigh Degree 01 markel orientallon High Low Degree 01 markel orientallonHighLow  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Transplanting and broadcasting are done in luIy; weeding, in August; and harvesting and threshing, in Oclober to December. During the rabi (dry) season from November to April, crops such as wheat + mustard, peas, grams, lentils, berseem as green fodder, and vegetables are grown. A few farmers, who have their own irrigalion sources, grow crops like mung, maize, vegetables, and green fodder during the zaid season (late April to lune) in Mungeshpur. Growing crops during the rabi and zaid seasons i5 not common in Basalatpur because of the lack of irrigation facilities. Socioeconomic Characteristics of Sample Households, 1997 Characteristics Basalatpur, Siddathnagar Mungeshpur, Faizabad CharacteristicsBasalatpur, SiddathnagarMungeshpur, Faizabad Caste composition ('lo 01 households)   Caste composition ('lo 01 households) Upper caste 6% 9% Upper caste6%9% Backward caste 18% 49% Backward caste18%49% Scheduled caste 21% 42% Scheduled caste21%42% Minorily 55% O Minorily55%O Area by tenure ('lo 01 households))   Area by tenure ('lo 01 households)) Share-in 3% O Share-in3%O Share-out O 1% Share-outO1% Owner-cultivated 97% 99% Owner-cultivated97%99% Labor inputs in rice (dayslha)   Labor inputs in rice (dayslha) Male farmers 25 dayslha (19) 45 dayslha (25) Male farmers25 dayslha (19)45 dayslha (25) Female famners 105 dayslha (81) 130 dayslha (75) Female famners105 dayslha (81)130 dayslha (75) Categories ollarmers (%)   Categories ollarmers (%) Marginal «1 ha) 68% 80% Marginal «1 ha)68%80% Small (1-2 ha) 24% 16% Small (1-2 ha)24%16% Large ( >2 ha) 8% 4% Large ( >2 ha)8%4% Ave. operational size 1.00 ha 0.70 ha Ave. operational size1.00 ha0.70 ha Literacy rates (%)   Literacy rates (%) Male head 72% 51% Male head72%51% Female head 40% 14% Female head40%14% Average family size 7 7 Average family size77 Note:   Note:  "},{"text":"Figures in parentheses are percentages oftotal mate and femate labor inputs in rice production.   "},{"text":"Table 3 . Popular Rice Varieties Grown by Farmers According to Land Type Landtype Variety Basalatpur  Mungeshpur LandtypeVarietyBasalatpurMungeshpur Uplandlmidland Traditional Bengalía. Sarya, Kuwan Ari. Bagrí, Balbagra, Chaini UplandlmidlandTraditionalBengalía. Sarya, KuwanAri. Bagrí, Balbagra, Chaini   Mashurí, Oríswa, Malwa Mashurí, Oríswa, Malwa  Improved NDR-97, ｓ ｡ ｾ ｵ Ｍ Ｕ Ｒ Ｎ ＠ PNR-381 Saket-4, NDR-80, 91,118 ImprovedNDR-97, ｓ ｡ ｾ ｵ Ｍ Ｕ Ｒ Ｎ ＠PNR-381Saket-4, NDR-80, 91,118     NDR-359, Pant-4. Pant-10, NDR-359, Pant-4. Pant-10,     Pant-12, Sarju-52 Pant-12, Sarju-52 Shaliow ｬ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ｾ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ＠ TradHional Kalamanak, Motibaddam, Bilaspurí, lodrasan Shaliow ｬ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ｾ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ＠TradHionalKalamanak, Motibaddam,Bilaspurí, lodrasan   Malwa, Malasia  Malwa, Malasia  Improved Mashuri, Rajshree, Sambha Mashuri, Madhu, BKP-246, ImprovedMashuri, Rajshree, SambhaMashuri, Madhu, BKP-246,   Mashuri  Dwarf Mashun MashuriDwarf Mashun  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Farmers' Perceptions ofUseful Traits in Selecting Rice Varieties According to Land Type  -----   Mungeshpur     -----Mungeshpur  Upland lowland Upland  lowland UplandlowlandUplandlowland Traits Male female Male Fomale Mal. Female  Male Female TraitsMalefemaleMaleFomaleMal.FemaleMaleFemale Grain yi.ld 36.67 39.50 48.67 49.67 41,67 35,96  42,06 40.45 Grain yi.ld36.6739.5048.6749.6741,6735,9642,0640.45 Ouration 25.83 34.5Q 0,67 1.00 20.56 25,84  20.56 15,QQ Ouration25.8334.5Q0,671.0020.5625,8420.5615,QQ Grain príce 0.00 0,00 15.67 16.00 1.67 2.81  2.97 1.82 Grain príce0.000,0015.6716.001.672.812.971.82 Resistance ID abiotic stress Biomass quality 8.33 3.33 6.10 2.50 0.67 5.33 0.33 4,61 6.10 5.00 6.18 2.25 ! 5.10 5.52 5.00 8.64 Resistance ID abiotic stress Biomass quality8.33 3.336.10 2.500.67 5.330.33 4,616.10 5.006.18 2.25!5.10 5.525.00 8.64 Taste 1,67 0.50 10.33 12,33 2.78 2.81  2.12 3,18 Taste1,670.5010.3312,332.782.812.123,18 Bold and pura graln 7.61 1.50 1.67 0,00 4.44 4.49  3.40 5.00 Bold and pura graln7.611.501.670,004.444.493.405.00 Adaplation lo speciflc soillype 3.33 3.00 2.33 0,67 5.00 4.49  5.52 6.36 Adaplation lo speciflc soillype3.333.002.330,675.004.495.526.36 Postllarves! quaHIy 0.83 3,00 6.67 7.67 0.00 5.06  0.00 2,27 Postllarves! quaHIy0.833,006.677.670.005.060.002,27 Resistance to bioHc stress 4.17 2.50 1,00 1.33 3.89 1,69  4.25 3.18 Resistance to bioHc stress4.172.501,001.333.891,694.253.18 Cooking characteristics 0.83 1,00 1.67 2.00 3.89 3,92  3.40 5.00 Cooking characteristics0.831,001.672.003.893,923.405.00 Response to fertilizar 2.50 1.00 2.67 1.33 5,00 2.25  4.25 1.82 Response to fertilizar2.501.002.671.335,002.254.251.82 Competitiveness with weeds 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.33 0.00 2.25  0.00 2.27 Competitiveness with weeds0.000.000.002.330.002.250.002.27 Resistance to lodging 1.67 0.00 2.65 0.67 0.00 0.00  0.85 0.00 Resistance to lodging1.670.002.650.670.000.000.850.00 Adaptation to several preparations 2.34 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00  0.00 0.00 Adaptation to several preparations2.344.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0  100.0 100,0 TOTAL100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100,0  "},{"text":"Table 5a . Summary Ranking of Rice Genotypes inBasalatpur, Siddathnagar District, 1999     Field 1  M.tes(5)  Femates(5) Breeders (3) Field 1M.tes(5)Femates(5)Breeders (3) No. Unes Ave. Score R.nk Ave.score R.nk Ave. score Rank No.UnesAve. ScoreR.nkAve.scoreR.nkAve. scoreRank PVSl NDR-40032 2.4 3 2.6 2 3.0 2 PVSlNDR-400322.432.623.02 PVS2 Kamini 8.4 8 8.8 6 11.3 12 PVS2Kamini8.488.8611.312 PVS3 NDR-9730004 5.8 5 7.0 5 4.0 3 PVS3NDR-97300045.857.054.03 PVS4 Bindili 6.4 6 8.8 6 10.3 11 PVS4Bindili6.468.8610.311 PVSS NDR-9830103 10.6 10 13.2 11 9.3 10 PVSSNDR-983010310.61013.2119.310 PVS6 Sugandha 10.8 10 7.0 5 12.0 13 PVS6Sugandha10.8107.0512.013 PVS7 NDR-96005 6.8 7 7.6 7 6.3 5 PVS7NDR-960056.877.676.35 PVS8 4113 14.0 11 12.4 10 14.0 14 PVS8411314.01112.41014.014 PVS9 NDR-9730015 3.0 2 1.8 1 5.3 4 PVS9NDR-97300153.021.815.34 PVS10 NDR-9730020 2.0 1 4.0 3 2.0 1 PVS10NDR-97300202.014.032.01 PVSll Malasia 9.6 9 5.2 4 8.7 9 PVSllMalasia9.695.248.79 PVS12 RAU-1308-10-11-3•1•2-4-3 8.6 11 7.4 5 6.7 6 PVS12RAU-1308-10-11-3•1•2-4-38.6117.456.76 PVS13 CN-l03S•61 4.8 4 10.0 9 8.0 8 PVS13CN-l03S•614.8410.098.08 PVS14 RAU-1411•10 10.4 10 9.2 8 7.0 7 PVS14RAU-1411•1010.4109.287.07   W=.73••  W=.63**  w=.70'\"  W=.73••W=.63**w=.70'\" ••Significant at 0.5 and .10 per cent leve!.       ••Significant at 0.5 and .10 per cent leve!.  "},{"text":"Table 5b . Summary Ranking of Rice Genotypes inBasalatpur, Siddatbnagar District, 1999     Fleld2  Males (5)  F.mal •• (5) Br.eder. (3) Fleld2Males (5)F.mal •• (5)Br.eder. (3)   Ave,  Ave.  Ave.  Ave,Ave.Ave. No. Lines score Rank score Rank seor. Rank No.LinesscoreRankscoreRankseor.Rank PVSl NDR•40032 2.2 2 3.8 3 3.3 4 PVSlNDR•400322.223.833.34 PVS2 Kamini 7.2 6 7.8 7 10.7 10 PVS2Kamini7.267.8710.710 PVS3 NDR•9730004 8.2 1 5.4 5 2.7 2 PVS3NDR•97300048.215.452.72 PVS4 Blndili 5.6 4 2.6 2 11.7 11 PVS4Blndili5.642.6211.711 PVS5 NDR•9830103 8.0 7 9.2 8 9.7 9 PVS5NDR•98301038.079.289.79 PVS6 Sugandha 604 5 6.2 5 9.3 8 PVS6Sugandha60456.259.38 PVS7 pvsa NOR•96005 4113 4.6 11.0 3 9 6.4 12.2 5 10 5.3 13.3 5 12 PVS7 pvsaNOR•96005 41134.6 11.03 96.4 12.25 105.3 13.35 12 PVS9 NDR•9730015 1.8 1 1.8 1 1.3  PVS9NDR•97300151.811.811.3 PVS10 NOR•9730020 2.4 2 5.0 4 3.0 3 PVS10NOR•97300202.425.043.03 PVS11 Malasia 12.6 10 7.2 6 9.3 8 PVS11Malasia12.6107.269.38 PVS12 RAU•1308-1Q.ll•3-1•2 .... 3 13.6 11 12.2 10 7.7 7 PVS12RAU•1308-1Q.ll•3-1•2 .... 313.61112.2107.77 PVS13 CN•1035-61 8.6 8 12.2 10 6.0 6 PVS13CN•1035-618.6812.2106.06 PVS14 RAU•1411•10 12.8 10 11.0 9 11.7 11 PVS14RAU•1411•1012.81011.0911.711   W=.90 u  w=.72!t'A  w=31*\"  W=.90 uw=.72!t'Aw=31*\"  "},{"text":"Table Se . Summary Ranking ofRice Genotypes inMungesbpur, Faizabad District, 1999     Field 1  Mal •• (S)  Fem,le. (5\\ Breadars (3) Field 1Mal •• (S)Fem,le. (5\\Breadars (3) No. Unes Avescores Rank Ave scores Rank Ave scores Rank No.UnesAvescoresRankAve scoresRankAve scoresRank PVSl NDR40032 3.2 3 2.6  2 1.7 1 PVSlNDR400323.232.621.71 PVS2 Kamíni 15.8 16 15.2  14 15.3 16 PVS2Kamíni15.81615.21415.316 PVS3 NDR•9730004 6.6 6 6.0  4 3.0 2 PVS3NDR•97300046.666.043.02 PVS4 NDR•9730003 10.4 13 7.2  7 3.7 3 PVS4NDR•973000310.4137.273.73 PVS5 RAU-1308•9-3-1•10-3-4-3 8.4 8 9.0  8 13.0 13 PVS5RAU-1308•9-3-1•10-3-4-38.489.0813.013 PVS6 PSRM•1-1648-1 13.8 15 14.8  13 14.0 13 PVS6PSRM•1-1648-113.81514.81314.013 PVS7 NDR•9830102 2.9 1 1.8  1 5.7 5 PVS7NDR•98301022.911.815.75 PVS8 NDR-9730002 9.2 10 12.6 . 10 7.0 8 PVS8NDR-97300029.21012.6.107.08 PVS9 NDR-!l730015 8.0 7 6.6  5 5.0 4 PVS9NDR-!l7300158.076.655.04 PVS10 NDR-!l730020 5.4 4 7.0  6 6.0 6 PVS10NDR-!l7300205.447.066.06 PVSll Mashuri 6.6 5 10.6  9 9.7 10 PVSllMashuri6.6510.699.710 PVS12 RAlJ..1308-10•11-3-1 .... 3 10.2 11 13.0  11 12.0 12 PVS12RAlJ..1308-10•11-3-1 .... 310.21113.01112.012 PVS13 PVS14 NDR-96012 RAU-1411-10 9.0 , lOA 9 12 8.8 6.0  8 4 8.0 10.0 9 11 PVS13 PVS14NDR-96012 RAU-1411-109.0 , lOA9 128.8 6.08 48.0 10.09 11 PVS15 NDR•9830103 3.0 2 3.4  3 6.7 7 PVS15NDR•98301033.023.436.77 PVS16 RAU•1400-13-20Q.4-6 14.0 14 13.2  12 13.3 140 PVS16RAU•1400-13-20Q.4-614.01413.21213.3140   w\"71-   w=.81**  w=O,79*\" w\"71-w=.81**w=O,79*\"  "},{"text":"Table 5d . Summary Ranking of Rice Genolypes inMungeshpur, Faizabad District, 1999     Fieid 2  Mal •• (S)  Female. (5)    Fieid 2Mal •• (S)Female. (5) No Unes Ave scores Rank Ave seores Rank= Ave scores Rank NoUnesAve scoresRankAve seoresRank= Ave scoresRank PVS1 NDR-40032 4.2 3 3.4 3 2.3 1 PVS1NDR-400324.233.432.31 PVS2 Kamini 11.4 12 14,4 14 14,7 11 PVS2Kamini11.41214,41414,711 PVS3 NDR-973004 8.0 7 6.2 4 4,7 2 PVS3NDR-9730048.076.244,72 PVS4 NDR-973003 8.6 9 8.0 8 8,0 6 PVS4NDR-9730038.698.088,06 PVS5 RAU-1308-9-3-1-10-3-4-3 14 12.0 12 14.3 10 10 PVS5RAU-1308-9-3-1-10-3-4-31412.01214.31010 PVS6 PSRM-I-16-48-1 12.8 13 11.8 11 12.3 8 PVS6PSRM-I-16-48-112.81311.81112.38 PVS7 NDR-9830102 3.6 2 2.4 2 7.0 5 PVS7NDR-98301023.622.427.05 PVS8 NDR-9730002 8.0 7 10.0 9 8,7 7 PVS8NDR-97300028.0710.098,77 PVS9 NDR-9730015 5.6 5 6.4 5 5.0 2 PVS9NDR-97300155.656.455.02 PVS10 NDR-9730020 5.2 4 7,0 6 6.0 4 PVS10NDR-97300205.247,066.04 PVS11 Mashun 10.6 10 13.6 13 7,0 4 PVS11Mashun10.61013.6137,04 PVS12 RAU-1308-10-11-3-1-4-3 8 10.2 la 12.7 9 9 PVS12RAU-1308-10-11-3-1-4-3810.2la12.799 PVS13 NDR-96012 10,8 11 72 7 9.3 7 PVS13NDR-9601210,8117279.37 PVS14 RAU-141HO 7,0 6 10,0 9 9,0 7 PVS14RAU-141HO7,0610,099,07 PVS15 NDR-9830103 1.6 1 1.4 1 5.3 3 PVS15NDR-98301031.611.415.33 PVS16 RAU-1400-13-20 15,0 15 10,0 9 9.7 6 PVS16RAU-1400-13-2015,01510,099.76    w-z.6S ... •  W=.65\"'''  w=.60 u w-z.6S ... •W=.65\"'''w=.60 u  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Summary Ranking ofPreferred Lines by Male and Female Farmers and Plant Breeders, 1999 Mala farmer. Female farmers Plan! breeders Mala farmer.Female farmersPlan! breeders  "},{"text":" tried many varieties since the las! jour lo five yeors such as Saket4 and NDR80. but because they were damoged by drought and disease, 1 slopped growing Ihem. 1 shifted back lo a local variety [ARIj although it does not laste good, has poor míllíng recovery and coarse grains. But 1 like NDR97 because of its suitobilíty lo my land, good laste, and shorter duralion. The only problem is Ihat it produces less biomass [strow}, which is no! enough for my two bul/ocles and five buffoloes. We need more straw for Ihe animols Ihroughoul the year. We a/so growcurbi [greenfodderj ond harvest them green during the kharif season. Due 10  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Farmers' Seed-Management Strategies as Represented in Field Trials LR Mainlains only locallandrace seed without introgression 01 modem malerial LRMainlains only locallandrace seed without introgression 01 modem malerial  SeleClion method mainly winnowlng SeleClion method mainly winnowlng IGR1 Occasionally introgresses modem varieties into iandrace IGR1Occasionally introgresses modem varieties into iandrace  Seiection method malnly wlnnowlng Seiection method malnly wlnnowlng IGR2 Introgresses modem malerial more regularly than strategy IGR1 IGR2Introgresses modem malerial more regularly than strategy IGR1  Seleels regularly/frequenlly for panicles Seleels regularly/frequenlly for panicles  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Phenotypic Correlation of Observed Traits witli Grain Yicld    Environments   Environments  Favorable Mild terminal drought Early drought FavorableMild terminal droughtEarly drought Traits MAN97 J0091 PAL97 MAN98 J0098 TraitsMAN97J0091PAL97MAN98J0098 Graio weighl 0.69*• 0.75\" 0.42** . 0.08 -0.25' Graio weighl0.69*•0.75\"0.42** .0.08-0.25' Panicle girth 0.70** 0.83\" 0.42\" -0.60- -0.24' Panicle girth0.70**0.83\"0.42\"-0.60--0.24' Lcafwidlh 0.38-  0.33\" -0.62- -0.24' Lcafwidlh0.38-0.33\"-0.62--0.24' Slcm diameler 0.62\" 0.69- 0.41•• -0.65\" -0.14 Slcm diameler0.62\"0.69-0.41••-0.65\"-0.14 No. of panicles -0.54\" -0.46\" -0.41 0.90- 0.48\" No. of panicles-0.54\"-0.46\"-0.410.90-0.48\" Tíllers -O.54*\" -0.58- 0.01 0.67- 0.36- Tíllers-O.54*\"-0.58-0.010.67-0.36- Nodal lillering -0.65\"  -0.41- 0.56\" 0.27* Nodal lillering-0.65\"-0.41-0.56\"0.27* Plan! type diversity -0.57\"  -0,36'\" 0.32'- 0.11 Plan! type diversity-0.57\"-0,36'\"0.32'-0.11 'p < .OS. \"p<.OL      'p < .OS. \"p<.OL  "}],"sieverID":"3ee40fd9-966e-41b1-83b4-5582590b2399","abstract":"This paperpresenls a case study based on Ihe findings in two villages in easlem Vttar Pradesh, India, part of a project started in 1997 to develop, test. and refine methodologíes of participatory research and gender analysis as they apply to the development ofnew technologies in germplasm and natural resouree managemen!. The two villages oecupy different agroecologiea1 areas and also differ in sociocultural characteristics. Both male and female farmers were included in Ihe study, and details oftheirpreferences for Ihe rice varieties studied are presenled in Ihis papero ISI"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01512036ac5f8b70fc57571dbec7d39e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e6093cb-205e-4575-95f3-3d076c649563/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Inclusive agriculture: Creating opportunities for women and youth in Mali's irrigated vegetable value chain","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Irrigation has the potential to boost agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa by at least 50%, significantly improving food and nutrition security and economic growth, and helping farmers adapt to climate change (Shah et al. 2020). With the rising demand for fresh vegetables, particularly in urban areas, irrigated vegetable crops provide a potentially lucrative and stable source of income for farmers, while increasing the availability and accessibility of nutrient-rich foods on local markets. However, just 6% of the total cultivated area in sub-Saharan Africa is equipped for irrigation (Shah et al. 2020). Several key reasons for this have been identified (see, e.g., Nakawuka et al. 2018;Merrey and Lefore 2018;Lefore et al. 2019). They include land tenure insecurity, a lack of infrastructure (e.g., roads, access to electricity), limited access to innovative irrigation technologies (e.g., solarpowered pumps) and after-sales services (e.g., maintenance and spare parts), limited access to credit and extension services as well as a lack of reliable input and output markets."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"These challenges create barriers that prevent smallholders from entering or advancing within irrigated agricultural value chains, and specifically the irrigated vegetable value chain (IVVC). Women and young farmers face additional gender, labor and market-related constraints, while also being insufficiently considered and included in agricultural and water Water Issue  Putting research knowledge into action"}]},{"head":"The context","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Agriculture is the bedrock of food and nutrition security and a major source of income and employment in many developing countries. Therefore, investing in agriculture-led economic growth is a long-term approach to ending poverty, hunger and malnutrition (USAID 2021). Inclusive agriculture specifically provides opportunities for women and youth who have historically been excluded from agriculture-led economic growth. In Africa, women comprise a significant proportion of the agricultural labor force but are more likely than men to engage in informal, lower-paid work. At the same time, the continent has the world's youngest population and high rates of youth unemployment (AfDB 2018a). In Mali, 17.4% of youth aged 15-24 were unemployed in 2020 (World Bank 2022). Improving gender and youth inclusion in high-value, irrigated vegetable value chains has the potential not only to increase production of nutrient-rich, profitable vegetable crops but also to create attractive and sustainable job opportunities for currently disadvantaged groups."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"policymaking. Moreover, policy implementation has lagged, in part due to limited capacity and differing visions of irrigation development. The extent of these challenges prompted the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) to analyze the enabling environment to understand the factors influencing the participation of women and youth in the IVVC, and to use this understanding to support successful and inclusive farmerled irrigation interventions (Ekpe and Minh 2022). The work was carried out under the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) and Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) projects."}]},{"head":"Analyzing the enabling environment","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"In Mali, the focus of this brief, IWMI carried out a comprehensive policy and intervention analysis, using a previously developed enabling environment analysis tool adapted to the IVVC (Minh et al. 2021) (Figure 1). In total, 40 policies and 48 interventions were analyzed and categorized into clusters based on thematic areas. Cluster and cross-cluster analyses were then conducted, focusing on the policies and interventions that enable or hinder gender and youth inclusion in the IVVC. Finally, results from the policy and intervention analysis were synthesized. This synthesis analysis focused on the actor and stakeholder landscape, highlighting barriers to and opportunities for an inclusive IVVC created by the policies and interventions."}]},{"head":"Policy environment insufficiently inclusive","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The Malian government has committed to reducing poverty, in part through legislative and regulatory reform related to inclusive economic growth, food security and rural development.  In the irrigation development cluster, pay-as-you-own financing schemes encourage youth involvement in irrigated farming as well as secure and equitable land access for women and young farmers, e.g., Programme National d'Irrigation de Proximité (PNIP) (National Program for Small-Scale Irrigation) (GoM 2012c). The cluster also promotes capacity building to enhance women's role in irrigation infrastructure development planning."}]},{"head":"Synthesizing the results as a basis for making recommendations","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reviewing the policy/ regulatory framework","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Studying policy implementation and interventions on the ground","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analyzing the informal institutional context","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"As these results show, attempts have been made to improve gender and youth inclusion in agriculture. However, specific strategies promoting inclusion in the IVVC are absent. Indeed, the policy framework seems to prioritize crops other than vegetables. Similarly, input and service strategies are general, with no specification made for vegetables. Theoretically, access to inputs and services is equal. In reality, it is difficult for women and youth to access -and thus benefit from -these inputs and services."}]},{"head":"Interventions reflect policy shortcomings","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The subsequent intervention analysis assessed the interventions initiated by both government and nongovernmental organizations to implement the policies. As in the policy analysis, the interventions were grouped into seven clusters: ( 1 The food security cluster intends to strengthen the production and (infrastructure) management capacities of public, private and community institutions in the agriculture sector, e.g., Projet de Renforcement de la Sécurité Alimentaire et Nutritionnelle dans la Région de Koulikoro (PReSAN-KL) (Koulikoro Region Food and Nutrition Security Enhancement Project) (AfDB 2013). In terms of inclusion, emphasis is placed on training, monitoring and supporting youth in the use of agricultural machinery and cultivating diverse crops including vegetables, e.g., Projet de Renforcement de la Sécurité Alimentaire par le Développement des Cultures Irriguées (PRESA/DCI) (Project for Food Security Consolidation through Development of Irrigation Farming) (AfDB 2013). Women's leadership in community resource management is also promoted (PReSAN-KL). Finally, women and youth are helped to develop business plans and access finance."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The agricultural development cluster supports many aspects of irrigated vegetable production through irrigation infrastructure development. Specific interventions for gender and youth inclusion along the value chain are highlighted. For example, women and youth are prioritized in accessing irrigation schemes and market gardens and are provided with financial and technical support for their small-and mediumsized processing enterprises, e.g., Northern Regions Investment and Rural Development Programme (IFAD 2005); Project for the Support to the Seed Sector (AfDB 2009a)."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"The agricultural finance cluster aims to support agricultural development by facilitating access to financial services, e.g., Inclusive Finance in Agricultural Value Chain Project (INCLUSIF) (IFAD 2018). Interventions fostering gender and youth inclusion have a significant capacity building component. This emphasizes financial literacy, knowledge of natural resource management and participation in decision-making. The use of cost-effective technologies for developing vegetable gardens and climatesmart production techniques is also promoted, e.g., Inclusive Green Financing Initiative (IGREENFIN) (IFAD 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"The water resources management cluster promotes efficient water use, e.g., Project to Support the Implementation of the Integrated Water Resource Management Action Plan (AfDB 2017), as well as private investment in irrigation development and agricultural equipment manufacturing. Regarding inclusion, the Office du Niger irrigation scheme allocates 10% of the developed irrigated land to women and youth, although this is lower than the 15% set by the LFA (GoM 2017a)."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"The irrigation development cluster contributes to the engagement of women and youth in irrigated vegetable production, enabling them to take up agriculture as a profession by developing their technical and managerial capacity, e. As in the policy analysis, the intervention analysis reveals that while broad efforts have been made to increase inclusion in agricultural value chains, many shortcomings exist. These include poor policy implementation, weak coordination within and between ministries, an absence of gender strategies in project design, modest capacity building of youth, low involvement of the private sector, prioritization of crops other than vegetables and limited attention paid to value chain linkages beyond production (e.g., collection and marketing)."}]},{"head":"Barriers to and opportunities for inclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"In the final stage, results from the policy analysis were compared with the intervention analysis to complete a synthesis analysis. The synthesis analysis identified the public, private and civil society actors and stakeholders in the IVVC, their roles in and influence on IVVC policies and interventions, and how these create barriers to or opportunities for gender and youth inclusion. An overview of the barriers and opportunities is presented in Table 1."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"The synthesis analysis shows that the current policy and intervention framework insufficiently supports gender and youth inclusion. Where gender and youth inclusion are addressed, there is often a disconnect between a policy's stated goals and clear guidance on policy implementation that would help achieve these goals. In addition, technical, human and financial capacity is frequently missing at national and local authority levels, further hampering policy implementation. The policy framework also tends to focus on agricultural value chains in general and pays little attention to the IVVC. As an illustration of this, while the Malian government is pursuing a crop diversification policy to ensure year-round food availability for household consumption, significant subsidy support is allocated to cotton, cereal and rice cultivation (FAO 2017). Consequently, vegetable seeds are expensive for farmers. They are also imported and may not adapt to local conditions."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"In other areas such as processing, gender inclusion is addressed in the form of strategies to improve women's access to modern conservation and processing techniques. However, youth are overlooked. Moreover, the strategies target general agro-food processing, with shallots being the only vegetable specified."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Overall, IVVC actors are not as well organized as groups involved in the cultivation of crops such as mango, cashew and gum arabic. The barriers to better coordination in the IVVC include insufficient financial resources and access to credit, and poor communication and information sharing among actors. The effects of weak coordination exacerbated by security problems in some locations as a result of armed conflict have limited the development of irrigation-related infrastructure."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"As with other strategies, investment in irrigation tends to focus on staple and cash crops and not specifically on vegetable Table 1. Barriers to and opportunities for gender and youth inclusion in the IVVC. production. This is often because vegetables are not considered strategically important for food security at the national level. As a result, vegetables are frequently overlooked in national food security policies, despite the need for greater crop diversity at the local level. Also missing from the policy and intervention framework are specific strategies for gender and youth investment in irrigation. This results in weak irrigation infrastructure and the limited use of pumps, both petrol/ diesel and solar-powered pumps. Vegetables are occasionally promoted in the off-season (October-February). Consequently, intensive production of vegetables is limited."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"Lastly, gender-and youth-inclusive policies and support programs, where they exist, tend to emphasize agricultural production. This is despite the fact that women and youth play -or could play -a substantial role at all stages of the IVVC. For example, over 80% of horticultural products are marketed by women in both rural and urban areas (Diakité et al. 2014)."}]},{"head":"The way forward","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The findings show a strong political will to develop Mali's agriculture sector. However, irrigated vegetable production is not a policy or intervention priority compared to other crops such as cotton, cereals and rice. To create a sustainable and inclusive IVVC with the potential to improve incomes, nutrition, health, knowledge and representation of women and youth, the following actions are needed."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Enable a policy and institutional environment and governance mechanisms that support gender and youth inclusion in the IVVC."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• Strengthen agricultural policies and programs to effectively address challenges to gender and youth inclusion. This includes eliminating policy incoherence and resolving the disconnect between policy goals and policy implementation."}]},{"head":"Category Barriers Opportunities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"New drivers "}]},{"head":"IVVC-related inclusive development","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"• Absence of gender-and youth-specific strategies in the IVVC • Gender-and youth-specific strategies and interventions focused on production • Percentage of irrigated land allocated to women and youth is less than the law requires • Unclear water access guidance for gender and youth inclusion in irrigation development"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Sensitive evolution of gender inclusion in the decision-making process • Priority integration of women and youth in agricultural professions • Support for gender and youth engagement along the value chain"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"The mismatch between national-level policymaking and local needs should also be addressed."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Provide policy support for the IVVC and horticultural subsector development to enable gender and youth inclusion and benefits."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Support policy interventions on family farming development to ensure that investment policies protect the rights of local populations."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• Support an in-depth review of existing agricultural policies, standards and programs as well as a revision of agricultural input policies."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Develop gender-and youth-sensitive input subsidy policies and programs."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"• Create, strengthen or revitalize the policy consultation framework and process at national and grassroots levels."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"• Strengthen and promote inclusive planning, collaboration, coordination, communication, and monitoring and evaluation of agricultural policy and program implementation."},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"Enable private sector investment in irrigation supply chains, the IVVC and horticultural subsectors."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"• Create an enabling environment in which domestic manufacturers, irrigation and input suppliers, and small processing businesses can grow."},{"index":12,"size":36,"text":"• Accelerate sustainable financing models to help de-risk private sector investments in irrigation markets. This applies especially to innovative products and services such as payas-you-go and gender-sensitive credit assessment tools that support gender and youth inclusion."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"• Foster partnerships between entrepreneurs, farmer groups, cooperatives, and private and public sector actors."},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"Enhance IVVC interventions that promote gender and youth inclusion and economic empowerment."},{"index":15,"size":11,"text":"• Enable inclusive access to resources and requirements for IVVC investment."},{"index":16,"size":15,"text":"• Strengthen the readiness and capacity of women and youth to engage in the IVVC."},{"index":17,"size":9,"text":"• Improve financial and information services, and collective action."},{"index":18,"size":12,"text":"Transform gender and youth inclusion and economic empowerment at the system level."},{"index":19,"size":7,"text":"• Support policy and institutional capacity development."},{"index":20,"size":14,"text":"• Create and operate multi-stakeholder dialogue spaces at various levels (Minh et al 2020)."},{"index":21,"size":38,"text":"• Invest in research for development, specifically targeting the commercialization of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops and fertilizer production, nature-based solutions for land and water resources management, and irrigation development. These are essential for developing domestic agribusiness capacity."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 2011a); Stratégie Nationale Changements Climatiques (SNCC) (National Climate Change Strategy) (GoM 2011b); and the Fonds Climat Mali Plan d'Investissement 2019-2023 (Mali Climate Fund Investment Plan 2019-2023) (GoM 2019b). The food security cluster aims to diversify and improve food production as well as support processing, storage, transport and marketing infrastructure and integration. Policies include Stratégie Nationale de Sécurité Alimentaire au Mali (SNSA) (National Food Security Strategy) (GoM 2002), and Plan Stratégique National pour l'Alimentation et la Nutrition (PSNAN) (National Strategic Plan for Food and Nutrition) (GoM 2005a). The cluster also promotes the cultivation of nutrientrich crops such as fruits, vegetables and legumes through market gardening schemes to ensure year-round availability for household consumption, e.g., Politique Nationale de Sécurité Alimentaire et Nutritionnelle: Plan d'Actions 2019-2028 (PolNSAN) (National Food and Nutrition Security Policy: Action Plan 2019-2028) (GoM 2019c). The agricultural development cluster emphasizes equal access to productive resources for women and youth and aims to allocate (agricultural) land based on the preferences of women, youth and vulnerable groups, e.g., Loi d'Orientation Agricole (LOA) (Agricultural Orientation Law) (GoM 2006a); and Politique de Développement Agricole du Mali (PDA) (Mali Agricultural Development Policy) (GoM 2013). According to Article 13 of the Loi Foncière Agricole (LFA) (Agricultural Land Law) (GoM 2017a), 'at least 15% of land development by the state or local authorities is allocated to groups and associations of women and young people established in the area concerned'. Similarly, the Politique Foncière Agricole du Mali (PFA) (Agricultural Land Policy) (GoM 2014) promotes women's empowerment by enhancing rural women's participation in decision-making and leadership as well as supporting their entrepreneurial activities with production, service and processing equipment. The water resources development and management cluster aims to create opportunities for women to undertake incomegenerating activities in the water sector, e.g., Politique Nationale de l'Eau (PNE) (National Water Policy) (GoM 2006b); and Plan d'Action National de Gestion Intégrée des Ressources en Eau (PAGIRE) (National Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources Management) (GoM 2007). It also promotes private sector investment in gender-sensitive technologies such as market garden wells and micro-irrigation equipment, e.g., Schéma Directeur d'Aménagement et de Gestion des Ressources en Eau du Bassin du Sourou -Portion Nationale du Mali (Master Plan for Development and Management of Water Resources in the Sourou Basin) (GoM 2012b). "},{"text":" ) general and private sector development; (2) climate change and environment; (3) food security; (4) agricultural development; (5) agricultural finance; (6) water resources management; and (7) irrigation development. The general and private sector development cluster has several aims, including irrigation infrastructure development and management, agricultural value chain development and improved competitiveness of the private sector. Specific interventions target women's engagement and technical and managerial capacity along the value chain, e.g., Projet d'Appui à la Réinsertion Socio-Économique des Populations du Nord Mali (PARSEP-NM) (Socio-Economic Reintegration Support Project for the Population of Northern Mali (AfDB 2016). Women farmer groups and cooperatives are encouraged by providing support such as microfinance intended to diversify and increase their income-generating activities, e.g., Rural Development Support Project of the Daye, Hamadja and Korioume Plains (PARR) (ADF 2000).The climate change and environment cluster contributes to gender and youth inclusion in several ways. For example, the promotion of irrigated vegetable production emphasizes community market gardening, the construction or rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure as well as water collection and storage facilities such as wells and ponds.Interventions include Programme Intégré de Développement et d'Adaptation au Changement Climatique dans le Bassin du Niger (PIDACC) (Integrated Programme for Development and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Basin of Niger) (AfDB 2018b). In addition, the cluster addresses women and youth empowerment in production and marketing through the construction of processing facilities for agricultural and horticultural products, e.g., Renforcer la Capacite d'Adaptation et la Resilience des Communes de Sandare, Massantola, Cinzana et M'Pessoba Face aux Changements Climatiques dans le Secteur Agricole au Mali) (Strengthen the Adaptive Capacity and Resilience of the Municipalities of Sandare, Masantola, Cinzana and M'Pessoba in the Face of Climate Change in the Agriculture Sector in Mali) (GoM 2017b). "},{"text":" g., Programme de Développement de l'Irrigation dans le Bassin du Bani et à Sélingué (PDI-BS) (Irrigation Development Program in Bani Basin and Sélingué) (AfDB 2009b); and Projet Développement de l'Agriculture Irriguée Commerciale en Zone Office du Niger (PDAIC-ZON) (Project for the Development of Commercial Irrigated Agriculture in the Office du Niger Zone) (GoM 2017c). Specific emphasis is placed on developing market gardens and transferring the management responsibility to women, e.g., Projet de Développement des Bas-fonds dans le Cercle de Yélimané (Lowland Development Project in the Yélimané Circle) (GoM 2005b). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"The gender, youth and social inclusion and decentralization cluster Framework for analyzing the enabling environment for gender and youth inclusion in Mali's irrigated vegetable value chain.  development policies; (2) gender, youth and social inclusion development policies; (2) gender, youth and social inclusion  and decentralization; (3) climate change and environment; (4) and decentralization; (3) climate change and environment; (4)  food security; (5) agricultural development; (6) water resources food security; (5) agricultural development; (6) water resources  development and management; and (7) irrigation development. development and management; and (7) irrigation development.  The results show that general development policies promoting The results show that general development policies promoting  gender equity and inclusion have been developed, revised gender equity and inclusion have been developed, revised  and implemented across the identified clusters over the past and implemented across the identified clusters over the past  two decades. For example, the Cadre Stratégique pour la two decades. For example, the Cadre Stratégique pour la  Relance Économique et le Développement Durable (CREDD) Relance Économique et le Développement Durable (CREDD)  (Strategic Framework for Economic Recovery and Sustainable (Strategic Framework for Economic Recovery and Sustainable  Development) (GoM 2019a), introduced in 2015 and revised in Development) (GoM 2019a), introduced in 2015 and revised in  2019, intends to 'create a favorable environment for economic 2019, intends to 'create a favorable environment for economic  diversification and strong and inclusive growth'. diversification and strong and inclusive growth'.  sets the basic conditions for gender and youth sets the basic conditions for gender and youth  inclusion and empowerment, allowing women to legally access inclusion and empowerment, allowing women to legally access  productive assets such as water, land and credit. Several productive assets such as water, land and credit. Several  policies aim to strengthen women's and youth's organization policies aim to strengthen women's and youth's organization  and social capacity to restore degraded land, access land and and social capacity to restore degraded land, access land and  inputs for productive activities, and integrate professionally. inputs for productive activities, and integrate professionally.  These policies include the Politique Nationale Genre du Mali These policies include the Politique Nationale Genre du Mali  (PNG-Mali) (National Gender Policy) (GoM 2012a), introduced (PNG-Mali) (National Gender Policy) (GoM 2012a), introduced  in 2012 and revised in 2014, and the Programme Décennal de in 2012 and revised in 2014, and the Programme Décennal de  Développement de la Formation Professionnelle pour l'Emploi Développement de la Formation Professionnelle pour l'Emploi  (PRODEFPE) (Ten-Year Vocational Training Development (PRODEFPE) (Ten-Year Vocational Training Development  Program for Employment) (GoM 2015). Program for Employment) (GoM 2015).  The climate change and environment cluster promotes The climate change and environment cluster promotes  agricultural intensification and diversification to support value agricultural intensification and diversification to support value  chain development, income-generating activities for women chain development, income-generating activities for women  and socioeconomic integration of youth. At the same time, the and socioeconomic integration of youth. At the same time, the  cluster indirectly oversees private sector investment in climate cluster indirectly oversees private sector investment in climate For this first part of the analysis, policies change adaptation, e.g., Politique Nationale sur les Changements For this first part of the analysis, policieschange adaptation, e.g., Politique Nationale sur les Changements were categorized into seven thematic clusters: (1) general Climatiques (PNCC) (National Climate Change Policy) (GoM were categorized into seven thematic clusters: (1) generalClimatiques (PNCC) (National Climate Change Policy) (GoM Figure 1.  Figure 1.  "}],"sieverID":"f30e2d2b-9945-4536-9f18-bd1a7d6ee30f","abstract":"■ Production of high-value irrigated vegetables has significant socioeconomic potential for women and youth. ■ A comprehensive policy and intervention analysis identified the factors enabling or hindering gender and youth inclusion in the irrigated vegetable value chain. ■ The recommendations resulting from this analysis could, if implemented, support successful and inclusive irrigation interventions. Adaptive Innovation Scaling -Pathways from Small-scale Irrigation to Sustainable Development Farmers attending a field demonstration of solar-powered irrigation equipment in Sikasso, Mali (photo: Thai Thi Minh/IWMI)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01d9ac67103b6a848c570b7e37bf3cb1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77cb4cc7-5aee-4510-a662-2082dba2987e/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Accelerated Variety Turnover for Open-Pollinated Crops in Tanzania -Phase 1 Key Findings","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Open-pollinated varieties (OPVs), such as beans, sorghum, and groundnuts, are important for increased income, job creation, food security, and nutrition of both urban and rural households in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, the main constraint is underdeveloped seed systems, which contribute substantially to dwindling productivity among small-scale farmers due to limited access to reliable and quality planting materials. In SSA, specifically in Tanzania, there are three main types of seed systems serving farmers, namely formal, semi-formal, and informal. The informal system, which supplies about 97% of the farmers' planting material requirements, includes access to farmer-saved seed, also obtained through exchanges or bartering, and seed from local markets that is heavily driven by traders determining the varieties available, while the remainder is sourced from the formal and semi-formal seed systems (McGuire & Sperling, 2016;Odhiambo et al., 2016) 1 ."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"The formal seed sector is characterized by low margins, the high cost of reaching last-mile users, and erratic and uncertain demand, probably because farmers have access to low-cost alternatives from the informal system (e.g., farm-saved seed or local markets). Under these conditions, there is limited incentive for the formal sector actors, specifically seed companies, to invest in additional production and sale, much less investing in a new variety inventory. This situation has contributed to the low varietal turnover of most OPVs, with old varieties not being able to meet the challenges linked to climate change and changing market demand driven by smallholder farmers and traders in SSA. Consequently, the vast majority of planting material is provided regularly at acceptable prices by local and regional vendors, who also trade in grain and shift to selling seed, often saving and recleaning superior lots of grain for sale as seed during the planting season."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"This implies that 'market-sourced' seed from traders offers farmers a superior value proposition to other options and thus deserves attention as a potential pathway to scaling quality seed of new varieties (Rubyogo et al., 2019;Sperling et al., 2014). However, the seed/ grain traders remain unaware of and unlinked to sources of seed of new varieties and predominantly recycle old varieties year after year leading to low varietal adoption and turnover. This presents a substantial opportunity to accelerate variety adoption and turnover by linking the efficiency and scaling power of seed/grain traders with the stream of seed of new varieties from the formal and semi-formal systems."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"The proposed investment to accelerate varietal adoption and turnover for OPVs in Tanzania aims at understanding the requirements and constraints of large-scale and marketplace traders to take on new varieties and how best to enable these partnerships across the formal, semi-formal, and informal seed sectors to accelerate varietal adoption and turnover. This is based on the demand-pull approach (Figure 1), where seeds largely come from grain traders, who currently not only buy grain from small-scale producers but also supply the largest amount of planting materials (seeds) for many OPVs. Humanitarian agencies and NGOs equally create this demand-pull since they spend considerable resources on sourcing and distributing seeds to demanding and stressed areas."}]},{"head":"Project description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The Accelerated Variety Turnover for Open-pollinated Crops (ACCELERATE) is a four-year project funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) and jointly implemented by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT/Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) as the lead institution in collaboration with the Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute (TOSCI) and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The overall aim of the project is to develop a scalable model to accelerate new variety adoption of open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) in Tanzania by linking existing capacities of the formal and quality-declared seed (QDS) sectors with sources of demand. Furthermore, the varietal scaling model should be replicable in other crop value chains, regions, or contexts to increase productivity through enhanced use of new/improved varieties and build sustainable seed/grain businesses that transform livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"ACCELERATE is expected to accelerate varietal turnover in Tanzania by tapping into the power of large/small-scale or marketplace traders, and institutional seed buyers. It emphasizes sources of demand-pull as the impetus for seed systems growth and is hinged on three hypotheses:"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Increasing information flow to and from large-scale traders, grain producers, and formal/semi-formal seed producers will increase demand-pull for quality seed of improved varieties."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Involving small-scale/marketplace traders in greater numbers and earlier will boost the adoption of new varieties through demand-pull."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• Increasing institutional buyer awareness of and access to improved varieties will accelerate varietal turnover rates in climate-stressed areas and improve income/nutrition outcomes."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Figure 1 presents the demand-pull hypothesis and how it is expected to work throughout the project lifecycle."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"The project is being implemented in three phases:"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"1 Landscaping and hypothesis validation (the current report details this);"},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"2 Demand-pull learning by market segment; and 3 Cross learning and model building."},{"index":10,"size":55,"text":"As part of Phase 1 implementation, a baseline survey was conducted in all six agro-ecological zones and eighteen regions of Tanzania, focusing on the above hypotheses of stimulating demand-pull in three seed system markets and mapping men, women, and youth actors, their interests, and capacity in the three seed market segments presented in Figure 1."},{"index":11,"size":127,"text":"An exploratory research design was employed, combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches to gather data from traders and humanitarian organizations, including international and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The approach included: (i) extensive interviews with large off-takers and small-scale/marketplace traders using a structured questionnaire, and (ii) interviews with government institutions and humanitarian agencies, including NGOs, using a short semi-structured questionnaire. The survey collected information from 976 traders (beans 421; groundnuts 300; sorghum 255) comprising 247 largescale off-takers and 659 marketplace traders. Lastly, a total of 112 institutions were interviewed (58 humanitarian agencies/NGOs and 54 government agencies, of which 29 were District Agricultural Offices). The questionnaires were administered in person between 17 May and 9 June 2023, and follow-up questions were addressed through phone calls, email, and online interviews. "}]},{"head":"Key findings","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Traders are a key source of seed for farmers • Bean traders (57%), groundnut traders (24%), and sorghum traders (20%) prepare the grain to sell as seed. For all the crops, involvement in seed sales is more widespread amongst small-scale/marketplace traders (44%, 31%, 23%, respectively) than large offtakers for beans, groundnut, and sorghum (33%, 11%, 13%, respectively), but the latter is responsible for larger volumes traded."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• More than half the bean (57%), nearly half the groundnut (47%), and 20% of sorghum traders confirmed that their customers use the grain purchased as seed for planting."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"• Traders mainly source grains from farmers (sorghum 52%, beans 42%, and groundnuts 34%), fellow traders (beans 33%, groundnuts 27%, and sorghum 19%), and collectors/aggregators (beans 42%, sorghum 28%, and groundnuts 36%) with no significant differences between men and women traders. Less than 5% of traders produced their own grain, while imports were completely uncommon (<1%). These findings are corroborated by Sperling et al. ( 2021) who pointed out that the informal seed sector is widely recognized as the major source of seed to smallholder farmers in Africa for OPVs and in line with Sperling et al. (2020), which reported that local markets are the main source of seed for groundnuts (42.6%) and common bean (47%) and the second-main source of seed for sorghum (24.3%)."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Traders of beans, sorghum, and groundnuts have direct contact with farmers and predominantly source local seed and grain from them."}]},{"head":"Marketing and market linkages","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• As expected, large-scale off-takers dominate bean sales (81,101.3 tons), sorghum sales (46,606.7 tons), and groundnut sales (33,022.5 tons) compared to small-scale/marketplace traders (sorghum 2,491.6 tons, beans 6,836.4 tons, and groundnuts 12,184.9 tons) per year."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"• Groundnut and sorghum traders differ in their prioritization of the two crop varieties. Marketplace traders sold white sorghum (1,480.1 tons) more than the red/brown type (1,011.5 tons). Small-scale/ marketplace groundnut traders mainly sell the small red variety. The rest of the varieties are sold in much smaller volumes. Large-scale off-takers mainly sell the small and large tan varieties, which are highly demanded in neighboring countries such as Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"• White sorghum accounts for 64% of the sorghum traded in Tanzania. This is mainly dominated by large-scale off-takers who sell about 29,974.1 tons compared with the red/brown types (16,632.6 tons per year). Red/brown sorghum share is growing rapidly, with an increase from 30% in 2020 (Akpo et al., 2022) to 36% in 2023. This may be driven by increasing demand for red sorghum varieties in the regional markets."}]},{"head":"Preference drivers","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"• Bean traders have similar preferences for the mostand least-traded bean types. Yellow, red-mottled, and purple beans are the most traded by large offtakers (44,487.0 tons, 17,649.0 tons, and 10,419.4 tons, respectively). Similarly, small marketplace traders mostly sell yellow beans (2,726.6 tons), purple (1,573.4 tons), and red-mottled type (1,164.2 tons). However, while mixed beans are the least sold by small-scale/marketplace traders (335.6 tons), small reds are the least sold by large-scale off-takers."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Bean buyer preference is consistently driven by taste (77.3%) across all bean types followed by cooking time (56.8%), low flatulence, price, and grain size. However, these results varied across bean types."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• Groundnut-buyer preference is driven by taste (69%), oil content (48%), grain size (37%), and color (29%), indicating that taste and oil content should be prioritized in breeding efforts."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Sorghum-buyer preference is driven by color (52.3%), taste (50.3%), and processability (40.9%) overall."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"White sorghum has an outstanding appreciation rate for its color (71.5%). Both varieties are equally appreciated for taste 50.3%. Red/brown has a much higher appreciation for processability, and bird resistance compared to white."}]},{"head":"Informal grain flows","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• Generally, there is heavy traffic/flow of all major bean varieties towards the Eastern part of the country, perhaps an indication that this is a major bean market and consumption destination, as well as a transit point to Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"• The primary production regions for sorghum are Central, Lake Zone, and the Southern highlands for white and red varieties. Lesser/Light flows are observed in the Mtwara region with the main markets being I the Central region and Dar es Salaam. Sorghum grain is exported to Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Southern Sudan, Uganda, and Zambia."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• Major market classes for groundnuts are red and white varieties with red varieties being more popular in Dodoma and Dar es Salam. The major export markets dominated by tan-color types are Burundi, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, and Uganda."}]},{"head":"Preference drivers inform/determine pricing","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"• For consumers, yellow beans are the highest priced (US$1,186 per ton) with mixed varieties attracting the lowest prices (US$772 per ton). On average, marketplace traders sell beans at a higher price (US$1,102 per ton) than large-scale off-takers (US$1,067 per ton). For both types of traders, women traders sell beans at a lower price (US$1,038 per ton) than men traders (US$1,158 per ton)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"• Sold as seed, yellow beans consistently fetch the highest price (US$1,314 per ton). Bean seed prices vary between men and women traders, even within the same category of traders. Overall, men traders sell bean seed at a higher price (US$1,295 per ton) than women traders (US$1,142 per ton). Small-scale/ marketplace traders sell bean seed at a higher price (US$1,225 per ton) than large-scale off-takers (US$1,117 per ton)."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• White sorghum (US$640 per ton) has a much higher selling price than red/brown sorghum (US$501 per ton). Outstanding appreciation for its white color promotes its value."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"• The overall selling prices were mainly defined by region and by size of the trader, with large-scale off-takers applying much lower prices than smallscale traders. We found different price ranges per groundnut type, but these were driven by local demand."}]},{"head":"Contractual arrangements with suppliers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"• Large-scale traders use contracts to meet quantity targets. Large-scale off-takers (26% beans, 42% groundnuts, 52% sorghum) are more likely to verbally contract farmers to supply them with varieties than are small-scale traders (25% groundnuts and 24% sorghum)."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"• Informal traders mainly make contractual arrangements for to ensure quality, while largescale off-takers mainly contract for quantity. This difference can be explained by the customer types i.e., informal traders sell to the end consumers (95% retail trade), while large-scale off-takers mainly work through wholesaling (81%), aggregating (45%), and retail trade (35%)."}]},{"head":"Access to seed and seed management practices","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• Practices to prepare grain as seed for selling are similar for beans, sorghum, and groundnuts."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"• Over 47% of traders indicated that their customers purchase local/informal seeds from them and openly declare that they are purchasing seeds. However, sorghum had the highest proportion of customers purchasing local seed from the markets (80% of the traders indicated selling local seed). This observation implies that customers often purchase 'informal seeds' from traders, potentially making them important agents for accelerating new varietal adoption and turnover."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"• Notably, over 56%, 20%, and 47% of bean, sorghum, and groundnut traders, respectively, confirmed knowingly selling grains for planting without applying any seed management practices to retain purity. Overall, more marketplace traders (>30%) indicated they are engaged in selling seeds than large-scale traders. This observation means that bean grain traders also act as a seed source for farmers. Further, our data confirms the findings by Sperling et al. (2021) who pointed out that the informal seed sector should be widely recognized as a critical node that smallholder farmers in Africa use to access seed for their range of crops."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"• Generally, buyers of seeds often inform traders that they are buying seeds (>70%) looking for pure, not mixed, and clean varieties (>70%), with some of them asking for the origin of the variety (<10%). Thus, the traders will know that the customer is purchasing seeds and advise them accordingly."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"• Traders prioritize the same seed management practices for all three crops, which include: keeping each variety pure/as a single variety (61% groundnut, 65% bean, 66% sorghum traders); sorting for 'waste' (pebbles, dirt, dust) (52% groundnut, 46% bean, 42% sorghum traders); sorting for 'bad grains/seed' (that is broken, immature, or discolored) (47% bean, 45% groundnut, 36% sorghum traders) and seeking out specific varieties to buy (which can be planted) (30% groundnut, 41% sorghum, 50% bean traders)."}]},{"head":"Traders' interest in promoting improved varieties","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"• More than half of the bean traders expressed a willingness to participate in promoting and accelerating the adoption and turnover of new varieties with no difference expressed between a) small-scale marketplace traders and largescale off-takers, and b) men and women traders."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Similarly, sorghum and groundnut traders confirmed discussing and promoting new varieties with their customers."}]},{"head":"Digital readiness and literacy","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"• Overall, bean, groundnut, and sorghum traders have low digital literacy and experience. This differs by trader type, gender, and location. Our survey results indicate that men have a higher digital literacy than women. Large-scale traders have a higher digital literacy than small-scale or marketplace traders."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Traders in urban markets have a higher digital literacy than traders in rural markets. Traders with a higher level of formal education tend to have a higher digital literacy."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"• Most bean, groundnut, and sorghum traders own a mobile phone and mostly use the radio. Less than half own a smartphone, with a significant difference between small-and large-scale traders. Ownership of phones and radio is widespread, while computers are generally uncommon."}]},{"head":"Institutional seed buyers and seed systems","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• Most humanitarian (NGO) agencies working in the agricultural sector support farmers to produce quality-declared seed (QDS), promote improved varieties, train farmers, and link farmers with input suppliers and grain buyers."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"• Institutional seed buyers purchase seeds (different classes) from TARI and seed companies to distribute to farmers producing seeds and grains. They also link farmers and traders to institutional grain buyers such as the World Food Programme (WFP) and beer processing companies (Tanzania Breweries Limited and Serengeti Breweries Limited)."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"• Institutions predominantly use demonstration plots and block farms in communities to deliver information about improved varieties and create demand for increased varietal adoption, replacement, and turnover. However, the availability of starter seeds (basic and certified seeds) for QDS production has also been a challenge."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• All the humanitarian organizations and government agencies confirmed their willingness to engage in efforts to accelerate the varietal turnover of OPVs (sorghum, beans, and groundnuts)."}]},{"head":"Support needed by traders to actively engage in delivering seed","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"• There is a prevalent knowledge gap on seed variety handling and management (sorghum 61%, beans (20%), and groundnuts 58%). This technical support should be prioritized among women traders, among whom the knowledge gap is more widespread compared to men traders. Other support needed by traders includes extension and training services (beans 4%, sorghum 12%, and groundnuts 16%), information on variety sources (beans 18%, sorghum 12%, and groundnuts 10%), and seed business management skills (beans 24%, sorghum 9%, and groundnuts 9%). The latter includes support on how to establish viable seed businesses within Tanzania seed regulations or laws."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• This study confirms the critical role of the informal seed sector in availing seeds of open-pollinated crops such as beans, groundnuts, and sorghum to smallholder farmers across Africa."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"• Both the interlink between and independence of seed and grain trade are demonstrated. Grain traders consciously sell seed and are mostly clear on what farmers' varietal and seed trait preferences are and when they need seed. Traders manage seeds differently to grains, and customers openly declare that they are buying seeds and are willing to pay premium prices relative to grain prices -so the seed business is lucrative even in the informal sector. The informal grain/seed traders' robustness and dynamism point to their pivotal role not only in promoting the grain business -thus creating a derived seed demand -but also in sustaining local seed businesses and moving varieties widely and Accelerated Variety Turnover for Open-Pollinated Crops in Tanzania -Phase 1 Key Findings quickly. Essentially, these traders are central as lastmile agents to deliver quality seeds to the farmers and accelerate varietal turnover."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• Taste has emerged as an essential trait since it is the main driver for bean, sorghum, and groundnut preference. Hence, it should be prioritized in breeding efforts."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"• Notably, white sorghum still dominates the market due to strong appreciation of its color. However, the market share of red/brown varieties is growing and currently represents about 36%. Red/brown sorghum is mainly exported within the region. Hence, there is an opportunity to enhance breeding efforts towards developing more improved red/ brown varieties."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"• Contractual arrangements, albeit mostly verbal, are a tool for grain/seed quantity and quality assurance -further demonstrating efforts by informal traders to create both effective and sustainable grain/seed supply with functional quality control measures such as traceability."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"• Varietal attributes drive the prices, trade volumes, and revenues generated from seeds and grains sales with traceable pathways, including beyond the national borders."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"• There is low digital literacy among traders, with mobile phones being the most used tool for calls, SMS, and mobile money transactions. Internetrelated services are rarely used, phone calls and personal meetings are the most preferred communication channels, and traders rely on other traders for relevant information for their business."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"• This study confirms that multistakeholder platforms provide learning and knowledge exchange spaces, where stakeholders come together to discuss their challenges and identify opportunities to address them for mutual benefits."},{"index":9,"size":47,"text":"• Institutional buyers such as humanitarian agencies play a key role in the seed sector through seed production, varietal promotion, farmers' training, and linking farmers to input suppliers and grain buyers with significant grain demand levels creating seed demand-pull. These institutional buyers collaborate with national research institutes."},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"• Traders, government agencies, and humanitarian agencies are willing to engage in efforts to accelerate the varietal turnover of OPVs (sorghum, beans, and groundnuts)."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"• The direct link between traders, institutional seed buyers, and consumers is indicative that traders and institutional seed buyers are pivotal as lastmile agents to deliver quality seeds to farmers, thus providing an impetus for further testing the hypothesis that they can accelerate varietal adoption and turnover of OPVs."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"• The fact that bean, groundnut, and sorghum customers openly indicate that they are buying seeds of specific varieties is clear evidence of the need to link the traders to better sources of improved varieties from the formal and semi-formal seed systems (e.g., certified and QDS seed, respectively). Through the Tanzania seed law, traders can deliver seeds to farmers by linking farmers to seed companies and QDS producers, deliver seeds from seed companies to farmers supplying grains, and provide information about new varieties."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"• Large-scale off-takers engage in aggregation, provision of tailored extension services, messaging, and move larger seed volumes than small-scale/ marketplace traders for the three crops, thus their involvement in an integrated seed system model would accelerate varietal adoption and turnover."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Cross-border seed movement should be further explored to help develop wider varietal promotion and a seed marketing strategy."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"• Given the limited digital literacy and limited ownership of smartphones, computers, and tablets among traders, it is critical to enhance existing peer networks that are connected by telephone chains to diffuse information on new varieties and create demand for them. Therefore, there other options should be explored for digitizing traders and farmers by testing innovative digital solutions that would increase varietal turnover, productivity, and food and nutrition security."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• Since multistakeholder platforms (MSPs) provide stakeholders with spaces for information flow, learning, and knowledge exchange, it would be ideal to promote trader-led MSPs to facilitate access to quality seeds and other complementary services needed for increased productivity and incomes for all value chain actors."},{"index":7,"size":128,"text":"• Limited availability of starter seed (basic, pre-basic, and early-generation seeds (EGSs), quality-declared seeds (QDS) and certified seed production emerged as a key constraint to varietal adoption and turnover for the three crops. A ministerial circular designed to alleviate the challenges of EGS availability through direct licensing agreements between the national agricultural research system and private seed companies has had limited success due to stringent conditions and restrictions placed on the licenses (SeedCLIR, 2013). Thus, there is a need for policy research and advocacy to influence reforms aimed at complementing current efforts by TARI, TOSCI, and other partners. A review of the seed licensing policy to remove conditions is a viable option to increase the availability and access to quality seeds for farmers, seed companies, and institutional buyers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Model of the demand-pull approach hypothesis. "}],"sieverID":"78449c12-eab5-4e76-935e-abbe9745ff50","abstract":"ACCELERATE Accelerated Variety Turnover for Open-pollinated Crops project BMGF Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center EGS Early-generation seeds MSPs Multi-stakeholder platforms NGOs Non-governmental organizations OPVs Open-pollinated varieties PABRA Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance QDS Quality-declared seed SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TARI Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute WFP World Food Programme 1 Informal seed systems are also referred to as 'farmer,' 'local,' or 'traditional' seed systems, and seeds from these systems take similar names, while semi-formal systems are sometimes called 'intermediate'."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01d9d9d023003d6fbb2533711dd205d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/73aafdef-d4cf-44d1-a45c-fc6377134ddd/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Prediction of functional characteristics of gari (cassava flakes) using near-infrared reflectance spectrometry","keywords":["cassava","gari","functional properties","NIRS","prediction model"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":292,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an essential staple crop grown throughout the tropics by more than 800 million people (Teeken et al., 2018), and it is the third primary source of calories after rice and maize (Adetoro et al., 2018). Nigeria, Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are responsible for about 60% of cassava production, and Nigeria is the leading producer (Ohimain, 2015). Cassava's global production in 2015 and 2016 was estimated to be around 281 million tons and 288.4 million tons, respectively (FAO, 2016), while Nigeria was reported to have engaged over four million farmers in cassava production (FAO, 2018). Cassava roots are drought tolerant; hence they are widely cultivated for their ability to withstand harsh environmental and agronomic conditions. As a result of its ability to survive in the face of adverse climatic conditions, cassava is often called Africa's food insurance (Jarvis et al., 2012;Belalcazar et al., 2016). The root crop is the second most important food staple in sub-Saharan Africa, while in Nigeria, it is a primary staple food which is consumed by more than 100 million people daily because it is an efficient and easy source of carbohydrate food energy (Tarawali et al., 2012;Adetoro et al., 2018). Due to the versatility of the crop, it can be prepared into various foods, used as animal feeds, and produce as industrial materials such as starch (Bechoff et al., 2018). It has been used to manufacture plywood, paper, textiles, and adhesives (Tonukari et al., 2015). In the food industry, cassava has been processed into numerous products like bread, pasta, and couscous-like products (Mtunguja et al., 2019). In Nigeria, the major cassava-based products are gari, fufu and lafun, produced and consumed by the farmers (Teeken et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":485,"text":"Gari, one of the significant products from cassava roots in the West Africa sub-region, is a dry, crispy, and granular food product (Udoro et al., 2014;Awoyale et al., 2021a). It is the most traded cassava food product in West and Central Africa, with Nigeria as the largest producer (FAO, 2018). The cassava roots are peeled, washed, and grated during gari production. The grated mash is then dewatered by pressing, fermented (optional), sieved and roasted (Escobar et al., 2018). The optional fermentation and addition of palm oil influence the classification of gari, usually \"Ijebu gari\" and \"yellow gari.\" Ijebu gari is produced by fermenting the cassava mash before roasting, while yellow gari is processed without fermentation but by adding red palm oil before roasting (Erukainure et al., 2022). The granular product is a versatile and convenient food due to its cheapness, ease of storage, long shelf-life, and short preparation time for consumption, making it extremely popular among urban dwellers in Nigeria and other West African countries (Irtwange and Achimba, 2009). It is the most consumed cassava food product in West Africa, and Nigeria is the largest consumer (Ndjouenkeu et al., 2021). In Nigeria, gari production has contributed immensely to the nation's economic growth, a substantial portion of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is occupied by gari processing firms (Ogundipe et al., 2013). The versatility of gari is reflected in the various ways it can be consumed, such as soaking in cold water and consumed directly with sweeteners, groundnut and fish. It can be consumed as a dough by sprinkling it into a measured quantity of boiling water with continuous stirring until a consistent dough is formed. The dough, popularly called \"eba,\" is the most widely eaten form of gari in Nigeria (Irtwange and Achimba, 2009;Adinsi et al., 2019;Teeken et al., 2021). These primary forms in which gari is consumed take advantage of one of its functional properties, specifically the swelling power, which is a critical factor that influences the overall acceptability of the product by consumers (Ndjouenkeu et al., 2021, Becerra Lopez-Lavalle et al., 2018). The functional properties of food materials, such as bulk density, water absorption capacity, swelling power, and dispersibility, often indicate how the food materials interact with other food components, affecting food quality and consumer acceptability (Awoyale et al., 2021b). The bulk density of food material is a crucial determinant of the packaging materials suitable for such food material and influences its handling. Whereas the extent to which gari swells affects its final quality (Awoyale et al., 2020). Also, the swelling power of starch indicates its specific functional properties when utilized in food products, which is often a function of the amylopectin content of the starch (Noranizan et al., 2010). The functional properties of cassava food products are essential to the breeders because it influences their acceptability by processors and consumers; hence the need for a technology that can rapidly evaluate these properties."},{"index":3,"size":209,"text":"One of the significant obstacles to developing rapid screening and quality control in the agricultural and food industry is the need for more simple, reliable, and non-destructive methods for determining chemical composition in agricultural products (Cozzolino et al., 2013). Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a non-destructive, high throughput technique which measures the interactions between electromagnetic radiation and vibrational properties of chemical bonds (Alamu et al., 2021). It is an important method that has led to more efficient breeding as it offers the advantage of characterizing a more significant number of samples in shorter time than other wet laboratory techniques (Belalcazar et al., 2016). NIRS spectroscopy determined wholegrain barley's swelling properties and water solubility (Cozzolino et al., 2013). Mbanjo et al. (2021) also reported that NIRS technology could predict cassava or cassava-based products' functional and physicochemical properties. Other applications of NIRS were reported in literature, Chen et al. (2014) have developed a stable quantitative model for the rapid quality evaluation of Lonicera japonica based on its ethanol precipitation process. The protein and glucose content of flour from roots and tubers were determined using NIRS (Masithoh et al., 2021). Also, short wavelength near infrared reflectance spectroscopy was used to determine the starch content of fresh cassava roots (Bantadian et al., 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Apart from its contributions in the agricultural and food industries, NIRS has also found many practical applications in other industries such as medicine, forensic science, and pharmaceuticals (Heise, 2021;Sacré et al., 2021;Chen et al., 2022). Several authors have reported the application of NIRS for predicting the quality parameters of cassava and its products (Sanchez et al., 2014;Fu et al., 2017;Ikeogu et al., 2017;2019;Su and Sun, 2017;Alamu et al., 2019). However, no work has been reported on using NIRS to predict gari's functional properties."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Therefore, this study seeks to evaluate the application of NIRS in predicting the selected functional properties of gari."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Source of materials and sample preparation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The cassava roots (which were processed into gari) were obtained from the experimental field plots of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). Sixty-three gari samples were used for this study, and to prepare the gari (cassava flakes), the fresh cassava roots were peeled, washed, and grated using a mechanical grater. The grated mash was transferred into a jute bag and pressed under a jack for 72 h to eliminate the water. Pressed mash was collected, sieved, and roasted under a controlled heat source until desired gari quality was formed. Roasted gari was allowed to cool and then milled using an electric laboratory blender. The finely ground gari was packed in well-labelled plastic containers and transferred for subsequent analysis. See Figure 1."}]},{"head":"Laboratory analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":262,"text":"Water absorption capacity (WAC; g mL −1 ) and Dispersibility (%) of gari were determined using methods described by AOAC (2006). For WAC, about 1 g of each gari was transferred to a clean 15 mL centrifuge tube with 10 mL of distilled water, centrifuged at 512 g for 15 min (GLC-1, Chicago, United States). After centrifugation, the supernatant was decanted, and the weight of the sediment was taken to determine the WAC. Dispersibility was determined by weighing 10 g of the sample into a 100-mL measuring cylinder and distilled water added to reach a volume of 50 mL. The mixture was stirred vigorously, particles were allowed to settle for 3 h, and the percentage volume of settled particles was calculated to determine the percentage dispersibility. Bulk density (BD, g mL −1 ) was determined using the method that Ashraf et al. (2012) reported, where 10 g of the sample was weighed into a 50 mL graduated measuring cylinder and tapped gently on a benchtop about ten times. Bulk density was recorded as grams per millilitre. The swelling power (SP; g mL −1 ) and solubility index (SI, %) were determined using the method described by Riley et al. (2006) with a slight modification, where 50 mL of distilled water was added to 1 g of the sample in a centrifuge tube and incubated for 30 min in a water bath at 95 °C. The mixture was centrifuged at 512 g for 15 min, and the difference in the mass of the sediment calculated the mass of soluble substances in the supernatants."}]},{"head":"Spectra collection and calibration development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":410,"text":"The gari samples were scanned in duplicate within the wavelength range of 400-2,498 nm, registering the absorbance values log (I/R) at 0.5 nm intervals for each sample and using a NIRS monochromator (model FOSS XDS, solid module) and a stationary cell cup. Though only the NIR range of 800-2,400 nm was used to build the model. Data and statistical analyses were performed using Win-ISI 4.9 software (Infrasoft International and FOSS, Hillerod, Denmark). NIR spectra are often affected by instrumental noise, sample particle size, and other environmental factors; therefore, preprocessing of the spectra is important before model development. Using appropriate preprocessing methods is critical to eliminating interferences and background noise, which will help to improve the model prediction accuracies. In this experiment, the spectra data were subjected to various preprocessing methods to correct the effects of light scattering and increase the signal-to-noise ratio. Several mathematical treatments, including 1,4,4,1; 2,10,10,2; 2,10,5,1; 2,5,5,1; 1,25,10,1; 1,10,10,1; and 0,0,1,1 respectively and combined with standard normal variate and detrend (SNVD) was implemented to optimise the equation. Model performance from each pretreatment was evaluated to decide the best treatment that gives a reliable model. The first and second numbers represent the derivative and gap, while the last two are smoothings. Outliers' eliminations were conducted using the neighborhood Mahalabonis distance (NH) and the GH, which is the distance of each spectrum from the mean spectrum of the sample populations. The NH calculates how close each sample is to every other sample in the population. The GH determines whether the calibration model can accurately forecast the value of an unknown sample and allow for the removal of unnecessary spectra from the calibration population. Outliers are eliminated based on the standard residuals with a cutoff of GH > 2.5 and NH < 0.6. The calibration was set up using the first derivative of SNVD corrected spectra, calculated on four data points, and smoothed using Savitzky-Golay polynomial smoothing on the four data points. The calibration model was developed using the modified partial least square (MPLS) regression algorithm using a spectral range between 800 and 2,400 nm (Figure 2). A set of 63 samples with their reference results were split into 48 calibrations and 15 validation sets. The spectra data for the samples collected on the NIRS device correlated with the reference values for each constituent. The model developed was tested using an independent set of samples to compare the prediction of the functional properties and the results of standard laboratory methods."}]},{"head":"Model performance evaluations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The performance of the calibration model was evaluated using performance indicators such as the coefficients of determination in calibration (R 2 cal), coefficients of determination in prediction (R 2 pre), root mean square error in calibration (RMSEC), root mean square error in prediction (RMSEP), and cross-validation (RMSECV) and residual prediction deviation (RPD). The model's performance is better when R 2 is close to 1 and RMSE is close to zero. Higher RPD also indicates a good prediction model. According to He et al. (2018), R 2 values between 0.61 and 0.80 indicate a decent model for prediction, whereas R 2 values above 0.90 show an"}]},{"head":"FIGURE 2","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Near reflectance spectrum for gari samples. (NIR wavelength region of 800-2,400 nm was used for the model).  (Chadalavada et al., 2022)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis and software package","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"All spectra preprocessing, calibration model development and prediction analysis were conducted using the WIN ISI Software Version 4.0."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":686,"text":"The summary statistics of the functional properties of the analyzed gari samples are shown in Table 1. Swelling power and Solubility index ranged from 6.05% to 16.70% and 3.33% to 16.94%, respectively, with average values of 13.63% and 9.16%. The average swelling power (13.63%) reported in this study is comparable with values reported by Awoyale et al., 2021b. Swelling power is the ability of gari particles to   Frontiers in Chemistry frontiersin.org absorb water and swell; a quality gari should swell considerably well (Udoro et al., 2014). Awoyale et al. (2020) also reported that a quality gari should swell three times its original volume. Gari is often consumed by soaking in water. Therefore, the swelling of gari is a critical quality criterium consumer's desire. Also, the results showed a range of 29%-72% and 0.70%-66.67% for dispersibility and bulk density, respectively. The functional properties of food are essential to the end users because they affect food behaviours during preparation and storage (Awoyale et al., 2020). Some functional properties of food also depend predominantly on the product's particle size and other physical characteristics (Nwancho et al., 2014). The bulk density of food material determines its handling requirement and packaging materials. The particle size of the food materials influences their bulk density because they are inversely related (Nwancho et al., 2014). Lower BD reported in this study implies that more gari could be packaged in a specific container volume, decreasing the space occupied during packaging (Komolafe and Arawande, 2010). Average dispersibility was in line with values reported by Awoyale et al. (2020) while the average WAC in this study was higher than the value reported by Udoro et al. (2014). Tables 2, 3 show the calibration and validation statistics of the functional properties of gari. The calibration of gari samples using 48 samples with wide variations in their functional properties shows that NIRS closely correlates with the standard laboratory analysis method. Spectra pretreatments are an important step in model development to eliminate other factors, such as instrumental noise; and detector drift which could interfere with model performance. Therefore, this study tested several pretreatments to establish the best equation. Table 4 shows different treatments and their respective performance statistics, including the model with no treatments (0,0,1,1). The coefficient of determination in calibration (R 2 cal) of SP for all the mathematical treatments tested (0,0,1,1; 2,10,5,1; 1,4,4,1; 1,25,10,1; 1,10,10,1 and 2,5,5,1) were 0.95, 0.98,0.97,0.87,0.95 and 0.97 respectively. The best R 2 cal for SP was obtained from 2,10,5,1 pre-treatment followed by 1,4,4,1 and 2,5,5,1, but the standard error of cross-validation in other treatments was higher than 2,5,5,1. Therefore, 2,5,51 was preferred as the appropriate treatment for Swelling power. Comparatively, the pre-treatment 2,5,5,1 gives better prediction performance regarding high R 2 cal and low SECV for most functional properties. Bulk density had the highest R 2 cal of 0.99, followed by SP (0.97) and Dispersibility (0.97) for treatments 2,5,51. The least R 2 cal was obtained for the solubility index across all the treatments tested. Lu et al. (2006) reported R 2 cal of 0.92 and 0.88 for Swelling power and solubility of sweet potato starch using NIR spectrometry; the results for SP (0.97) and SI (0.88) for gari reported in this study are similar to their findings. The coefficient of determination in prediction should typically be in the range of 0.66-0.81 for the NIR prediction to be adequate for quick screening. It should have a range of 0.83-0.90 for quality control and an accurate determination (Lebot et al., 2013). Therefore, the R 2 cal for the parameters analyzed in this study is considered adequate and suitable for screening large samples in breeding programs. The model's performance was further tested using an independent set of samples not included in the calibration sets by comparing the results from the standard laboratory method with the predicted values using the developed model. The coefficient of determination in validation (R 2 pred) followed the same trend as the calibration statistics; the BD had the highest R 2 pred of 0.98, followed by SP (0.93). In contrast, SI had the lowest R 2 pred of 0.62 (Figure 3)."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"The performance of a model is not determined only by the coefficient of determination but also by the closer the standard prediction error is to zero. The least SEP was reported for SP, followed by SI and BD. The R 2 cal of calibration models could be affected by several factors, such as lack of genetic variability, poor representativeness of the samples within the calibration data sets and the accuracy of the reference method (Alamu et al., 2022). Therefore, the relatively low R 2 cal observed for SI could be improved by increasing the training population used for the calibration. Also, the low SEC (2.29) and SEP (2.16) values for SI indicate the potential to improve the model by introducing more samples into the calibration data set. Model performance was also evaluated by the bias in the prediction statistics; bias indicated similarities between the reference results and the predicted values. The ideal value for bias should be zero, that is, when the reference results of a parameter are the same as the predicted values. The bias becomes negative when the model underestimates the constituent's information, while it is positive when the values are overestimated. The functional properties in this study were not underestimated, but SP, SI and Dispersibility were slightly overestimated by the positive values of the bias. Though the RDP, which is the ratio of the standard deviation of the reference value and the standard error of prediction, is greater than 2 for all the parameters except for WAC, showing that the model is promising in the accurate prediction of most of the parameters."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"NIRS offers a high throughput and less expensive alternative to the elaborate and time-consuming wet chemical analysis methods in the laboratory for determining the functional composition of gari. These functional parameters are critical indicators of the final product quality of gari, which influences consumers buying decision. A rapid method for their determination is important for breeding programs and processors to assess the quality of the products especially when larger number is to be considered. This study has shown that Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy has the potential to predict the quality parameters of gari by using a few samples sets but with wide variation in their functional properties."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"The model developed with R 2 cal above 0.90 can be applied by breeders and food scientists for rapid screening of the functional properties of gari, especially swelling power and bulk density."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIGURE 1A workflow of sample processing and analysis using NIRS. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 FIGURE 3Graph of predicted vs. laboratory values for the functional properties of gari samples. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 Summary statistics of functional properties of gari samples.  N = 63   N = 63 Constituent Minimum Maximum Mean SD ConstituentMinimumMaximumMeanSD SP 6.05 16.70 13.63 2.53 SP6.0516.7013.632.53 SI 3.33 16.94 9.16 3.75 SI3.3316.949.163.75 DISP 29.00 72.00 51.74 14.00 DISP29.0072.0051.7414.00 BD 0.70 66.67 23.06 30.09 BD0.7066.6723.0630.09 WAC 375.95 658.83 511.09 68.32 WAC375.95658.83511.0968.32 N, sample number; SD, standard deviation.    N, sample number; SD, standard deviation.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 Calibration statistics for the functional properties of gari samples.  Calibration N = 48   CalibrationN = 48 Constituent SEC R 2 cal SECV Outliers ConstituentSECR 2 calSECVOutliers SP 0.43  1.12 0 SP0.431.120 SI 2.29 0.64 2.46 1 SI2.290.642.461 DISP 2.31 0.97 6.59 0 DISP2.310.976.590 BD 3.36 0.99 6.38 0 BD3.360.996.380 WAC 21.10 0.89 43.34 5 WAC21.100.8943.345 N, sample number; SEC, standard error of calibrations; SECV, Standard error of cross- N, sample number; SEC, standard error of calibrations; SECV, Standard error of cross- validation; R 2 cal, coefficient of determination in calibrations.   validation; R 2 cal, coefficient of determination in calibrations.  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 Validation statistics for the functional properties of gari samples.    Validation N = 15    Validation N = 15 Constituent R 2 pred SEP Bias Slope Outliers RPD ConstituentR 2 predSEPBiasSlopeOutliersRPD SP 0.93 0.89 0.67 0.91 3 2.6 SP0.930.890.670.9132.6 SI 0.62 2.16 1.47 0.73 3 2.4 SI0.622.161.470.7332.4 DISP 0.65 7.50 3.96 0.78 3 2.1 DISP0.657.503.960.7832.1 BD 0.98 4.42 3.83 0.98 3 2.2 BD0.984.423.830.9832.2 WAC 0.68 40.89 26.00 26.48 3 1.9 WAC0.6840.8926.0026.4831.9  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 Model optimization using different spectra pre-treatments.   0,0,1,1   2,10,5,1   1,4,4,1  0,0,1,12,10,5,11,4,4,1 Constituent SEC R 2 cal SECV SEC R 2 cal SECV SEC R 2 cal SECV ConstituentSECR 2 calSECVSECR 2 calSECVSECR 2 calSECV SP 0.59 0.95 1.08 0.38 0.98 0.83 0.46 0.97 1.03 SP0.590.951.080.380.980.830.460.971.03 SI 2.36 0.56 2.45 2.28 0.59 2.37 2.29 0.59 2.37 SI2.360.562.452.280.592.372.290.592.37 DISP 5.42 0.85 6.97 4.47 0.90 6.21 4.47 0.90 5.71 DISP5.420.856.974.470.906.214.470.905.71 BD 3.12 0.99 5.22 1.88 0.99 4.90 1.90 0.99 4.99 BD3.120.995.221.880.994.901.900.994.99 WAC 43.79 0.58 47.79 46.33 0.53 48.07 45.68 0.55 47.40 WAC43.790.5847.7946.330.5348.0745.680.5547.40  1,25,10,1   1,10,10,1   2,5,5,1  1,25,10,11,10,10,12,5,5,1  SEC R 2 cal SECV SEC R 2 cal SECV SEC R 2 cal SECV SECR 2 calSECVSECR 2 calSECVSECR 2 calSECV SP 0.94 0.87 1.16 0.59 0.95 1.08 0.17 0.97 0.81 SP0.940.871.160.590.951.080.170.970.81 SI 2.29 0.59 2.37 2.36 0.56 2.45 2.27 0.64 2.38 SI2.290.592.372.360.562.452.270.642.38 DISP 4.48 0.90 5.58 5.42 0.85 6.97 5.03 0.97 6.45 DISP4.480.905.585.420.856.975.030.976.45 BD 2.74 0.99 5.51 3.12 0.99 5.22 1.60 0.99 4.99 BD2.740.995.513.120.995.221.600.994.99 WAC 45.46 0.55 47.05 43.79 0.58 47.79 46.05 0.89 48.07 WAC45.460.5547.0543.790.5847.7946.050.8948.07  "}],"sieverID":"d870d5e7-2398-45c4-84bb-c0449a4bb0a6","abstract":"Gari is a creamy, granular flour obtained from roasting fermented cassava mash. Its preparation involves several unit operations, including fermentation, which is essential in gari production. Fermentation brings about specific biochemical changes in cassava starch due to the actions of lactic acid bacteria. Consequently, it gives rise to organic acids and a significant reduction in the pH. Consumer preferences for gari are influenced by these changes and impact specific functional characteristics, which are often linked to cassava genotypes. Measurement of these functional characteristics is time-consuming and expensive. Therefore, this study aimed to develop high-throughput and less expensive prediction models for water absorption capacity, swelling power, bulk density, and dispersibility using Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS). Gari was produced from 63 cassava genotypes using the standard method developed in the RTB foods project. The prediction model was developed by dividing the gari samples into two sets of 48 samples for calibration and 15 samples as the validation set. The gari samples were transferred into a ring cell cup and scanned on the NIRS machine within the Vis-NIR range of 400-2,498 nm wavelength, though only the NIR range of 800-2,400 nm was used to build the model. Calibration models were developed using partial least regression algorithms after spectra preprocessing. Also, the gari samples were analysed in the laboratory for their functional properties to generate reference data. Results showed an excellent coefficient of determination in calibrations (R 2 Cal ) of 0.99, 0.97, 0.97, and 0.89 for bulk density, swelling power, dispersibility, and water absorption capacity, respectively. Also, the performances of the prediction models were tested using an independent set of 15 gari samples. A good prediction coefficient (R 2 pred) and low standard error of prediction (SEP) was obtained as follows: Bulk density (0.98), Swelling power (0.93), WAC (0.68), Dispersibility (0.65), and solubility index (0.62), respectively. Therefore, NIRS prediction models in this study could provide a rapid screening tool for cassava breeding programs and food scientists to determine the food quality of cassava granular products (Gari)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0214d28c8646a87cbf37707ffa823b5e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27f67e4d-5bfd-4cb5-96ad-4b43d69096ad/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Suite of resources for implementers on how to mainstream nutrition behavior change communication into agricultural projects in Uganda","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Title: P350 -Understanding the role of capacity in impact pathways in nutrition-sensitive agricultural policies and programs Description of the innovation: Building on prior recommendations to incorporate social and behavior change communications (SBCC) into the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)'s nutrition-sensitive projects, Bioversity researchers co-developed practical guidance for determining entry points, key target audiences, or exactly what projects should do. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Social Science Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) The resources were disseminated in Uganda and versions finalized for posting online in 2019. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: Bioversity (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Headquarter (Bioversity International) Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • IFAD -International Fund for Agricultural Development • GOU -Government of Uganda Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: • 39 -Increase capacity of beneficiaries to adopt research outputs • 46 -Increased capacity for innovation in partner development organizations and in poor and vulnerable communities Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • Bioversity (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Headquarter (Bioversity International) 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:29 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"c03b2b1a-a3e0-466b-b928-14a3dbfb1f57","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0224709490c52c25be7de39f3a0ee6f9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0224709490c52c25be7de39f3a0ee6f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b64a31e-9c26-4eba-bc35-7b6cfe1f3005/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"The 3 rd International Forum on Water and Food","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"water demand; ii) reduced hydropower production; and iii) reduced downstream flows. Although significant uncertainty remains, this has important implications for the future planning, design and management of water resource schemes. "}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"8fde3e8a-452d-4f9a-8fc5-5a7cc080fd5c","abstract":"There are plans for significant expansion of hydropower and irrigation in the Ethiopian portion of the Blue Nile River basin. However, the possible consequences of climate change on the performance of schemes have not been evaluated. In this study, several models (i.e. CCLM, SWAT and WEAP) were combined to provide an assessment of the possible impact of one downscaled mid--range climate change scenario (A1B) on the performance of existing and planned irrigation and hydropower schemes, and downstream flows. Model simulations were run from 1983 to 2100. The results indicate that under this scenario, although there are variations within the basin, rainfall will be reduced and evaporation will increase, particularly in the second half of the century. This will in turn result in: i) increased irrigation"}

data/part_2/02423d8b96971f5b2032f95a886e7d38.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02423d8b96971f5b2032f95a886e7d38","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/821e3dd9-880a-4d61-ad9e-f3ff983c122f/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Threshing \"Wínnowing","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"different needs, which they could not do with a single variety (Joshi et al. 1997). In one ofthe studies in Begnas, Kaski, Baniya et al. (1999) reported that rich farmers generally initiate variety introduction. Most farmers (85%) change seed lots or cultivars regularly, and about 49% follow this practice every one or two years. Ex situ conservation in gene banks being unaffordable, the fate of crop diversity in many mountain areas is largely govemed by the fate ofthe traditional seed-supply systern that exists within local comrnunities (Shrestha 1998)."}]},{"head":"Seed selection","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"For generations, farrners have been involved in seed selection, testing crop varieties to address single or multiple household needs such as food security, economic benefits, and religious and cultural requirements, as well as finding varieties that suit their land type depending upon the access or availability ofplanting material s (see figure 2)."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The choices or preferences for varieties of a crop may, however, differ with differences in socioeconomic status. Religious and cultural considerations, level of education, and gender dimension are equally important in influencing the choices and preferences for different crops and varieties."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Traditional methods of seed selection in one of the rural areas in terai region of the country are presented in box 1."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Box 1. Traditional Methods of Seed Selection at Kachorwa, Bara"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"Seed-selection practices"},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"• At threshing fioor, off -type panicles are removing, grains are removed by beating against hard surface to get seeds Rank • At the threshing fioor, selected panicles are threshed by bullock and kept separately 11"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Panicles are selected at the threshing floor, keeping bundle 01 panicles and grains separated 111"},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"Seeds used directly lrom grain storage without prior selection IV Souree: Chaudhary and Joshi (1999)."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"In traditional farming systerns, varietal mixtures either emerge through the deliberate action of farmers, or seeds get rnixed at several stages from seed sowing through harvesting, threshing, drying, and storage. Box 2 gives examples ofthe reasons for seed mixtures in rice, as mentioned by the farmers at Kachorwa, Bara."}]},{"head":"Seed processing and storage","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"F armers have developed different seed-proeessing and storage practices for different crops and erop speeies, whieh help the seeds stay viable. The praetiees that are followed by seed-storage companies and researeh stations today are the results of farrners' experiments in seed storage, transferred from generation to generation. Where seed proeessing is coneemed, farrners keep the bare seeds ofsome erops, such as rice and wheat, or the eobs ofmaize orpanieles or bunches orthe fruit of sorne erop speeies, especially vegetables. For sorne crops, grains are cleaned and then dried well after threshing, while others require no such proeessing. Farrners store the seeds of sorne vegetable crops in the kitehen, where they are exposed to a eontinuous flow of smoke and heat. . Source: Chaudhary andJoshi (1999)."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"! airtight conditions, and sorne are spread on me floor. Baniya et al. (1999) reported on me different seed-storage practices followed by farroers in Begnas, Kaski, where there is a wide range of crop diversity even today. If farroers did not save seeds under proper storage condition, we would not have me diversity in both crops and crop species that we have today."}]},{"head":"Limitations of participatory approaches","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Participation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"In the cornmercial world, there may be a lack of interest in participatory memods because resource-poor farroers might not appreciate irnmediate benefits from participation in research."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"They have a restricted time for contribution and limited resources to support research. On the omer hand, resource-rich farroers, especially in a high production-potential system (HPPS) are likely to migrate to urban areas, thereby discontinuíng active participation after ayear or more. Urbanization and cornmercialízation rnight have a negative ímpact on me partieipation sinee absentee landlords may have less time to thínk about aU mese participatory approaches, their being capable of supporting land for research purposes. Moreover, without compensation, long-term participation of farroers can not be assured, since the time for research activities can cause conflicts with fiumers' field activities,"}]},{"head":"Knowledge","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Confining farroers to trsditional cultivation systems has made mem focus on traditional selection practíces; they are less aware of advances in agricultura! science for seed selection and varietal selection based on agroecology. Searching and procuring seeds becomes cumbersome and time conswning for individual farmer. Traditional ways of procuring seeds without adequate information about new varieties rnight in sorne cases adversely mect me farroers' yield, Lacking adequate kuowledge about seed selection, farroers keep mixtures in their selections to ensure adequate yields, but this also creates high diversíty. Furthermore, in most of the participatory approaches to crop improvement, gathering postharvest information trom rich people does not provide useful insights-they are not actually the end users, since they are likely sell a large portion oftheir produce in the market (Witcombe 1999)."}]},{"head":"Farmers' knowledge threatened","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Several areas ofknow!edge are associated with landraces, and with the elimination oflandraces, we not only lose genetic resources from our farming system or community but also the knowledge associated with them. With the ever-increasing dependence of farmers on modem technologies, accompanied by lhe use of chemical fertilizers and hazardous pesticides, farmers are being handicapped in severa! ways, inc1uding the area of indigenous knowledge. Farmers are, therefore, not only losing benefits from plant genetic resources, but more important, theyare losing the right to save, exchange, and improve their seeds (Mazhar 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Despite several efforts, it has becn observed that no \"steady state\" is possib1e in populations of primitive cultivars because of technological changes in the farming systems that once produced them (Frankel 1970;Brush 1995). It is, therefore, certain that genetic erosion ls pervasive and may accelerate if no proper action is taken on time to check it. It is also true that gradually the habitats of the landraces will be changed, the strength ofthe planting material s will be weakened, development and revolutionary options for various species may be shut off in lhe process, diversity will be skewed, and farmers' decision-making and indigenous knowledge systems will be diluted. The hardest hit by this will be small and marginal farmers, whose situations will be further worsened by concomitant increases in uníformit;t and eJ(pensive market seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides, irrespective of their quality. As a result, food deficiency will become more widespread and the [ives of people will be threatened. Thus, there is an urgent need to look for a solution that helps cope wilh food deficiency through lhe management of agrobiodiversity."}]},{"head":"Coping strategies","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The threat to farmers' knowledge, as well as to agrobiodiversity, can be addressed through the following strategies."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"• Research should emphasize the process of responding to farmers' needs rather than designing fixed options in stándardized trials. Research-maoaged on-station and on-farm trials need to be combined with trials designed and run by farmers. Researchers therefore need to expand their focus and learn abou! the complex adaptations made by farmers."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"• Agricultural research needs to reflect farmers' own diverse conditions. It needs lo be adapted to different settings (e.g., both dry-field and wetland agriculture), lo different fieldconditions (e.g., a variety of soil types), and to different cropping patteros (e.g., multiple and intercropping pattems), rather than focusing on standardized, uníform tria! plots, so that the processes of local adaptation and the technology developed are understood and can be supported."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"• Farmers can be successfully empowered through training in the process of germplasm enhancement through pure-line and mass selection of their traditional varieties (Chaudhary and Joshi 1999), enhancing in situ conservation on-farm."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• The seed-supply system can be strengthened for self-reliance and cost effectiveness through the use offarmers' networks ofinformation and seed exchange, involving grass-roots institurions (Joshi et aL 1997)."},{"index":6,"size":157,"text":"F anners' knowledge (skills) and routine involvement in the crop-improvement process is crucial to the management of agrobiodiversity on-fann, Fanners are key players, bringing a wild species through generations, creating diversity to suít to their different agroecologies and traditions, However, fanners' knowledge is being eroded and plant genetic materials are beíng lost forever, Our current need is to document agrobiodiversity and the knowledge associated with it to use in crop improvement in the future. It is essential to have an adequate scientific explanation of fanners' knowledge in order to better and or improve this knowledge for efficient and sustainable agriculture. This can be achieved through different strategies such as diversity fairs, community bíodiversity registers, poetry journeys (Rijal, et aL 2000), censuses, and field observations 01' transect walks. lt requires the cornmitrnent of fanners and strong Iinkages with fonnal scíence institutes to enhance tbe maintenance ofbiologicaI diversity, agricultural sustainability, and food security at the fann, regional, and globalleveL "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"This paper basically deals with two issues: the first is the issue of advocacy and the need for advocaey in participatory crop improvement (per) and plant genetic resource enhancement (pGRE). It also analyzes the trend of global mechanisms to develop erops and or varieties wíthout the partícípation of real stakeholders and the threat to developing countries. The second part highlights the major processes of seed production and saving rice in the mid-hills ofNepaL The cases elaborate these processes along wíth gender dímensíons and the exclusíon of farmers from breedíng processes. Further to this, it bighlights sorne of the advocacy and operational work of the development organization taking place in the Jajarkot area. The cases we bighlíght are from Khotang, in the easternhills ofNepal for farmer-managed seed ptoduction, and Jajarkot, in the western bills ofNepaL Yamuna Ghale is foad right campaign co-ordinator with AcríonAid Nepal. Thi. paper was prepared with the assísrance ofKhadga Regmi, J.jarlcor Pennaculture Program (lPP); Dil Bahadur Rai; Jana Sewa Sarnaj; Min Bahadur Rokaya, fanner, laJarkot; and Pra!eemm Raí, farme<, Khotang."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"•"}]},{"head":"Need {or Advococy {or Effective Participatory Crop Improvement and Plant Genetic Resource Enhancemem","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The need for advocacy in peI and PGRE"}]},{"head":"Wlzat is advocacy?","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Advocacy is public action directed towards wider social change. It is about changing the policies, practices, attitudes, positions, or programs of goveming institutions within the Pllblíc and prívate sectors that have a negative impact. The co-director of the Advocacy Institute says, \"To be meaningful, advocacy must be value based. It must be social, economic and políticaljustíce orientcd.\" In most cases, government is still resisting the advocacy role being assumed by civil society."}]},{"head":"Whyadvocacy?","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Advocacy is not just another fad of development discourse; ir is, rather, importan! to the sustainability of development work as well as policies. Forthe basic reason that for development organizations to have an effect, there needs to be a bettcr undcrstanding of the policies and practices of powerful development actors and how these ean be changed in ways that benefit the large groups of poor farmers in their working areas. It is very important to reeognize the importance of ehallenging deep-rooted and sustained inequality and injustíce. In the age of globalization, polícies are increasingly influenced by mllltinational and transnational eorporations (MNCsrrNCs), which are not bound by rights-related laws and regulations. To have an influence at the poliey level, linkages between operational work and advoeacy should be developed, strengthening civil groups and alliances; lobbying decision makers directly; campaigning, promoting, and fucilitating participation in research; building coalitions; and :ngaging the media."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Soeiety is the cornmon element that supports advocacy, with advocacy holding goveming institutions to account on the behalf of citizens. There must be mechanisms to support nonrestrictive and robust debate on policy issues, procedures to resist harassment from authorities, and transparency in government. Civil organizations are increasingly expanding their activities beyond the provision of traditional services to include advocacy. Clear objeetives, targets, methods or taeties, and allies are very basic eIements of advocacy."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"In the eontext of participatory plant breeding (PPB) and PGRE, advoeacy can support cornmunities in demanding their rights in germplasm conservation, in having an input when government is formulating policies, in making the voice of the powerless heard when plant-breeding programs/plans are developed, and in bringing the promises to tbe ground."}]},{"head":"Advocacy in ActionAid Nepal","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"ActionAid Nepal' s definition of advocaey is a process, a deliberate, systematic ami organised way 01 influencing publíc policy, pub/k attitudes and polícy practíce in order to either change, maintain, implement or lonnulate new or altemative polícíes in lavour 01 the poorest and most disadvantaged people."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"It is a set of eoherent actions designed to introduce, influence, and change policies, practiees, attitudes, and decisions for a just and equitable world. With this basic principIe, ActionAid launehed the International Food Rights Campaign to safeguard the right ofpoor people to food. The campaign aims to ensure that international agricultural trade benefits the poor and protects farmer' s rights to seed and plant resources."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"As biodivefSity i5 owned by the community, there i5 an urgent need to include farmers in erop improvement and genetie resonree enhancement. The issue ofbiodiversity conservation is rooted at the grass-roots level, which needs program linkage to be developed betwecn operational work and advocacy. Therefore, ActionAid Nepal believes in strengthening the capacity of local organizalions working al the grass rools to develop macro-micro linkages and, hence, to tackle the root causes of poverty, and it works lO achieve this end."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Threat of the trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPs) agreement to the crop-improvement process and PGRE"},{"index":5,"size":144,"text":"The TRIPs agreement provides eomprehensi ve rules and standards for the protection of intellectual property. Under this agreement, Artiele 27.3 (b) Patenting on Life Forms is a major tbreat for participatory plant breeding. It allows MNCs/TNCs to extend their control over the resourees required to produce food ín the South, as well as providing means to gaín rights over many traditional plants growing in the South. This completely ignores rights of indigenous farmefS to control and maintain the germplasm that fits in their lifestyles. There is a belief that TRIPs will have severe conse-quence5 for farmefS in the South, tha! they will no longer be able to research, use, or exchange seeds and may lose ownership over traditional varieties of plants as well. Therefore, there i8 an urgent need to work on advocacy forparticipatory plant breeding, which preserves the rights ofthe indigenous farming cornmunity."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Where do es the word participation fit in growing genetic engineering technology?"},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"In the global trend oftechnology development, genetic engineeringplays a crucial role in erop and or variety development. Ibis kind of sophisticated technology is promoted by profit-oriented MNCsrrNCs and is Iimited to the laboratory. Therefore, the participation offarmers in this process is only a dream, and will remain so. Ifwe are advocating participatory plant breeding, we must eonsider how we can play our role."}]},{"head":"Case studies","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The general Kiranti (Tibeto-Burman group) myth about the paddy erop invention in Khotang is lhat the ancestor, Khokehilipu, ･ ｾ ｯ ｹ ･ ､ ＠ a pot ofrice cooked by his elder sistefS, Nana Toma and Nana Khema, the cotton weavers, and he unfortunately trod on the fire-stick while dancing in the jolly mood and overturned the pot of rice. Another myth from Dhumi Rai is the story of an irritable king who had the habit of eating one pathí (approximately 4 kg) of rice, which had to be dehusked by nails. Ifthis was not done properly, the cook was severely punished. These myths cJearly show that the people ofKhotang have grown a paddy erop sinee time irnmemorial."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"In the case of Jajarkot, it is known that riee has been grown for about 110 years, and was brought from neighboring districts by the people of Jajarkot when they mígrated. Patle, mehel, kaumaro, and dotelo are the main local varietíes grown in the arca."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Rice is grown as major crop in both Jajarkot and Khotang, especially in the less steep irrigated lowlands. It i8 strongly related to the eating habits of the local people."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"3, chhomrong and badagaunle. In addítion, sorne ofthe new varieties such as the radha series and mansuli, have been introduced from district agriculture development. The lPP is working on advocaey in the promotion of indígenous seeds and technologies, and as a result, sorne of groups boycott the introduction ofhybrid seed; they are more curíous and alert about the value oflocal seeds and germplasm."}]},{"head":"Cultural significance","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"In the Rai culture, rice must be offered to the departed ancestors. The local faith healers offer rice to chicks before sacrificíng them as part of heáling ceremonies. This shows the relationship between the culture and rice growing in the area."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"In Jajarkot, the farmers celebrate Hare/o on the third and fourth Sundays of Shrawan (August). During this festival, they spray cow urine by the twigs of tilepati (Artemisia vulgaris) and worshíp the Harelo god with bhojpatra and pieces of red and whíte cloth."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Another interesting activity is a visit to a Jhan temple by pilgrims every five years during night of the full moon of Paush (lan!Feb). There is a big trench below the ground where the pílgrims keep the rice grains they offered to the godo The grains replaced every five years to coincide with this celebration, so every five years there are new ones. When there is a famine and alI the seeds stored in the house have been used for consumption, this store is opened and the stored grain is used for seed."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The first harvest is generally taken when there is sait (a good moment). The day offirst consumption is considered a special day, when relatives gather and eat delicious foods.• At the star! of lhat occasion, the harvest is first offered to the god, and this offering is later used for seed if needed."}]},{"head":"The role of intervening organizations","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"IPP has introduced a permaculture philosophy: making the earth live and grow on its own, with all bío-organisms surviving their full cycle. IPP has also encouraged farmers to use indigenous methods of farming and caring for nature. They have provided information on using green manure, on the use of skin-fermented water to control blast, and on patteros of crop rotation. JIP organized a farmers' level workshop on \"Impact of Genetic Engineering on Indigenous Knowledge and Seeds\" to raise awareness about the issues ofbiodíversity conservation. Now sorne ofthe women farmers' groups have dropped out ofthe cornmercíal vegetable production group, which advocates the use of external inputs for agricultural production. The farmers have also boycotted the introduction of hybrid seeds in two of the village development cornmittees. This means that farmers are able to make well-informed decisions if they have access to the right information. This will create a self-sustaining process among the farmers themselves, as well as helping to promote local biodiversity, in which they have the expertise of generations. Now lana Sewa Samaj, a nongovemmental organization working in the Khotang district is trying lo replicate the IPP model in the eastern hills of Nepal."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The case studies reveal that the indigenous communíty continues to manage plant breeding and tha! PGRE is most cornmon in both case-study areas. Neither distinct formal-led nor farmer-led plant-breeding practices are cornmon. Now such cornmunity-managed plant-breedíng processes"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Need for Advocacy for Effective Participatory Crop Improvement and Plant Genetic Resource Enhancement: Case Studies on Rice-Breeding Processes from Khotang and Jajarkot Districts, Nepal AbstraetThis paper de.ls with advocacy for effective participatory crop improvement and plant genetic resource enhancement. First, the need for advoeacy is highlighted; second, cases on the community-managed pracess of managing plant genetic resources is discussed. Advocacy is public .ction directed towards wider social change. It is about changing !he polícíes, practices, attitudes, posilions or programs of governing institutions within the public and private seetors lhat have a negative imp.ct In Ihe age of globalization, multinationalltransnational corporations (MNCsfINCs) inereasingly influence polioies, bul Ihese organiza!ions are no! bound by righ!s-related laws and regulations. The lrade-related inteIlectual property rights (TRIPs) agreement under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) is a rnajorlhreat to erop and variety development and genetie resource enhaneement. Advancements in genetíe engineering promoted by profit-oriented MNCsfINCs is graduaIly taking over tbe elassical researeh-and-development precess. If we are concemed about participatory erop improvement, we bave to pínpoinl lhe issue now. We need to enfore. favorable policíes and effeelÍve implementation for the conservalÍon of our genetic resourees and partieipatory development of crops and varielies. Therefore, to have influenee al lhe poliey level, we have lo develop links between operational work and advoeaey. In tbis eontexl, advocaey can support eommunities demanding fueir righls in gennplasm conservalion. Yamuna Gha/e Yamuna Gha/e  "}],"sieverID":"65f72418-6631-49b2-b641-9403f4eb8731","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0249dc8dfa921f60c62f2df979c37941","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aed3aa66-c6cc-4697-adc1-64ec7d90b8fd/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"SIGLAS Y ABREVIATURAS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"I. ANTECEDENTES DEL ESTUDIO DE CASO","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"En el Perú la denominación de origen (DO) es un signo distintivo que ha despertado muchas expectativas principalmente de grupos de productores de pequeña escala que tienen dificultades para vincularse de manera competitiva y sostenible a los mercados con productos que tienen una alta identidad con su territorio, su biodiversidad, su tradición y cultura. A esto se suma la política de fomento de esta herramienta que asumen diferentes instituciones del sector público y privado. Como resultado de ello la tendencia por desarrollar iniciativas en este sentido se incrementa."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"En ese contexto, hasta junio del presente año se han otorgado ocho DO, sin embargo, con excepción del Pisco, que es un caso sui géneris, ninguna ha avanzado más allá de obtener el reconocimiento oficial. Por ello se considera necesario estudiar el desarrollo que han seguido estas experiencias para profundizar la comprensión de los resultados y proponer acciones que contribuyan a mejorar su gestión. Este es el reto que asumen el Programa de Desarrollo Productivo Agrorural, la Alianza de Aprendizaje Perú, el Instituto Nacional de Defensa de la Competencia y de la Protección de la Propiedad Intelectual Indecopi como parte de un acuerdo interinstitucional establecido para este efecto, tomando como referencia el caso de la DO del Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco y a partir de ello construir una propuesta de protocolo que oriente el accionar de AGRORURAL en los procesos de obtención y gestión de las DO."}]},{"head":"II. OBJETIVO","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Obtener lecciones del proceso de reconocimiento y gestión de la DO Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco que permitan diseñar y validar un protocolo que oriente la intervención de Agrorural para apoyar la gestión de denominaciones de origen en el Perú."}]},{"head":"III. METODOLOGÍA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"El estudio parte de examinar la cadena productiva del Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco, luego recupera la experiencia del reconocimiento de la denominación de origen, y, del análisis de estos dos grandes procesos se arriba a las conclusiones y delinean algunas recomendaciones para la aplicación y la gestión de la DO."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"La información recogida a través de entrevistas aplicadas a los actores directos e indirectos que participan en los diferentes eslabones, complementadas con información proveniente de fuentes secundarias permitieron el mapeo; la identificación de las relación entre los actores y las dinámicas comerciales que se dan en la cadena productiva. Los mencionados aspectos permiten explicar en gran medida los resultados del reconocimiento y la gestión de la DO."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Se analiza (principalmente en base a la data estadística) las particularidades de la etapa de mercadeo, la tendencia de la demanda, la formación de precios y la distribución de beneficios, por cuanto, es en este complejo sistema que se gestionan colectivamente este signo distintivo."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Para la recuperación de la experiencia de reconocimiento de la DO y su aplicación se establecen hitos cronológicos; las expectativas y las motivaciones de los diferentes actores que impulsaron esta iniciativa; se incorpora los conceptos y etapas de identificación, calificación y remuneración (adaptadas de la metodología de la FAO-SINER-GI, ver anexo 1)."}]},{"head":"IV. CADENA PRODUCTIVA DEL MAÍZ BLANCO GIGANTE CUSCO","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ZONA DE INFLUENCIA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Las zonas reconocidas como productoras de maíz blanco gigante del Cusco, en adelante MBGC, para efectos de la DO son los distritos de San Salvador, Pisac, Taray, Lamay, Coya, Calca, Huayllabamba, Yucay, Urubamba y Ollantaytambo, ubicados en el Valle de Urubamba denominado también Valle Sagrado de los Incas, en la Región Cusco. La altitud está comprendida entre los 2600 y los 2950 msnm."}]},{"head":"Gráfico 1","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Fuente: Rivera, Riveros 2008 La cadena inicia con la producción en el Valle Sagrado en tanto que los consumidores se ubican a nivel local, nacional y se extiende hasta los mercados extranjeros. Ver gráfico 2. El cultivo puede ser dirigido a la obtención de grano seco o cosechado en fresco como choclo 1 ."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":". 1. El cholo es el fruto tierno del maíz, también conocido como elote."}]},{"head":"Gráfico 2: Flujo de la Cadena Productiva del Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Elaboración propia"}]},{"head":"PRODUCTO","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"El Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco es una de las razas que pertenece al grupo de Maíz Amiláceo y es la más importante desde el punto de vista económico entre las siete variedades que se cultivan en la Región Cusco (Rimache 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"El MBGC presenta granos de forma plana circular, de color blanco uniforme, entre 11 y 17 mm, además de este particular tamaño, es suave, de textura harinosa y el contenido de almidones posibilita diversas formas de procesamiento y consumo directo del grano seco y/o del fresco como se describe en el cuadro 1."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"El \"Mapa de razas de maíz del Perú\" elaborado por el Ministerio del Ambiente (mayo 2011) consigna que el maíz gigante del Cusco se encuentra distribuido en 22 regiones del país. En el mercado mayorista de granos de la ciudad de Lima y en las ferias agroalimentarias se encuentra con mayor frecuencia variedades de maíz blanco de grano gigantes (de semejante morfología que el MBGC) provenientes de la Región Apurimac, Región Huancavelica, del Valle del Mantaro, cultivados a partir de semillas oriundos de Cusco según manifiestan los entrevistados. "}]},{"head":"Cuadro Nº 1: Uso/destino del Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ACTORES DE LA CADENA PRODUCTIVA DEL MAÍZ BLANCO GIGANTE CUSCO","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Participan en la cadena productiva pequeños, medianos y grandes productores; acopiadores; transformadores locales y extrarregionales; exportadores; consumidores finales y prestadores de servicios públicos y privados."}]},{"head":"Productores","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Según la información brindada por Apromaiz se estima que cinco mil agricultores se dedican a la producción del Maíz Blanco Gigante en la zona geográfica con DO. En el siguiente cuadro se muestra su distribución en relación al área de cultivo: solamente 0.1% de los productores poseen áreas entre 10 y 30 ha, en tanto que el 96.88% conducen áreas menores a cinco ha. Más de la mitad, 56.8%, poseen áreas menores a una hectárea es decir que manejan parcelas. Los Pequeños productores presentan un alto grado de atomización de terrenos, utilizan tecnología tradicional, se autoabastecen de semilla, tienen bajo nivel de productividad y calidad. Para una parte de ellos el cultivo de MBGC no es su actividad económica principal; en muchos casos radican fuera del Valle Sagrado y mantienen sus terrenos y el cultivo del maíz como parte de su tradición."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Los medianos y grandes productores cultivan con tecnología mejorada que permite obtener buena calidad de maíz con rendimientos entre 4.0 a 6.5 Tm/ha como consecuencia de mayores inversiones, conocimientos, insumos y tiempo dedicados a la actividad productiva."}]},{"head":"Organizaciones de productores","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Organización de pequeños productores. Existen siete organizaciones de pequeños productores, la mayoría de ellas formalizadas como resultado de la intervención de instituciones de promoción:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"- "}]},{"head":"Acopiadores","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Se ha identificado tres tipos de acopiadores: medianos, grandes y pequeños. Los dos primeros tienen contactos con los exportadores y/o hacen las veces de operadores en función a la demanda. Los últimos se relacionan con agricultores de pequeña escala, en muchos casos proporcionan financiamiento para capital de trabajo para la campaña agrícola con la condición de tener la preferencia y exclusividad sobre la cosecha. "}]},{"head":"Exportadores","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Grafico N° 3 Principales Exportadores de Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Fuente: Sunat, 2011 Compilación: W. Koo Elaboración propia"}]},{"head":"Relaciones entre actores","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Según manifiestan los entrevistados, existen relaciones de desconfianza y la percepción de inequidad entre los pequeños y los medianos/grandes productores. Dicha situación, en opinión de G. San Román (socio de Apromaiz), se debe en gran medida a la Reforma Agraria. Estas diferencias no permiten que entre ellos se pueda establecer una visión común de desarrollo. La Reforma Agraria al que refiere San Román, ocurrió en 1969 caracterizándose por la redistribución de la propiedad, que afectó directamente a las haciendas a quienes se expropio sus tierras para luego entregarlos a los campesinos creando un clima de confrontación."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"El representante de Valle Alto refiere (en entrevista a \"El Comercio\" 2010) que se ha intentado crear redes de productores para una oferta colectiva \"… pero no prosperó porque faltó acuerdo entre ellos para sumar cosechas…\""},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Las relaciones entre productos y acopiadores se desarrollan sin mayores conflictos. Los primeros consideran a los segundos, como una necesidad en el modelo comercial existente."}]},{"head":"Instituciones prestadoras de servicios","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Las siguientes instituciones públicas y privadas están relacionadas con esta actividad: o Gobierno Regional de Cusco, gobierno subnacional. o Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria INIA, su misión es \"elevar el nivel tecnológico agrario nacional para incrementar la productividad y competitividad\". o El Instituto Nacional de Defensa de la Competencia y de la Protección de la Propiedad Intelectual, Indecopi, busca \"promover y garantizar la leal competencia, los derechos de los consumidores y la propiedad intelectual en el Perú\". o Prisma, ONG que \"vincula al mercado con pequeños productores de las zonas rurales de nuestro país\". o Cajas Rurales, Cajas Municipales, quienes otorgan crédito. o Así mismo en la zona existen proveedores de insumos agrícolas, servicios de maquinaria agrícola y crédito principalmente para la producción."}]},{"head":"DINÁMICA DE LA COMERCIALIZACIÓN","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Modalidades de comercialización","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Dependiendo del tamaño de la actividad existen diferentes modalidades de comercialización: Los pequeños productores, quienes se estima aportan el 82% de la oferta del Valle Sagrado, luego de reservar parte de su cosecha para el autoconsumo y para semilla, venden aproximadamente el 70% de su producción a través de dos canales: los acopiadores y el mercado local. Los acopiadores son comerciantes de pequeña escala que venden el producto en el mercado local o/y nacional (Lima, Arequipa, Puno, entre otras regiones) dependiendo de la demanda y la calidad del grano. El precio es fijado por los acopiadores, más aún si han financiado la campaña."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Un mecanismo frecuentemente empleado por los agricultores es almacenar la cosecha para luego comercializar el maíz en pequeñas cantidades a lo largo del año en la medida que requieran dinero."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"La Central de Cooperativas Valle Sagrado de los Incas organiza la oferta de sus asociados y vende el producto al mercado local o a los acopiadores, también realiza un proceso primario para obtener el \"mote\" o maíz descascarado. Con estas estrategias consigue tener una mayor capacidad de negociación frente a los intermediarios."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Los medianos y grandes productores destinan una parte de la cosecha para comercializar como semilla a los productores del Valle del Mantaro y en menor medida a Pisco, Huaral y, venden el maíz desgranado, salvo contadas excepciones, a los acopiadores que radican en la zona como operadores de las exportadoras, es decir que los productores no mantienen relaciones comerciales directas con los exportadores. Aún cuando ofertan de modo individual son los actores con mayor capacidad para negociar mejores precios."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Los acopiadores medianos pueden relacionarse con otro acopiador grande o con la exportadora, en tanto que los acopiadores grandes se relacionan directamente con las empresas de exportación y son quienes trasladan a la zona los requerimientos de los compradores internacionales (cantidad y calidad del grano), establecen los precios y las condiciones de negociación. Además de intermediar la compra del maíz se responsabilizan de la limpieza y de la selección del grano en primera y segunda, según la demanda del exportador. En la provincia de Calca existe algunas plantas seleccionadoras de diferente capacidad."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Los acopiadores pequeños se relacionan con los pequeños productores para la venta regional y nacional."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Las empresas exportadoras comercializan mayores volúmenes con España, Japón, Estados Unidos y China. Los volúmenes de exportación y los precios presentan una tendencia creciente en los últimos cinco años. Ver cuadro N° 3 y gráfico N° 3. El criterio básico de compra venta del producto en el mercado nacional e internacional es el tamaño del grano y la buena calidad. Se han establecido dos clasificaciones con relación al número de granos por onza americana ó por el diámetro de la criba de la zaranda usada para la clasificación:"}]},{"head":"Cuadro N° 3: Exportación Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cuadro N° 4. Características de calibración para exportación","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Clasificación Características","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Calibre 1 ó maíz de \"primera 24/27 granos por onza (*) No pasan por zaranda 15 mm Calibre 2 ó maíz de \"segunda\" 29/34 granos por onza."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"No pasan por zaranda de 13 mm"}]},{"head":"Conformación del precio","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"En el siguiente cuadro se puede observar el incremento del precio en función al valor agregado que se va sumando por efectos de la transformación y presentación. En el año 2010 la relación de precios es de 1 a 18 veces si comparamos el valor de venta promedio en chacra del maíz como grano seco, desgranado, sin seleccionar y sin clasificar en comparación con el valor de venta promedio de productos de consumo final como los snacks."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Cuadro N° 5: Precio promedio de MBGC por presentación "}]},{"head":"SOSTENIBILIDAD DE LA CADENA PRODUCTIVA","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Estudios recientes han identificado varios factores -en relación al producto, rentabilidad, capital social y medio ambiente-que ponen en riesgo la dinámica de la cadena productiva también existen oportunidades en relación al crecimiento del mercado interno y externo."}]},{"head":"Con respecto al producto","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Como refieren los entrevistados (productores del Cusco y otras regiones) es frecuente la mezcla de maíz proveniente de diferentes localidades comercializándose como MBGC. El problema surge cuando se afecta la calidad y en consecuencia la reputación de los productores del Valle Sagrado."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"En los últimos años se ha presentado el riesgo de mantener la oferta de grano seco de maíz debido a las inundaciones de las parcelas que provocan la interrupción de las etapas fenológicas del maíz como en la floración, la madurez fisiológica, el llenado de materia seca de los granos y la eventual pudrición de las mazorcas antes de la madurez. Frente a esta eventualidad los agricultores optan por cosechar el fruto tierno para la venta como choclo."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Otro aspecto que puede afectar la oferta del MBGC es el cambio de uso de tierra. Existen muchos agricultores que ante la necesidad de tener mayores ingresos en el corto plazo venden sus tierras agrícolas a empresas privadas para proyectos urbanísticos. En los últimos años se ha intensificado la instalación de cadenas hoteleras en el Cusco, principalmente en el Valle Sagrado."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"En el lado positivo y según refieren los procesadores y exportadores de snack \"… el mercado local no es el único interesado en nuestros snacks. \"El boom gastronómico sigue teniendo efectos y en los piqueos peruanos se siente fuerte desde los últimos tres o cuatro años, debido también al interés en alimentarse más sanamente…algo que no tiene que ver con la nacionalidad\". (Representante comercial de la empresa Valle Alto). Según el representante de Inka Crops \"el consumo aquí está creciendo desde hace tres años en las cadenas de supermercados, por la apertura de nuevos locales en Lima y en provincias... en el 2009, creció 20%\" (declaraciones al \"El Comercio\" 2010)."}]},{"head":"Con respecto a la rentabilidad","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Los pequeños productores refieren tener baja rentabilidad por el cultivo del MBGC que se explica por los bajos volúmenes de producción (en razón de la constante microparcelación y la baja productividad); el bajo precio del maíz en chacra y la percepción que subvencionan este cultivo. En conjunto, estos aspectos hacen perder interés en esta actividad económica."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"El costo de la mano de obra no calificada en la zona se ha incrementado en un 100% como efecto de la mayor ejecución de obras de infraestructuras públicas y privadas elevando también el costo de la mano de obra para las labores culturales para la producción del MBGC."}]},{"head":"Con respecto al capital social/institucional","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Persiste la desconfianza entre los productores por varias razones: escaso intercambio de información y comunicación; dispersión tecnológica; tenencia de tierras; percepción de inequidad en el vínculo de los productores con los acopiadores."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"La mayoría de las asociaciones de productores no tienen vida orgánica y aún falta la perspectiva empresarial en las organizaciones."}]},{"head":"Con respecto al medio ambiente","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Estudios de Rivera, Riveros, Roxabel identifican varios factores de riesgo del medio ambiente: El uso excesivo de fertilizantes en los suelos de producción, está ocasionando salinización en algunos sectores del valle. Impermeabilización progresiva de suelos, por formación de hardpan que se produce por las continuas labranzas del suelo, se soluciona roturando el suelo cada cuatro o cinco años. Incremento de la presencia de plagas y enfermedades como consecuencia del cambio climático: o Puranius sp. que pertenece a la familia Curculionidae. Es un insecto cuya larva ataca al maíz que esta brotando."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"o La arañita Roja, perteneciente a la familia Tetranychidae, responsable de la disminución de la fruta en el valle como durazno, ciruela pera, frutilla, etc. La contaminación del río Vilcanota es bastante alta, lo cual afecta notablemente la salud del ecosistema del territorio. La fuente que origina la contaminación en el río proviene en gran parte de la Ciudad del Cusco y en menor contribución de las localidades aledañas al río a lo largo del Valle Sagrado. La ubicación altitudinal de los cultivos se está desplazando en función a la variación climatológica de los espacios geográficos."}]},{"head":"V. RECUPERACIÓN DE LA EXPERIENCIA","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Proceso de reconocimiento y gestión colectiva de la DO"}]},{"head":"HITOS HISTÓRICOS","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"De modo cronológico se destacan los siguientes hechos: La búsqueda del reconocimiento de la DO del Maíz Blanco Gigante del Cusco data del 1997, año en que Apromaiz busca la asesoría de Indecopi-Cusco, del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y de la Cámara de Comercio de Cusco. PyMAGROS 2 , incorporó entre sus actividades apoyar una solicitud de denominación de origen para un producto reconocido internacionalmente. Con este propósito entre el 2001 y el 2003 realizó diversas actividades de difusión sobre los alcances de las DO con la activa participación de Indecopi-Lima y la ONG Centro de Desarrollo y Servicios-CESEM. Este esfuerzo encontró muy poca respuesta e interés de los profesionales y productores. Entre mayo del 2003 y febrero del 2004 se buscó la conformación de una alianza interinstitucional con la participación inicial de PyMAGROS-COSUDE e Indecopi, luego se invitó al Proyecto Corredor Puno-Cusco 3 , y APROMAIZ. El 13 de agosto del 2004 se promulga la Ley N° 28331: Ley Marco de los Consejos Reguladores de Denominaciones de Origen."},{"index":2,"size":280,"text":"Entre setiembre del 2004 y julio del 2005 se realizaron dos estudios: (i) técnico agronómico, por un equipo de profesionales de la Universidad Nacional la Agraria, La Molina, (ii) histórico, que se concluyó bajo responsabilidad de PyMAGROS. Culminado los estudios se elaboró el mapa cartográfico de la zona de producción. El 19 de julio de 2005, en condición de titulares, Apromaiz y el Núcleo Ejecutor Central del Proyecto de Desarrollo del Corredor Puno-Cusco, Proyecto del MINDES-FONCODES, presentaron a la Oficina de Signos Distintivos de Indecopi-Cusco la solicitud de Declaración de Denominación de Origen \"Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco\". Conforme corresponde al proceso administrativo de petición de DO, se publicó la solicitud en el diario oficial El Peruano el 3 de agosto del 2005. El día 26 de setiembre del 2005 la Oficina de Signos Distintivos de la oficina de Indecopi en Lima, expidió la Resolución N° 012981-2005/OSD-INDECOPI y el Certificado N° 00000002 reconociendo la DO Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco y su inscripción en el Registro de Denominaciones de Origen de la Propiedad Industrial. Con la finalidad de difundir la DO designada se realizaron conferencias de prensa en Lima y Cusco con numerosa asistencia por el reconocimiento y la revaloración del producto y por la expectativa por su posible contribución a la comercialización. En diciembre del 2006 se instaló el Sub Comité Técnico de Normalización de Granos Andinos con el apoyo de la Comisión de Reglamentos Técnicos y Comerciales de Indecopi. Entró en funcionamiento en el 2007. La conformación del Consejo Regulador de la DO del MBGC se formalizó el 03 de Abril del 2007. En setiembre del 2007 se inició la formulación de la norma técnica de la DO del MBGC."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"2. PyMAGROS, Programa estrategias de articulación entre productores y mercados del agro de la sierra, fue ejecutado y financiado por la Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación. 2001Cooperación. -2005. 3. 3. El Proyecto Corredor Puno-Cusco fue financiado por FONCODES con recursos de endeudamiento provenientes del Contrato de Préstamo 467-PE (FIDA y recursos ordinarios). 2001 -2007."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"A finales del 2008 se terminó de formular la propuesta del reglamento del Consejo Regulador. A fines del 2008 como parte del cierre del Proyecto de Desarrollo del Corredor Puno-Cusco y, en busca de la sostenibilidad de este esfuerzo, coordinó un mayor involucramiento del Ministerio de Agricultura, MINAG. También se transfirió la experiencia al Gobierno Regional de Cusco quien en términos formales recepcionó todo el expediente, asumiendo el compromiso de darle continuidad, sin embargo, no se formuló un proyecto en el marco del Sistema Nacional de Inversión Pública SNIP 4 , ni se incorporó en la estructura presupuestal para garantizara la fase de gestión de la DO. A la fecha no se ha emitido ninguna autorización de uso de la DO, no se desarrolla ninguna actividad de gestión colectiva para el aprovechamiento de este signo distintivo."}]},{"head":"EXPECTATIVAS DE LOS ACTORES SOBRE EL RECONOCIMIENTO DE LA DENOMINACIÓN DE ORIGEN","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"La necesidad de relacionar las cualidades específicas del MBGC con su lugar de origen surgió en los últimos años de la década del 90 debido a que algunos intermediarios entregaban maíz de otras localidades adjudicándole la procedencia al Valle Sagrado ó haciendo la mezcla de ma��ces incumpliendo las condiciones de calidad exigida por los exportadores causando, en opinión de los agricultores, que los precios disminuyeran en perjuicio de los productores de Cusco. Efectivamente, según los datos estadísticos de Sunat, los precios de exportación decrecieron por varios años consecutivos desde US$ 1 dólar (en el año 2000) hasta US$ 0.69 (en el 2004). En general, lograr el reconocimiento de la DO del MBGC estuvo marcado por las siguientes expectativas de los diferentes actores de la cadena productiva:"}]},{"head":"Gráfico","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"• Proteger las características específicas del producto evitando la usurpación y/o substitución. • La posibilidad de \"generar conciencia de calidad y buenas prácticas, fomentando que los pequeños productores se organicen y se integren más ventajosamente a estos circuitos comerciales\". • Generar mercados alternativos."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• La proyección comercial que podría generar."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Los puntos anteriores reflejan las diferentes interpretaciones sobre la utilidad y alcances de la DO, que va desde la diferenciación del producto en razón de su territorio de origen (en coincidencia a la definición establecida en las normas), hasta adjudicarle el potencial de generar procesos complejos como asociatividad y articulación al mercado por el solo hecho de lograr el reconocimiento oficial. Inclusive se pensó que contar con una DO podría impedir que el producto sea cultivado por otros agricultores de otras regiones y evitar la salida de la semilla del Valle de Urubamba."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"Gamboa 5 2011, señala que la DO es un \"signo distintivo…en tal sentido, debe entenderse, no como un elemento que revindica un producto autóctono, sino como una herramienta empresarial de distinción del producto…\", reitera \"la DO, no genera un efecto económico por el solo hecho de su registro, o en forma inmediata y directa, depende como se use\". Por su parte Sánchez 2007, señala \"las denominaciones de origen son reconocidas por el Estado, es decir, el Estado no lo crea y por tanto, alguien lo ha hecho. Alguien ha creado un producto, lo ha comercializado exitosamente al punto de adquirir calidad y reputación… fruto de todo ese esfuerzo, como coronación de un proceso de por sí exitoso, entonces se solicita el reconocimiento de una denominación de origen al Estado\"."}]},{"head":"ACTORES INVOLUCRADOS EN EL RECONOCIMIENTO DE LA DO Conformación de alianza interinstitucional","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Frente al reto de obtener la DO, tempranamente se identificó la necesidad de desarrollar un trabajo colaborativo entre las instituciones, en este sentido se realizó un esfuerzo sostenido para la conformación y funcionamiento formal de una alianza interinstitucional cuyo establecimiento tomó diez meses hasta la firma de un convenio que estableció compromisos, responsabilidades técnicas y financieras de los integrantes."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"El esfuerzo interinstitucional para lograr el reconocimiento de la DO se dio por la complementariedad de intereses de los medianos y grandes productores, con los de las instituciones de promoción públicas y privadas. Los actores entrevistados adjudican un rol preponderante a la alianza en la obtención de la DO por su compromiso y su perseverancia."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Las coincidencias centrales de los miembros de la alianza, así como su papel en esta parte del proceso se presentan a continuación:"},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Apromaiz.-Su interés en la DO se focalizó en \"proteger las cualidades especiales que identifican al MBGC como un producto especial\" así como la reputación del producto y resguárdala de las adulteraciones que tuvieran consecuencias negativas expresadas en menores precios en el mercado internacional. También consideró, frente al estancamiento del mercado, la posibilidad de acceder a nuevos mercados. Apromaiz participó activamente en todo el proceso de registro de la DO. Conocedor de la actividad aportó información agronómica para la elaboración del expediente técnico."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Núcleo Ejecutor Central del Proyecto de Desarrollo del Corredor Puno-Cusco del MIMDES-FONCODES.-el reconocimiento de la DO coincidía con los objetivos del proyecto referidos al \"apoyo a iniciativas generadoras de ingreso rural para campesinos y microempresarios\". Contribuyó con el cofinanciamiento y el aporte en la elaboración de documentos técnicos."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"Proyecto PyMAGROS de la Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación-COSUDE.-consideraba la gestión de la DO como una estrategia para \"diferenciar los productos andinos en su mercados de destino y ayudar a consolidar cadena productivas\". PYMAGROS promovió el proceso de obtención de la DO: convocatoria a las otras instituciones para conformar la alianza y monitoreo de las actividades planificadas colectivamente."},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"Indecopi.-a través de la Oficina de Signos Distintivos tuvo un decidido trabajo, participó activamente en todo el proceso: en las actividades de difusión dirigida a los productores, fomento de reuniones de coordinación, asesoramiento en normatividad y procedimientos para la obtención de la DO y en la supervisión del expediente."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"Los pequeños productores.-estuvieron presentes solo en algunos momentos del proceso (ocasionalmente se contaba con la participación de delegados de la Central de Cooperativas) a pesar de los esfuerzos de incorporación que realizó inicialmente PyMAGROS y luego la alianza en el entendido que la mayoría de los productores del Valle del Urubamba deberían ser beneficiarios de la DO. Con ese propósito se realizaron varios eventos de información, sensibilización y se apoyó la formalización de siete asociaciones de agricultores."}]},{"head":"IDENTIFICACIÓN Y CALIFICACIÓN DEL PRODUCTO","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"En el 2001 PyMAGROS decidió apoyar el registro de una DO. Para este efecto seleccionó el MBGC. Luego en el 2005 en cumplimiento de los requisitos establecidos por Indecopi, basado en la Decisión 486, se ejecutaron dos estudios que acreditaron la relación entre las características específicas del MBGC con el medio geográfico en el cual se desarrolla, los factores naturales/ humanos y la reputación del producto."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"El primer estudio estableció científicamente la interacción entre el material genético cultivado, las condiciones naturales en el cual se desarrolla y las prácticas culturales aplicadas. La suma de estos factores determina la calidad del MBGC. El estudio fue realizado por profesionales de la Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"El segundo estudio validó la tradición del producto (desde la época pre-inca) en el territorio como una forma de demostrar la importancia y el reconocimiento del producto en la economía y la seguridad alimentaria. El estudio fue iniciado por un consultor especialista y se concluyó bajo responsabilidad del equipo de PyMAGROS."}]},{"head":"REMUNERACIÓN","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conformación del Consejo Regulador de la DO del MBGC","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Según la FAO, la remuneración es la fase estratégica de uso y desarrollo de la DO en el mercado, que exige, entre otros aspectos, la acción colectiva. En ese sentido, un mecanismo establecido por la normatividad de las DO es el funcionamiento de los Consejos Reguladores (CR)."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"La Ley Marco de los Consejos Reguladores de las Denominaciones de Origen, N° 28331, establece que una vez reconocida una DO la Oficina de Signos Distintivos del Indecopi podrá autorizar el funcionamiento de los CR a aquellas organizaciones constituidas como asociaciones civiles sin fines de lucro que lo soliciten y que cumplan con los requisitos establecidos en la Ley."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Una de las funciones asignadas a los CR, artículo 11° de la menciona Ley, es la autorización de uso de la DO a quienes cumplan con dos condiciones básicas: (i) demostrar que la calidad de su producto se ajusta a las características especificadas en el expediente técnico, y (ii) certificar ser productor de la zona geográfica motivo de la DO."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Según el Texto Único de Procedimientos Administrativos (TUPA) la autorización de uso de la DO también puede ser otorgada directamente por la Dirección de Signos Distintivos de Indecopi con los mismos requisitos señalados en la Ley 28331."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"En el 2008 se entendió que únicamente el CR tenía potestad para autorizar el uso de la DO. A la fecha queda claro que la DO puede ser autorizada directamente por Indecopi quien señala que esta función será temporal, mientras el CR logre alcanzar los requisitos establecidos para la autorización de su funcionamiento y cuente con las capacidades para el cumplimiento de las funciones asignadas por Ley."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"La falta de experiencia de los actores interesados en este tipo de procesos; la ausencia de una ruta crítica administrativa establecida por Indecopi para los pasos siguientes al otorgamiento de una DO, influyeron en extender el tiempo, el esfuerzo y los recursos económicos -a pesar de la voluntad y compromiso de las organizaciones privadas y públicas-sin arribar a la aplicación de la DO."}]},{"head":"Gestión colectiva de la Denominación de Origen","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"La revisión de la experiencia muestra que la concepción sobre los alcances de la DO, lo complejo y prolongado que resultó el proceso llevó claramente el esfuerzo de las instituciones al logro únicamente del reconocimiento de la DO, sin alcanzar a discutir ni definir una gestión estratégica colectiva de este instrumento."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"La gestión colectiva de una denominación de origen, en la medida que comparte un activo común, requiere abordar por lo menos dos componentes bastante diferenciados: aplicación de la normatividad y la promoción/comercialización. o Velar por el prestigio de la denominación de origen en el mercado nacional y en el extranjero o Vigilar y controlar la producción a fin de garantizar la calidad del producto o Verificar el cumplimiento de la norma técnica o reglamento La exigencia de los dos últimos puntos podría constituirse en factores de potencial exclusión de un número significativo de pequeños productores que no alcancen la calidad establecida en el expediente técnico debido al conjunto de elementos que los mantiene en situación de baja competitividad."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Otro reto es la producción del MBGC en el largo plazo bajo las mismas características establecidas en el expediente técnico con valores únicos en condiciones de cambio climático como ya se puede observar en el Valle Sagrado."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"2. Promoción y comercialización conjunta, con la finalidad de posicionar el producto, ampliar el mercado y mejorar la capacidad de negociación de los actores de la cadena productiva para compartir los beneficios de modo equitativo."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"acopiadores, exportadores y transformadores con diferente nivel de desarrollo empresarial, tal como se describe en secciones anteriores de este documento."}]},{"head":"Efectos de la denominación de origen","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"En la medida que el proceso no concluyó con la autorización de uso de la DO esta no fue implementada para propósitos comerciales nacionales o de exportación por los promotores de esta iniciativa."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"En el mercado local y nacional en los últimos años se ha incrementado los productos procesados como los snacks en base a maíz. Se observa que algunas empresas transformadoras señalan en sus etiquetas que su ingrediente es \"Maíz Blanco Gigante de Cusco acreditado con DO\". "}]},{"head":"REPRODUCCIÓN Y SOSTENIBILIDAD","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"o En el proceso de identificación, calificación y certificación de la DO del MBGC no se consideraron los aspectos de reproducción ni las condiciones de sostenibilidad ligados a la calidad del producto, a la rentabilidad económica y social de la actividad ni el cuidado del medio ambiente. Tampoco forman parte de los requisitos establecidos por Indecopi."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"o La cohesión institucional que impulsó el proceso de la DO, habiendo transcurrido mucho tiempo y los desalentadores resultados obtenidos, se ha debilitado sensiblemente. PyMAGROS y el Proyecto Corredor Cusco Puno ya no existen y, para varias de las instituciones que estuvieron involucrados en el proceso, la DO dejó de ser un tema en sus actuales planes operativos."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"o Se mantiene el interés del sector privado como APROMAIZ y la Central de Cooperativas del Valle Sagrado de los Incas, organizaciones que pueden capitalizar todo el esfuerzo y la inversión interinstitucional realizada."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"o Los acopiadores asentados en el Valle Sagrado no muestran mayor interés, en la medida que conocen que la DO no es una condición importante en la comercialización del MBGC, \"con DO o sin él se sigue vendiendo el maíz del Cusco\" afirman."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"o Algunas instituciones han expresado su interés en retomar el tema: Dirección Regional Agraria Cusco, Agencia Agraria de Calca y Urubamba, Promperu, Inia, Indecopi."}]},{"head":"VI. CONCLUSIONES","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"1. La obtención del registro de la DO del MBGC se estableció como una meta en sí misma. Bajo esta concepción la etapa de identificación y calificación del producto se cumplió exitosamente a pesar de las dificultades, sin embargo, no se explicitaron los pasos a seguir para la etapa de gestión colectiva de la DO."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"2. En el proceso de identificación, calificación y registro de la DO del MBGC no se consideraron los aspectos de reproducción, las condiciones de sostenibilidad ligados a la calidad del producto, rentabilidad económica y social de la actividad, ni el cuidado del medio ambiente. Tampoco forman parte de los requisitos establecidos por Indecopi para el otorgamiento de una DO."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"3. Los medianos y grandes productores mantiene el interés por la DO principalmente como una herramienta para la protección de las características especificas de MBGC en relación a su territorio de origen y evitar la adulteración y la usurpación de la reputación del producto por agricultores de otras localidades que tuvieron consecuencias en la disminución del precio para los productores cusqueños. Los pequeños productores, que son la mayoría, y los acopiadores no reconocen ninguna utilidad a la DO en la medida que no es un requisito solicitado por el mercado."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"4. Las condiciones de transacción (precio, calidad, cantidad) en términos generales son definidos por los comercializadores con limitada participación y capacidad de negociación de los productores de las diferentes escalas de producción."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"5. La conformación del precio refleja la asimetría de la cadena productiva en particular en lo relacionado con la distribución de los beneficios económicos de la actividad."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"6. La capacidad de la DO de constituirse en una herramienta de gestión comercial requiere un desarrollo empresarial previo, que implica contar con calidad estandarizada, oferta organizada, avance en la articulación comercial y organizaciones de productores consolidadas."}]},{"head":"VII. RECOMENDACIONES","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"1. Para hacer mas útil la gestión y la aplicación de las DO, se requiere de un fortalecimiento institucional que incluya aspectos como:"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• Definición de políticas y estrategias de uso de la DO, sea como instrumento de apoyo al desarrollo rural o como herramienta de gestión comercial. • Difusión y homologación de conceptos y criterios consensuados."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"• Junto con la promoción del instrumento, divulgar las condicionantes y restricciones de las DO, de acuerdo con las distintas realidades regionales y de las diferentes cadenas productivas, incluyendo el riesgo de que su aplicación puede generar procesos de exclusión de actores que por diferentes razones, no puedan alcanzar las condiciones de calidad establecidas en un protocolo, o que la distribución de los potenciales beneficios de su utilización no se distribuyan equitativamente en cadenas en las que haya asimetría, sobre todo en aquellas con circuitos largos con participación de muchos actores en los procesos de transformación y comercialización. • Establecer y difundir la ruta crítica del proceso administrativo para el registro y la gestión de la DO que refleje la política institucional de Indecopi. • Poner en agenda la discusión sobre la pertinencia de la doble/triple función (promoción, normativa y/o fiscalizadora) de las instituciones públicas como Indecopi, Gobierno Regional, Gobierno Local con respecto a las DO y sus características particulares como bien público, de gestión colectiva y con titularidad del Estado."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"2. Clarificar con los actores de la cadena productiva, en particular con los productores, en razón de las expectativas existentes, las posibilidades y limitaciones de la DO:"},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"• Como herramienta de diferenciación del producto para fines de mercadeo, más aún, cuando se trata de insumos y no de productos finales. • Capacidad de protección del producto como único en razón a su origen geográfico frente a la posibilidad de otorgar exclusividad de producción. • La necesidad de la gestión colectiva de la DO en relación a la asociatividad."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"• La exigencia de mantener las características específicas declaradas en el expediente técnico y la relación directa con el cuidado del medio ambiente. • El manejo empresarial y la capacidad de inversión para realizar acciones de promoción y articulación comercial."}]},{"head":"ANEXOS","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"La metodología propuesta por la FAO-SINER-GI, Uniendo Personas, Territorios Y Productos. Guía Para Fomentar la Calidad Vinculada al Origen y las Indicaciones Geográficas Sostenibles, es una propuesta de ayuda a los actores locales para implementar los diferentes aspectos que forman parte del desarrollo de un sistema de producción de Indicación Geográfica para aumentar el potencial para el desarrollo sostenible."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Gráfico 1: El círculo virtuoso de la calidad vinculada al origen Fases del círculo virtuoso:"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"1. Identificación.-precisa el producto y los recursos locales necesarios para su producción así como su vínculo con la calidad específica del producto."}]},{"head":"2.","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Calificación.-es el proceso mediante el cual la sociedad (consumidores, ciudadanos, instituciones públicas, otros actores de la cadena de valor, etc.) reconoce el valor agregado del producto vinculado al origen."}]},{"head":"3.","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Remuneración.-corresponde a los mecanismos mediante los cuales la sociedad pagará a los productores por los servicios que conlleva el producto vinculado al origen. La comercialización de un producto con indicación geográfica requiere de una estrategia colectiva para gestionar el activo colectivo con el objetivo de agregar valor y aprovecharse de la reputación. La remuneración de los recursos locales específicos se puede obtener también mediante mecanismos no comerciales. En este caso, puede ser necesario recompensar estos valores por medio de un apoyo público directo (financiero o asistencia técnica públicos)."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"4. Reproducción de recursos locales.-significa que los recursos se preservarán, renovarán y mejorarán a lo largo del círculo a fin de hacer posible su sostenibilidad a largo plazo, garantizando de este modo la existencia misma del producto vinculado al origen."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"5. Función de las políticas públicas en el círculo virtuoso.-los actores públicos (Estado, gobiernos regionales y locales y otras autoridades e instituciones que representan el interés público) pueden proporcionar un marco jurídico e institucional adecuado para el reconocimiento, la regulación y la protección de los derechos de"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" En los últimos diez años se registraron 29 empresas que exportan MBGC: VIDAL FOODS S.A.C, INTI CONSORCIO E.I.R.L., BEDICOMSA SOCIEDAD ANÓNIMA, ALISUR S.A.C. y SUN PACKERS S.R.LTDA. tuvieron participaciones superiores al 6% del volumen exportado en los años 2009 y 2010. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Cuadro Nº 2: Número de agricultores por área de siembra en el ámbito de la DO (2006) Agricultores Área cultivo de MBGC Ha Rendimiento Tm/ha Producción promedio  N° %   Tm/Campaña % N°%Tm/Campaña%  6 0.12 Mayor a 10 hasta 30 6.50 1,170 2.82 6 0.12Mayor a 10 hasta 306.501,1702.82 150 3.00 Mayor a 5 -menor a 10 4.00 6,000 14.48 150 3.00Mayor a 5 -menor a 104.006,000 14.48 2000 40.00 Mayor a 1 -menor a 5 3.00 30,000 72.40 2000 40.00 Mayor a 1 -menor a 53.0030,000 72.40 2844 56.88 Menor a 1 1.50 4,266 10.20 2844 56.88 Menor a 11.504,266 10.20  "},{"text":"5,000 100.00 41,436 100.00 Fuente: APROMAIZ   "},{"text":"La Asociación de Productores de Maíz Blanco Gigante, Apromaiz Central de Cooperativas Valle Sagrado de los Incas Ltda. Nº 002-VII Calca -Urubamba -CEVCSI. -Asociación de Productores Agropecuarios de Ollantaytambo. -Asociación de Productores de Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco APU LINLI Pisac. -Asociación de Productores Agrícolas San pedro de Coya. -Asociación de Productores de Maíz Blanco Patrón Santiago -Lamay Coya. -Asociación de Productores de Maíz Blanco Patrón Santiago -Lamay Coya. -Centro de Negocios Agrícolas Huayllabamba Asociación Civil. -Centro de Negocios Agrícolas Huayllabamba Asociación Civil. -Asociación de productores Agropecuarios Agroindustrial y Artesanal de Tanccac -Asociación de productores Agropecuarios Agroindustrial y Artesanal de Tanccac Ollantaytambo. Ollantaytambo. De ellas, la Central de Cooperativas Valle Sagrado de los Incas organiza la oferta de De ellas, la Central de Cooperativas Valle Sagrado de los Incas organiza la oferta de sus socios para la venta del maíz; es de las pocas que mantiene actividades colectivas. sus socios para la venta del maíz; es de las pocas que mantiene actividades colectivas. Cusco fue Cusco fue formalizada en el 2002, es una organización que agrupa a medianos y grandes formalizada en el 2002, es una organización que agrupa a medianos y grandes productores de MBGC del Valle Sagrado. Goza de reconocimiento y es considerada productores de MBGC del Valle Sagrado. Goza de reconocimiento y es considerada como interlocutor institucional. como interlocutor institucional.  "},{"text":"Gráfico N° 4: Exportación Maíz Blanco Gigante Cusco  12000000    12000000 10000000    10000000 8000000   Año 8000000Año 6000000   FOB US$ miles 6000000FOB US$ miles 4000000   Peso Neto Kilos 4000000Peso Neto Kilos 2000000    2000000 0    0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fuente: Sunat. Data a mayo 2011   Fuente: Sunat. Data a mayo 2011 Compilación W. Koo    Compilación W. Koo Elaboración propia    Elaboración propia Año FOB US$ miles Peso Neto Precio AñoFOB US$ milesPeso NetoPrecio   Kilos Promedio KilosPromedio 2001 2,874,111 3,581,220 0.80 20012,874,1113,581,2200.80 2002 4,049,034 4,718,925 0.86 20024,049,0344,718,9250.86 2003 2,517,048 3,299,559 0.76 20032,517,0483,299,5590.76 2004 3,960,626 5,735,553 0.69 20043,960,6265,735,5530.69 2005 4,983,959 6,427,710 0.78 20054,983,9596,427,7100.78 2006 4,213,807 4,810,792 0.88 20064,213,8074,810,7920.88 2007 5,097,973 5,703,854 0.89 20075,097,9735,703,8540.89 2008 7,547,425 5,704,634 1.32 20087,547,4255,704,6341.32 2009 9,649,231 6,135,264 1.57 20099,649,2316,135,2641.57 2010 9,809,418 6,566,858 1.49 20109,809,4186,566,8581.49 2011 2,607,150 1,688,964 1.54 20112,607,1501,688,9641.54 Fuente: Sunat. Data a mayo 2011. Compilación W. Koo.  Fuente: Sunat. Data a mayo 2011. Compilación W. Koo. Elaboración propia.   Elaboración propia.  "},{"text":"1 . Aplicación de la normatividad, principalmente las asignadas por la Ley N° 28331 a los consejos reguladores, entre ellas: o Otorgar la autorización de uso o Defender los intereses generales de la denominación de origen o Establecer y aplicar sanciones a sus asociados.  "},{"text":" Se desconoce si cuentan con algún tipo de autorización para este uso. Según la normatividad vigente corresponde a Indecopi, a solicitud o por oficio, la protección de las DO.Un indicio de que el MBGC es reconocido a nivel de la Región Andina como un producto con características específicas es la información estadística de Sunat que consigna del 2004 al 2007 la exportación de MAÍZ BLANCO GIGANTE CUZCO con subpartida arancelaria 1005.90.90.10, y desde el 2007 la exportación del MAÍZ BLANCO GIGANTE zea mays amilaceo cv. gigante con subpartida arancelaria 1005.90.30.00.  "}],"sieverID":"1fd85b3a-5510-492c-8c77-b95e98d68437","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0280b3915590e781896de61b7d3ad4f8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1b0ba19-e844-45eb-bf12-46e0ffe42423/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Africa RISING is a multi-stakeholder agricultural research program funded by USAID under the Feed the Future Initiative. It was launched in 2011 and aims at improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, in particular women. Africa RISING's program framework recognizes gender as cutting across all research themes. This gender action plan captures entry points for a more pronounced inclusion of gender in various project activities. It was written for the Africa RISING regions in West, East and Southern Africa, namely Ghana, Mali, Tanzania and Malawi."}]},{"head":"Africa RISING's Research Outputs and the Humidtropics Gender Strategy","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Africa RISING is associated with the CGIAR's Humidtropics Program. The latter pursues three strategic research themes (SRTs) that build upon each other: \"Systems Analysis and Synthesis\" (SRT 1) serve to characterize the situation of households and communities in target areas. Based on these characterizations technologies for \"Integrated Systems Improvement\" (SRT 2) are developed. Finally, improvements are realized in larger areas through \"Scaling and Institutional Innovation\" (SRT 3)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The \"Humidtropics Gender Strategy\" of 2014 elaborates on the gender dimensions of these themes together with approaches that aim at reducing inequalities between men and women. Africa RISING reflects Humidtropics' research themes in its research outputs (ROs), which are situation analysis (RO1), integrated systems improvement (RO2) and scaling and delivery of integrated innovation (RO3). As a fourth research output Africa RISING added integrated monitoring and evaluation (RO4) to continuously assess implementation and outcomes of its interventions."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"With the overall gender strategy being outlined by Humidtropics, Africa RISING's coordination team (for regions led by IITA) saw the need to operationalize gender objectives in an action plan that will guide day-to-day activities and help monitor adequate gender inclusion. The following document is the first gender action plan and therefore places particular emphasis on staff capacity assessment and development. Building adequate gender understanding and skills in all Africa RISING staff is a precondition for reaching the project's objectives such as the advancement of gender-responsive technologies. Objectives will be further promoted by gender-sensitive communication with both internal and external audiences providing equal access to information and dialogue, while at the same time respecting different needs in the target groups. As a consequence, the key results areas described below include capacity assessment and development as well as communications. At the same time, research on scaling activities (RO3) is not part of the 2015/2016-action plan, since the project will dedicate its second phase (starting 2016/2017) to it."}]},{"head":"Gender Action Planning as an Annual Institutionalized Process","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The gender person together with the coordination team drafted this first action plan. However, in future gender action planning will involve all research teams to ensure ownership, implementation and mainstreaming in all project areas. Therefore, participatory mechanisms will be put in place. These will include:  Brief presentations of gender-relevant activities, results, needs and questions by each Africa RISING research team at the annual review and planning meeting.  Based on above presentations, discussion and development of further gender activities in the work plans.  Submission of gender-relevant aspects of work plans to the gender person for inclusion in the annual gender action plan and for support and monitoring. Institutionalized gender-related reporting as well as exchange and learning at the annual review and planning meetings will form the basis for participatory gender action planning."}]},{"head":"Summary of Outputs in Key Results Areas","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capacity Assessment and Development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Assessing and subsequently increasing the gender capacity of management and staff is of paramount importance for reaching Africa RISING's overall goal of improving the food and income security of particularly women and children. Therefore, from July until September 2015 the gender team conducted a capacity assessment on three levels: On the environmental level, national agricultural policies in IITA-led regions were evaluated in respect to their conduciveness for gender-sensitive research and action. On the organizational level, a focus group discussion with Africa RISING's program coordination team assessed management's capacity to support gender activities through planning, incentives, strategies or other measures. Finally, individual project staffs were requested to complete a survey relating to six core gender capacities and specific training needs and preferences. Results from this assessment will be published in 2016 and will inform a gender capacity development plan."}]},{"head":"Situation Analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Africa RISING's first research objective aims at a characterization of action communities including their gender relations. Socio-economic data provide insights into the potential impact of sustainable intensification technologies on the livelihoods of men and women. They can also identify constraints and opportunities of women in agriculture and show avenues, through which female farmers can benefit more from research."},{"index":2,"size":213,"text":"Three studies are linked to the research output \"situation analysis\". The first relates to baseline surveys Africa RISING and its partners have conducted in the past years. They have produced scattered gender-related data that need to be synthesized, analysed and presented. At present, a team is working on the evaluation of surveys carried out in Tanzania. The report will not only present the results, but also recommendations for further studies (e.g. to fill in gaps). These could for instance adapt the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Survey Tool launched by IFPRI and USAID's Feed the Future initiative. A second study is currently being implemented in northern Ghana. A consultancy was launched that comprises a literature review of gender issues in agriculture in the Northern, Upper West and Upper East regions, gender-separate focus group discussions in six Africa RISING communities as well as qualitative interviews with key informants. It is expected that the consultancy's findings will support a better inclusion of gender aspects into integrated systems research in the coming seasons. NAFAKA, Africa RISING's USAID Mission project in Tanzania initiated a third investigation. A baseline study on vegetable production and marketing generated qualitative and quantitative data on gender aspects in this field. The sample consisted of respondents from Babati, Kongwa and Kiteto districts in Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Integrated Systems Improvement","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Integrated gender research is meant to produce and test innovations that promote agricultural productivity and income in a way that is equally beneficial to women, men and children. Methods of social science research (including participatory approaches) can help to explore whether aspects of certain technologies are conducive or detrimental to gender balance in specific contexts."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"In 2015/2016 four Africa RISING teams will conduct integrated research, three of them in Babati, Tanzania, and one in Bougouni and Koutiala, Mali. Topics to be investigated will be: gender preferences of improved animal feeding technologies, gender analysis of maize fertilizer technologies and the inclusion of gender aspects into a partial budget study. Research strategies will include qualitative, quantitative as well as mixed-methods approaches."}]},{"head":"Monitoring and Evaluation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Monitoring and evaluation as on-going learning processes are based on first, a co-ordinated reporting system and second, in-depth analysis of interventions and their achievements. Genderresponsive monitoring ensures that different needs and preferences of male and female farmers are identified and taken into account in research for agricultural development. Continuous assessments and adjustments in respect of gender are meant to contribute to the scalability of technologies. Studies of adoption rates need to be complemented by socio-economic and cultural data in order to understand more about the context (including gender relations) in which adoption/adaptation takes place."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"In terms of a co-ordinated reporting system, the gender person will be responsible for the annual preparation, implementation and revision of the gender action plan. She will depend on dialogue with the coordinator and chief scientists for strategic orientation as well as reports and work plans from various research teams especially for the second research output, \"Integrated Systems Improvement\". The gender action plan will present results from the previous year and outline how current work builds upon them."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"For the second part of this key result area, the in-depth analysis of interventions, one follow-up study is presently being carried out. It evaluates the gendered context and outcomes of an Africa RISING intervention (lottery game) that was carried out in three villages in Babati district (Tanzania) in 2013/2014. Semi-structured interviews with female and male beneficiaries provide insights into the lottery game's gender dynamics at the household and community level. It is expected that exchange and cooperation with other scientists following the same intervention will contribute to a better understanding of the events."}]},{"head":"Communications","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Africa RISING's communication strategy outlines three objectives: 1. To enrich learning, interaction and exchange between Africa RISING's project teams. 2. To enhance Africa RISING program and project visibility and promote wider use and adoption of research outputs. 3. To contribute to a better understanding of Africa RISING by the donor and their networks."},{"index":2,"size":185,"text":"For 2015/2016 the communications expert and the gender person will focus on the following activities: In relation to all three above objectives they will develop or adapt guidelines for gendersensitive blogging. These guidelines will clarify aspects of language, stereotyping, story selection, images and contextualization and will assist the communications team to monitor Africa RISING's media outputs in terms of their gender-sensitivity. With respect to the second strategic objective, R4D platforms are considered important assets for implementing communications activities. In Babati (Tanzania) Africa RISING plans to consolidate its district platform and to establish new platforms on the ward level. The platform team (Per Hillbur, Festo Ngulu, Gundula Fischer) will commission a stakeholder analysis on youth-specific and gender-sensitive organizations in the district. Results will enable the team to include more stakeholders in the platforms that promote gender equality in agriculture. In addition a specific platform team meeting will be dedicated to a discussion on how to establish processes and structures that are conducive for an equitable participation of women and men and various age groups. Newly recruited ward platform facilitators will receive training that comprises gender units."}]},{"head":"Situation Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Research Output 1: Situation Analysis Theme: Synthesizing Gender-relevant Africa RISING Baseline Data for Tanzania Principal Investigator: Gundula Fischer, IITA Indicator: Report on gender-relevant data including recommendations for further research submitted Means of Verification: Evaluation of five baseline studies in terms of availability of gender baseline data Description: This activity aimed at establishing how far previous Africa RISING baseline studies in Tanzania had produced gender-relevant data. Five surveys were examined for their level of gender-disaggregation, sample size, methodology and relevance of questions. Results of this evaluation as well as recommendations for future gender research will be published in a report. Findings from this study will not only establish a baseline against which progress will be measured, but will also contribute to a better understanding of men and women's roles in vegetable production and an improvement of training programmes and manuals. "}]},{"head":"Integrated Systems Improvement","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Research Output 2: Integrated Systems Improvement Theme 1 (Babati): Crop Management Efficiency; Gender Analysis of Maize Fertilizer Technologies (Tanzania) Principal Investigator: Job Kihara, CIAT Indicator: Gender-specific constraints and preferences in respect of maize fertilizer technologies analysed and integrated into work report Means of Verification: Gender-separate farmer field days with focus group discussions in two villages of Babati district, Tanzania Description: In this theme biophysicists and farmers research the integration of maize varieties, inorganic fertilizer and organic resources. The social science team will support an assessment of gender issues surrounding these technologies through focus group discussions. The results will contribute to the question of how gender-responsive and scalable the investigated technologies are. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" Literature review and report on empirical study submitted Means of Verification: Literature review, focus group discussions, key informant interviews Description: This activity is conducted in cooperation with gender experts from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana. The consultancy comprises a literature review on gender in agriculture in Northern Ghana and an empirical study in six Africa RISING action sites in the Northern, Upper West and Upper East regions. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews will revolve around questions of gender analysis such as access to resources, division of labour and benefit sharing on the household and community level. Research will also focus on gender differences in adoption and adaptation of Africa RISING technologies and how they can be explained. Baseline survey Description: A baseline survey on vegetable production and marketing in Babati, Kiteto and Kongwa contained questions about gender issues in this field. Research Output 1: Situation Analysis   Research Output 1: Situation Analysis Theme: Qualitative Gender Evaluation of Agricultural Intensification Practices in Northern Ghana Research Output 1: Situation Analysis  Theme: Qualitative Gender Evaluation of Agricultural Intensification Practices in Northern Ghana Research Output 1: Situation Analysis Principal Investigator: Gundula Fischer, IITA Theme: Gender Issues in Vegetable Production and Marketing in Tanzania (NAFAKA)  Principal Investigator: Gundula Fischer, IITA Theme: Gender Issues in Vegetable Production and Marketing in Tanzania (NAFAKA) Activities 1. Requesting data from research teams 2. Evaluation in terms of suitability of data as gender baseline 3. Analysis of suitable data and presentation in tables and charts 5. Report 4. Empirical study: data generation 3. Literature review 2. Inception of consultancy 1. Development of terms of reference for a consultancy Principal Investigator: Andreas Gramzow, AVRDC Indicator: Data analysis completed Indicator: Activities Means of Verification: Timeframe Begin: April 2015 Complete: April 2016 Complete: May 2016 Begin: September 2015 Timeframe 4. Gundula Fischer, Gabriel Malima, 5. Consultants, Gundula Fischer 3. Gabriel Malima, Emmanuel Temu 4. Consultants Emmanuel Temu 3. Consultants, Gundula Fischer 2. Gundula Fischer, Gabriel Malima, 2. Gundula Fischer 1. Gundula Fischer 1. Gundula Fischer Responsible Person Responsible Person Activities 1. Requesting data from research teams 2. Evaluation in terms of suitability of data as gender baseline 3. Analysis of suitable data and presentation in tables and charts 5. Report 4. Empirical study: data generation 3. Literature review 2. Inception of consultancy 1. Development of terms of reference for a consultancy Principal Investigator: Andreas Gramzow, AVRDC Indicator: Data analysis completed Indicator: Activities Means of Verification:Timeframe Begin: April 2015 Complete: April 2016 Complete: May 2016 Begin: September 2015 Timeframe4. Gundula Fischer, Gabriel Malima, 5. Consultants, Gundula Fischer 3. Gabriel Malima, Emmanuel Temu 4. Consultants Emmanuel Temu 3. Consultants, Gundula Fischer 2. Gundula Fischer, Gabriel Malima, 2. Gundula Fischer 1. Gundula Fischer 1. Gundula Fischer Responsible Person Responsible Person 4. Report writing  Emmanuel Temu 4. Report writingEmmanuel Temu 5. Requesting research teams for consent to data  5. Gundula Fischer, Simon Wittich 5. Requesting research teams for consent to data5. Gundula Fischer, Simon Wittich publication  6. Gundula Fischer, Simon Wittich publication6. Gundula Fischer, Simon Wittich 6. Publication of report   6. Publication of report  "},{"text":" Analysis of gendered forage preferences completed and included in work report Means of Verification: Gender-separate focus group discussions in three villages of Babati district, Tanzania Description: In this theme scientists investigate forages and feed as opportunities for driving sustainable intensification of crop livestock systems in Tanzania. The social science team will support a study on male and female farmers' preferences of forage varieties. Insights into gender dynamics around land access, labour and benefit sharing among others will contribute to an assessment of how acceptable technologies are for different social groups. This theme investigates how vegetables can contribute to increased food and nutritional security and improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Equal participation of both women and men in field days and trainings will be promoted by rethinking the current implementation approach. The gender team will support the inclusion of gender analysis into partial budgeting research project. Gender-specific feed utilisation and preferences in respect of animal feeding technologies analysed and integrated into work report Means of Verification: Quantitative and qualitative tools contained in the selected gender survey guide as well as secondary sources Description: In this theme a gender survey will be undertaken on gender preferences of various animal-feeding technologies. Quantitative findings will be complemented by an assessment of gender issues surrounding these technologies through focus group discussions. The results will shed light on the existing gender preferences in animal feeding technologies and their feed utilisation strategy. Institutional Cooperation and Co-learning; Gender and Youth Integration in Establishing and Running R4D Platforms in Babati District, Tanzania Principal Investigator: Per Hillbur, Malmö University Indicator: Women's organizations, gender-sensitive organizations as well as youth organizations included in platforms; equity ensured by processes and structures within platforms; facilitators trained in relevant gender and youth issues Means of Verification: Stakeholder analysis with a gender and youth focus; facilitated discussions; gender training Description: This theme focuses on socio-economic and institutional issues and complements Africa RISING' agro-ecological research activities. R4D platforms on the strategic (district) as well as operational level (ward) support cooperation and learning among various agricultural stakeholders. Through consideration of gender-and youth-specific needs, objectives and constraints they can serve as a vehicle for the empowerment of women and men and different age groups. Activities Timeframe Responsible Person 1. Stakeholder analysis of women's organizations, gender-sensitive organizations and youth organizations for inclusion in platforms at the district and ward level. 2. Facilitation of platform team meeting to discuss on how to establish gender-sensitive processes and structures within the platforms (gender parity; at times genderseparate discussion fora; meeting times and venues that consider female triple burdens, gender-specific aspects for inclusion in the platform agenda, constitution etc.) 3. Training on gender and youth issues for platform facilitators (included in a longer general training program). Research Output 2: Integrated Systems Improvement Research Output 2: Integrated Systems Improvement Theme 2 (Babati): Integrated Livestock Feed; Gender Analysis of Improved Forages (Tanzania) Research Output 2: Integrated Systems Improvement Research Output 2: Integrated Systems Improvement Research Output: Communications Theme 2 (Babati): Integrated Livestock Feed; Gender Analysis of Improved Forages (Tanzania) Research Output 2: Integrated Systems Improvement Research Output 2: Integrated Systems Improvement Research Output: Communications Activities 1. Development of discussion guide that contains gender analysis questions in relation to the maize fertilizer technologies to be presented at the field days. 2. Organization of gender-separate field days in two villages (one field day for male farmers and one field day for female farmers per village) including group discussions, choice of time and location that considers women's constraints to participation. 3. Sampling of 6-12 participants per group (purposive sampling considering age and gender) and personal documentation). 7. Data analysis and presentation in work report. training of note-takers (responsible for thorough 6. Expanded note writing or transcription of recordings. male groups, female facilitators for female groups) and 5. Implementation of focus group discussions. report. 4. Choice and training of facilitators (male facilitators for documentation). 5. Data analysis and presentation in work invitation of participants. Principal Investigator: Ben Lukuyu, ILRI Indicator: Activities 1. Adaptation of existing tool as discussion guide; inclusion of gender analysis questions related to introduction of improved forage technologies. 2. Organization of gender-separate focus group Theme 3 (Babati): Integration of Vegetables into Maize-based Farming Systems in Babati, Tanzania Timeframe Responsible Person 5. Sapna Jarial and Gundula Fischer Begin: March 2016 Complete: August 2016 1. Job Kihara and Gundula Fischer Timeframe Responsible Person Begin: January 2016 Complete: August 2016 1. Ben Lukuyu and Gundula Fischer 2. Gregory Sikumba 3. Ben Lukuyu, Gregory Sikumba 4. Ben Lukuyu, Gregory Sikumba (selection), Principal Investigator: Victor Afari-Sefa, AVRDC Indicator: Gender-sensitive questionnaire developed and students trained Means of Verification: Facilitated discussion; survey study; qualitative exploration and stakeholder validation Description: Activities Timeframe Responsible Person 1. Meeting of implementers and gender team to discuss how women's participation in technology validation and training can be improved (e.g. through gender-separate Begin: November 2015 Complete: August 2016 1. Inviolate Dominick, Gundula Fischer, Simon Wittich 2. Two MSc students, Gundula Fischer, Simon Theme 3 (Mali): Improving Feed Resources Production and Use in Mixed Crop-livestock Production Systems; Gender Preferences on Animal Feeding Strategies and Technologies (Mali) Principal Investigator: Sapna Jarial, ICRISAT Indicator: Activities Timeframe Responsible Person 1. Development of a guide that contains various participatory tools for gender analysis in Begin: April 2015 Complete: May 2016 1. Sapna Jarial 2. Sapna Jarial (selection, training), Birhanu Zemadim Theme: Begin: January 2016 1. Local consultant (under supervision of 2. Steve Lyimo discussion in three villages, choice of time and Gundula Fischer (training) field days or trainings, a stronger consideration of Wittich, Victor Afari-Sefa relation to livestock feeding. (selection), Dicko Mahamadou (facilitator and Complete: June 2016 Gundula Fischer) 3. Steve Lyimo (in discussion with location that considers women's constraints to 5. Gregory Sikumba, facilitators, note-takers women's work schedules in the choice of time and 2. Training of facilitators (male facilitators for training), Karamoko Traore (facilitator and training), 2. Per Hillbur, Festo Ngulu, Gundula Fischer Gundula Fischer) and training of note-takers (responsible for thorough sensitive data collection. recordings. Fatoumata Djaby, Dicko Mahamadou, Sapna Jarial Lyimo male groups, female facilitators for female groups) questionnaire and train the students in aspects of gender-4. Expanded note writing or transcription of 4. For Bougouni: Dicko Mahamadou. For Koutiala: 7. Gundula Fischer, Job Kihara, Steve 4. Choice and training of facilitators (male facilitators for The gender team will support the development of the discussions. Dembele and Nouhoum Coulibaly. 6. Facilitators and note-takers invitation of participants. (Mary Mtui and Aika Aku) from Egerton University, Kenya. 3. Implementation of survey and focus group Koutiala: Fatoumata Djaby, Drissa Coulibaly, Bintou 5. Steve Lyimo, facilitators, note-takers sampling considering age and gender) and personal Fischer to be conducted by two iAGRI sponsored MSc students (responsible for thorough documentation). Nouhoum Coulibaly and Fatoumata Djaby. For Gundula Fischer (training) 3. Sampling of 6-12 participants per group (purposive 7. Ben Lukuyu, Gregory Sikumba, Gundula 2. Inclusion of gender analysis into a partial budgeting study groups) and training of note-takers 3. For Bougouni: Fadouba Kanoute, Mohamed Wahari, 4. Job Kihara, Steve Lyimo (selection), participation. 6. Facilitators and note-takers venues). male groups, female facilitators for female Bougouna Sogoba (selection) 3. Gundula Fischer, local consultant Activities 1. Development of discussion guide that contains gender analysis questions in relation to the maize fertilizer technologies to be presented at the field days. 2. Organization of gender-separate field days in two villages (one field day for male farmers and one field day for female farmers per village) including group discussions, choice of time and location that considers women's constraints to participation. 3. Sampling of 6-12 participants per group (purposive sampling considering age and gender) and personal documentation). 7. Data analysis and presentation in work report. training of note-takers (responsible for thorough 6. Expanded note writing or transcription of recordings. male groups, female facilitators for female groups) and 5. Implementation of focus group discussions. report. 4. Choice and training of facilitators (male facilitators for documentation). 5. Data analysis and presentation in work invitation of participants. Principal Investigator: Ben Lukuyu, ILRI Indicator: Activities 1. Adaptation of existing tool as discussion guide; inclusion of gender analysis questions related to introduction of improved forage technologies. 2. Organization of gender-separate focus group Theme 3 (Babati): Integration of Vegetables into Maize-based Farming Systems in Babati, Tanzania Timeframe Responsible Person 5. Sapna Jarial and Gundula Fischer Begin: March 2016 Complete: August 2016 1. Job Kihara and Gundula Fischer Timeframe Responsible Person Begin: January 2016 Complete: August 2016 1. Ben Lukuyu and Gundula Fischer 2. Gregory Sikumba 3. Ben Lukuyu, Gregory Sikumba 4. Ben Lukuyu, Gregory Sikumba (selection), Principal Investigator: Victor Afari-Sefa, AVRDC Indicator: Gender-sensitive questionnaire developed and students trained Means of Verification: Facilitated discussion; survey study; qualitative exploration and stakeholder validation Description: Activities Timeframe Responsible Person 1. Meeting of implementers and gender team to discuss how women's participation in technology validation and training can be improved (e.g. through gender-separate Begin: November 2015 Complete: August 2016 1. Inviolate Dominick, Gundula Fischer, Simon Wittich 2. Two MSc students, Gundula Fischer, Simon Theme 3 (Mali): Improving Feed Resources Production and Use in Mixed Crop-livestock Production Systems; Gender Preferences on Animal Feeding Strategies and Technologies (Mali) Principal Investigator: Sapna Jarial, ICRISAT Indicator: Activities Timeframe Responsible Person 1. Development of a guide that contains various participatory tools for gender analysis in Begin: April 2015 Complete: May 2016 1. Sapna Jarial 2. Sapna Jarial (selection, training), Birhanu Zemadim Theme: Begin: January 2016 1. Local consultant (under supervision of 2. Steve Lyimo discussion in three villages, choice of time and Gundula Fischer (training) field days or trainings, a stronger consideration of Wittich, Victor Afari-Sefa relation to livestock feeding. (selection), Dicko Mahamadou (facilitator and Complete: June 2016 Gundula Fischer) 3. Steve Lyimo (in discussion with location that considers women's constraints to 5. Gregory Sikumba, facilitators, note-takers women's work schedules in the choice of time and 2. Training of facilitators (male facilitators for training), Karamoko Traore (facilitator and training), 2. Per Hillbur, Festo Ngulu, Gundula Fischer Gundula Fischer) and training of note-takers (responsible for thorough sensitive data collection. recordings. Fatoumata Djaby, Dicko Mahamadou, Sapna Jarial Lyimo male groups, female facilitators for female groups) questionnaire and train the students in aspects of gender-4. Expanded note writing or transcription of 4. For Bougouni: Dicko Mahamadou. For Koutiala: 7. Gundula Fischer, Job Kihara, Steve 4. Choice and training of facilitators (male facilitators for The gender team will support the development of the discussions. Dembele and Nouhoum Coulibaly. 6. Facilitators and note-takers invitation of participants. (Mary Mtui and Aika Aku) from Egerton University, Kenya. 3. Implementation of survey and focus group Koutiala: Fatoumata Djaby, Drissa Coulibaly, Bintou 5. Steve Lyimo, facilitators, note-takers sampling considering age and gender) and personal Fischer to be conducted by two iAGRI sponsored MSc students (responsible for thorough documentation). Nouhoum Coulibaly and Fatoumata Djaby. For Gundula Fischer (training) 3. Sampling of 6-12 participants per group (purposive 7. Ben Lukuyu, Gregory Sikumba, Gundula 2. Inclusion of gender analysis into a partial budgeting study groups) and training of note-takers 3. For Bougouni: Fadouba Kanoute, Mohamed Wahari, 4. Job Kihara, Steve Lyimo (selection), participation. 6. Facilitators and note-takers venues). male groups, female facilitators for female Bougouna Sogoba (selection) 3. Gundula Fischer, local consultant 5. Implementation of field days. 5. Implementation of field days. 6. Expanded note writing or transcription of recordings. 6. Expanded note writing or transcription of recordings. 7. Data analysis and presentation in work report. 7. Data analysis and presentation in work report.  "}],"sieverID":"7a827183-4812-438d-a18d-35f72fe52343","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03777b444981e716cc6624e6f3feb782","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/853a59ee-e007-420b-bfc5-15f0c0ed6d1a/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"El fríjol es un cultivo de gran importancia en Colombia al ser un generador de ingresos y empleo rural en muchas regiones del país. Este cultivo es muy apreciado como un producto básico en la dieta alimentaria de la población colombiana por su alto contenido de proteínas y de elementos minerales esenciales. Para el año 2017, la Federación Nacional de Cultivadores de Cereales y Leguminosas (Fenalce) reportó que en Colombia se encuentran sembradas con fríjol más de 90.000 hectáreas, además de obtener una producción total superior a las 100.000 toneladas de grano utilizado para consumo nacional [1]."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"No obstante, la producción de fríjol en Colombia, se presenta como un reto para los agricultores. Aspectos como la poca oferta tecnológica para el manejo del cultivo y el efecto constante del cambio climático en las zonas productoras de fríjol son los causantes de que tanto las variedades locales, como las variedades mejoradas de fríjol presenten problemas al momento de expresar su potencial productivo, lo que genera un impacto directo en la reducción de los rendimientos del cultivo a nivel nacional."},{"index":3,"size":312,"text":"A raíz de esto, el programa HarvestPlus tomó la iniciativa de trabajar en el desarrollo y difusión de nuevas variedades de fríjol biofortificado mejor adaptadas al entorno, de mejores rendimientos y con mayor contenido de micronutrientes, como el hierro (Fe) y el zinc (Zn), con el objetivo de combatir las deficiencias nutricionales en Colombia. Aspectos técnicos, como las diferencias en el manejo agronómico del cultivo de fríjol según la morfología de la planta, diferencias en el requerimiento hídrico según el tipo de fríjol sembrado, recomendaciones para una fertilización adecuada del cultivo, manejo integrado de malezas, manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades del cultivo y recomendaciones para realizar la cosecha y poscosecha del cultivo, son los temas más relevantes que se abordan en este documento. El objetivo de esta cartilla es brindar a técnicos y agricultores conocimientos prácticos sobre técnicas de establecimiento, manejo, cosecha, poscosecha y almacenamiento de la producción de grano de fríjol biofortificado arbustivo y voluble, presentando alternativas de manejo sostenibles para el contexto productivo de Colombia. DEL FRÍJOL ARBUSTIVO Las variedades biofortificadas de fríjol arbustivo (Imagen 1) con mayor contenido de hierro y zinc presentan un tipo de crecimiento determinado, con una altura no mayor a 70 cm. Se desarrollan en un ciclo de entre 70 y 120 días, dependiendo de las condiciones climáticas en las que se establece el cultivo. El patrón de color de flor puede variar entre blanco, morado o rosa/ lila en algunos casos (Imagen 2). El formato de grano que se puede encontrar es muy diverso e incluye rojos moteados y rojos (Imagen 3). En cuanto al tamaño, se pueden encontrar granos de tamaño pequeño (peso de 100 semillas menor a 25 g), mediano (peso de 100 semillas entre 25 y 40 g) y grande (peso de 100 semillas mayor de 40 g), con una diversidad de formas de grano como alargado, redondo o arriñonado."}]},{"head":"ZONAS AGROECOLÓGICAS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Los materiales presentan adaptación a la zona andina, para altitudes comprendidas entre los 800 y 1.800 m.s.n.m. Las zonas planas o de ladera que no presenten una pendiente mayor al 30% facilitan el establecimiento y las labores de manejo del cultivo [2]. Se recomienda su siembra tanto en el semestre A como en el semestre B. Se debe procurar que los períodos de germinación y floración coincidan con los de mayor precipitación. Las mejores fechas de siembra en el primer semestre corresponden a los meses de marzo y abril y, para los que siembran en el segundo semestre, desde finales de septiembre y octubre [1]. "}]},{"head":"ASPECTOS MORFOLÓGICOS DEL FRÍJOL VOLUBLE","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Las variedades biofortificadas de fríjol voluble con mayor contenido de hierro y zinc presentan un hábito de crecimiento indeterminado -Tipo lV (Imagen 4), con distribución de las vainas a partir del tallo principal desde los primeros 20 cm de su base. Se desarrollan en un ciclo de entre 110 y 150 días. El rango de color de la flor puede variar entre los colores blanco, morado o rosa/lila (Imagen 5). Su formato de grano es más diverso que en el fríjol arbustivo e incluye granos rojo moteado, blanco moteado y rojo oscuro. En cuanto al tamaño, se pueden encontrar granos de tamaño pequeño, mediano o grande, con una diversidad de formas como redondo, alargado o arriñonado (Imagen 6) [2]."}]},{"head":"ZONAS AGROECOLÓGICAS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Los materiales presentan adaptación a la zona andina, para altitudes comprendidas entre 1.800 y 2.800 m.s.n.m. Las zonas planas o de ladera que no presenten una pendiente mayor al 30% facilitan el establecimiento del cultivo, el tutorado necesario para el desarrollo del cultivo y las labores de manejo del cultivo [2]. Se recomienda su siembra tanto en el semestre A como en el semestre B. Se debe procurar que los períodos de germinación y floración coincidan con los de mayor precipitación. Las mejores fechas de siembra en el primer semestre corresponden a los meses de marzo y abril y, para los que siembran en el segundo semestre, desde finales de septiembre y octubre [1]. "}]},{"head":"MANEJO INTEGRADO DE MALEZAS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Es necesario que las plantas de fríjol no tengan competencia de malezas en los primeros 60 días [3]. Por tal razón, es fundamental un manejo integrado de las malezas. Para ello, se recomienda combinar la erradicación manual con el uso de herbicidas preemergentes que ayuden a controlar plantas indeseadas en el cultivo. A continuación, se presenta una recomendación general para su control."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"CONTROL QUÍMICO "}]},{"head":"PREPARACIÓN DE SUELOS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"La preparación del terreno se deberá hacer con suficiente anticipación, de tal manera que se asegure una buena cama a la semilla para así obtener una germinación uniforme. Para la época de siembra, buscar que el desarrollo vegetativo del cultivo coincida con épocas de lluvia de la región de establecimiento y la cosecha con períodos secos, a fin de evitar pérdidas de rendimiento por el exceso de humedad. Se recomienda sembrar en parcelas con pendientes hasta del 30%, en laderas no tan pronunciadas y lotes uniformes, bien drenados y de fácil acceso para realizar las labores requeridas para el manejo del cultivo (Imagen 7). ▲ Imagen 7. Establecimiento de fríjol voluble BIO 102 en ladera."}]},{"head":"FERTILIZACIÓN","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"En esta fase del proceso, es un deber del lector realizar un análisis de suelos de su predio, con el objetivo de determinar el contenido nutricional de sus suelos para garantizar un establecimiento exitoso del cultivo. Con base en estos resultados, puede realizar los cálculos para el requerimiento nutricional del cultivo, tomando como referencia la Tabla 1. Se recomienda asesorarse de un ingeniero agrónomo o un técnico agrícola en esta parte del proceso. Una adecuada fertilización es clave para un cultivo exitoso, dado que permite obtener una relación costo/ beneficio más eficiente del proceso productivo."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Fríjol 136 18 114 54 18 25"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Tabla 1. Requerimiento nutricional en kg/ha del cultivo de fríjol [4] Ante la ausencia de un análisis de suelos, se pueden tener en cuenta las siguientes recomendaciones generales:"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Primera fertilización -Durante la siembra:"},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"• 50 kg/ha de urea (N) + 50 kg/ha de DAP (P) + 50 kg de KCI (K) + Elementos menores granulados según la recomendación del fabricante."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• Segunda fertilización -30 días después de siembra (30 DDS)"},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• 50 kg/ha de urea (N) + Elementos menores mediante aplicaciones foliares, según la recomendación del fabricante."},{"index":8,"size":183,"text":"• Dependiendo de las condiciones de pH del suelo, en algunas regiones se recomienda utilizar entre 500-800 kg/ha de cal dolomita e incorporarla 30 días antes de la siembra. Las variedades de fríjol arbustivo biofortificado se pueden sembrar en diferentes tipos de sistemas. Bajo un sistema de monocultivo, puede requerir entre 40 y 60 kg/ha, dependiendo de la variedad que se quiera sembrar (Imagen 8). Para las alternativas en asociaciones con otros cultivos, se requiere menos cantidad de semilla, por lo que se recomienda ajustar la densidad de siembra para estos casos (Imagen 9). Recuerde siempre asesorarse antes de recurrir a estas alternativas. Las distancias de siembra recomendadas para el manejo de un monocultivo son de 60 cm entre surcos y 8 a 10 cm entre plantas (10 a 12 plantas/mt lineal). Con estas distancias de siembra, la población promedio sería de 200.000 plantas/ hectárea. En algunos casos, es recomendable utilizar de dos a tres semillas por sitio, con una profundidad de 0 a 3 centímetros con buena humedad del suelo. Para este caso, la población promedio estaría entre 400.000-600.000 plantas/hectárea (Imagen 10). "}]},{"head":"REQUERIMIENTOS HÍDRICOS DEL FRÍJOL ARBUSTIVO","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FRÍJOL VOLUBLE","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Las variedades de fríjol voluble biofortificado se pueden sembrar en diferentes tipos de sistemas. Bajo un sistema de monocultivo, puede requerir entre 30 y 50 kg/ha, dependiendo de la variedad que se quiera sembrar (Imagen 11). Para las alternativas en asociaciones con otros cultivos, se requiere menos cantidad de semilla, por lo que se recomienda ajustar la densidad de siembra para estos casos (Imagen 12). Recuerde siempre asesorarse antes de recurrir a estas alternativas. Las distancias de siembra recomendadas para el manejo de un monocultivo son de entre 120 cm y 140 cm entre surcos y 40 y 50 cm entre plantas (3 a 4 plantas/m lineal). Es recomendable utilizar de dos a tres semillas por sitio con una profundidad de 3 centímetros con buena humedad del suelo para obtener una población promedio de 50.000 a 85.000 plantas por hectárea (Imagen 13). COSECHA Y POSCOSECHA COSECHA Para la producción de grano, el arranque de las plantas deberá hacerse cuando el grano tenga entre el 21 y 30% de humedad. Posteriormente, se procede a aporrear cuando la humedad del grano esté entre un 16 y 18% (Imagen 14) [10]."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"▼ Imagen 14. Cosecha del cultivo de fríjol."}]},{"head":"SECADO","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Cuando el contenido de humedad de las semillas es muy alto, se debe proceder a realizar un secado. Para esta tarea, se puede apoyar en el uso de secado por corrientes de aire y libre exposición al sol, tratando en lo posible de evitar el contacto directo de las plantas con el suelo (Imagen 15)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"▼ Imagen 15. Secado de plantas de fríjol BIO 101."}]},{"head":"TRILLA","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Consiste en aporrear las plantas de fríjol secas utilizando diferentes medios para extraer el grano de las vainas. El método más utilizado consiste en aporrear las plantas (Imagen 16). No obstante, esta actividad puede ser apoyada por el uso de medios como \"garitas\" (Imagen 17). Otra alternativa es el uso de medios mecánicos como trilladoras (Imagen 18) que facilitan la labor del trabajador, mejorando la eficiencia de la actividad y la limpieza con la que el grano es retirado de la vaina. "}]},{"head":"LIMPIEZA DE SEMILLA","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Esta operación consiste en eliminar el alto porcentaje de impurezas como fragmentos vegetales, semilla de maleza, insectos muertos, etc. Se puede realizar con zarandas de tamaños que permitan eliminar fragmentos grandes o de menor tamaño a la semilla y en lo posible utilizar herramientas que utilicen corrientes de aire como medio para erradicar los restos de cosecha dejados en la trilla."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"▲ Imagen 19. Limpieza de semilla de fríjol."}]},{"head":"SELECCIÓN DE GRANO","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Consiste en la selección manual rigurosa de todo material indeseable que acompañe a la semilla, como restos de cosechas, semillas mal formadas, semillas partidas, terrones, etc. En esta actividad, tenemos como objetivo además retirar los granos atípicos que puedan bajar la calidad final del producto."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"◀ Imagen 20. Selección de semilla de fríjol."}]},{"head":"SECADO DE SEMILLA","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"El secado final del grano tiene como objetivo disminuir el porcentaje (%) de humedad a un valor menor al 14%. Se puede realizar utilizando diferentes técnicas, como exposición al sol sobre lonas evitando el contacto directo de la semilla con el suelo (Imagen 21), o utilizar zarandas como medio de secado (Imagen 22). ▲ Imagen 22. Secado de semilla de fríjol por medio de zarandas."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"◀ Imagen 21. Secado al sol usando lonas."}]},{"head":"ALMACENAMIENTO DE SEMILLA Y GRANO","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"El almacenamiento es una práctica que permite conservar la calidad del grano en condiciones seguras por un período determinado de tiempo. Se debe almacenar en lugares frescos y ventilados donde la temperatura ideal debe ser menor a 20 °C y una humedad relativa de 40%. Para medir estas variables, podemos recurrir al uso de herramientas como termo higrómetros caseros, los cuales pueden medir estas variables con facilidad (Imagen 23). Es recomendable utilizar recipientes plásticos, silos pequeños, limpios y bien cerrados. Si se va almacenar en costales, es recomendable colocar sobre estivas a 20 cm del suelo (Imagen 24a,b) [11]."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"◀ Imagen 23. Termo higrómetros caseros, útiles para evaluar la temperatura y la humedad relativa."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"◀ Imagen 24a. Almacenamiento de fríjol en costales sobre estibas."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"Finalmente, es recomendable proteger la producción obtenida con un tratamiento preventivo contra insectos de poscosecha como las especies de gorgojo (Zabrotes spp. & Acanthoscelides spp.) con productos como el Detia-Gas, el cual es un fumigante sólido a base de formulaciones de fosfuro de aluminio (AlP). Este producto no altera las condiciones organolépticas del grano, como sabor, textura y humedad. Debe ser utilizado con precaución, ubicando una pastilla envuelta en un papel para tratar 50 kg de semilla y posteriormente retirarla, pasado un período de 3 días desechar los restos del producto junto con el papel en las zonas de desechos para residuos contaminantes o peligrosos, evite al máximo desechar este producto y el papel en canecas de basura convencional."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"◀ Imagen 24b. Almacenamiento de fríjol en recipientes de plástico cerrados herméticamente."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" El cultivo de fríjol arbustivo tiene un requerimiento hídrico entre 435 mm y 490 mm de H 2 O, distribuido de la siguiente manera: REQUERIMIENTOS HÍDRICOS SISTEMA DE SIEMBRA Y REQUERIMIENTOS HÍDRICOS SISTEMA DE SIEMBRA Y DEL FRÍJOL VOLUBLE CANTIDAD DE SEMILLA DEL FRÍJOL VOLUBLE CANTIDAD DE SEMILLA El cultivo de fríjol voluble tiene un requerimiento hídrico entre El cultivo de fríjol voluble tiene un requerimiento hídrico entre 440 mm y 540 mm de H 2 O, distribuidos de la siguiente manera: FRÍJOL ARBUSTIVO 440 mm y 540 mm de H 2 O, distribuidos de la siguiente manera: FRÍJOL ARBUSTIVO  Requerimiento hídrico del fríjol arbustivo (435-490 mm H 2 O) Requerimiento hídrico del fríjol voluble (440-540 mm H 2 O) Requerimiento hídrico del fríjol arbustivo (435-490 mm H 2 O) Requerimiento hídrico del fríjol voluble (440-540 mm H 2 O)  200 200    180         200200180 O 2 mm / H mm / H 2 O 150 100 150 100      150 120 100 160 160  80 80 O 2 mm / Hmm / H 2 O 150 100150 1001501201001601608080  50 50              5050  0 0  0 0           0 0 000000   0 0 1 1 2 2 3  3 4  4 5 5 6 6 7 7 0011223344556677         Etapas de desarrollo Etapas de desarrollo  Etapas de desarrollo Etapas de desarrollo Etapa de desarrollo Etapa de desarrollo 1. Inicio Inicio 1. Siembra 2. Siembra 2. Floración 3. Floración 3. Formación 4. Formación de vainas 4. de vainas Llenado 5. Llenado de vainas 5. de vainas Cosecha 6. Cosecha 6. Etapa de desarrollo Etapa de desarrollo 1. Inicio Inicio 1. Siembra 2. Siembra 2. Floración 3. Floración 3. Formación 4. Formación de vainas 4. de vainas Llenado 5. Llenado de vainas 5. de vainas Cosecha 6. Cosecha 6. mm H 2 O mm H 2 O 0 0 180 150 120 100 160 160  80 80 0 0 mm H 2 O mm H 2 O00180150120100160160808000  Gráfica 1. Requerimiento hídrico del cultivo de fríjol arbustivo [2] Gráfica 1. Requerimiento hídrico del cultivo de fríjol arbustivo [2]  "},{"text":"Tabla 2 . Identificación y control de las principales enfermedades y plagas[3,5,6,9]  ENFERMEDADES Y PLAGAS Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Métodos de Síntomas control ENFERMEDADES Y PLAGAS Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Fotografía Nombres Métodos de Síntomas control Se recomienda comprar semilla certificada por el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA) o si se usa semilla seleccionada, realizar el proceso haciendo seguimiento y recolectando las mejores plantas del cultivo para garantizar una buena germinación [5, 6]. PRODUCCIÓN DE SEMILLA SELECCIONADA Se recomienda tratar la semilla con productos que la protejan de plagas y enfermedades. Se puede recurrir a productos como Crusier 350 fs (Insecticida) y Maxim XL (Fungicida) según las dosis recomendadas en las etiquetas de cada producto. Existen algunas alternativas con productos elaborados a partir de Beauveria bassiana (control biológico para insectos) o Bacillus spp. (control biológico de hongos), que pueden generar buenos resultados. Para estos casos, recurra a las indicaciones del producto y al asesoramiento de un técnico o ingeniero agrónomo para obtener el mejor resultado posible. MÁS COMUNES EN EL CULTIVO DEL FRÍJOL Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Roya (uromyces phaseoli) Esta enfermedad se inicia como pequeñas lesiones amarillas en las hojas, en las cuales se empieza a formar un punto de color ladrillo y de aspecto polvoso, los cuales crecen ligeramente en tamaño y se distribuyen uniformemente sobre la superficie de la hoja. Preventivos: Se recomienda la rotación de cultivos, reducir la densidad de plantas y la eliminación de los residuos de cosecha. Medidas de choque: Utilizar Elosa SC 720 (Azufre) en una dosis de 0.33 lt/ha. Antracnosis (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) Los síntomas aparecen en el envés de las hojas como manchas pequeñas de color rojo ladrillo a negro. En las vainas, se producen lesiones redondas, hundidas, con borde bien definido, y centro oscuro donde se pueden observar pequeños puntos de color rosado. Preventivos: Variedades resistentes, eliminación de residuos de cosecha. Rotación de cultivo. Medidas de choque: Utilizar Daconil 720 (Clorotalonil) en una dosis de 0.5 lt/ha. Mancha Angular (Pseudo-cercospora griseola) Inicialmente las lesiones son delimitadas por la nervadura. Son grises y pueden estar rodeadas de un halo clorótico (amarillo). Preventivos: Variedades resistentes, eliminación de residuos de cosecha. Rotación de cultivo. Cuando existe presencia de la enfermedad, seguir la recomendación de un técnico o ing. agrónomo para realizar control químico. Ascocquita (Phoma exigua var diversispora) Las lesiones son manchas de color café a gris casi circulares y concéntricas. El resultado de estas lesiones es la quemadura severa de las hojas, también ataca tallos pecíolos y vainas. Preventivos: Variedades resistentes, eliminación de residuos de cosecha. Rotación de cultivo. Cuando existe presencia de la enfermedad, seguir la recomendación de un técnico o ing. agrónomo para realizar control químico. Bacteriosis (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli) Las hojas son las más afectadas generando lesiones de color amarillo. En casos más severos, la quema generalizada y caída de hojas son los principales síntomas, en algunos casos puede afectar tallos y vainas. Las semillas enfermas pueden ser arrugadas y con algunas decoloraciones. Preventivos: En este caso, es vital el uso de semilla limpia, la rotación de cultivos, y usar coberturas. Pudrición radicular por fusarium (Fusarium solani) Las lesiones en la raíz primaria son de color rojo, apareciendo una o dos semanas después de la germinación, invadiendo toda la raíz. Con el tiempo, la coloración roja se torna café extendiéndose hacia el tallo. Con frecuencia, las raíces primarias y las laterales mueren a causa del hongo. Preventivos: Eliminar residuos de cosecha, realizar rotación de cultivos. Uso de variedades resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) al suelo en los focos de infección Priori 3 lts/ha. Chancro (Rhizoctonia solani) Chancros o damping off de color café rojizo, son lesiones que aumentan de tamaño con el tiempo, tornándose más profundos y de color café oscuro. Se presenta retraso en el crecimiento y eventualmente puede matar la planta. Preventivos: Eliminar residuos de cosecha. Uso de variedades resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) Priori 3 lts/ha. Marchitamiento por Pythium (causado por varias especies de Pythium: P. ultimum; P. aphanidermatum; P. myriotylum; P. deliens) Los síntomas iniciales aparecen como lesiones alargadas y húmedas en la parte más baja del tallo y en las raíces de las plántulas. Estas lesiones cambian de color gris a café claro. Preventivas: Eliminar residuos de cosecha. Uso de variedades resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) en los focos de infección Uniform 500 cc/ha. Añublo o Tizón sureño (Sclerotium rolfsii) Produce lesiones de color café y aspecto húmedo, en el tallo inmediatamente debajo de la superficie del suelo. En la base del tallo, es común observar la presencia de un micelio blanco. Las vainas en contacto con el suelo son atacadas y se pudren. Logra ocasionar un ligero amarillamiento de las hojas inferiores y defoliación prematura causando eventualmente el marchitamiento y la muerte de la planta. Preventivas: Eliminar residuos de cosecha. Uso de variedades Virus del mosaico dorado (BGYMV) Afecta el follaje del cultivo, produciendo un moteado intenso. Las plantas afectadas no tienen un buen desarrollo, las hojas se deforman dando un aspecto de arrugamiento y falta de nutrientes. Preventivos: Sembrar variedades con resistencia al insecto que transmite el virus (mosca blanca) y realizar Grillos (Gryllus assimilis) Son de aparición esporádica, pero pueden causar grandes daños a la plántula en sus estados iniciales. Causa Trips Se presenta Medidas de Preventivos: Control (Thrips en las hojas, choque: Aplicar previo de malezas palmi) raspando a Imidacloprid en el terreno a lo largo de la (Confidor) o sembrar, además misma. Cuando Spinosad (Tracer) de retirar restos de hay infestación o Carbosulfan cosechas pasadas. alta, se pueden (Elthra y Si el terreno ver las larvas Marshall). presenta historial con el insecto, alimentándose. controles corte en las utilizar Clorpirifos permanentes del insecto. Medidas de choque: Erradicar plantas enfermas y alejarlas del cultivo. hojas primarias y los puntos de crecimiento de (Lorsban) en polvo Lorito verde Achaparramiento Preventivos: incorporado a la (Empoasca y amarillamiento Control previo siembra. Kraemeri) en los bordes de malezas en la planta. de las hojas, el terreno a Medidas de encorvamiento sembrar, además choque: Utilizar de las vainas y de retirar restos cebo envenenado hojas, floración de cosechas en los focos de ataque (25 kg de aserrín + 1 galón melaza + 1 kg de carbaril (Sevin) y/o triclorfón (Dipterex) -cantidad para 1 hectárea. Trozadores y tierreros (Spodoptera fugiperda) (Agrotis Ipsilon) reducida. pasadas. Atacan las Medidas de plántulas del choque: Aplicar fríjol, trozando productos como las hojas, tallos dimetoato y raíces de la (Rogor, Roxion, planta. Perfektion, resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) en los focos de infección Uniform 500 cc/ha. Virus del mosaico común (BCMNV) Los más comunes son alteraciones del verde de las hojas que van desde verde claro hasta amarillo; enanismo; hojas deformes (generalmente enrolladas hacia el envés); y vainas deformes y con menor número de granos. Sistemin) Preventivos: Mosca Cuando las Preventivos: y malation. Sembrar variedades con resistencia al insecto que transmite el virus (mosca blanca) y realizar controles permanentes del insecto. Medidas de choque: Erradicar plantas enfermas y alejarlas del cultivo. blanca, Palomilla (Bemisia tabaci) (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) poblaciones son abundantes, se forma un moho oscuro llamado fumagina que se alimenta de la melaza expulsada por las moscas. Cuando la fumagina cubre gran parte de la hoja, puede causar la caída de las Control previo de Gorgojos El insecto se Preventivos: malezas en el (Zabrotes encuentra en Almacenar terreno a sembrar, subfasciatus) residuos de el grano sin además de retirar (Acanthoscelides cosecha y restos residuos de restos de cosechas obtectus) de tierra. Ataca cosecha, en pasadas. Es únicamente costales cerrados recomendable la semilla, sobre estibas o tratar la semilla ocasionando tarros plásticos con Crusier 350, grandes cerrados el cual garantiza pérdidas si las herméticamente. una protección a la semilla en los primeros 30 días después de poblaciones del Medidas de insecto son muy choque: Ubicar altas. una pastilla siembra. de Detia-Gas hojas. También transmite varios tipos de virus a la planta, que pueden llegar a causar la pérdida por cada 50 Medidas de kg de semilla choque: Aplicar en almacenada en un drench Closer recipiente cerrado (1.2 cc/lt) o herméticamente, Verimak (0.8 cc/lt). durante un de buena parte período de tres del cultivo. días. Se recomienda comprar semilla certificada por el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA) o si se usa semilla seleccionada, realizar el proceso haciendo seguimiento y recolectando las mejores plantas del cultivo para garantizar una buena germinación [5, 6]. PRODUCCIÓN DE SEMILLA SELECCIONADA Se recomienda tratar la semilla con productos que la protejan de plagas y enfermedades. Se puede recurrir a productos como Crusier 350 fs (Insecticida) y Maxim XL (Fungicida) según las dosis recomendadas en las etiquetas de cada producto. Existen algunas alternativas con productos elaborados a partir de Beauveria bassiana (control biológico para insectos) o Bacillus spp. (control biológico de hongos), que pueden generar buenos resultados. Para estos casos, recurra a las indicaciones del producto y al asesoramiento de un técnico o ingeniero agrónomo para obtener el mejor resultado posible. MÁS COMUNES EN EL CULTIVO DEL FRÍJOL Fotografía Nombres Síntomas Métodos de control Roya (uromyces phaseoli) Esta enfermedad se inicia como pequeñas lesiones amarillas en las hojas, en las cuales se empieza a formar un punto de color ladrillo y de aspecto polvoso, los cuales crecen ligeramente en tamaño y se distribuyen uniformemente sobre la superficie de la hoja. Preventivos: Se recomienda la rotación de cultivos, reducir la densidad de plantas y la eliminación de los residuos de cosecha. Medidas de choque: Utilizar Elosa SC 720 (Azufre) en una dosis de 0.33 lt/ha. Antracnosis (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) Los síntomas aparecen en el envés de las hojas como manchas pequeñas de color rojo ladrillo a negro. En las vainas, se producen lesiones redondas, hundidas, con borde bien definido, y centro oscuro donde se pueden observar pequeños puntos de color rosado. Preventivos: Variedades resistentes, eliminación de residuos de cosecha. Rotación de cultivo. Medidas de choque: Utilizar Daconil 720 (Clorotalonil) en una dosis de 0.5 lt/ha. Mancha Angular (Pseudo-cercospora griseola) Inicialmente las lesiones son delimitadas por la nervadura. Son grises y pueden estar rodeadas de un halo clorótico (amarillo). Preventivos: Variedades resistentes, eliminación de residuos de cosecha. Rotación de cultivo. Cuando existe presencia de la enfermedad, seguir la recomendación de un técnico o ing. agrónomo para realizar control químico. Ascocquita (Phoma exigua var diversispora) Las lesiones son manchas de color café a gris casi circulares y concéntricas. El resultado de estas lesiones es la quemadura severa de las hojas, también ataca tallos pecíolos y vainas. Preventivos: Variedades resistentes, eliminación de residuos de cosecha. Rotación de cultivo. Cuando existe presencia de la enfermedad, seguir la recomendación de un técnico o ing. agrónomo para realizar control químico. Bacteriosis (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli) Las hojas son las más afectadas generando lesiones de color amarillo. En casos más severos, la quema generalizada y caída de hojas son los principales síntomas, en algunos casos puede afectar tallos y vainas. Las semillas enfermas pueden ser arrugadas y con algunas decoloraciones. Preventivos: En este caso, es vital el uso de semilla limpia, la rotación de cultivos, y usar coberturas. Pudrición radicular por fusarium (Fusarium solani) Las lesiones en la raíz primaria son de color rojo, apareciendo una o dos semanas después de la germinación, invadiendo toda la raíz. Con el tiempo, la coloración roja se torna café extendiéndose hacia el tallo. Con frecuencia, las raíces primarias y las laterales mueren a causa del hongo. Preventivos: Eliminar residuos de cosecha, realizar rotación de cultivos. Uso de variedades resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) al suelo en los focos de infección Priori 3 lts/ha. Chancro (Rhizoctonia solani) Chancros o damping off de color café rojizo, son lesiones que aumentan de tamaño con el tiempo, tornándose más profundos y de color café oscuro. Se presenta retraso en el crecimiento y eventualmente puede matar la planta. Preventivos: Eliminar residuos de cosecha. Uso de variedades resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) Priori 3 lts/ha. Marchitamiento por Pythium (causado por varias especies de Pythium: P. ultimum; P. aphanidermatum; P. myriotylum; P. deliens) Los síntomas iniciales aparecen como lesiones alargadas y húmedas en la parte más baja del tallo y en las raíces de las plántulas. Estas lesiones cambian de color gris a café claro. Preventivas: Eliminar residuos de cosecha. Uso de variedades resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) en los focos de infección Uniform 500 cc/ha. Añublo o Tizón sureño (Sclerotium rolfsii) Produce lesiones de color café y aspecto húmedo, en el tallo inmediatamente debajo de la superficie del suelo. En la base del tallo, es común observar la presencia de un micelio blanco. Las vainas en contacto con el suelo son atacadas y se pudren. Logra ocasionar un ligero amarillamiento de las hojas inferiores y defoliación prematura causando eventualmente el marchitamiento y la muerte de la planta. Preventivas: Eliminar residuos de cosecha. Uso de variedades Virus del mosaico dorado (BGYMV) Afecta el follaje del cultivo, produciendo un moteado intenso. Las plantas afectadas no tienen un buen desarrollo, las hojas se deforman dando un aspecto de arrugamiento y falta de nutrientes. Preventivos: Sembrar variedades con resistencia al insecto que transmite el virus (mosca blanca) y realizar Grillos (Gryllus assimilis) Son de aparición esporádica, pero pueden causar grandes daños a la plántula en sus estados iniciales. Causa Trips Se presenta Medidas de Preventivos: Control (Thrips en las hojas, choque: Aplicar previo de malezas palmi) raspando a Imidacloprid en el terreno a lo largo de la (Confidor) o sembrar, además misma. Cuando Spinosad (Tracer) de retirar restos de hay infestación o Carbosulfan cosechas pasadas. alta, se pueden (Elthra y Si el terreno ver las larvas Marshall). presenta historial con el insecto, alimentándose. controles corte en las utilizar Clorpirifos permanentes del insecto. Medidas de choque: Erradicar plantas enfermas y alejarlas del cultivo. hojas primarias y los puntos de crecimiento de (Lorsban) en polvo Lorito verde Achaparramiento Preventivos: incorporado a la (Empoasca y amarillamiento Control previo siembra. Kraemeri) en los bordes de malezas en la planta. de las hojas, el terreno a Medidas de encorvamiento sembrar, además choque: Utilizar de las vainas y de retirar restos cebo envenenado hojas, floración de cosechas en los focos de ataque (25 kg de aserrín + 1 galón melaza + 1 kg de carbaril (Sevin) y/o triclorfón (Dipterex) -cantidad para 1 hectárea. Trozadores y tierreros (Spodoptera fugiperda) (Agrotis Ipsilon) reducida. pasadas. Atacan las Medidas de plántulas del choque: Aplicar fríjol, trozando productos como las hojas, tallos dimetoato y raíces de la (Rogor, Roxion, planta. Perfektion, resistentes y tratar semilla con Rhizobium en dosis recomendadas para cada producto comercial. Medidas de choque: Aplicar en \"Drench\" (Mojado) en los focos de infección Uniform 500 cc/ha. Virus del mosaico común (BCMNV) Los más comunes son alteraciones del verde de las hojas que van desde verde claro hasta amarillo; enanismo; hojas deformes (generalmente enrolladas hacia el envés); y vainas deformes y con menor número de granos. Sistemin) Preventivos: Mosca Cuando las Preventivos: y malation. Sembrar variedades con resistencia al insecto que transmite el virus (mosca blanca) y realizar controles permanentes del insecto. Medidas de choque: Erradicar plantas enfermas y alejarlas del cultivo. blanca, Palomilla (Bemisia tabaci) (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) poblaciones son abundantes, se forma un moho oscuro llamado fumagina que se alimenta de la melaza expulsada por las moscas. Cuando la fumagina cubre gran parte de la hoja, puede causar la caída de las Control previo de Gorgojos El insecto se Preventivos: malezas en el (Zabrotes encuentra en Almacenar terreno a sembrar, subfasciatus) residuos de el grano sin además de retirar (Acanthoscelides cosecha y restos residuos de restos de cosechas obtectus) de tierra. Ataca cosecha, en pasadas. Es únicamente costales cerrados recomendable la semilla, sobre estibas o tratar la semilla ocasionando tarros plásticos con Crusier 350, grandes cerrados el cual garantiza pérdidas si las herméticamente. una protección a la semilla en los primeros 30 días después de poblaciones del Medidas de insecto son muy choque: Ubicar altas. una pastilla siembra. de Detia-Gas hojas. También transmite varios tipos de virus a la planta, que pueden llegar a causar la pérdida por cada 50 Medidas de kg de semilla choque: Aplicar en almacenada en un drench Closer recipiente cerrado (1.2 cc/lt) o herméticamente, Verimak (0.8 cc/lt). durante un de buena parte período de tres del cultivo. días.  "}],"sieverID":"82aa3dd3-553e-47b5-880c-10b8787b19b9","abstract":"HarvestPlus es líder en una iniciativa a nivel mundial para mejorar la nutrición y la salud pública mediante el desarrollo y la implementación de cultivos de alimentos básicos que sean ricos en vitaminas y minerales, y proporciona un liderazgo mundial en la evidencia y tecnología sobre biofortificación. HarvestPlus es parte del Programa de Investigación de CGIAR sobre Agricultura para la Nutrición y la Salud (A4NH)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03b9f5882d2aaa9da52ee898e9c9428e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/027bf31d-4265-411c-bd85-492977a5fe88/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"~ación Internad~","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"Capacitación Científica en el CIAT En 1981, 38 profesionales de 16 paises asistieron a cursos de capacitación científica en el CIAT que fueron manejados en colaboración con la Oficina de Capacitación Científica. Los participantes procedían de los siguientes paises. Brasil,10;México,5;Colombia,4;Cuba,4; Estados Unidos, 3; Ecuador, 2; Perú, 2; y 1 de cada uno de los siguientes paises: República Dominicana, Honduras, Venezuela, Paraguay, Panamá, Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Malaysia. De estos participantes, 20 asistieron al Curso Intensivo de Producción de Yuca y 12 al Curso Especial de Cultivo de Tejidos en Yuca; de los restantes, 2 recibieron capacitación especializada, a largo plazo, en técnicas de cultivo de tejidos de yuca, 1 en fisiología de yuca, 3 en investigación avanzada para tesis de Ph.D. y 1 para tesis de maestría. Después de la fase intensiva del Curso de Producción de cinco semanas, 7 de los 20 participantes permanecieron en el CIAT para recibir capacitación adicional en Agronomía, Suelos, y Entomología durante otras 13 semanas, tiempo en que cada participante adelantó un proyecto especial de investigación a corto plazo. Con base en esta experiencia se decidió hacer énfasis en dicha especialización en los futuros cursos de capacitación científica, no solamente debido a su demanda y al interés mostrado, sino también debido a la oportunidad para que los participantes adquieran mayor experiencia en aspectos específicos en la investigación de yuca."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"A fin de acelerar el flujo de germoplasma de lineas de yuca seleccionadas, se dictó un curso de tres semanas sobre microtécnicas para el intercambio de germoplasma a técnicos y biólogos que trabajan con yuca en sus respectivos paises. Esto es de particular importancia, debido a que estos profesionales trabajan continuamente en actividades rutinarias de cultivo de tejidos."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"En el Cuadro 1 se presenta una lista de participantes en los cursos de yuca, procedentes de los diferentes paises."}]},{"head":"Semilla Distribuida","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"En el Cuadrp 2 se presenta, en detalle, un resumen de la semilla de yuca distribuida a distintos paises."}]},{"head":"Actividades en América Latina","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Los científicos del Programa ~isitaron este año nueve paises de América para hacerle un seguimiento al desarrollo de sus programas nacionales. Los paises visitados fueron Brasil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Perú, Ecuador, Cuba, México, Haití y República Dominicana. Pese a que la mayoría de estos países han mostrado un progreso continuo en sus esfuerzos de investigación y extensión de la yuca, solamente se mencionarán aquí aquéllos que presenten logros notorios o que hayan iniciado una nueva fase en el desarrollo de un programa nacional de yuca."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Los esfuerzos hechos para adiestrar mejoradores de yuca y suministrarles más tarde materiales genéticos han tenido un éxito parcial en Tailandia y en Malaysia, donde muchos materiales nuevos se hallan ya en las etapas finales de evaluación. Cuadro l. Participantesa en los programas de capacitación científica en yuca del CIAT, hasta octubre de 1981."}]},{"head":"País","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Ame rica Latina "}]},{"head":"Cuba","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"En Cuba se observó un gran progreso en la integración de la investigación, la transferencia de tecnología, y la implementación de nueva tecnología de yuca. De las 20,000 ha sembradas de yuca 10,113 se encuentran actualmente cultivadas bajo el denominado \"sistema colombiano\", el cual tiene como base la tecnología del CIAT adaptada a las condiciones de Cuba."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Es importante anotar que de estas 10,133 ha, 7700 se encuentran sembradas con Señorita; 2300 con Pinera; y 133 con CMC-40 (M Col 1468). Estas tres variedades se seleccionaron mediante una versión modificada del programa de ensayos regionales desarrollado en el CIAT, se multiplicaron mediante un sistema de propagación rápida con base en el desarrollado en el CIAT, y se entregaron a los agricultores en todo el país. Se espera que en pocos años la mayor parte del área se encuentre sembrada con éstas y otras nuevas selecciones. Actualmente, con estas nuevas variedades y con nueva tecnología, el rendimiento nacional de Cuba, en promedio, es de aproximadamente, 16 t/ha, en comparación con el de 7 t/ha hace cuatro años. Este aumento en la producción ha permitido sacar a la yuca de la lista de alimentos racionados en Cuba."}]},{"head":"Ecuador","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"A fin de prestarle asistencia al Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) en el diseño de la estrategia del En un ensayo repetido de rendimiento, los cultivares CMC 40 (M Col 1468), CM 323-375, y la variedad local Madame Francois produjeron 38, 21, y 21 t/ha de raíces frescas con 28, 28, y 29% de contenido de almidón, respectivamente. De las introducciones del CIAT que han sido evaluadas ampliamente, CMC 40 ya se ha entregado a los agricultores con el nombre de Madame Jacques y M Col 1684 está siendo multiplicada para su evaluación posterior y su posible lanzamiento."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Se le prestará atención especial a este país, especialmente en lo que respecta a la capacitación y al intercambio de germoplasma. Estas actividades se coordinarán conjuntamente con el Ministerio de Agricultura, el ODN (Organisme de Développement du Nord) y la AID de los Estados Unidos."}]},{"head":"República Dominicana","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"La República Dominicana es uno de los países que ha recibido la mayor parte de las ventajas de la colaboración del CIAT. De los 13 profesionales de este país que han recibido capacitación en el CIAT, ocho aún se encuentran trabajando con este cultivo y dos están buscando grados profesionales superiores con miras a fortalecer aún más el esfuerzo nacional en yuca. Debido a su interés y a su buena participación, las visitas del personal del CIAT también han sido relativamente frecuentes."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"La República Dominicana produce suficiente yuca para abastecer las necesidades locales, pero la industria desea ampliar la producción de yuca para sustituir importaciones, principalmente las relacionadas con el trigo para la elaboración de pan y con los alimentos para animales. Para avanzar en este aspecto, aumentará la colaboración en lo que respecta al secamiento y procesamiento de yuca, como también al intercambio de germoplasma. Las introducciones del CIAT han probado que dan rendimientos significativamente mayores que los cultivares locales (Informe Anual 1979) pero requieren mayor evaluación y también más introducciones nuevas, puesto que los materiales probados hasta el momento son primeras generaciones de materiales mejorados en el CIAT."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"En un ensayo repetido de rendimiento en La Cumbre (Cuadro 3) la variedad local preferida Zenon dio el rendimiento más bajo y CMC 40 dio el rendimiento más alto. Es necesario anotar que esa variedad se cultivó comercialmente en la República Dominicana, pero debido a problemas por el deterioro de la yuca después de la cosecha, el área sembrada se ha reducido. Sin embargo, los investigadores de yuca la consideran como una adición valiosa a sus recursos de germoplasma y potencialmente útil como fuente de harina para la elaboración de pan y como alimento para animales. "}]},{"head":"Paraguay","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Junto con Perú, Paraguay ha sido uno de los paises más visitados en los últimos ocho años con el fin de ofrecerle la colaboración del CIAT en yuca mediante diversas actividades del programa. A pesar de la baja respuesta a nuestra insistencia en el pasado, este año se ha demostrado un interés real; Paraguay envió dos agrónomos al CIAT para capacitarlos en yuca antes de volver a trabajar, de tiempo completo, en este cultivo. Se espera que con esta relación renovada, la investigación y la extensión de yuca en este importante pals productor dé buenos resultados."}]},{"head":"Actividades en Asia","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Las actividades de cooperación internacional en yuca en este importante continente disminuyeron con la terminación del Proyecto Especial de Proyección Externa de Yuca, patrocinado por el International Development Research Centre (IDRC). A pesar de los problemas logísticos impuestos por la distancia, el Programa de Yuca del CIAT continuará prestando asistencia a este continente, restringido el Programa más por recursos financieros que por no desear trabajar en esta importante área productora de yuca."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Uno de los miembros del equipo de yuca del CIAT visitó este año a Malaysia, Tailandia y Filipinas para revisar el estado del progreso y para reunir información."}]},{"head":"Malaysia","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Gracias a un mejorador de yuca y a antiguos participantes de los programas de capacitación científica del CIAT, ya se ha establecido en Malaysia un programa completo de mejoramiento genético. Están ya disponibles los resultados de las 6050 semillas híbridas F de yuca enviadas al Malaysian Agricultura! Research and Development Institute, MARDI (Cuadro 2) después de pasar por selección de plantas individuales, ensayos en una sola hilera, ensayos preliminares de rendimiento, y ensayos repetidos de rendimiento."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"En varios ensayos, los híbridos del CIAT seleccionados localmente mostraron rendimientos de ralees. frescas y contenidos de materia seca en las ralees iguales o ligeramente superiores a los del mejor cultivar local Black Twig, pero algunas selecciones en que M Col 1684 era una de las líneas parentales en el cruzamiento (Cuadro 4) superó significativamente en rendimiento, tanto de ralees frescas como de almidón, a Black Twig. Actualmente, todas aquellas selecciones que superen en rendimiento a Black Twig por margen grande, están siendo multiplicadas para su evaluación posterior junto con aquellos materiales del CIAT enviados en cultivos de tejidos."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"Estos resultados son un índice del valor de los híbridos del CIAT para el Programa de Mejoramiento Genético de Yuca de MARDI. En Malaysia es difícil lograr que muchos clones florezcan y, por consiguiente, el fitomejorador de ese cruces especificas. despacha 'a Malaysia. pais le env!a solicitudes al CIAT de semillas de Estos cruces se hacen en el CIAT y la semilla se Tailandia Con un valor de las exportaciones de aproximadamente US$700 millones y un área total sembrada de 1.2 millones de ha, la importancia de la yuca para Tailandia no requiere de más explicación. Debido a la importancia del cultivo en su economia, Tailandia ha puesto atención considerable al desarrollo de sus capacidades de investigación en yuca. De un total de 30 investigadores de yuca en Tailandia, 22 han recibido capacitación científica intensiva, a largo o corto plazo, por intermedio del CIAT."},{"index":4,"size":188,"text":"A Tailandia se ha enviado un total de 26,750 semillas hibridas F 1 de yuca (Cuadro 2). Varias introducciones del CIAT fueron cruzadas con variedades de Tailandia (Cuadro 5). Algunas selecciones de estos cruzamientos superaron el comportamiento de la variedad Rayong 1, que se cultiva en aproximadamente 1 millón de ha en Tailandia. Los resultados más interesantes se obtuvieron con las selecciones de cruzamientos hechos en el CIAT por un participante tailandés en los cursos de capacitación (Cuadro 6). Varias selecciones fueron superiores a Rayong 1 tanto en rendimiento de ratees frescas como en contenido de materia seca en las raices. El material que dio el mejor rendimiento ( 27 Algunas selecciones han sido evaluadas en ensayos regionales (Cuadro 7) con buenos resultados. La línea CM 305-13T dio un rendimiento de raíces frescas más alto y CM 407-7T presentó un mayor contenido de materia seca en las raíces que el mejor cultivar local, Rayong l. Estas dos líneas se están multiplicando para su posible lanzamiento a pesar de sus pequeñas diferencias con la variedad local, principalmente para disminuir el riesgo presentado por el cultivo de un solo genotipo."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Cuadro 7. Ensayos regionales en tres localidades de Tailandia. "}]},{"head":"Filipinas","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"En Filipinas existen tres programas de yuca capaces de seleccionar genotipos: el grupo de mejoramiento de cultivos de raíces en la Universidad de Filipinas, Facultad de Agricultura (UPCA), Los Baños; el Centro de Investigación y Capacitación en Cultivo de Raíces de Filipinas, en Visea, Visaya; y el Programa de Cultivo de Raíces en SEARCA (Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"A estos programas el CIAT les ha enviado 7400 semillas híbridas F 1 (Cuadro 2) como también 15 clones de yuca. Pese a que los clones del CIAT han presentado superioridad general en comparación con las variedades locales--particularmente los altos rendimientos de M Col 1684--en localidades tales como Cavite, Cagayan de Oro, y Mindanao, en SEARCA no ha continuado la evaluación sistemática de los materiales del CIAT puesto que este proyecto, desarrollado conjuntamente con el CIAT, ya no tiene financiación -internacional."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Sin embargo, en Los Baños--a pesar del tifón que afectó la primera evaluación de introducciones--UPCA ha logrado sembrar ensayos regionales en tres localidades en el ciclo "}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Después de siete años de relación con muchos paises interesados en la yuca en todo el mundo, se puede concluir, en términos generales, que:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Las selecciones de germoplasma del CIAT y los materiales híbridos constituyen universalmente una fuente valiosa para los programas nacionales de mejoramiento genético de la yuca. Las semillas híbridas del CIAT parecen proporcionar oportunidades inmediatas para la selección de variedades en muchos casos."}]},{"head":"2.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Para acelerar el movimiento de germoplasma y a la vez disminuir el riesgo de transferir enfermedades, se deben dedicar más esfuerzos de capacitación científica en lo que respecta al cultivo de tejidos de yuca. Esto es de interés particular para muchos paises, puesto que, pese a que la mayoría de los materiales locales tienen alto 3. contenido de almidón, generalmente su rendimiento potencial es bajo. Por consiguiente, muchos paises todav1a tienen la necesidad real de introducir y evaluar la mayor cantidad posible de materiales nuevos, según sus capacidades y recursos locales."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"A pesar del número considerable de personas que recibieron capacitación durante los últimos siete años, no se ha observado un impacto significativo en la productividad de la yuca en un área amplia. El buen trabajo adelantado por los investigadores de yuca en los programas nacionales fuertes de yuca--en los cuales el CIAT ha tenido definitivamente una participación--no ha llegado, hasta el momento, al agricultor debido al tiempo requerido para probar y luego multiplicar los nuevos genotipos de yuca."}]},{"head":"4.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Cualquier expansión posible del área sembrada con yuca y todo aumento en su productividad para propósitos industriales--principalmente en la industria de alimentos para animales--se deben integrar con el secamiento, el procesamiento, la utilización, y la comercialización en todo el ámbito yuquero mundial y particularmente, en América Latina."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Cuadro 3. Rendimiento de raíces frescas en un ensayo repetido en La Cumbre, República Dominicana.  Rendimiento Rendimiento Cultivo (t/ha)a Cultivo(t/ha)a CMC-40 (M Col 1468) 27 CMC-40 (M Col 1468)27 Bilín 18 Bilín18 Machetazo 16 Machetazo16 ICA HMC-2 12 ICA HMC-212 Zenon (variedad local preferida)  Zenon (variedad local preferida) 255  255  "},{"text":" Cuadro 5. Ensayo repetido de rendimiento con cruces realizados localmente en Tailandia.  Rendimiento de  Contenido de Rendimiento deContenido de  raíces frescas  materia seca raíces frescasmateria seca Línea  (t/ha)  (%)  ( t/ha) Línea(t/ha)(%)( t/ha) (V1 x R) 21-8  55.4  32  18 (V1 x R) 21-855.43218 (M31 x CMC-76) 21-2a  52.0  32  17 (M31 x CMC-76) 21-2a52.03217 (VI X R) 21-7  49.3  30  15 (VI X R) 21-749.33015 (V69 x M Col 1684) 21-2a  46.7  35  16 (V69 x M Col 1684) 21-2a46.73516 (R X V69) 21-5  46.1  33  15 (R X V69) 21-546.13315 SSM61-75-45-21-15a  43.3  35  15 SSM61-75-45-21-15a43.33515 (CMC-76 x V43) 21-la  42.2  36  15 (CMC-76 x V43) 21-la42.23615 SV25-21-1  40. 1  36  14 SV25-21-140. 13614 Rayong 1 (mejor variedad local) 40.1  32  13 Rayong 1 (mejor variedadlocal)40.13213 a. Cruces Tailandia x CIAT.      a. Cruces Tailandia x CIAT. FUENTE: Tiraporn, C., Dept. Agr., Tailandia.   FUENTE: Tiraporn, C., Dept. Agr., Tailandia. Cuadro 6. Ensayo repetido de rendimiento en Tailandia con líneas híbridas Cuadro 6. Ensayo repetido de rendimiento en Tailandia con líneas híbridas selectas del CIAT.      -77-10) selectas del CIAT.-77-10) es una selección proveniente del cruzamiento CM 321-170 x M Col 1684; es una selección proveniente del cruzamiento CM 321-170 x M Col 1684; 29-77-5 por su parte, es una selección proveniente del cruzamiento CM Rendimiento de Contenido de 321-170 x M Mex 17. raíces frescas materia seca 29-77-5 por su parte, es una selección proveniente del cruzamiento CM Rendimiento de Contenido de 321-170 x M Mex 17. raíces frescas materia seca Línea  (t/ha) (%)  (t/ha) Línea(t/ha)(%)(t/ha) Cuadro 4. Ensayo repetido de rendimiento en Jalan Kebun, Malaysia, con líneas hibridas selectas del CIAT. 27-77-10ab 25.8 27 7. o 29-77-10ac 16.4 32 5.3 27-77-16 a 20.9 24 5.0 29-77-5 a 18.4 27 5.0 Cuadro 4. Ensayo repetido de rendimiento en Jalan Kebun, Malaysia, con líneas hibridas selectas del CIAT. 27-77-10ab 25.8 27 7. o 29-77-10ac 16.4 32 5.3 27-77-16 a 20.9 24 5.0 29-77-5 a 18.4 27 5.0 36-77-1 36-77-11 Línea CM 621-lH (M Col 638 x M Col 1684) CM 621-17M 33-77-5 27-77-14 a a 27-77-8 68-77-12 CM 621-22M 07-77-1 Peso fresco de raíces 15.5 17.9 ( t/ha) 50.9 49.0 18.1 17.4 15.6 15.6 54.6 15.6 30 25 24 24 26 25 25 (%) 22 22 20 Contenido de 4.7 materia seca 4.5 (t/ha) 11.3 4.4 4.1 4. 1 11.0 4.0 11.0 4.0 36-77-1 36-77-11 Línea CM 621-lH (M Col 638 x M Col 1684) CM 621-17M 33-77-5 27-77-14 a a 27-77-8 68-77-12 CM 621-22M 07-77-1Peso fresco de raíces 15.5 17.9 ( t/ha) 50.9 49.0 18.1 17.4 15.6 15.6 54.6 15.630 25 24 24 26 25 25(%) 22 22 20Contenido de 4.7 materia seca 4.5 (t/ha) 11.3 4.4 4.1 4. 1 11.0 4.0 11.0 4.0 CM 621-42M 67-77-7   12.6 45.0 31 23 10.4 3.9 CM 621-42M 67-77-712.645.0312310.4 3.9 CM 621-43M 20-77-8a   18.5 41.0 20 25 10.3 3.8 CM 621-43M 20-77-8a18.541.0202510.3 3.8 CM 621-24M CM 621-20M 28-77-2 29-77-16 a   16.3 17.3 41.9 36.7 23 21 22 23 3.7 3.6 9.5 8.6 CM 621-24M CM 621-20M 28-77-2 29-77-16 a16.3 17.341.9 36.723 2122 233.7 3.69.5 8.6 Black Twig (mejor variedad local) 35-77-15 CM 860-2M (M Col 638 x M Col 1292) Rayong 1 (mejor variedad local) 16.1 14.0 34.7 31.1 22 25 23 23 3.6 3.5 8.1 7.3 Black Twig (mejor variedad local) 35-77-15 CM 860-2M (M Col 638 x M Col 1292) Rayong 1 (mejor variedad local)16.1 14.034.7 31.122 2523 233.6 3.58.1 7.3 CM 621-36M    32.3  22 7.3 CM 621-36M32.3227.3 CM 860-13M a. Cruzamientos hechos en el CIAT por Charn Tiraporn. 30.8 Medang 29.6 b. 27 = CM 321-170 x M Col 1684. CM 621-18M 31.0 c. 29 =CM 321-170 x M Mex 17. 23 23 20 7.1 6.9 6.4 CM 860-13M a. Cruzamientos hechos en el CIAT por Charn Tiraporn. 30.8 Medang 29.6 b. 27 = CM 321-170 x M Col 1684. CM 621-18M 31.0 c. 29 =CM 321-170 x M Mex 17.23 23 207.1 6.9 6.4    257    257  "},{"text":" 1980-81 (Cuadro 8). El germoplasma del CIAT está relativamente mal representado por M Col 1468 (CMC 40), M Ven 218, M Mex 59, CMC 76 y SMl-150, puesto que M Col 1684 se perdió. Sin embargo, M Col 1468, SMl-150 y M Ven 218 ocuparon el cuarto, quinto y sexto lugar entre las 18 entradas ensayadas. Cuadro 8. Ensayos regionales en tres localidades de Filipinas.  Cuadro 8. Ensayos regionales en tres localidades de Filipinas.   Rendimiento de raíces frescas (t/ha) Rendimiento de raíces frescas (t/ha)  Los La General  LosLaGeneral Variedad Baños Carlota Santos Promedio VariedadBañosCarlotaSantosPromedio Bogor 41.3 37.4 46.6 41.3 Bogor41.337.446.641.3 Vassourinha 32.2 33.0 51.0 38.7 Vassourinha32.233.051.038.7 Hawaiian 4 34.8 32.2 45.3 37.4 Hawaiian 434.832.245.337.4 M Col 1468a 27.8 40.0  33.9 M Col 1468a27.840.033.9 SMl-lSOa 24.8 38.5 34.5 32.6 SMl-lSOa24.838.534.532.6 M Ven 218a 25.7 35.3 32.2 31.1 M Ven 218a25.735.332.231.1 Branca 23.4 27.3 42.5 31.1 Branca23.427.342.531.1 N aura 31.8 34.2 25.9 30.6 N aura31.834.225.930.6 Green Twig 25.1 29.1 31.5 28.6 Green Twig25.129.131.528.6 M Mex 59a 31.1 32.8 19.1 27.7 M Mex 59a31.132.819.127.7 W236 31.4 27.0 23.6 27.3 W23631.427.023.627.3 Black Twig 38.5 29.8 12.4 26.9 Black Twig38.529.812.426.9 CMC-76a 29.6 28.3 19.3 25.7 CMC-76a29.628.319.325.7 Mamey a 28.7 24.6 20.1 24.5 Mamey a28.724.620.124.5 IH 24.0   24.0 IH24.024.0 W78 23.4 28.8 19.6 23.9 W7823.428.819.623.9 Davao City 24.8 21.3 19.0 21.7 Davao City24.821.319.021.7 Java Brown 28.6 21.8 7.0 19. 1 Java Brown28.621.87.019. 1 a. Introducción del CIAT.    a. Introducción del CIAT. FUENTE: San Pedro, J.L., Institute of Plant Breeding, UPCA, Filipinas. FUENTE: San Pedro, J.L., Institute of Plant Breeding, UPCA, Filipinas.  "}],"sieverID":"1ebdf492-21d9-4882-963b-7b5d27ded5bc","abstract":""}

data/part_2/03bb26cd5b787d43051a94bb66010462.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03bb26cd5b787d43051a94bb66010462","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c0665ceb-63b3-4ddc-9f4a-803ef4007250/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"ps FRENTE A LA PRODUCCION OE SEMILLA BASICA Dli ARROZ","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"desarrolladas inicialmente por los centros internacionales como el I RRI Y el CIAT y después por programas nacionales. Actualmente 34% del área arrocera de América Latina (2.3 millones de ha) se siembra con variedades modernas. principalmente bajo condiciones de riego o secano favorecido. Si no se incluyen las áreas del cerrado de Brasil donde se siembran variedades al tas mejoradas, el área sembrada llegada hasta 70% (Cuadro 1). Desde su liberación. la semilla de las variedades mejoradas ha sido producida comercialmente, por tanto la introducción y adopción generalizada de variedades modernas ha estimulado el desarrollo del sector de semillas de arroz."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"Tomando el caso de la República Dominicana como ejemplo se puede ver que la adopción de variedades mejoradas estimula el crecimiento de la capacidad de producir semi lIas de arroz (Fig. 1). En el año 1971, cuando recién entraron variedades mejoradas en el mercado. más de 75% del área sembrada con semilla certificada fue sembrada con variedades modernas. Aparentemente esto generó un mercado para semilla de alta calidad y confiabilidad hasta que en 1974 las compañlas entraron a producir semilla certificada de las variedades tradicionales. En este año aproximadamente 50% del área fue sembrada con semilla certificada de la cual apenas 20% fue con variedades mejoradas. Con el desarrollo de la El arrocero latinoamericano ya está acostumbrado a recibir variedades nuevas, inclusive a veces cree que una variedad puede solucionar todos sus problemas. Esta creencia resulta en muchos casos en agricultores tomando semilla de las mejores variedades de pruebas regionales (que normalmente se realizan dentro de lotes de agricultores) para multiplicarla y utilizarla directamente o venderlas antes de que sean lanzados por canales oficiales. Tres casos se presentan en los últimos dos años en Guatemala y uno en Brasil (Cuadro 3). Las entidades oficiales se encontraron detrás en el proceso de liberación de las variedades, con el probable resultado de perder el control sobre la pureza e identidad de los materiales."},{"index":3,"size":211,"text":"El proceso de producción de semilla básica y certificada es necesariamente lento debido a la importancia dada a calidad y pureza y al control estricto que esto impone. El conflicto entre este proceso y la presión creada por el agricultor se presenta en la Figura 3. la producción de'semilla certificada de CICA 8 en Colombia se compara con (RD$2.00) bajo el sistema de distribución actual para recuperar los costos y precio con el realmente cobrado (RD$24.00) se concluye que la venta de semilla básica que debe ser una operación de lucro se transforma en una pérdida neta. Agravado por la falta de infraestructura de almacenamiento adecuado, la falta de capacidad de producción de semilla básica entra dentro de un círculo vicioso. Falta de tener capacidad de almacenamiento implica que no se pueden hacer a dos multiplicaciones, ni mantener reservas para acumular semilla antes de lanzar una va riedad. Además, impl ica que se debe vender todo lo que se produce en un afio -lo que provoca una distorsión grave del mercado, bajando los precios lo que no permite a los programas invertir en infraestructura y almacenes. Esta pérdida de control en la venta podría también resultar en una pérdida de control de calidad y por consiguiente de la confianza del agricultor."}]},{"head":"RETOS PARA EL SECTOR","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Con la transformación de variedades de arroz de tradicionales a modernas se presenta el riesgo de una fuerte reducción de la base genética."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Esta reducción drástica trae el riesgo de susceptibilidad uniforme a estreses sobre un área grande con la posibilidad de resultar en pérdidas enormes de producción. Una solución es la de tener en producción variedades de diversos orlgenes genéticos. Hay bastante potencial de manejo de enfermedades y plagas con la manipulación estratégica de variedades con fuentes de resistencia diferentes. Pero, ¿cómo podrían manejar esta situación los sectores público y privado?"},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Tomando el caso de Argentina. en 1983-84 se ve que habían nueve variedades en producción, cuatro de ellas principales (Fig. 4). En los tres años siguientes se cambió la situación en tal forma que dos variedades BR-I RGA 409 Y Fortuna, incrementaron su participación, antes mínima. hasta 30% del mercado. Cómo podrían los organismos responsables de la producción de semilla responder a este tipo de cambio tan brusco y tan común? Se debería desarrollar un mecanismo para predecir y controlar el cambio de variedades."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"El cambio de variedades no implica solamente empezar a multiplicar semilla con tiempo adecuado, sino que demanda mucha dedicación para mantener la pureza de todas las variedades sembradas en un país; y de un proceso para retirar variedades del mercado cuando el mercado así lo indique, lo 'que demanda normas estrictas y rigurosas para tomar esta determinación."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Además, debe quedar claro que el retiro de una variedad del mercado no quiere decir perderla totalmente, ya que podría ser útil en el futuro. Esto último implica que se debe tener acceso a facilidades de almacenamiento de largo plazo para este material."},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"En conclusión, el sistema de producción de semilla de arroz que existe es uno de los más avanzados en América Latina, pero se encuentra lejos de satisfacer todas las necesidades del agricultor. Con una mejor integración de todos los participantes podría coordinarse mejor la producción de semilla básica con lanzamiento varietal. Esto implica relación estrecha entre los sectores privado y público y la creación de una infraestructura adecuada para la producción de semilla básica en cantidad suficiente. Normas para el control del número de variedades oficialmente en el mercado deben ser establecidas para evitar una dilución de los recursos disponibles para producción de semilla."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"CUADRO l. Porcentaje de área sembrada con variedades mejoradas en América Latina.   ."}]},{"head":"Período","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"-"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"_~--  CfH1Pflttfl 85-86"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Cflt1PAHA 86-87"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" de la década de 105 60 el cultivo del arroz en América Latina ha cambiado enormemente. Durante los últimos veinte años las variedades tradicionales o norteamericanas (tipo Bluebonnet, Bluebelle. etc.l fueron reemplazadas por variedades modernas. o semienanas. "},{"text":", FIGURA 1. "},{"text":" la siembra comercial de BR-I RGA 409 en Rio Grande Do Su!. Se ve que PRODUCCION DE SEMILLA BASICA PRODUCCION DE SEMILLA BASICA Una encuesta que hizo el Programa de Arroz del CIAT durante 1988 Una encuesta que hizo el Programa de Arroz del CIAT durante 1988 reveló que casi todos los programas de investigación de arroz se reveló que casi todos los programas de investigación de arroz se encargan de la producción de semilla genética y básica. En términos encargan de la producción de semilla genética y básica. En términos globales, la cantidad de semilla básica producida alcanza a satisfacer la globales, la cantidad de semilla básica producida alcanza a satisfacer la demanda de 5% del área sembrada cuando se multiplica sólo una vez demanda de 5% del área sembrada cuando se multiplica sólo una vez (Cuadro 5): Pero cuando se pasa por dos multiplicaciones la cantidad (Cuadro 5): Pero cuando se pasa por dos multiplicaciones la cantidad producida satisface, potencialmente toda la demanda de semilla de arroz producida satisface, potencialmente toda la demanda de semilla de arroz de América Latina. Lo lamentable es que muchos programas están de América Latina.Lo lamentable es que muchos programas están vendiendo esta semilla tan valiosa como semilla certificada para siembras vendiendo esta semilla tan valiosa como semilla certificada para siembras comerciales y perdiendo con esto la posibilidad de satisfacer todas las comerciales y perdiendo con esto la posibilidad de satisfacer todas las necesidades a través del sistema formal de multiplicación. necesidades a través del sistema formal de multiplicación.  , , pesar de ser una respuesta responsable a las necesidades legítimas de pesar de ser una respuesta responsable a las necesidades legítimas de los agricultores, es el resultado de fallas en el sistema de producción de los agricultores, es el resultado de fallas en el sistema de producción de semilla. Estas fallas pueden tener sus ralces en la demora y en la semilla. Estas fallas pueden tener sus ralces en la demora y en la limitada cantidad de semilla básica producida. limitada cantidad de semilla básica producida.  "},{"text":" Precio de venta (RD$) para los diferentes usos de la semiffa básica producida por el Centro de Investigaciones Arroceras (CEDIA).     15 17 15 17 , \" . , CUADRO 4. Area sembrada de arroz según tipo de semilla en Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Año 1977/78 Fiscalizada No fiscalizada CUADRO 5. Posible area cubierta por semilla básica de arroz en 1987. Multiplicación (No.) 2 CUADRO 6. Precio Precio de venta ponderado (000 ha] 293 185 Semilla disponible 870.0 870.0 Uso Porcentaje por quintal por quintal , \" . ,CUADRO 4. Area sembrada de arroz según tipo de semilla en Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Año 1977/78 Fiscalizada No fiscalizada CUADRO 5. Posible area cubierta por semilla básica de arroz en 1987. Multiplicación (No.) 2 CUADRO 6. Precio Precio de venta ponderado (000 ha] 293 185 Semilla disponible 870.0 870.0 Uso Porcentaje por quintal por quintal  Registrada y 36.38    24.00 8.73 Registrada y36.3824.008.73  1978179 Area siembra (000 ha) Certificada  374 135.3 147 3157.9 1978179 Area siembra (000 ha) Certificada374135.3147 3157.9  1979/80 Comercial (Molinol 36.49 388  12.72 143 4.64 1979/80 Comercial (Molinol36.4938812.72143 4.64  1980/81 Porcentaje área Fundación 27.13 436 5 82.31 96 117. O 22.33 1980/81 Porcentaje área Fundación27.13436582.3196 117. O 22.33  1961/82 Fuente: Programa de Arroz, CIAT. TOTAL 100.0 457  97 35.70 1961/82 Fuente: Programa de Arroz, CIAT. TOTAL 100.045797 35.70  Fuente: I RGA, Anuario estadístico do arroz, 1979-83. Fuente: I RGA, Anuario estadístico do arroz, 1979-83.  Fuente: Cuevas Pérez, F. 1985.  Costo de producción de semilla de arroz Fuente: Cuevas Pérez, F. 1985.Costo de producción de semilla de arroz  en 1983. Instituto Superior de Agricultura, Santiago, Rep. Dominicana, en 1983. Instituto Superior deAgricultura, Santiago, Rep. Dominicana,  Boletín No.22.     Boletín No.22.  •• l~•     •• l~•  1   2 RNO 3 12RNO3  I _ ~ > \\     I _ ~ > \\  FIGURA 3.     FIGURA 3. ,.      ,. '\\.      '\\.  "}],"sieverID":"b26fb04d-e3da-4c82-a9ab-f63473f0f836","abstract":"Sin embargo, la producción de semilla básica y, por consiguiente, la semilla comercial no satisface completamente las necesidades de los agricultores. El problema que se encuentra principalmente es la poca disponibilidad de semilla de ( buena calidad en el momento oportuno. En este documento se presentan unos ejemplos que ilustran los limitantes en la producción de semilla de arroz para permitir a los responsables de las instituciones encargadas"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"041ef7eaf9110f798d81cbb8a4aaf45e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/68d53980-90ad-47b4-bfb8-53fdcb128548/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"How CIP sees its role changing within RTB interventions How CIP sees partner's role changing","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"RTB Flagship concept","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The Results based management framework links strategic objectives to a set of flagship products that draw multidisciplinary expertise from the different RTB Themes. "}]},{"head":"RTB Flagship products -Characteristics","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Significant measurable and time-bound deliverable, based on an output of research that results from a research activity or set of related activities attributable to RTB."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Used by a well-defined group of next users who may be either researchers or development actors, with strong evidence of demand pull from these users."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Near market-ready set of ideas, technologies, or science products that generate excitement amongst researchers and other users."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Has potential for large-scale impact."}]},{"head":"RTB Flagships and capacity strengthening","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"• Analysis of capacity strengthening (CS) needs Building institutions and innovation systems to improve access to quality RTB planting material and new varieties for smallholder, marginal, and vulnerable communities 1. For creating and validating the framework:"},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"• MSc students from local universities to document and describe the cases (50% women) • MSc students from international universities to analyze the cases from different perspectives (Gender analysis, economics, quality standards, policies, sociology, anthropology, etc.) • Funding for students (TBD) 2. For training on use of framework, principles, guidelines to improve seed interventions "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The flagship product is the centerpiece of a work package (flagship) that includes a theory of change with quantified indicators. 3 Types of Flagship:  Delivery flagships  Discovery flagships  Learning & Support flagships "},{"text":"Flagship products and capacity development  Principles and Principles and practices for practices for gender gender mainstreaming mainstreaming in seed in seed interventions interventions  Outcome support creates an enabling environment, which increases the likelihood that desired changes will occur -> capacity development, stakeholder engagement, conducive Framework for analyzing and intervening in RTB seed systems Diagnosis of Guidelines on key best practices bottlenecks for RTB seed constraining systems RTB seed systems interventions  Outcome support creates an enabling environment, which increases the likelihood that desired changes will occur -> capacity development, stakeholder engagement, conducive Framework for analyzing and intervening in RTB seed systems Diagnosis of Guidelines on key best practices bottlenecks for RTB seed constraining systems RTB seed systems interventions policy environment. policy environment.  Is about helping products to translate into outcomes.  Is about helping products to translate into outcomes. Analysis of  Daisy & impact pathway/theory of change is linked with it capacity gaps Analysis of  Daisy & impact pathway/theory of change is linked with it capacity gaps in partners in partners and and optimization of optimization of partnerships partnerships  "},{"text":"Flagship products and capacity development (cont.)  • For implementing partners • For implementing partners • Creation of training modules • Creation of training modules • Training of Trainers (ToT) • Training of Trainers (ToT) • Work with universities • Work with universities  "}],"sieverID":"4eb709e9-8341-40a9-b4c2-944caa560b8e","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0567c37aa693538a11ab888b8a9763b2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0567c37aa693538a11ab888b8a9763b2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1139ae2f-2998-4fa6-bef3-3865ea45a421/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Notes From The Field Unlocking the power of local knowledge: A novel framework to cost community-based adaptation to climate change","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"One key challenge is the lack of accurate costing for adaptation to climate change. In addition, current approaches to identify the costs and benefits of adaptation are primarily quantitative, using top-down methodologies that may grossly under-estimate the true costs."}]},{"head":"Key Messages","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":" Global and national estimates of adaptation costs rarely capture the impacts of climate change and the costs of adaptation on the ground. Actual costs may be grossly underestimated, and funds may not match community needs."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":" Community participation to pinpoint the real costs and benefits of adaptation interventions empowers communities and generates valuable data to inform global and national decisions."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":" A new participatory costing framework, piloted in subsistence farming communities in East and West Africa, provides valuable insights into challenges and opportunities for effective community-based adaptation."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":" Addressing challenges and opportunities before implementation saves precious time and resources, leading to better adaptation interventions and strategies."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"This policy brief argues that global policies require credible evidence from the local level. Given that a single generic adaptation model is unworkable, the policy brief introduces a new analytical costing framework -Participatory Social Return on Investment (PSROI) -that has been piloted successfully in subsistence farming communities in East and West Africa."}]},{"head":"Kaffrine Field Site, Senegal -Community members account for common assets (Author's own picture)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"The challenges"},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"A potential barrier to costing adaptation is how adaptation itself is defined. Put simply, adaptation encompasses all actions to ease the negative impacts of climate change. However, more formal definitions of adaptation diverge, revealing a lack of consensus on how adaptation can or should be conceptualised, and highlighting the complex nature of adaptive processes. Selecting an appropriate adaptation strategy means defining adaptation \"of what, to what, from whose perspective and over what time frame\" (Helfgott, 2011). Because these variables are so interdependent, changing even one would generate a different adaptation strategy."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Current efforts to identify the costs and benefits of climate change adaptation are primarily top-down and quantitative in nature. Several global estimates of adaptation costs have emerged, post Kyoto, ranging from $4 billion a year to well over $100 billion. However, these estimates are subject to a number of criticisms, being preliminary estimates, often incomplete, and/or subject to a number of caveats. Studies on the costs of single adaptation options indicate that top-down models may grossly underestimate the total cost of adaptation and the amount of funding needed on the ground (Parry et al., 2009). While top-down models appeal to policy-makers because they are practical and easy to use, there is a serious risk of mismatch if topdown costing models are used to allocate funds at the local level where most adaptation takes place."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"The differences in scale make it difficult to tackle economics and policies with one generic model, so we need a different type of model to bridge the divide between the global and local scales. The solution is not to project total costs using local estimates, but to look at global and local estimates together."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"Beyond simply generating more reliable cost estimates at the local level, economic assessments need to reflect the actual needs and potential roles of local agents or stakeholders, exploring innovative ways in which they can be involved. This enters the domain of participatory assessments, in which local stakeholders are part of the process of research that leads to action. The stakeholder-focused approach to economic assessments is gaining attention in local level action research (see IIED 2011 on stakeholder-focused costbenefit analysis in developing countries). When local stakeholders participate in the assessment process, the chances of the successful implementation of proposed adaptation strategies are higher than when assessments are done by outsiders."}]},{"head":"Participatory Social Return on Investment (PSROI)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The PSROI is a structured framework for multi-stakeholder adaptation planning, with participatory processes at community level informing the selection and valuation of appropriate adaptation strategies and interventions. This gives policy-makers important insights into local context, allowing them to direct funding to initiatives identified and valued by local communities as being in line with their needs and capacities."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The PSROI framework builds on the growing Social Return on Investment (SROI) 1 valuation methodology -a modified cost and benefit analysis. This measures and accounts for a broader concept of value by incorporating social, environmental and economic costs and benefits. Put simply, it gauges the value created against the initial investment: for example, an investment of £$100 may return £10 in one year, or a (P)SROI of 10%."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Rather than starting with a predefined intervention, the PSROI four-step valuation framework centres on community participation in the decision-making process at each stage of the valuation (Table 1). The community chooses the adaptation theme and intervention, and places a value on that intervention. This valuation, when compared with the potential return of the intervention, can identify key technical and implementation gaps that can be filled to improve the effectiveness of the intervention's design and implementation. The PSROI costing framework can be used by many stakeholders, including donors, local governments, practitioners, extension service providers, private sector suppliers and communities themselves. Box 1 introduces the Kenyan field site, Kochiel Village, while Table 1 outlines the PSROI framework and field site results."}]},{"head":"Key steps Description of methodology","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Field results from Kochiel Village, Kenya Step 1: Adaptation theme selection PSROI analysis starts with a participatory approach to identify community-specific environmental challenges and to select appropriate broad adaptation themes such as soil degradation, water issues, etc. Methods can include multi-stakeholder workshops, focus group discussions and individual interviews. Backcasting can be used to select themes, starting with defining a desirable future and working backwards to identify suitable actions in the present."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The community voted for the theme of 'agroforestry' (inter-planting trees with crops) to address the main challenges of soil degradation and income diversification."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Step 2: Specific intervention designed An appropriate intervention is selected to match the identified needs of the community. The intervention may be selected from a menu of established and tested interventions, such as World Bank Sustainable Agricultural Land Management practices, or may be newly designed by technical experts."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Under the agroforestry theme, the research team recommended interplanting of local varieties of trees with crops -a technical intervention to match the community's identified needs."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Step 3: Baseline valuation Baseline PSROI valuation of the economic, social and environmental outcomes of the intervention is undertaken using secondary data from academic literature, industry standards, case studies, key informants, etc."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"A baseline value of KES (Kenyan Shillings) 47 for each KES 1 invested in the inter-planting intervention was calculated using secondary data (1 GBP = KES 135)."}]},{"head":"Step 4: Field testing of PSROI valuation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The baseline valuation of the selected adaptation intervention is validated using community insights generated from detailed interviews. Any discovered costs and benefits are included in the valuation. The testing and feedback process illuminates the community's perceptions of the intervention and allows for better matching of the intervention's design and selection with local needs."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The value decreased by approximately 50% (from KES 47 to KES 26 for each KES 1 invested) when data from field interviews with farmers were incorporated."}]},{"head":"Table 1: The PSROI four-step valuation framework and field results. Box 1. Kochiel Village, Western Kenya","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Kochiel Village in Kombewa District, Kisumu, Western Kenya is a small subsistence farming community near the Lake Victoria Basin with approximately 43 homesteads and farms of 1-10 acres. The main socioeconomic activities include: small-scale farming, processing of agricultural products, small-scale commodity trade, and livestock rearing. The village has high levels of poverty and serious environmental degradation, due primarily to changing rain patterns, dwindling tree cover, significant soil erosion and declining soil fertility. The community is vulnerable to climatic variability and change because of multiple stresses, such as poverty, a high reliance on natural resources, a lack of safety nets and its low adaptive capacity. Farmer groups also have limited access to information on new farming technologies."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"The field results show that, in the case of Kochiel Village, when the community's estimate of the key input costs and benefits are included, the PSROI valuation drops by 50%. In other words, the community had a much lower perceived value of the intervention than the projected baseline value. The purpose of the comparison of the baseline valuation and community-based valuation is not to choose one result over another, but to quantify and recognise the differences between the two to inform decision-making and appropriate adaptation planning and design."}]},{"head":"Key lessons","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Although the Kenyan example is very specific, the PSROI framework provides an overall mechanism to cost any community-based adaptation initiative. Key lessons from the field site application include:"}]},{"head":"Community participation aids the design of adaptation interventions:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Development practices already encourage dialogue with communities to increase efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability. The PSROI solicits community participation at two stages: adaptation theme selection; and testing and valuing the intervention at community level. A low community valuation warns of either a mismatch of the intervention with local needs and/or poor perceptions of the intervention's potential benefits to the community. Tackling these challenges before implementation would save precious time and resources. A high community valuation, meanwhile, could signal potential opportunities for private and public sector funding. In another field site in Senegal, for example, community willingness to pay for private water supply, storage and distribution presented a potential economic opportunity for water utility companies."}]},{"head":"Information gaps can skew valuations:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"While farmers correctly identified key inputs for the technical intervention recommended by the research team, they less success in identifying potential benefits. Complex interventions such as agroforestry projects that offer indirect benefits to agriculture are harder to visualise and may make the intervention less attractive to farmers, resulting in low uptake. Analysis of another agroforestry project in Africa showed that adoption rates were higher among farmers who received training than those who did not. Training and awareness-raising are, therefore, important components that should be considered in project planning and design to ensure effective implementation."}]},{"head":"The need for long-term thinking:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"It is difficult for communities in climate-vulnerable areas to visualise long-term benefits, given their immediate needs and the opportunity costs of delayed benefits. As a result, communities place a low value on distant benefits, making long-term interventions less attractive. As one farmer commented, despite recognising the long-term commercial benefits of trees: \"If you have a tree and you need to feed the family, you [have to prematurely] cut it and sell.\""},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"An understanding of the specific needs of different stakeholders can help to match interventions to these needs, rather than offering generic solutions. Tailored project design that meets a variety of needs while improving long term adaptive capacity is more likely to succeed. For example, planting fast-maturing trees for animal fodder and firewood alongside slow-maturing timber trees may protect the latter from premature cutting."}]},{"head":"Understand the diverse pressures on","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The PSROI faces a challenge common to all costing frameworks: capturing the different risk preferences of individual community members. This limitation can create serious misconceptions among different shareholders. One government official in Kochiel blamed the low crop yield in the village on \"farmers being lazy\", while farmers explained that they weren't prepared to take the risk of using commercial fertilizers to increase yields, in case rains were late. Research indicates that, without credit or crop insurance, farmers will not necessarily grow the most profitable crops (Maddison et al., 2007;Candel, 2007). They will focus instead on low-risk, low-yield crops to ensure survival even if many of their crops fail. For the PSROI analysis to be effective, it needs to be supported by other cultural, political, institutional and viability analysis."}]},{"head":"Recommendations:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The PSROI framework should be adopted by policy-makers as an effective bottom-up approach that supports community participation and, by extension, climate change adaptation. Although PSROI generates quantitative data and information, it is far more than simply a costing tool. It is a framework that not only values adaptation interventions, but also matches them to community needs."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Global top-down estimates are practical and easy to use, but fall short when used for on-the-ground funding allocation as they rest on broad assumptions that may not reflect local realities. At the same time, using local estimates to project global estimates is costly and risks overlooking the qualitative aspects of local perspectives of adaptation National governments should use the PSROI framework to create a two-tier strategy to calculate adaptation costs, combining global estimates with national and regional funding allocation strategies to meet identified local needs. There are six policy incentives to do so:"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"1. Alongside global top-down estimates of adaptation costing, we need reliable bottom-up costing data to bridge the gap between policy and the actual needs on the ground."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"2. A community-based adaptation costing framework like PSROI helps to minimize the subjectivity of external actors in the valuation by passing the onus of decision-making to the community."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"3. While active participation does not guarantee that communities always choose the most beneficial interventions or adopt the most effective adaptation path, PSROI is effective in recording the process of change."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"4. This record enables identification of where value is being created, who is creating it, and who benefits from."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"5. By using this information, policy makers can make targeted efforts to make adaptation more effective and successful."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"6. Finally by applying the PSROI in the local context, policy makers can follow a stakeholder-centric approach to identify and include hard-to-value and less obvious outcomes of an intervention in the valuation process. This allows a more inclusive and better valuation estimate that will help to direct funds towards interventions that are more valuable and effective."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" novel Participatory Social Return on Investment (PSROI) framework values the bottom-up cost of climate change adaptation. The PSROI framework does not propose a new valuation technique (well-established practices already exist) but recommends a unique participatory approach. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"27bbb879-43a4-43ca-b4b2-35daab494314","abstract":"This briefing is one of eight produced by Masters Students in receipt of CDKN Masters Award and published on the CDKN Website. The Briefings can be found at www.cdkn.org.There is consensus within the scientific community that even if we stop all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions today, average global temperatures will continue to rise for some time as a result of complex feedbacks in the Earth's system. A warmer world will experience more intense rainfalls, droughts, floods and other extreme events. Households, communities and planners will therefore have to adapt to cope with, and reduce, the \"vulnerability of natural and human systems against actual or expected climate change effects\" (IPCC,  2007: p.76).Adaptation to climate change has become a key theme in the strategies, planning and policies of global institutions, governments and non-governmental organisations worldwide. Yet adapting to climate change is costly, particularly for developing countries that rely on resources sensitive to climate change, such as agriculture and fishing, and that have little adaptive capacity. Many developing countries lack the ability to meet additional adaptation costs, making planned adaptation efforts more difficult (Stern et al., 2006). Yet without adaptation, development progress will be threatened and even reversed (World Bank, 2010)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05a208a3f29855715e2bfbe5f5a4de5f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd7e17f1-cffd-42ff-a4a3-c8e07df7e23b/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Agro-Climatic Bulletin Development and Dissemination in Mekong River Delta, Vietnam","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The 'DeRISK SE Asia' project (2018Asia' project ( -2022)) "}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• Train key stakeholders from 6 provinces on how to develop and disseminate Agro-Climatic Bulletins (ACBs)"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Discuss on the next steps to implement ACBs in the 6 provinces"}]},{"head":"Date and venue:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The training workshop was organised on 16 th and 18 th February 2022"},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"in Can Tho city. The first day was organized for three provinces (An Giang, Hau Giang, Can Tho). The second day was organized for three provinces (Kien Giang, Tra Vinh and Soc Trang)."}]},{"head":"Agenda: see Appendix 1","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Number of participants: 89 participants (24 women/65men), see Appendix 2 for list of participants"}]},{"head":"Key activities and discussions","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"General overview","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Dr. Kees Swaans, the Alliance Bioversity & CIAT, Regional Lead for Climate Action in Asia, provides an overview of the DeRISK SE Asia project (link), highlighting the project goal, objectives, target countries (Cambodia, Lao, Myanmar, and Vietnam), work packages, ACB approach and key principles."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Mr. Phuong, deputy director of Tien Giang sub-DCP shared the key results, and experiences of implementing ACBs in Tien Giang province (link)."}]},{"head":"Steps in implementation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The ACB approach includes 5 key steps (1) prepare, (2) produce, (3) Translate, (4)"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Disseminate and Use, ( 5) feedback. The key information for some steps were represented by the Alliance Bioversity & CIAT."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Produce climate forecast for agro-advisory (step 2): Dr. Kwang-Hyung Kim presented information on generating climate and agricultural data for ACBs development. He provided definition of key terms (climate, weather, type of information services, who provide data and why do we need data). For information can be found via following link."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Development of bulletins and practice (step 3): Ms. Hương shared the key methods related to interpreting agricultural and climate data into agro-climatic bulletins. The detailed information can be found through this link. The section was followed later by practical exercises (link) Implemented by each group work for developing ACBs."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Group groups on ACBs development. Photos/Alliance Bioversity &CIAT Dissemination of bulletins and practice (step 4, see this link): Ms. Angelica Barlis shared the key guidance on how to identify communication channels and dissemination plan."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"The participants also work on the group works using discussion tools to select communication channels and develop dissemination plans."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"• Comments from An Giang provinces: An Giang will aim to establish Technical Working Group for development and dissemination of ACBs and propose the project to provide technical and financial support for initiating implementation activity in the province."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• Can Tho province: notices that ACBs should include recommendation on 1 Must 5 Reductions and regularly visit fields to identify pests and diseases early."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Hau Giang: representative for fruits, and need extreme weather forecasts beside normal forecasts on temperature, rainfall"},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"• Tra Vinh province shared technical management for rice such as applying fertilizer appropriately and regularly visit fields to identify pests and diseases early; suggest asking irrigation company to add information on water level and salinity concentration; language and information needs to meet the needs of farmers"},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"• Kien Giang proposed to have training for related governmental officers and disseminate information to the cooperatives/groups level; need evaluate impacts of ACBs and disseminate information through posters and cooperatives."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• Soc Trang province ranked the relevant communication channels as Zalo, loudspeaker, trainings/workshops, and the needs to engage social civil organisations, local governmental officers, and media. Combination of communication channels is a good approach. Farmers can provide feedback through Zalo and interaction with local staff."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"• Dr. Kees: Since this activity takes time to implement, it needs to be determined in the right way. Each type of season, month, and 10-day forecast has different ways of disseminating information and each communication channel has its own strengths and weaknesses. The combination of many communication channels is the way to reach as many people as possible."}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"• Mr. Hap, Soc Trang province: Production in the province needs information for people to make farming decisions. Three ecological zones of Long Xuyen quadrangle is affected by floods, alum, and salinity. The flood in the western part of the Hau River is slow, and the U Minh Thuong area is mainly flowing water, so it is difficult for farming. The potential sites for Soc Trang are Hon Dat, Go Quao, An Bien."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"• Mr. Trang Tung, Tra Vinh province: this training is very timely and relevant to the locality, it intends to gather good agricultural officers and farmers to inform other farmers. For the upcoming summer-autumn crop, the project will continue to support the provinces in implementing ACBs. So, we would like to receive the sharing from other provinces about the areas selected for piloting, the type of ACBs, the type of crops and what needs to be supported. It is very important to have end-of-season and mid-season review meetings so that we can keep improving for better implementation."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"• Ms. Hạnh, DCP: All provinces will need to have specific plans (Sites, which districts, and what timeline). DCP will prepare a document directing sub-DCP to implement ACBs. It is recommended that provinces make early plans to be timely for the upcoming Summer-Autumn crop. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" , supported by the International Climate Initiative (IKI) of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection (BMUV), is led by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and implemented by the University of Southern Queensland (USQ), the Alliance Bioversity & CIAT, and the DCP introduced a participatory process to develop Agro-Climatic Bulletins or ACB with local partners. ACB is produced based on seasonal, monthly, or 10-day weather forecasts through the interaction of different players along the climate service value chain. The climate service value chain refers to the production, translation, dissemination, and use of local-specific recommendations, and includes staff from hydromet centers, agricultural officers, water management staff, extension officers, and farmers amongst others. As of February 2022, the ACBs are being implemented in Tien Giang province in the Mekong River Delta (MRD) and Ninh Thuan province in South-Central Coast. The bulletins are disseminated via multiple communication channels, including printed posters, Zalo groups, loudspeakers, extension staff and through meetings of local partners (e.g., commune people's committees, Farmers' Union). Based on the successful implementation and positive feedback from partners of the two provinces, the DCP and the Alliance Bioversity & CIAT organise training workshops for 6 provinces in MRD, including Hau Giang, An Giang, Soc Trang, Can Tho, Kien Giang and Tra Vinh in February 2022 to scale out ACB implementation in MRD. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"45- 10:00 Break and group photo taking Southern Regional Hydromet Centre can considered to simplify and/or provide definition of technical terms. The ACBs can include information on temperature range that crops can grow normally so that farmers can be aware of that. 10:00-10:30 Development of the Agro- Huong Nguyen/ Max. 30 mins 10:00-10:30Development of the Agro-Huong Nguyen/Max. 30 mins   Climate bulletin Alliance Climate bulletinAlliance      Bioversity & CIAT Bioversity & CIAT 10:30 -11:30 Practice with bulletin CIAT and Tien 10:30 -11:30 PracticewithbulletinCIAT and Tien   development for Summer- Giang Sub-DCP development for Summer-Giang Sub-DCP   Autumn 2022 season (based on team Autumn 2022 season (based onteam   sample seasonal climate sampleseasonalclimate   forecast)  forecast) 11:30-13:00 Lunch break 11:30-13:00Lunch break 13:00 -13:30 Presentation of result 13:00 -13:30 Presentation of result 13:30 -13:45 Dissemination of bulletin Ms. Angelica 13:30 -13:45 Dissemination of bulletinMs.Angelica Dr. Alliance Bioversity & Kees Barlis/the Swaans/ Alliance bulletin CIAT and Tien CIAT Sharing of experience by Tien 13:45 -14:30 Practice on 08:25-08:45 Giang Sub-DCP Mrs. Vo dissemination for Summer-Giang Sub-DCP Thi Kim Autumn 2022 season (based on team Phuong/ sub-DCP Tien sample seasonal climate Giang Part II forecast) Steps in implementation 08:45-09:15 Step 1: Preparation Mrs. Vo 14:30-15:15 Group presentation of results Provinces 5 mins for each Thi Kim by province groups presentation Phuong/ sub-DCP Tien Part III Discussion and next steps Giang 9:15-Step 2: Generation Dr. Kim Kwang Hyung/ 15:15-15:30 Next step + closing DCP Dr. Alliance Bioversity & Kees Barlis/the Swaans/ Alliance bulletin CIAT and Tien CIAT Sharing of experience by Tien 13:45 -14:30 Practice on 08:25-08:45 Giang Sub-DCP Mrs. Vo dissemination for Summer-Giang Sub-DCP Thi Kim Autumn 2022 season (based on team Phuong/ sub-DCP Tien sample seasonal climate Giang Part II forecast) Steps in implementation 08:45-09:15 Step 1: Preparation Mrs. Vo 14:30-15:15 Group presentation of results Provinces 5 mins for each Thi Kim by province groups presentation Phuong/ sub-DCP Tien Part III Discussion and next steps Giang 9:15-Step 2: Generation Dr. Kim Kwang Hyung/ 15:15-15:30 Next step + closing DCP 09:45     Alliance Bioversity & 09:45Alliance Bioversity &      CIAT CIAT 09:Play the video 09:Play the video      of Tien Giang of Tien Giang 10:00- Step 3: Translation Huong Nguyen/ 10:00-Step 3: TranslationHuongNguyen/ 11:00     Alliance Bioversity & 11:00Alliance Bioversity &      CIAT CIAT 11:00- Step 4: Transfer; Step 5: use and Ms. Angelica Barlis/ 11:00-Step 4: Transfer; Step 5: use andMs. Angelica Barlis/ 11:30 Step 6: monitoring Alliance Bioversity & 11:30Step 6: monitoringAlliance Bioversity &      CIAT CIAT 11:30- Lunch break  11:30-Lunch break 13:30     13:30 13:30 - Practice  with bulletin CIAT and Tien Giang 13:30 -PracticewithbulletinCIAT and Tien Giang 14:30 development for Summer- Sub-DCP team 14:30developmentforSummer-Sub-DCP team  Autumn 2022 season (based on Autumn 2022 season (based on  sample seasonal climate sampleseasonalclimate  forecast)   forecast)  "}],"sieverID":"3e50b1cb-7cb1-41c5-80fd-da9253862964","abstract":"This report was prepared as an output for DeRISK SE Asia and is aligned with the new CGIAR initiative on Asia Mega-Deltas. The training workshops were co-chaired by the Alliance of Bioversity International & International Center of Tropical Agriculture (Alliance Bioversity & CIAT) and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development/Crop Production Department (MARD-DCP). In the trainings, the DeRISK project team, DCP and sub-DCP of Tien Giang province shared overview of climate services, and experiences on piloting Agro-Climatic Bulletins (ACBs) for participants from 6 provinces in Mekong River Delta (MRD), including An Giang, Can Tho, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, Kien Giang and Tra Vinh. Then the participants were provided with practical step-by-step instructions to develop and disseminate ACBs in their provinces. After experiencing the ACBs approach, the participants expressed the willingness to adopt ACBs in their provinces for the next coming Summer-Autumn season 2022 and presented their work plans. As a result of the training workshops, DCP issued the instruction letter for implementing ACBs during Summer-Autumn season 2022 in the 7 provinces of MRD. This provided the opportunities to integrate ACBs into the official work plans of sub-DCP in the 7 provinces and wider scale ACBs in MRD region and beyond."}

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data/part_2/05ffd6200d024dacdd586d443f6b0e6c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05ffd6200d024dacdd586d443f6b0e6c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2bf9f6db-ece0-4ce4-9471-e2b8661b85b8/retrieve"},"pageCount":76,"title":"List of Descriptors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Sesame","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of 15 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through three programmes: (1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2) the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme and (3) the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2003, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Côte dIvoire, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Greece, Guinea, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mauritania, Morocco, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovakia, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda and Ukraine."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Financial support for IPGRIs research is provided by more than 150 donors, including governments, private foundations and international organizations. For details of donors and research activities please see IPGRIs Annual Reports, which are available in printed form on request from [email protected] or from IPGRIs Web site (www.ipgri.cgiar.org)."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IPGRI or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these organizations."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for information."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is a scientific organization that acts as the nodal institute at national level for acquisition and management of indigenous and exotic plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and carries out related research and human resources development, for sustainable growth of agriculture."},{"index":7,"size":77,"text":"The objectives of NBPGR are the following: to plan, organize, conduct and coordinate exploration and collection of indigenous and exotic plant genetic resources; to undertake introduction, exchange and quarantine of plant genetic resources; to characterize, evaluate, document and conserve crop genetic resources and promote their use, in collaboration with other national organizations; to develop information network on plant genetic resources; to conduct research, undertake teaching and training, develop guidelines and create public awareness on plant genetic resources."}]},{"head":"PREFACE","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Descriptors for Sesame (Sesamum spp.) is a revision of the original IBPGR publication Descriptors for Sesame (AGP: IBPGR/80/71 and AGPG: IBPGR/85/132). The 1981 List was based upon the work of an ad hoc Working Group consisting of the FAO Expert Consultation on Sesame Improvement and the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). This list was revised during 1985 to fit the standard format for Descriptor Lists, and its descriptor numbers are given in parentheses beside the present descriptors for cross-referencing purposes."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"This revised Descriptor List is based on the work of a team of scientists from the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, India coordinated by Dr. P. N. Mathur from IPGRI South Asia Office, New Delhi. A draft version prepared in the internationally accepted IPGRI format for Descriptor Lists was subsequently sent to a number of international experts for their comments and amendments. A full list of the names and addresses of those involved for the publication of this Descriptors is given in Contributors."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"IPGRI encourages the collection of data for all five types of descriptors (see Definitions and Use of Descriptors), whereby data from the first four categories -Passport, Management, Environment and site, and Characterization -should be available for any accession. The number of descriptors selected in each of the categories will depend on the crop and their importance to the description of the crop. Descriptors listed under Evaluation allow for a more extensive description of accessions, but generally require replicated trials over a period of time."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Although the suggested coding should not be regarded as the definitive scheme, this format represents an important tool for a standardized characterization system and it is promoted by IPGRI throughout the world."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"This descriptor list provides an international format and thereby produces a universally understood language for the plant genetic resources data. The adoption of this scheme for data encoding, or at least the production of a transformation method to convert other schemes into the IPGRI format, will produce a rapid, reliable, and efficient means for information storage, retrieval, and communication, and will assist with the utilization of germplasm. It is recommended, therefore, that information should be produced by closely following the descriptor list with regard to ordering and numbering descriptors, using the descriptors specified, and using the descriptor states recommended."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"This descriptor list is intended to be comprehensive for the descriptors that it contains. This approach assists with the standardization of descriptor definitions. IPGRI, however, does not assume that each curator will characterize accessions of their collection utilizing all descriptors given. Descriptors should be used when they are useful to the curator for the management and maintenance of the collection and/ or to the users of the plant genetic resources. However, highly discriminating descriptors are marked as highlighted text to facilitate selection of descriptors and are listed in Annex I."},{"index":7,"size":103,"text":"Multicrop passport descriptors were developed jointly by IPGRI and FAO to provide consistent coding scheme for common passport descriptors across crops. They are marked viii Sesame in the text as [MCPD]. Please note that owing to the genetic nature of the multicrop passport descriptors, not all descriptor states for a particular descriptor will be relevant to a specific crop. In Annex II, the reader will find a Collecting form for sesame that will facilitate data collecting during field collecting. An alphabetical list of recognized species and their synonyms along with the distribution and characteristics of different Sesamum species is presented in Annex III."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"Any suggestions for improvement on the Descriptors for sesame will be highly appreciated by IPGRI and NBPGR."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION TO SESAME","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Since antiquity, sesame (Sesamum indicum L. syn. Sesamum orientale L.) has been used as a valued oil crop. Today it is grown mainly in the tropics, although its cultivation reaches from 40 o N to 40 o S latitude. It is typically grown by small holders with nearly all of its production in developing countries. China (825,531 MT) and India (620,000 MT) are the worlds principal producers (FAO 2004). Myanmar (390,000 MT), Sudan (122,000 MT), Uganda (110,000 MT), Nigeria (75,000 MT), Pakistan (61,600 MT), Bangladesh (49,000 MT), Thailand (40,000 MT), Central African Republic (38,000 MT), Chad (35,000 MT), Egypt (35,000 MT), Paraguay (34,000 MT), Guatemala (32,386 MT), Iran (30,000 MT), Venezuela (29,000 MT), Korea Rep (23,818 MT),Mexico (22,593 MT) and Turkey (22,000 MT) are other major sesame growing countries."},{"index":2,"size":192,"text":"It is an important source of high quality oil and protein. Roughly half of the seeds weight is its oil, which has excellent stability due to the presence of natural antioxidants such as sesamolin and sesamin (Brar and Ahuja 1979;Kamal-Eldin 1993). The fatty acid composition of sesame oil varies considerably among different cultivars worldwide (Yermanos et al. 1972). After oil extraction, the remaining meal contains 35-50% protein, and is rich in tryptophan and methionine. Seed coats are rich in calcium (1.3%) and provide a valuable source of minerals (Johnson et al. 1979). The addition of sesame to the high lysine meal of soybean produces a well-balanced animal feed. In spite of that, it has been a neglected crop with a low priority in research support. In fact sesame has many agronomic advantages: (i) the capacity to set seed and yield remarkably well under high temperatures; (ii) a deep taproot for extracting moisture from lower soil layers so it can be cultivated and grown on residual moisture even without rainfall or irrigation; (iii) grows well in pure stands and by intercropping; and (iv) undemanding, fits well into crop rotation as a follow crop."}]},{"head":"Origin and domestication","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The origin of sesame has been disputed for more than a century ( de Candolle 1886;Vavilov 1926;Hiltebrandt 1932;Darlington 1963;Nayar and Mehra 1970;Nayar 1995). It is now well established that sesame was domesticated on the Indian subcontinent and was taken to Mesopotamia by the Early Bronze Age (Bedigian 1988;2003a;2003b;2004b;Bedigian et al. 1985;Bedigian et al. 1986). Investigations of Bedigian et al. (1985) on lignans sesamin and sesamolin lend support to this conclusion, supplementing genetic crosses between the crop and its progenitor. Those crosses were subsequently repeated independently by Hiremath and Patil (1999). Bhat et al. (1999), Kawase (2000) and Nanthakumar et al. (2000) also used molecular markers to demonstrate the proximity between S. orientale and its progenitor, S. malabaricum Burm."}]},{"head":"Morphological variation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Cultivated Sesamum indicum L. has a highly variable genotype. Germplasm characterization and evaluation studies indicate wide diversity in plant height, branching pattern, leaf shape, height of first capsule-bearing node, number of capsules per axil, capsule length and width, number of seeds per capsule, number of locules per capsule, internode length,"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"x Sesame and height of first fruiting branch (Bedigian et al. 1986). Variations in non-morphological characters are observed for 1000-seed weight, days to maturity, oil content, seed colour, harvest index, determinate habit, resistance to pests and diseases, dehiscence, etc."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"As a result of wide variation in habitats, as well as the cultural variation and geographic isolation among its growers, there is an enormous diversity of sesame landraces (Bedigian 1988;1991;2004a;Bedigian and Harlan 1983;Bedigian et al. 1986). Local varieties remain confined to their narrowly specialized habitats. Diverse demands bring about specialized adaptations, e.g. one variety, Hirehir has a short maturity growing on the hot dry Qoz soils across Sudan; the Dinderawi variety has the longest capsules ever studied (Bedigian and Harlan 1983)."}]},{"head":"Nomenclature","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The Latin binomial Sesamum indicum L. has a synonym, S. orientale L. The correct name has been a contested matter for decades (Manning 1991). Seegeler (1989) made a strong case for S. orientale based on taxonomic priority. The Tropicos database from the Missouri Botanical Garden upholds S. orientale. However, Nicholson and Wiersema (2004) presented a new proposal to conserve S. indicum against S. orientale, based on frequency of use. The conservation of a name has to be approved by a vote of the nomenclature committee of an International Congress of Botany (ICBN), which will take place at the next meeting in 2005. Likewise, many synonyms have been published about wild species in the genus. A fresh review of the taxonomy and ecology of the genus Sesamum by Bedigian (2005) offers a current view of relationships within the genus and can be found in Annex III."}]},{"head":"DEFINITIONS AND USE OF THE DESCRIPTORS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"IPGRI uses the following definitions in genetic resources documentation:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Passport descriptors: These provide the basic information used for the general management of the accession (including the registration at the genebank and other identification information) and describe parameters that should be observed when the accession is originally collected."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Management descriptors: These provide the basis for the management of accessions in the genebank and assist with their multiplication and regeneration."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Environment and site descriptors: These describe the environmental and site-specific parameters that are important when characterization and evaluation trials are held. They can be important for the interpretation of the results of those trials. Site descriptors for germplasm collecting are also included here."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Characterization descriptors: These enable an easy and quick discrimination between phenotypes. They are generally highly heritable, can be easily seen by the eye and are equally expressed in all environments. In addition, these may include a limited number of additional traits thought desirable by a consensus of users of the particular crop."},{"index":6,"size":68,"text":"Evaluation descriptors: The expression of many of the descriptors in this category will depend on the environment and, consequently, special environmental designs and techniques are needed to assess them. Their assessment may also require complex biochemical or molecular characterization methods. These types of descriptors include characters such as yield, agronomic performance, stress susceptibilities and biochemical and cytological traits. They are generally the most interesting traits in crop improvement."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"Characterization will normally be the responsibility of genebank curators, while evaluation will typically be carried out elsewhere (possibly by a multidisciplinary team of scientists). The evaluation data should be fed back to the genebank which will maintain a data file."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"Highly discriminating descriptors are indicated as highlighted text."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"The following internationally accepted norms for the scoring, coding and recording of descriptor states should be followed: (e) many quantitative characters, which are continuously variable, are recorded on a 1-9 scale, where:"},{"index":10,"size":71,"text":"1 is the expression of a character. The authors of this list have sometimes described only a selection of the states, e.g. 3, 5 and 7 for such descriptors. Where this has occurred, the full range of codes is available for use by extension of the codes given or by interpolation between them, e.g. in Section 10 (Biotic stress susceptibility), 1 = very low susceptibility and 9 = very high susceptibility;"},{"index":11,"size":49,"text":"(f) when a descriptor is scored using a 1-9 scale, such as in (e), 0 would be scored when (i) the character is not expressed; and (ii) a descriptor is inapplicable. In the following example, 0 will be recorded if an accession does not have a central leaf lobe:"},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"Shape of central leaf lobe 1 Linear 2 Elliptic 3 Lanceolate (g) absence/presence of characters is scored as in the following example:"},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"Terminal leaflet 0 Absent 1 Present (h) blanks are used for information not yet available;"},{"index":14,"size":70,"text":"(i) for accessions, which are not generally uniform for a descriptor (e.g. mixed collection, genetic segregation), the mean and standard deviation could be reported where the descriptor is continuous. Where the descriptor is discontinuous, several codes in the order of frequency could be recorded; or other publicized methods can be utilized, such as Rana et al. (1991), or van Hintum (1993), that clearly state a method for scoring heterogeneous accessions;"},{"index":15,"size":32,"text":"(j) dates should be expressed numerically in the format YYYYMMDD, where YYYY -4 digits to represent the year MM -2 digits to represent the month DD -2 digits to represent the day."}]},{"head":"PASSPORT","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"All descriptors listed under Passport, belonging to the multicrop passport descriptors category, are indicated in the text as [MCPD] 1. Accession descriptors "}]},{"head":"Accession number (1.1) [MCPD]","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"This number serves as a unique identifier for accessions within a genebank collection, and is assigned when a sample is entered into the genebank collection. Once assigned this number should never be reassigned to another accession in the collection. Even if an accession is lost, its assigned number should never be re-used. Letters should be used before the number to identify the genebank or national system (e.g. IDG indicates an accession that comes from the genebank at Bari, Italy; CGN indicates an accession from the genebank at Wageningen, The Netherlands; PI indicates an accession within the USA system) [MCPD] Provide the subtaxa authority at the most detailed taxonomic level"}]},{"head":"Donor institute code [MCPD]","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Accession name","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"[MCPD] Either a registered or other formal designation given to the accession. First letter uppercase. Multiple names separated with semicolon without space. For example: Rheinische Vorgebirgstrauben;Emma;Avlon 1.9.1 Synonyms Include here any previous identification other than the current name. Collecting number or newly assigned station names are frequently used as identifiers"}]},{"head":"Common crop name","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"[MCPD] Name of the crop in colloquial language, preferably in English (i.e. malting barley, cauliflower, or white cabbage)"}]},{"head":"Ancestral data","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"[MCPD] Information about either pedigree or other description of ancestral information (i.e. parent variety in case of mutant or selection). For example a pedigree Hanna/ 7*Atlas/ Turk/8*Atlas or a description mutation found in Hanna, selection from Irene or cross involving amongst others Hanna and Irene"}]},{"head":"Accession size","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"(1.9) Approximate number or weight of seeds, tissue culture, etc. of an accession in the genebank 1.12 Type of material received"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"(1.11) 1 Seed 2 Plant (including seedlings) 3 Pollen 4 In vitro culture 99 Other (specify in descriptor 1.13 Remarks)"}]},{"head":"Remarks","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The Remarks field is used to add notes or to elaborate on descriptors with value 99 (= Other)"}]},{"head":"Collecting descriptors","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.1","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Collecting institute(s) (2.2) Name and address of the institute(s) and individual(s) collecting/sponsoring the collection of the sample(s)"}]},{"head":"Collecting institute code","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"[MCPD] Code of the Institute(s) collecting the sample. If the holding institute has collected the material, the collecting institute code should be the same as the holding institute code. (See instructions under Institute Code, 1.1)"}]},{"head":"Collecting number (2.1) [MCPD]","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Original number assigned by the collector(s) of the sample, normally composed of the name or initials of the collector(s) followed by a number. This item is essential for identifying duplicates held in different collections"}]},{"head":"2.4","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Collecting date of sample [YYYYMMDD] (2.3) [MCPD] Collecting date of the sample where YYYY is the year, MM is the month and DD is the day. Missing data (MM or DD) should be indicated with hyphens. Leading zeros are required"}]},{"head":"2.5","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Country of origin (2.4) [MCPD] Code of the country in which the sample was originally collected. Use the threeletter abbreviations from the International Standard (ISO) Codes for the representation of names of countries. The ISO 3166-1: Code List can be obtained from IPGRI [[email protected]]"}]},{"head":"2.6","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Province/State (2.5) Name of the primary administrative subdivision of the country in which the sample was collected"}]},{"head":"Breeding institute code","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"[MCPD] Code of the institute that has bred the material. If the holding institute has bred the material, the breeding institute code should be the same as the holding institute. Follows the Institute Code standard"}]},{"head":"2.8","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Location of collecting site (2.6) [MCPD] Location information below the country level that describes where the accession was collected. This might include the distance in kilometers and direction from the nearest town, village or map grid reference point (e.g. 7 km south of Curitiba in the state of Parana)"}]},{"head":"2.9","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Latitude of collecting site 1 (2.7) [MCPD] Degree (2 digits), minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by N (North) or S (South) (e.g. 103020S). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with a hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 10----S; 011530N; 4531--S) 2.10 Longitude of collecting site 1  (2.8) [MCPD] Degree (3 digits) minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by E (East) or W (West) (e.g. 0762510 W). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 076----W)"}]},{"head":"Elevation of collecting site [m asl]","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"(2.9) [MCPD] "}]},{"head":"Acquisition date [YYYYMMDD]","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"(1.7) [MCPD] Date on which the accession entered the collection where YYYY is the year, MM is the month and DD is the day. Missing data (MM or DD) should be indicated with hyphens. Leading zeros are required"}]},{"head":"Amount of seed in storage [g or number]","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"(Passport 1.11) Approximate number or weight of seeds or plants of an accession in the genebank"}]},{"head":"Location of safety duplicates","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"[MCPD] "}]},{"head":"5.3","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Evaluator's name and address (3.3)"}]},{"head":"Sowing date [YYYYMMDD]","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"(3.4)"}]},{"head":"Harvest date [YYYYMMDD]","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"(3.5)"}]},{"head":"Evaluation/environment","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Environment in which characterization/evaluation was carried out 1 Field 2 Screen house 3 Glasshouse 4 Laboratory 99 Other (specify in descriptor 5.15 Remarks)"}]},{"head":"Type of planting material","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"1 Seed 2 Tissue culture plantlet (specify) 3 Vegetative part 99 Other (specify in descriptor 5.15 Remarks)"}]},{"head":"5.8","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Planting site in the field Give block, strip and/or row/plot numbers as applicable, plants/plot, replication"}]},{"head":"5.9","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Field spacing"}]},{"head":"Distance between plants in a row [cm]","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Distance between rows [cm]","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"(3.7)"}]},{"head":"Seed germination [%]","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Percentage of plants germinated"}]},{"head":"Field establishment [%]","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Percent of plants established"}]},{"head":"Days to establishment [d]","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Specify number of days from planting after which establishment is measured"}]},{"head":"Environmental characteristics of site","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Use descriptors 6.1 to 6.2 in section 6"}]},{"head":"Fertilizer","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Specify types used, doses, frequency of each and method of application"}]},{"head":"Plant protection","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Specify pesticides and/or fungicides used, doses, frequency of each and method of application Slope aspect The direction that the slope on which the accession was collected faces. Describe the direction with symbols N, S, E, W (e.g. a slope that faces a south-western direction has an aspect of SW)"}]},{"head":"Remarks","index":45,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"6.1.6","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Crop agriculture (Adapted from FAO 1990) 1 Annual field cropping 2 Perennial field cropping 6.1.7 Overall vegetation surrounding and at the collecting site (Adapted from FAO 1990) 1 Grassland (Grasses, subordinate forbs, no woody species) 2 Forbland (Herbaceous plants predominant) 3 Forest (Continuous tree layer, crowns overlapping, large number of tree and shrub species in distinct layers) 4 Woodland (Continuous tree layer, crowns usually not touching, understorey may be present) 5 Shrubland (Continuous layer of shrubs, crowns touching) 6 Savanna (Grasses with a discontinuous layer of trees or shrubs) 99 Other (Specify in descriptor 6.2 Remarks)"}]},{"head":"6.1.8","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Soil parent material (Adapted from FAO 1990) Two lists of examples of parent material and rock are given below. The reliability of the geological information and the knowledge of the local lithology will determine whether a general or a specific definition of the parent material can be given. Saprolite is used if the in situ weathered material is thoroughly decomposed, clay-rich but still showing rock structure. Alluvial deposits and colluvium derived from a single rock type may be further specified by that rock type The colour of the soil matrix material in the root zone around the accession is recorded in the moist condition (or both dry and moist condition, if possible) using the notation for hue, value and chroma as given in the Munsell Soil Color Charts (Munsell Color 1977). If there is no dominant soil matrix colour, the horizon is described as mottled and two or more colours are given and should be registered under uniform conditions. Early morning and late evening readings are not accurate. Provide depth of measurement [cm]. If colour chart is not available, the following states may be used:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1 "}]},{"head":"CHARACTERIZATION 7. Plant descriptors","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"For all quantitative descriptors (metric traits), record the mean of at least five measurements per individual accession. Most of the observations should be made at maximum vegetative growth stage (at 50% flowering), unless otherwise specified."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"To make the colour description as simple as possible and because the complexity and difficulty in recording colour descriptors, since most of them include colour variations, it was decided to list only the main colours."}]},{"head":"7.1","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Seedling characters (4.1.1)      "}]},{"head":"8.3.3","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Analysis of anti-nutritional factors (e.g. Tannin, Trypsin inhibitors, Chymotrypsin inhibitor, Lectins, Amylase inhibitors, Saponins, Phytic acid, etc.)"}]},{"head":"8.4","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Remarks Specify here any other additional information"}]},{"head":"Abiotic stress susceptibility","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Scored under artificial and/or natural conditions, which should be clearly specified. These are coded on a susceptibility scale from 1 to 9, viz.:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1 "}]},{"head":"Meiosis chromosome associations","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Average of 50 microspore mother cells, observed during metaphase 1"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"13.4 Other cytological characters"}]},{"head":"Identified genes","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Describe any known specific mutant present in the accession"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" (a) the Système International dUnités (SI) is used;(b) the units to be applied are given in square brackets following the descriptor name;(c) standard colour charts, e.g. Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart, Methuen Handbook of Colour, or Munsell Color Chart for Plant Tissues, are strongly recommended for all ungraded colour characters (the precise chart used should be specified in the section where it is used);(d) the three-letter abbreviations from the International Standard (ISO) Codes for the representations of names of countries is used; "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 6. Stem hairiness 7.3.4 Shape of hair (See Fig. 7) 1 Short and straight 2 Medium and straight 3 Long and bent "},{"text":" Fig. 17. Extra-floral nectary development 7.5.5 Extra-floral nectar colour 1 Light yellow 2 Yellow 3 Purple "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 22. Seed shape 7.7.4 Seed coat percentage (4.3.3) Weight of seed coat as a percentage of seed weight on dry weight basis 7.7.5 1000-seed weight [g] (4.3.4) Weight in grams of 1000 random seeds taken from the bulk harvest "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Code of the institute where the accession is maintained. The codes consists of the 3-letter ISO 3166 country code of the country where the institute is located plus a number. The current set of Institute Codes is available from FAO website (http:// apps3.fao.org/wiews/). If new Institute Codes are required, they can be generated online by national WIEWS administrators 1.1 Institute code [MCPD] 1.1Institute code[MCPD]  "},{"text":" Code for the donor institute. (See instructions under Institute Code, 1.1) 1.7 Species  (1.5.2) [MCPD] 1.7Species(1.5.2) [MCPD] Specific epithet portion of the scientific name in lowercase letters. The abbreviation Specific epithet portion of the scientific name in lowercase letters. The abbreviation sp. is allowed  sp. is allowed  1.7.1 Species authority [MCPD] 1.7.1Species authority[MCPD]  Provide the authority for the species name Provide the authority for the species name 1.8 Subtaxa  [MCPD] 1.8Subtaxa[MCPD] Subtaxa can be used to store any additional taxonomic identifier. The following Subtaxa can be used to store any additional taxonomic identifier. The following abbreviations are allowed: subsp. (for subspecies); convar. (for convariety); var. abbreviations are allowed: subsp. (for subspecies); convar. (for convariety); var. (for variety); f. (for form) (for variety); f. (for form)  1.8.1 Subtaxa authority 1.8.1Subtaxa authority 1.4 Donor accession number (1.3) [MCPD] 1.4Donor accession number(1.3) [MCPD] Number assigned to an accession by the donor. (See instructions under Accession Number assigned to an accession by the donor. (See instructions under Accession Number, 1.2)  Number, 1.2) 1.5 Other identification number(s) associated with the accession 1.5Other identification number(s) associated with the accession    (1.4) [MCPD] (1.4) [MCPD] Any other identification (numbers) known to exist in other collections for this Any other identification (numbers) known to exist in other collections for this accession. Use the following system: INSTCODE:ACCENUMB;INSTCODE: accession. Use the following system: INSTCODE:ACCENUMB;INSTCODE: ACCENUMB; . INSTCODE and ACCENUMB follow the standard described above ACCENUMB; . INSTCODE and ACCENUMB follow the standard described above and are separated by a colon. Pairs of INSTCODE and ACCENUMB are separated and are separated by a colon. Pairs of INSTCODE and ACCENUMB are separated by a semicolon without space. When the institute is not known, the number should by a semicolon without space. When the institute is not known, the number should be preceded by a colon be preceded by a colon 1.6 Genus  (1.5.1) [MCPD] 1.6Genus(1.5.1) [MCPD] Genus name for taxon. Initial uppercase letter required Genus name for taxon. Initial uppercase letter required  "},{"text":"17 Occurrence of Sesamum species in sampling area Elevation of collecting site expressed in meters above sea level. Negative values are allowed The coding scheme proposed can be used at two different levels of detail: either by using the global codes such as 10, 20, 30, 40, or by using the more specific codes such as 11, 12, 13, etc. Name given by farmer to crop and cultivar/landrace/wild form. State local language and/or dialect if the ethnic group is not provided Sesame Sesame 2.13 Collecting source environment Use descriptors 6.1 to 6.2 in section 6 2.18 Associated mycorrhizal fungi and/or rhizobium Were root samples collected? If so, specify which fungi and/or rhizobium were 2.19.6 Main cooking methods (seed only) 1 Baking 2.21 Associated flora Other dominant crop/plant species, including other Sesamum species, found in and MANAGEMENT 2.13 Collecting source environment Use descriptors 6.1 to 6.2 in section 6 2.18 Associated mycorrhizal fungi and/or rhizobium Were root samples collected? If so, specify which fungi and/or rhizobium were 2.19.6 Main cooking methods (seed only) 1 Baking 2.21 Associated flora Other dominant crop/plant species, including other Sesamum species, found in and MANAGEMENT 2.14 Biological status of accession identified in the laboratory in descriptor 2.24 Remarks 0 No 2 Roasting 3 Snacks around the collecting site 3. Management descriptors The coding proposed can be used at three different levels of detail: either by using (2.11) [MCPD] the general codes such as 100, 200, 300, and 400 or by using the more specific codes 1 Yes 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.22 Prevailing stresses Information on associated biotic and abiotic stresses (stage of the crop at which 3.1 Accession number (Passport 1.2) 2.14 Biological status of accession identified in the laboratory in descriptor 2.24 Remarks 0 No 2 Roasting 3 Snacks around the collecting site 3. Management descriptors The coding proposed can be used at three different levels of detail: either by using (2.11) [MCPD] the general codes such as 100, 200, 300, and 400 or by using the more specific codes 1 Yes 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.22 Prevailing stresses Information on associated biotic and abiotic stresses (stage of the crop at which 3.1 Accession number (Passport 1.2) 2.12 Collecting/acquisition source 10 Wild habitat 11 Forest/woodland 12 Shrubland 13 Grassland 14 Desert/tundra 15 such as 110, 120, etc. 100 Wild 110 Natural 120 Seminatural/wild 200 Weedy 300 Traditional cultivar/landrace 400 Breeding/research material 410 Breeders line 411 Synthetic population 412 Hybrid 413 Founder stock/base population 414 Inbred line (parent of hybrid cultivar) 415 Segregating population 420 Mutant/genetic stock 500 Advanced/improved cultivar 999 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.19 Ethnobotanical data 2.19.1 Ethnic group Name of the ethnic group of the donor of the sample or of the people living (2.10) [MCPD] in the area of collecting 2.19.2 Local/vernacular name (2.12) 2.19.2.1 Translation Provide translation of the local name into English, if possible 2.19.3 Cultural characteristics 2.19.7 Number of recipes Record the number of recipes for each descriptor state of 2.19.6, as available 2.19.8 biotic and/or abiotic stress occurred and its duration). Indicate if disease indexing 3.2 Population identification (Passport 2.3) was done at the time of collecting Collecting number, pedigree, cultivar name, etc., depending on the population type 0 No Growing conditions 1 Yes 3.3 Seed storage location identifier 1 Arid 2 Semi arid 2.23 Photograph (Building, room, shelf number/location in medium-and/or long-term storage) (2.14) 3 Stony (rocky, mountainous) 4 Wet land (flooded) Was photograph(s) taken of the accession or habitat at the time of collecting? If so, 3.4 Storage date [YYYYMMDD] provide an identification number(s) in the descriptor 2.24 Remarks 5 Wet land (raised beds) 6 Upland 0 No 3.5 Seed germination at storage [%] 1 Yes 7 Slopes 8 Natural swamp 3.6 Date of last germination test [YYYYMMDD] 2.24 Remarks 9 Atoll (pits) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) Additional information recorded by the collector or any specific information in any 3.7 Seed germination at the last test [%] of the above descriptors Is there any associated folklore with the collected sesame type (e.g. taboos, stories and/or superstitions)? If so, describe it briefly in descriptor 2.24 Remarks 2.19.9 3.8 Date of next test [YYYYMMDD] Cultural practices Estimate date when the accession should next be tested Aquatic habitat 20 Farm or cultivated habitat 21 Field 22 Orchard 23 Backyard, kitchen or home garden (urban, peri-urban or rural) 24 Fallow land 25 Pasture 26 Farm store 27 Threshing floor 28 Park 30 Market or shop 40 Institute/Experimental station/Research organization/Genebank 50 Seed company 60 Weedy, disturbed or ruderal habitat 61 Roadside 62 Field margin 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.15 Type of sample collected (2.15) Form of plant material collected. If different types of material were collected from 0 No 2.19.9.1 Planting date [YYYYMMDD] 3.9 Seed moisture content at harvest [%] 1 Yes 2.19.9.2 Harvest date [YYYYMMDD] the same source, each sample (type) should be designated with a unique collecting number and a corresponding unique accession number 1 Seed 2 Vegetative 3 Pollen 4 Tissue 2.19.4 3.10 Moisture content at storage [%] History of plant use 2.19.10 Cropping system 1 Ancestral/indigenous (always associated with the place and 1 Monoculture 3.11 Type of germplasm storage [MCPD] community) 2 Intercropped (specify crop in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) If germplasm is maintained under different types of storage, multiple choices are 2 Introduced (but in unknown distant past) allowed, separated by a semicolon (e.g. 20;30). (Refer to FAO/IPGRI Genebank 3 Introduced (time and introduction known) 2.19.11 Landrace/variety popularity Standards 1994 for details on storage type) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.16 Number of plants sampled (2.13) Appropriate number of plants collected in the field to produce this accession 2.Record the name of species and descriptor states assigned to each species separately 1 Rare 2 Occasional 2.19.5 Is the landrace/variety collected is popular and widely grown? If yes, describe 10 Seed collection Plant uses briefly why in descriptor 2.24 Remarks 11 Short term 1 Seed 12 Medium term 2 Oil 3 Oil cake 4 Medicinal 5 Ornamental 2.19.12 Market information 13 Long term Specify if any premium price was assigned to this particular landrace/variety 20 Field collection 0 No 30 In vitro collection (slow growth) 1 Yes 40 Cryopreserved collection 6 Feed 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.20 Herbarium specimen 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 2.12 Collecting/acquisition source 10 Wild habitat 11 Forest/woodland 12 Shrubland 13 Grassland 14 Desert/tundra 15 such as 110, 120, etc. 100 Wild 110 Natural 120 Seminatural/wild 200 Weedy 300 Traditional cultivar/landrace 400 Breeding/research material 410 Breeders line 411 Synthetic population 412 Hybrid 413 Founder stock/base population 414 Inbred line (parent of hybrid cultivar) 415 Segregating population 420 Mutant/genetic stock 500 Advanced/improved cultivar 999 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.19 Ethnobotanical data 2.19.1 Ethnic group Name of the ethnic group of the donor of the sample or of the people living (2.10) [MCPD] in the area of collecting 2.19.2 Local/vernacular name (2.12) 2.19.2.1 Translation Provide translation of the local name into English, if possible 2.19.3 Cultural characteristics 2.19.7 Number of recipes Record the number of recipes for each descriptor state of 2.19.6, as available 2.19.8 biotic and/or abiotic stress occurred and its duration). Indicate if disease indexing 3.2 Population identification (Passport 2.3) was done at the time of collecting Collecting number, pedigree, cultivar name, etc., depending on the population type 0 No Growing conditions 1 Yes 3.3 Seed storage location identifier 1 Arid 2 Semi arid 2.23 Photograph (Building, room, shelf number/location in medium-and/or long-term storage) (2.14) 3 Stony (rocky, mountainous) 4 Wet land (flooded) Was photograph(s) taken of the accession or habitat at the time of collecting? If so, 3.4 Storage date [YYYYMMDD] provide an identification number(s) in the descriptor 2.24 Remarks 5 Wet land (raised beds) 6 Upland 0 No 3.5 Seed germination at storage [%] 1 Yes 7 Slopes 8 Natural swamp 3.6 Date of last germination test [YYYYMMDD] 2.24 Remarks 9 Atoll (pits) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) Additional information recorded by the collector or any specific information in any 3.7 Seed germination at the last test [%] of the above descriptors Is there any associated folklore with the collected sesame type (e.g. taboos, stories and/or superstitions)? If so, describe it briefly in descriptor 2.24 Remarks 2.19.9 3.8 Date of next test [YYYYMMDD] Cultural practices Estimate date when the accession should next be tested Aquatic habitat 20 Farm or cultivated habitat 21 Field 22 Orchard 23 Backyard, kitchen or home garden (urban, peri-urban or rural) 24 Fallow land 25 Pasture 26 Farm store 27 Threshing floor 28 Park 30 Market or shop 40 Institute/Experimental station/Research organization/Genebank 50 Seed company 60 Weedy, disturbed or ruderal habitat 61 Roadside 62 Field margin 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.15 Type of sample collected (2.15) Form of plant material collected. If different types of material were collected from 0 No 2.19.9.1 Planting date [YYYYMMDD] 3.9 Seed moisture content at harvest [%] 1 Yes 2.19.9.2 Harvest date [YYYYMMDD] the same source, each sample (type) should be designated with a unique collecting number and a corresponding unique accession number 1 Seed 2 Vegetative 3 Pollen 4 Tissue 2.19.4 3.10 Moisture content at storage [%] History of plant use 2.19.10 Cropping system 1 Ancestral/indigenous (always associated with the place and 1 Monoculture 3.11 Type of germplasm storage [MCPD] community) 2 Intercropped (specify crop in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) If germplasm is maintained under different types of storage, multiple choices are 2 Introduced (but in unknown distant past) allowed, separated by a semicolon (e.g. 20;30). (Refer to FAO/IPGRI Genebank 3 Introduced (time and introduction known) 2.19.11 Landrace/variety popularity Standards 1994 for details on storage type) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.16 Number of plants sampled (2.13) Appropriate number of plants collected in the field to produce this accession 2.Record the name of species and descriptor states assigned to each species separately 1 Rare 2 Occasional 2.19.5 Is the landrace/variety collected is popular and widely grown? If yes, describe 10 Seed collection Plant uses briefly why in descriptor 2.24 Remarks 11 Short term 1 Seed 12 Medium term 2 Oil 3 Oil cake 4 Medicinal 5 Ornamental 2.19.12 Market information 13 Long term Specify if any premium price was assigned to this particular landrace/variety 20 Field collection 0 No 30 In vitro collection (slow growth) 1 Yes 40 Cryopreserved collection 6 Feed 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 2.20 Herbarium specimen 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 3 Frequent Was a herbarium specimen collected? If so, provide an identification number in the 3 Frequent Was a herbarium specimen collected? If so, provide an identification number in the 4 Abundant descriptor 2.24 Remarks 4 Abundant descriptor 2.24 Remarks 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.24 Remarks)  "},{"text":" Code of the institute where a safety duplicate of the accession is maintained. It follows the Institute Code standards. See instructions under 1.1 Institute Code 3.16.9 4. Multiplication/regeneration descriptors Number of plants at the last subculture 4.10 Previous multiplication and/or regeneration ENVIRONMENT AND SITE (1.8) 3.16.9 4. Multiplication/regeneration descriptors Number of plants at the last subculture 4.10 Previous multiplication and/or regeneration ENVIRONMENT AND SITE(1.8) 3.16.10 Accession number Location after the last subculture 4.10.1 Location 5. Characterization and/or evaluation site descriptors 4.1 (Passport 1.2) 3.16.10 Accession number Location after the last subculture 4.10.1 Location 5. Characterization and/or evaluation site descriptors 4.1(Passport 1.2) 3.16.11 3.17 Cryopreservation Next subculture date [YYYYMMDD] 4.2 Population identification 4.10.2 Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] 5.1 Country of characterization and/or evaluation Collecting number, identifier number, pedigree, cultivar name, etc., depending on (Passport 2.3) (3.1) the population type 4.10.3 Plot number (See instructions in descriptor 2.5 Country of origin) 3.16.11 3.17 Cryopreservation Next subculture date [YYYYMMDD] 4.2 Population identification 4.10.2 Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] 5.1 Country of characterization and/or evaluation Collecting number, identifier number, pedigree, cultivar name, etc., depending on (Passport 2.3) (3.1) the population type 4.10.3 Plot number (See instructions in descriptor 2.5 Country of origin) 3.15 Type of stored plant material 1 Seed 2 Vegetative 3 Tissue 4 Pollen 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 3.16 In vitro conservation 3.16.1 1 Seed or zygotic embryo 3.17.5 Number of samples taken from liquid nitrogen 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 4.7.1 Distance between plants [cm] 5 Other organ via callus or suspension culture 3.17.4 End of storage period [YYYYMMDD] 4 Somatic embryo 4.7 Cultural practices 3 Shoot tip 3.17.3 Number of samples introduced in liquid nitrogen 2 Meristem 3.17.2 4.6 Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] Introduction date in liquid nitrogen [YYYYMMDD] Type of source explants 3.17.1 Type of material for cryopreservation 1 Seed 4.3 4.11 Number of times accession regenerated 5.2 Site (research institute) Multiplication/regeneration site location Since the date of acquisition 5.2.1 Latitude 2 Zygotic embryo 3 Apex or axillary bud 4 Somatic embryo 5 Callus 4.4 Collaborator's name 4.5 4.12 Remarks 5.2.2 Longitude Any additional information, including the information relating to method of isolation, (3.4/5.4) (1.10) (3.2) Season 1 Summer (Kharif) selfing, sibbing, previous crop grown, etc., may be specified here 5.2.3 Elevation [m asl] 6 Cell suspension 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 2 Winter (Rabi) 3 Spring (Zaid) 5.2.4 Name and address of farm or institute 3.15 Type of stored plant material 1 Seed 2 Vegetative 3 Tissue 4 Pollen 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 3.16 In vitro conservation 3.16.1 1 Seed or zygotic embryo 3.17.5 Number of samples taken from liquid nitrogen 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 4.7.1 Distance between plants [cm] 5 Other organ via callus or suspension culture 3.17.4 End of storage period [YYYYMMDD] 4 Somatic embryo 4.7 Cultural practices 3 Shoot tip 3.17.3 Number of samples introduced in liquid nitrogen 2 Meristem 3.17.2 4.6 Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] Introduction date in liquid nitrogen [YYYYMMDD] Type of source explants 3.17.1 Type of material for cryopreservation 1 Seed 4.3 4.11 Number of times accession regenerated 5.2 Site (research institute) Multiplication/regeneration site location Since the date of acquisition 5.2.1 Latitude 2 Zygotic embryo 3 Apex or axillary bud 4 Somatic embryo 5 Callus 4.4 Collaborator's name 4.5 4.12 Remarks 5.2.2 Longitude Any additional information, including the information relating to method of isolation, (3.4/5.4) (1.10) (3.2) Season 1 Summer (Kharif) selfing, sibbing, previous crop grown, etc., may be specified here 5.2.3 Elevation [m asl] 6 Cell suspension 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 2 Winter (Rabi) 3 Spring (Zaid) 5.2.4 Name and address of farm or institute  3.16.2 3.17.6 4.7.2 Type of subcultured material for recovery (After liquid nitrogen) Date of introduction in vitro [YYYYMMDD] Distance between rows [cm] 3.16.2 3.17.6 4.7.2Type of subcultured material for recovery (After liquid nitrogen) Date of introduction in vitro [YYYYMMDD] Distance between rows [cm]  3.16.3 4.7.3 Specify types, doses, frequency of each and method of application 1 Seed Fertilizer application Type of subculture material 2 Zygotic embryo 1 Apical or axillary bud 3 Apex or axillary bud 2 Callus 4 Somatic embryo 4.7.4 Water availability 3 Cell suspension 6 Cell suspension 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 5 Callus If irrigated, specify frequency of irrigation in descriptor 4.12 Remarks 3.16.3 4.7.3 Specify types, doses, frequency of each and method of application 1 Seed Fertilizer application Type of subculture material 2 Zygotic embryo 1 Apical or axillary bud 3 Apex or axillary bud 2 Callus 4 Somatic embryo 4.7.4 Water availability 3 Cell suspension 6 Cell suspension 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 5 Callus If irrigated, specify frequency of irrigation in descriptor 4.12 Remarks 3.16.4 Plant/seedling vigour 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) Regeneration process Assessed at 20 days after emergence 4.8 1 Organogenesis 3.17.7 Regeneration process 3 Low 2 Somatic embryogenesis 1 Organogenesis 5 Medium 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 2 Somatic embryogenesis 7 High 3.16.4 Plant/seedling vigour 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) Regeneration process Assessed at 20 days after emergence 4.8 1 Organogenesis 3.17.7 Regeneration process 3 Low 2 Somatic embryogenesis 1 Organogenesis 5 Medium 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) 2 Somatic embryogenesis 7 High 4.9 3.16.5 Number of plants established 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) Number of individuals introduced in vitro 4.93.16.5 Number of plants established 99 Other (specify in descriptor 3.18 Remarks) Number of individuals introduced in vitro  3.16.6 3.17.8 Number of replicates per genotype Number of recovered samples 3.16.6 3.17.8Number of replicates per genotype Number of recovered samples  3.16.7 3.17.9 Last subculture date [YYYYMMDD] Location after the last subculture 3.16.7 3.17.9Last subculture date [YYYYMMDD] Location after the last subculture 3.16.8 3.18 Remarks Any additional information may be specified here Medium used at the last subculture 3.16.8 3.18 Remarks Any additional information may be specified here Medium used at the last subculture  "},{"text":".17.1 Soil particle size classes  6.1.14 Soil pH   (2.16) 6.1.14Soil pH(2.16) Actual value of the soil pH within the following root depths around the Actual value of the soil pH within the following root depths around the accession, record only at one of the following depths: accession, record only at one of the following depths:  1 pH at 0-10 cm  1 pH at 0-10 cm  2 pH at 11-20 cm  2 pH at 11-20 cm  3 pH at 21-30 cm  3 pH at 21-30 cm  4 pH at 31-60 cm  4 pH at 31-60 cm  5 pH at 61-90 cm  5 pH at 61-90 cm 6.1.15 Soil erosion  6.1.15Soil erosion  3 Low   3 Low  5 Intermediate  5 Intermediate  7 High   7 High 6.1.16 Rock fragments  6.1.16Rock fragments (Adapted from FAO 1990)  (Adapted from FAO 1990) Large rock and mineral fragments (>2 mm) are described according to Large rock and mineral fragments (>2 mm) are described according to abundance    abundance  1 0-2%   1 0-2%  2 2.1-5%   2 2.1-5%  3 5.1-15% 4 15.1-40% Fig. 2. Soil texture classes 3 5.1-15% 4 15.1-40% Fig. 2. Soil texture classes  5 40.1-80%  5 40.1-80%  6 > 80% 6.1(Adapted from FAO 1990) 6 > 80% 6.1(Adapted from FAO 1990) 6.1.17 Soil texture classes 1 Clay < 2 µm (2.18) 6.1.17Soil texture classes 1 Clay< 2 µm(2.18) (Adapted from FAO 1990) 2 Fine silt 3-20 µm (Adapted from FAO 1990) 2 Fine silt3-20 µm For convenience in determining the texture classes of the following list, particle 3 Coarse silt 21-63 µm For convenience in determining the texture classes of the following list, particle 3 Coarse silt 21-63 µm White size classes are also given for each of the fine earth fraction listed below. (See 9 Yellow 4 Very fine sand 64-125 µm White size classes are also given for each of the fine earth fraction listed below. (See 9 Yellow 4 Very fine sand 64-125 µm Fig. 2) 2 Red 5 Fine sand 10 Reddish yellow 126-200 µm Fig. 2)2 Red5 Fine sand10 Reddish yellow 126-200 µm  3 Reddish 1 Clay 6 Medium sand 12 Coarse sandy loam 11 Greenish, green 201-630 µm 3 Reddish 1 Clay 6 Medium sand 12 Coarse sandy loam 11 Greenish, green 201-630 µm  4 Yellowish red 2 Loam 7 Coarse sand 13 Loamy sand 12 Grey 631-1250 µm 4 Yellowish red 2 Loam 7 Coarse sand 13 Loamy sand 12 Grey 631-1250 µm  5 Brown 3 Clay loam 8 Very coarse sand 13 Greyish 14 Loamy very fine sand 1251-2000 µm 5 Brown 3 Clay loam 8 Very coarse sand 13 Greyish 14 Loamy very fine sand 1251-2000 µm  6 Brownish 4 Silt 14 Blue 15 Loamy fine sand 6 Brownish 4 Silt14 Blue 15 Loamy fine sand 6.1.18 7 Reddish brown 5 Silty clay Soil organic matter content 15 Bluish-black 16 Loamy coarse sand 6.1.187 Reddish brown 5 Silty clay Soil organic matter content 15 Bluish-black 16 Loamy coarse sand  8 Yellowish brown 6 Silty clay loam 1 Nil (as in arid zones) 17 Very fine sand 16 Black 8 Yellowish brown 6 Silty clay loam 1 Nil (as in arid zones) 17 Very fine sand 16 Black  7 Silt loam 2 Low (as in long-term cultivation in tropical setting) 18 Fine sand 7 Silt loam 2 Low (as in long-term cultivation in tropical setting) 18 Fine sand  8 Sandy clay 3 Medium (as in recently cultivated but not yet much depleted) 19 Medium sand 8 Sandy clay 3 Medium (as in recently cultivated but not yet much depleted) 19 Medium sand  9 Sandy clay loam 4 High (as in never cultivated, and in recently cleared from 20 Coarse sand 9 Sandy clay loam 4 High (as in never cultivated, and in recently cleared from 20 Coarse sand  10 Sandy loam forest) 21 Sand, unsorted 10 Sandy loam forest)21 Sand, unsorted  11 Fine sandy loam 5 Peaty 22 Sand, unspecified 11 Fine sandy loam 5 Peaty22 Sand, unspecified  "},{"text":".5.18 Length of the longest lip [mm] Length of the longest lip measured in mm 7.5.19 Absence/presence of foveola Small V or W shaped depression in the interior middle of the corolla below the lower lip. (See Fig.18) Mean number of seeds from five randomly selected capsules from five different plants taken from the middle of the main stem If the accessions show more than one colour, each colour should be named separately as per the intensity of colour in descending order)   Characterization 41 Characterization 41  7.5.15 7.5.20 7.6.16 7.7.2 (1 White Interior corolla colour 1 White 2 White with pink shading 3 White with deep pink shading Anther filament colour Seeds per capsule Seed coat colour 1 White 2 White with violet dots 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks)  (4.2.20) (4.3.1) 7.5.15 7.5.20 7.6.16 7.7.2 (1 White Interior corolla colour 1 White 2 White with pink shading 3 White with deep pink shading Anther filament colour Seeds per capsule Seed coat colour 1 White 2 White with violet dots 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks)(4.2.20) (4.3.1)  7.6.17 7.5.21 Number of days required for germination to commence after harvest of Seed dormancy 2 Cream 4 Pink 5 Light violet 6 Dark violet 7 Purple Anther connective tip gland 3 Beige 0 Absent physiologically matured seeds/capsules 4 Light brown 1 Present 5 Medium brown 7.6.17 7.5.21 Number of days required for germination to commence after harvest of Seed dormancy 2 Cream 4 Pink 5 Light violet 6 Dark violet 7 Purple Anther connective tip gland 3 Beige 0 Absent physiologically matured seeds/capsules 4 Light brown 1 Present 5 Medium brown 7.7 8 Red 9 Light maroon 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) Corolla interior pigmentation Style length Seed characters 7.5.16 7.5.22 6 Dark brown 7 Brick red 1 Short (stigma terminating below the position of anthers) (4.2.6) 7.7.1 Seed coat texture (4.3.2) 8 Tan 2 Medium (stigma position at anthers level) (See Fig. 21) 9 Olive 3 Long (stigma protruding outside the position of anthers) 1 Smooth 10 Grey 7.78 Red 9 Light maroon 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) Corolla interior pigmentation Style length Seed characters 7.5.16 7.5.22 6 Dark brown 7 Brick red 1 Short (stigma terminating below the position of anthers) (4.2.6) 7.7.1 Seed coat texture (4.3.2) 8 Tan 2 Medium (stigma position at anthers level) (See Fig. 21) 9 Olive 3 Long (stigma protruding outside the position of anthers) 1 Smooth 10 Grey 7.6 (Dark violet/purple/red flakes) 0 Absent 2 Partially rough 11 Dull black Capsule characters 3 Radially rough 12 Bright black   7.6(Dark violet/purple/red flakes) 0 Absent 2 Partially rough 11 Dull black Capsule characters 3 Radially rough 12 Bright black  1 Pigmented throughout Number of capsules per plant 4 Partially radially rough 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) 5 Reticulately rough 2 Pigmentation along the lip region of corolla tube 3 Pigmentation in the supra foveolate region Mean of five randomly selected plants 7.6.1 7.7.3 Seed shape (4.2.18) 1 Pigmented throughout Number of capsules per plant 4 Partially radially rough 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) 5 Reticulately rough 2 Pigmentation along the lip region of corolla tube 3 Pigmentation in the supra foveolate region Mean of five randomly selected plants 7.6.1 7.7.3 Seed shape(4.2.18)  7.5.6 7.5.17 7.6.2 (See Fig. 22) Number of nodes to first flower 4 Pigmentation in the infra foveolate region 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) Lower lip colour 0 Colourless 1 Coloured Number of locules per capsule 1 Oval with convex side Observed on capsules from the middle of main stem 2 Oval with concave side 1 Four 3 Elongated 2 Six 4 Winged 3 Eight 4 Mixed 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks)  (4.2.10) (4.2.3) 7.5.6 7.5.17 7.6.2 (See Fig. 22) Number of nodes to first flower 4 Pigmentation in the infra foveolate region 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) Lower lip colour 0 Colourless 1 Coloured Number of locules per capsule 1 Oval with convex side Observed on capsules from the middle of main stem 2 Oval with concave side 1 Four 3 Elongated 2 Six 4 Winged 3 Eight 4 Mixed 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks)(4.2.10) (4.2.3) 1 Observed on the main stem 7.5.7 Corolla length [mm] Average of five fully developed flowers 7.5.8 Calyx tip colour 1 Green 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) 1 Present 2 Purple 7.6.3 Number of carpels per capsule 1 Bicarpellate 2 Tetracarpellate 2 70 Absent 1 2 3 3 (4.2.15) 4 1Observed on the main stem 7.5.7 Corolla length [mm] Average of five fully developed flowers 7.5.8 Calyx tip colour 1 Green 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.8 Remarks) 1 Present 2 Purple 7.6.3 Number of carpels per capsule 1 Bicarpellate 2 Tetracarpellate 2 70 Absent 1 2 33(4.2.15) 4 4 5  6 456  0 1  01  "},{"text":" RemarksAny additional information, especially in the category of 99= Other under various descriptors above, may be specified here8.2.2Amino acid composition [µg/g DW] Estimate essential amino acids in seed sample[FAO 1991] Briefly indicate the method used for the estimation with relevant reference(s)  8.2.3 Oil content [% DW] (6.3.1) 8.2.3Oil content [% DW](6.3.1)  8.2.4 Oil composition (6.3.2) 8.2.4Oil composition(6.3.2)  Ratio of oleic-linoleic fatty acids Ratio of oleic-linoleic fatty acids  8.2.5 Oil stability [%] (6.3.3) 8.2.5Oil stability [%](6.3.3)  Percentage of anti-oxidants (sesamin, sesamolin, lignans) Percentage of anti-oxidants (sesamin, sesamolin, lignans) 8.3 Chemical analysis of seeds 8.3Chemical analysis of seeds  8.3.1 Dry matter content [g/100g DW] 8.3.1Dry matter content [g/100g DW]  8.3.2 Micronutrients content 8.3.2Micronutrients content  (e.g. Manganese, Zinc, Copper, etc.) (e.g. Manganese, Zinc, Copper, etc.) 7.8   7.8  "},{"text":" Specify methods used and cite reference(s). Refer to Descriptors for Genetic Markers Technologies, available in PDF (portable document format) from the IPGRI Web site (www.ipgri.cgiar.org) or by email request to: [email protected]. Molecular markersRefer to Descriptors for Genetic Markers Technologies, available in PDF (portable document format) from the IPGRI Web site (www.ipgri.cgiar.org) or by email request to: [email protected] 11. Biochemical markers  11. Biochemical markers 13. Cytological characters  13. Cytological characters 13.1 Chromosome number  13.1 Chromosome number 13.2 Ploidy level  13.2 Ploidy level (2x, 3x, 4x, etc.)  (2x, 3x, 4x, etc.)  Very low or no visible sign of susceptibility  Very low or no visible sign of susceptibility 3 Low  3 Low 5 Intermediate  5 Intermediate 7 High  7 High 9 Very high  9 Very high 9.1 Reaction to low temperature (7.1) 9.1Reaction to low temperature(7.1) 9.2 Reaction to higher temperature (7.2) 9.2Reaction to higher temperature(7.2) 9.3 Reaction to drought (7.3) 9.3Reaction to drought(7.3) 9.4 Reaction to high soil moisture (7.4) 9.4Reaction to high soil moisture(7.4) 9.5 Reaction to soil salinity (7.5) 9.5Reaction to soil salinity(7.5)  "}],"sieverID":"6c83945c-5255-4b37-9f99-b095465a55aa","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0712055dcbe20c54a898567117674cef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aa152d38-3a14-44a6-ac89-bd1f989290cb/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Assessment of the Yam Landraces (Dioscorea spp.) of DR Congo for Reactions to Pathological Diseases, Yield Potential, and Tuber Quality Characteristics","keywords":["D. alata","D. bulbifera","D. cayenensis","D. dumetorum","D. praehensilis","D. rotundata","landraces Citation: Adejumobi, I.I.","Agre, P.A.","Onautshu, D.O"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Root and tuber crops make a significant contribution to global dietary needs after cereal crops [1]. Yam is among the principal root and tuber crops, including cassava and potato, that are widely grown and consumed as subsistence staples [2]. Yam is a generic name for the Dioscorea species widely cultivated in the tropics and subtropics by smallholder farmers mainly for its starchy underground tuber and aerial bulbils [3,4]. Thus, yam is a group of economically important multi-species crops that serve as a valuable source of food across Africa, Asia, South America, the Caribbean, and the Pacific [5,6]. The global estimated mean annually for yam production and gross values are approximately 73 million tons and 14 billion US dollars, respectively [7,8]. The genus Dioscorea has over 600 species, of which 11 are economically significant [9]."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"In DR Congo, yam is a major staple of the rural community, whose major occupation is farming, and is a scarce food commodity in the major city markets due to insufficient production capacity. Of the economically significant species, seven have been previously reported to play a major role in subsistence livelihoods: white guinea yam (D. rotundata), yellow guinea yam (D. cayenensis), water yam (D. alata), bitter yam (D. dumetorum), bush yam (D. praehensilis), wild yam (D. burkilliana), and aerial yam (D. bulbifera) [10][11][12]. Many of these species are being cultivated under wide agro-ecological zones, though with higher preference for D. rotundata and D. alata [10,13]."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Despite the importance of yam in sustaining rural livelihoods, yam production is faced with lots of constraints, including, but not limited to, biotic (pests and diseases), tuber quality (oxidative browning, dry matter, and taste), and agronomic (yield) constraints [10,14,15]. Of the biotic constraints, pests (nematodes, beetles, etc.) and two major foliar diseases (yam anthracnose disease (YAD) and yam mosaic virus disease (YMV)) are the major contributors to production loss. These foliar diseases have been reported by the yam scientific community as major pathological problems to yam productivity and have resulted in the loss of many traditional cultivars (landraces) in many yam-producing countries [6,14,16]. In DR Congo, the extent of affliction has over the time been aggravated by the absence of improved (resistant/tolerant) varieties of yams and the inability of subsistence farmers to afford the cost of adequate control measures."},{"index":4,"size":172,"text":"Agronomic attributes, such as yield potential, tuber shape, and tuber quality characteristics (e.g., tuber dry matter content and oxidative browning), in general, play a major role in the acceptance of yam varieties by farmers and consumers. Thus, these attributes have most often been regarded as farmers' and consumers' preference criteria, upon which research has been focused in recent decades [1,15]. As in every other yam-producing country, yam farmers in DR Congo also prefer yam varieties characterized by a combination of marketable yield, sweet tuber taste, zero to minimal tuber flesh oxidative browning, high tuber dry matter content, and tolerance to yam foliar diseases [10]. These attributes are mostly combined in improved yam genotypes following years of breeding efforts. Obtaining such varieties is an impossibility for most farmers as they depend on local varieties (landraces) for seasonal cultivation. Though ennoblement efforts by a few farmers has helped in identifying very few landraces with good agronomic and tuber quality attributes, the majority of the farmers still lack access to seeds of these landraces [10][11][12]."},{"index":5,"size":176,"text":"Yam production constraints in DRC have been aggravated by the lack of yam improvement programs to address challenges relating to yield improvement, resistance to foliar diseases, and post-harvest tuber quality improvement. In the absence of structured yam improvement programs to enhance the genetic potential of the existing traditional cultivars, as well as to develop new and improved yam cultivars, an alternative way to contribute to the improvement of farmers' productivity will be to assess the existing traditional cultivars for the criteria that are of the utmost importance to the farmers and consumers. This will allow the identification of landraces that combine good agronomic, tuber quality, and disease resistance attributes, and thus they can be recommended to the farmers for cultivation through the Ministry of Agriculture. Therefore, this study was carried out to (i) identify landraces (cultivated and semi-wild species) with superior performance for yam foliar disease resistance, agronomic, and tuber quality traits and (ii) estimate the components of variance and heritability for the traits considered in the study for selection purposes in future yam improvement programs."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental Site, Planting Materials, Experimental Layout, and Planting","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The study was carried out at two research places of the University of Kisangani (UNIKIS), namely Simi-Simi (longitude 0°33′05.9″ N, latitude 25°05′17.3″ E, altitude 396 m a.s.l, elevation 397 m a.s.l) and Akodali (longitude 0°35′46.4″ N, latitude 25°08′56.6″ E, altitude 419 m a.s.l, elevation 428 m a.s.l), Kisangani, DR Congo. The duration of the field evaluation lasted 11 months from April 2020. The evaluation sites are characterized by the dense humid forest vegetation with an irregularly distributed rainfall pattern throughout the year (3156 mm annual). The soil type in both locations is mostly oxisols (ferralsols according to FAO classification) [17], and the mean temperature range is 21-35 °C minimum and maximum temperatures, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":257,"text":"The planting materials consisted of a panel of 191 genotypes (188 landraces and three breeding lines) across six species of Dioscorea (Table 1). The morphotypes within each species vary in quantity in the following order: D. rotundata (108), D. alata (33), D. dumetorum (16), D. praehensilis (16), D. cayenensis (12), and D. bulbifera (6). The landraces were sourced from six territories (Kisangani, Isangi, Bumba, Lisala, Buta, and Bambesa), categorized within three provinces (Tshopo, Mongala, and Bas-Uele). The breeding lines included as standard checks were obtained from the yam breeding unit (yam improvement program) of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. These standard checks were of the D. rotundata (TDr9519177 and TDr8902665) and D. alata (TDa1100316) species with known pathological, agronomic, and tuber quality attributes potential. The experiment was conducted in a 12 by 16 lattice design with two replicates. The field layout was generated using \"Agricolae\" package in R [18]. Each replicate was comprised of 16 incomplete blocks with 12 experimental plots. In each replicate, the experimental unit was comprised of 5 m long ridges containing five plants at 1 m intra-and interrow spacing. The planting was done with yam setts ranging between 150 to 200 g each, treated using a cocktail of fungicide (Mancozeb 7.5 g/liter of water) and insecticide (Cypermethrin 7.5 mL/liter of water). Following the sprouting of the planted setts, the plants were exposed to natural field infestation of yam mosaic virus and yam anthracnose disease, and no fertilizers were applied during the evaluation process. Weeding was done manually when necessary."}]},{"head":"Data Collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Data were collected on the traits of economic significance to farmers and consumers (Table 2).  The area under the disease progression curve (AUDPC), a valuable quantitative summary of disease severity for YMV and YAD over time, was estimated using the trapezoidal method [19]. This method discretizes the time variable and calculates the average disease severity between each pair of adjacent time points:"},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"where N is the number of assessments made, Yi is the anthracnose or virus severity score on date i, and t is the time in months between assessments Yi and Yi + 1."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Pathological reactions to yam mosaic virus (YMV) and to yam anthracnose disease (YAD) (severity scores) were recorded monthly from two to six months after sprout (Figure 1). The plant vigor and leaf density were assessed at two and three months after sprout emergence, respectively. Senescence class, a measure of maturity class was assessed at six months after sprout emergence. Parameters used for yield assessment at harvest included number of tubers harvested per plot, tuber size category, and fresh tuber and/or bulbil weight per plot. The intensity of tuber flesh oxidation, tuber flesh texture, and tuber dry matter content in percentage were collected post-harvest. All the traits were assessed using the recommendations of Asfaw, 2016 [20] and yam crop ontology: https://yambase.org/tools/onto/ (access on 25 February 2022)."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Genotype fresh weight per plot was converted to the total tuber yield adjusted (TTYA) in tons per hectare using the formula below:"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"where TTWP is the total tuber weight per plot, and PLS is the plot size. Sett multiplication ration (SMR) was estimated as \uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC40\uD835\uDC45 = Weight of fresh tuber harvested Weight of sett planted"},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"The dry matter content (DMC) was determined by grating 200 g of fresh tuber flesh into a container and oven-drying it at 120 °C for 48 h, at which constant weight was observed. The percentage dry matter content was estimated as"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Dry tuber flesh weight Wet tuber flesh weight \uD835\uDC65 100 (4)"}]},{"head":"Statistical Analyses","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A mixed linear model was used to conduct analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the lmerTest package in R [21] following the alpha lattice model below:"},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"where Yijk is the phenotypic performance of accession for traits under consideration, µ is the average accession performance, Geni is the effect of accession i, Repj is the effect of replication j, Rep(Blk)j(k) is the block k effect nested in replication j, Envl is the effect of environment l, Gen*Env(il) is the effect of the accession i by environment l interaction, and Errorijkl is the residual effect."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"For the analysis, accession (landrace) and environment were considered to be random effects while species was considered to be a fixed effect. Error (δ 2 e), genotypic (δ 2 g), and phenotypes (δ 2 p) variances were calculated from expected mean squares (EMS) of ANOVA following Kresovich, 1990 [22]."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Error variance;"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"Genotypic variance;"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Genotypic by environment interaction variance;"},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"Phenotypic variance;"},{"index":8,"size":113,"text":"where, MSg = mean square of genotype; MSgl = mean square due to accession by environmental interaction; MSe = error mean square (mean square of environment); l = number of locations/environment; r = number of replications. Broad-sense heritability (H2), phenotypic coefficient of variance (PCV), and genotypic coefficient of variance (GCV) were calculated using the values derived from respective variance components. Broad-sense heritability (H2) was classified as low (<30%), medium (30-60%), and high (>60%), according to Johnson et al. [23]. Following Deshmukh et al. [24], phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation greater than 20% were rated as high, between 10 and 20% were rated as medium, and lower than 10% were regarded as low."}]},{"head":"\uD835\uDC3B2 = δ2g","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"δ2g + δ2gl l + δ2e rl × 100 (10)"},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"where δ 2 p = phenotypic variance, δ 2 g = genotypic variance, δ 2 gl = genotype by environment interaction variance; δ 2 e: residual variance, r = number of replication; l = number of environment; µ: grand mean of the trait. The relationship matrix, among the assessed traits, was constructed using Pearson's correlation coefficient and visualized using the ggpairs function in the GGally package [25]. Principal component analysis (PCA) was done using the PRCOMP function implemented in R [26] to identify the most discriminant traits with high contribution to the observed genotypic variation. Hierarchical cluster analysis was done based on the Ward.D2 method using the Gower dissimilarity matrix. The final hierarchical cluster was built and viewed using the dendextend package [27] and the circlize package [28] in R. The optimum number of clusters was identified using the NbClust package [29]. Path coefficient analysis was estimated and viewed using the lavaan function in the lavaan package [30]. In this model, tuber yield and tuber dry matter content were considered response variables against key agronomic and tuber quality traits as predictor variables. The path diagram was then constructed using the semPlot package [31] to depict the direct effect of these traits on tuber yield and dry matter content for suitability for indirect selection. Performance of landrace accession against check genotypes was assessed using Shukla's stability variance implemented in the VitSel application Version 1.0 [32]."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variability in Agronomic and Tuber Quality Traits of Yam Landraces and Species","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":467,"text":"The analysis of variance (ANOVA) that shows the statistical difference for accessions and environment is presented in Table 3. Combined ANOVA revealed significant interaction effects of accession by environment at p < 0.05 for all the estimated parameters except for seed multiplication ratio, indicating environmental influence on the observed phenotypic expression of the landrace accessions for these traits. The interaction effect of species by environment was not significant for any parameter, suggesting that species performance was not environment dependent. Accession effect was significant at p < 0.001 for all the traits evaluated, indicating significant differences in the observed phenotypic performance of the accessions. Significant variation at p < 0.05 was observed for species effect in all the estimated parameters, indicating that the species performance differs for all the traits evaluated. Environment effect was significant for tuber dry matter content and yam anthracnose disease at p < 0.01, tuber oxidative browning at p < 0.05, and YMV severity at p < 0.001, indicating the existence of environmental differences with respect to these traits. Environment-specific analysis of variance revealed that both landrace and species effects were significant at p < 0.001 for all the studied traits in both environments.  Variation in the landrace species' mean performance in the combined analysis (Table 4) showed that D. cayenensis had the highest yield performance (28.49 t/ha) but was statistically similar to D. alata (25.72 t/ha) and significantly different from other species. D. rotundata had the highest dry matter content (37%), statistically similar to D. cayenensis (36.89%) and different from other species. D. alata had the highest set multiplication ratio (13.90), similar to that of D. cayenensis (11.73) but significantly different form other species. D. alata had the highest number of tubers per plot (4.55), similar to D. bulbifera but significantly different from other species. D. cayenensis, D. rotundata, D. alata, and D. praehensilis had significantly larger tuber size than the two other species. D. alata and D. dumetorum had the significantly minimal tuber flesh oxidative browning (−0.01 and −0.12, respectively), while D. bulbifera and D. dumetorum had significantly smoother flesh textures (0.90 and 0.94, respectively).  Response to pathological disease revealed that D. bulbifera had the highest tolerance to YMV severity (AUDPC = 3.88), while D. rotundata had the least tolerance (AUPDC = 5.66). However, D. praehensilis (AUDPC = 5.59) and D. rotundata (AUDPC = 5.84) had the highest tolerance to YAD severity, while D. alata had the least tolerance (AUDPC = 7.72). D. bulbifera, D. cayenensis, and D. alata had significantly higher leaf density (6.40, 6.30, and 5.93, respectively), while D. bulbifera, D. dumetorum, and D. cayenensis had significantly better plant vigor (2.76, 2.59, and 2.53, respectively). D. bulbifera had significantly higher senescence class (6.96 = early maturing), while D. cayenensis had the lowest rating (2.12 = very late maturing) (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"Genetic Variability and Broad-Sense Heritability of Agronomic and Tuber Quality Traits Yam Accessions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Genotypic and phenotypic variance components, genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation, and broad-sense heritability of agronomic and tuber quality traits in yam accessions are presented in Table 5. Genotypic coefficients of variation (GCV) ranged from a moderate classification of 12.96% for tuber dry matter content to high classification 52.16% for tuber flesh oxidative browning. A similar result was observed for phenotypic coefficients of variation (PCV) which ranged from a moderate classification of 14% for tuber dry matter content to a high classification of 68.49% for the number of tubers per plant. Broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) varied between 46.97% (moderate) and 91.40% (high). High H 2 (>60%) was observed in all the estimated parameters except for number of tubers per plot, where moderate H 2 was observed.  "}]},{"head":"Principal Component Analysis of Agronomic and Tuber Quality Traits","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The principal component analysis that was used to identify the most discriminant traits with high contributions to the observed genotypic variation is presented in Table 6. The first four principal components (PC), with Eigen values greater than one, accounted for 66.21% of the genetic variation in the study. The first PC accounted for 28.49% of variance, with major contributions from tuber yield, seed multiplication ratio, tuber size, leaf density, and plant vigor. The second PC accounted for 16.39%, with major contributions from number of tubers per plot, tuber size, tuber flesh texture, YAD severity, and senescence class. The third PC accounted for 12.68%, with major contributions from tuber dry matter content, tuber size, tuber flesh oxidative browning, YMV severity, and plant vigor. The fourth PC accounted for 8.65%, with major contributions from tuber dry matter content, tuber size, tuber flesh oxidative browning, tuber flesh texture, and YMV severity (Table 6).  "}]},{"head":"Relationships among Agronomic and Tuber Quality Traits in Yam Landraces","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The relationship among evaluated yam parameters is presented in Figure 2. A significant positive relationship was observed between tuber yield and sett multiplication ratio (r = 0.79), tuber size (r = 0.49), plant leaf density (r = 0.63) at p < 0.001, tuber flesh texture (r = 0.22) at p < 0.01, and number of tubers per plot (r = 0.16) at p < 0.05. A significant negative relationship was not observed. Dry matter content showed a significant positive relationship with tuber size (r = 0.28) and YMV severity (r = 0.41) at p < 0.001, while a negative relationship was observed for number of tubers per plot (r = −0.15, p < 0.05), YAD severity (r = −0.20), and leaf density (r = −0.23) at p < 0.01. A significant positive relationship indicates similar direction in trait performance, while a significant negative relationship indicates opposite direction in traits expression. "}]},{"head":"Yam Clustering Based on Hierarchical Clustering","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Hierarchical clustering employed for the grouping of yam accessions based on the evaluated agronomic and tuber quality characters produced four clusters (Figure 3). Cluster one consisted of accessions of D. alata (30), characterized by high tuber yield, a high number of tubers per plot, high leaf density, large tuber size, low tuber flesh oxidative browning, very grainy tuber flesh texture, high susceptibility to YAD severity, and medium senescence class. Cluster two had the largest cluster membership, which consisted of accession of D. rotundata (42), D. praehensilis (13), D. cayenensis (11), D. alata (1), and D. dumetorum (1), characterized by high yield, high dry matter content, large tuber size, high leaf density, high plant vigor, smooth tuber flesh texture, and moderate tuber oxidative browning. Cluster three had the minimum cluster members and consisted of accessions of D. dumetorum (13), D. bulbifera (6), and D. alata (3), characterized by a high number of tubers per plot, high leaf density, high plant vigor, low tuber flesh oxidative browning, smooth tuber flesh texture, early senescence class, and moderate tolerance to YMV severity but susceptibility to YAD severity. Cluster four consisted of accessions of D. rotundata (60) and D. cayenensis (1), characterized by high dry matter content, low tuber flesh oxidative browning, smooth tuber flesh textures, and susceptibility to YMV severity with moderate tolerance of YAD severity (Table 7).  "}]},{"head":"Path Analysis among Assessed Traits of Dioscorea Species","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"The path analysis done to depict the direct effect of agronomic traits on tuber yield and dry matter content for suitability for indirect selection is presented in Figure 4. The path analysis began with structural equation modelling where tuber yield and dry matter content were considered response variables against correlated agronomic and tuber quality parameters. The model resulted in excellent fit. The chi-square test of the model fit was not significant (χ 2 (4) = 2.455, p = 0.653). Overall, fit indices were in good range (RMSEA =   Setts multiplication ratio significantly predicted tuber yield (b = 1.12, SE = 0.10, p < 0.001) such that a unit increase in setts multiplication ratio was associated with a 1.12-unit increase in tuber yield. Tuber size significantly predicted tuber yield (b = 2.64, SE = 0.83, p < 0.001) such that a one-unit increase in tuber size was associated with a 2.64-unit increase in tuber yield. YMV severity significantly predicted tuber yield (b = −1.21, SE = 0.45, p < 0.01) such that a one-unit increase in YMV severity was associated with a 1.21-unit decrease in tuber yield. Leaf density significantly predicted tuber yield (b = 2.08, SE = 0.65, p < 0.001) such that a one-unit increase in leaf density was associated with a 2.08-unit increase in tuber yield (Figure 3)."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Tuber size significantly predicted tuber dry matter content (b = 2.21, SE = 0.60, p < 0.001) such that a one-unit increase in tuber size was associated with a 2.21-unit increase in tuber dry matter content. YMV severity significantly predicted tuber dry matter content (b = 1.54, SE = 0.39, p < 0.001) such that a one-unit increase in YMV severity was associated with a 1.54-unit increase in tuber dry matter content. Plant vigor significantly predicted tuber dry matter content (b = −3.70, SE = 0.84, p < 0.001) such that a one-unit increase in plant vigor was associated with a 3.70-unit decrease in tuber dry matter. Senescence class significantly predicted tuber dry matter content (b = −0.60, SE = 0.17, p < 0.001) such that a one-unit increase in senescence class was associated with a 0.60-unit decrease in tuber dry matter content."}]},{"head":"Performance of Landrace Accession against Standard Check Genotypes","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Landraces performances for traits of interest were compared to that of the average performance of the three checks used in the study. Tuber yield and tuber dry matter were set as traits of higher values, and AUDPC estimates for YMV and YADS were set as traits of lower values, while tuber flesh oxidation was set as trait of values within range. The performance of landrace accession against the standard check genotypes revealed that 51 landrace accessions with Shukla's stability variances varying from 0 to 389 had better performance than the average performance of the three checks included in the study (Table S1). Of the 51 landraces accessions, only 20 accessions were observed to have stable performance (Shukla's stability variance of less than 5) with respect to the parameters under assessment. The 20 accessions were observed to be accessions of D. alata (TDa21_169; TDa21_080; TDa21_73; TDa21_152; TDa21_050; TDa21_005; TDa21_034), D. cayenensis (TDc21_059; TDc21_190), and D. rotundata (TDr21_162; TDr21_089; TDr21_142; TDr21_037; TDr21_153; TDr21_167; TDr21_154; TDr21_134; TDr21_131; TDr21_163; TDr21_099) (Table 8)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Table 8. List of the stable twenty landrace accessions with better performance over checks mean for farmers' and consumers' preferred traits."}]},{"head":"S/N","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Genotype Yield DMC YMV YAD TUBOXI DMC = Dry matter content; TUBOXI = Intensity of tuber oxidation; YMV = Yam mosaic virus disease; YAD = Yam anthracnose disease; Stability= Shukla's stability variance."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variability in Agronomic and Tuber Quality Traits of Dioscorea Species as Identifiers of Gene Reservoirs for Yam Genetic Improvement in DR Congo","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":260,"text":"Yam production in DR Congo is challenged by numerous constraints, including, but not limited to, low yield, poor tuber quality characteristics, and pathological diseases, which have been the major focus of modern breeding programs in countries where they exist. The identification of the genetic potential and gene reservoir for genetic improvement from the existing genetic pool of landraces for high yield potential, good tuber quality attributes, and resistance/tolerance to pathological diseases could offer a potential hope for consideration for yam improvement. The study revealed varying degrees of potential of the landrace species for farmers' and consumers' preferred traits (high yield, high dry matter content, resistance to pathological diseases, and non to low tuber oxidative browning). Accessions of D. cayenensis and D. alata had the highest yield potential among all the species considered. These species are popular for their high plant vigor and leaf density, which enhance the yield potentials, hence the reason for the wide distribution of D. alata worldwide [1,33]. In addition, D. cayenensis requires a longer cycle, which is not a desired trait to many yam cultivators but allows the advantage of more assimilates production and translocation into the tubers compared to most cultivated species. Accessions of D. rotundata had the highest dry matter content and were probably the reason for the preference for consumption and industrial potential in many yam-producing communities [34,35]. Accessions of D. alata and D. dumetorum had very low tuber flesh oxidative browning properties compared to other species. This trait has been reported as a determinant in yam cultivar acceptability in many studies [15]."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"For resistance to pathological diseases, accessions of D. bulbifera had the best genetic tolerance to YMV disease; however, this species is not known for regular cultivation, as it is regarded as forest/wild species [36,37]. Of the cultivated species, accessions of D. dumetorum, D. alata, and D. praehensilis had better tolerance than the popular preference species for consumption (D. rotundata) and, as such, can be considered in breeding programs for the improvement of D. rotundata, particularly D. praehensilis due to their similar genome information [38]. This corroborates the findings of Adewumi et al. [39], who observed better tolerance of D. praehensilis genotypes over that of D. rotundata for YMV severity. Accessions of D. praehensilis and D. rotundata had the best genetic tolerance to YAD severity among the considered species while D. alata had the least tolerance. D. alata is very susceptible to YAD severity [16,40,41]."}]},{"head":"Genetic Parameters and Broad-Sense Heritability of Evaluated Traits","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"The high GCV and PCV (>20%) observed in some of the evaluated traits, such as tuber yield, seed multiplication ratio, number of tubers per plot, tuber flesh oxidative browning, tuber flesh texture, and senescence class indicates potentials for high selection intensity. This is essential, as it will facilitate the selection of accessions with superior performance in yam breeding programs. High GCV and PCV recorded for tuber yield in this study were in agreement with the findings of Padhan and Panda [42] conducted on advanced breeding populations of white yam. High H 2 (>60%) recorded in this study for all traits except for number of tubers per plot indicates a high correspondence between phenotypic and genotypic variance and, therefore, high response to selection. Many studies have also obtained similar findings for some of the observed parameters. Agre et al. [1] observed high H 2 estimates for tuber yield per plant and YMV in D. rotundata. Bhattacharjee et al. [16] also reported high broad-sense heritability for YAD in D. alata."}]},{"head":"Correlation Coefficients, Principal Components, and Hierarchical Clusters among Assessed Traits of Landrace Accessions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Landraces accession with high leaf density, large tuber size, high seed multiplication ratio, grainy flesh texture, and high number of tubers per plot could be considered in breeding for improved yield following their observed relationship in the study. In consideration for improved tuber dry matter content, landrace accessions with a reduced number of tubers per plot, larger tuber size, tolerance to YAD severity, and reduced leaf density could be considered following the relationship observed in our study. Agre et al. [43] similarly observed a positive relationship between tuber yield and yield components, such as tuber size and number of tubers per plot in a panel of water yam."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The traits that best discriminated the landrace accession in this study were those which resolved on PC1 with major contribution. These traits, including tuber yield, tuber size, leaf density, plant vigor, YMV severity, YAD severity, and flesh texture could be utilized in evaluating genetic diversity among similar species of yam. Agre et al. [43,44] and Siadjeu,et al. [45] have previously reported the significant contribution of the majority of these traits in discriminating yam accessions."},{"index":3,"size":175,"text":"The hierarchical clustering revealed genetic similarities among landraces accessions that were grouped in the same cluster. Clustering of D. rotundata, D. praehensilis, and D. cayenensis accessions in clusters two and four corroborates the findings of Scarcelli et al. [38], who reported D. praehensilis as the progenitor of D. rotundata. This also suggests the existence of a possible genetic relationship between D. rotundata and D. cayenensis. Many studies have supported this theory [46,47] and, as such, called it the D. cayenensis-rotundata complex. From the clustering, D. alata showed characteristics for high tuber yield, high setts multiplication ratio, higher number of tubers per plot, larger tuber size, low tuber oxidative browning, high leaf density, moderate resistance to YMV severity, and early maturity. D. rotundata, D. cayenensis, and D. praehensilis showed characteristics for high yield, high dry matter content, large tuber size, better resistance to YAD severity, high leaf density, high plant vigor, and late maturity. D. bulbifera and D. dumetorum showed characteristics for a higher number of tubers per plot, leaf density, plant vigor, and early maturity."}]},{"head":"Traits Prediction (Indirect Selection) for Yield and Tuber Quality Attributes","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"One of the challenges in yam improvement is long growing cycles of the genotypes. Thus, any means to select for improving yield and good tuber quality characteristics in yam accessions using agronomic characteristics (indirect selection) will be of advantage. Our study suggests that low YMV severity, leaf density, tuber size, and setts multiplication ratio predict tuber yield, while tuber size, plant vigor, YMV severity, and senescence class predict tuber dry matter content. Of the observed predictor traits, tuber size and YMV severity predict both tuber yield and tuber dry matter content."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"This study explored a panel of 191 yam accessions within six Dioscorea species for the identification of superior genotypes for farmers' and consumers' preferred traits (tuber yield, tuber dry matter, YMV severity, YAD severity, and tuber flesh oxidative browning). We observed variations in the performance of the landrace species with respect to all the agronomic and tuber quality traits assessed in the study. All the assessed parameters have the moderate to high heritability necessary for response to selection. We observed significant relationships among the assessed traits and paths, and coefficient analysis revealed predictor traits for indirect selection. Four cluster groupings with contrasting characteristics were also identified. Our study identified 20 stable landrace accessions within three Dioscorea spp. with above-average check performance for farmers' and consumers' preferred traits. These accessions could be advised to farmers, as well as considered in future yam improvement programs in DR Congo. Further characterization of these landraces is required with high throughput molecular markers to ascertain their genetic uniqueness before incorporation into future breeding programs. This will provide more insight into the challenge of linguistic polymorphism and the genetic diversity of these species for effective use as source of genetic reservoirs for yam improvement in DR Congo."}]},{"head":"Supplementary Materials:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agriculture12050599/s1, Table S1: List of the landrace accessions with better performance over checks mean for most preferred farmers and consumer traits and their stability. Funding: The African trans-regional cooperation, through the Mobilité Université en Afrique (MOUNAF) project funded by the European Union Commission within the framework of the Intra-Africa Academic Mobility Scheme, granted a Ph.D. scholarship to the first author to study at the"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" where 1 = weak (75% of the plants or all the plants in a plot are small and have few leaves and thin vines), 2 = medium (intermediate or normal), and 3 = vigorous (75% of the plants or all the plants in a plot are robust, with thick vines and leaves very well developed or with abundant foliage) 2 Plant leaf density Observation of variation in leaf mass or abundance on a mature plant and rating of density 4 MAP Using a 1-7 scale where 3 = low, 5 = intermediate, and 7 = high 3 Senescence class Visual observation of the status of foliage senescence (leaf or vine yellowing) of plants in plot at 6 months and onward and rating of the maturity class (status) 8 MAP Using a 1-9 scale where 1 = very late (all the plants in a plot still show green foliage), 3 = late (75% of the plants in a plot still show green foliage, but up to 25% plants in a plot show leaves senescence), 5 = medium (50% of the plants still show green leaves and 50% showing senescence), 7 = early (75% of the plants in a plot show senescent foliage), and 9 = very early (all the plants in a plot are completely senesced). where 1 = small (less than 15 cm in length), 2 = medium (between 15 and 25 cm in length), and 3 = big/large (more than 25 cm of flesh surface color change or browning of cut yam tubers scored at different time intervals (0, 30, 60, 180 min) Post-harvest Using a 1-3 scale where 1 = no oxidization, 2 = slightly oxidizing, and 3 = highly oxidizing 8 YMV severity Visual assessment of the grade of reaction of the plant to the virus infection, varying from mottle, mosaics until total leaf deformation, recording of the severity as a proportion or percentage of plant surface affected 2-6 MAS Using a visual five ordinal scale (1-5 scale) where 1 = no visible symptoms; 2 = mosaic on few leaves, symptom recovery over time; 3 = mild symptoms on many leaves but no leaf distortion; 4 = severe mosaic on most leaves, leaf distortion; and 5 = severe mosaic (bleaching), severe leaf distortion and stunting 9 YADS severity Visual assessment of anthracnose severity by observing the relative or absolute area of plant tissue affected by yam anthracnose disease and recording of the severity as a proportion or percentage of plant surface affected 2-6 MAS Using a visual 1-5 general scale where 1 = no visible symptoms of anthracnose disease, 2 = few anthracnose spots or symptoms on 1 to ~25% of the plant, 3 = anthracnose symptoms covering ~26 to ~50% of the plant, 4 = symptoms on >51% of the plant, and 5 = severe necrosis and death of the plant MAP = Month after planting; MAS = Month after sprouting. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Visual scale for yam anthracnose (A) and yam mosaic virus diseases (B) scoring (pictures from Asfaw, 2016 [20]). "},{"text":"DMC= Dry matter content; SMR = Sett multiplication ratio; NTPP = Number of tubers per plot; TUBSZE = Tuber size; TUBOXI = Intensity of tuber oxidation; FLSTXT = Tuber flesh texture; YMV = Yam mosaic virus disease; YAD = Yam anthracnose disease; LFDEN = Leaf density; PLTVIG = Plant vigor; SENSC = Senescence class; DF = Degree of freedom; CV = Coefficient of variation *, **, *** = significant at p < 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 respectively. "},{"text":" 18 d DMC = Dry matter content; SMR = Sett multiplication ratio; NTPP = Number of tubers per plot; TUBSZE = Tuber size; TUBOXI = Intensity of tuber oxidation; FLSTXT = Tuber flesh texture; YMV = Yam mosaic virus disease; YAD = Yam anthracnose disease; LFDEN = Leaf density; PLTVIG = Plant vigor; SENSC = Senescence class. TDa = Tropical Dioscorea alata; TDb = Tropical Dioscorea bulbifera; TDc = Tropical Dioscorea cayenensis; TDd = Tropical Dioscorea dumetorum; TDp = Tropical Dioscorea praehensilis; TDr = Tropical Dioscorea rotundata. The letters a, b, c, d & e represent the LSD level of significance. "},{"text":"δ 2 g = Genotypic variance; δ 2 p = Phenotypic variance; GCV = Genotypic coefficient of variation; PCV = Phenotypic coefficient of variation; H 2 = Broad-sense heritability; DMC = Dry matter content; SMR = Sett multiplication ratio; NTPP = Number of tubers per plot; TUBSZE = Tuber size; TUBOXI = Intensity of tuber oxidation; FLSTXT = Tuber flesh texture; YMV= Yam mosaic virus disease; YAD = Yam anthracnose disease; LFDEN = Leaf density; PLTVIG = Plant vigor; SENSC = Senescence class. "},{"text":" DMC = Dry matter content; SMR = Sett multiplication ratio; NTPP = Number of tubers per plot; TUBSZE = Tuber size; TUBOXI = Intensity of tuber oxidation; FLSTXT = Tuber flesh texture; YMV = Yam mosaic virus disease; YAD = Yam anthracnose disease; LFDEN = Leaf density; PLTVIG = Plant vigor; SENSC = Senescence class. PC1 to PC12 indicate Principal Components. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Correlation coefficients among agronomic and tuber quality traits. DMC = Dry matter content; SMR = Sett multiplication ratio; NTPP = Number of tubers per plot; TUBSZE = Tuber size; TUBOXI = Intensity of tuber oxidation; FLSTXT = Tuber flesh texture; YMV = Yam mosaic virus disease; YAD = Yam anthracnose disease; LFDEN = Leaf density; PLTVIG = Plant vigor; SENSC = Senescence class. *, **, *** = significant at p < 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Hierarchical clustering showing grouping patterns of yam landrace accessions into four clusters using twelve key traits covering agronomic and tuber quality based on the Gower dissimilarity matrix. C1, Cluster one (blue); C2,; Cluster two (yellow); C3, Cluster three (green); C4, Cluster four (red). D. praehensilis (2). "},{"text":" [0.00, 0.09], p = 0.81; CFI = 1.00; SRMR = 0.01). Most of the direct effects in the model were significant. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Path coefficient analysis between response and independent yam variables. Y.. = Tuber yield; DMC = Dry matter content; SMR = Sett multiplication ratio; NTP = Number of tubers per plot; TUB = Tuber size; TUBO = Tuber oxidation; FLS = Tuber flesh texture; YMV = Yam mosaic virus disease; YAD = Yam anthracnose disease; LFD = Leaf density; PLT = Plant vigor; SEN = Senescence class. Red indicates direct negative impact, and green indicates direct positive impact. "},{"text":"Author Contributions: Conceptualization, I.I.A., D.O.O., P.A.A., J.G.A., and J.M.L.; Methodology, I.I.A. and P.A.A.; Data analysis, I.I.A. and P.A.A.; Supervision, D.O.O., P.A.A., and J.G.A.; Writingoriginal draft, I.I.A. and P.A.A.; Writing-review and editing, I.I.A., P.A.A., D.O.O., J.G.A., J.-C.L.M., I.M.C., and J.L.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. "},{"text":"Table 1 . List of the panel of 191 yam accessions used for the trial evaluation. s/n Accession Identity Landrace Name Territory s/n Accession Identity Landrace Name Territory s/n Accession Identity Landrace Name Territory s/nAccession IdentityLandrace Name Territorys/nAccession IdentityLandrace Name Territorys/nAccession IdentityLandrace NameTerritory 1 TDr21_001 Libanza-1 Bumba 32 TDr21_043 Moindo-1 Bumba 63 TDp21_052 Ahala-28 Bumba 1TDr21_001Libanza-1Bumba32TDr21_043Moindo-1Bumba63TDp21_052Ahala-28Bumba 2 TDr21_096 Moenge-1 Bumba 33 TDr21_067 Ahala-12 Bumba 64 TDr21_170 Bozongo-4 Bumba 2TDr21_096Moenge-1Bumba33TDr21_067Ahala-12Bumba64TDr21_170Bozongo-4Bumba 3 TDr21_025 Ahala-1 Bumba 34 TDr21_027 Ahala-13 Bumba 65 TDp21_026 Ahala-29 Bumba 3TDr21_025Ahala-1Bumba34TDr21_027Ahala-13Bumba65TDp21_026Ahala-29Bumba 4 TDr21_141 Libanza-2 Bumba 35 TDr21_111 Ahala-14 Bumba 66 TDr21_112 Bozongo-5 Bumba 4TDr21_141Libanza-2Bumba35TDr21_111Ahala-14Bumba66TDr21_112Bozongo-5Bumba 5 TDr21_010 Ahala-2 Bumba 36 TDr21_128 Ahala-15 Bumba 67 TDr21_074 Ahala-30 Bumba 5TDr21_010Ahala-2Bumba36TDr21_128Ahala-15Bumba67TDr21_074Ahala-30Bumba 6 TDr21_015 Moenge-2 Bumba 37 TDr21_016 Ahala-16 Bumba 68 TDr21_116 Bozongo-6 Bumba 6TDr21_015Moenge-2Bumba37TDr21_016Ahala-16Bumba68TDr21_116Bozongo-6Bumba 7 TDr21_046 Libanza-3 Bumba 38 TDr21_044 Libanza-11 Bumba 69 TDr21_157 Ahala-31 Bumba 7TDr21_046Libanza-3Bumba38TDr21_044Libanza-11Bumba69TDr21_157Ahala-31Bumba 8 TDr21_158 Ahala-3 Bumba 39 TDr21_166 Libanza-12 Bumba 70 TDr21_187 Ahala-32 Bumba 8TDr21_158Ahala-3Bumba39TDr21_166Libanza-12Bumba70TDr21_187Ahala-32Bumba 9 TDr21_131 Libanza-4 Bumba 40 TDr21_097 Moenge-5 Bumba 71 TDr21_017 Ahala-33 Bumba 9TDr21_131Libanza-4Bumba40TDr21_097Moenge-5Bumba71TDr21_017Ahala-33Bumba  TDr21_177 Ahala-4 Bumba 41 TDc21_172 Bwanzele-2 Buta 72 TDr21_110 Ahala-34 Bumba TDr21_177Ahala-4Bumba41TDc21_172Bwanzele-2Buta72TDr21_110Ahala-34Bumba  TDr21_179 Moenge-3 Bumba 42 TDr21_127 Ahala-17 Bumba 73 TDr21_020 Libanza-15 Bumba TDr21_179Moenge-3Bumba42TDr21_127Ahala-17Bumba73TDr21_020Libanza-15Bumba  TDr21_085 Libanza-5 Bumba 43 TDr21_012 Ahala-18 Bumba 74 TDr21_004 Ahenge-1 Bumba TDr21_085Libanza-5Bumba43TDr21_012Ahala-18Bumba74TDr21_004Ahenge-1Bumba  TDc21_070 Bwanzele-1 Buta 44 TDr21_165 Ahala-19 Bumba 75 TDr21_167 Ahala-35 Bumba TDc21_070Bwanzele-1Buta44TDr21_165Ahala-19Bumba75TDr21_167Ahala-35Bumba  TDr21_021 Wasalaka Bumba 45 TDr21_006 Libanza-13 Bumba 76 TDr21_164 Libanza-16 Bumba TDr21_021WasalakaBumba45TDr21_006Libanza-13Bumba76TDr21_164Libanza-16Bumba  TDr21_186 Ahala-5 Bumba 46 TDr21_175 Moenge-6 Bumba 77 TDr21_031 Moenge-12 Bumba TDr21_186Ahala-5Bumba46TDr21_175Moenge-6Bumba77TDr21_031Moenge-12Bumba  TDr21_033 Bozongo-1 Bumba 47 TDr21_109 Ahala-20 Bumba 78 TDr21_087 Ahala-36 Bumba TDr21_033Bozongo-1Bumba47TDr21_109Ahala-20Bumba78TDr21_087Ahala-36Bumba  TDa21_084 Ekolo-1 Kisangani 48 TDr21_161 Ahala-21 Bumba 79 TDr21_013 Ahenge-2 Bumba TDa21_084Ekolo-1Kisangani48TDr21_161Ahala-21Bumba79TDr21_013Ahenge-2Bumba  TDr21_047 Bozongo-2 Bumba 49 TDr21_093 Moindo-2 Bumba 80 TDr21_082 Libanza-17 Bumba TDr21_047Bozongo-2Bumba49TDr21_093Moindo-2Bumba80TDr21_082Libanza-17Bumba  TDr21_181 Moenge-4 Bumba 50 TDr21_105 Ahala-22 Bumba 81 TDr21_089 Ahala-37 Bumba TDr21_181Moenge-4Bumba50TDr21_105Ahala-22Bumba81TDr21_089Ahala-37Bumba  TDr21_154 Ahala-6 Bumba 51 TDr21_101 Moenge-7 Bumba 82 TDr21_183 Libanza-18 Bumba TDr21_154Ahala-6Bumba51TDr21_101Moenge-7Bumba82TDr21_183Libanza-18Bumba  TDr21_108 Libanza-6 Bumba 52 TDr21_129 Moenge-8 Bumba 83 TDr21_191 Ahala-38 Bumba TDr21_108Libanza-6Bumba52TDr21_129Moenge-8Bumba83TDr21_191Ahala-38Bumba  TDc21_117 Libanza-7 Bumba 53 TDr21_106 Moenge-9 Bumba 84 TDr21_030 Moenge-13 Bumba TDc21_117Libanza-7Bumba53TDr21_106Moenge-9Bumba84TDr21_030Moenge-13Bumba  TDr21_045 Ahala-7 Bumba 54 TDc21_190 Ngbongboto-1 Buta 85 TDr21_155 Ahala-39 Bumba TDr21_045Ahala-7Bumba54TDc21_190 Ngbongboto-1Buta85TDr21_155Ahala-39Bumba  TDr21_066 Ahala-8 Bumba 55 TDr21_024 Ahala-23 Bumba 86 TDr21_118 Ahala-40 Bumba TDr21_066Ahala-8Bumba55TDr21_024Ahala-23Bumba86TDr21_118Ahala-40Bumba  TDc21_059 Libanza-8 Bumba 56 TDr21_039 Ahala-24 Bumba 87 TDc21_091 Libanza-19 Bumba TDc21_059Libanza-8Bumba56TDr21_039Ahala-24Bumba87TDc21_091Libanza-19Bumba  TDr21_092 Libanza-9 Bumba 57 TDr21_113 Ahala-25 Bumba 88 TDr21_037 Ahala-41 Bumba TDr21_092Libanza-9Bumba57TDr21_113Ahala-25Bumba88TDr21_037Ahala-41Bumba  TDr21_119 Ahala-9 Bumba 58 TDr21_139 Ahala-26 Bumba 89 TDr21_057 Libanza-20 Bumba TDr21_119Ahala-9Bumba58TDr21_139Ahala-26Bumba89TDr21_057Libanza-20Bumba  TDr21_060 Ahala-10 Bumba 59 TDr21_140 Libanza-14 Bumba 90 TDr21_143 Libanza-21 Bumba TDr21_060Ahala-10Bumba59TDr21_140Libanza-14Bumba90TDr21_143Libanza-21Bumba  TDr21_007 Bozongo-3 Bumba 60 TDr21_171 Ahala-27 Bumba 91 TDr21_148 Ahala-42 Bumba TDr21_007Bozongo-3Bumba60TDr21_171Ahala-27Bumba91TDr21_148Ahala-42Bumba  TDr21_083 Libanza-10 Bumba 61 TDr21_184 Moenge-10 Bumba 92 TDr21_142 Engbo Bumba TDr21_083Libanza-10Bumba61TDr21_184Moenge-10Bumba92TDr21_142EngboBumba  TDr21_162 Ahala-11 Bumba 62 TDr21_104 Moenge-11 Bumba 93 TDd21_174 Biamajaune-1 Kisangani TDr21_162Ahala-11Bumba62TDr21_104Moenge-11Bumba93TDd21_174 Biamajaune-1 Kisangani  TDr21_153 Ahala-43 Bumba 126 TDd21_075 Bilenge-2 Kisangani 158 TDa21_080 Ekolo-2 Kisangani TDr21_153Ahala-43Bumba126 TDd21_075Bilenge-2Kisangani 158 TDa21_080Ekolo-2Kisangani  "},{"text":"Table 2 . List of some traits assessed during the trial evaluation. S/N Trait Nature of the Trait Collection Period Collection Method S/NTraitNature of the TraitCollection PeriodCollection Method   Visual assessment of the vigor of   Visual assessment of the vigor of 1 Plant vigor the vine and leaves of the new   1Plant vigorthe vine and leaves of the new   plant in a plot   plant in a plot  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Combined and environment specific mean squares for agronomic and tuber quality traits in yam accessions. Combined Environment Combined Environment  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Mean variations in agronomic and tuber quality traits of yam genotypes based on landrace species. Combined Environment Combined Environment  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Genetic variance, coefficient of variation, and broad-sense heritability in yam landrace accessions. Genetic Parameters Genetic Parameters  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Principal component analysis and contributions of agronomic and tuber quality traits to the genetic variability. Trait PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 TraitPC1PC2PC3PC4 Yield (t/ha) 0.457 −0.182 0.003 −0.120 Yield (t/ha)0.457−0.1820.003−0.120 DMC 0.011 −0.232 −0.437 0.252 DMC0.011−0.232−0.4370.252 SMR 0.455 −0.076 −0.123 −0.158 SMR0.455−0.076−0.123−0.158 NTPP 0.166 0.287 −0.110 0.134 NTPP0.1660.287−0.1100.134 TUBSZE 0.316 −0.264 −0.322 0.227 TUBSZE0.316−0.264−0.3220.227 TUBOXI 0.076 −0.162 0.327 0.762 TUBOXI0.076−0.1620.3270.762 FLSTXT 0.196 0.289 −0.391 0.345 FLSTXT0.1960.289−0.3910.345 YMV −0.117 −0.221 −0.506 −0.284 YMV−0.117−0.221−0.506−0.284 YAD 0.220 0.472 −0.123 −0.016 YAD0.2200.472−0.123−0.016 LFDEN 0.452 0.019 0.142 −0.128 LFDEN0.4520.0190.142−0.128 PLTVIG 0.382 −0.065 0.352 −0.177 PLTVIG0.382−0.0650.352−0.177 SENSC −0.003 0.608 −0.052 0.009 SENSC−0.0030.608−0.0520.009 Eigen value 1.849 1.402 1.234 1.019 Eigen value1.8491.4021.2341.019 Variance (%) 28.490 16.390 12.680 8.654 Variance (%)28.49016.39012.6808.654 Cumulative (%) 28.490 44.880 57.560 66.213 Cumulative (%)28.49044.88057.56066.213  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Description of clusters of yam landraces. Trait Cluster 1 (30) Cluster 2 (68) Cluster 3 (22) Cluster 4 (63) F-Value TraitCluster 1 (30)Cluster 2 (68)Cluster 3 (22)Cluster 4 (63)F-Value Tuber yield (t/ha) 23.90 a 24.79 a 18.41 b 15.01 c 33.31 *** Tuber yield (t/ha)23.90 a24.79 a18.41 b15.01 c33.31 *** Dry matter content (%) 35.57 b 36.32 ab 27.26 c 37.02 a 62.88 *** Dry matter content (%)35.57 b36.32 ab27.26 c37.02 a62.88 *** Sett multiplication ratio 12.56 a 10.85 b 7.98 c 6.25 d 36.61 *** Sett multiplication ratio12.56 a10.85 b7.98 c6.25 d36.61 *** Number of tuber per plot 3.99 a 3.35 b 3.55 ab 2.95 c 7.68 *** Number of tuber per plot3.99 a3.35 b3.55 ab2.95 c7.68 *** Tuber size 2.87 a 2.82 a 1.91 c 2.43 b 50.11 *** Tuber size2.87 a2.82 a1.91 c2.43 b50.11 *** Tuber oxidative browning 0.26 b 0.88 a 0.31 b 0.22 b 14.72 *** Tuber oxidative browning0.26 b0.88 a0.31 b0.22 b14.72 *** Tuber flesh texture 2.49 a 1.23 b 1.12 b 1.18 b 154.52 *** Tuber flesh texture2.49 a1.23 b1.12 b1.18 b154.52 *** Yam mosaic virus disease 5.01 b 5.27 b 4.50 c 5.56 a 16.55 *** Yam mosaic virus disease5.01 b5.27 b4.50 c5.56 a16.55 *** Yam anthracnose disease 7.12 a 6.06 b 6.83 a 5.98 b 28.63 *** Yam anthracnose disease7.12 a6.06 b6.83 a5.98 b28.63 *** Leaf density 6.01 a 5.91 a 6.03 a 4.93 b 47.36 *** Leaf density6.01 a5.91 a6.03 a4.93 b47.36 *** Plant vigor 2.36 b 2.49 a 2.54 a 2.02 c 48.68 *** Plant vigor2.36 b2.49 a2.54 a2.02 c48.68 *** Senescence class 5.08 a 2.85 c 5.72 a 3.42 b 48.84 *** Senescence class5.08 a2.85 c5.72 a3.42 b48.84 ***  Significance level: \"p < 0.001\" = ***. Means followed by the same superscripts are not significantly Significance level: \"p < 0.001\" = ***. Means followed by the same superscripts are not significantly  different using the least significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% p-value threshold. The bold values different using the least significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% p-value threshold. The bold values  indicate significant traits at each cluster. The letters a, b & c represent the LSD level of significance. indicate significant traits at each cluster. The letters a, b & c represent the LSD level of significance.  "}],"sieverID":"f212fcef-f853-4b1b-acd1-0f8aac9a21ee","abstract":"Yams (Dioscorea spp.) possess the potential to contribute to food security and poverty alleviation in DR Congo; however, yam production is limited by several constraints, including the lack of yam improvement programs to address challenges relating to yield improvement, resistance to foliar diseases, and post-harvest tuber quality. Identification of a superior genotype for these traits and reservoirs of genes for improvement would guide yams' improvement. This study aims to evaluate and identify landraces with superior performance for farmers and consumers. We evaluated 191 accessions from six yam species, and significant variation in the performances was observed at p < 0.05. Accessions of D. alata were superior for tuber oxidative browning (−0.01), D. cayenensis for high yield potential (29 t/ha), D. bulbifera for yam mosaic virus (YMV) tolerance (AUDPC = 3.88), and D. rotundata for tuber dry matter content (37%). A high genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation (>40) was observed for tuber yield, number of tubers per plots, tuber flesh oxidative browning, and tuber flesh texture. High broad-sense heritability estimates (>60) were similarly observed for all the assessed parameters except number of tubers per plot. Tuber size was identified as the best predictor for tuber yield (b = 2.64, p < 0.001) and tuber dry matter content (b = 2.21, p < 0.001). The study identified twenty stable landrace accessions from three Dioscorea species (D. alata (7); D. cayenensis (2); D. rotundata (11)). These accessions combined high yield potential, high tuber dry matter, high tolerance to YMV and YAD, and low tuber flesh oxidation. The accessions could be considered for the establishment of a yam improvement program in DR Congo."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"086ba3fd507b2e4049ab99b339f6912f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/079156d6-710d-45a3-981c-b3c7eae4019c/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) Refresher Training","keywords":["Ethiopia","agriculture","climate change","climate variability","food security","education","extension approaches","capacity development","climate-smart agriculture","climatology","monitoring systems","forecasting","participatory approaches","Goal 2 Zero Hunger"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"One of the biggest challenges impeding the exploitation of climate information in different sectors is a lack of foundational capacity around climate risk management. A dearth of knowledge and skills surrounding climate basics, what climate information is available and accessible, how to appropriately communicate complex climate information and develop products that actually support decision-making, and how such services might be integrated within national systems are all stymie a country's ability to take adaptive action in an uncertain climate."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"The implications of this challenge are especially pronounced in climate-sensitive sectors such as that of agriculture, and in places like Ethiopia where over 85% of the population (more than 70 million people) are reliant upon the sector for their livelihoods (USAID, 2021). For example, while both Ethiopia's Climate Smart Agriculture Roadmap for 2020-2030 (Eshete et al., 2020) and the National Strategy for Ethiopia's Agricultural Extension System (EIAR, MoA, 2014) identify location-specific agro-ecology based interventions and climate-smart adaptation practices as one of the main systemic bottlenecks for effective adaptation, the country's more than 72,000 agricultural agents serving over 16 million farmers (Abate et al., 2020) are not capacitated on the access and use of historical, monitoring, or forecast climate information products available through the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) that would allow them to tailor their recommendations more appropriately."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Moreover, actors who implement disaster risk reduction and management (DRR/M) projects and programs, such as those in response to drought or floods mandated by the National Policy and Strategy for Disaster Risk Management (NPS-DRM), do not receive adequate and appropriate training to help them carry out these roles effectively (Biru & Dibaba, 2018). As such, they are ill-equipped to plan for, manage, and respond to emergencies, and the mismatch between the national policy framework emphasizing a transition to more proactive, multi-layer disaster management and the reactive reality on the ground persists."},{"index":4,"size":201,"text":"To address these challenges, the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), as part of Columbia Climate School at Columbia University, has been working closely with the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), and the Ethiopian Meteorological Institute (EMI) to co-develop a curriculum aimed at improving climate risk management in agricultural extension. The competency-based curriculum, which consists of a Reference Guide (textbook), an abridged Handbook, and Facilitators' Guide (Teachers' Guide), was developed collaboratively through both the Accelerating the Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project in Ethiopia and the Adapting Agriculture to Climate Today, for Tomorrow (ACToday) Columbia World Project. It targets agents (DAs) and subject matter specialists (SMS) within the extension system, though the workshop outlined here revealed a need to also target agricultural staff at the regional, zonal, and woreda levels. ACToday strives to improve climate information and services to address Sustainable Development Goal 2-End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture. It was also built on the achievements of IRI's Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS) initiative, which aims to improve the availability, access, and use of climate information and emphasizes decisionrelevant products for climate adaptation."}]},{"head":"1: Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"While this refresher workshop was conducted on March 7-12, 2022, it built upon a previous 10day training of trainers (ToT) workshop that piloted the first version of the curriculum that took place from June 7-18, 2021 with agricultural experts and professionals in Addama, Ethiopia. From this initial pilot, detailed feedback and recommendations for improvement of the curriculum content as well as the development new materials such as a Facilitators' Guide (Teachers' Guide) to ensure the quality of instruction, was given (Grossi, 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"After incorporating all of this feedback and developing a new Facilitators' Guide, the same group of people who had been trained in the June 2021 ToT was reconvened to assess the course content on a number of parameters from March 7-12, 2022. Immediately preceding the refresher training on March 7-12, all participants were convened for two days in Bishoftu, Ethiopia to review in detail the CRMAE 1) Handbook and 2) Reference Guide and organize their feedback for each of the four component modules. A summary of the discussion and its outcomes can be found in the next section. Throughout discussion, it was revealed that the need for training on climate risk management permeates multiple levels of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and its extension system beyond just the original targets of the DAs and SMSs. This includes higher level officials at the regional, zonal, and woreda level, as well as those working with agricultural policy."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"As such, it was agreed that the CRMAE content should be adapted to 3 levels: CRMAE 1 will target national regional, zonal, and woreda MoA staff. The materials (Reference Guide, Handbook, and Facilitators' Guide) as presented in the refresher training are most appropriate for this group with minimal to no adaptation needed for most modules."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"CRMAE 2 will target development agents (DAs) who are already in the field, as originally intended. However, the materials (Reference Guide, Handbook, Facilitators' Guide) will need to be simplified even further to be appropriate for this learning profile; the MoA agreed to lead all efforts to simplify this CRMAE content for the CRMAE 2 level (DAs) by the end of April 2022.  The 10-day CRMAE course thus fits well into this effort and comes at an opportune time."}]},{"head":"3: Key Results and Findings","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"General Comments","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Relevance of Curriculum","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Participants noted that the CRMAE is very important for helping Ethiopia to manage climate risk, such that it should be adapted to various levels of the MoA (as just described) beyond just as an in-service training for the DAs and SMSs already in the field, as originally intended (CRMAE 2)."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Participants also noted that the curriculum is very useful due to its competency and skillsbased nature, especially because it builds capacity of agricultural extension staff to access high-quality climate information products already available through the Ethiopian Meteorological Institute (EMI) that are relevant for agricultural decision-making."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"\"For my college, the course is going to help my students to know more about the climate, so that when they graduate and work with farmers, they will actually be able to help them adapt. This has great value for the country.\""},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"-Nejeha Redy Alemar, Alage"}]},{"head":"Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training College","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sustainability of Capacity Building Efforts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Rather than one-off trainings conducted in the context of a specific project, participants noted that integrating CRMAE content within the capacity building architecture and programming of the MoA and MoSL, such as within the ATVET curriculum, was extremely important for sustainability and continuity of capacity building efforts beyond the life of the project. Some participants noted that the ATI had attempted similar capacity building efforts in the past but that they were not sustainable or entirely dependent upon project funding, which meant that when the project ended, capacity building efforts were halted or left incomplete."}]},{"head":"Skills Matching","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Some participants highlighted that the competencies that are built and reinforced through the CRMAE curriculum should be aligned with the responsibilities outlined in the job descriptions and duties of the DAs. However, it was noted that, despite their enormous potential to address the issue of climate, there are currently no official tasks in their job descriptions related to climate risk management. Rather, they act as a conduit for the agricultural advice currently disseminated, without any real understanding or ability to communicate and explain climate information, or answer client farmer questions about it. Hence, the job descriptions of DAs may need to be revisited, and this training material will be important for transitioning them to a more active role in advancing climate resilience."}]},{"head":"Climate Basics (Module 1) Feedback","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Participants appreciated and acknowledged the changes to this module that had been made since June 2021, including a stronger emphasis on Ethiopian and East African climate, the addition of a new section on the basics of interpreting common climate maps and graphs, and the development \"Self-Check\" questions in the Reference Guide to reinforce comprehension."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"However, it was noted that while the sections on global climate and local climate are both strong individually, the links between them are still not clear in the material. In particular, participants felt there should be more substantial material and explanation of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and regional climate determinants, as the group felt these concepts were difficult to understand. The incorporation of more dynamic images (as opposed to static images) or even video links within the lecture slides themselves such as when describing Earth's systems may be helpful towards this end."}]},{"head":"Climate Information Products and Tools Available for Agriculture (Module 2) Feedback","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Participants very much appreciated the skillsbased, practical nature of Module 2 and its emphasis on competencies to enable the access, interpretation, and use of climate information and products available from the EMI for agricultural decision-making. However, given the wide suite of products available and analyses that are possible, they requested additional hands-on exercises to familiarize themselves with EMI's platform and the component ENACTS Maprooms. They also requested the development of additional maproom products or improvements to existing ones."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"During the hands-on exercises of the refresher training, for example, participants practiced using the EMI's Extreme Rainfall Analysis maproom to determine maximum temperature, minimum temperature, seasonal total rainfall amounts, length of season, and various other parameters to determine crop suitability for given areas. A new Crop Climate Suitability Maproom that automatically collates the relevant maps for side-by-side comparison of crop suitability for different woredas along different parameters is now under development for the IRI Data Library and EMI Maprooms."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"On this note, some participants indicated that while the EIAR is routinely developing new crop varieties as part of a package, climate is not considered in the choice of distribution area, and the CRMAE training and especially Module 2 would be useful for identifying appropriate areas for the packages."}]},{"head":"Climate-Sensitive Agricultural Decisions (Module 3) Feedback","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"For this module and the wider curriculum, participants noted that aspects of livestock management, as well as management of perennial crops (like coffee) should be covered more, as they are not included in the curriculum, which is largely crop-focused, but play a large role in the livelihoods and economy of the country."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Additionally, as a general comment for the module, participants requested that for the DA level, the content be greatly simplified, especially content related to enterprise budgets. While DAs do take a business course at part of their core training in the ATVET program, it is not a full economics or statistics course, and some further explanation of these concepts may be needed for them to fully grasp concepts presented in Module 3."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"In addition to this, DAs are not generally familiar with Excel and only have limited computer access through modest computer labs available at the ATVET colleges. As the DAs are currently taught to do an exercise in a course called \"Crop Production Planning\" as part of their ATVET training that combines the crop calendar and enterprise budget exercises on paper, which also entails sitting down with farmers one-onone to create \"action plans\" for the season, it was suggested that the format they are already familiar with in terms of crop calendars and enterprise budgeting be integrated within the CRMAE course for DAs (CRMAE 2 and CRMAE 2). For CRMAE 1, which targets regional, zonal, and woreda level staff with more education and resources, the Excel exercises are more appropriate and could be used as is."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"Moreover, for the topic of weather-based index insurance, participants indicated that it tends to be donor-driven and bank-driven (through cooperative banks), not by the Ministry of Agriculture itself, so the concept was quite new for many people. It required much elaboration and explanation in terms of advantages and disadvantages and comparison with traditional indemnity insurance, even though the topic had already been introduced to participants during the first June 2021 CRMAE training. The participants had many questions about how to define threshold points for an insurance payout, such as the \"trigger\" and \"exit\" points, and if they were defined purely on meteorological conditions (Ex: Above normal, normal, below normal), as well as if the triggers vary by location (Ex: Afar vs. Somali vs. Oromia)."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"Nonetheless, with mobile phone and mobile money companies and platforms such as Safaricomm and MPESA coming soon to Ethiopia, participants agreed that this could be revolutionary in moving index insurance past pilot scale and promoted more widely through the Ministry of Agriculture, and helping to address information asymmetries between farmers and insurance providers. They were also interested and pleased to see that already existing EMI maprooms such as the Extreme Rainfall Analysis maproom (Historical and Daily Analysis) could be used to see climatology and when certain thredholds for payout have been met in the past, in order to determine appropriate payout thresholds and triggers."}]},{"head":"Integrating Climate Services into Agricultural Extension (Module 4) Feedback","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Participants indicated that there are not wellestablished communication channels specifically for climate information. While farmers do get information from TV, radio, or DAs, they tend to be \"second degree\" recipients who are not directly accessing the information themselves but having it filtered through others in the form of advisories. There was some discussion about the role of extension in simply communicating advisories and recommendations to farmers versus giving them a menu of options to choose from such that they can decide for themselves. Others observed that many important decisions, such as with seed or fertilizer distribution tend to happen at a higher level such as that of the woreda (district), and climate information (such as when off-season rains might occur, the onset of the season, etc.) could help them to decide when and where to distribute certain inputs and what type."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"During discussion, it was emphasized that effectively using climate information to inform agricultural planning entails more than just using forecast (future) climate information, but rather incorporates also climatological (past) and monitoring (current) information. This is evidenced in the use of historical and monitoring information to perform vulnerability analysis for humanitarian planning and analysis of climatological information to determine triggers for index insurance, etc. Participants appreciated that the CRMAE content did not narrowly focus on competencies to understand and use just forecast information but also historical and monitoring information as well, as they have many applications for informing on-farm as well as other decisions in the wider agricultural and food systems."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Lastly, in terms of the participatory planning exercise with farmers that participants were able to review and practice for the upcoming season, trainees with experience in the field encouraged the use of real props and instruments to help farmers understand concepts and graphs. For example, they recommended using an actual meter stick to mimic an actual meter of rain when making charts of rainfall amounts, as well as incorporating the use of a real graduated cylinder or rain gauge if possible, to demonstrate rainfall amounts and make them more concrete than just numbers on paper. It was also recommended that a best practices toolbox or kit be developed for working with farmers who are illiterate, such as pairing literate and illiterate farmers (peer-to-peer learning), and that the use of active learning, games, and/or simple props might be employed to help farmers understand more complex concepts such as El Niño or La Niña."},{"index":4,"size":212,"text":"Climate change is a threat to agricultural productivity, especially for smallholder farmers. In terms of next steps, the IRI team will incorporate the final input and recommendations outlined in this report for the CRMAE 1 curriculum targeting national regional, zonal, and woreda MoA staff. However, for the CRMAE 2 curriculum targeting development agents (DAs) and subject matter specialists (SMSs) who are already in the field (the original target of the CRMAE curriculum), the MoA staff which is most familiar with the needs and learner profiles of those working at the field level will be responsible for simplifying the content found within the Reference Guide, Handbook, and Facilitators' Guide, with a tentative timeline of completion set for April 2022. For this CRMAE 2 content, due to resource limitations especially in technological access, Module 2, which requires computer and internet access may be abridged to provide a half-day exposure to DAs at the field level on the maprooms but not in-depth training such as will take place with woreda-level experts and those at higher levels (CRMAE 1). It was suggested that hard-copy printouts of the climatology of the different woredas based on EMI's maprooms could be made available at woreda offices for DAs without the necessary technological equipment to access this free information online."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"A unit of competence and its component learning objectives for the CRMAE 3 curriculum targeting the DAs within Ethiopia's 3-year Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) college program has already been co-developed and defined through another AICCRA workshop and is expected to be validated within the year. This new \"Weather and Climate Information to Manage Crop Production Risks\" unit of competence (AGR CRP2 07 1221) is expected to be given to all DAs in a multidisciplinary common course at part of Ethiopia's newly revised ATVET program."}]},{"head":"4: Conclusions and Recommendations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Analysis of historical climatology and seasonal trends, made possible through the project and its curricular materials, will enhance the ability of our Resilient Landscapes and Livelihoods Project and, most importantly, communities to access and use the kinds of robust information needed to improve farming practices and advance resilient agricultural management systems."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"- "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2 From March 12-17, 2022, a refresher training on the CRMAE content was conducted in Bishoftu, Ethiopia with the same participants of the June 2021 Training of Trainers (ToT) workshop, to provide final input on the curriculum and its associated teaching and learning materials. "},{"text":" ), the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), and the Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) college of Alage and Agarfa were all represented at the workshop. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: CRMAE curriculum modules. The four component modules of the Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension curriculum targeting extension staff build upon and reinforce each other. "},{"text":"For CRMAE 2, the Ministry of Skills and Labor (MoSL), which has purview of the ATVET (previously the MoA), alongside the Agricultural Transformation Institute (ATI, previously ATA) is looking for new short courses to professionalize the agricultural sector and ensure skills matching with any training efforts and the needs of employers such as the MoA. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Degree of content being engaging and interesting (Is content  These parameters included, but were not limited These parameters included, but were not limited to: to:  Salience of curriculum materials (Are  Salience of curriculum materials (Are materials relevant for DA/SMS needs?) materials relevant for DA/SMS needs?)  Visual appeal of curriculum materials  Visual appeal of curriculum materials (Are materials engaging visually?) (Are materials engaging visually?)  Appropriateness of curriculum  Appropriateness of curriculum materials to learner profile (Are materials to learner profile (Are materials at the right \"level\" for a materials at the right \"level\" for a DA/SMS? i.e. too complicated or too DA/SMS? i.e. too complicated or too simplistic) simplistic)  Breadth of curriculum materials (Are all  Breadth of curriculum materials (Are all desired topics covered and included in desired topics covered and included in the materials? Are some desired topics the materials? Are some desired topics missing?) missing?)  Depth of curriculum materials (Are the  Depth of curriculum materials (Are the included topics covered to depth of included topics covered to depth of expectations? i.e. Are some topics expectations? i.e. Are some topics taught too in depth vs. shallow?) taught too in depth vs. shallow?)  presented  presented in a way that captures attention and is in a way that captures attention and is interesting?) interesting?) In what follows, we summarize the proceedings In what follows, we summarize the proceedings of the March 7-12, 2022 workshop, including key of the March 7-12, 2022 workshop, including key recommendations, challenges, and next steps recommendations, challenges, and next steps for the implementation of the Climate Risk for the implementation of the Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) curriculum in Ethiopia. curriculum in Ethiopia. Participants of the March 2022 refresher training listen to Participants of the March 2022 refresher training listen to their peers' feedback on each of the four modules of the their peers' feedback on each of the four modules of the CRMAE short course. CRMAE short course.  "},{"text":" The module includes probability concepts that are foundational for understanding and managing risk, and for interpreting and using climate information to support risk management. It also includes a unit that provides an introduction to the basics or reading and interpreting a map or graph, and exercises to expose participants to the most common climate maps and charts they are likely to encounter in their work.  Written feedback on the course Handbook (a Written feedback on the course Handbook (a Dr. Tufa Dinku explains the marked up version in Microsoft 'Track Changes') was provided to the IRI facilitators prior to the Dr. Tufa Dinku explains themarked up version in Microsoft 'Track Changes') was provided to the IRI facilitators prior to the basics of start of the March 7-12, 2022, workshop, basics ofstart of the March 7-12, 2022, workshop, seasonality to whereas the workshop itself provided more seasonality towhereas the workshop itself provided more trainees during avenue for detailed discussion on this feedback, trainees duringavenue for detailed discussion on this feedback, Module 1 (Climate Basics). as well as sharing of the new Facilitators' Guide and completed Reference Guide. Module 1 (Climate Basics).as well as sharing of the new Facilitators' Guide and completed Reference Guide.  Module 4: Integrating Climate Services into Module 4: Integrating Climate Services into  Agricultural Extension equips participants to Agricultural Extension equips participants to  bring climate services into the services that they bring climate services into the services that they  provide their client farmers. Building on learning provide their client farmers. Building on learning  from the other three modules, Module 4 equips from the other three modules, Module 4 equips  them to lead farmers in a participatory seasonal them to lead farmers in a participatory seasonal  planning workshop, informed by historical and planning workshop, informed by historical and  seasonal forecast information. The course seasonal forecast information. The course  concludes with development and presentation of concludes with development and presentation of  "},{"text":" will target the DAs within Ethiopia's 3year Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) college program. CRMAE 3 has already taken shape through the inclusion of CRMAE content in a new \"Apply Weather and Climate Information to Manage Crop Production Risks\" unit of competence (AGR CRP2 07 1221) to be given to all DAs in a multidisciplinary common course at part of Ethiopia's newly revised ATVET program. This will be an important milestone and accomplishment for sustaining and institutionalizing capacity building on climate risk management beyond the life of the AICCRA project. \"The problem of not using climate \"The problem of not using climate information to inform agriculture information to inform agriculture in Ethiopia is not an issue of not in Ethiopia is not an issue of not having quality climate having quality climate information-The Ethiopian information-The Ethiopian Meteorological Institute has very Meteorological Institute has very good, high-quality information. good, high-quality information. The issue is about the people who The issue is about the people who need this information most not need this information most not being able to understand and use being able to understand and use that climate information. This is a that climate information. This is a problem with the Ministry of problem with the Ministry of Agriculture and its extensionists Agriculture and its extensionists who work most closely with who work most closely with farmers, all the way up to the level farmers, all the way up to the level of policymakers, who do not of policymakers, who do not understand the importance of understand the importance of climate information and services climate information and services very well. This is why the Climate very well. This is why the Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Risk Management in Agricultural Extension training curriculum is so Extension training curriculum is so critical.\" critical.\"  "},{"text":" Knowledge about different climate and weather information at the local level is therefore paramount to inform and convince farmers to implement various climate-smart agricultural technologies. This project has been very valuable in making available the full evidence and learning materials farmers need to inform and change existing management practices, taking into account climate-related risks using the bestavailable climate information.-Girma Kibret, Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Specialist, Sustainable Land Management Program(SLMP/RLLP), Sustainable Land Management Program(SLMP/RLLP), Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA)  "},{"text":" Girma Kibret, Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Specialist, Sustainable Land Management Program(SLMP/RLLP), Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) The major gap in using The major gap in using climate information and climate information and developing climate developing climate products in Ethiopia is a products in Ethiopia is a lack of foundational lack of foundational capacity. The project has capacity. The project has strengthened both strengthened both institutional and human institutional and human capacity expertly to meet capacity expertly to meet this need. this need. -Esayas Lemma, Director of -Esayas Lemma, Director of Crop Development Directorate, Crop Development Directorate, Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture  "}],"sieverID":"74a7eefd-531d-42a4-9dcd-857803adfc95","abstract":"A six-day refresher training of trainers (ToT) workshop was implemented from March 7-12, 2022,  in Bishoftu, Ethiopia by the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) of the Columbia Climate School. The workshop, which was organized as part of the World Bank's Accelerating the Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project and in close collaboration with the Adapting Agriculture to Climate Today, for Tomorrow (ACToday) Columbia World Project, brought together various professionals from the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) colleges, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), and the Ethiopian Meteorological Institute (NMI) to provide final input and feedback for the Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) curriculum and its associated teaching and learning materials."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0939766e041510661ce3e00b0f8d29ed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7dc25244-fbf0-4d0e-aa22-cdfafbe545e7/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Secamiento de Trozos de Yuca en Bandejas Inclinadas","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Materiales","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Se fortalece el anjeo plástico añadiéndole una malla de gallinero en alambre con agujeros de una pulgada de diámetro (Figura 23-1A). Las dimensiones que muestran la figura permiten que la bandeja sea manejada por dos operarios; sin embargo, el tamaño de la bandeja puede variar según el material de yuca disponible en la región."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Nótese que la sustitución de un anjeo plástico de 35 perforaciones por cm 2 , por otro con aberturas más grandes, daría como resultado mayores pérdidas de yuca. Las pérdidas debidas a un anjeo adecuado equivalen a menos del 3% de la yuca seca."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Los trozos frescos de yuca se esparcen sobre las bandejas. Estas se colocan luego sobre travesaños de bambú o de guadua soportados por dos hileras de postes (la anterior más baja). Las bandejas quedan así inclinadas formando un ángulo de 20° a 25° que permite aprovechar al máximo la dirección y la fuerza del viento (Figura 23-1B). "}]},{"head":"Manejo","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Obtenidos los trozos de raíces, las bandejas se llenan en el mismo sitio en que aquellos se pican (Figura 23-2); luego se lleva hasta los soportes."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Otra opción es colocar primero las bandejas vacías sobre los soportes (Figura 23-3) y llenarlas luego con los trozos frescos. Con una carreta se llevan los trozos hasta el lugar donde se encuentran las bandejas dispuestas. Una vez se coloca la cantidad convenida de trozos sobre cada bandeja, se procede a esparcir los trozos sobre la superficie (Figura 23-4)."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"El peso de los trozos de yuca no tiene que ser exactamente igual en cada bandeja. Se logra un peso promedio en todas llenando primero un recipiente con la cantidad adecuada por bandeja y esparciéndola en ella; cuando se emplean palas para cargar directamente las bandejas (Figura 23-2), la cantidad de yuca varía en muchas. Si las bandejas tienen dimensiones diferentes, su carga de trozos se obtiene multiplicando el área de la bandeja por la cifra apropiada de la columna 3 del Cuadro 23-1 (carga de las bandejas en kg/m 2 )."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"Las bandejas se pueden dejar sobre los soportes durante la noche para aprovechar la acción del viento; si se pronostican lluvias, se deben apilar horizontalmente (una encima de la otra) bajo techo o afuera, pero cubiertas con una lona o un plástico, hasta el día siguiente. La bandeja inferior de la pila se debe colocar sobre dos postes de bambú o de guadua para mantener todas las bandejas por encima del nivel del terreno. A la mañana siguiente se deben colocar de nuevo las bandejas sobre sus soportes. Una vez que los trozos hayan alcanzado el nivel de humedad apropiado, se deben recoger y empacar."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"La cantidad de trozos que se coloca en las bandejas depende, en buena parte, de la Figura 23-2. Un operario llena las bandejas junto al área de la picadora."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Figura 23-3. Las bandejas vacías se colocan sobre sus soportes."},{"index":7,"size":104,"text":"Figura 23-4. Los trozos de yuca se esparcen sobre las bandejas ya colocadas. Como se ilustra en la Figura 23-5, el secado en bandejas es más rápido que el secado en pisos, dada una misma carga de trozos. Una de las razones de esta diferencia es que durante la noche continúa la pérdida de humedad de los trozos en las bandejas, porque la circulación del aire no se detiene. En contraste, cuando el secado se realiza sobre pisos de concreto, los trozos pierden sólo una cantidad pequeña de humedad durante la noche, ya que la velocidad del viento a nivel del piso es baja."}]},{"head":"Tiempo de Secado","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Etapa inicial","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"En esta etapa, los trozos frescos pierden humedad rápidamente y la circulación del aire (viento) es más importante que la temperatura y la humedad del aire. Si la velocidad del viento es suficiente, esta etapa se puede completar aun cuando el cielo esté nublado; además, el secado se puede llevar a cabo por la noche. Por lo tanto, durante las épocas de poca precipitación pluvial, la yuca puede perder una cantidad apreciable de humedad si se dejan las bandejas sobre los soportes durante la noche. Para aprovechar mejor este período, la yuca se podría trozar en las horas de la tarde."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"El Cuadro 23-2 ilustra el efecto de los factores principales del tiempo de secado, especialmente la velocidad del viento. En contraste, los trozos frescos de yuca que se dejan esparcidos sobre patios de cemento durante la noche pierden sólo una pequeña parte de su humedad por las razones dichas: baja velocidad del viento a nivel del suelo y volteo poco frecuente. Horas del día Tiempo total (horas) 14% Figura 23-5. Comparación de dos curvas de secado de trozos de raíces de yuca: uno sobre pisos de concreto y otro en bandejas inclinadas (ver texto). HMS = nivel máximo de humedad aceptado en el proceso de secamiento."}]},{"head":"Etapa final","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"HMS Día Noche","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Cuadro 23-2. Tiempo diurno de secamiento para trozos de yuca cortados a diferentes horas del día."}]},{"head":"Localidad","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Condiciones En la etapa final de secamiento, cuando el contenido de humedad está alrededor del 30%, la pérdida de humedad es muy lenta (Figura 23-6) y se requiere la temperatura alta del medio día para completar el proceso. Durante esta etapa, la humedad del aire debe ser inferior a 65% para que el contenido de humedad final de los trozos sea el adecuado para el almacenamiento. Algunas veces, particularmente en la época lluviosa, la humedad relativa es alta y el secado debe prolongarse hasta que el tiempo mejore."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Se hicieron varios ensayos en diferentes localidades de Colombia con el fin de determinar el tiempo de secamiento bajo diferentes condiciones climáticas (Cuadro 23-3). Las siguientes conclusiones resumen el trabajo:"},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"• El secamiento casi siempre toma más de 10 horas (1 día), pero menos de 20 horas (2 días). Unicamente bajo condiciones ambientales excepcionales los trozos de yuca se secarán en menos de un día. En los lugares donde la velocidad del viento y la radiación solar son bajas, el secamiento puede prolongarse casi 3 días."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• Se requiere, aproximadamente, el mismo número de horas para secar, por m 2 , casi el doble del peso de trozos en las bandejas que en el piso de concreto."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• En áreas muy húmedas, el secado rápido de la yuca exige una velocidad del viento alta (localidades 1, 2 y 5)."}]},{"head":"Tamaño de los Trozos","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"El tamaño de los trozos de raíces influye en el discos contra la parte frontal, hay variación en la velocidad de alimentación, y hay diversidad en el tamaño de las raíces frescas."}]},{"head":"Tiempos","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Las Figuras 23-7 y 23-8 muestran los tiempos netos de secado para los tres tipos de trozos en los sistemas de piso de concreto (10, 12 y 14 kg/m 2 ) y de bandeja inclinada (10,12,14,16, 18 y 20 kg/m 2 ). El proceso se llevó a cabo entre la 8:00 y las 18:00 horas de cada día. El tiempo neto no incluye las 14 horas de la noche."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Las condiciones ambientales promedio del CIAT, lugar donde se efectuaron las pruebas, fueron las siguientes:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"-Temperatura ambiental: 23.5 °C -Humedad relativa: 75%"},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"-Radiación solar: 0.73 cal/cm 2 . min -Velocidad del viento: 1.12 m/s -Precipitación: 80 mm/mes Para una misma densidad o carga, la diferencia entre los dos sistemas es apreciable. En los patios de cemento, prácticamente los trozos no se diferencian en el tiempo de secado. Sólo el trozo Malasia tiende a mostrar un mejor desempeño en las cargas de 10 y 12 kg/m 2 . En el secado sobre bandejas inclinadas no hay diferencia entre las tiras finas del trozo Malasia y las barras rectangulares de los trozos Brasil o Colombia. Los tiempos netos de secado para las tajadas gruesas del trozo Tailandia superan en 2 ó 3 horas los tiempos de los otros trozos."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Las Figuras 23-9 y 23-10 muestran los resultados en términos de yuca seca por día y por cada m 2 de la superficie de secado. Este parámetro permite seleccionar la mejor carga para un sitio o región específica."}]},{"head":"Costos","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"El secamiento sobre bandejas inclinadas es una buena opción para secar trozos frescos de yuca en lugares donde no es posible construir pisos de cemento por la pendiente del terreno y cuando no haya recursos suficientes para realizar esa inversión en el proyecto."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"En el Cuadro 23-6 se comparan el costo de los materiales requeridos para construir tanto el piso de concreto como las bandejas."}]},{"head":"De infraestructura","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"El costo por m 2 de superficie de secamiento es mayor tratándose de bandejas que de pisos de concreto. No obstante, si se tiene en cuenta la mayor tasa de carga que recibe el sistema de bandejas, habría un ahorro en la inversión total. El costo de mantenimiento de las bandejas y su duración dependen del cuidado con que se las manipule; el piso de concreto, en cambio, requiere poco mantenimiento y su duración es  prolongada."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Las bandejas inclinadas simplifican notablemente el manejo de los trozos de yuca porque no se requiere voltear los trozos. Además, la mano de obra requerida para el proceso completo con bandejas es un 25% menor, aproximadamente, que la requerida en un piso de concreto, según el ejercicio del Cuadro 23-7."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"En el Cuadro 23-8 se presenta el flujo de actividades de tres operarios que realizan el secado de 3 t de yuca sobre 190 m 2 de bandejas inclinadas (carga = 16 kg/m 2 ). El total de horaspersona gastadas fue de 19.5. Si se toma 2.5 como factor de conversión, las horas-persona necesarias para producir 1 t de yuca seca serán 16.2 (2 jornales, aproximadamente)."}]},{"head":"De inversión","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"En el Cuadro 23-9 se detallan las inversiones que se harían para montar una planta con 300 m 2 de bandejas inclinadas y con capacidad para secar 5 t de yuca fresca cada 2 días. Equivale a una planta que tenga 500 m 2 de piso de cemento."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"En el Cuadro 23-10 se presentan los costos de procesamiento registrados en una planta de secado en la Costa Atlántica. Los datos fueron suministrados por la Federación de Productores, Procesadores y Comercializadores de Yuca (FEDEYUCA), en agosto de 2000. Los costos incluyen el flete de Sincelejo a Medellín."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Para el caso típico de una planta de la Costa Atlántica, el costo de procesamiento supera los $40,000 pesos por tonelada de trozos secos y la   Cuadro 23-8. Cronograma de actividades para secar en bandejas inclinadas 3 t de yuca fresca a ."}]},{"head":"Actividad","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Primer día","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Operarios (no.) en hora del día: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura Figura 23-1. (A) Bandeja con sus dimensiones. (B) Colocación de la bandeja sobre sus soportes de guadua o bambú.FUENTE:Best, 1979.  "},{"text":" Figura 23-7. Tiempos netos de secado para los trozos Brasil y Malasia secados en piso y en bandeja inclinada. "},{"text":" Figura 23-9. Producción de yuca seca en trozos Tailandia y Brasil, secados en piso y en bandeja inclinada. "},{"text":" Figura 23-10. Producción de yuca seca en trozos Brasil y Malasia, secados en patio y en bandejas. "},{"text":" . Area de secado = 190 m 2 . Total horas-persona: 19.5; horas-persona/t de yuca: 16.2. Factor de conversión: 2.5. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 678910111213141516171819 Pesar y trozar 2             Pesar y trozar2 Esparcir, trozos  1            Esparcir, trozos1 Voltear              Voltear Recoger y cubrir            2  Recoger y cubrir2       Segundo día       Segundo día      Operarios (no.) en hora del día:      Operarios (no.) en hora del día: 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 678910111213141516171819 Destapar, bandejas 2             Destapar, bandejas2 Recoger           3   Recoger3 Almacenar            3  Almacenar3  "}],"sieverID":"2bd593b3-2402-4c1f-8654-c2d8498a030b","abstract":"Este método de secado aprovecha al máximo la capacidad de secamiento del viento haciéndolo circular a través de los trozos de yuca colocados sobre las bandejas. Las bandejas tienen como estructura un marco de madera y como base una malla de anjeo plástico que evita la pérdida del material durante el proceso."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"094ca6e232dbc00390ed6a0efeb6392f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/364390b5-58c5-44f8-8479-7882a6af25eb/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Chemical, functional and pasting properties of starches and flours from new yam compared to local varieties","keywords":["Yam flour","yam starch","physicochemical properties","functional properties","pasting properties"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Yam is an essential staple crop in Ghana, sub-Saharan Africa and some tropical regions of the world. It contains about 70-80% moisture, 16-24% starch and, trace quantities of proteins and lipids (Liu et al., 2006) as well as vitamin, minerals, and, dietary fibre (Baah et al., 2009). Like other root and tuber crops, yams are subjected to physiological deterioration after harvest (Kiaya, 2014) due to the high moisture content which makes them more susceptible to microbial proliferation. According to Otoo (2017), breeding activities ensure that new yam varieties developed are able to solve future problems associated with yam production and consumption like improvement on food quality, pest and insect as well as drought-resistant varieties. Whilst breeders do this, the processors desire to further enhance shelf life and marketability by transforming yam into flours and starches. Earlier works by Otegbayo et al. (2014) have established that apart from using yams as staple food source, there is high utilization of yam starches and flours in the Sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":2,"size":185,"text":"The applicability of starches and flour in the production of various food products is based on their physicochemical and functional properties (Afoakwa et al., 2013). Some yam varieties are widely known and, exploited for their functionalities because their physicochemical and functional properties are well known and reported (Addy et al., 2014;Donaldben et al., 2020). As new yam varieties are introduced, there is need to expand their utilization through industrial processing to reduce postharvest losses. Their starches and flours are great sources for enhanced utilization. For instance, starches are employed as thickeners, stabilizers, and, in controlling consistency (Peroni et al., 2006). These functionalities are achieved by affecting pasting, gelatinization and retrogradation properties (Blazek & Gilbert, 2011) which are a result of their chemical and functional characteristics. Variations do occur among different species and, even varieties of same species in terms of their biochemical compositions (Otegbayo et al., 2014) which can be attributed to cultural and climatic factors, maturity stage at harvest and method and duration of storage. Generally, the functional properties of starches are affected by the molecular, granular and crystalline differences (Li et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Starch and flour contribute to the textural properties of foods and thus the value added products from them will require comprehensive knowledge of chemical, functional and pasting properties. Also cereals are reported to be the major raw materials for starch production worldwide (Bergthaller & Hollmann, 2007). However, starch and flours from the new yam varieties could serve as alternative sources when found to possess quality attributes specific to its application in the food and pharmaceutical industries. This will generally enhance adoption and utilization of the new varieties. Most importantly, postharvest losses of yams will be reduced as yams rapidly deteriorate during storage."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"The functional, physicochemical and pasting properties of different local yam varieties grown in Ghana have been reported (Tortoe et al., 2019). Some new yam varieties have been developed and released but their starch and flours have not been characterized. Investigating the properties of starch and flour from the newly developed varieties would be a basis for consideration in their usage in the food industry. Therefore, the present study evaluates the chemical, functional and pasting characteristics of newly developed yam varieties from the Crops Research Institute (CRI), Fumesua in Ghana."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sample acquisition","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Local yam samples were obtained from a known farmer in Mampong in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Seven (7) newly developed yam varieties, D. rotundata poir (3) and D. alata (4) were obtained from the CSIR-Crops Research Institute (CRI), Fumesua-Kumasi, Ghana."}]},{"head":"Flour preparation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Yam samples were peeled, washed and grated into aluminium trays for drying in a solar dryer for two days. The dried chips were milled (Brook Crompton, Huddersfield, England) and passed through a mesh of 200 µm. The milled samples were stored in zip-lock polyethylene bags at room temperature until analysis."}]},{"head":"Starch extraction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The yams were cleaned, peeled, washed and cut into pieces. They were ground into a slurry in the blender (Philips Compact Blender (HR 2027/5, UK)) using the highest speed."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The slurry was poured unto a nylon mesh and continuously washed with distilled water until the water was clear. The collected water was allowed to settle and decanted to separate the starch. This was further washed with additional water to remove impurities. It was solar dried for 24 h, milled and stored in a ziploc bag for analysis."}]},{"head":"Amylose content determination","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"Amylose content was determined according to the protocol used by Gandebe et al. (2007) with slight modificaions. A standard curve was developed by mixing 40 mg of 66% potato amylose (standard) with 1 mL of 95% ethanol and 9 mL of 1 N NaOH. The mixture was heated in a boiling water bath for 10 min. The solution was allowed to cool to room temperature before transferring into a 100 mL volumetric flask covered with aluminium foil and topped up to the mark with distilled water. Aliquots of the mixture (2.5, 2.0, 1.5, 1.0 and 0.5 mL) were pipetted into 50 mL centrifuge tubes respectively and 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, and 0.1 mL of 1N acetic acid were respectively added to the aliquots. After that, 1 mL of 0.2% iodine solution was added into each tube and vortexed. Absorbance (A) was read using a spectrophotometer (UV/VIS Excellence UV5 Mettler Toledo GmbH, Switzerland) at 620 nm after the mixtures were kept in the dark for 20 min. A blank solution was prepared by mixing 5 ml of 1N NaOH with 0.1 ml of 1 N acetic acid and 1 ml of iodine solution. Standard curve was then drawn. The same procedure was carried out for starch suspensions (100 mg in 100 ml). The reaction proceeded by adding 2.5 ml of the starch suspension with 0.5 ml of 1 N acetic and, 1 ml of 0.2% iodine and absorbance measured at 620 nm. Concentration of amylose in the samples were calculated using the equation of the standard curve. Amylopectin content was calculated by subtracting the percent amylose from 100."}]},{"head":"Moisture content determination","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Moisture content was determined according to AOAC method (AOAC, 2005). About 3 g of sample was weighed into an empty dish of known weight. The dish with its content was placed in a forced air-oven at 105ºC for 5 h. After drying, the dish and its content was transferred to a desiccator and allowed to cool, after which it was reweighed. The moisture content was then calculated as shown below."}]},{"head":"Moisture ð%Þ","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Where, W 1 = weight (g) of sample before drying W 2 = weight (g) of sample after drying"}]},{"head":"Water absorption determination","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Water absorption capacity was determined by mixing 3.0 g of the sample with 20 ml of water in a previously weighed centrifuge tube. The mixture was shaken for 2 min on a vortex mixer and allowed to stand for 30 min at 25ºC. It was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30 min and, the supernatant decanted. The gain in weight of the sediment was calculated and expressed as percentage (Bahir et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"WAC % ð Þ ¼ wet pellet weight dry sample weight � 100"}]},{"head":"Swelling power and solubility index determination","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Swelling power was determined by using the method by Senanayake et al. (2013). Sample (1 g) was weighed into a previously weighed 40 ml capacity centrifuge tube and 40 ml of water added. To avoid rapturing the granules due to excess force, the suspension was stirred uniformly and gently and vortexed at low speed for 1 min. The suspension was then heated in a thermostatically controlled water bath at 85°C with constant stirring. The tubes were then removed and cooled to room temperature, and, centrifuged at 2200 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was poured into a weighed crucible and evaporated to dryness in an oven at 105°C. The dried supernatant was weighed after cooling, and, weight of dried sample after cooling and was used to calculate the solubility index. For swelling power, the sediment paste obtained after centrifugation was used for the calculation as shown below;"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Solubility index ¼ wt of dried supernatant wt of sample taken � 100"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Swelling power ¼ wt of sedimented flour paste wt of dry sample taken � 100"}]},{"head":"Tapped bulk density","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The tapped bulk density was determined by the method of Okezie and Bello (1988). An amount of 10 g of sample was weighed directly into 50 ml capacity graduated cylinder. The measuring cylinder together with the sample was tapped until no change in volume was observed and, the bulk density calculated using the equation below."}]},{"head":"Bulk density ðgm=LÞ ¼ wt of sample volume of sample after tappingðmLÞ","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pasting profile determination","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The pasting properties were determined using the Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA 4500, Perten Instrument, Australia) as described by Alamri et al. (2012) with modification in the holding time."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"About 3 g of yam starch or flour (14% moisture basis) was mixed in 25 g of water in a sample canister. Suspensions contained a total weight of 28.0 g. The sample was mixed thoroughly and fitted into the RVA with a programmed heating and cooling cycle. Samples were heated to and held at 50ºC for 1 min, heated to 95ºC at 6ºC/min and held for 1 min. This was followed by cooling to 50ºC with another 1 min holding time. Corresponding values for peak viscosity, trough viscosity (minimum viscosity at 95ºC), final viscosity (viscosity at 50ºC), breakdown viscosity and setback viscosity were read on a computer connected to the RVA."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Data were analyzed using single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). The properties of both starch and, flours from the yam varieties were further analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA) to determine correlations using SPSS, (version 16). Standard deviations were calculated and the Pearson's chisquare test was employed to evaluate the statistical significance at p <.05."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Chemical characteristics of D. alata and D. rotundata yam varieties","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The composition of D. alata and D. rotundata varieties is reported in Table 1. The moisture content of the raw yam varieties varied. All the D. rotundata varieties ranged from 45.27% to 60.32% whilst D. alata ranged from 63.82% to 72.45%. The moisture contents determined in the study are in the range reported by Polycarp et al. (2012). For D. rotundata varieties, Alinnor and Akalezi (2010) reported 54.5% while 74.3% was achieved through the work of Wireko-Manu et al. (2013) for D. alata varieties. The slightly lower moisture of the D. rotundata varieties in the study show a potential lower rate of deterioration as higher moisture lead to fast deterioration of the yam."},{"index":2,"size":246,"text":"The starch contents of local D. alata varieties were lower (14-16%) than D. rotundata (18.8-20.5%). Among CRI D. alata varieties, ahodenfo, afase pa and afase biri had low values of 14.6%, 12% and 14.8% respectively. Soanyinto (D. alata) however had 17.0% corresponding to starch content of CRI pona (D. rotundata). Kukrupa and mankrong pona had highest starch contents of 20.5% and 19.5%, respectively. Work done by  For amylose, CRI D. alata varieties, afase biri, soanyinto and ahodenfo with 20.79%, 20.94% and 19.57% respectively had no significant differences at p < 0.05 among them. These values were higher than the local D. alata varieties. CRI D. rotundata, pona and mankrong pona had same amylose content of approximately 17% (Table 1). Amylose content of many yam species have been quantified to range from 1.4% to 50% (Pérez et al., 2011) while varieties specific to Ghana have 9.22-21.66% (Afoakwa et al., 2013). The results from the study are in the range of the reported values since the maximum value was 20.94%. CRI D. alata varieties (ahodenfo, soanyinto and afase biri) had slightly higher amylose than local varieties. Although Otegbayo et al. (2012) reported significantly higher amylose content for D. alata varieties compared to D. rotundata, the findings of this study is different as some D. rotundata varieties had higher values than D. alata varieties (Table 1). These variations in amylose content could be linked to the botanical source, climatic conditions and soil type during growth (Okunlola & Odeku, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"The amylopectin content for CRI D. alata ranged from 79.06% to 86.3% while counterpart local varieties had 81.93% and 82.02% for matches and akaba respectfully. Only CRI afase pa differed significantly from the local varieties. The CRI D. rotundata ranged from 83.03% to 85.57% and the local varieties had 82.10% and 83.86% for pona and serwaa, respectively. CRI kukrupa had highest amylopectin and significantly differed from counterpart local varieties. The high amylopectin content of kukrupa could be due to its biochemical nature. Varieties with high amylopectin contents like CRI afase pa (86.30%) and, CRI kukrupa (85.57%) could be useful in the manufacture of extrudates since it will result in extrudates with higher expansion (Okunlola & Odeku, 2011)."}]},{"head":"Functional properties of starch and flour","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"The functional properties of starch and flour from the yam varieties are reported in Table 2. The water absorption capacity (WAC) ranged from 296.0% to 396.58% for the flours and 230.0-369.0% for the starches. According to Kannadhason and Muthukumarappan (2010) water absorption capacity (WAC) is important to consider in bulking and consistency of products, especially in baking applications. The starches with relatively high amylose content (CRI afase ahodenfo, afase soanyinto and afase biri) had relatively high WAC. These starches may produce stiffness in food products as reported by Biduski et al. (2018) who found that samples with high amylose content had greater stiffness in hydrogels. CRI afase pa and kukrupa with high amylopectin (86%, 85% respectively) had high WAC of 329% and 368%, respectively. The differences observed in these two varieties could be due to the type of amylopectin structure present in both varieties (Vamadevan & Bertoft, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"The bulk densities of D. rotundata flours (0.81-0.86 g/ cm 3 ) were slightly higher than D. alata (0.75-0.81 g/cm 3 ) flours. Generally, the starches had higher bulk densities (0.89-1.13 g/cm 3 ) than the flours. According to Chandra et al. (2015) bulk density depends on particle size. Hence, the high bulk densities of the starches suggest that they are denser than the flours (Du et al., 2014). This indicates their suitability and stability for use in various food products. Work done by Kumar and Saini (2016) indicates that when flours with low density are used in formulations they will not show any significant decrease (p > .05) during storage. Complementary foods would also benefit from the use of low bulk density flours (Akpata & Akubor, 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":306,"text":"The swelling power (SP) for all the flour samples was significantly different (p < .05), except CRI D. alata varieties, afase soanyinto and afase biri which recorded no differences. The highest value for the starches was 981% for CRI D. alata, afase soanyinto and least value of 877% for D. alata, akaba. The swelling ability of starches or flours is important in many food applications as it measures its ability to imbibe water (Aidoo et al., 2022). The high SP of all the CRI flour samples show that they can be employed in foods requiring high swelling. The observed high SP in some D. alata starches contrasts the findings by Niba et al. (2002) who established that D. rotundata yam starch has high swelling power than D. alata. This could be due to the amylose contents of the starches under study. The solubility index of flours were generally higher than the starches. Among the flours, the highest value obtained was 10.55% for afase biri (D. alata) and least was 7.29% for afase pa (D. alata). Values for D. rotundata ranged from 8.27% to 8.98%. For the flour, lower values (0.02-1.08%) were recorded for all the D. rotundata varieties compared to the D. alata with high values (0.96-2.59%). High swelling power usually gives a correspondingly low solubility index as previously reported (Aidoo et al., 2022). High solubility index has been attributed to easy solubility of amylose which is loosely linked with the rest of the molecular structure and leaches out during the swelling process. However, flours contain more water absorbing molecules (including proteins and other carbohydrates) than the starch. The amylose and amylopectin ratio of the flour/starches also influence its swelling and solubility whereby the stronger intermolecular interaction and higher hydrophocity accounts greatly for greater swelling power and lower solubility (Aidoo et al., 2022;Oko et al., 2013)."}]},{"head":"Principal component analysis (PCA) of chemical and functional properties","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The correlation analyses from the PCA showed associations existing between bulk density and amylopectin; moisture and swelling power; solubility index with amylopectin; swelling power and total starch content; but were nonsignificant (p > .05). The only significant correlation was the total starch content against bulk density (p = .013). Bulk density, a good index of structural changes (Sreerama et al., 2009) indicates the weight of a volume unit of powder expressed in g/cm 3 or g/100 g. CRI afase soanyinto had highest bulk density of 1.13 g/cm 3 making it desirable for reducing packaging and shipping costs (Haohan et al., 2020). CRI afase biri and kukrupa (D. alata and D. rotundata) respectively with lower bulk density of 0.88 and 0.87 g/cm 3 however can influence flowability and instant characteristics of products made from them according to Haohan et al. (2020). A significant negative correlation (r = 1.00) was also found between amylose and amylopectin (p < .05). This is because, amylopectin aids swelling while amylose acts as a diluent (Kumar & Khatkar, 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"The location of the varieties in the multivariate space of two principal component score vectors is shown in Figure 1. Three groups were identified by PCA to characterize the yam varieties. First, group 1 consists of D. alata varieties; two local and one CRI variety. These varieties are associated with high moisture content. From the graph, members of group 2 are all CRI D. alata varieties and are characterized by similar amylose contents. However, afase soanyinto may vary in characteristics compared to ahodenfo and afase biri due to the distance from these two varieties. This may be explained by the high starch content (17%) of afase soanyinto compared to 14.6% and 14.8% for ahodenfo and afase biri, respectively. High moisture varieties may be suitable for pudding while varieties with comparatively high amylose (CRI D. alata ahodenfo, soanyinto and afase biri) could be used for gluten-free food recipes for celiac disease patients. This is because high levels of amylose starches are characterized by slower rate of digestion Giuberti et al. (2016). Group 3 has both local and CRI D. rotundata varieties and are characterized by high starch content, bulk density and WAC."}]},{"head":"Starch and flour pasting properties","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The peak viscosity indicates the highest viscosity which can be reached in the preparation of starch paste. For starches (Table 3), the peak viscosities of D. alata varieties were 2527-4415 cP whereas D. rotundata were from 3345-4393cP. Values for the flour also show a similar trend (Table 4). Generally, the starches had high values of peak than flours. The low starch contents in the flour compared to the pure starches, and the presence of proteins and lipids may have restricted starch granule swelling as suggested by Moorthy et al. (2018). The peak viscosity is often correlated with the final product quality and provides an indication of the viscous load likely to be encountered during mixing (Maziya-Dixon et al., 2007). Overall, the starch of afase ahodenfo and kukrupa possesses high tendency of forming thicker pastes on cooking."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"The trough is the ability of granules to remain undisrupted when starch is subjected to a period of constant high temperature and mechanical shear stress. Among all the starch samples, CRI afase biri possesses the ability to withstand high temperature and, long duration processing. For the flours, Mankrong pona and afase soanyinto will be valuable in terms of long duration processing. Breakdown for local varieties (Table 3) were generally low (228-498 cP) except serwaa (D. rotundata) which had a high value of 1628 cP. The breakdown establishes the difference between peak and trough viscosity and shows how stable the starch paste is during heating (Otegbayo et al., 2014). Starches of CRI Kukrupa, ahodenfo, and soanyinto with high values (1783, 1411, 1628 cP) respectively may be associated with low stability (Sandhu & Singh, 2007). The local D. alata varieties however had very low values (228, 404 cP), making them more stable than the new varieties."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"CRI D. rotundata flours had higher setback values (187-263 cP) than D. alata varieties (171-186 cP). However, no specific trend is detected for the starches. For starch, CRI afase biri had extremely high setback value of 1063cP. All other varieties ranged from 300 to 901 cP. This variety would be less stable during processing as lower setback values depict stability (Sandhu & Singh, 2007). Thus, the starches of CRI afase pa and, CRI pona with same low setback value of 361 cP would be most stable for processing."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Peak temperature is essential in the selection of starches for industrial processing. The pasting temperatures of all the starches (78-84.1ºC) and flours (83.1-90.45ºC) show that they all form paste below boiling temperature which will be beneficial for commercial applications due to energy savings. However, flour of CRI afase pa with the highest pasting temperature (90.45ºC) may not be recommended for industrial processing. These values are within the range obtained by Wahab et al. (2016)."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"Generally, the peak time for all the starches (4.6-5.73 min) were lower than the flours (5-7 min) except D. alata local variety, akaba which had a high peak time of 9.13 min. Starches with shorter pasting time such as CRI afase pa, soanyinto and kukrupa may be suitable for the production of foods that require shorter processing time, such as puddings. For such products, starch could be pre-gelatinized to achieve thickening or water retention which would require little or no heat (MTPS, 2012).With a peak time of averagely 7 min for all the flours, the results align with the work done by (Olumurewa et al., 2019). The variations in the pasting properties for the same species could be due to the amylose/amylopectin ration and presence of substances such as lipids and proteins."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The study has demonstrated diversity in the chemical, functional and pasting characteristics of the different varieties of yams released by the CRI, Ghana. The categorization of the varieties into moisture, amylose content and those with high total starch content by the PCA summarizes their usefulness for industrial purposes. It is evident form the work that the new CRI varieties could be utilized for various industrial applications and have comparatively better commercial potential than counterpart local varieties on the basis of their chemical, functional and pasting properties. Their use in food and pharmaceutical industries is therefore recommended."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 .Figura 1 . Figure 1. Biplot of the principal component analysis (PCA) of chemical and functional properties of local (L) and CRI yam varieties.Figura 1. Biplot del análisis de componentes principales (PCA) de las propiedades químicas y funcionales de las variedades de ñame locales (L) y del CRI. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Selected chemical characteristics of D. alata and D. rotundata yam varieties. Características químicas seleccionadas de las variedades de ñame D. alata y D. rotundata. Tabla 1. Sample Species Moisture of raw sample (%) Starch content (%) Amylose (%) Amylopectin (%) Tabla 1. SampleSpeciesMoisture of raw sample (%)Starch content (%)Amylose (%)Amylopectin (%) Akaba (L) Matches (L) CRI Afase ahodenfo CRI Afase pa CRI Afase soanyinto CRI Afase biri CRI Pona CRI Kukrupa CRI Mankrong pona Pona (L) Serwaa (L) D. alata D. alata D. alata D. alata D. alata D. alata D. rotundata D. rotundata D. rotundata D. rotundata D. rotundata 66.00 ± 0.0 f 70.82 ± 0.02 h 72.45 ± 0.13 i 68.02 ± 0.41 g 63.82 ± 0.09 e 64.66 ± 0.30 e 45.27 ± 0.06 a 50.82 ± 0.01 b 55.10 ± 0.03 c 56.41 ± 0.50 c 60.32 ± 0.08 d 16.00 ± 0.02 c 14.00 ± 0.05 b 14.60 ± 0.1 b 12.00 ± 0.03 a 17.00 ± 0.05 d 14.80 ± 0.02 b 17.00 ± 0.00 d 20.50 ± 0.07 f,g 19.50 ± 0.10 f 20.00 ± 0.09 f 18.80 ± 0.03 e 17.98 ± 0.01 c 18.07 ± 0.00 c 20.79 ± 0.01 d 13.70 ± 0.02 a 19.57 ± 0.01 d 20.94 ± 0.01 d 16.96 ± 0.00 b 14.43 ± 0.03 a 16.97 ± 0.01 b 17.90 ± 0.00 c 16.14 ± 0.01 b 82.02 ± 0.01 a 81.93 ± 0.00 a 79.21 ± 0.01 a 86.30 ± 0.02 c 80.43 ± 0.01 a 79.06 ± 0.01 a 83.04 ± 0.00 a,b 85.57 ± 0.03 c 83.03 ± 0.01 a,b 82.10 ± 0.00 a 83.86 ± 0.01 a,b Akaba (L) Matches (L) CRI Afase ahodenfo CRI Afase pa CRI Afase soanyinto CRI Afase biri CRI Pona CRI Kukrupa CRI Mankrong pona Pona (L) Serwaa (L)D. alata D. alata D. alata D. alata D. alata D. alata D. rotundata D. rotundata D. rotundata D. rotundata D. rotundata66.00 ± 0.0 f 70.82 ± 0.02 h 72.45 ± 0.13 i 68.02 ± 0.41 g 63.82 ± 0.09 e 64.66 ± 0.30 e 45.27 ± 0.06 a 50.82 ± 0.01 b 55.10 ± 0.03 c 56.41 ± 0.50 c 60.32 ± 0.08 d16.00 ± 0.02 c 14.00 ± 0.05 b 14.60 ± 0.1 b 12.00 ± 0.03 a 17.00 ± 0.05 d 14.80 ± 0.02 b 17.00 ± 0.00 d 20.50 ± 0.07 f,g 19.50 ± 0.10 f 20.00 ± 0.09 f 18.80 ± 0.03 e17.98 ± 0.01 c 18.07 ± 0.00 c 20.79 ± 0.01 d 13.70 ± 0.02 a 19.57 ± 0.01 d 20.94 ± 0.01 d 16.96 ± 0.00 b 14.43 ± 0.03 a 16.97 ± 0.01 b 17.90 ± 0.00 c 16.14 ± 0.01 b82.02 ± 0.01 a 81.93 ± 0.00 a 79.21 ± 0.01 a 86.30 ± 0.02 c 80.43 ± 0.01 a 79.06 ± 0.01 a 83.04 ± 0.00 a,b 85.57 ± 0.03 c 83.03 ± 0.01 a,b 82.10 ± 0.00 a 83.86 ± 0.01 a,b  "},{"text":" Afoakwa et al. (2013) on seven most consumed yams in Ghana show high starch contents 58.26-59.14%. The percent starch from these yams could result from the method of starch extraction (acid hydrolysis) or the varieties used.Riley et al. (2006) worked on in-vitro digestibility of starch and found that digestibility is enhanced for varieties with low amylose content.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Functional properties of starch and flour from local and CRI yam varieties. Propiedades funcionales del almidón y la harina de las variedades de ñame locales y del CRI. Tabla 2. Bulk density (g/cm 3 ) WAC (%)  Swelling power (SP) (%) Solubility index (%) Tabla 2. Bulk density (g/cm 3 )WAC (%)Swelling power (SP) (%)Solubility index (%) Sample Species Flour Starch Flour Starch Flour Starch Flour Starch SampleSpeciesFlourStarchFlourStarchFlourStarchFlourStarch Akaba (L) Matches (L) CRI afase ahodenfo CRI afase pa CRI afase soanyinto CRI afase biri CRI pona CRI kukrupa CRI Mankrong pona D. rotundata 0.82 ± 0.5 a 0.91 ± 0.04 a 371.0 ± 0.35 d 355 ± 0.20 h 930 ± 0.1 c D. alata 0.80 ± 0.01 a 0.96 ± 0.01 b 396.58 ± 0.3 f,g 246 ± 1.00 c 877 ± 0.03 a 887 ± 0.01 b,c 7.08 ± 0.02 a D. alata 0.80 ± 0.01 a 0.89 ± 0.02 a 298.3 ± 1.90 b 230 ± 2.10 a 927 ± 0.01 c 844 ± 0.11 b 8.36 ± 0.01 c,d 1.40 ± 0.21 d 0.96 ± 0.00 g D. alata 0.75 ± 0.00 a 0.91 ± 0.10 a 385 ± 0.80 e 337 ± 0.84 b 965 ± 0.05 e 981 ± 0.24 e 9.55 ± 0.00 f 1.5 ± 0.00 d D. alata 0.80 ± 1.2 a 0.90 ± 0.01 a 397.0 ± 0.33 f,g 329 ± 0.30 f 940 ± 0.02 d 822 ± 0.02 b 7.29 ± 0.02 b 1.28 ± 0.2 d D. alata 0.87 ± 0.02 a 1.13 ± 0.02 b 397.0 ± 2.00 f,g 360 ± 0.21 i 981 ± 0.01 f 824 ± 0.03 b 10.55 ± 0.01 g 1.80 ± 0.00 e D. alata 0.79 ± 0.02 a 0.88 ± 0.00 a 377.0 ± 1.80 d 369 ± 0.28 j 950 ± 0.04 e 684 ± 0.02 a 8.16 ± 0.00 c 2.59 ± 0.00 f D. rotundata 0.81 ± 0.9 a 0.95 ± 0.02 b 296.0 ± 0.50 a 250 ± 0.02 d 901 ± 0.02 b 922 ± 0.00 d 8.56 ± 0.00 d 1.22 ± 0.00 c,d D. rotundata 0.86 ± 0.63 b 0.87 ± 0.02 a 392.0 ± 0.70 f 368 ± 0.22 j 892 ± 0.06 a 880 ± 0.03 c 10.54 ± 0.02 g 1.08 ± 0.00 c 853 ± 0.03 b 8.27 ± 0.01 c 0.16 ± 0.00 b Pona (L) D. rotundata 0.86 ± 0.02 b 0.89 ± 0.07 a 364.0 ± 0.22 c 325 ± 0.32 e 878 ± 0.05 a 845 ± 0.02 b 8.98 ± 0.00 e 0.02 ± 0.00 a Serwaa (L) D. rotundata 0.86 ± 0.08 b 0.91 ± 0.03 a 387.0 ± 0.30 e 350 ± 0.20 g 948 ± 0.03 d 804 ± 0.04 b 8.59 ± 0.00 d 0.85 ± 0.00 Akaba (L) Matches (L) CRI afase ahodenfo CRI afase pa CRI afase soanyinto CRI afase biri CRI pona CRI kukrupa CRI Mankrong pona D. rotundata 0.82 ± 0.5 a 0.91 ± 0.04 a 371.0 ± 0.35 d 355 ± 0.20 h 930 ± 0.1 c D. alata 0.80 ± 0.01 a 0.96 ± 0.01 b 396.58 ± 0.3 f,g 246 ± 1.00 c 877 ± 0.03 a 887 ± 0.01 b,c 7.08 ± 0.02 a D. alata 0.80 ± 0.01 a 0.89 ± 0.02 a 298.3 ± 1.90 b 230 ± 2.10 a 927 ± 0.01 c 844 ± 0.11 b 8.36 ± 0.01 c,d 1.40 ± 0.21 d 0.96 ± 0.00 g D. alata 0.75 ± 0.00 a 0.91 ± 0.10 a 385 ± 0.80 e 337 ± 0.84 b 965 ± 0.05 e 981 ± 0.24 e 9.55 ± 0.00 f 1.5 ± 0.00 d D. alata 0.80 ± 1.2 a 0.90 ± 0.01 a 397.0 ± 0.33 f,g 329 ± 0.30 f 940 ± 0.02 d 822 ± 0.02 b 7.29 ± 0.02 b 1.28 ± 0.2 d D. alata 0.87 ± 0.02 a 1.13 ± 0.02 b 397.0 ± 2.00 f,g 360 ± 0.21 i 981 ± 0.01 f 824 ± 0.03 b 10.55 ± 0.01 g 1.80 ± 0.00 e D. alata 0.79 ± 0.02 a 0.88 ± 0.00 a 377.0 ± 1.80 d 369 ± 0.28 j 950 ± 0.04 e 684 ± 0.02 a 8.16 ± 0.00 c 2.59 ± 0.00 f D. rotundata 0.81 ± 0.9 a 0.95 ± 0.02 b 296.0 ± 0.50 a 250 ± 0.02 d 901 ± 0.02 b 922 ± 0.00 d 8.56 ± 0.00 d 1.22 ± 0.00 c,d D. rotundata 0.86 ± 0.63 b 0.87 ± 0.02 a 392.0 ± 0.70 f 368 ± 0.22 j 892 ± 0.06 a 880 ± 0.03 c 10.54 ± 0.02 g 1.08 ± 0.00 c 853 ± 0.03 b 8.27 ± 0.01 c 0.16 ± 0.00 b Pona (L) D. rotundata 0.86 ± 0.02 b 0.89 ± 0.07 a 364.0 ± 0.22 c 325 ± 0.32 e 878 ± 0.05 a 845 ± 0.02 b 8.98 ± 0.00 e 0.02 ± 0.00 a Serwaa (L) D. rotundata 0.86 ± 0.08 b 0.91 ± 0.03 a 387.0 ± 0.30 e 350 ± 0.20 g 948 ± 0.03 d 804 ± 0.04 b 8.59 ± 0.00 d 0.85 ± 0.00  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Flour pasting properties of D. alata and D. rotundata yam varieties. Propiedades de pegado de la harina de las variedades de ñame D. alata y D. rotundata. PV, pasting viscosity, Mean values (n = 2) with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at p < .05. L-local variety; CRI-Crops Research Institute variety. PV, viscosidad de pegado, Los valores medios (n = 2) con distintos superíndices en la misma columna son significativamente diferentes (p < .05). L-v. Tabla 4. Variety Species PV (cP) Trough (cP) Breakdown (cP) Final viscosity (cP) Setback (cP) Peak time (min) Pasting temp. (ºC) Tabla 4. VarietySpeciesPV (cP)Trough (cP) Breakdown (cP) Final viscosity (cP) Setback (cP) Peak time (min) Pasting temp. (ºC) Akaba (L) Matches (L) CRI ahodenfo CRI afase pa CRI soanyinto CRI afase biri CRI pona CRI kukrupa CRI Mankrong pona D. rotundata 1604 ± 1.00 g 24 ± 0.03 a D. alata 2120 ± 1.00 j 142 ± 0.03 i D. alata 1958 ± 0.09 h 89 ± 1.00 g D. alata 1422 ± 0.06 e 52 ± 0.01 b D. alata 633 ± 0.01 a 74 ± 0.08 d D. alata 1510 ± 0.09 g 70 ± 0.05 c D. alata 1272 ± 0.00 c 84 ± 0.08 f D. rotundata 1495 ± 1.00 f 88 ± 0.00 h D. rotundata 1289 ± 0.06 b 182 ± 0.01 j Pona (L) D. rotundata 1401 ± 1.00 d 80 ± 0.00 e Serwaa (L) D. rotundata 2054 ± 0.00 i 134 ± 0.03 g 2265 ± 0.09 i 2263 ± 0.05 i 1555 ± 0.04 e 736 ± 0.00 a 1626 ± 0.01 g 1362 ± 0.06 b 1594 ± 0.05 f 1402 ± 0.09 c 1843 ± 0.01 h 1494 ± 0.07 d 2342 ± 0.04 j 2387 ± 0.00 i 2394 ± 0.09 j 1845 ± 0.07 f 277 ± 1.00 a 1806 ± 1.00 e 1471 ± 1.00 d 1837 ± 0.09 e,f 1295 ± 1.00 c 2063 ± 0.06 g 1177 ± 0.09 b 2422 ± 0.09 h 287 ± 0.04 e 394 ± 1.00 h 185 ± 1.00 d 177 ± 0.08 b 186 ± 0.05 d 171 ± 0.01 a 187 ± 0.01 c 295 ± 0.07 g 263 ± 0.08 f 177 ± 0.1 b 422 ± 0.00 i 6.8 ± 0.09 b 7 ± 0.01 b 6.9 ± 0.07 b 7 ± 1.00 b 7 ± 0.06 b 7 ± 0.00 b 7 ± 0.08 b 7 ± 0.02 b 6.8 ± 0.04 b 6.87 ± 0.03 b 5 ± 0.01 a 86.5 ± 0.06 c 84.85 ± 0.06 b 86.35 ± 0.02 c 90.45 ± 0.05 c 85.55 ± 0.02 c 85.65 ± 0.09 c 84.85 ± 1.00 b 83.1 ± 0.09 a 85.15 ± 0.09 c 84 ± 0.00 b 84.5 ± 0.00 b Akaba (L) Matches (L) CRI ahodenfo CRI afase pa CRI soanyinto CRI afase biri CRI pona CRI kukrupa CRI Mankrong pona D. rotundata 1604 ± 1.00 g 24 ± 0.03 a D. alata 2120 ± 1.00 j 142 ± 0.03 i D. alata 1958 ± 0.09 h 89 ± 1.00 g D. alata 1422 ± 0.06 e 52 ± 0.01 b D. alata 633 ± 0.01 a 74 ± 0.08 d D. alata 1510 ± 0.09 g 70 ± 0.05 c D. alata 1272 ± 0.00 c 84 ± 0.08 f D. rotundata 1495 ± 1.00 f 88 ± 0.00 h D. rotundata 1289 ± 0.06 b 182 ± 0.01 j Pona (L) D. rotundata 1401 ± 1.00 d 80 ± 0.00 e Serwaa (L) D. rotundata 2054 ± 0.00 i 134 ± 0.03 g2265 ± 0.09 i 2263 ± 0.05 i 1555 ± 0.04 e 736 ± 0.00 a 1626 ± 0.01 g 1362 ± 0.06 b 1594 ± 0.05 f 1402 ± 0.09 c 1843 ± 0.01 h 1494 ± 0.07 d 2342 ± 0.04 j2387 ± 0.00 i 2394 ± 0.09 j 1845 ± 0.07 f 277 ± 1.00 a 1806 ± 1.00 e 1471 ± 1.00 d 1837 ± 0.09 e,f 1295 ± 1.00 c 2063 ± 0.06 g 1177 ± 0.09 b 2422 ± 0.09 h287 ± 0.04 e 394 ± 1.00 h 185 ± 1.00 d 177 ± 0.08 b 186 ± 0.05 d 171 ± 0.01 a 187 ± 0.01 c 295 ± 0.07 g 263 ± 0.08 f 177 ± 0.1 b 422 ± 0.00 i6.8 ± 0.09 b 7 ± 0.01 b 6.9 ± 0.07 b 7 ± 1.00 b 7 ± 0.06 b 7 ± 0.00 b 7 ± 0.08 b 7 ± 0.02 b 6.8 ± 0.04 b 6.87 ± 0.03 b 5 ± 0.01 a86.5 ± 0.06 c 84.85 ± 0.06 b 86.35 ± 0.02 c 90.45 ± 0.05 c 85.55 ± 0.02 c 85.65 ± 0.09 c 84.85 ± 1.00 b 83.1 ± 0.09 a 85.15 ± 0.09 c 84 ± 0.00 b 84.5 ± 0.00 b  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Starch pasting characteristics of D. alata and D. rotundata yam varieties. Características de pegado del almidón de las variedades de ñame D. alata y D. rotundata. Breakdown (cP) Final viscosity(cP) Setback(cP) Peak time(min) Pasting temp. ( 0 C) PV, peak viscosity, Mean values (n = 2) with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at p < .05. L-local variety; CRI-Crops Research Institute variety. PV, viscosidad máxima. Los valores medios (n = 2) con distintos superíndices en la misma columna son significativamente diferentes (p < .05). L-variedad local; CRI-variedad del Crops Research Institute. Tabla 3. Variety Trough (cP) Akaba (L) Species PV (cP) D. alata 2527 ± 1.00 a 2123 ± 0.05 a Matches(L) D. alata 3599 ± 0.09 g 2332 ± 0.01 b CRI ahodenfo D. alata 3099 ± 0.01 b 2933 ± 0.06 g CRI afase pa D. alata 3542 ± 0.05 e 2738 ± 0.09 d CRI soanyinto D. alata 4399 ± 1.00 i 2787 ± 0.01 e CRI afase biri D. alata 4017 ± 1.00 f 4394 ± 1.00 j CRI pona D. rotundata 4393 ± 0.01 h 3025 ± 0.09 g CRI kukrupa D. rotundata 3317 ± 1.00 c 2614 ± 0.08 c CRI Mankrong pona D. rotundata 3690 ± 1.00 g 2826 ± 0.01 f Pona (L) D. rotundata 3345 ± 0.01 d 3345 ± 0.05 h Serwaa (L) D. rotundata 4041 ± 0.01 f 4041 ± 0.00 i 404 ± 0.08 b 228 ± 0.04 a 1411 ± 0.01 h 526 ± 0.04 e 1628 ± 0.05 i 686 ± 0.05 f 517 ± 0.01 d 1783 ± 0.06 j 864 ± 0.07 g 498 ± 1.00 c 1628 ± 1.00 k 3024 ± 1.00 c 2560 ± 0.08 b 3411 ± 0.06 i 3264 ± 1.00 f 4415 ± 1.00 k 3331 ± 0.06 g 3386 ± 0.08 h 3255 ± 0.02 e 3690 ± 1.00 j 3086 ± 0.03 d 2929 ± 0.06 a 901 ± 1.00 i 806 ± 0.01 h 423 ± 0.03 c 361 ± 0.09 b 812 ± 0.01 g 1063 ± 0.01 j 361 ± 0.03 b 641 ± 1.00 f 490 ± 0.03 d 300 ± 0.09 a 516 ± 0.05 e 5.13 ± 0.02 b 9.13 ± 1.00 d 4.73 ± 0.09 a 5.4 ± 0.02 b 4.8 ± 0.08 a 5.73 ± 0.00 c 5.27 ± 0.06 b 4.67 ± 0.04 a 5.28 ± 0.00 b 5 ± 0.00 b 4.6 ± 1.00 a 84.85 d ±0.09 79.1 ±.08 b 50.25 ± 0.01 a 83.2 ± 1.00 c 79.9 ± 0.03 b 84.05 ± 0.07 d 83.2 ± 0.09 c 79.95 ± 1.00 b 83.4 ± 0.01 b,c 78.9 ± 0.07 b 84.1 ± 0.00 d Tabla 3. Variety Trough (cP) Akaba (L) Species PV (cP) D. alata 2527 ± 1.00 a 2123 ± 0.05 a Matches(L) D. alata 3599 ± 0.09 g 2332 ± 0.01 b CRI ahodenfo D. alata 3099 ± 0.01 b 2933 ± 0.06 g CRI afase pa D. alata 3542 ± 0.05 e 2738 ± 0.09 d CRI soanyinto D. alata 4399 ± 1.00 i 2787 ± 0.01 e CRI afase biri D. alata 4017 ± 1.00 f 4394 ± 1.00 j CRI pona D. rotundata 4393 ± 0.01 h 3025 ± 0.09 g CRI kukrupa D. rotundata 3317 ± 1.00 c 2614 ± 0.08 c CRI Mankrong pona D. rotundata 3690 ± 1.00 g 2826 ± 0.01 f Pona (L) D. rotundata 3345 ± 0.01 d 3345 ± 0.05 h Serwaa (L) D. rotundata 4041 ± 0.01 f 4041 ± 0.00 i404 ± 0.08 b 228 ± 0.04 a 1411 ± 0.01 h 526 ± 0.04 e 1628 ± 0.05 i 686 ± 0.05 f 517 ± 0.01 d 1783 ± 0.06 j 864 ± 0.07 g 498 ± 1.00 c 1628 ± 1.00 k3024 ± 1.00 c 2560 ± 0.08 b 3411 ± 0.06 i 3264 ± 1.00 f 4415 ± 1.00 k 3331 ± 0.06 g 3386 ± 0.08 h 3255 ± 0.02 e 3690 ± 1.00 j 3086 ± 0.03 d 2929 ± 0.06 a901 ± 1.00 i 806 ± 0.01 h 423 ± 0.03 c 361 ± 0.09 b 812 ± 0.01 g 1063 ± 0.01 j 361 ± 0.03 b 641 ± 1.00 f 490 ± 0.03 d 300 ± 0.09 a 516 ± 0.05 e5.13 ± 0.02 b 9.13 ± 1.00 d 4.73 ± 0.09 a 5.4 ± 0.02 b 4.8 ± 0.08 a 5.73 ± 0.00 c 5.27 ± 0.06 b 4.67 ± 0.04 a 5.28 ± 0.00 b 5 ± 0.00 b 4.6 ± 1.00 a84.85 d ±0.09 79.1 ±.08 b 50.25 ± 0.01 a 83.2 ± 1.00 c 79.9 ± 0.03 b 84.05 ± 0.07 d 83.2 ± 0.09 c 79.95 ± 1.00 b 83.4 ± 0.01 b,c 78.9 ± 0.07 b 84.1 ± 0.00 d  "}],"sieverID":"a7058184-9949-41b7-bbc3-1ea5fecefea2","abstract":"The potential uses of starches and flours depend on their physicochemical and functional properties. The chemical composition, functional and pasting properties of starch and flours obtained from some newly developed yam varieties from the Crops Research Institute (CRI), Ghana were evaluated, and compared with the existing local varieties. The results showed that the physicochemical and functional properties varied among the varieties studied. The CRI varieties were grouped in a principal component analysis as moisture (afase pa), amylose content (ahodenfo, soanyinto, afase biri), high starch content, bulk density and water absorption capacity (kukrupa, Mankrong pona, CRI pona). Starch pasting characteristics showed that Mankrong pona, CRI pona and afase pa exhibited stable pastes whereas afase biri, Mankrong pona and, afase soanyinto could be utilized for high-temperature processing. Overall, the new CRI varieties showed considerable functionalities that could be explored for potential food and industrial applications as compared to the existing local varieties."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0961fa89261c95c33f382bcd24df52f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8e0782dc-a0db-46bc-a6a0-fbbb65723613/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Um serviço de Informação de Mercado Fiável e Económico para África N o 38 Junho de 2007 A Série Destaques resume resultados de investigação e implicações de políticas resultantes do trabalho do CIAT e seus parceiros em África Para mais informações contactar","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":318,"text":"A falta de informação de mercado rigorosa e relevante foi identificada como um grande obstáculo para a melhoria dos sectores agrícolas dos países africanos e, no entanto, são poucos os pequenos agricultores que têm acesso a tal informação. O mau acesso a informação de mercado significa que os agricultores não podem monitorizar preços, o que reduz a sua capacidade de negociar com os comerciantes. Para solucionar esta assimetria de informação, as organizações doadoras investiram no desenvolvimento de serviços de mercado para ajudarem os pequenos agricultores. Na década de 70 foram criados muitos serviços de informação de mercado (SIM) governamentais, mas praticamente todos eles falharam na proposta de fornecimento de informação pertinente e atempada aos agricultores. Consequentemente os doadores retiraram o seu financiamento e as suas operações cessaram. Para procurar novas maneiras de fornecer informação de mercado aos agricultores, o CIAT e outros parceiros, incluindo o IITA, CTA e USAID, desenvolveram uma agenda de investigação para criarem novos serviços SIM. Estes foram concebidos a nível local, nacional e regional. Os resultados deste trabalho mostraram que os elementos básicos de um serviço de informação de mercado bem sucedido incluem: • subcontratação da gestão ao governo • ênfase em operações de baixo custo • recolha apenas de informações essenciais, como preços e notícias de mercado relevantes • recolha de informações utilizando fontes fiáveis e divulgação desta informação no mesmo dia ou no prazo de dois dias • divulgação periódica de informação a comerciantes e agricultores utilizando a rádio FM rural, telemóveis, e-mail e a Internet. Para apoiar estes processos a equipa de investigação necessitava de um sistema de gestão de dados simples para a introdução, armazenamento e redistribuição da informação. Isto conseguiu-se através de uma parceria com uma empresa de software privada, a Busylab of Accra, Gana, (www.busy.com). Esta parceria criou um SIM de utilização fácil e operação económica que foi testado em Gana e no Uganda sob o nome Tradenet."}]},{"head":"O que é Tradenet?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Tradenet é uma plataforma de software que permite o acesso fácil a dados de mercado por telemóvel (Serviço de Mensagens Curtas [SMS]), fax, ou pela Internet usando computadores, incluindo as agendas digitais de mão [PDAs]. Isto permite Estamos gratos pelo apoio financeiro da USAID. As opiniões aqui expressas não reflectem necessariamente a posição desta agência."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"que os comerciantes e agricultores recebam diariamente informação sobre preços, descarreguem ficheiros de vídeo/ áudio, acedam a documentos de investigação, enviem ofertas de compra e venda à comunidade e contactem outros participantes do mercado. Um gestor de dados analisa e dá a autorização final às entradas (por e-mail, SMS ou on-line) para assegurar que a qualidade dos dados é mantida. Uma vez aprovados, os dados são introduzidos numa base de dados e copiados para um servidor seguro on-line. Com Tradenet os utilizadores podem aceder a dados actuais ou arquivados online. Eles podem analisar a informação em função da mercadoria ou do mercado usando ferramentas gráficas on-line e descarregar os ficheiros de dados para serem analisados com Microsoft Excel."}]},{"head":"Armazenamento de ficheiros áudio e de texto","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Além dos dados numéricos, Tradenet pode armazenar ficheiros áudio e de texto. Para as estações de rádio, os programas educacionais e as notícias podem ser descarregados para serem retransmitidos para o grande público por meio de ficheiros áudio (MP3)."}]},{"head":"Registo de fornecedores de serviços","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"A Tradenet oferece a oportunidade de fornecer listas actualizadas de fornecedores de serviços, comerciantes e serviços financeiros. De futuro este registo também pode incluir classificações de aprovação de boa conduta comercial. As novas versões de Tradenet permitem a formação de grupos, para que as pessoas interessadas em determinada mercadoria possam criar a sua própria área de informação e gerir esta parte do site."}]},{"head":"Disseminação da informação","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"A parte mais importante de qualquer serviço de informação de mercado é a disseminação de informação rigorosa, fiável e atempada. Hoje há muitas tecnologias para a disseminação de informação em massa: • Internet -Tradenet é um serviço on-line baseado na Web que fornece aos clientes um ponto de acesso directo à informação de mercado, que é actualizada diariamente. • Média -Os jornais e outros meios de imprensa podem descarregar a informação da Internet ou receber notícias periodicamente."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Tradenet trabalha com patrocinadores a nível do país e grupos de pessoas interessadas em determinada mercadoria, que promovem o uso da informação entre os fornecedores de meios de comunicação como a rádio, a imprensa, a publicidade, etc. As empresas de meios de comunicação fornecem informação de mercado para atraírem mais leitores/ouvintes e patrocinadores de publicidade. Presentemente a empresa produtora de Tradenet não gera uma receita e os seus custos (aproximadamente USD 5,000 por ano) são suportados por projectos de desenvolvimento de financiamento público."}]},{"head":"Expansão de SIM com Tradenet","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Iniciado em 2001, Tradenet está actualmente em uso em dez países da África Ocidental e no Uganda desde 2004. A África Ocidental apoiou Tradenet através de um projecto de informação de mercado regional designado Mistowa. Na África Ocidental os parceiros incluem CSIR, FAO, IFDC, Technoserve e USAID."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"No Uganda os parceiros incluem ACDI/ VOCA, CIAT, DANIDA, FoodNet, IITA e Radioworks."}]},{"head":"Conclusão","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"A plataforma de software Tradenet tem por objectivo aumentar a transparência e a eficácia dos mercados africanos. Ela fornece às partes interessadas informação periódica para melhorar a sua posição de negociação e a sua tomada de decisões quanto a culturas ou produtos animais que devem produzir, onde e quando vender os seus produtos agrícolas e quando os armazenar para poderem maximizar o seu lucro. O uso de uma plataforma de informação fiável permite uma gestão de dados rápida e desempenha um papel fundamental na redução dos custos do intercâmbio da informação. Tendo em conta esta abordagem baseada em gestão subcontratada, acreditamos que os futuros serviços de informação de mercado serão operados por grupos de comerciantes, bancos, operadores de rádio, associações de agricultores e/ou ONGs. Este novo grupo de potenciais operadores pode significar que de futuro os agricultores terão acesso mais fácil à informação de mercado, a um preço atractivo tanto para os fornecedores de serviços como para os agricultores."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"•- Rádio Para muitos milhões de agricultores e comerciantes rurais o meio mais eficaz de distribuição da informação é através da rádio FM rural. • E-mail -Tradenet tem listas de email automáticas que enviam periodicamente boletins de informação aos subscritores. • SMS -O site de Tradenet pode ser configurado para ligação a um sistema SMS de telemóvel local e podem ser enviados grandes volume de dados e preços de mercado para o telemóvel da pessoa que liga, quando esta envia certas palavraschave para o site de Tradenet pelo seu telemóvel. "}],"sieverID":"f7c8a5e4-adf8-4f1c-9853-fbd0e1edaa50","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0969bb944e8714d675b8e572615ec5f5.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0969bb944e8714d675b8e572615ec5f5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7151bc9-425c-4d3a-8ab1-007e6ae533e1/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Report on marker-assisted selection to identify reproductive behavior in Bh22 population","keywords":["Marker assisted selection","Brachiaria humidicola","Apomictic plants Selección asistida por marcadores","Brachiaria humidicola","Plantas apomicticas"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Recurrent selection based on specific combining ability (RS-SCA) allows to maximize the genetic gain in a short period of time and is the ideal scheme to take full use of apomixis and heterosis."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Urochloa breeding program works with this scheme and actually is running the fourth breeding cycle. Each breeding cycle is conformed by three steps: Firstly (Yr1), sexual genotypes are crossed to a genetically distant apomictic genotype (tester) selected according to its combining ability."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Secondly (Yr2), superior sexual parentals are selected based on their progeny performance. In this, sexual parents and apomictic hybrids are selected in tandem as follows: in a first phase, ~7000 apomictic hybrids are evaluated in acid soils, selecting the 100 superior hybrids and their sexual parentals. These are evaluated in a second phase against to spittlebug resistance complex. Thirdly (Yr3), the selected superior sexual parentals females are recombined with the aim to form sexual genotypes for the next cycle of selection (Worthington and Miles, 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"During 2020 and 2021 a genetic cross between superior sexual parentals and apomictic tester CIAT/16888 was established to produce a progeny to evaluate their performance. To guarantee that the hybrids evaluated are apomictic, it is necessary to identify their reproduction mode. This report summarizes the results obtained when evaluating the reproduction mode in the Bh22 population using the molecular marker p779 / p780, which allows identifying ASGR -BBML gene sequences present in apomictic genotypes in some Paniceae species (Fig. 1; Worthington et al. 2016)."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"In 2020-2021, a cross between 1 apomictic (CIAT/16888) and 264 sexual genotypes was made."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Seed was hand-harvested, planted in sand (Fig. 1A) and transplanted individually in plugs after 30 days (Fig. 1B-1D). In 2022, between August and October, leaf tissue from 5,024 hybrids were sampled (Fig. 1) and the reproduction mode was assessed using the molecular marker p779/p780 (Worthington et al. 2016). "}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Among each of the 264 families formed, the sexual to apomictic ratio varied widely (Table 1). For the following studies, families with high percentage of apomixis (>85%) were discarded based on the premise that sexual parental really can be apomictic. Very high percentages of apomixis suggest that the genotype used as sexual may be facultative or obligate apomictic. Otherwise, low percentages of apomixis may indicate that there is a low pollination index, a phenomenon that can be influenced by different factors. For example, asynchronous flowering between apomictic and sexual genotypes, low presence of pollinators (Aphis sp.) and, scarce wind currents that allows pollen flow. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Process to identify apomictic plants. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Apomixis percentage expressed in 198 families conformed in a factorial cross among sexual an apomictic genotypes. Family Sexual Apomicitic Uncertain AP+SX AP PROPORTION FamilySexualApomiciticUncertainAP+SXAP PROPORTION  "}],"sieverID":"8c8a6515-0e5e-4c6e-b987-4afa7ba1baa2","abstract":"Continuing with the fourth cycle of humidicola breeding scheme (Urochloa humidicola (Rendle)Morrone & Zuloaga), a half-sibs population was formed through a genetic cross between suexual population BhSx19 and the apomictic tester CIAT/16888. Using standardized protocols, the identification of the reproduction mode was carried out in the population of hybrids obtained (called Bh22) using the molecular marker p779 / p780. A total of 1,914 (38%) hybrids, from 5,024, showed the apomictic marker, 2,900 (58%) unshowed the apomictic marker and, 210 (4%) were uncertain or did not amplify. The variation in the apomictic and sexual relationship between formed families is presented."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0976f51280a0a6660ce88acfaa3d573f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3e691b7c-d7a7-4099-9a77-550b2487fe43/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"A 4-POINT CGIAR RESPONSE PLAN ON COVID-19","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"CGIAR recognizes the profound role of the food system as both the source and main impact pathway of this crisis -and has mobilized itself to support policymakers, farmers and food system practitioners amongst others make an informed response to both the immediate crisis and transforming the food system as we \"build back better\"."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"In response, CGIAR will 1.) change existing CGIAR Research Programs to support an immediate COVID-19 response; 2.) implement CGIAR Research Programs already highly relevant to COVID-19; 3.) re-orient CGIAR's longer-term research strategy to reflect the 'game-changing' scale of and 4.) strengthen our immediate and longer-term response capability."}]},{"head":"COVID-19 compounds an urgent need to transform the world's food system","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Before this current crisis the need for change was already clear. Most of the world's population eats too little, too much, or the wrong type or combination of food -at an unsustainable cost to the climate, the environment and human health."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"The food system is creating and multiplying risks. For example, a new zoonosis -a disease transmitted between animals and people -breaks out on an average of every four months. This is the predictable consequence of the ever-intensifying interactions among humans, animals and the natural world. Zoonotic diseases develop and intensify when human and wildlife interactions increase, often due to habitat loss hand-in-hand with intensified agriculture and food markets. COVID-19 is the latest materialization of this risk. As the pandemic now accelerates in less resilient social and economic contexts, the public health, social and economic impacts of COVID-19 -and measures to slow or stop its spread globally and locally -have undermined incomes and exposed large underlying inequalities. This is morphing into a food security and nutrition crisis, and a clear illustration of the huge costs of the 'externalities' of the food system."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"The way this crisis will unfold in the medium to longer term is uncertain, but one thing is clear, it presents a unique opportunity to reset the world's food system, to \"build back better\" -to finally implement what has been advocated for some time by CGIAR and many others: a sustainable food systems revolution -as urgent as the agricultural revolution that launched CGIAR, yet exponentially more complex. This was articulated in CGIAR's most recent System Business Plan -whose transformation elements remain valid although with more emphasis needed in the One Health agenda to reduce the risk of a repeat pandemic."}]},{"head":"A research response","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Our research response to COVID-19 is addressing four thematic areas to maximize the relevance and utility of support to policymakers and practitioners."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"¡ Food systems: Improve functioning of the full food supply chain and its enabling environments to secure jobs and livelihoods, and to ensure access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for all. ¡ One Health: Manage the human, animal and environmental health interface to improve prevention of, detection of, and response to emerging and endemic zoonoses. ¡ Inclusive public programs: For food security and nutrition -implement social protection, agricultural development and other inclusive programs to mitigate food and nutrition insecurity among vulnerable populations. ¡ Policies and investments: Enable more effective cross-sectoral policies and investments linking beneficial environment, economic, social and health outcomes for crisis response, economic recovery and improved future resilience."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"CGIAR's research response is anchored on three overlapping phases of the COVID-19 pandemic: ¡ Short-term crisis response: Provide immediate evidence and tools for decision-making to support food availability and access, health interventions and public programs, policies and investments at scale. ¡ Medium-term recovery: Support understanding of the impacts of crisis response and adapt policies and programs to reflect initial experiences and consequences for all groups in society. Recovery actions form the basis for addressing longer-term resilience issues. ¡ Long-term resilience: Generate evidence and tools to prevent and manage emerging disease threats and comparable food system shocks and build greater resilience into food, land and water systems. "}]},{"head":"CGIAR's 4-point response plan","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"CGIAR must, and will, focus on COVID-19 in delivering its new mission statement, \"Ending hunger by 2030 -through science to transform food, land and water systems in a climate crisis\"."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"As the world's largest global agricultural innovation network, CGIAR is playing a leading role in the global response to COVID-19 -on the immediate response, on the medium-term recover and on the essential long-term resilience-building needed to build back better. CGIAR is deploying its 8,000 scientists and staff in over 100 countries, depth of expertise, +3,000 partnerships and the world's genebanks."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"CGIAR is providing knowledge, evidence, technologies and methods to help key implementing and policy partners mitigate the pandemic's effects on agriculture and food security. Working closely with national stakeholders, CGIAR is identifying country-specific demands for COVID-19 relevant research, carrying out multidisciplinary research in response to this demand and supporting uptake of evidence-based policy and investment decisions to deliver impacts on the ground. This is set out in a new report entitled Responding to COVID-19. Four key elements underpin our response plan:"}]},{"head":"Change existing CGIAR Research Programs to support an immediate COVID-19 response","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Three-quarters of all flagships in the CGIAR Research Programs and Platforms adjusted their 2020 budgets to include activities to maximize relevance and utility for governments and other partners in relation to their COVID-19 response. At the same time, 100% of CGIAR research is already relevant to building back better food systems."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Among activities to address the new challenges posed by COVID-19, CGIAR is:"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Redeploying livestock data analytic capacity to support the development of a COVID-19 vaccine;"},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• Providing online tracker tools on poverty effects and public policy responses to COVID-19's impacts on food systems; • Updating digital tools to include COVID-19 market information for small businesses; • Monitoring the effectiveness of nutrition programs during the pandemic."}]},{"head":"Implement CGIAR programs already highly relevant to COVID-19","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Two-thirds of the 2020 CGIAR Research Portfolio address two or more near-term COVID-19relevant themes (e.g. food production, trade and markets, human and animal health, pro-poor policies), while 100% of the portfolio aims to deliver on long-term resilience of food, land and water systems. Collectively, CGIAR is making available its latest research and analysis on COVID-19 to support informed decisions. Integrated support is being provided on-demand to governments seeking to improve their food system responses and social protection programs. Ongoing efforts draw on the four research pillars outlined above: food systems; One Health; inclusive public programs for food and nutritional security; and pro-poor policies and investments."}]},{"head":"For example:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"• In a number of countries, including Ethiopia, CGIAR is using economic models to is assess the economic and food security impacts of COVID-19; • In Bangladesh, CGIAR is working with local partners to monitor supplies and prices of food, labor and inputs, and to advise on appropriate policies, with an emphasis on mitigating COVID-19 impacts on the most vulnerable members of society;"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• ILRI Nairobi laboratory temporarily re-purposed to process human COVID-19 tests for the Kenyan Ministry of Health."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Re-orient CGIAR's longer-term research strategy to reflect the 'game-changing' scale of COVID-19"},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"CGIAR's new research strategy, covering our work up to 2030 and for approval this year, will fully reflect the scale and substance of COVID-19 in the context of CGIAR's new mission to transform food, land and water systems. This is likely to include placing sharper focus on building greater resilience into food, land and water systems; and more emphasis on the One Health agenda in the form of generating evidence and tools to prevent and respond both to emerging disease threats and to comparable shocks. The aim to 'build back better' -not return to business as usual following the COVID-19 crisis -is a priority for a united CGIAR in its efforts to transform food systems to meet global goals on food security, sustainable development and climate change."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Some examples of planned current or potential research responses to are shown below:  Food systems One Health Inclusive public programs Policies and investments Food systemsOne HealthInclusive public programsPolicies and investments Short-term: Crisis response (up to 12 months) • Support production of adequate and diverse foods. • Monitor supply and accessibility of vital agricultural inputs. • Provide options for supply chains and markets for both staples and perishable foods. • Monitor and propose measures to reduce market volatility and • Provide evidence and information on disease risks from an integrated human-animal-environment health perspective. • Maintain key food safety and One Health programs; ensure that disease control strategies help rather than harm poor men, women and children. • Identify the food, nutrition and related livelihood needs of key vulnerable groups and devise and implement social protection programs. • Conduct global and regional scenario analyses to determine COVID-19 impacts on food, nutrition and livelihood security and inform COVID-19 policy responses needing to balance different government priorities. Short-term: Crisis response (up to 12 months)• Support production of adequate and diverse foods. • Monitor supply and accessibility of vital agricultural inputs. • Provide options for supply chains and markets for both staples and perishable foods. • Monitor and propose measures to reduce market volatility and• Provide evidence and information on disease risks from an integrated human-animal-environment health perspective. • Maintain key food safety and One Health programs; ensure that disease control strategies help rather than harm poor men, women and children.• Identify the food, nutrition and related livelihood needs of key vulnerable groups and devise and implement social protection programs.• Conduct global and regional scenario analyses to determine COVID-19 impacts on food, nutrition and livelihood security and inform COVID-19 policy responses needing to balance different government priorities.  enhance access to food among vulnerable groups.    enhance access to food among vulnerable groups.  • Adapt systems for greater supply and access of nutritious foods. • Use digital • Strengthen risk-based food safety approaches appropriate for informal marketplaces. • Develop One Health • Assess the benefits and costs of public programs and support the prioritization of • Guide the adaptation of crisis policies and investments to reflect lessons • Adapt systems for greater supply and access of nutritious foods. • Use digital• Strengthen risk-based food safety approaches appropriate for informal marketplaces. • Develop One Health• Assess the benefits and costs of public programs and support the prioritization of• Guide the adaptation of crisis policies and investments to reflect lessons Medium-term: Recovery (up to 18 months) technologies to monitor, predict and adapt food flows. • Analyze COVID-19 impacts on household livelihoods and assets, labor supply and gender and equity issues. and risk-based approaches for key public health risks in agriculture -environment management. • Improve management of emerging zoonoses and agriculture-associated antimicrobial resistance. programs where fiscal capacity is constrained to improve food and nutrition security. learned in mitigating the pandemic's health and economic impacts on food and nutrition security. • Consider differential actions that are gender-sensitive and in key sub-national regions. Medium-term: Recovery (up to 18 months)technologies to monitor, predict and adapt food flows. • Analyze COVID-19 impacts on household livelihoods and assets, labor supply and gender and equity issues.and risk-based approaches for key public health risks in agriculture -environment management. • Improve management of emerging zoonoses and agriculture-associated antimicrobial resistance.programs where fiscal capacity is constrained to improve food and nutrition security.learned in mitigating the pandemic's health and economic impacts on food and nutrition security. • Consider differential actions that are gender-sensitive and in key sub-national regions.  • Identify ways to build back better and make • Implement practices for better managing • Contribute to longer-term • Support more effective cross- • Identify ways to build back better and make• Implement practices for better managing• Contribute to longer-term• Support more effective cross- Long-term: Resilience (up to 24 months and beyond) food, land and water systems more robust and resilient to shocks. • Adapt systematic approaches to food systems transformation that link health, sustainability and socioeconomic outcomes. the agriculture-environment interface (including aquatic systems and forests). • Reduce the risk of the emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases by improving rapid detection and response to emerging diseases. strategies for fragile areas and vulnerable populations that effectively integrate development and humanitarian programs. sectoral policies and investments for food systems resilience. • Improve One Health preparedness that links environmental, economic, social and health outcomes. Long-term: Resilience (up to 24 months and beyond)food, land and water systems more robust and resilient to shocks. • Adapt systematic approaches to food systems transformation that link health, sustainability and socioeconomic outcomes.the agriculture-environment interface (including aquatic systems and forests). • Reduce the risk of the emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases by improving rapid detection and response to emerging diseases.strategies for fragile areas and vulnerable populations that effectively integrate development and humanitarian programs.sectoral policies and investments for food systems resilience. • Improve One Health preparedness that links environmental, economic, social and health outcomes.  "}],"sieverID":"f4ddb12d-c1a2-4273-b634-65db0bcfd0a8","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a0c7395c2936e0c07adeb15d09f48d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5045a71-ba5b-48a8-8bfd-9436e1ea5dde/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Study #4594 Contributing Projects: • P2116 -Delivering effective and sustainable sanitation service through capacity building around circular economy-Phase II","keywords":["OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","WLE -Water, Land and Ecosystems Contributing Flagships:","F3: Sustaining Rural-Urban Linkages (RUL) Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined> Contributing external partners:","UNICEF -United Nations Children's Fund","Government of Ghana"],"chapters":[{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"On-site sanitation facilities predominate in many Ghanaian cities, including Tamale. These systems gradually fill up over time. Timely and high-quality emptying services for households and institutions, and disposal of fecal sludge (FS) in designated sites are key to safe sanitation services. IWMI/WLE has nearly two decades of experience researching how to produce quality compost from FS(1) and supporting the development and implementation of cost-effective approaches for recovering and reusing urban waste (2,3,4). Capacity-building workshops were recently held for local government on private sector engagement and incentive mechanisms for sustainable sanitation services (5). The workshops identified two key challenges faced by the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA) and other city authorities: the failure of private sanitation service providers (septic truck operators) to desludge FS at the designated treatment plant; and the failure of the Assembly to enforce its by-laws requiring sanitation service providers to desludge at the plant. This resulted in underuse of the existing fecal sludge treatment plant, rendering it dysfunctional and abandoned. The plant has now been rehabilitated through grant money."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"To ensure that the plant remained functional, a key recommendation was to enforce the by-laws making it an offence for unauthorized operation of a liquid waste collection and disposal service, and to sanction any service provider who disposed of waste at unauthorized sites. A series of stakeholder engagements involving TaMA and the service provider association was organized to reach an agreement on the best way to address sanitation challenges. Both parties agreed that a sanitation service agreement needed to be signed mandating that sanitation service providers dispose of FS at the designated treatment facility at a negotiated dumping fee. The service agreement was drafted, and inputs were provided from all parties(6,7). The agreement was subsequently signed by all nine service providers operating within TaMA's jurisdiction. This agreement makes it mandatory for all service providers to obtain permission to operate in the metropolitan district. It also includes a clause on establishing a call center in the assembly which will provide a tracking system to ensure that all service providers desludge at the treatment plant (6,8)."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Since signing the service agreement, all service providers are desludging at the designated treatment plant. This helps ensure that safely managed sanitation services (Sustainable Development Goal indicator 6.2.1) are provided to more than 950,000 inhabitants living in the Tamale Metropolitan District. By preventing indiscriminate dumping of FS, the agreement safeguards public health and reduces environmental impacts."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"7d5c29ed-db37-4948-8771-84df10fc1647","abstract":"Building on more than a decade of research and engagement, WLE/IWMI/RUL strengthened the capacity of the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA) to implement market-based sanitation initiatives that deal with the disposal of fecal sludge (FS) from septic systems. It supported development of a liquid waste service agreement between TaMA and private sanitation service providers to ensure desludging at a designated treatment facility. As a result, more than 950,000 Tamale inhabitants now benefit from safely managed sanitation services."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a70d6b9299b0a3fb8bd6082e1bdd140","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2b2f3de-5920-4398-a86f-2b59294aa33a/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":"AMUSE Livestock, version 2 -Antimicrobial use in livestock production A tool to harmonise data collection on knowledge, attitude and practices","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Antimicrobial resistance has been recognised as a major threat to public and livestock health. As a consequence more research is being conducted in this field, including research on use of antimicrobials in the agricultural sector, especially in livestock production. Data and knowledge of use of antimicrobials in low and middle income countries (LMIC) is scarce and no centralised reporting and recording systems exist for monitoring purposes."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Given the recent increase in numbers of research and development projects focussing on antimicrobials in livestock production, a lot of data can be colalted and compared if tools used share common questions. A more harmonised approach to data colelction on AM use can potentially provide important information on trends of antimicrobial use and areas of particular concern."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"This questionnaire was developed to investiagate key linkages in the AMR conceptual framework outlined below (adapted from Woolhouse et al, 2015):"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"and is meant to provide a core set of questions that may ease comparisons of data from different regions of the world collected in different studies in different production systems."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Different projects have different purposes and objectives and thus may need additional questions. Therefore the questionnaire may then be expanded with other questions for more in depth study of particular aspects of AMU/AMR in the livestock sector or to fullfil other study objectives. The AMUSE Livestock questionnaire has been tested in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda and from experience takes about 30-40 minutes to complete. The questionniare presented below is the 2 nd version of the tool. The first version has been revised based on experiences of researchers using the tools and a study conducted using cognitive interviews with respondents has helped to restructure the questionnaire and rephrase some of the questions. Check-list before the interview:"},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"✓ Find out and document the broader context of access (including leagalisation related to) to animal health service and pharmaceuticals (incl antimicrobials) for the study site. ✓ Consider other surveys or national inventories that have been made at the study site. ✓ Always pre-teste the questionnaire on farmers. ✓ Consider data-collection format/layout ✓ In preparation for questions on specfic drugs used, get pictures or samples of commonly used drugs (all veterinary drugs, not only antibiotics) and organise them into the following drug classes:"},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify)"},{"index":8,"size":94,"text":"✓ When using drug samples, bring them along as a 'drug basket/box' to ask which of these are commonly used. This may help with recall. ✓ Consider complementing questionnaire by observational data (ideally photo). ✓ Obtaining accurate numbers of livestock can be a challenge in some communities, especially pastoralists. Interviewers should be trained to use proxy indicators or estimates by observation where no direct answers are forthcoming (p.e. question 17). ✓ Ensure ethical clearance for your study has been obtained: details on informed consent, purpose of study, guaranteed anonymity, feedback of information to community"},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"The AMUSE Livestock KAP tool is available electronically (in ODK), for further information and to receive the necessary files, please contact Barbara Wieland at ILRI ([email protected] )."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"3. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Animal specific section -chickens From the drugs shown how many times have you used them in cows in the last 4 weeks. Alternatively ask to see packaging of commonly used drugs and classify according to list below.For drugs used, please indicate the reason for use: multiple options for each drug possible Preparatory work: provide photographs of common veterinary drugs for each of the drug class or provide a box/basket with commonly used drugs, mark drugs or picture of drugs with 'drug class number' as used in drop-Question 24 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above. From the drugs shown how many times have you used them in birds in the last 4 weeks. Alternatively ask to see packaging of commonly used drugs and classify according to list below.For drugs used, please indicate the reason for use: multiple options for each drug possible Preparatory work: provide photographs of common veterinary drugs for each of the drug class or provide a box/basket with commonly used drugs, mark drugs or picture of drugs with 'drug class number' as used in drop-For the two most commonly used drugs Q40 answer the following question (max 2 drugs)-Drug option 1Question 41 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it? From the drugs shown how many times have you used them in pigs in the last 4 weeks.Alternatively ask to see packaging of commonly used drugs and classify according to list below.For drugs used, please indicate the reason for use: multiple options for each drug possible Preparatory work: provide photographs of common veterinary drugs for each of the drug class or provide a box/basket with commonly used drugs, mark drugs or picutre of drugs with 'drug class number' as used in drop-For the two most commonly used drugs Q56 answer the following question (Max 2 drugs) -Drug option 1Question 56 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it? Question 57 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it? From the drugs shown how many times have you used them in sheep and goats in the last 4 weeks.Alternatively ask to see packaging of commonly used drugs and classify according to list below.For drugs used, please indicate the reason for use: multiple options for each drug possible Preparatory work: provide photographs of common veterinary drugs for each of the drug class or provide a box/basket with commonly used drugs, mark drugs or picutre of drugs with 'drug class number' as used in drop-For the two most commonly used drugs in Q74 answer the following questions: (Max 2 Drugs) Option 1Question 75 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, ca be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it? From the drugs shown how many times have you used them in camels in the last 4 weeks. Alternatively ask to see packaging of commonly used drugs and classify according to list below.For drugs used, please indicate the reason for use: multiple options for each drug possible Preparatory work: provide photographs of common veterinary drugs for each of the drug class or provide a box/basket with commonly used drugs, mark drugs or picutre of drugs with 'drug class number' as used in drop-From the drugs shown how many times have you used them in horses and /or donkeys in the last 4 weeks. Alternatively ask to see packaging of commonly used drugs and classify according to list below.For drugs used, please indicate the reason for use: multiple options for each drug possible Preparatory work: provide photographs of common veterinary drugs for each of the drug class or provide a box/basket with commonly used drugs, mark drugs or picutre of drugs with 'drug class number' as used in drop-Did you take part in any campaigns or programs about animal health in the last 12 months?That could for example be vaccination campaigns run by the government or information campaigns run by NGO. Would you say vaccination can be used for any of the following… a. To cure sick animals? If No to the above, for how many days should you not consume the milk of treated animals? …………………days. 137. Do you consume eggs from chicken/ birds who were just treated with drugs? If No to the above, for how many days should you not consume the meat? ……………………days 141. If you hear two of your neighbors talk like this. Would you agree with neighbor A or neighbor B? a. A says: You should always dispose of expired drugs because they may have turned bad B says: Drugs are expensive and usually last longer than what the package says so you can still use them  Agree with A  Agree with B  Don't know b. A says: It is not reasonable to throw away milk from cows treated with antibiotics -the danger is surely exaggerated B says: You need to throw the milk away since it can be dangerous to consume it. Throw away drugs (e.g. in pit latrines or bushes)  Burn or burry  Give away to drug vendors to dispose for me  other, please specifiy……….. Time interview started (HH:MM) 4. Time interview ended (HH:MM) 5. Interview done via interpreter 6. Consent received (signature on form if literate) 7. Respondent's sex Enumerator specifications 8. Enumerator's name (First Name and Last Name) 9. Enumerator's sex Farm specifications 10. District/County 11. Sub-county 12. Parish/Ward 13. Village/ Sub-location 14. GPS Coordinates 15. Type of farm FARM CHARACTERISTICS 16. What animals do you keep? Let the respondent answer freely then probe for the other options Animal specific section -Cows/ Cattle 17. Let's talk about your Cows/ Cattle a. How many bulls above the age of 2 years do you have? b. How many cows above the age of 2 years do you have? c. How many young cattle above the age of 6 months do you have? d. How many calves below the age of 6 months do you have? 18. Are your cows dairy (Milk) or beef (Meat) cows? 18b) What is the breed of your cows (the majority) 19. How are you keeping/ grazing the cows? (multiple answers possible, max 2 options) 20. Do the cows stay at farm or leave the farm for communal grazing? 21. What do you do with the manure from the cows? 22. What feed do you use for the cows? a. Do you use grain or crop residues? b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else? c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed? d. Do you mix your own feed ratios? 23. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent (Automatically generated by tablet) (Automatically generated by tablet)  Yes  No  Yes  No  Male  Female  Male  Female (List of all districts pre-coded)/County (List of all sub counties pre-coded) (List of all parishes pre-coded)/Wards (List of all village pre-coded)/Sub-locations (Automatically generated by tablet)  Household farm  Commercial farm  Cows/Cattle  Pigs  Chickens or other birds  Goats  Sheep  Horses or donkeys  Camels Write number _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________  Dairy  Both dairy and beef  Beef  indigenous  cross-breed  exotic  Zero-grazing  Fenced grazing  Tethered grazing  Pastoral grazing  other  Stay at farm  Communal grazing  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________  Yes  No  Yes  No  Yes  No  Yes  No disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 14 other treatment options, please specify 24. For the two most commonly used drugs Q23 (max. 2 drugs)-Drug Option 1 Question 24 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above. a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which cows were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store/Agrovet  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which cows were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store/Agrovet  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 27. What do you do to keep your cows healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 26. Overall, how much did you spend on veterinary drugs for cows in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know e. Acarrcides __________  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? Including traditional medicines __________ 28. When was the last time a cow was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 29. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 30. What did you do when the cows were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 31. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Community animal health worker  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 32. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 33. What did you do with the milk of the sick animals during and a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other cows  Threw it away  Gave to other animals (p.e. pets, pigs)  Other, please specify 34. What do you normally do if a sick cow did not improve after treatment or died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away  Fed to other animals (p.e. dogs) Other, please specify 35. How many chickens or other birds do you have? Write number Chickens _____________ Turkeys _____________ Ducks _____________ Other: ____________________________ _____________ 36. What is the main purpose of keeping birds  layers (egg production)  mainly for own consumption  mainly for sale  broilers (meat)  mainly for own consumption  mainly for sale  produce Day Old Chicks (DOC )  mainly for own consumption  mainly for sale  mix of the above 37. How are you keeping the chickens?  Housed day and night  Free-range at day -housed at night  Free-range day and night 38. What feed do you use for the chickens? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No d. Other (to specify)----39. What do you do with the manure from the chickens? down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal/Bird Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements/mineral supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 41.  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which chicken/birds were given the drug the last time you used it?  All birds  All birds of a certain age  Sick birds  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal/chicken house  Other: ________________ 44. What do you do to keep your chicken/birds healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Use vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 43. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for chicken/birds in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know g. Dewormer? __________  Don't know h. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know i. Acaricides  Don't know Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? __________ 45. When was the last time a chicken/bird was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 46. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 47. What did you do when the chicken/birds were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 48. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Other animal health service provider (p.e. Community animal health worker)  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 49. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 50. What did you do with the eggs of the sick chicken/bird during and a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other cows  Threw it away 51. What did you do if a sick chicken/ bird did not improve after treatment or died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Animal specific section -pigs 52. Let's talk about your pigs Write number a. How many sows aged over 18 months and have given birth do you have? _____________ b. Boars aged over 1 year do you have? _____________ c. Growers/fatteners over 3 months-1 year do you have? _____________ d. Piglets (<3 moths) do you have? _____________ 53. How are you keeping the pigs?  1= free-range  2= tethered  3= housed 54. What do you do with the manure from the pigs?  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________ 55. What feed do you use for the pigs? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No 56. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements/mineral supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 57.  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which pigs were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which pigs were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:………………..  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 59. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for pigs in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know 60. What do you do to keep your pigs healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 61. When was the last time a pig was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 62. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 63. What did you do when the pigs were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults 0ther animal health service provider (p.e. Community animal health worker)  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 64. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Other animal health service provider (p.e. Community animal health worker)  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ e. Acaricides __________  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? 65. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 66. What did you do if a sick died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Animal specific section -small ruminants (include in herd composition question on sheep/goats) 67. Let's talk about your Sheep and Goats Write number a. How many rams (male sheep) do you have above the age of 1 year? _____________ b. How many ewes (female sheep) above the age of 1 year? _____________ c. How many bucks (male goat) above the age of 1 years? _____________ d. How many does (female goat) above the age of 1 year1? _____________ e. Young (below 1 year) sheep _____________ f. Young (below 1 year) goats _____________ 68. Are your sheep for meat or wool or hair?  Meat  Wool  Hair  Meat and Wool  Meat and Hair 69. Are your goats for meat or dairy or hair?  Dairy  Both dairy and Meat  Meat  Hair  Other 70. How are you keeping the sheep and goats?  Zero-grazing  Fenced grazing  Tethered grazing  Pastoral grazing 71. Do the sheep and goats stay at farm or leave the farm for communal grazing?  Stay at farm  Communal grazing 72. What do you do with the manure from the Sheep and goats?  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________ 73. What feed do you use for the sheep and goats? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No d. Do you use hay or other commercial forages  Yes  No 74. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 75.  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which sheep and goats were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:………………..  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 76. For the two most commonly used drugs in Q74 answer the following questions: (Max 2 Drugs) Option 2 Question 75 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, ca be number of drug class above g. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ h. Which sheep and goats were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought i. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. j. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ k. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No l. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 77. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for cows in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know e. Acaracides  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? __________ 78. What do you do to keep your sheep and goats healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 79. When was the last time a sheep or goat got sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 80. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 81. What did you do when the sheep and goats were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 82. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Community animal health worker  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 83. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 84. What did you do with the milk of the sick animals during and a few days after treatment? For those with dairy goats c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian 97. When was the last time a camel was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago 109. What feed do you use for the horses and /or donkeys? d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know 118. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No c. Where did you sell the eggs?  To Neighbours  To the market  Yes  No c. Incomes from own business other than farming?  No  Don't know  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other goats  Feed it to other animals e.g dogs, pigs  Threw it away 85. What did you do if a sick sheep or goat died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Animal specific section -camels 86. Let's talk about your camels Write number a. How many bulls above the age of 3 years? _____________ b. How many cows above the age of 3 years? _____________ c. Calves _____________ 87. Are your camels for meat or milk cows?  Milk  Both Milk and Meat  Meat  Other 88. How are you keeping the camels?  Zero-grazing  Fenced grazing  Tethered grazing  Pastoral grazing 89. Do the camels stay at farm or leave the farm for communal grazing?  Stay at farm  Communal grazing 90. What do you do with the manure from the camels?  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________ 91. What feed do you use for the camels? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No 92. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 93. For the two most commonly used drugs Q92 answer the following question (Max 2 Drugs) -Option 1 Question 93 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which camels were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from?  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  From other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 94. For the two most commonly used drugs Q93 answer the following question (Max 2 Drugs) -Option 2 Question 94 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which camels were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from?  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 96. What do you do to keep your camels healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 95. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for Camels in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know e. Acaricides __________  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months?  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 98. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 99. What did you do when the camels were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults other animal health service provider (p.e. community animal health worker)  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 100. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Other animal health service provider (p.e. community animal health worker)  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 101. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 102. What did you do with the milk of the sick animals during and a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other cows  Threw it away 103. What did you do if a sick camel died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes e. Acaracides __________  Don't know  To Middle men/ traders  To others  Yes  Yes 144. Who is the household head? That is the  1 Myself d. Salary from employment  No c. To make animals grow faster (fattening)?  No one who makes important decisions about  2 My husband/wife  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? 125. a. Did you sell any live animals during the last 12 months?  Yes  Yes  Don't know the household.  2 Other person e. Salary from casual work  No  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No d. Do you use commercial hay / forages  Yes  No 110. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) consumption 111. For the two most commonly used drugs Q110 answer the following question (Max 2 drugs) -Option 1 a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Did you sell eggs throughout the year, at certain months or occasionally?  Throughout the year  Certain months/periods  Occasionally 129. Does your household get income (s) from any of the following? a. Incomes from crop farming?  Yes  No b. Incomes from animal farming?  No b. To prevent animals from being sick?  Yes  Yes  Don't know  7 University degree (undergraduate)  No  5 Secondary school (S1-S6)  6 Vocational training (specify) __________________ 133.  Yes  4 Primary school (P1-P7) (P8) Question 111 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above 117. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  No  Other: _____________________________ 124. a. Did you sell any eggs during the last 12 months?  Yes  3 Non-formal education for ________ years  Neighbour/friend  2 Adult literacy  Other animal health service provider c. Where did you sell the milk?  To others household head male, household head female, grandparents Rank 3: 143. What is your education level?  1 Never went to school  Other: _____________________________  To Middle men babies/newborns, boys < 10y, girls <10y, teenage boys, teenage girls, Rank 2:  Neighbour/friend  To the Cooperative dairy products? Please rank the top 3 household members: Rank 1:  Other animal health service provider  To Neighbours 128b) Who in the household is given priority to consume meat and Drop-down with options of HH members  Pharmacist/drug store 13 Drugs intended for human 113. What do you do to keep your horses and /or donkeys healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 114. When the last time a horse and / or donkey was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 115. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 116. What did you do when the horse and or donkey were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 123. a. Did you sell any milk during the last 12 months?  No b. Did you sell milk throughout the year, at certain months or occasionally?  Government veterinarian 142. What is your age? _______ (years old)  Occasionally  Don't consume drugs?  Private veterinarian  Certain months/periods  Once a month 132. Who do you turn to normally for advice on  No-one  Throughout the year  Once a week DEMOGRAPHICS  Three times a week  Yes 128. How many times does the household consume meat  Everyday health service provider in the last 12 months?  No  Consult traditional healer 119. What did you do if a sick horse or donkey died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Questions on farm 120. Are you the owner of the animals?  1 Yes  2 No 121. What work are you involved in when it comes to the animals? a. Are you involved in the daily work of feeding and taking care of the animals?  1 Yes  2 No b. Are you involved in selling animals or products from the animals such as milk or eggs?  1 Yes  2 No c. Are you involved in treating or looking after the animals when sick?  1 Yes  2 No 122. Do you have employees or casual workers that are involved in working with the animals?  1 Yes  2 No  No d. Did you sell live animals throughout the year, at certain months or occasionally?  Throughout the year  Certain months/periods  Occasionally e. Where did you sell the live animals?  To Neighbours  To the market  To Middle men/ traders  To others 126. How many times does the household consume eggs  Everyday  Three times a week  Once a week  Once a month  Don't consume 126 b) Who in the household is given priority to consume eggs? Please rank the top 3 household members: babies/newborns, boys < 10y, girls <10y, teenage boys, teenage girls, household head male, household head female, grandparents Drop-down with options of HH members Rank 1: Rank 2: Rank 3: 127. How many times does the household consume milk  Everyday  Three times a week  Once a week  Once a month  Don't consume 127b) Who in the household is given priority to consume milk and dairy products? Please rank the top 3 household members: babies/newborns, boys < 10y, girls <10y, teenage boys, teenage girls, household head male, household head female, grandparents Drop-down with options of HH members Rank 1: Rank 2: Rank 3:  Yes f. Income from any other source (specify)  No g. Other (specify) -may include brewing, mining, sale of forest products-wood , firewood etc 130. How big part of your household´s income comes from the animals?  1 All of the income  2 Major part of the income  3 Half of the income  4 Minor part of the income  5 None of the income 131. Let's talk about animal health services? a. Who is your primary provider of animal health service?  1 traditional healer  2 Community animal health worker  3 Private veterinarian (qualification unknown)  4 Private veterinarian (qualified)  5 Official/government veterinarian  6 other, specify…………………………………. b. Did you call for professional help, for example a qualified veterinarian in the last 2 months?  Yes  No c. Did you use laboratory services, for example for testing blood samples from your animals in the last 12 months?  Yes  No d.  Yes  No e. Have yor reported any disease problems to any animal  Yes 134. Would you say antibiotics can be used for any of the following… a. To cure sick animals?  Yes  No  Don't know b. To prevent animals from being sick?  Yes  No  Don't know c. To make animals grow faster (fattening)?  Yes  No  Don't know 135. Do you consume milk, from animals who were just treated with drugs  1 Yes  2 No 136.  1 Yes  2 No 138. If No to the above, for how many days should you not consume the eggs? …………………days 139. Do you consume meat from animals who were just treated with drugs.  1 Yes  2 No 142 Farmers Training a. Have you ever attended any training for farmers on disease prevention and control Yes/No  Detecting animal diseases ]  Reporting animal diseases C Who provided the trainings? (max 3 answers)  Government /official vets  Private vets  Extension system  NGOs  Church organization  Farmer Cooperatives  Drug company  Pharmacy/ Agrovet owners  Others D What do you remember from the training? Open question E What did you change after the training? Open question 145. Do you sometimes use drugs intended for humans in animals?  Yes  No 146. What is the reason for doing that? 140. b. B What were you trained on? Multiple answers possible  Treating animal diseases 147. Do you sometimes use drugs intended  Yes  Use of veterinary drugs etc for animals in humans?  No  Other -148. What is the reason for doing that? Time interview started (HH:MM) 4. Time interview ended (HH:MM) 5. Interview done via interpreter 6. Consent received (signature on form if literate) 7. Respondent's sex Enumerator specifications 8. Enumerator's name (First Name and Last Name) 9. Enumerator's sex Farm specifications 10. District/County 11. Sub-county 12. Parish/Ward 13. Village/ Sub-location 14. GPS Coordinates 15. Type of farm FARM CHARACTERISTICS 16. What animals do you keep? Let the respondent answer freely then probe for the other options Animal specific section -Cows/ Cattle 17. Let's talk about your Cows/ Cattle a. How many bulls above the age of 2 years do you have? b. How many cows above the age of 2 years do you have? c. How many young cattle above the age of 6 months do you have? d. How many calves below the age of 6 months do you have? 18. Are your cows dairy (Milk) or beef (Meat) cows? 18b) What is the breed of your cows (the majority) 19. How are you keeping/ grazing the cows? (multiple answers possible, max 2 options) 20. Do the cows stay at farm or leave the farm for communal grazing? 21. What do you do with the manure from the cows? 22. What feed do you use for the cows? a. Do you use grain or crop residues? b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else? c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed? d. Do you mix your own feed ratios? 23. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent (Automatically generated by tablet) (Automatically generated by tablet)  Yes  No  Yes  No  Male  Female  Male  Female (List of all districts pre-coded)/County (List of all sub counties pre-coded) (List of all parishes pre-coded)/Wards (List of all village pre-coded)/Sub-locations (Automatically generated by tablet)  Household farm  Commercial farm  Cows/Cattle  Pigs  Chickens or other birds  Goats  Sheep  Horses or donkeys  Camels Write number _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________  Dairy  Both dairy and beef  Beef  indigenous  cross-breed  exotic  Zero-grazing  Fenced grazing  Tethered grazing  Pastoral grazing  other  Stay at farm  Communal grazing  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________  Yes  No  Yes  No  Yes  No  Yes  No disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 14 other treatment options, please specify 24. For the two most commonly used drugs Q23 (max. 2 drugs)-Drug Option 1 Question 24 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above. a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which cows were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store/Agrovet  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which cows were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store/Agrovet  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 27. What do you do to keep your cows healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 26. Overall, how much did you spend on veterinary drugs for cows in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know e. Acarrcides __________  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? Including traditional medicines __________ 28. When was the last time a cow was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 29. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 30. What did you do when the cows were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 31. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Community animal health worker  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 32. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 33. What did you do with the milk of the sick animals during and a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other cows  Threw it away  Gave to other animals (p.e. pets, pigs)  Other, please specify 34. What do you normally do if a sick cow did not improve after treatment or died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away  Fed to other animals (p.e. dogs) Other, please specify 35. How many chickens or other birds do you have? Write number Chickens _____________ Turkeys _____________ Ducks _____________ Other: ____________________________ _____________ 36. What is the main purpose of keeping birds  layers (egg production)  mainly for own consumption  mainly for sale  broilers (meat)  mainly for own consumption  mainly for sale  produce Day Old Chicks (DOC )  mainly for own consumption  mainly for sale  mix of the above 37. How are you keeping the chickens?  Housed day and night  Free-range at day -housed at night  Free-range day and night 38. What feed do you use for the chickens? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No d. Other (to specify)----39. What do you do with the manure from the chickens? down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal/Bird Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements/mineral supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 41.  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which chicken/birds were given the drug the last time you used it?  All birds  All birds of a certain age  Sick birds  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal/chicken house  Other: ________________ 44. What do you do to keep your chicken/birds healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Use vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 43. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for chicken/birds in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know g. Dewormer? __________  Don't know h. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know i. Acaricides  Don't know Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? __________ 45. When was the last time a chicken/bird was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 46. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 47. What did you do when the chicken/birds were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 48. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Other animal health service provider (p.e. Community animal health worker)  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 49. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 50. What did you do with the eggs of the sick chicken/bird during and a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other cows  Threw it away 51. What did you do if a sick chicken/ bird did not improve after treatment or died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Animal specific section -pigs 52. Let's talk about your pigs Write number a. How many sows aged over 18 months and have given birth do you have? _____________ b. Boars aged over 1 year do you have? _____________ c. Growers/fatteners over 3 months-1 year do you have? _____________ d. Piglets (<3 moths) do you have? _____________ 53. How are you keeping the pigs?  1= free-range  2= tethered  3= housed 54. What do you do with the manure from the pigs?  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________ 55. What feed do you use for the pigs? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No 56. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements/mineral supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 57.  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which pigs were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which pigs were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:………………..  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 59. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for pigs in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know 60. What do you do to keep your pigs healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 61. When was the last time a pig was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 62. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 63. What did you do when the pigs were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults 0ther animal health service provider (p.e. Community animal health worker)  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 64. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Other animal health service provider (p.e. Community animal health worker)  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ e. Acaricides __________  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? 65. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 66. What did you do if a sick died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Animal specific section -small ruminants (include in herd composition question on sheep/goats) 67. Let's talk about your Sheep and Goats Write number a. How many rams (male sheep) do you have above the age of 1 year? _____________ b. How many ewes (female sheep) above the age of 1 year? _____________ c. How many bucks (male goat) above the age of 1 years? _____________ d. How many does (female goat) above the age of 1 year1? _____________ e. Young (below 1 year) sheep _____________ f. Young (below 1 year) goats _____________ 68. Are your sheep for meat or wool or hair?  Meat  Wool  Hair  Meat and Wool  Meat and Hair 69. Are your goats for meat or dairy or hair?  Dairy  Both dairy and Meat  Meat  Hair  Other 70. How are you keeping the sheep and goats?  Zero-grazing  Fenced grazing  Tethered grazing  Pastoral grazing 71. Do the sheep and goats stay at farm or leave the farm for communal grazing?  Stay at farm  Communal grazing 72. What do you do with the manure from the Sheep and goats?  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________ 73. What feed do you use for the sheep and goats? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No d. Do you use hay or other commercial forages  Yes  No 74. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 75.  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which sheep and goats were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:………………..  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 76. For the two most commonly used drugs in Q74 answer the following questions: (Max 2 Drugs) Option 2 Question 75 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, ca be number of drug class above g. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ h. Which sheep and goats were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought i. Where did you get the drug from? Enumerator to probe if veterinary drug store/Agrovet/ Human Pharmacy/from market for the specific name of the store to be used later while collecting veterinary drug samples  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. j. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ k. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No l. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 77. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for cows in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know e. Acaracides  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? __________ 78. What do you do to keep your sheep and goats healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 79. When was the last time a sheep or goat got sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 80. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 81. What did you do when the sheep and goats were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 82. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Community animal health worker  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 83. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 84. What did you do with the milk of the sick animals during and a few days after treatment? For those with dairy goats c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian 97. When was the last time a camel was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago 109. What feed do you use for the horses and /or donkeys? d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know 118. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No c. Where did you sell the eggs?  To Neighbours  To the market  Yes  No c. Incomes from own business other than farming?  No  Don't know  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other goats  Feed it to other animals e.g dogs, pigs  Threw it away 85. What did you do if a sick sheep or goat died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Animal specific section -camels 86. Let's talk about your camels Write number a. How many bulls above the age of 3 years? _____________ b. How many cows above the age of 3 years? _____________ c. Calves _____________ 87. Are your camels for meat or milk cows?  Milk  Both Milk and Meat  Meat  Other 88. How are you keeping the camels?  Zero-grazing  Fenced grazing  Tethered grazing  Pastoral grazing 89. Do the camels stay at farm or leave the farm for communal grazing?  Stay at farm  Communal grazing 90. What do you do with the manure from the camels?  Use as fertilizer  Use as fuel (incl. biogas)  Sell it (or trade it)  Give it away  Leave it where dropped Other: _______________________ 91. What feed do you use for the camels? a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes  No 92. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) 13 Drugs intended for human consumption 93. For the two most commonly used drugs Q92 answer the following question (Max 2 Drugs) -Option 1 Question 93 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which camels were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from?  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  My own knowledge  Advice from veterinarian  From other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 94. For the two most commonly used drugs Q93 answer the following question (Max 2 Drugs) -Option 2 Question 94 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Which camels were given the drug the last time you used it?  All animals  All animals of a certain age  Sick animals  Animals that should be sold  Animals that was just bought c. Where did you get the drug from?  From veterinary drug store  From human pharmacy  From the vet  From other animal health service provider  From the market  From traders passing by  From friends/neighbours/family  Other:……………….. d. How did you know how to use the drug?  Advice from other animal health service provider  Advice from pharmacist/drug store  Advice from neighbour/friend  Advice from package/label of the drug  Advice from other: ________________ e. Was the drug treatment successful?  Yes, completely  Yes, partly  No f. Where do you normally keep the drug (s) bought?  In a cabinet  In a shelf  In the animal house  Other: ________________ 96. What do you do to keep your camels healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 95. How much did you spend on veterinary drugs for Camels in the last 4 weeks? In total (in local currency) Provide split of total if possible a. Vitamins? __________  Don't know b. Vaccines? __________  Don't know c. Dewormer? __________  Don't know d. Antibiotics? __________  Don't know e. Acaricides __________  Don't know f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months?  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 98. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 99. What did you do when the camels were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consult traditional healer  Consults other animal health service provider (p.e. community animal health worker)  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 100. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  Other animal health service provider (p.e. community animal health worker)  Neighbour/friend  Other: _____________________________ 101. Do you keep records of treatments administered? Yes No 102. What did you do with the milk of the sick animals during and a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Mixed it with milk from other cows  Threw it away 103. What did you do if a sick camel died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away a. Do you use grain or crop residues?  Yes e. Acaracides __________  Don't know  To Middle men/ traders  To others  Yes  Yes 144. Who is the household head? That is the  1 Myself d. Salary from employment  No c. To make animals grow faster (fattening)?  No one who makes important decisions about  2 My husband/wife  No b. Do you use household waste from your home or from somewhere else?  Yes f. Any other drugs used during the last 12 months? 125. a. Did you sell any live animals during the last 12 months?  Yes  Yes  Don't know the household.  2 Other person e. Salary from casual work  No  No c. Do you use commercial pre-mixed feed?  Yes  No d. Do you use commercial hay / forages  Yes  No 110. down menu Drug Number of times used Prevent disease Treat sick animal Fattening Other 1 Vaccines 2 Antihelmintics (Albendazol, etc.) 3 Acaricides (ectoparasites) 4 Tetracyclines 5 Sulphonamides 6 Penicillin (and combinations with Penicillin) 7 Fluoroquinolones 8 Macrolides 9 Aminoglycosides 10 Other antibiotics (specify) 11 Vitamins/Iron supplements 12 Other drugs (specify) consumption 111. For the two most commonly used drugs Q110 answer the following question (Max 2 drugs) -Option 1 a. Who administered the drug the last time you used it?  I myself  Veterinarian  Other: ___________________________ b. Did you sell eggs throughout the year, at certain months or occasionally?  Throughout the year  Certain months/periods  Occasionally 129. Does your household get income (s) from any of the following? a. Incomes from crop farming?  Yes  No b. Incomes from animal farming?  No b. To prevent animals from being sick?  Yes  Yes  Don't know  7 University degree (undergraduate)  No  5 Secondary school (S1-S6)  6 Vocational training (specify) __________________ 133.  Yes  4 Primary school (P1-P7) (P8) Question 111 needs to be asked twice (for 2 drugs), add field for 'drug' ID, can be number of drug class above 117. Who did you turn to for help with diagnosis and treatment?  No-one  Private veterinarian  Government veterinarian  Pharmacist/drug store  No  Other: _____________________________ 124. a. Did you sell any eggs during the last 12 months?  Yes  3 Non-formal education for ________ years  Neighbour/friend  2 Adult literacy  Other animal health service provider c. Where did you sell the milk?  To others household head male, household head female, grandparents Rank 3: 143. What is your education level?  1 Never went to school  Other: _____________________________  To Middle men babies/newborns, boys < 10y, girls <10y, teenage boys, teenage girls, Rank 2:  Neighbour/friend  To the Cooperative dairy products? Please rank the top 3 household members: Rank 1:  Other animal health service provider  To Neighbours 128b) Who in the household is given priority to consume meat and Drop-down with options of HH members  Pharmacist/drug store 13 Drugs intended for human 113. What do you do to keep your horses and /or donkeys healthy, so they don't get sick? Do not read options!  Clean/disinfect  Vet drugs (incl. vaccine)  Keep well fed  Special feed (incl. supplements)  Fencing  Avoid mixing with other herd/flock  Other: _____________________________ 114. When the last time a horse and / or donkey was sick?  <1 month ago  1-6 months ago  7-12 months ago  >12 months ago  Never been sick 115. What kind of disease was it? (select most appropriate group based on clinical sign or disease name given)  Respiratory  Digestive/intestinal tract  Reproductive  Mastitis  Sudden death  Skin disease/wounds  External parasites  Neurological signs  Other _____________________ 116. What did you do when the horse and or donkey were sick? (do not read option, select most suitable answer)  Use traditional medicine  Use medicine from the veterinary drug store (self-bought)  Consults community animal health worker  Consult official veterinarian  Consult private veterinarian  Vet applied/left drugs  Other: _____________________________ 123. a. Did you sell any milk during the last 12 months?  No b. Did you sell milk throughout the year, at certain months or occasionally?  Government veterinarian 142. What is your age? _______ (years old)  Occasionally  Don't consume drugs?  Private veterinarian  Certain months/periods  Once a month 132. Who do you turn to normally for advice on  No-one  Throughout the year  Once a week DEMOGRAPHICS  Three times a week  Yes 128. How many times does the household consume meat  Everyday health service provider in the last 12 months?  No  Consult traditional healer 119. What did you do if a sick horse or donkey died a few days after treatment?  Used it normally (consume or sell)  Buried the dead animal  Burnt the dead animal  Threw it away Questions on farm 120. Are you the owner of the animals?  1 Yes  2 No 121. What work are you involved in when it comes to the animals? a. Are you involved in the daily work of feeding and taking care of the animals?  1 Yes  2 No b. Are you involved in selling animals or products from the animals such as milk or eggs?  1 Yes  2 No c. Are you involved in treating or looking after the animals when sick?  1 Yes  2 No 122. Do you have employees or casual workers that are involved in working with the animals?  1 Yes  2 No  No d. Did you sell live animals throughout the year, at certain months or occasionally?  Throughout the year  Certain months/periods  Occasionally e. Where did you sell the live animals?  To Neighbours  To the market  To Middle men/ traders  To others 126. How many times does the household consume eggs  Everyday  Three times a week  Once a week  Once a month  Don't consume 126 b) Who in the household is given priority to consume eggs? Please rank the top 3 household members: babies/newborns, boys < 10y, girls <10y, teenage boys, teenage girls, household head male, household head female, grandparents Drop-down with options of HH members Rank 1: Rank 2: Rank 3: 127. How many times does the household consume milk  Everyday  Three times a week  Once a week  Once a month  Don't consume 127b) Who in the household is given priority to consume milk and dairy products? Please rank the top 3 household members: babies/newborns, boys < 10y, girls <10y, teenage boys, teenage girls, household head male, household head female, grandparents Drop-down with options of HH members Rank 1: Rank 2: Rank 3:  Yes f. Income from any other source (specify)  No g. Other (specify) -may include brewing, mining, sale of forest products-wood , firewood etc 130. How big part of your household´s income comes from the animals?  1 All of the income  2 Major part of the income  3 Half of the income  4 Minor part of the income  5 None of the income 131. Let's talk about animal health services? a. Who is your primary provider of animal health service?  1 traditional healer  2 Community animal health worker  3 Private veterinarian (qualification unknown)  4 Private veterinarian (qualified)  5 Official/government veterinarian  6 other, specify…………………………………. b. Did you call for professional help, for example a qualified veterinarian in the last 2 months?  Yes  No c. Did you use laboratory services, for example for testing blood samples from your animals in the last 12 months?  Yes  No d.  Yes  No e. Have yor reported any disease problems to any animal  Yes 134. Would you say antibiotics can be used for any of the following… a. To cure sick animals?  Yes  No  Don't know b. To prevent animals from being sick?  Yes  No  Don't know c. To make animals grow faster (fattening)?  Yes  No  Don't know 135. Do you consume milk, from animals who were just treated with drugs  1 Yes  2 No 136.  1 Yes  2 No 138. If No to the above, for how many days should you not consume the eggs? …………………days 139. Do you consume meat from animals who were just treated with drugs.  1 Yes  2 No 142 Farmers Training a. Have you ever attended any training for farmers on disease prevention and control Yes/No  Detecting animal diseases ]  Reporting animal diseases C Who provided the trainings? (max 3 answers)  Government /official vets  Private vets  Extension system  NGOs  Church organization  Farmer Cooperatives  Drug company  Pharmacy/ Agrovet owners  Others D What do you remember from the training? Open question E What did you change after the training? Open question 145. Do you sometimes use drugs intended for humans in animals?  Yes  No 146. What is the reason for doing that? 140. b. B What were you trained on? Multiple answers possible  Treating animal diseases 147. Do you sometimes use drugs intended  Yes  Use of veterinary drugs etc for animals in humans?  No  Other -148. What is the reason for doing that?  "}],"sieverID":"1e92408c-5bad-4228-9375-03b7eff12c2e","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations who globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b38b0e58923805d60dfdf8552ad9c88","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22f755c4-d862-4a0e-96d9-454c93ab15f1/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Partnerships for Sustainable Intensification Research in Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Causes of Yield Gaps","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• Agro-ecological, e.g. climate variability; land degradation"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Institutional, e.g. poor policies and investments"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Un-informed management at household level (Classification trees identify & prioritise determinants of yield gaps on farms fields)"}]},{"head":"FtF: Global hunger is solvable","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) Program was created to facilitate this process with smallholder farm households in sub-Saharan Africa."}]},{"head":"Requires innovative partnerships:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"(i) within the research community (multidiscipline integration) for developing context specific technological solutions, and (ii) with the private sector and civil society for taking these solutions to scale."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Catching up to yield potential is possible if more farmers can access and efficiently utilize the available and new knowledge and technological innovations that address intensification of farming in a sustainable manner."}]},{"head":"Present location of Africa RISING action sites","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Partnership within research community","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Manure","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food-feed crops","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Forages, trees","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Feed","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Draft","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Soil nutrients"}]},{"head":"Efficient Throughput","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Improved Inputs","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Increased Outputs …to generate multi-discipline sustainable intensification innovations for households","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Cross-cutting: markets, institutions, gender, policy, etc.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Yield Gap (SSA -maize): 177%  Trade deficit: US $ million 10,057 Global Cereals production (tonnes, average 2010-2013). FAO, 2015. "},{"text":"Examples Livestock and soils research partnership: Tanzania Mean water productivity trends among forage grass-forage legume combinations (pasture -CC suitability). Kizito et al., 2016. During the annual planning meetings, partners generate influence diagrams and prioritise entry points. Photo creditof Agriculture and GRAD introduced 45 feed troughs, 20 feed shade and 42 DLS technologies to 25 kebeles within and outside Africa RISING sites Sinana Woreda Office of Agriculture and GRAD (NGO) facilitated purchase and distribution of 10.1 tons of Africa RISING improved seeds of durum wheat and 33.5 tons of potato to more than 240 farmers leadership of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in organizing and hosting Farmer Field Days on research fields has raised the number of technology users to more than 3000. Lessons 1. The challenge of filling the yield gap is a multi-institutional task 2. It is important to identify the right partners (people within an institution, rather than the institution itself) with appropriate commitment 3. Partnerships evolve over time and become stronger with better common understanding of the joint goals 4. In well functioning partnerships, individual interests become secondary. However, recognition of individuals' unique \"value-add\" is important. 5. Partnerships are not meant to last for ever, they end when a certain goal is achieved, or if they become dysfunctional 6. Sustaining partnerships depends financial investment Thank you Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation africa-rising.net The presentation has a Creative Commons licence. You are free to re-use or distribute this work, provided credit is given to ILRI. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b449093b-930e-4709-82ed-0d59a58b98d0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bf23fe6e082d6807f123072cb8696eb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/brief/8371-Briefing-Notes.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Cross-Border Multi-Stakeholder Platform of Tana-Kipini-Laga Badana Bushland and Seascape, Kenya-Somali Border Post the Biodiversity Management Program","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The Horn of Africa, particularly the eastern Africa region, covering the coastal strip of Kenya, Somalia Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Djibouti have a historical context characterised by conflict and insecurity. Periodic mass migration and break down of law and order has weakened the grassroots' institutional fabric, thus threatening not only peoples' livelihoods but also the sustainability of natural systems. In line with the state of the region, the Biodiversity Management Program (BMP) of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) of the Horn of Africa was established to promote sustainable biodiversity conservation in the Tana-Kipini-Laga Badana Bushland and Seascape---a cross-border landscape of the extreme southern part of Somalia and north-eastern Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"The cross-border area is characterised by frequent migration, weak grassroot institutional structures, severe land degradation of the forest-bushland due to poaching of valuable tree species such as Brachylaena huillensis and Combretum schumannii which are preferred by the carving and construction industry and use of wood energy for cooking and heating. Further, selective logging for timber and poles continues to be a major problem. Regeneration of some logged-over forests are prevented by repeat slashing and burning by the Aweer people and trampling by livestock in southern Somalia as the main livelihood system is pastoralism. In addition, new settlers from other parts of Kenya are coming in and clearing large swathes of land for cultivation along the Hindi-Bodhei Junction, west of the Lungi Forest."}]},{"head":"Overview of the cross-border multi-sectoral platform (MSP)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Established in 2016, the Tana-Kipini-Laga Badana Bush Land and Seascape (TKLBBS) MSP operates in the north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia border (Fig 1). The land and seascape is an important, highly diverse and threatened biodiversity area with high concentration of endemic species, approximately 550 plant, 6 mammals and 9 bird species, as well as several more species of arthropods. The border is economically underdeveloped with high incidence of poverty, consequently imposing pressures on land and ecosystem services. The TKLBBS MSP consist of 20 members representing community interest groups, civil society groups (CSO), nongovernment organizations (NGOs), government agencies and ministries such as Kenya Wildlife Services, Kenya Forestry Department, Somalia Ministry of Environment, and Ministries of Foreign Affairs of Kenya and Somalia, and international organizations such as World Agroforestry (ICRAF) and IUCN. The purpose of the MSP is to oversee the establishment of a cross border network of protected areas in the TKLBBS, including the mapping of management options and facilitating a roadmap of institutions required to strengthen partnerships, enhance trust building, and create a conducive environment for communities to improve their economic and social wellbeing through sustainable cross border ecosystems management."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"The TKLBBS MSP is an institutional construct facilitated by the BMP-an initiative funded by European Commission (EC) through the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) of the Horn of Africa. The BMP aims to contribute to poverty reduction by improving the social and economic wellbeing of the populations in the IGAD region, through better regional integration in the environment sector. The IGAD-led BMP's first phase ended in April of 2018. Seeing the important roles of the MSP in achieving project success, the second phase of the BMP was conceptualized with intentions to further strengthen the MSP not only in Tana-Kipini, but across several project sites/landscapes covered under the BMP."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"1 An Agricultural Engineer (Soil and Water Engineering option) and also the CIFOR-ICRAF country representative for Zambia. Email: [email protected] 2 A biodiversity scientist, Email: [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Briefing Note","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MSP purpose and actors","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Based on the main purpose of the MSP, which is to promote cross-border cooperation in biodiversity conservation and landscape management, and to facilitate the establishment of a trans-boundary protected area, an inclusive strategy was developed to bring on board different stakeholders and governance structures at various levels with a view to minimizing potential conflicts.  As shown in Figure 2, various governance levels (regionallandscape-farm-plot-tree levels) involve different actors."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"At the tree-plot-farm level, numerous households of different ethnicities and socio-economic backgrounds are involved in various farm-oriented activities. At landscape level (beyond farm), households form into interest-groups such as on water harvesting, agroforestry, afforestation, and honey production and marketing. Interest groups are then formed into clusters that further aggregate into a coalition of clusters at the national-regional level. Trans Boundary Steering Committees (TBSC) were created with responsibilities to monitor progress and advice on cross-cutting issues related to various project activity implementation. The MSP is constituted at the nationalregional level, composing 20 members, including technical partners (e.g., ICRAF, IUCN, KWS), the IGAD technical team, cluster representatives, and cross-border partners and members of the TBSCs. At the household level, decisions made are mainly about improving farm productivity, which could have little impact to the larger landscape. However, decisions made by community interest groups do influence attitudes, and can improve total productivity at the larger landscape level, as well as initiate sustainability measures. Coalitions of groups into clusters, and their representation in the MSP influence and enhance resilience and sustainability of the whole landscape."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"The landscape is mainly populated by pastoralists and agriculturists. The Orma and Pokomo communities occupy the western and southwestern side of the Witu Forest Ecosystem (WFE); the Awer people on the northern side;"},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Kikuyu and a mixture of other migrant communities including the Kisii, Luhya and Luo on the eastern side; and the Sanya, Mijikeda and the Swahili people to the west of WFE; whilst the Somali pastoralists occupy the northern part of the TKLBB land and seascape. Due to sensitivity brought about by historical conflicts, all stakeholders have been involved in planning activities, including negotiations on various natural resource management aspects."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"Gender representation was dependent on activities being undertaken, and capacity building activities has been well represented in terms of men and women participation."}]},{"head":"Developing institutional infrastructure for cross-border biodiversity management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The quest for sustainable management of natural resources amid increasing demand for local livelihoods provides a daunting mission for leaders in the Horn of Africa."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Conflicts and strife further exacerbate an already complex situation. Thus, in developing multi-stakeholder initiatives for the BMP, it was clear from the onset that the structure, function, and mode of operation needed to reflect prevailing circumstances and must be always inclusive."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"In the TKLBBS, divergent interests exist amongst and between different actors at various levels (farm-landscaperegion). Divergent interests grow and complexity arises as the number of stakeholders increase across different levels of the action area; consequently, the action of actors At the national-regional level, full representation of clusters makes up the MSP wherein policy makers, biodiversity managers and experts, local communities, civil society, NGOs, educators, national government agencies, and international partners (e.g., ICRAF) can interact and make decisions that impact directly on the target beneficiaries. ICRAF engages and collaborates with the Ministry of Energy, Environment and Mineral Resources and Ministry of Environment and Tourism at the regional level. by more stakeholders at the national-regional level MSP"}]},{"head":"MSP contributions to the BMP and impacts","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"At the onset of the project, mistrust was such that it was not even possible to link the different partner ministries in the management of the project. However, once the multi-stakeholder formation process was at cluster level, different sector partners were able to relate better through specific activities jointly undertaken. The multi-stakeholder dialogues conducted and support to community members, thus helped to build the much, needed trust in implementing the BMP. The MSP has served as bridge to build consensus amongst stakeholders. Since it has served to represent a much wider representation of different viewpoints across several vertical levels of governance, it has become an effective trust nurturing instrument. The landscape conservation committees have effectively used the dialogue processes to engage various stakeholders in developing various rules and ensuring higher participation in safeguarding natural resources. In a region strewn with civil conflicts and uncertainty over the future, the dialogue processes present opportunities for communities to look beyond peace-making, to discuss trade and development."},{"index":2,"size":185,"text":"The MSP's strong point is enabling the emergence of leadership in various conservation and development sectors that are deemed crucial for livelihood improvement. It also provides an important link in harmonized leadership amongst transboundary communities. One other major success of the MSP has been in trust building, enabling diverse groupings in terms of tribe, clans, interests and areas and nationalities to manage a discussion on sustainability and livelihoods. The MSP's role in helping to build institutional capacity through its members that represent various stakeholder-groups or sectors at different levels, and engagement in decision making around transboundary issues has been considerably recognized, in view of the volatile and hostile nature of the areas since the collapse of the Siad Barre's regime in the late 80s. Buy-in, and good working relationships amongst MSP members has accelerated project implementation, and generated ripple effects beyond the initial biodiversity agenda. Some of the spinoffs were increased internal and cross-regional trade, and the revival of cottage industries such as honey production and horticulture. Further, the MSP processes inspired IGAD and other donors to scale out the process in other transboundary areas."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Photo 1. Consultative talks with Maisha Masha women in Lamu County on setting BMP priority activities."}]},{"head":"Photo by ICRAF","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The successful implementation of the BMP, which covered more than 4,000 farmers can be greatly attributed to the use of multi-stakeholder engagement processes. An example of multi-stakeholder-led process is demonstrated by KFS in its agroforestry and rehabilitation of protected areas and farmlands. Through this activity, KFS, collaborated with ICRAF, Lamu Conservation Trust, community leaders, farmers, where each stakeholder played distinct roles. ICRAF provided technical support on species selection, planting niches and germplasm support, Lamu conservation trust and community leaders supported in mobilizing the community while the community provided labor and land for planting the trees. Through this activity, farmers established individual nurseries, woodlots and boundary tree planting on their farms, and protected areas were enriched through natural regeneration and replanting of degraded areas."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"The MSP was also instrumental in promoting coexistence between human and wildlife through community sensitization and awareness raising about the 2013 wildlife act. The stakeholders involved in the activity were KWS, local leaders, ICRAF, and the Northern Rangeland Trust (NRT-Coast), during which 500 farmers were sensitized about the 2013 Wildlife Act."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The training impacts were realized within a short period with reduced cases of human wildlife conflict. Through the same collaborative efforts, NRT-Coast managed to develop community management and development plans and established a community monitoring system for Hanshak Nyongoro conservancy. Through the management plan, Hanshak Nyongoro conservancy managed to fundraise for some money from the Lamu county government and partners to support school children in the area."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"To expand livelihood sources for the communities in the area, the MSP engaged the stakeholders in participatory mapping on various livelihood options in the area during which high value crops and bee keeping were prioritized for support. Structures that facilitated access to water and those for water management were also installed. Line ministries from Departments of agriculture, irrigation, livestock in both Kenya and Somalia were involved in the intervention. These efforts resulted in community groups being supported with over 60 langstroth beehives, 3 centrifuges, and bee harvesting kits. Technical support was also provided on apiary management, colony establishment, value addition and market linkages. In a good season, farmers could harvest more than thrice in a year with each hives producing a minimum of 10 liters and a maximum of 25 liters of honey. Half a liter of honey retails at KES 400 at farm gate."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"In Somalia, the BMP milestones were realized through the engagement of the "}]},{"head":"The MSP---post the Biodiversity Management Program","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"All the 20 representatives of various stakeholder groups in TKLBBS are still, in theory, members of the MSP. However, the end of BMP phase 1 and the effects of COVID 19 made it difficult to secure additional funding to operate the MSP as a unit. There was no more funding to support the MSP cross-border operations such as in organizing meetings and capacity development activities, which in turn reduced the number of stakeholders reached. High turnover of contact persons in the project site in Somalia also limited MSP level activities. Some cross-border dialogues were also halted due to lack of funds, including dialogues around the formation of transboundary protected area management plan to enhance cross border biodiversity conservation. Access to funds, to support the MSP operations was found highly important to scale up cross-border interventions."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Despite these challenges however, individual MSP members sustained their efforts to support biodiversity conservation initiatives within their respective localities leveraging on similar project and government support. Notably, in line with its development and policy mandates, the Lamu County government scaled up some interventions by leveraging on the community groups/platforms established by the MSP during the BMP. Officials from the County government's Department of Agriculture mobilized more community members to embrace soil water conservation technologies and water management systems. As a result, more than 20 additional farmers have installed ground water systems with solar pumping technologies to improve farm productivity. The Sun Culture company has partnered with the project to supply the highly demanded solar pumps, consequently opening a new office in Tana Delta for ease of access to the community. Food and nutritional security have improved especially with integration of vegetable and fruit trees on farms to supplement cereal and maize production."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Furthermore, farmer-champions who were members of the MSP have engaged other communities beyond the initial project sites especially in Mpeketoni area. The champions mobilized several farmers who organized themselves and invited key experts to train them especially on tree nursery establishment and management practises, sustainable land management systems, food-based value chains and water management. So far, the group has engaged a water expert to prospect ground water in Mpeketoni."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Model farmers who were capacitated through activities of the MSP have expanded their initiatives--for example, one farmer who owned a small tree nursery now operates commercially, selling seedlings to other farmers, the Kenya Forestry Service, and private companies."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"The establishment of honey collection center in Hindi was birthed through the initiatives of the BMP on honey value chain development through trainings, provision of beehives, bee processing equipment and training on entrepreneurship. The Lamu County government established the center to serve as market for the farmers to increase their livelihood resilience and environmental health."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"In Somalia, through the district officer of Ras Kamboni who is also a member of the MSP, the local community expanded the water pan rehabilitated by the project to meet the water needs of the cross-border communities in Lamu and Somalia. The water pan was affected by the drought experienced in 2020 and 2021 due to very low to no rainfall in the year forcing some of the community members to migrate to other areas."},{"index":7,"size":92,"text":"Many of the initiated interventions have found a life of its own within the communities, such as the food-based value chain intervention that included incorporating fruit trees, bee keeping, high value vegetables and agroforestry trees on farms for increased nutritional diversity, access to firewood through pruning of trees and income obtained from sale of surplus fruits and vegetables. With increased farm productivity, instances of harvesting wood from protected areas to earn livelihood has reduced as farmers spent more time on the farm and are able to earn income from their farm activities."},{"index":8,"size":276,"text":"Efforts by the MSP to reach more community members with the message of biodiversity conservation has been made part in normal community meetings. In these meetings, model farmers deliver the message to other community members on importance of conservation, how to diversify livelihoods and the structures required to support livelihood initiatives. Armed with knowledge, several farmers have approached micro finance systems to finance their farms on loan with agreed repayment period. Some farmers have also reached out to experts to train them on water abstraction and solar pumping technologies to enhance land productivity. With increased farm productivity cases of slash and burn agriculture is reduced as farmers can meet their demand with the current land which in turn give land ample time to regenerate and allowance emergence of saplings that grows to trees. This with designated grazing areas facilitated natural regeneration process enhancing land health. After BMP phase 1, major milestones that have been recorded by the MSP include expansion of about 5 individual nurseries to commercial nurseries. During the first phase of the BMP project, farmers obtained technical knowledge on nursery establishment and management and over 10 farmers started their individual tree nurseries-of these, 5 farmers have now expanded the size, number and diversity of tree species raised in nurseries, and are serving several markets that include KFS, private companies, schools, individual farmers, and their own farms. Moreover, with increased honey production and harvest due to use of better hives and technical knowhow, the Lamu County government established a honey collection center where farmers aggregate their produce for sale to get better prices. The center allows farmers gain better prices and market for their produce."},{"index":9,"size":42,"text":"The project intervention has recorded a spill over in neighboring areas especially in Mpeketoni in Lamu County where over 20 non project farmers have installed ground water systems for supplemental irrigation to improve their farm productivity for better incomes and food security."}]},{"head":"Insights on the sustainability of the MSP","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"In the wake of the COVID 19 pandemic, reduced donor funding, and shift in donor priorities, local institutions and structures provide huge opportunity to sustaining and expanding landscape restoration interventions on both sides of the cross-border landscape. On the Kenya side, the Lamu Country government took on much of the roles of the MSP by rallying the support of community stakeholders and local agencies, to continue and expand the promising interventions initiated through the MSP during the first phase of the BMP."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"However, cross-border MSP activities especially meetings and dialogues between MSP members from the Kenya and Somalia side have seen a decline after the BMP project. This is concerning as the lack of continuous engagement in dialogues and learning exchanges between stakeholders might create a vacuum in leadership and coordination, which can be detrimental to the cross-border landscape. An important lesson learned from TKLBBS is the need for a strong and long-term cross-border MSP that can outlive a three-to-four-year project. In the case of TKLBBS, it is important to provide continuous support to the cross-border MSP, to bridge utterly disparate stakeholders and foster lasting cooperation, peace and order, and effective cross-border governance. Since it is in the best interest of Kenya and Somalia to conserve biodiversity and the integrity of landscape and people in TKLBBS, it is only apt for both countries to strengthen and institutionalise the cross-border MSP, so it can continue to serve its purpose and function. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 .Figure 2 . Figure 1. Tana-Kipini (Kenya) and Laga-Badana (Somalia) Bushland and Seascape "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Illustration of coalitions of clusters that make the platform "},{"text":"Photo 2 . Photo 2. Community members desilting the water pan in Ras Kamboni, Somalia. Photo by ICRAF "},{"text":"Photo 3 . Photo 3. Mobilization of Local communities in Ras Kamboni, Somalia on Natural Resource Management. Photo by ICRAF "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Ministry of Environment and Tourism of Juba land state, Ministry of Livestock, Forestry & Range (IGAD focal point), and the Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals of Juba land state. The support received from consultants from the Savana Consultancy Limited, Iimaan Relief and Development Organization and Somali Wildlife and Natural History Society who coordinated and supported in the implementation of activities on rainwater harvesting, honey value chain, biodiversity assessment and developing a vision and roadmap for establishment of a conservation area in Somalia.  "}],"sieverID":"773b0fda-15fd-4b0c-a9e0-172fc1febc73","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c08f72838b10acff0c69d30e3638834","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7cb8856b-1cb0-42c6-82f4-e4b10e4bc699/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Cost-Benefit Analysis of Africa RISING Technologies in Tanzania: Summary of Results","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"This paper provides a summary of cost benefit analyses conducted on various agricultural technologies being tested by Africa RISING Program (AR) in Tanzania. The overall objective of the analyses is to assess the profitability of agricultural technologies from individual farmers' point of view. The studies try to answer two main research questions: • Are the technologies better than the base technologies? (a relative assessment) • How much profitable the technologies are? (an absolute assessment) We considered 59 technologies under trial in Babati and Kongwa-Kiteto AR research zones. Eleven technologies are used as base technologies to assess the performance of the AR technologies. The base technologies constitute farmers traditional practices. The technologies are being evaluated by biological scientists with regards to their contribution to productivity improvement or reduce loss among several crops, namely: maize, pigeon pea, African eggplant, Amaranths, and tomato)"}]},{"head":"Data Collection and Analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"A total of 1400 data observations from 11 separate agronomic trials were considered. We used both biological and economic data which include grain yield, grain prices, variable input costs, and land cost. Yield data were collected from agronomic trials. We used mean market output prices for 2014 which were collected from secondary sources. Costs of labor, land, and draft power were estimated from Tanzania AR baseline data for the target crops while costs of commercial inputs (seeds, and fertilizers) were collected from through key informant interviews."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"We computed three economic indicators i.e. gross margin (TZS/ha) (GM), benefit-costratio (BCR) ,and returns to labor (TZS/person day) (RL). We conducted sensitivity analysis with respect to output price changes, input price changes, and wage rate changes."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"show that almost all of the AR technologies are either as good as the base technologies or better in terms of the three economic indicators (Table 1). The mean BCR ranges from 0.8 to 7. The grand mean is 1.7 indicating that economic returns of the technologies are on average higher by 70% than the breakeven point. The mean RL is 9097 TZS/personday which is also higher than the average daily wage rate in the study areas (i.e. 3596 TZS per day) as well as the official minimum wage rate in Tanzania for agricultural activities (i.e. 3846.5TZS per day)."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"There are apparent differences among the three categories of technologies. High value crops (HVC) technologies are better than soil fertility management (SFM) technologies as well as postharvest (PH) technologies in terms all the three indicators used in our analysis. Similarly, PH technologies are better than SFM in terms of gross margin and BCR. These differences are statistically significant at least at 5% level. However, the latter two categories are not different in terms of returns to labor."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Most of the technologies have positive benefits (Figure 2). The degree of change apparently varies among the technology categories as one moves across the profit thresholds. For instance, most of the SFM technologies could yield 50% or less profit. In contrast, HVC technologies mostly exceed 50%. One of the three PH technologies have a profitability level which is greater than 200%. Benefits are more sensitive to changes in output prices than to changes in input prices and wage rates (Figure 3). This appears to be similar across the three technology types. However, SFM technologies are more sensitive to changes than the other two categories of technologies. "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"More than one-half of the technologies are better than the base technologies in terms of profits. Profit levels are more sensitive to changes in output prices than changes in input prices or wage rates. The results are indicative but not conclusive as we used only a one-year data for most of the technologies. Moreover, benefits have been considered from individual farmers' point of view but not from society's point of view.  "}]},{"head":"Acknowledgement","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Africa RISING is supported by USAID as part the Feed the Future Initiative of the US Government. The authors are grateful to the donor for the financial support. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: No. of AR technologies by profit levels "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Sensitivity of profits of AR technologies "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Location of the study areas "},{"text":"Table 1 : AR technologies compared to base technologies  "}],"sieverID":"69e38a7d-77f8-4d5c-9594-2c24a7f5711a","abstract":"Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING will create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c8e6dc41fbd19a23ebde3c5994a35f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/582b2098-97bf-490e-a40d-5d87fca566ed/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"CGIAR Initiative on One Health","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"outcomes (EOI-Os)","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"EOI-O 1: Policymakers at the national level allocate more resources (finances, personnel, facilities, etc.) for zoonoses sensitization, surveillance, and response."}]},{"head":"EOI-O 2:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Government and private sector partners support the integration of an ECM approach for informal food business operators into the regulatory system. EOI-O 3: Stakeholders and policymakers are informed of CGIAR evidence on the extent of AMU, and the economic and production impacts of lower and better targeted AMU in key production systems (poultry and aquaculture)."}]},{"head":"EOI-O 4:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Role of water in the transmission of pathogens and AMR, and proposed solutions for waste and water management, are recognized in national One Health planning processes of at least two out of seven project countries (e.g., Ethiopia, India)."}]},{"head":"EOI-O 5:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"One Health policy planning processes in at least three out of seven project countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Viet Nam) take into account CGIAR evidence on gendered constraints and incentives of small-and medium-scale food system actors, tradeoffs across policy goals, and the magnitude and distribution of impacts."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"OECD DAC Climate marker adaptation score* Score 0: Not targeted: The activity does not target the climate mitigation, climate adaptation, and climate policy objectives of CGIAR, as put forward in its strategy."}]},{"head":"OECD DAC Climate marker mitigation score*","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Score 1: Significant: The activity contributes in a significant way to any of the three CGIAR climate-related strategy objectives -namely, climate mitigation, climate adaptation and climate policy, even though it is not the principal focus of the activity."}]},{"head":"OECD DAC Gender equity marker score*","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Score 1B: Gender-responsive: On the top of the minimum requirements for 1A, the Initiative/project includes at least one explicit gender equality outcome, and the Initiative/project team has resident gender expertise or capacity."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"The Initiative/project includes gender equality indicators and monitors the participation of and differential benefits for diverse men and women."}]},{"head":"Website link","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/07-protecting-human-health-through-a-onehealth-approach/ *The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) markers refer to the OECD DAC Rio Markers for Climate and the gender equality policy marker. For climate adaptation and mitigation, scores are: 0 = Not targeted; 1 = Significant; and 2 = Principal. The CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform has adapted the OECD gender marker, splitting the 1 score into 1A and 1B. For gender equality, scores are: 0 = Not targeted; 1A = Gender accommodative/aware; 1B = Gender responsive; and 2 = Principal. These scores are derived from Initiative proposals, and refer to the score given to the Initiative overall based on their proposal."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Fruit and vegetables on sale alongside other food items in a local market in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Photo credit: Geraldine Klarenberg/ILRI"}]},{"head":"Overall summary of progress against the theory of change","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"During the first year of the CGIAR Research Initiative on One Health, we conducted research to validate assumptions underlying our theory of change and laid the groundwork for several large-scale studies that will begin in 2023:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• We established a strong working relationship with government authorities in a semi-pastoral region in Kajiado, Kenya, who have officially committed funding from government budgets for personnel to work with us on a mosquito vector surveillance program (a sign of strong support)."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• A census of rural slaughter facilities in six Kenyan counties was conducted, which will serve as the sampling frame for a randomized controlled trial (RCT) testing the impact of providing training, water infrastructure, and incentives on meat handlers' hygiene behavior."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"• Protocols for RCTs testing the impact of food safety training and grading systems on business outcomes and food safety among small-scale meat vendors in Viet Nam and Ethiopia were designed, and piloted in Viet Nam."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Results of a study testing the impact of food safety information on product choice validated the assumption underlying the food safety grading approach that informed consumers will demand safer food."},{"index":6,"size":38,"text":"• Observational studies on the use of antimicrobials in poultry (Kenya) and fish (Bangladesh) production were conducted to inform strategies to tackle antimicrobial resistance (AMR); farm-level use was catalogued and quantified, and farmer practices and perceptions were documented."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"• Watersheds in Ethiopia and India were selected for the characterization and modeling of zoonotic pathogens, and pollution monitoring plans for these were developed. Stakeholder analyses were conducted to inform our strategy for the uptake of evidence on the role of water in the transmission of pathogens and AMR and associated solutions."}]},{"head":"Section 2 Initiative progress on science and towards End of Initiative outcomes","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"A Maasai pastoralist taking livestock to drink from the Olkitikiti dam in Olkitikiti village, Kiteto, Tanzania Photo credit: ILRI/Fiona Flintan All of the above activities were based on continuous engagement with national and subnational partners. Several more formal consultations were conducted, including:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• A workshop with public health and veterinary officials in five Kenyan counties, to understand constraints to hygienic practices in slaughterhouses, and the feasibility of engaging meat inspection officers in disease surveillance."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• A stakeholder meeting with Viet Nam government officials in animal health and forestry management, and local and international researchers to identify wildlife meat value chains for zoonoses risk assessments."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Capacity development of water authority staff in water quality monitoring in Ethopia"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"In addition, we built the capacity of partners through training and curriculum development:"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• Veterinary officers from Rwanda and Burundi were trained on serologic and molecular screening procedures for Rift Valley fever virus to strengthen laboratory screening of zoonoses."},{"index":7,"size":70,"text":"• Curriculum benchmarks for a Bachelor of Science degree in food safety were jointly developed with the Inter-University Council of East Arica (IUCEA). The development of detailed protocols and submission of these for ethical and administrative approval sets the stage for two RCTs, which will provide rigorous evidence on the impact of providing training and access to a voluntary food safety rating program to meat vendors in traditional market settings."}]},{"head":"By piloting this approach in partnership with local government authorities in","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Viet Nam, we are building public sector support and capacity for scaling."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Curriculum benchmarks adopted by the IUCEA will contribute to the quality of training received by the next generation of food safety scientists, technicians, and regulators in East Africa, and inculcate a risk-based orientation to food safety that supports the ECM approach to informal food business operators."}]},{"head":"EOI-O 3: Stakeholders and policymakers are informed of CGIAR evidence on the extent of AMU, and the economic and production impacts of lower and better targeted AMU in key production systems (poultry and aquaculture).","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Results from studies on the use of antimicrobials in poultry (Kenya) and fish (Bangladesh) production will be communicated to stakeholders (e.g., AMR scientific community, including donors and United Nations (UN) agencies with AMR agendas, ministries of agriculture, and national AMR committees in the intervention countries), and will inform the design of an RCT to assess the economic impacts of lower and better targeted AMU in these production systems. Studies in Ethiopia and India characterizing the load of zoonotic pathogens and modeling their transmission through water will provide critical missing evidence on the role of water in the transmission of pathogens and AMR."}]},{"head":"EOI-","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Stakeholder engagements are ongoing to inform communication strategies and the integration of findings into national One Health policy processes. The water quality modelling framework we have developed serves as a foundation for analyzing AMR in aquaculture contexts."}]},{"head":"EOI-O 5: One Health policy","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"planning processes in at least three out of seven project countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Viet Nam) take into account CGIAR evidence on gendered constraints and incentives of small-and medium-scale food system actors, tradeoffs across policy goals, and the magnitude and distribution of impacts."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Experimental results showing that low-income consumers choose safer food when informed of relative food safety risks demonstrates that lack of information is an important constraint to developing markets that reward food safety. This supports the assumption required for this outcome, that providing visible food safety ratings will motivate vendors to adopt better practices."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Questions on the gender and roles of food business operators and employees have been incorporated into surveys to be fielded in 2023.   2"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"We are on track to deliver outputs that will contribute to Work Package and Initiative outcomes by the end of 2024."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"3"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"We are on track to deliver outputs that will contribute to Work Package and Initiative outcomes by the end of 2024."}]},{"head":"4","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"We have selected sites, built partnerships, and designed and validated (most) methodological approaches as promised for 2022. "}]},{"head":"Section 4 Initiative key results","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"This section provides an overview of 2022 results reported by One Health. These results align with the CGIAR Results Framework and One Health's theory of change. Further information on these results is available through the CGIAR Results Dashboard. Results by country"}]},{"head":"Overview","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Partnerships and One Health's impact pathways"},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"In our first year, the CGIAR Research Initiative on Health engaged with partners -including local research and government -to validate study objectives and develop research designs. Our academic collaborators have strong networks in national policy circles and can act as champions to promote the evidence generated through the initiative, moving it toward policy impact, and governmental partners are potential adopters of the innovations we develop and scale."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"In Ethiopia, building on previous work, our Initiative continues to partner with Addis Ababa University and Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority, and to increase capacities in the monitoring of waterborne pathogens to better understand pollution sources and microbial hazards in the watershed for more targeted remedial actions. In Western Kenya, we have engaged officials in five county governments through a meeting to discuss the gaps between the regulations governing slaughterhouse hygiene and practice, and we plan to engage meat inspectors in the delivery of an intervention to close this gap. This type of engagement of government entities throughout the research process is expected to generate ownership of the evidence we produce, and to increases the likelihood of its application to policy."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"In Viet Nam, we have developed strong partnerships with the National Institute of Veterinary Research and Hanoi University of Public Health to conduct risk-based prioritization, implementation, and evaluation of interventions and integration of research outputs into government policies and programs. We worked with Viet Nam One Health institutions to integrate the national food safety working group into the Viet Nam One Health Partnership (OHP) to engage more government partners in food safety discussion. A similar contract was drawn between the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifique en Côte d'Ivoire. In India, the project is partnering with the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, and BAIF, which have strong networks with researchers, policymakers, and local communities in the country."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Finally, we are working closely with private sector partners. In Kenya, the development of a mobile phone surveillance system is being developed in partnership with a private information and communication technology company called Badili Innovations. The University of Liverpool is also a key partner involved in the implementation of the integrated One Health surveillance and control measures for zoonotic diseases in Kajiado County.  "}]},{"head":"Portfolio linkages and One Health's impact pathways","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Implement One Health activities in different phases.","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"There are many planned activities in many different countries."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Phasing (with entry to some countries delayed to phase 2 from 2025) will allow us to better focus and manage our work given budget constraints. Food safety is critical for health, nutrition, and development. Formal and informal food businesses employ millions of people -many of them women -and can improve profits, reduce waste, and contribute to development goals when products are safe and of good quality."}]},{"head":"Improve external communications","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"But the burden associated with unsafe food is huge. Thirty-one priority food hazards caused 600 million illnesses and 420,000 deaths globally in 2010, resulting in a burden of 33 million disabilityadjusted life years (DALYs) 1 . Heavy metals caused an additional 1 million illnesses, over 56,000 deaths, and more than 9 million DALYs in 2015 2 . The annual health burden of foodborne disease is more than 42 million DALYs per year -comparable with that of tuberculosis or malaria."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Reflective of this concern, food safety is one of the key priorities of the CGIAR Initiative on One Health, which employs a holistic One Health approach to reduce AMR, improve food and water safety, and manage zoonotic diseases, leading to better human, animal, and environment health."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Africa has the highest per capita foodborne disease burden of any continent, and the East African Community is particularly affected. In Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, the 2019 cost from loss of productivity due to foodborne diseases was estimated at US$800 million, US$600 million, and US$400 million respectively 3 . There are few food Section 8 Key result story For the East African Community to lower the public health costs associated with foodborne disease, food safety professionals are urgently needed. But many tertiary institutes in the region have out-of-date curricula that are not tailored for local contexts and do not adequately cover the informal sector."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"In this context, the IUCEA worked with ILRI and the FAO to develop curriculum benchmarks for a bachelor of science program in food safety to serve as a yardstick for curriculum developers in universities in the East African Community."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"The IUCEA was uniquely placed for this task because it coordinates higher education and research for the East African Community, including developing curriculum benchmarks for tertiary education that set out core competencies that employers can expect all graduates to possess, ensuring that tertiary education is of satisfactory standard and aiding in student, graduate, and staff mobility."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"To develop the benchmarks, ILRI collaborated with a technical working group of experts from universities in the East African Community partner states, while in-country stakeholders were engaged through an e-Delphi consultative approach."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"The IUCEA ran the final review and validation, and the benchmarks were approved in 2022. The curriculum covers a wide range of subject areas, ranging from food microbiology and human anatomy to science communication, value chains, and climate change 5 ."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"Building on this success, ILRI and partners will implement a survey to assess the capability of universities to implement the food safety benchmarks and identify what support is needed to ensure the curriculum benchmarks are integrated into curricula. This development supports the Food Safety Strategy for Africa 2022-2036. If adopted within IUCEA's membership of 133 universities in East Africa alone, thousands of undergraduate students would have improved access to relevant and quality food safety education and be better equipped to contribute to food safety improvement in the region."},{"index":9,"size":55,"text":"\" ILRI and partners will implement a survey to assess the capability of universities to implement the food safety benchmarks and identify what support is needed to ensure the curriculum benchmarks are integrated into taught curricula. Building on this momentum, ILRI is working with IUCEA to develop the benchmarks for MSc of One Health. \""},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"Hung Nguyen-Viet, scientist, International Livestock Research Institute"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"5 We are on track to deliver outputs that will contribute to Work Package and Initiative outcomes by the end of 2024.KEYOn track•Annual progress largely aligns with Plan of Results and Budget and Work Package theory of change • Can include small deviations/issues/ delays/risks that do not jeopardise success of Work Package Delayed • Annual progress slightly falls behind Plan of Results and Budget and Work Package theory of change in key areas • Deviations/issues/delays/risks could jeopardise success of Work Package if not managed appropriately Off track • Annual progress clearly falls behind Plan of Results and Budget and Work Package theory of change in most/all areas • Deviations/issues/delays/risks do jeopardise success of Work Package "},{"text":"Work Package 1 . 2 . 4 . Several bilateral projects implemented at ILRI support One Health development in the same selected for Work Package 1. Some of these projects, e.g., the One Health Research, Education and Outreach Centre in Africa, are also supporting integrated One Health interventions for multiple zoonoses. Work Package Several bilateral food safety projects across Asia and Africa focus on the assessment of health and economic risks of foodborne diseases in traditional markets. Work Package 2 is currently developing interventions at the markets to reduce these risks by engaging consumers and governmental stakeholders. Work Package 3. The AMR partnership formed in the CGIAR AMR Hub continues with the same four CGIAR Centers in this Initiative. We are leveraging knowledge and networks from ongoing bilateral projects to inform Initiative activities. Similarly, we are using the approaches of the Initiative for other bilateral projects (e.g., drug bin survey tool in Malawi and Uganda). Work Package The work on business models on RRR of animal waste builds on a larger program from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) on RRR from fecal sludge and municipal wastewater. The work on modeling zoonotic pathogens and AMR in watersheds builds upon work of the CGIAR AMR Hub. "},{"text":" Increasing the visibility of our work could help to further our impact as well as identify other potential collaborators who work in the same space.Developintegrated research and monitoring systems, including internal systems to track progress toward stated outputs/outcomes. Coordinating data collection such that it can capture both research and reporting needs has several advantages, including reduced research fatigue of participants, reduced information burden for researchers, and improved tracking of adherence to initiative design. While some Work Packages already work closely on specific projects, there are opportunities to further integrate our work and improve collective impact, including through improved information-sharing and identification of synergies.Curriculum benchmarking deployed to boost food safety for the East African Community's 300 million inhabitantsThe burden of foodborne illness from eating unsafe poses a threat to the health of the East African Community's 300 inhabitants. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), in partnership with the IUCEA, has developed undergraduate food safety curriculum benchmarks toward building the capacity of the region's food safety professionals to ensure the production and sale of safe food and, ultimately, improved health and food security. "},{"text":"Fruit and vegetables on sale alongside other food items in a local market in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Photo credit: Geraldine Klarenberg/ILRI safety inspectors, and most of them are concentrated in the export and high-end food commodity markets, meaning local and more informal markets, where of the population shops, are left largely unexamined4 . Food safety is also a critical component enhancing fair trade and market access across the region, in accordance with the African Union Malabo Declaration's goal of threefold growth in intra-African trade in agricultural commodities by 2025. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"EOI-O 1: Policymakers at the national level allocate more resources (finances, personnel, facilities, etc.) for zoonoses sensitization, surveillance, and response. This is a simple, linear, and static representation of a complex, non-linear, and dynamic reality. Feedback loops and connections between this Initiative and other Initiatives' theories of change are excluded for clarity.    Teams from CGIAR's three Action Areas -System Transformation, Teams from CGIAR's three Action Areas -System Transformation,    Resilient Agrifood Systems and Genetic Innovation -worked to Resilient Agrifood Systems and Genetic Innovation -worked to    develop an improved set of Action Area outcomes in October develop an improved set of Action Area outcomes in October    2022. Since this was near the end of the reporting cycle for 2022, 2022. Since this was near the end of the reporting cycle for 2022, EOI -End of Initiative outcome Nutrition, Health, and Food Security it was decided not to update the theories of change based on EOI -End of Initiative outcomeNutrition, Health, and Food Securityit was decided not to update the theories of change based on A woman with fish caught using gill net in Bangladesh. Photo credit: Md. Masudur Environmental Health and Biodiversity Rahaman/WorldFish Initiative-level theory of change diagram outcomes in time for the 2022 reporting cycle. AA -Action Area IA -Impact Area SDG -Sustainable Development Goal Poverty Reduction, Livelihoods, and Jobs Gender Equality, Youth, and Social Inclusion other stakeholders, the decision was made to update their Climate Adaptation and Mitigation these new Action Area outcomes. The exception to this is Genetic Innovation -for this Action Area, as the new outcomes had already been widely discussed among the relevant Initiatives, and with its advisory group of funders and Progress by End of Initiative outcome A woman with fish caught using gill net in Bangladesh. Photo credit: Md. Masudur Environmental Health and Biodiversity Rahaman/WorldFish Initiative-level theory of change diagram outcomes in time for the 2022 reporting cycle. AA -Action Area IA -Impact Area SDG -Sustainable Development Goal Poverty Reduction, Livelihoods, and Jobs Gender Equality, Youth, and Social Inclusion other stakeholders, the decision was made to update their Climate Adaptation and Mitigation these new Action Area outcomes. The exception to this is Genetic Innovation -for this Action Area, as the new outcomes had already been widely discussed among the relevant Initiatives, and with its advisory group of funders and Progress by End of Initiative outcome EOI Policymakers at the national level allocate more resources (finances, a ordable healthy diets for the 3 billion IA End hunger for all and enable By involving local government partners in the analysis of hotspot maps of Work Package 1: Emerging and AA -Resilient Agrifood Systems neglected zoonoses Global funding agencies and national governments use research evidence in EOI Policymakers at the national level allocate more resources (finances, a ordable healthy diets for the 3 billion IA End hunger for all and enable By involving local government partners in the analysis of hotspot maps of Work Package 1: Emerging and AA -Resilient Agrifood Systems neglected zoonoses Global funding agencies and national governments use research evidence in the development of strategies, policies,  personnel, facilities, etc.) for zoonoses zoonotic disease, we are building capacity among key partners for the people who do not currently have the development of strategies, policies,personnel, facilities, etc.) for zoonoses zoonotic disease, we are building capacity among key partners for the people who do not currently have and investments to drive sustainable transformation of food, land, and water  sensitization, surveillance, and response effective targeting of resources. By training veterinary officers on advanced access to safe and nutritious food and investments to drive sustainable transformation of food, land, and watersensitization, surveillance, and response effective targeting of resources. By training veterinary officers on advanced access to safe and nutritious food systems to meet multiple CGIAR Impact  laboratory screening techniques, we are ensuring that the capacity to absorb systems to meet multiple CGIAR Impactlaboratory screening techniques, we are ensuring that the capacity to absorb Area targets  additional resources will be present. Through stakeholder consultations on Area targetsadditional resources will be present. Through stakeholder consultations on   the national disease surveillance systems, we are co-developing a roadmap the national disease surveillance systems, we are co-developing a roadmap Work Package 2: Food safety toward greater investment. Government and private sector partners EOI Work Package 2: Food safetytoward greater investment.Government and private sector partners EOI    support the integration of an ECM support the integration of an ECM    approach for informal food business approach for informal food business    operators into the regulatory system operators into the regulatory system Work Package 3: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) EOI Stakeholders and policymakers are informed of CGIAR evidence on the Work Package 3: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)EOI Stakeholders and policymakers are informed of CGIAR evidence on the    extent of AMU, and the economic and extent of AMU, and the economic and    production impacts of lower and better production impacts of lower and better    targeted AMU in key production targeted AMU in key production    systems (poultry and aquaculture) systems (poultry and aquaculture) Work Package 4: Water   Work Package 4: Water    EOI EOI    Role of water in the transmission of Role of water in the transmission of    pathogens and AMR, and proposed pathogens and AMR, and proposed    solutions for waste and water solutions for waste and water    management, are recognized in the management, are recognized in the    national One Health planning processes national One Health planning processes    of at least two out of seven project of at least two out of seven project    countries (e.g. Ethiopia, India) countries (e.g. Ethiopia, India) Work Package 5: Economics,  Work Package 5: Economics, governance, and behavior  governance, and behavior    EOI EOI    One Health policy planning processes in One Health policy planning processes in    at least three out of seven project at least three out of seven project    countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Viet countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Viet    Nam) take into account CGIAR evidence Nam) take into account CGIAR evidence    on gendered constraints and incentives on gendered constraints and incentives    of small-and medium-scale food system of small-and medium-scale food system    actors, tradeo s across policy goals, actors, tradeo s across policy goals,    and the magnitude and distribution of and the magnitude and distribution of    impacts impacts  "},{"text":"EOI-O 2: Government and private sector partners support the integration of an ECM approach for informal food business operators into the regulatory system.   "},{"text":"O 4: Role of water in the transmission of pathogens and AMR, and proposed solutions for waste and water management, are recognized in the national One Health planning processes of at least two out of seven project countries   "},{"text":"Cost-effectiveness and public/private benefits. Most of the activities have commenced, although more time was used initially to develop the required tools and research compliance certificates. Work Package progress rating  Work Package progress rating Work Package 5: WORK Economics, governance, and behavior PACK AGE TRAFFIC LIGHT / RATIONALE  A live chicken vendor weighs a chicken Hung Yen province, Vietnam. Work Package 5: WORK Economics, governance, and behavior PACK AGE TRAFFIC LIGHT / RATIONALEA live chicken vendor weighs a chicken Hung Yen province, Vietnam.    Photo credit: Nguyen Ngoc Photo credit: Nguyen Ngoc Output Output 1 Outcome Outcome  EOI EOI Huyen/ILRI Output Output 1Outcome OutcomeEOI EOIHuyen/ILRI Characterization/modeling of Estimates of cost-e ectiveness, Improved stakeholder awareness Awareness increases among Role of water in the transmission One Health policy planning Characterization/modeling of Estimates of cost-e ectiveness,Improved stakeholder awareness Awareness increases amongRole of water in the transmission One Health policy planning loads, concentrations, and human distribution of public and private on the risks from waterborne technical agencies, research of pathogens and AMR, and processes in at least three out of loads, concentrations, and human distribution of public and privateon the risks from waterborne technical agencies, researchof pathogens and AMR, and processes in at least three out of exposure to selected waterborne benefits, and implications for the pathogens networks, and funders of how proposed solutions for waste seven project countries (e.g., exposure to selected waterborne benefits, and implications for thepathogens networks, and funders of howproposed solutions for waste seven project countries (e.g., pathogens (including ARB) in financing of interventions to prevent economics, behavior, and gender and water management, are Bangladesh, India, Viet Nam) take pathogens (including ARB) in financing of interventions to preventeconomics, behavior, and genderand water management, are Bangladesh, India, Viet Nam) take two watersheds transmission of zoonotic disease, influence One Health risks recognized in One Health into account CGIAR evidence on two watersheds transmission of zoonotic disease,influence One Health risksrecognized in One Health into account CGIAR evidence on improve food safety, and reduce   planning processes of two gendered constraints and improve food safety, and reduceplanning processes of two gendered constraints and antimicrobial resistance   out of seven project countries incentives of small-and antimicrobial resistanceout of seven project countries incentives of small-and    (i.e. Ethiopia, India) medium-scale food system actors, (i.e. Ethiopia, India) medium-scale food system actors, Business models for resource, recovery, and reuse (RRR) of animal waste co-developed with Evidence on the business impact of, and food business operator demand for, participation in voluntary food   tradeo s across policy goals, and the magnitude and distribution of impacts Business models for resource, recovery, and reuse (RRR) of animal waste co-developed with Evidence on the business impact of, and food business operator demand for, participation in voluntary foodtradeo s across policy goals, and the magnitude and distribution of impacts local stakeholders safety upgrading and rating system    local stakeholders safety upgrading and rating system (Enabling Capacitating Motivating    (Enabling Capacitating Motivating system), to serve as proof of concept    system), to serve as proof of concept for the scalability and sustainability of    for the scalability and sustainability of Analysis of the relative such systems as a stepwise model for    Analysis of the relative such systems as a stepwise model for contribution to food safety risks the improvement of food safety in    contribution to food safety risks the improvement of food safety in of the use of polluted waters in informal markets    of the use of polluted waters in informal markets two selected food value chains    two selected food value chains Evidence on the e ect of    Evidence on the e ect of capacity-building and incentives for    capacity-building and incentives for improved food safety practices at key value chain nodes  of pollution control measures on health. improved food safety practices at key value chain nodesof pollution control measures on health.   Business models for resource, recovery, and Business models for resource, recovery, and Evidence on the relative risks of alternative foods and the e ect of risk  reuse (RRR) of livestock waste. An online survey Evidence on the relative risks of alternative foods and the e ect of riskreuse (RRR) of livestock waste. An online survey Characterization and modeling of zoonotic information on consumer food choice was disseminated for identification and pre- Characterization and modeling of zoonotic information on consumer food choicewas disseminated for identification and pre- pathogens in watersheds. Watersheds were characterization of cases on RRR from animal waste pathogens in watersheds. Watersheds werecharacterization of cases on RRR from animal waste selected according to predefined criteria and in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). A long selected according to predefined criteria andin low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). A long stakeholder consultations (Akaki in Ethiopia and Work Package 5 list of RRR cases is in development, with 70 cases to adopt a food safety technology. Study protocols stakeholder consultations (Akaki in Ethiopia and Work Package 5list of RRR cases is in development, with 70 cases to adopt a food safety technology. Study protocols Song in India). Monitoring plans and stakeholder progress against the theory of change identified so far. A total of four RRR cases were were developed and ethical clearance obtained Song in India). Monitoring plans and stakeholder progress against the theory of changeidentified so far. A total of four RRR cases were were developed and ethical clearance obtained analysis for uptake were developed in Ethiopia and characterized in detail. Business models from for RCTs testing the impact of incentives for analysis for uptake were developed in Ethiopia andcharacterized in detail. Business models from for RCTs testing the impact of incentives for are in development in India. Data collected from the successful cases will be synthesized and promoted better hygiene practices at animal slaughter are in development in India. Data collected from thesuccessful cases will be synthesized and promoted better hygiene practices at animal slaughter first water quality monitoring camp in Ethiopia was We published an opinion piece, A One Health for adoption and replication in selected sites. and meat retail. first water quality monitoring camp in Ethiopia was We published an opinion piece, A One Healthfor adoption and replication in selected sites. and meat retail. analyzed, resulting in an improved understanding approach to plant health, in which we argue for the Water safety risks and interventions in critical Relative food risk and consumer behavior. Results analyzed, resulting in an improved understanding approach to plant health, in which we argue for theWater safety risks and interventions in critical Relative food risk and consumer behavior. Results of urban wastewater pollution impacts on river incorporation of One Health thinking and cost- points along the livestock value chain. We worked from an experimental study indicate that providing of urban wastewater pollution impacts on river incorporation of One Health thinking and cost-points along the livestock value chain. We worked from an experimental study indicate that providing microbiomes and associated hazards in the Akaki benefit analysis to address tradeoffs at the with work packages to integrate data collection on consumers information on the relative food safety microbiomes and associated hazards in the Akaki benefit analysis to address tradeoffs at thewith work packages to integrate data collection on consumers information on the relative food safety catchment, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. We also intersection of environmental, human, and animal water access throughout the Initiative. For example, risk of alternative foods increases consumption of catchment, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. We also intersection of environmental, human, and animalwater access throughout the Initiative. For example, risk of alternative foods increases consumption of published a water quality modeling framework for health. We developed a study design evaluating the we integrated input questions about water source the safer option. This supports the assumption that published a water quality modeling framework for health. We developed a study design evaluating thewe integrated input questions about water source the safer option. This supports the assumption that evaluating antibiotic resistance in aquatic impacts of a slaughterhouse hygiene intervention in into food safety surveys in Viet Nam, which will help consumer demand can drive adoption of better evaluating antibiotic resistance in aquatic impacts of a slaughterhouse hygiene intervention ininto food safety surveys in Viet Nam, which will help consumer demand can drive adoption of better environments, which will be used in upcoming Western Kenya on public health and market share. to generate food safety interventions that address practices among food business operators. We environments, which will be used in upcoming Western Kenya on public health and market share.to generate food safety interventions that address practices among food business operators. We studies to quantify relative contribution of livestock Food safety rating business impact. Study designs water-related risks. published a paper on bacterial contamination of studies to quantify relative contribution of livestock Food safety rating business impact. Study designswater-related risks. published a paper on bacterial contamination of to water pollution as well as test the effectiveness to measure business impacts of food safety rating milk, showing that consumer behavior can lead to to water pollution as well as test the effectiveness to measure business impacts of food safety ratingmilk, showing that consumer behavior can lead to programs in Viet Nam and Ethiopia have been higher rates of post-purchase contamination in food programs in Viet Nam and Ethiopia have beenhigher rates of post-purchase contamination in food developed and, in the case of Viet Nam, piloted. perceived as safer at purchase, a caveat to consider developed and, in the case of Viet Nam, piloted.perceived as safer at purchase, a caveat to consider Capacity and incentives for food safety. A paper when evaluating the impact of market-level Capacity and incentives for food safety. A paperwhen evaluating the impact of market-level showing that the joint incentives of safer food for interventions.  showing that the joint incentives of safer food forinterventions. own consumption and premium prices led farmers   own consumption and premium prices led farmers  "},{"text":" : Initiatives, non-pooled projects, and the connections are sized by the number of results. The table includes the given initiative's top connections and is sorted by Total Results. The network and summary table include all connections for the given initiative, as well as the connections between the given initiative's connections (i.e. the ego network) Section 6 Impact pathway integration -CGIAR portfolio linkages Section 7 Adaptive management Section 6 Impact pathway integration -CGIAR portfolio linkages Section 7 Adaptive management Sustainable Animal Productivity RECOMMENDATION SUPPORTING RATIONALE  Sustainable Animal Productivity RECOMMENDATIONSUPPORTING RATIONALE Review scope of work and clarify Work In year 1, Work leads committed high-level deliverables Review scope of work and clarify WorkIn year 1, Work leads committed high-level deliverables Package deliverables and associated by the end of the Initiative. From year 2 onward, we are committing Package deliverables and associatedby the end of the Initiative. From year 2 onward, we are committing resources and timeframes. to a more detailed work plan with specific intermediate outputs resources and timeframes.to a more detailed work plan with specific intermediate outputs  and deliverable dates to ensure we are on track to achieve the and deliverable dates to ensure we are on track to achieve the  targeted impacts.  targeted impacts.    Action Total Total ActionTotalTotal   Name Area Connections Results NameAreaConnectionsResults One Health    One Health   Sustainable Animal RAFS 3 9 Sustainable AnimalRAFS39   Productivity  Productivity   Diversification in East and RAFS 2 8 Diversification in East andRAFS28   Southern Africa  Southern Africa   One Health RAFS 3 5 One HealthRAFS35 Diversification in East and Southern Africa  Diversification in East and Southern Africa Action Area Resilient AgriFood Systems  A civet kept on farm for consumption, Thai Nguyen Province, Vietnam. Photo credit: Vu Ngoc Dung/ILRI Action Area Resilient AgriFood SystemsA civet kept on farm for consumption, Thai Nguyen Province, Vietnam. Photo credit: Vu Ngoc Dung/ILRI Work Package 5. The International Food Policy to promote the initiative, such as: 2022 UN Climate Work Package 5. The International Food Policyto promote the initiative, such as: 2022 UN Climate Research Institute (IFPRI) is testing the impact of Change Conference (COP27) \"Links between Research Institute (IFPRI) is testing the impact ofChange Conference (COP27) \"Links between voluntary food safety surveillance with informal climate change and zoonotic diseases voluntary food safety surveillance with informalclimate change and zoonotic diseases groundnut processors Ghana, through a project emergence\"; Food and Agriculture Organization groundnut processors Ghana, through a projectemergence\"; Food and Agriculture Organization by the US Agency for International  (FAO) Science and Innovation Forum -FAO and by the US Agency for International(FAO) Science and Innovation Forum -FAO and Development (USAID) Feed the Future Peanut Wageningen University & Research (WUR) event; Development (USAID) Feed the Future PeanutWageningen University & Research (WUR) event; Innovation Lab. This model is similar to the food World Health Organization (WHO) \"SAGO\" Scientific Innovation Lab. This model is similar to the foodWorld Health Organization (WHO) \"SAGO\" Scientific safety upgrading approach being tested among Advisory Group for the Origins of Novel Pathogens; safety upgrading approach being tested amongAdvisory Group for the Origins of Novel Pathogens; traditional meat vendors in Viet Nam and Ethiopia. Quadripartite's Technical Group on AMR and Use traditional meat vendors in Viet Nam and Ethiopia.Quadripartite's Technical Group on AMR and Use We also produced high-quality outputs with Integrated Surveillance; WHO Expert Committee on We also produced high-quality outputs withIntegrated Surveillance; WHO Expert Committee on other CGIAR Research Initiatives, including  African Trypanosomiasis; Foreign, Commonwealth other CGIAR Research Initiatives, includingAfrican Trypanosomiasis; Foreign, Commonwealth Sustainable Animal Productivity and  and Development Office of the United Kingdom Sustainable Animal Productivity andand Development Office of the United Kingdom Diversification in East and Southern Africa. (FCDO) talk on One Health agenda; and IUCEA Diversification in East and Southern Africa.(FCDO) talk on One Health agenda; and IUCEA Additionally, we attended many international events food safety benchmarks. Additionally, we attended many international eventsfood safety benchmarks.  "}],"sieverID":"5977efdc-fa1a-4839-bdf6-bde32da49439","abstract":"CGIAR Technical Reporting has been developed in alignment with the CGIAR Technical Reporting Arrangement. This Initiative report is a Type 1 report and constitutes part of the broader CGIAR Technical Report. Each CGIAR Initiative submits an annual Type 1 report, which provides assurance on Initiative-level progress towards end-of-Initiative outcomes. The CGIAR Technical Report comprises:• Type 1 Initiative and Impact Area Platform reports, with quality assured results reported by Initiatives and Platforms available on the CGIAR Results Dashboard.• The Type 3 Portfolio Performance and Project Coordination Practice Change report, which focuses on internal practice change.• The Portfolio Narrative, which draws on the Type 1 and Type 3 reports, and the CGIAR Results Dashboard, to provide a broader view on portfolio coherence, including results, partnerships, country and regional engagement, and synergies among the portfolio's constituent parts."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cde305262b45903b6409b6f20af9ec4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3872086d-bff4-4f8d-865e-cb8d0fa5cd3c/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Message from the Board Chair and Director General T oday's IWMI has emerged from a relatively small international institute established 35 years ago to conduct research on how to improve the performance of irrigation systems. From an initial focus on irrigation management, our mandate broadened to include larger aspects of water management for agriculture and its essential contribution to food security and poverty eradication. Through research, dissemination, field-level application, and strategic alliances with national and international partners, IWMI has become the world's foremost international knowledge center for water, food and the environment."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Building on this very strong foundation, IWMI is now poised to take its agenda to the next level. Our work on the use and management of water for agriculture will continue unabated, but will be embedded within a broader framework aimed at addressing in a comprehensive way the world's most pressing water-related challenges: How will food security be achieved for the world's expanding population while lowering the environmental footprint of food systems and conserving ecosystems? How will the world adapt to and mitigate climate change and build resilience to disasters and disruption?"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"How will growth become sustainable and inclusive, with benefits shared to overcome inequalities? To that end, we will shape our research around three strategic programs, each supported by excellent science and digital innovation: Water, Food and Ecosystems; Water, Climate Change and Resilience;"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"and Water, Growth and Inclusion."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Going forward, our work will be guided by our new mission:"},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"to provide water solutions for sustainable, climate-resilient development. IWMI will expand and intensify its efforts to deliver water solutions and to bring about broad, systemic change. Indeed, the key thread running through the strategy is one of enabling transformational change in water management. Our broader focus will enhance IWMI's longstanding concentration on agricultural water management, and will continue to involve an extensive web of strategic alliances with fellow CGIAR centers and other national and international partners across the world."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"Importantly, our new strategy seeks to hold a clear line of sight to impact. It calls for IWMI to expand and deepen its impact by combining research with data to build and enhance knowledge, information services and products; to strengthen capacity and convene dialogue; and to deliver actionable policy analysis for better water management. It recognizes that impact at scale cannot simply involve replicating the application of solutions, but rather must encompass complex processes of systemic change that reflect interdependencies among water, land and ecosystems and across water-using sectors."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"Our strategic planning process has been informed and inspired by extensive consultations over the last year with IWMI's staff and its Board and management, and incorporates feedback from key stakeholders and external partners. We believe this strategy provides a truly exciting opportunity to combine IWMI's strong foundations and capabilities with an emerging global agenda based on new systemic thinking."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"On behalf of the Board of Governors of IWMI, we are proud to present this strategy to the global community."}]},{"head":"A Transformative Agenda for Water","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"How societies safeguard and manage water must change, and soon."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"A s global economic output continues to expand, the consumption of water and other natural resources grows relentlessly. The results are increasingly visible as water overabstraction, land and water degradation, climate change and looming extinction crises. These environmental impacts are accelerating and converging in ways that directly affect people and economies, creating interconnected risks that are unprecedented in human history."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Water runs through these interconnected challenges. Where in the past they could have been mitigated one at a time, solutions that work across interacting chains of cause and effect are needed now. How societies safeguard and manage water resources must change as a result, and soon. Water is essential for food security, human health and biodiversity, and also for energy supply, industrial growth and urban development. Global demand for freshwater has grown fourfold in 60 years, a trend that cannot be sustained. Water scarcity is becoming a binding constraint on development, sharpening trade-offs across the many uses and users of the resource."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"It is not only the productive uses of water that are fundamental to well-being, but also the management of water-related risks. Water scarcity, increasing frequency of floods and droughts, and water pollution hold back productivity and development, aggravate poverty and inequality, and exacerbate food scarcity, conflict, vulnerability and fragility. These extreme weather events and water crises, along with the failure of climate change mitigation and impending threats of biodiversity collapse, were all ranked as top global risks for 2019, threatening the integrity of vital systems linking the well-being of people and the planet."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Our future well-being hinges on transformation: from convergence of stresses and risks to a future of sustainable, climate-resilient and inclusive development. Water is a connector and often a currency of exchange in the tradeoffs that are inherent in these alternative transformative pathways. "}]},{"head":"A Transformative Agenda for Water","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is the world's agreed roadmap for transformation."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represent an unprecedented aspirational shift toward sustainability, and socially inclusive and equitable development. The indispensable role of water management in building this future is recognized in a variety of ambitious international policy statements and initiatives:"},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Water makes essential contributions across the SDGs. Solutions for water management underpin the SDGs for ending poverty (SDG 1), and ensuring food security (SDG 2) and good health (SDG 3). They are needed for securing access to energy (SDG 7), inclusive industrialization (SDG 9), and making cities safe and resilient (SDG 11). Managing water effectively demands empowering women and girls (SDG 5), and helps build peace and security for communities and countries (SDG 16). It is vital for conserving terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15) and coasts and oceans (SDG 14), and adapting to the impacts of climate change (SDG 13)."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Sustainable development that fulfils the transformative ambitions of the SDGs is unimaginable without strengthened water management. Water solutions are needed at all levels, from homes and farms to industries and cities, to nations and international river basins. This will take the combined effort of governments, civil society, the private sector, the inter-governmental system and the research community, of which the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) forms an important part."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"Water makes essential contributions across the SDGs. Based on evidence and knowledge drawn from our science, innovative technologies and testing of business models, IWMI works with governments, farmers, water managers, development partners and businesses to solve water problems and scale up solutions. Together with our partners, we combine research with data to build and enhance knowledge, information services and products, strengthen capacity, convene dialogue and deliver actionable policy analysis to support the implementation of solutions for water management."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"IWMI's value proposition is unique. It rests on our track record of more than 30 years of rigorous, solutionsoriented water management research, built on longterm partnerships at local, country and regional levels, a sustained field presence across Africa and Asia, and recognized through the award of the prestigious Stockholm Water Prize in 2012."}]},{"head":"IWMI's vision is a water secure world.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"A water secure world is one where the immense productive and destructive potential of water is managed for the benefit of all. To IWMI, water security means the availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for production, livelihoods, health and ecosystems, achieved with an acceptable level of waterrelated risks to people, environments and economies. IWMI's mission is to provide water solutions for sustainable, climate-resilient development. We research, demonstrate and catalyze the delivery of"}]},{"head":"Vision and Mission","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Agriculture is by far the largest user of water globally. Efficient use of water in agriculture is essential. We focus on research for development that generates benefits for people living with poverty, and for members of vulnerable communities and disadvantaged groups in developing countries."}]},{"head":"IWMI is committed to ensuring:","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IWMI","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IWMI's Values","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Tackling Global Water Challenges W e will not resolve these challenges successfully without achieving and sustaining water security. Solutions for water security must therefore address complex and often competing demands. Water scarcity poses threats felt across sectors and water users, as there is an increase in competition for water to supply agriculture, industry, energy and ecosystems, as well as for water supply and sanitation in human settlements, particularly in rapidly growing towns and cities. Climate variability and change greatly compound these threats by creating uncertainty and disruptions in water availability. Water pollution, which is growing rapidly in both volume and virulence, adds yet another layer of complexity to the challenge of securing adequate, safe water resources. Since agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global water withdrawals (a figure rising to 80% in Africa and Asia), irrigated and rain-fed farming systems, in particular, will come under increasing pressure to increase productivity and reduce their impacts on water supplies."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"In response, IWMI will expand and intensify its efforts to deliver water solutions, building on its long-established expertise in agricultural water management to bring about broad, systemic change."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Why are solutions for water security essential for each of these challenges?"}]},{"head":"Food and ecosystems","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"By 2050, global food production will need to increase by 60 to 100%, compared to levels in 2005, to keep pace with expected demand. During this same period, water consumption in other sectors, such as energy, industry and domestic use, is set to rise by 55% globally. Rising competition for water will increase the pressure on farmers to reduce water withdrawals, even as the demand to produce more"}]},{"head":"Three of the world's most pressing challenges set the stage for this IWMI Strategy:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"How will the world adapt to and mitigate climate change, and build resilience to disasters and disruption?"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"How will growth become sustainable and inclusive, with benefits shared to overcome inequalities?"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"How will food security be achieved for the world's expanding population while lowering the environmental footprint of food systems and conserving ecosystems?"}]},{"head":"FOOD CLIMATE GROWTH","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"food accelerates. In response, farmers must boost water productivity in both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture. Solutions, however, must not restrict access to safe water for smallholders, women and poor people. On the contrary, water solutions for agriculture must empower women, and reduce risks and inequality, while raising farm incomes."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"Water management beyond the farm also affects the sustainability and resilience of food systems. The availability of water for food depends on its allocation among diverse uses across basins and landscapes, on measures to prevent pollution of surface water and groundwater, and on infrastructure for managing water risks. Overexploitation of water reduces river flows, depletes aquifers, causes soil salinization -already affecting 20% of the global irrigated land area -and degrades ecosystems, all of these undermining food security. An estimated 20% of the world's aquifers are over-abstracted, and 35% of wetlands worldwide have been destroyed since 1970. As ecosystems decline, so do the vital services they provide, such as water storage and filtration as well as regulation of floods and droughts. Despite their enormous contribution to food and water security, ecosystems are often undervalued in decisions about water use and quality. Solutions are needed that reverse the loss of ecosystems and biodiversity, and curb the degradation of soils, landscapes, aquifers and basins, while meeting the rapidly rising demand for water and natural resources at the same time. "}]},{"head":"Climate and disruption","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Growth and inclusion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The absence of water security undermines growth, affecting the poor and vulnerable people the most. The structure of economies, and those who lose and benefit as economic development impacts water increase in global food production will be needed by 2050 60 to100%"},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"derive their livelihoods from rain-fed and irrigated farming in developing countries ~ 1 billion people availability and access, depends on how water is allocated across sectors. With the energy sector, a key driver of growth, responsible for 15% of water withdrawals globally (and rising), choices about energy development -among thermal, hydropower and renewable sources, for example -affect agricultural productivity and livelihoods, as well as the availability of water to cities and ecosystems. To secure water for growth, societies must skillfully manage trade-offs in the water-energy-food-ecosystems nexus, including at the international scale within the more than 280 transboundary river and lake basins, and 600 transboundary aquifers worldwide. Institutions need new scope, scale and capacity to handle these tradeoffs, and build on potential synergies while advancing inclusion and equality at the same time."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"By 2050, two-thirds of the global population will live in cities. While serving as centers of innovation and growth, expanding cities also intensify and concentrate demands for food, water and energy, and cause water pollution. Climate change and competition for water from the energy and agriculture sectors could, however, reduce urban water supplies by as much as two-thirds. If cities are to be sustainable and resilient, they need solutions to mitigate upstream and downstream water risks, manage wastewater and its impacts on human health, and recover resources from waste. Innovations in the recycling of water (within cities, and between rural and urban uses), and the recovery of nutrients and energy from wastewater will, furthermore, spur the emergence of an effective 'circular' economy."}]},{"head":"Global Water Challenges","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Sustainable cities need solutions for managing upstream and downstream water risks."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"Photo: Neil Palmer / IWMI T o support the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, IWMI's research will focus on science for a transformative agenda. We will embed water management research that connects across the SDGs in strategies for the scaling up of solutions. IWMI's science will more closely align with national and regional priorities for water security in the countries and regions where the Institute works, and make stronger contributions to global dialogues on policy and financing. It will be designed to connect research to impact. IWMI's teams will co-design and co-implement, in strategic partnerships with policy and practitioner communities, programs to demonstrate and catalyze systemic change with impacts at scale. IWMI will expand and further develop coordinated research portfolios -through a series of Researchfor-Development 'Missions' -where rigorous scientific research on water security underpins and influences the scaling up of change. Our research will focus on solutions in water management that, coupled with better policies, innovations and changes in practice, accelerate impact.  "}]},{"head":"A WATER SECURE WORLD","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Science for a transformative agenda links research with technological, institutional and policy change. Success demands new knowledge generated through research that connects across scales, revisits the assumptions that have guided water management in the past and lowers barriers to change."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"To deliver water solutions for the 2030 Agenda, IWMI's science must confront competing demands for water resources as well as coexisting water scarcity and excess, compounded by uncertainty and pollution. In the face of these new realities, IWMI will:"}]},{"head":"Keystones for Change WATER MANAGEMENT WATER ENGINEERING WATER ECONOMICS","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Expand water planning and management research: against a backdrop of rapid change and growing complexity, the world needs more modern and integrated information platforms, multi-purpose water planning, and adaptive management institutions, which together enable and deliver technical and policy solutions that work across a wide range of possible futures."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Update water engineering research: in a world of finite resources, single-use and 'once-through' water engineering is no longer appropriate; this needs to be replaced by circular water systems that recover and reuse resources, and by systems that incorporate more non-conventional water resources and nature-based water solutions, adapted to the scale and capacity of user communities."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Advance water economics research: at a time when water resources are becoming a binding constraint to growth and well-being, greater focus is needed on the trade-offs, opportunity costs and externalities of alternative water management options, as well as the policies and incentives that drive water-use efficiency, sustainability, degradation and allocation."}]},{"head":"IWMI's Strategy","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"To advance the 2030 Agenda, research must help overcome barriers to change, while encouraging institutions and individuals to act in new ways. Poor governance and inadequate data are major obstacles to water security. Social exclusion, a lack of opportunities for women and youth, and absent or misaligned incentives also cause resistance to change. Until ways are found to overcome these impediments, progress will remain incremental, fragmented and slow. IWMI will respond across all of its programs by integrating better governance, greater equality and empowerment for women, more effective incentives, and enhanced efforts to transform data into easily accessible and actionable information."}]},{"head":"Science for a transformative agenda links research with technological, institutional and policy change.","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Agriculture is the engine of food security, the largest global user of water and, in developing countries, an important source of employment for poor people. As competition for water intensifies, food systems must become more sustainable and resilient, and better able to meet the nutritional needs of growing populations without undermining the landscapes and ecosystems on which they depend. Research is needed to enhance agricultural productivity, develop technologies and policies that promote sustainable agricultural intensification, and identify ways to integrate nature-based infrastructure into the management of rural landscapes."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Food: IWMI will provide evidence and data analytics needed by governments, financing institutions, farmers and other partners making choices about agricultural water management technologies, development of inclusive business models for smallholder irrigation or reforms in large-scale, public-sector irrigation. Research will address water solutions for sustainable intensification in agriculture, including management of groundwater, agricultural water pollution, and integration of inland fisheries in water management for agrifood systems. We will expand the application of water accounting to support improvements in water productivity, and in basin planning, national policy development and water-related investments. Research will assess the impacts of equality and women's empowerment on agricultural water management and food systems."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Ecosystems: IWMI will integrate ecosystem values, services and sustainability into water resource allocation and management practices, as well as water infrastructure design and operations. Projects will support the assessment of tradeoffs and synergies in planning portfolios of built and natural water infrastructure, application of environmental flows and conservation of biodiversity. We will develop knowledge on the hydrological impacts of restoration and applications to the design of large-scale programs for strengthening water security through wetland and watershed restoration. IWMI research on the social and economic impacts of ecosystem degradation will be applied to ensuring that governance and incentives for protection and restoration of water-related ecosystems strengthen equality and inclusion."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Enhanced water resources management and more resilient water services are essential for adaptation to the adverse impacts of climate change, and for strengthening the resilience of communities, ecosystems and economies. Research is needed, for example, on scenarios for water management and allocation in agriculture and across sectors under future climates, policies and technologies for disaster preparedness and response, climatesmart strategies for water storage and the development of financial remediation schemes such as insurance."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Photo: Pieter van Eijk, Wetlands International"}]},{"head":"IWMI's Strategy","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Water security is key for sustainable and inclusive growth, underpinning almost all types of economic activity -from farming to manufacturing, energy and transport. Water scarcity, floods, pollution and conflict over water all pose threats to people and economies. How water is allocated between agriculture and cities or among competing sectors affects growth and the sharing of its benefits across societies. Water management should occupy a central place in development plans and strategies, helping to achieve equitable and inclusive growth. Research is needed to explain how water affects the dynamics of growth, the implications of water resource allocation and water policies for economic development, the roles of institutions and incentives in water management, its impacts on gender and inclusion, and the real or perceived trade-offs between growth and sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Sustainable growth: IWMI will support the transformation to sustainable growth through innovation for the circular economy. Research will address the use of non-conventional water resources and the development of alternatives to Climate: IWMI will integrate its capabilities for modeling, monitoring and scenario planning for surface water and groundwater resources to equip governments and partners to plan and operationalize adaptation to floods, droughts and other water-related impacts of climate change. Basin modeling tools will be used to assess the hydrological impacts of plans for climate change mitigation through land-use change or changes in energy technologies. Research will build knowledge on what works where, and support effective water governance for climate change adaptation and mitigation. At farm level, IWMI's research on irrigation and soil water management will be applied to strengthen gender responsiveness and for the implementation of climate-smart agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":192,"text":"Disruption: IWMI will further develop and support the deployment of flood and drought monitoring and forecasting technologies for improving disaster preparedness, and applications for improving and scaling up risk transfer products for smallholder and estate farming. IWMI will integrate data and analytical tools, research and knowledge on institutions, equality and inclusion, and facilitate capacity development and dialogue in programs for building river basin resilience. Research will enhance knowledge of how water relates to social, economic and environmental drivers of migration, and promote the use of this evidence in policies on migration. IWMI will further develop and scale up technologies and business models for resource recovery and reuse from wastewater and sanitation. We will assess the trade-offs and management of risks in the water-energy-food-ecosystems nexus, and between urban and agricultural water use, for better planning of water allocation. At farm level, IWMI research will support business models tailored to local contexts. At the national and basin levels, the Institute will assess how energy choices and technologies affect competition for water and trajectories for growth. IWMI will apply its capabilities for basin and groundwater management to help cities reduce upstream and downstream water risks."}]},{"head":"WATER, GROWTH AND INCLUSION","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Governance and equality: IWMI will address governance across all of its research areas to identify opportunities to increase the effectiveness and speed of change in water management, and to make the scaling up of water solutions more successful. Research will analyze the dynamics of power, interests and incentives and their impacts on decision making on water. We will apply science to support cooperation in transboundary water management. IWMI will integrate gender equality and social inclusion throughout its portfolio of research for development. Research will address gender dimensions of technologies and water governance, and build an understanding of how to strengthen the inclusion of women, youth and marginalized people in growth. Through its projects, IWMI will increase women's access to decision making while developing knowledge of barriers and effective ways to overcome them. Projects will integrate mentoring of women and youth leaders so that they can contribute fully to developing and implementing water solutions."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Economics and incentives: IWMI will expand the development and application of economics research across its programs to identify the impacts of, and effective incentives for, adoption and scaling up of water-related technologies, changes in governance and reallocation of water resources. Research will assess the costs and benefits of water risk management and application of ecosystem service valuations in decision making on water allocation and infrastructure investments. Cost-benefit and impact evaluation methodologies will be more systematically applied to strengthen policy analysis in IWMI's research. The Institute will make available enhanced capabilities in hydro-economic modeling to governments and other partners to support decision making."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Photo: Cristina Gottardi on Unsplash Lack of, and poor or unequal access to, water data hold back the world's ability to respond to growing water challenges and to meet the SDGs. Water data are often insufficient, are of uncertain quality, are not being shared or simply do not exist in many developing countries. Yet, technologies for data collection-such as satellites, virtual sensors and mobile phone applications-are generating vast quantities of information on the world's river systems, aquifers, watersheds and freshwater ecosystems at unprecedented rates. Research and new data-driven products and services are needed for governments, businesses, water managers and millions of farmers around the world to reap the benefits of this deluge of water information."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"IWMI recognizes that, because of both the complexity of the 2030 Agenda and the speed of current advances in technology, now is the time to seize the potential of the increased availability of water data and big data tools to catalyze change. The Institute intends to strengthen the role it plays in putting emerging technologies and the big data revolution to work for water security. There is a need to identify how to channel multiple streams and sources of data into products that create or enhance knowledge needed by decision makers and investors. IWMI's Strategic Programs will seek to build on new technologies and services for data collection, management and analysis, as well as to innovate new approaches for developing and delivering actionable information to users."},{"index":5,"size":197,"text":"IWMI will develop new partnerships with leaders in digital innovation and developers of cuttingedge \"Fourth Industrial Revolution\" technologies to ensure these meet the needs and are accessible in the countries where it conducts research. The Institute will develop an open-access, web-based data platform with the goal of making integration of data from Earth observation, geo-spatial analysis, hydrometeorological monitoring and hydrological modeling faster, easier and directly available to farmers, water managers, planners and businesses. IWMI will work with partners to identify the most pressing data and knowledge needs for different contexts and challenges. Likely areas of focus will include digital extension services for agricultural water management, basin management and monitoring, and reporting and verification for large-scale programs and investments. IWMI will use these capabilities to undertake regional water security assessments, starting in Africa, assisting governments to prioritize, implement and monitor water resource policies and investments. Our research must engage system-wide innovation involving interlinked technological, institutional and policy change across scales. This level of ambition is essential. Without it, IWMI will fall short of fulfilling its mandate of research for development, its vision of a water secure world and its mission to provide water solutions for sustainable, climateresilient development."}]},{"head":"WATER DATA SCIENCE AND DIGITAL INNOVATION","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Impact at scale demands more than replicating the use of technologies and solutions. With the many interdependencies among water, land and ecosystems, and across sectors, impacts emerge through complex systemic change. Therefore, IWMI designs programs for impact that integrate technology, policy and practice to shape wider plans and investments, and to catalyze change."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Impact at scale, based on both theory documented by CGIAR and on IWMI's own and others' lessons from research and practice, requires working at both local level and higher levels. At local level, our research programs collaborate with local problemsolving platforms and institutions to design and test water solutions. Through engagement at basin, national and higher levels, they cooperate with governments and others to address overarching policy, institutional and investment constraints, and to implement the solutions needed to reach national, regional or global development goals. Programs articulating local to higher levels make links between local research and change at scale stronger. IWMI applies knowledge from innovation systems to design programs for impact, building on its past successes in facilitating linkages along impact pathways. We work alongside people and institutions involved in change to mobilize, combine, adapt and put innovation and knowledge from research into use. During the period 2019-2023, IWMI will continue to reinforce and expand impact-driven planning throughout the organization. We will design and implement our research through partnerships and cooperation with coalitions that come together to solve problems."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Even more is demanded today, however, than impact at scale. There is also urgency. The pace of change is quickening, resource constraints are tightening and there are costs to inaction. Therefore, IWMI aims to learn, as we create programs for impact, how to accelerate implementation of solutions for water security."}]},{"head":"Designing Programs for Impact","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Accelerated impact at scale","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Problem-solving partnerships","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mission-oriented research","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Evidence-driven communications","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"By strengthening focus on accelerated, impact-driven programs and projects, IWMI increasingly operates not only as a research institute, but also -reflecting our title and research-for-development mandate -as a management institute, coordinating research and information services with capacity building, learning, dialogue and policy analysis, and providing advice to help governments, water management agencies, farmers and businesses find and implement effective ways of overcoming their water challenges."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Water data, knowledge and information are a vital foundation for building water security, and for scaling up and accelerating change. With data, governments can monitor water resources, identify risks and assess options or innovations for policy, regulation and change. Businesses can make informed decisions on water management, investments and new technologies. Information empowers farmers to make choices that increase production, raise incomes and reduce environmental impacts. It empowers citizens to take part in planning how water is managed and builds accountability for all water users. With rapid advances in data technology, however, there is a need to transform data into useable, targeted and accessible information."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Opening access to water data and usable information for integrated water management can give countries transformative capabilities for using evidence in policy making, building consensus and making the decisions needed to intensify and accelerate investment and action on water security. IWMI integrates research on hydroinformatics, application of digital technologies, and development and delivery of new data-driven products and services in designing and implementing its programs for impact. By lowering the current barriers to data and information, we will help harness the global expansion in data access and availability for scaling up transformations in water security. inclusive, and to synthesize and apply knowledge to support decision making at increased scale. We will cooperate through WLE on key priorities in IWMI's Strategy 2019-2023 to build evidence for, and promote action on, solutions for water security."}]},{"head":"DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY EMPOWERING TRANSFORMATION","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Moving to Action and Impact","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"CGIAR Research Programs provide a cornerstone for applying research to policy and practice change. Our role in WLE and other CGIAR Research Programs in which IWMI is a partner is essential to ensure that our research -relating water resources to food systems, climate change, natural resource governance and equalitycontributes to CGIAR's impacts on transformation of food systems for sustainable, inclusive and resilient development."}]},{"head":"IWMI integrates research on hydroinformatics, application of digital technologies, and development and delivery of new data-driven products.","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Moving to Action and Impact Photo: Hamish John Appleby / IWMI Over decades of experience in research for development, IWMI has learned that no one achieves impact at scale by acting alone. Research contributions to innovation systems are only possible through partnerships. IWMI prioritizes partnerships that put in place the relationships needed to link research to local change and innovation, and to policy and institutional change at national, regional and global levels."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"IWMI's partnerships build on research collaborations among scientists to embrace implementers in governments, civil society, businesses and development agencies. Through partnerships, there is then continuous collaboration to bring together technology and practice change to solve problems, and to support policies and institutional change to address large-scale development challenges. Such partnerships simplify engagement of researchers and knowledge providers in processes of solving complex problems. They put the collective capabilities of coalitions to work in applying research to demonstrating solutions and shaping impacts at scale. IWMI uses its unique and extensive field-based presence of water scientists, its long-term partnerships with governments, researchers, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector and development practitioners, as well as its membership in CGIAR, to identify other key partners and prioritize cooperation with coalitions at local, basin and national levels. Our priority is to deliver research and knowledge services to, and through, all these partnerships. Moving to Action and Impact R4D Missions will enable IWMI, within its Strategy 2019-2023, to conduct research on change processes themselves. The Institute will increase investment in impact assessment and use research on systems change to identify key lessons on how to make its strategies for impact at scale more effective."}]},{"head":"Reaching","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"IWMI will build an evidence base of what works, where and how, when implementing solutions for water security. We will compile and disseminate what we learn to support continuous improvement of research for development and partnership practice under the R4D Missions. We will integrate associated know-how and products in knowledge and advisory services to help our partner governments, donors, researchers and NGOs to meet the demand to scale up and accelerate transformations for sustainable and climateresilient development."}]},{"head":"RESEARCH ON IMPACT","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Photo: Hamish John Appleby / IWMI IWMI will convene and co-convene dialogues that promote uptake of evidence in policy development and decision making."}]},{"head":"Moving to Action and Impact","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Communication -Stepping Up in the Global Dialogue IWMI will invest in communicating our research and its impacts, and in knowledge exchange with those who use our outputs and knowledge products. Through briefs, opinion articles and the news media, we will promote the uptake of published results in policy and practice, using our social media channels to draw increasing attention to our research outputs, products and services."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"IWMI will proactively champion the global water agenda through thought leadership and advocacy of results, innovation and change achieved through our R4D Missions. We will make more visible, evidence-driven contributions to national and international dialogue on water, using knowledge from our country programs and field research. We will show strong leadership in convening and co-convening events and dialogues that promote the uptake of science-based evidence in policy development and decision making. Finally, we will showcase how IWMI uses science for a transformative agenda to support and catalyze the changes needed for sustainable and climate-resilient development."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Spearheaded by the work of two IWMI staff working groups on Emerging Challenges and Impact, these consultations have encouraged spirited debate and captured an emerging consensus on IWMI's unique, exciting and essential role over the next several years. We are grateful to all the IWMI staff who contributed to the development of this strategy and in particular to Mark Smith, IWMI's Deputy Director General for Research for Development, who led the overall effort. "},{"text":" Photo: Michelle Ng / IWMI "},{"text":" Photo: Jeffery M Walcott / IWMI "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"IWMI in the CGIAR System    IWMI  IWMI effective, innovative and inclusive water solutions. Our and policy innovations to navigate key trade-offs in effective, innovative and inclusive water solutions. Ourand policy innovations to navigate key trade-offs in solutions build on our commitment and capacity to decision making, explore new business models, and to solutions build on our commitment and capacity todecision making, explore new business models, and to deliver cutting-edge scientific, technical, institutional identify and support essential reforms. deliver cutting-edge scientific, technical, institutionalidentify and support essential reforms. Integrity Equality Dignity  Excellence Collaboration IntegrityEqualityDignityExcellenceCollaboration Trust and Gender equality, Zero tolerance Relevant, Partnerships Trust andGender equality,Zero toleranceRelevant,Partnerships accountability, diversity for harassment, high-quality, for delivering accountability,diversityfor harassment,high-quality,for delivering respecting and social intimidation independent sustainable, respectingand socialintimidationindependentsustainable, privacy and data inclusion or discrimination and objective efficient and privacy and datainclusionor discriminationand objectiveefficient and IWMI is a CGIAR Research Center. CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future, aims to use new knowledge and innovation to spearhead and accelerate a 'food systems protection in our and workplace partnerships research, research system to address the world's urgent challenges equitable a nutrition transformation, a genetics revolution, future. It calls for a sustainability transformation, identified as critical to a sustainable and resilient solutions IWMI is a CGIAR Research Center. CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future, aims to use new knowledge and innovation to spearhead and accelerate a 'food systems protection in our and workplace partnerships research,research system to address the world's urgent challenges equitable a nutrition transformation, a genetics revolution, future. It calls for a sustainability transformation, identified as critical to a sustainable and resilient solutions revolution' to meet the SDGs.  a social and economic transformation, and an revolution' to meet the SDGs.a social and economic transformation, and an    information revolution. IWMI's leadership and information revolution. IWMI's leadership and    participation in the CGIAR Research Programs participation in the CGIAR Research Programs    directly support these goals. directly support these goals. > 30 years  IWMI leads the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), which -in collaboration > 30 yearsIWMI leads the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), which -in collaboration track record of water management research  with other CGIAR centers and partners -develops, disseminates and catalyzes solutions for sustainable and resilient land and water management. IWMI track record of water management researchwith other CGIAR centers and partners -develops, disseminates and catalyzes solutions for sustainable and resilient land and water management. IWMI    is also a partner in the CGIAR Research Programs is also a partner in the CGIAR Research Programs    on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security The water and food challenges are closely  (CCAFS); Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM); The water and food challenges are closely(CCAFS); Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM); entwined and inseparable. Agriculture is by far and Fish Agri-Food Systems (FISH). Through these entwined and inseparable. Agriculture is by farand Fish Agri-Food Systems (FISH). Through these the largest user of water globally. Thus, efficient CGIAR Research Programs, and collaboration in the the largest user of water globally. Thus, efficientCGIAR Research Programs, and collaboration in the water use in agriculture is essential, if the global CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture and CGIAR water use in agriculture is essential, if the globalCGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture and CGIAR water challenge is to be met. At the same time, Collaborative Platform for Gender Research, IWMI water challenge is to be met. At the same time,Collaborative Platform for Gender Research, IWMI ensuring the availability, reliability and quality of researches complex, water-related challenges in food ensuring the availability, reliability and quality ofresearches complex, water-related challenges in food water is essential for efficient agriculture and for systems and their solutions. The Institute's role in water is essential for efficient agriculture and forsystems and their solutions. The Institute's role in food security. IWMI's work on robust solutions for the CGIAR Research Programs delivers knowledge food security. IWMI's work on robust solutions forthe CGIAR Research Programs delivers knowledge water management underpins CGIAR's agriculture- and innovation that is vital for ensuring effective food water management underpins CGIAR's agriculture-and innovation that is vital for ensuring effective food focused vision of a world free of poverty, hunger systems, integrating more water-efficient and cleaner, focused vision of a world free of poverty, hungersystems, integrating more water-efficient and cleaner, and environmental degradation.  less-polluting production, climate-smart and resilient and environmental degradation.less-polluting production, climate-smart and resilient    agriculture, restoration of degraded landscapes, and agriculture, restoration of degraded landscapes, and The CGIAR System 3-Year Business Plan (2019-2021) providing support for governance reforms, women's The CGIAR System 3-Year Business Plan (2019-2021)providing support for governance reforms, women's calls for innovation to transform the global food empowerment and inclusion of youth. calls for innovation to transform the global foodempowerment and inclusion of youth.  "},{"text":"s Strategy 2019-2023 responds directly to the identified need and demand for innovative, scientifically-tested water management solutions for sustainable development. Our research, at field to basin and regional scales, will address three high-priority water challenges: IWMI will embed water management research that connects across the SDGs in strategies for the scaling up of solutions. people will be displaced by 2050 due to droughts and floods 150 million IWMI' s Strategy of the global population is expected to live in cities by 2050 2/3 people will be displaced by 2050 due to droughts and floods 150 million IWMI' s Strategy of the global population is expected to live in cities by 2050 2/3  "},{"text":"Water, Climate Change & Resilience Water, Growth & Inclusion Water, Food & Ecosystems FOOD CLIMATE GROWTH IWMI's strategic response to global water challenges is:  FOOD CLIMATE GROWTH FOODCLIMATEGROWTH To improve food security To adapt to and mitigate To reduce poverty, and To improve food securityTo adapt to and mitigateTo reduce poverty, and while sustainably climate change while building advance inclusion and while sustainablyclimate change while buildingadvance inclusion and managing water resources resilience to water-related equality as agriculture managing water resourcesresilience to water-relatedequality as agriculture and ecosystems disasters and disruption transforms, energy and ecosystemsdisasters and disruptiontransforms, energy   transitions and transitions and   urbanization intensifies urbanization intensifies  "},{"text":"DATA SCIENCE AND DIGITAL INNOVATION WILL SUPPORT ALL STRATEGIC PROGRAMS WATER, FOOD AND ECOSYSTEMS  IWMI's Strategic Programs   IWMI's Strategic Programs IWMI will organize its research around three Strategic Programs : Water, Food and Ecosystems Water, Climate Change and Resilience Water, Growth and Inclusion IWMI will organize its research around three Strategic Programs :Water, Food and EcosystemsWater, Climate Change and ResilienceWater, Growth and Inclusion WATER, CLIMATE    WATER, CLIMATE OUTCOME Key questions:   OUTCOMEKey questions: More sustainable     More sustainable and equitable     and equitable food systems     food systems as a result of water     as a result of water solutions that How can farmers How, and by What role do, How can solutions thatHow can farmersHow, and byWhat role do,How can boost productivity grow more food how much, can and could, competing goals boost productivitygrow more foodhow much, canand could,competing goals and efficiency, using less water? the productivity ecosystems play for food and efficiency,using less water?the productivityecosystems playfor food reduce poverty,   and incomes in helping production and reduce poverty,and incomesin helpingproduction and and conserve   of smallholder to achieve and ecosystem and conserveof smallholderto achieve andecosystem ecosystems and   farmers be raised maintain water conservation ecosystems andfarmers be raisedmaintain waterconservation the services   through security? be balanced and the servicesthroughsecurity?be balanced and they provide   agricultural water achieved? they provideagricultural waterachieved?    management?  management?  "},{"text":"CHANGE AND RESILIENCE Key questions: OUTCOME How can water management help make development more resilient? What are the best ways to increase preparedness for water-related disasters and reduce risks for vulnerable communities? How can the dangers of water as a risk multiplier for conflict and migration in fragile communities be reduced?  Improved climate  Improved climate change adaptation  change adaptation and mitigation  and mitigation with greater  with greater resilience to How can resilience toHow can natural disasters farmers adapt natural disastersfarmers adapt and societal to climate and societalto climate disruption through change? disruption throughchange? increased use  increased use of water-smart  of water-smart solutions  solutions  "},{"text":"How does water allocation in the water- energy-food nexus affect economic growth? How can waste and wastewater be used as a resource for sustainable growth? How can water governance arrangements support transformative agendas, and ensure that women and men benefit equally?  conventional, centralized infrastructure to recover conventional, centralized infrastructure to recover nutrients for agriculture and reduce public health nutrients for agriculture and reduce public health risks from pollution.  risks from pollution. OUTCOME Key questions: OUTCOMEKey questions: Enhanced growth  Enhanced growth resulting from  resulting from more inclusive  more inclusive water governance  water governance together with What threat together withWhat threat institutions and does water institutions anddoes water incentives that scarcity pose incentives thatscarcity pose diminish pollution to sustainable diminish pollutionto sustainable and promote growth and promotegrowth more integrated, in developing more integrated,in developing sustainable and economies? sustainable andeconomies? productive water  productive water management  management in all uses  in all uses  "},{"text":"10 The water-data cycle  Water, Food & Ecosystems IWMI's Contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals Water, Climate Change & Resilience Water, Growth & Inclusion Clean water and sanitation Moving to Action and Impact Water, Food & Ecosystems IWMI's Contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals Water, Climate Change & Resilience Water, Growth & Inclusion Clean water and sanitation Moving to Action and Impact    6 Affordable and 6Affordable and     clean energy Decent work clean energyDecent work   Gender equality  7 and economic growth Gender equality7and economic growth   5   8 Industry, 58Industry, Quality    innovation and Qualityinnovation and education 4   9 infrastructure education49infrastructure 3 cience for a transformative agenda sets a Good health and well-being S high bar for IWMI's Strategy 2019-2023.  10 Reduced inequalities 3 cience for a transformative agenda sets a Good health and well-being S high bar for IWMI's Strategy 2019-2023.10Reduced inequalities Zero hunger 2    11 Sustainable cities and communities Zero hunger211Sustainable cities and communities No poverty 1    12 Responsible No poverty112Responsible      consumption consumption      and production and production   17   13 1713 Partnerships   Climate PartnershipsClimate for the goals 16 15 14 action for the goals161514action   Peace, justice  Life below Peace, justiceLife below   and strong Life on land water and strongLife on landwater   institutions  institutions  "}],"sieverID":"3b87d729-0654-4c67-b06b-cfdc4d5c6ccf","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d066a487729b27d2ac68f4fb0c896de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/23492050-e5e6-4535-a989-0e5dd8bd8046/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Agriculture intelligente face au climat au Sénégal Agriculture intelligente face au climat -Profil Pays Riz Sénégal","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Le concept d'agriculture intelligente face au climat (AIC) traduit l'ambition d'assurer une meilleure intégration du développement de l'agriculture et de la réactivité face au climat. Il vise à assurer la sécurité alimentaire et atteindre les objectifs de développement plus larges dans un contexte marqué par une fluctuation du climat et l'accroissement de la demande alimentaire. Les initiatives d'AIC augmentent de manière durable la productivité et la résilience, réduisent/ éliminent les GES et nécessitent une planification afin de prendre en compte les compromis et synergies entre les trois piliers suivants : la productivité, l'adaptation, et l'atténuation [1]. Les priorités des différents pays et parties prenantes sont prises en compte afin de créer des systèmes alimentaires plus efficients, efficaces et équitables qui contribuent à relever les défis liés aux dimensions environnementale, sociale et économique dans tous les terroirs de production. Bien que le concept soit nouveau et en pleine évolution, nombre de pratiques qui font partie de l'AIC existent déjà à travers le monde et sont utilisées par les agriculteurs pour faire face à différents risques de production [2]. L'intégration de l'AIC exige un bilan critique des pratiques en vigueur qui sont prometteuses pour l'avenir, ainsi que des facteurs institutionnels et financiers qui favorisent l'adoption de l'AIC. Le présent profil pays présente un aperçu d'une référence en voie d'élaboration pour engager la discussion, tant au plan national qu'à l'échelle mondiale, concernant les points d'entrée pour l'investissement dans l'AIC à grande échelle."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"La stratégie de croissance économique du Sénégal fait de l'agriculture le principal moteur de la réduction de la pauvreté et de l'amélioration de la sécurité alimentaire dans le pays. Les plans de développement pour le secteur agricole doivent prendre en compte les implications des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES), en particulier pour le développement de la riziculture et de l'élevage."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"L'élevage constitue une importante source d'émissions de GES, et il existe des opportunités d'améliorer la gestion des pâturages et d'intégrer la végétation en vue de réduire les émissions et d'améliorer les pratiques de gestion des terres. L'utilisation de l'information climatique est devenue partie intégrante de la prise de décision et des pratiques agricoles des agriculteurs."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"L'accès au financement est limité pour les petits exploitants agricoles et constitue un obstacle majeur à l'adoption des pratiques d'AIC."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"L'assurance climat indicielle est de plus en plus souscrite par les petits producteurs de petit mil, de riz pluvial, de maïs et d'arachide, grâce à une subvention de 50 % accordée par l'État et à des systèmes de paiement novateurs qui intègrent le coût des primes dans le crédit accordé aux agriculteurs pour l'achat des intrants."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"La participation du secteur privé aux chaînes de valeur des petits exploitants agricoles offre des opportunités de générer des revenus et contribuer à la mise à échelle de l'AIC dans le pays."},{"index":7,"size":183,"text":"Des fonds internationaux ont été mobilisés afin de financer l'adaptation aux changements climatiques et la sécurité alimentaire, entre lesquels l'on peut établir des liens en vue de promouvoir l'adoption des pratiques d'AIC. Pertinence économique de l'agriculture au Sénégal [3, 4]   Population, agriculture et moyens d'existence au Sénégal [3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9]   Contexte national Pertinence économique de l'agriculture L'agriculture et l'élevage constituent le principal secteur d'activités économiques du Sénégal, représentant environ 17 % du produit intérieur brut (PIB) [3] du pays et employant 70 % de la population [4]. Cependant, une combinaison de facteurs, notamment la pauvreté des sols, les aléas climatiques, le manque d'infrastructures et l'accès limité aux semences de qualité et aux engrais, ont entraîné le sous-développement du secteur, qui ne peut satisfaire les besoins alimentaires d'une population croissante. Il s'ensuit que le pays est très tributaire des importations de denrées alimentaires, en particulier le riz, qui constitue l'aliment de base de la population et dont les importations représentent 65 % de la consommation nationale [5]. Le secteur agricole recèle le potentiel nécessaire pour se développer et nourrir la population."}]},{"head":"Utilisation des terres","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"Au Sénégal, les terres agricoles représentent environ 46 % de la superficie totale du pays [4]. Au cours des quatre dernières décennies, la superficie emblavée est demeurée relativement stable à un niveau estimé à environ 2,5 millions d'hectares par an, soit 13 % de la superficie du pays (sur les 3,8 millions d'hectares de terres considérés comme cultivables) [10]. La croissance démographique et l'intensification de l'utilisation des terres ont entraîné la surexploitation des ressources naturelles et la dégradation des terres, limitant tant la productivité agricole que les services écosystémiques [11]. Les forêts du pays diminuent au rythme d'environ 45 000 ha par an [12]. 1   1 La déforestation est souvent liée à l'insécurité du régime foncier au Sénégal. Après son accession à l'indépendance, le Sénégal a adopté un modèle de gouvernance décentralisé qui confère aux autorités locales le pouvoir d'attribuer les droits d'usager pour la terre au titre de la Loi sur les communautés rurales de 1972. En vertu de cette loi, les propriétaires fonciers doivent démontrer la productivité économique de la terre. Ainsi, les propriétaires fonciers sont encouragés à défricher les forêts pour y pratiquer l'agriculture ou l'élevage afin de sécuriser leurs droits fonciers. "}]},{"head":"% des terres totales","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Utilisation des terres au Sénégal [4]   Systèmes de production agricole L'infographie suivante présente une sélection de systèmes de production agricole importants pour la sécurité alimentaire du Sénégal. L'importance de chaque système repose sur sa contribution aux indicateurs économiques, de productivité et de qualité nutritionnelle. Pour de plus amples informations concernant la méthodologie de la sélection des systèmes de production, veuillez consulter l'Annexe 2."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"La pluviométrie constitue le principal facteur qui détermine la production agricole au Sénégal, dans la mesure où moins de 5 % des terres cultivées dans le pays sont irriguées. L'économie agricole se caractérise par la prédominance des petits exploitants agricoles qui cultivent le petit mil, le sorgho, le maïs et le riz à des fins de subsistance. Les principales cultures de rente du pays sont l'arachide et le coton. La rotation arachide-petit mil a, de tout temps, été la pratique dominante, davantage de terres étant consacrées à l'arachide. Cependant, ces dernières années, à mesure que les rendements de l'arachide commencent à baisser à cause de la pauvreté des sols et des facteurs climatiques, la superficie emblavée affectée au petit mil a augmenté."}]},{"head":"Arachide","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Comme stratégie de gestion des risques, les agriculteurs dans le Bassin arachidier sont en train d'adopter des cultures de rechange telles que le niébé et le manioc, étant donné que celles-ci tolèrent mieux les sols pauvres et la sécheresse [13]. Dans la partie méridionale de la zone, les agriculteurs sont également en train de diversifier leur production afin d'y ajouter le melon et le sésame."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"La production rizicole connaît une croissance constante depuis les années 90, en raison de l'expansion considérable de la superficie cultivée, consécutive aux investissements consentis dans l'infrastructure d'irrigation dans la Vallée du fleuve, qui représente 70 % de la production nationale de riz [14,5]."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"Bien que le maraîchage représente un pourcentage limité de la production agricole globale, l'on ne saurait ignorer son importance pour la sécurité alimentaire et en tant qu'activité de subsistance pour les femmes. Il s'agit du sous-secteur agroalimentaire le plus prometteur, en raison de son avantage concurrentiel en termes de disponibilité de terres, de conditions climatiques et hydriques, de faiblesse du coût de la main-d'oeuvre, ainsi que de proximité et de possibilité d'approvisionner les marchés européens. Les pertes après récolte et la faiblesse des capacités en matière de transformation des produits afin de leur apporter de la valeur ajoutée sont les principaux défis qui freinent le développement de l'industrie [17]."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"L'élevage joue également un rôle important dans le pays, représentant 4,2 % du PIB du secteur, qui a crû de 38 % depuis 1997. Il est pratiqué de manière extensive au nord de la Vallée du fleuve et dans les zones sylvopastorales [13]. Les ménages les plus vulnérables à l'insécurité alimentaire sont ceux qui dépendent de l'aide ou de la mendicité, ainsi que les ménages pratiquant l'agriculture de subsistance et l'élevage [18]. Au nombre des facteurs qui favorisent l'insécurité alimentaire dans le pays figurent les facteurs climatiques qui affectent la production agricole (variabilité de la pluviométrie, sécheresse, inondations), l'accès limité au marché et la volatilité des prix."}]},{"head":"Sécurité alimentaire et nutrition","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Utilisation des intrants agricoles au Sénégal [3, 4, 15, 16]   Sécurité alimentaire, nutrition et santé au Sénégal [3, 4, 19, 20, 21]  "}]},{"head":"Santé","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Accès aux sources d'énergie propres Émissions de gaz à effet de serre au Sénégal [22, 24]   Émissions totales tCO  "}]},{"head":"Agriculture et changements climatiques","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Les changements climatiques sont déjà une réalité indéniable pour le Sénégal. Un rapport publié par le Centre de Suivi Écologique (CSE) sur l'état de l'environnement a dégagé les tendances suivantes [10]."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• La température annuelle moyenne a augmenté de 1,6°C depuis 1950, une augmentation plus forte de 3°C en moyenne ayant été observée au Nord du Sénégal."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"• La pluviométrie a baissé de 30 % entre 1950 et 2000, avec une forte variabilité d'une année à l'autre et d'une région à l'autre. Bien que les tendances des précipitations se soient améliorées depuis 2000, cela ne présage pas nécessairement de la fin du cycle de sécheresse."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Les inondations sont plus fréquentes, en particulier dans les basses terres de Dakar et du Nord-ouest du Sénégal."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Les sécheresses extrêmes en 2002 et 2011 ont aggravé l'insécurité alimentaire pour plus de 200 000 et 800 000 personnes, respectivement."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"• Les changements liés à la production de biomasse, en particulier dans la partie septentrionale du pays, réduisent la production de fourrage pour le bétail."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"Les projections climatiques indiquent [10] que :"},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"• les températures continueront d'augmenter de 1,1 à 1,8°C d'ici à 2035, puis de 3°C à l'horizon 2060 ; le réchauffement est plus rapide à l'intérieur du pays que dans les zones côtières ; • bien qu'il existe des incertitudes au niveau des modèles climatiques pour les projections des précipitations, l'on s'attend à ce que les tendances actuelles se maintiennent, avec des précipitations plus abondantes, mais moins d'événements pluviaux, en général, ce qui engendrera des périodes de sécheresse ; certains modèles climatiques indiquent une augmentation des précipitations (50-100 mm) dans la région de la Casamance et une baisse drastique dans l'Est du Sénégal [28] ;"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"• qu'il existe une demande plus forte d'évapotranspiration des plantes ;"},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"• l'intrusion de l'eau salée affectera la production de riz irrigué et le maraîchage à Niayes ;"},{"index":11,"size":86,"text":"• le niveau de la mer augmentera d'un mètre d'ici à 2100, ce qui se traduira par la destruction de plus de 6 000 km ² de terres (environ 8 % du territoire), entraînant une dégradation de l'environnement et l'érosion des sols ; • il y a lieu de s'attendre à des événements extrêmes tels que des épisodes prolongés de sécheresse et des inondations plus fréquentes. Le secteur agricole est sensible à l'évolution de la température et des précipitations, ce qui peut avoir une incidence négative"}]},{"head":"Évolution prévue de la superficie adaptée au Sénégal (2040-2069)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Évolution prévue des températures et des précipitations au Sénégal d'ici à 2050 [31, 32, 33]  sur les rendements des cultures et l'élevage. Les modèles culturaux montrent que les rendements d'arachide pourraient baisser de 5 à 25 %, et ceux du maïs et du riz pluvial pourraient augmenter de 5 à 25 % dans les zones où ils sont cultivés à l'heure actuelle [28]. Des cultures telles que le niébé et le manioc, sont très résistantes à la sécheresse et aux températures élevées, et peuvent être cultivées sur les sols pauvres, ce qui offre une opportunité d'adaptation aux agriculteurs situés dans le Bassin arachidier [29]. Le petit mil et le sorgho sont également plus résilients et tolérants à la sécheresse et les modèles culturaux indiquent une augmentation de la production de ces cultures."},{"index":2,"size":322,"text":"Dans la zone sylvopastorale et au Nord de la Vallée du fleuve, les éleveurs sont également exposés aux risques. Bien que les races de bétail au Sénégal soient bien adaptées aux températures élevées, l'impact des changements climatiques sur la production de biomasse et les ressources en eau pourrait affecter la santé des animaux et les habitudes migratoires des éleveurs et exacerber les conflits autour des maigres ressources disponibles [30]. Les ménages qui dépendent de l'élevage pourraient être les plus vulnérables aux changements climatiques, dans la mesure où une baisse des précipitations pourrait réduire la quantité de pâturage disponible, entraînant ainsi une concurrence pour les ressources insuffisantes. Par ailleurs, les agriculteurs ont tendance à disposer de moins de ressources que les personnes qui adoptent des systèmes « mixtes » [30].  Pratiques et technologies de l' AIC choisies pour les principaux systèmes de production en vue de la sécurité alimentaire au Sénégal Étude de cas : mise à échelle de l' AIC au Sénégal en utilisant les systèmes d'information sur le climat [35]   L'utilisation de l'information climatique par les agriculteurs est désormais une pratique répandue au Sénégal où environ 7,4 millions de personnes en milieu rural y ont accès. Grâce à un projet pilote, qui a démarré à Kaffrine en 2011, dans le cadre de la collaboration entre le Programme de recherche du CGIAR sur le changement climatique, l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire (CCAFS) et des partenaires nationaux dont l'Agence nationale de l'aviation civile et de la météorologie (ANACIM) du Sénégal, les agriculteurs tirent parti, à présent, de l'information climatique qui éclaire leurs décisions agricoles quotidiennes. Utilisant des parcelles expérimentales, les chercheurs ont travaillé en collaboration avec les agriculteurs pour démontrer les avantages de l'utilisation de l'information climatique pour les rendements. Les agriculteurs ont également reçu une formation sur l'interprétation et l'utilisation de l'information climatique, tout en ayant la possibilité de faire connaître le type d'informations qui, à leur avis, seraient les plus pertinentes."}]},{"head":"Technologies et pratiques d' AIC","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"L'ANACIM, le principal partenaire, produit quatre types d'information climatique, à savoir les prévisions saisonnières 5 , les prévisions à dix jours 6 , les prévisions journalières  "}]},{"head":"Productivité","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"La réduction de la salinité peut créer des conditions optima pour le développement des plantes et la production."}]},{"head":"Adaptation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"La gestion de la salinité du sol au moyen du drainage et de l'inondation, des billons et sillons, de l'apport de matière organique, etc., accroît la disponibilité de nutriments et réduit l'exposition des cultures aux risques climatiques."}]},{"head":"Atténuation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"L'apport de matière organique peut accroître le stock de carbone du sol."}]},{"head":"Productivité","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Contribue à l'utilisation efficace des intrants agricoles. Accroît la qualité et/ou la quantité des produits et réduit les pertes de cultures grâce à des décisions plus éclairées.  "}]},{"head":"Adaptation","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Atténuation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Maintient ou accroît les stocks de carbone du sol, ainsi que la teneur en matière organique du sol.     Fonds effectivement accessibles par le pays pour les besoins de l'AIC Fonds effectivement accessibles par le pays à des fins autres que ceux de l'AIC Fonds non accessibles par le pays P u b l i c s P r i v é s semences de premier niveau d'arachide, de niébé et de céréales afin de satisfaire les besoins nationaux 10 . Par le truchement du MEPA, le soutien provient du FONSTAB, qui est un mécanisme de mise en oeuvre de la LOASP et est lié au FNDASP. Il promeut la commercialisation du secteur de l'élevage en investissant dans les machines, la transformation, le conditionnement et la commercialisation."},{"index":2,"size":274,"text":"Le CNCAS est le principal fournisseur de crédit aux petits producteurs à travers le pays, représentant 50 à 60 % des produits de la microfinance [15]. Il aide les agriculteurs, tant à titre individuel qu'en tant qu'associations paysannes, à obtenir du crédit pour financer les intrants agricoles et les activités post-récolte. La coopérative de crédit intervient par le truchement des distributeurs de semences certifiées afin de veiller à ce que les agriculteurs qui bénéficient de crédits obtiennent des semences de qualité (afin de réduire les risques liés aux crédits). En outre, l'organisation s'emploie à renforcer la chaîne de valeur, en particulier la culture et la récolte du riz, en promouvant la construction pour les agriculteurs d'entrepôts pour le stockage de leur riz afin d'en préserver la qualité jusqu'à la vente. Très peu d'autres institutions financières accordent aux agriculteurs des crédits pour les activités de semis et ont tendance à mettre davantage l'accent sur le développement du secteur agro-industriel qui concerne essentiellement les activités post-récolte. L'appui technique et financier international en faveur des initiatives relatives au climat provient de plusieurs sources. Le Sénégal a été l'un des premiers pays a avoir accès, en 2010, au Fonds d'adaptation de la CCNUCC en vue de financer un projet de protection des zones côtières intitulé « Projet d'adaptation à l'érosion côtière dans les zones vulnérables du Sénégal », qui repose sur le PANA. De même, il a été l'un des premiers pays à recevoir un financement par le truchement du Fonds vert pour le climat pour un projet visant à remettre en état les terres salinisées et accroître la résilience des populations des régions côtières aux changements climatiques."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Avec le soutien de la Banque mondiale et du Fonds pour l'environnement mondial (FEM), le Gouvernement du Sénégal a mis au point le Projet de développement inclusif et durable de l'agrobusiness au Sénégal (PDIDAS), qui permet aux petits exploitants agricoles d'avoir accès aux ressources du Fonds pour effectuer les investissements nécessaires à l'effet d'améliorer la productivité de l'agriculture. Au nombre des investissements éligibles figurent ceux concernant la formation, les intrants (semences, engrais), l'agroforesterie, la transformation et la commercialisation des produits."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"En dépit de la pléthore d'institutions bilatérales et multilatérales qui appuient la mise en oeuvre des projets relatifs au développement agricole et à la sécurité alimentaire, très peu s'occupent explicitement de l'adaptation aux changements climatiques. Néanmoins, leurs ressources ont permis d'accomplir des progrès en matière d'amélioration de l'accès des agriculteurs aux intrants de qualité, aux mécanismes financiers, à la formation et à l'investissement dans le renforcement des différentes composantes de la chaîne de valeur pour les principales cultures dans le pays."}]},{"head":"Financement potentiel","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Les petits producteurs n'ont pas accès aux services financiers, ce qui limite leur capacité à adopter les pratiques d'AIC. La fourniture de services financiers aux producteurs afin de faciliter leur accès aux intrants de qualité et de les inciter à intégrer les pratiques d'utilisation durable des terres est une approche permettant d'accroître les investissements dans ces pratiques. Les services financiers qui aident les agriculteurs pendant tout le cycle de production -depuis l'obtention des intrants jusqu'au stockage -peuvent contribuer à améliorer les moyens d'existence et les revenus des agriculteurs. En outre, la collaboration avec les agriculteurs en vue d'organiser et de mettre sur pied des coopératives paysannes ou des groupements de paysans peut renforcer leur pouvoir de négociation et de vente et, partant, améliorer leur accès aux marchés et leur permettre de générer des revenus importants."},{"index":2,"size":264,"text":"Il existe d'importantes opportunités de mobiliser l'investissement du secteur privé dans l'AIC, en particulier à grâce à la collaboration avec les entreprises agricoles locales, notamment les coopératives agricoles et les transformateurs. Ces entreprises agro-industrielles tiennent lieu de service de vulgarisation pour les petits producteurs et peuvent fournir des informations à ceux-ci et assurer leur formation en vue d'influer sur l'adoption des bonnes pratiques de gestion des terres et d'accroître les rendements. En veillant à ce que ces entreprises disposent des informations climatiques appropriées et des connaissances nécessaires concernant les pratiques intelligentes face au climat efficaces, elles peuvent promouvoir une adoption rapide des pratiques d'AIC par les petits producteurs. La mise à profit des chaînes de valeur existantes des petits producteurs et la commercialisation d'autres telles que le bissap (hibiscus), le baobab, la pomme de cajou et le moringa permet de générer des sources de revenu et contribue à la mise à échelle de l'AIC dans le pays. Le défi majeur a trait au manque de contrôle de qualité approprié des récoltes, d'installations de stockage et des connaissances sur les techniques de préservation et de transformation, ainsi qu'au manque d'accès au capital et aux équipements. La collaboration avec les fournisseurs de services financiers en vue d'appuyer les services aux petites et moyennes entreprises, en particulier celles du secteur agro-industriel, pourrait favoriser la croissance de l'industrie. Par exemple, le Projet de croissance économique de l'USAID a introduit des méthodes de contrôle de la qualité après récolte auprès des riziculteurs dans la Vallée du fleuve, ce qui a augmenté la demande et les prix du riz domestique."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"En tant que mécanisme de financement, REDD+ 11  présente une opportunité de créer des flux financiers afin d'atténuer les émissions de GES à travers des activités sur le carbone forestier. Le Sénégal peut réduire la déforestation et contribuer à économiser environ 7 millions de tonnes d'équivalent CO 2 par an, tandis que les activités de boisement/reboisement pourraient réduire les émissions de 69 millions de tonnes d'équivalent CO 2 chaque année. Toutefois, pour que le pays soit « prêt pour REDD+ », il convient de mieux définir le régime foncier, ainsi que les droits aux ressources et au carbone [37]."}]},{"head":"Perspectives","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Le Sénégal est en train d'accomplir des progrès en vue de la création d'un paysage politique propice au renforcement des initiatives d'AIC dans le pays par le truchement de la préparation du PANA et de l'adoption de Mesures d'atténuation appropriées au niveau national (MAAN). Les cas de réussite relatifs aux pratiques d'AIC à travers le pays montrent que lorsque les petits producteurs ont accès aux ressources financières et techniques, ainsi qu'à l'information (sur le climat et le marché), ils sont disposés à adopter ces pratiques."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Les derniers défis à relever afin d'assurer l'adoption de l'AIC à plus grande échelle ont trait à : • l'harmonisation de la politique climatique sur les politiques de développement économique et agricole du pays afin de veiller à ce que l'accroissement de la production dans le secteur agricole se fasse de manière intelligente face au climat ;"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"• l'association de plusieurs secteurs à la prise de décision en vue de faciliter l'identification, l'évaluation et la priorisation des initiatives les plus appropriées d'AIC à mettre à échelle, en particulier en collaboration avec les institutions financières et le secteur privé, afin de générer des flux financiers pour la promotion des pratiques d'AIC ;"},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"• la lutte contre la dégradation des terres et des sols, au développement des infrastructures de gestion de l'eau et d'irrigation, au contrôle de l'utilisation des engrais et des pesticides, ainsi qu'à la création d'un environnement propice aux activités post-récolte et à l'accès au marché pour les petits producteurs. Ceci devrait faire partie d'une stratégie plus large visant à redynamiser le secteur sur le plan économique, de manière à contribuer davantage à assurer la sécurité alimentaire et renforcer la résilience du pays aux changements climatiques."}]},{"head":"Travaux cités","index":18,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"** : kg/ha ; bétail : hg/animal) Principaux systèmes de production pour la sécurité alimentaire au Sénégal[4]   Prairies et pâturages permanents comme % de la superficie totale Prend en compte les aspects liés à l'abordabilité, à la disponibilité et à la qualité ** Il s'agit des 109 pays pris en compte dans l'indice. agricoles faisant l'objet d'application de pesticidesSénégalAfrique de l'Ouest Organisation de coopération et le développement économique "},{"text":" barres est fonction de superficie du système de production climatique (calendriers de culture, prévisions saisonnières et systèmes d'alerte précoce) Compostage à l'aide de biodigesteurs Compostage à l'aide de biodigesteurs Variétés certifiées à cycle court Variétés certifiées à cycle court Utilisation d'engrais organique Compostage aux fins de fertilisation Utilisation de l'engrais organique Utilisation d'engrais organique Conservation de l'agriculture (rotation des cultures, labour minimum/zéro, cultures de couverture) Gestion de la salinité des sols (drainage et inondation, apport de matière organique) Élagage Intensification des pâturages cultivés (animaux en place, fourrages améliorés) Techniques de stockage et de conservation Bonnes pratiques agricoles (désherbage, lutte contre les incendies, etc.) Variétés certifiées à cycle court Techniques d'irrigation économes en eau ** Système non identifié de production Élevage ** (bovins et ovins) petit mil, sorgho) "},{"text":" Autant il a été difficile de produire les prévisions et de transmettre les informations aux agriculteurs, autant il a été difficile de s'assurer que les agriculteurs utilisent effectivement les informations de manière efficace. Grâce aux séminaires, à la formation et à l'intégration du savoir local, les agriculteurs adaptent leurs pratiques de gestion des terres en tenant compte des prévisions. Par exemple, au cours d'une campagne agricole où les prévisions annonçaient une pluviométrie inférieure à la moyenne, les agriculteurs ont remplacé le maïs par le soja ou le sésame du fait des besoins en eau plus faibles de ces cultures. Par ailleurs, la date de démarrage de la saison des pluies est considérée comme l'un des éléments les plus importants de l'information climatique, qui peut aider les agriculteurs à éviter de perdre leurs semences suite à des semis précoces.Cet exemple prouve à suffisance l'importance des partenariats, des différents canaux de diffusion et du savoir participatif local pour la mise à échelle et l'adoption des pratiques d'AIC. en maintenant des conditions optima pour le développement des plantes.AdaptationPromeut l'utilisation efficace des maigres ressources en eau.AtténuationLa pratique peut contribuer à réduire les émissions lorsque l'on remplace la culture mécanisée par la culture manuelle et que l'on utilise l'économie d'énergie au niveau des pompes d'irrigation. Elle peut contribuer également à réduire les émissions de méthane. "},{"text":"Tableau 1 . Évaluation détaillée de l'intelligence face au climat pour les pratiques d'AIC en vigueur par système de production tel que mis en oeuvre au Sénégal % de la superficie totale récoltée)Mangue (1 % de la superficie totale récoltée) Arachide (21 % de la superficie totale récoltée) et la qualité de la production.AdaptationContribue à la restauration du sol en améliorant ses caractéristiques physiques, chimiques et biologiques.AtténuationL'amélioration des caractéristiques du sol (structurelles, biologiques, etc.) améliore la capacité du sol à séquestrer le carbone ; réduit les émissions de méthane, étant donné que le méthane est comme source d'énergie (gaz butane).ProductivitéAméliore la productivité et les rendements.AdaptationAccroît la résilience à la sécheresse, promue par une utilisation efficace de l'eau d'irrigation.AtténuationL'application efficace des engrais a un certain impact sur les émissions d'azote. Une réduction de l'énergie nécessaire pour l'irrigation peut entraîner une réduction de l'intensité des émissions par unité de produit).ProductivitéAccroît la productivité et réduit l'exposition des cultures aux maladies foliaires et à l'utilisation excessive des engrais.AdaptationL'augmentation de la matière organique peut faciliter la restauration du sol et la rétention de l'eau.AtténuationPermet d'accroître la teneur en matière organique du sol, ce qui peut entraîner une réduction des émissions.ProductivitéL'augmentation de la fertilité du sol à moyen à long terme peut donner lieu à un accroissement des rendements.AdaptationLa restauration du sol et l'accroissement de l'infiltration d'eau peuvent aider à rétablir les terres dégradées. "},{"text":" de semences de qualité peut accroître les rendements de 30 %.AdaptationRéduit l'érosion du sol, accroît l'infiltration d'eau et l'accumulation de la matière organique et peut aider à restaurer les sols dégradés.AtténuationAméliore la biomasse, ce qui peut accroître la séquestration du carbone.ProductivitéAccroît la productivité et le revenu grâce à l'amélioration de la qualité des produits.AdaptationAméliore la qualité et la quantité des aliments. Accroît la productivité par unité de superficie. Promeut la conservation du sol et de l'eau. Atténuation L'amélioration de la qualité des aliments réduit les émissions de méthane liée à la fermentation entérique. La fixation de l'azote par le truchement des espèces de légumineuses réduit les besoins en engrais azoté.ProductivitéAugmente la productivité (à moyen et long terme) suite à l'amélioration de la fertilité et de la santé du sol.AdaptationContribue à réduire les déchets agricoles et organiques et les odeurs. Facilite l'élimination des agents pathogènes. Peut constituer des sources de chauffage de rechange au niveau de l'exploitation. Atténuation Contribue à réduire les émissions de méthane avec le compostage aérobique. Productivité L'augmentation de la fertilité du sol à moyen et long terme peut accroître les rendements. Adaptation La restauration du sol et l'accroissement de l'infiltration d'eau peuvent aider à restaurer les terres dégradées. Atténuation Maintient ou améliore les stocks de carbone du sol et la teneur en matière organique du sol. (manioc, niébé) (4 % de la superficie totale récoltée) par unité de superficie Adaptation Contribue à la restauration du sol en améliorant ses caractéristiques physiques, chimiques et biologiques. Atténuation L'amélioration des caractéristiques (structurelles, biologiques, etc.) du sol peut améliorer la capacité du sol à séquestrer le carbone. Réduit les émissions de méthane, étant donné que ce méthane est comme source d'énergie (gaz butane). Productivité La conservation et l'utilisation de l'eau pour les engrais organiques entraînent une amélioration des rendements. Adaptation Aide à préserver l'humidité et la fertilité du sol en vue d'améliorer la rétention de l'eau du sol et améliore l'accumulation de la matière organique. Atténuation Maintient ou améliore les stocks de carbone du sol et la teneur en matière organique du sol. Productivité Améliore les rendements. Adaptation Améliore la fertilité du sol et la croissance des plantes. Atténuation L'application réduite des engrais chimiques a un certain impact sur les émissions d'azote. Des techniques de compostage telles que les biodigesteurs peuvent offrir des sources d'énergie de rechange, réduisant les émissions. L'amélioration des conditions du sol permet de séquestrer le carbone. Productivité Accroît les rendements et les recettes. Adaptation Accroît la résilience à la sécheresse, promue par une utilisation efficace de l'eau d'irrigation. Atténuation La réduction de l'application d'engrais chimiques a un certain impact sur les émissions d'azote. Des techniques de compostage telles que les biodigesteurs peuvent offrir des sources d'énergie de rechange, réduisant les émissions. L'amélioration des conditions du sol permet de séquestrer le carbone. "},{"text":" Le Sénégal compte plusieurs institutions et politiques clés visant à favoriser et accroître la productivité agricole, ainsi qu'à promouvoir les pratiques d'AIC. Le graphique suivant présente les principales institutions dont les activités concernent un, deux ou trois piliers de l'AIC (adaptation, productivité et atténuation). De plus amples informations sur la méthodologie et les résultats des entretiens, enquêtes et consultations d'experts figurent à l'Annexe 5.La plupart des institutions étudiées travaillent sur l'AIC, dans une certaine mesure, essentiellement en diffusant l'information et en faisant de la recherche-action, très peu d'entre elles bénéficiant d'incitations financières ou de budgets pour la mise en oeuvre des pratiques. Bien que certaines activités de ces institutions concernent l'AIC, celles-ci sont souvent secondaires par rapport à l'objectif premier qui consiste à accroître la productivité agricole ou améliorer la sécurité alimentaire dans le pays.Au niveau national, le MEDD joue un rôle d'avant-garde pour l'élaboration et la promotion des politiques relatives aux changements climatiques. Les principales institutions de développement de l'AIC à l'échelle nationale sont le MAER et le MEPA.Au nombre des principales organisations de recherche sur l'agriculture du pays qui facilitent l'adoption des pratiques d'AIC figurent le CSE et l'ISRA. Le CSE a pour but de renforcer la gestion participative des ressources environnementales et naturelles pour le développement économique à long terme. En 2010, il a été la première institution nationale à être accréditée et à exécuter un projet par le truchement du Fonds d'adaptation. Quant à l'ISRA, elle effectue de la recherche sur les cultures, l'élevage, la foresterie, la pêche et les questions socioéconomiques, y compris les activités avec les distributeurs de semences, afin d'assurer une distribution plus large des semences résistantes au climat aux agriculteurs9 . Par ailleurs, l'Institut travaille en étroite collaboration avec les sociétés du secteur privé dans les industries de l'arachide et du coton.Des ONG et des organismes de développement sont également actifs en matière de soutien à l'adoption des pratiques d'AIC. Une large gamme de projets en cours à travers le pays mettent l'accent sur l'amélioration des moyens d'existence des petits producteurs et, compte tenu des liens importants entre l'AIC et la sécurité alimentaire, nombre de ces initiatives prennent en compte les pratiques de gestion des risques climatiques, dans une certaine mesure. Par exemple, le projet Feed the Future de Naatal Mbay financé par l'USAID collabore avec les agriculteurs à travers les chaînes de valeur (riz, petit mil et maïs), facilitant leur accès aux semences certifiées, à l'assurance climat, à l'information climatique, aux outils, à la formation et aux marchés, toutes choses qui contribuent à renforcer la capacité d'adaptation des ménages.Une illustration de la volonté du gouvernement de promouvoir une approche multisectorielle et d'adopter des mesures en matière d'AIC tient à la Plateforme de dialogue Sciences-Politique sur l'adaptation de l'agriculture et de la sécurité alimentaire au changement climatique connue sous le nom de « Plateforme CCASA » du Sénégal, qui bénéficie du soutien du CCAFS. Cette plateforme comprend un réseau de parties prenantes, notamment des chercheurs, des décideurs, des organisations paysannes, des médias et d'autres acteurs clés qui procèdent à un échange régulier d'informations sur les questions liées aux changements climatiques pour l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire. Eu égard à son importance en matière de renforcement des capacités des acteurs nationaux pour prendre des décisions éclairées, la Plateforme CCASA est, à présent, formellement institutionnalisée pour représenter le MAER au sein du COMNACC.Le graphique suivant (voir page 16) présente une sélection de politiques, stratégies et programmes portant sur les thèmes de l'agriculture et des changements climatiques qui sont considérés comme des facteurs clés de l'AIC dans le pays. La classification du cycle des politiques vise à présenter les déficits et opportunités en matière de prise de décision, en se référant aux trois principales étapes suivantes : l'élaboration des politiques (qui concerne le stade9 Les activités récentes de l'ISRA liées à l'AIC comprennent la recherche-développement sur les variétés de semences résistantes ; la modélisation des cultures ; techniques post-récolte ; et, à un degré moindre, l'agroforesterie. ANACIM Agence Nationale de l'Aviation Civile et de la Météorologie BAD Banque Africaine de Développement BM Banque Mondiale COMNACC Comité National Chargé de l'Application de la Convention CSE Centre de Suivi Écologique DEFCCS Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Chasses et de la Conservation des Sols -Ministère de l'Environnement et du Développement Durable FIDA Fonds International de Développement Agricole ISRA Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles MAER Ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Équipement Rural MEDD Ministère de l'Environnement et du Développement Durable MEPA Ministère de l'Élevage et des Productions Animales PAM Programme Alimentaire Mondial USAID Agence des États-Unis pour le Développement International initiale d'une politique/le processus de consultation y relatif), la formalisation des politiques (pour indiquer l'existence de mécanismes pour porter la politique au niveau national) et l'exécution active de la politique (pour indiquer les progrès/résultats tangibles accomplis/obtenus dans la réalisation d'objectifs stratégiques plus larges grâce à des stratégies et plans d'action concrets). "},{"text":"Politiques en faveur de l' AIC au Sénégal CCNUCC Convention-Cadre des Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques (1994) (MEDD) CE/MEDD Code Environnemental/Ministère de l'Environnement et du Développement Durable (Loi 2001-01) (MEDD) CPDN Contributions Prévues Déterminées au niveau National (2015) (MEDD) GOANA Grande Offensive pour la Nourriture et l'Abondance (2008) (MAER) KP Protocole de Kyoto (2002) (MEDD) LOASP Loi d'orientation Agro-Sylvo-Pastorale (2004) (MEPA) NCCS Stratégie Nationale de Changement Climatique au Sénégal (2014-2018) (MEDD) PAFS Plan d'Action Forestier du Sénégal (1993) (DEFCCS) PAN/LCD Plan d'Action National pour la Lutte contre la Désertification (1998) (MEDD) PANA Plan d'Action National d'Adaptation aux changements climatiques (2006) (MEDD) PDDAA Programme détaillé de développement de l'agriculture africaine (2003) (MAER) PFS Politique Forestière du Sénégal (2005-2025) (MEDD) PIA Plan d'Investissement Agricole (2011-2015) (MA) PNA Plan National d'Adaptation (MEDD) PNAE Plan National d'Action pour l'Environnement (1995) (MEDD) PNCCS Politique Nationale de Changement Climatique au Sénégal (MEDD) PNDA Programme National de Développement Agricole (2009-2015) (MAER) PNDE Plan National de Développement de l'Élevage (2012) (MEPA) PNLCD Plan National de Lutte contre la Désertification (1989) (MEDD) PRACAS Programme d'Accélération de la Cadence de l'Agriculture Sénégalaise (2014-2020) (MAER) PSE Plan Sénégal Émergent (2013) (GS) SNDD Stratégie Nationale de Développement Durable (2005) (MEDD) SNDES Stratégie Nationale de Développement Économique et Social (2012-2017) (GS) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"de la population ont accès à des sources d'énergie propres (combustibles non solides) pour la cuisson Taux de mortalité des enfants nés au Sénégal n'atteignent pas leur cinquième anniversaire Taux de natalité chez les adolescentes naissances pour 1 000 femmes âgées de 15 à 19 ans Prévalence des infections à VIH des personnes infectées par le VIH  S ta bilit é D is pon ib il i t é S ta bilit éD is pon ib il i t é U t i l i s a t i o n A cc ès U t i l i s a t i o nA cc ès  sont des femmes sont des femmes  (âgées de plus de (âgées de plus de  15 ans) 15 ans)  "},{"text":"Indicateurs de la sécurité alimentaire (sélection)  1 $ par personne ($ constant 2004-06)  Produits de l'élevage Produits agricoles 1 $ par personne($ constant 2004-06)Produits de l'élevage Produits agricoles Variabilité de la production Calories disponibles Variabilité de la productionCalories disponibles alimentaire par habitant (kcal/capita/jour) alimentaire par habitant(kcal/capita/jour)    du budget des du budget des    ménages sont ménages sont    consacrés consacrés des enfants des adultes des enfantsdes adultes souffrent d'insuffisance souffrent d'insuffisance  pondérale  pondérale  "},{"text":"à la nourriture de l'ensemble des routes sont revêtues ND ND ND 17 % 9 % des enfants souffrent de dépérissement   "},{"text":"la foresterie Émissions sectorielles (2005) Autres Processus industriels Gestion des déchets Énergie Agriculture  2 eq    OCDE (1992-2012) 2eqOCDE (1992-2012)      Afrique de l'Ouest (1992-2012) Afrique de l'Ouest (1992-2012)      Sénégal (2005) Sénégal (2005) Brûlage Résidus   BrûlageRésidus des résidus de Engrais Rizi- Brûlage de des résidusdeEngraisRizi-Brûlage de agricoles récolte synthétiques culture la savane agricolesrécoltesynthétiquesculturela savane   Engrais Gestion de  Engrais vert Fermentation EngraisGestion deEngrais vertFermentation   verts l'engrais  laissé sur les entérique vertsl'engraislaissé sur lesentérique  appliqués vert  pâturages appliquésvertpâturages   aux sols   aux sols  "},{"text":"Émissions de gaz à effet de serre agricoles Les consommateurs et les producteurs du pays sont exposés aux prix élevés des denrées alimentaires et à la volatilité des prix, ce qui accroît l'insécurité alimentaire des ménages et aggrave leur vulnérabilité aux changements climatiques.4  • Les investissements du secteur privé dans les activités de production et post-récolte sont insuffisants, ce qui se traduit par un manque d'infrastructures rurales, notamment pour l'irrigation, le stockage/entreposage après-récolte et la transformation, ainsi que par des routes en piteux état. Selon les estimations, l'insuffisance d'infrastructure cause la perte de 20 à 50 % de la production de fruits et légumes[15]. • Les systèmes commerciaux sont peu développés aux niveaux tant national qu'international. Les contraintes liées à l'accès au marché ont trait, notamment à l'infrastructure physique, la plupart des marchés étant situés le long des principales routes bitumées du pays, ce qui limite l'accès aux agriculteurs vivant dans les zones reculées et plus isolées. Les petits producteurs n'ont pas la capacité nécessaire pour transformer, stocker ou distribuer les produits, tandis que les transformateurs à Dakar disposent de suffisamment d'informations sur les types de cultures et la qualité de la production. Dans les Contributions prévues déterminées au niveau Dans les Contributions prévues déterminées au niveau national (CPDN) du pays soumises à la CCNUCC, le national (CPDN) du pays soumises à la CCNUCC, le gouvernement a identifié les activités suivantes qui gouvernement a identifié les activités suivantes qui sont susceptibles de réduire les émissions de GES du sont susceptibles de réduire les émissions de GES du secteur agricole [23] : la mise en oeuvre du Système secteur agricole [23] : la mise en oeuvre du Système d'intensification du riz (SIR) ; la gestion durable des terres ; d'intensification du riz (SIR) ; la gestion durable des terres ; l'adoption de bonnes pratiques de gestion agricole ; l'adoption de bonnes pratiques de gestion agricole ; la régénération naturelle assistée (RNA) ; l'application la régénération naturelle assistée (RNA) ; l'application de la fumure organique ; l'agroforesterie ; les systèmes de la fumure organique ; l'agroforesterie ; les systèmes sylvopastoraux ; et l'installation de biodigesteurs. sylvopastoraux ; et l'installation de biodigesteurs. Défis du secteur agricole Défis du secteur agricole En dépit des efforts déployés ces dernières années en En dépit des efforts déployés ces dernières années en vue d'accroître la productivité agricole, l'écart entre la vue d'accroître la productivité agricole, l'écart entre la production nationale et les besoins du pays persiste. Les production nationale et les besoins du pays persiste. Les mauvais résultats du secteur s'expliquent par plusieurs mauvais résultats du secteur s'expliquent par plusieurs conditions biophysiques et socioéconomiques qui sont conditions biophysiques et socioéconomiques qui sont décrites ci-dessous. décrites ci-dessous. • Hormis l'extrême Sud, le Sénégal est situé dans le Sahel, • Hormis l'extrême Sud, le Sénégal est situé dans le Sahel, une région sujette aux sécheresses qui se caractérise par une région sujette aux sécheresses qui se caractérise par une pluviométrie irrégulière et des sols pauvres [12]. une pluviométrie irrégulière et des sols pauvres [12]. • Les ressources naturelles dont dépend le secteur • Les ressources naturelles dont dépend le secteur présentent des signes de détérioration : la dégradation présentent des signes de détérioration : la dégradation des terres affecte 34 % du territoire, 3 l'acidification touche des terres affecte 34 % du territoire, 3 l'acidification touche 50 % des terres agricoles dans la région de la Casamance 50 % des terres agricoles dans la région de la Casamance intérieure, la Vallée du fleuve, ainsi que les régions du intérieure, la Vallée du fleuve, ainsi que les régions du Sine-Saloum et de Niayes, tandis que la salinisation Sine-Saloum et de Niayes, tandis que la salinisation affecte 9 % des terres dégradées, essentiellement dans la affecte 9 % des terres dégradées, essentiellement dans la Vallée du fleuve. Bien qu'une partie de cette dégradation Vallée du fleuve. Bien qu'une partie de cette dégradation puisse s'expliquer par des processus naturels, la majeure puisse s'expliquer par des processus naturels, la majeure partie est imputable à l'homme et découle des mauvaises partie est imputable à l'homme et découle des mauvaises pratiques de gestion de l'eau, du défrichement excessif pratiques de gestion de l'eau, du défrichement excessif des terres pour la production commerciale d'arachide et des terres pour la production commerciale d'arachide et la production de charbon, du surpâturage, de l'application la production de charbon, du surpâturage, de l'application inappropriée des engrais minéraux et organiques, et de inappropriée des engrais minéraux et organiques, et de l'urbanisation débridée [25]. l'urbanisation débridée [25]. • La plupart des producteurs sont des petits exploitants • La plupart des producteurs sont des petits exploitants agricoles qui n'ont pas accès à des semences certifiées agricoles qui n'ont pas accès à des semences certifiées de grande qualité, aux engrais, aux machines, à de grande qualité, aux engrais, aux machines, à Le secteur agricole représente environ 49 % des émissions Le secteur agricole représente environ 49 % des émissions totales de GES du pays. 2 Selon les données nationales totales de GES du pays. 2 Selon les données nationales qui sous-tendent la troisième Communication nationale qui sous-tendent la troisième Communication nationale au titre de la Convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur au titre de la Convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques (CCNUCC), la majeure les changements climatiques (CCNUCC), la majeure partie des émissions est liée à la fermentation entérique, partie des émissions est liée à la fermentation entérique,  "},{"text":" 7 et les prévisions instantanées pour les événements extrêmes8 . Grâce à des partenariats clés et à plusieurs canaux de distribution, l'utilisation de l'information climatique est devenue pour les agriculteurs ruraux sénégalais une composante essentielle de leurs intrants agricoles -de même que les semences et les engrais. Pour diffuser l'information, l'ANACIM a établi un partenariat avec l'Union des radios associatives et communautaires du Sénégal (URACS), qui transmet les prévisions par le truchement de 82 radios communautaires dans les langues locales. La large couverture de la téléphonie cellulaire au Sénégal a facilité l'utilisation des technologies mobiles pour diffuser l'information climatique par SMS. Ces messages sont envoyés aux agriculteurs et aux vulgarisateurs, qui les transmettent ensuite à d'autres agriculteurs, ce qui crée un effet domino. De même, les agents de terrain sont importants pour le système, car non seulement ils relaient l'information climatique, mais ils sont également bien outillés pour formuler des recommandations concernant des méthodes de semis telles que le choix des semences. Comme résultat important du processus participatif pendant la phase pilote, l'on s'est aperçu que les femmes ont plus de chances de recevoir l'information climatique aux lieux de rencontre ou grâce aux contacts personnels, ce qui souligne la nécessité de veiller à ce que des femmes qui occupent des positions stratégiques au sein de leur communauté reçoivent l'information pour pouvoir les transmettre à d'autres.  "},{"text":"d'accélération de la cadence de l'agriculture sénégalaise Agence française de développement-Eau et Assainissement AMCC Alliance Mondiale contre le Changement Climatique BAD Banque Africaine de Développement BioCF Financement Carbone/Banque Mondiale BM Banque Mondiale BMGF Fondation Bill et Melinda Gates BTC Agence Belge de Développement CAM Mécanisme de Développement Propre CI Conservation Internationale CNAAS Compagnie Nationale d'Assurance Agricole du Sénégal CNCAS Caisse Nationale de Crédit Agricole du Sénégal FA Fond d'Adaptation FAO Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'Agriculture et l'Alimentation FED Fonds Européen de Développement FIDA Fonds International de Développement Agricole FND Fonds Nordique de développement FNDASP Fonds National de Développement Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral FNRAA Fonds National de Recherche Agricole et Agro-Alimentaire du Sénégal FONSTAB Fonds d'Appui à la Stabulation FPCF Fonds de Partenariat pour le Carbone Forestier FSCC Fonds spécial pour les changements climatiques FSF Japan's Fast-Start Finance FTP Fonds pour les Technologies Propres FVC Fonds Vert pour le Climat GEF Fonds pour l'Environnement Mondial GIZ Coopération Technique Allemande IKI Initiative Internationale pour le Climat ISRA Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles JICA Agence Japonaise de Coopération Internationale KfW Banque Allemande de Développement -Initiative Internationale pour le Climat MAER Ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Équipement Rural MEDD Ministère de l'Environnement et du Développement Durable MEPA Ministère de l'Élevage et des Productions Animales OPIC Société d'Investissement Privé d'Outremer PAM Programme Alimentaire Mondial PIF Programme d'Investissement pour la Forêt PNUD Programme des Nations unies pour le développement PNUED Programme des Nations Unies pour l'Environnement RF Fondation Rockefeller SAI Initiative pour le Développement Durable dans l'Agriculture SFI Société Financière Internationale SIDA Agence suédoise de coopération internationale au développement SREP Programme de mise à l'échelle des énergies renouvelables dans les pays à faible revenu TNC The Nature Conservancy UKICF Fonds international britannique pour le climat UN REDD Programme de collaboration des Nations Unies pour la réduction des émissions de gas liées à la déforestation et à la dégradation des forêts USAID-DGP Agence des États-Unis pour le développement international -Programme de subventions pour le développement USAID-FF (PRACAS, 2014-2020), qui est le mécanisme de mise en oeuvre de la composante agricole du PSE et dont l'un des objectifs consiste à assurer l'autosuffisance en riz à l'horizon 2017.L'agriculture joue un rôle primordial dans ces documents et constitue un volet essentiel de la réalisation de la sécurité alimentaire, de la réduction de la pauvreté et de la création de richesses pour le pays. Cependant, ils ont pour objectifs   Atténuation Atténuation   Adaptation Adaptation   Productivité Productivité CPDN NCCS NCCS PNA  CPDN NCCS NCCS PNA d'accroître la productivité à court et à moyen terme et   d'accroître la productivité à court et à moyen terme et accordent peu d'attention au développement à long terme   accordent peu d'attention au développement à long terme du secteur et aux implications pour les changements   du secteur et aux implications pour les changements climatiques.   climatiques. SNDD Une deuxième insuffisance tient au fait que l'écrasante PANA SNDD PFS SNDD Une deuxième insuffisance tient au fait que l'écrasantePANA SNDDPFS majorité des politiques identifiées n'ont pas pris en compte   majorité des politiques identifiées n'ont pas pris en compte effectivement les mesures d'atténuation des changements   effectivement les mesures d'atténuation des changements climatiques ou d'adaptation à ceux-ci de manière concrète,   climatiques ou d'adaptation à ceux-ci de manière concrète, et ne prévoient ni de mesures spécifiques ni de ressources   et ne prévoient ni de mesures spécifiques ni de ressources dédiées pour la mise en oeuvre des pratiques d'AIC. Bien   dédiées pour la mise en oeuvre des pratiques d'AIC. Bien CCNUCC KP que certaines activités présentées dans ces politiques puissent être considérées comme des pratiques d'AIC, il y a lieu d'accorder davantage la priorité aux mesures relatives aux changements climatiques afin d'éviter que CE PNDE PPDDAA GOANA LOASP PAFS PAN/LCD PIA PNAE PNDA PNDE PNLCD PRACAS PSE SNDES CCNUCC KP que certaines activités présentées dans ces politiques puissent être considérées comme des pratiques d'AIC, il y a lieu d'accorder davantage la priorité aux mesures relatives aux changements climatiques afin d'éviter queCE PNDEPPDDAA GOANA LOASP PAFS PAN/LCD PIA PNAE PNDA PNDE PNLCD PRACAS PSE SNDES l'accroissement de la productivité se fasse au détriment de   l'accroissement de la productivité se fasse au détriment de l'adoption de mesures de renforcement de la résilience aux   l'adoption de mesures de renforcement de la résilience aux changements climatiques, notamment la promotion des   changements climatiques, notamment la promotion des techniques d'intensification durable des cultures grâce à la   techniques d'intensification durable des cultures grâce à la gestion intégrée de la fertilité des sols, des nuisibles et des   gestion intégrée de la fertilité des sols, des nuisibles et des maladies, la diversification de l'agriculture et l'augmentation   maladies, la diversification de l'agriculture et l'augmentation de l'enveloppe financière destinée à la mise en oeuvre des   de l'enveloppe financière destinée à la mise en oeuvre des pratiques d'agroforesterie et de reboisement.   pratiques d'agroforesterie et de reboisement.  (COP 21), le Sénégal a rédigé sa troisième Communication (COP 21), le Sénégal a rédigé sa troisième Communication  nationale et sa première CPDN. Dans cette dernière, il nationale et sa première CPDN. Dans cette dernière, il  s'engage à réduire volontairement ses émissions de GES s'engage à réduire volontairement ses émissions de GES  d'environ 5 % de 2020 à 2025 [23]. En outre, dans le PIA, d'environ 5 % de 2020 à 2025 [23]. En outre, dans le PIA,  préparé dans le cadre de la participation du pays au PDDAA, préparé dans le cadre de la participation du pays au PDDAA,  environ 86 % des investissements sont en phase avec les environ 86 % des investissements sont en phase avec les  domaines prioritaires du PANA, notamment les activités liées domaines prioritaires du PANA, notamment les activités liées  à la restauration des sols, à la reforestation et à la formation à la restauration des sols, à la reforestation et à la formation  en vue de renforcer les capacités communautaires en en vue de renforcer les capacités communautaires en  matière de gestion des ressources naturelles et de gestion matière de gestion des ressources naturelles et de gestion  intégrée des ressources en eau [36]. intégrée des ressources en eau [36].  Afin de relever les défis liés au développement économique, Afin de relever les défis liés au développement économique,  à la réduction de la pauvreté, à la sécurité alimentaire et aux à la réduction de la pauvreté, à la sécurité alimentaire et aux  changements climatiques, un certain nombre d'instruments changements climatiques, un certain nombre d'instruments  stratégiques ont été mis en place, à savoir : stratégiques ont été mis en place, à savoir :  • la Loi d'orientation agro-sylvo-pastorale (LOASP, • la Loi d'orientation agro-sylvo-pastorale (LOASP,  2004), qui vise à accroître la production, la qualité et 2004), qui vise à accroître la production, la qualité et  la commercialisation des produits de l'agriculture et de la commercialisation des produits de l'agriculture et de  l'élevage grâce à la modernisation, à la valorisation, à l'élevage grâce à la modernisation, à la valorisation, à  l'accès au crédit et à la privatisation des terres ; l'accès au crédit et à la privatisation des terres ;  • la Stratégie nationale de développement économique • la Stratégie nationale de développement économique  et social (SNDES, 2013-2017), qui vise à accélérer la et social (SNDES, 2013-2017), qui vise à accélérer la  croissance économique par le biais « de la croissance, croissance économique par le biais « de la croissance,  de la productivité et de la création de richesses », de la productivité et de la création de richesses »,  l'agriculture figurant en tête de liste des priorités ; l'agriculture figurant en tête de liste des priorités ;  • le Plan Sénégal émergent (PSE, 2013), qui vise à • le Plan Sénégal émergent (PSE, 2013), qui vise à  accélérer la croissance économique de 7 % au cours accélérer la croissance économique de 7 % au cours  de la prochaine décennie et fait de l'agriculture l'un des de la prochaine décennie et fait de l'agriculture l'un des  principaux piliers du développement économique et de principaux piliers du développement économique et de  la réduction de la pauvreté dans le pays ; la réduction de la pauvreté dans le pays ;  "},{"text":"Financement de l' AIC  Au nombre des opportunités nationales de financement de Au nombre des opportunités nationales de financement de l'agriculture au Sénégal figurent l'appui du gouvernement l'agriculture au Sénégal figurent l'appui du gouvernement (MAER, MEPA), d'institutions financières du secteur (MAER, MEPA), d'institutions financières du secteur privé telles que la CNCAS, la Banque nationale pour le privé telles que la CNCAS, la Banque nationale pour le développement économique (BNDE) et Locafrique, des développement économique (BNDE) et Locafrique, des coopératives, des ONG et, dans une certaine mesure, coopératives, des ONG et, dans une certaine mesure, du secteur privé. Le graphique à droite présente les du secteur privé. Le graphique à droite présente les opportunités existantes et potentielles de financement opportunités existantes et potentielles de financement de l'AIC dans le pays. La méthodologie et une liste plus de l'AIC dans le pays. La méthodologie et une liste plus détaillée des fonds figurent à l'Annexe 7. détaillée des fonds figurent à l'Annexe 7. Entre 2000 et 2006, le secteur agricole a bénéficié de Entre 2000 et 2006, le secteur agricole a bénéficié de 4,6 % du budget national du Sénégal [36]. Les principaux 4,6 % du budget national du Sénégal [36]. Les principaux mécanismes de financement actuels du gouvernement sont mécanismes de financement actuels du gouvernement sont le FNRAA et le FNDASP, qui financent essentiellement les le FNRAA et le FNDASP, qui financent essentiellement les institutions de recherche (notamment l'ISRA). Le FNRAA a institutions de recherche (notamment l'ISRA). Le FNRAA a permis de financer un certain nombre de projets présentant permis de financer un certain nombre de projets présentant des caractéristiques de l'AIC, notamment l'amélioration de des caractéristiques de l'AIC, notamment l'amélioration de  "},{"text":"de financement de l' AIC au Sénégal   FED FAO FED FAO  PIF FVC GEF PIF FVC GEF  FIDA JICA FIDA JICA BAD PNUD PNUED BADPNUD PNUED OPIC USAID-DGP OPICUSAID-DGP Oxfam USAID-FF OxfamUSAID-FF   FA AFD-WS FA AFD-WS CI  BTC CAM FSF CIBTC CAM FSF RF  AMCC GIZ RFAMCC GIZ Financements internationaux KfW FND SIDA UKICF Financements internationauxKfW FND SIDA UKICF SAI  SAI BMGF TNC BioCF FTP FPCF SFI BMGF TNCBioCF FTP FPCF SFI  IKI SREP FSCC IKI SREP FSCC  UN REDD+ UN REDD+ CNAAS  CNAAS CNCAS PlaNet Guarantee Locafrique FNRAA (MAER) FNDASP (MAER°F CNCAS PlaNet GuaranteeLocafrique FNRAA (MAER) FNDASP (MAER°F  ONSTAB ONSTAB Financements nationaux Financements nationaux  "}],"sieverID":"29e7dc38-e421-4064-8d5a-6cd1e31de425","abstract":"Afrique de l'Ouest * Distribution de la richesse (indice) 0 = Égalité absolue 1 = Inégalité absolue Accès aux services de base Eau potable Électricité Éducation de la population totale de la population rurale des jeunes sont alphabétisés Le présent document a bénéficié des commentaires reçus de Robert Zougmoré (CCAFS), Mbaye Diop (ISRA), Marit Wilkerson et Abdoulaye Dia (USAID)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d0964ffb10797ee2e8124ba568613e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b2b6b54d-f8fc-42c7-8713-cbadd1e8ce9e/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"ISPC Assessment of the Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA) CRP-II revised proposal (2017-2022) ISPC CRP RATING 1 : B+","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"3","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characterization of Flagships","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FP","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Main strengths Weaknesses/Risks Rating FP1: Tree genetic resources to bridge production gaps and promote resilience Aims to translate ecological research into policy-oriented tools relating to safeguarding genetic diversity, tree domestication, and planting material delivery."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Comparative advantage in tree genetics is well-established. • A good track record of delivery of online tools for decision support gives a degree of confidence about delivery of the research outputs."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"• Not clear that a lack of technical advice, or a lack of specific tools for use in policy processes, are the binding constraints preventing more treeplanting. • A major weakness is the absence of relevant partners working on policy in relevant areas. • Lack of focus and realism in impact pathways -with a highly diffuse set of 17 different sub-IDOs targeted -makes accountability unlikely."}]},{"head":"Moderate","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FP2: Enhancing how trees and forests contribute to smallholder livelihoods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Aims to develop context-specific options for smallholders that will be congruent with sustainability principles at landscape and livelihood scale."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Understanding smallholder livelihood options associated with trees is an important topic for the CGIAR. "}]},{"head":"Partially addressed.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Progress with recruitment is noted, but the nature of the responses in the Addendum continue to concern the ISPC that insufficient time is being given to leadership of this CRP, given the dual role of the Acting Director. This will continue to be flagged to donors as a risk to delivery until the ISPC has had the opportunity to assess a nominated Director."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"3. The proponents should attach an annex that clarifies site integration plans with respect to the role of the sentinel landscapes, including results from Phase 1."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"A new Annex 3.19 was included -Creating a data-driven network of socio-ecological indicators across the Global Tropics that details the requested information about the Sentinel Landscapes."}]},{"head":"Satisfactorily addressed.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Annex 3.19 is very helpful in providing useful, quantitative data on indicators such as erosion and tree density as well as bioeconomic data in relation to sentinel landscapes. It is surprising that such information was not included in the original proposal. However, referencing is not very clear and it was difficult to"}]},{"head":"Initial ISPC comment (16 June 2016)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"CRP response/changes proposed (31 July) ISPC assessment (14 September)"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"In addition, the narrative of Section 1.0.7 -Cross CRP collaboration and site integration was updated to synthetize FTA's involvement in the site integration process including the Sentinel Landscapes. The detailed information about site integration is in the Template 2b of Annex 3.7."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"establish where the data came from. Nonetheless, the team makes a convincing case for outcome-oriented, place-based research complemented by long-term monitoring."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"4. The revised proposal should do more to strengthen the argument for why the individual FPs add up to more than the sum of the parts."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Completely revised the CRP narrative Section 1.0.6 -Program structure and Flagship Projects and includes a new Figure (1 on p 29 of the new narrative) which illustrates the two-way exchange of knowledge between the Flagships. There is also information earlier (section 1.06) on the role of the Support Platform which will use 'all methods of interfacing and coordination between FPs'."}]},{"head":"Partially addressed.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The new diagram does illustrate the potential for connectivity between the FPs, but the all-embracing nature of what is proposed for the Support Platform does not suggest that a strategic approach has been thought through. The degree of specialization at the FP level between ICRAF (1,2 and 4) and CIFOR (3 and 5) does not help enhance the idea of synergies at CRP level from the often high quality research taking place at FP level."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"To this end, an additional annex describing the priority-setting process that was applied to the planning of the CRP, and the results of the process, is requested."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"A new Annex includes < 2 pages on prioritization, at CRP and FP level. At CRP level, priority setting included an on-line questionnaire of forestry professionals (which generated an impressive 2,500 research questions) as well as lessons learnt from FTA Phase I. At FP level the approach incorporates recognition of demand, alongside internal lesson learning and outward looking foresight and assessment of opportunities arising form site integration activities. Prioritization of policy-related research appears to be developed internally."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"The comment that '…A core portfolio of research in development supported by bilateral projects' also raises concerns -bilateral funding is important, but it is unfortunately rarely strategic to the extent that should be expected when prioritizing justification for W1 and W2 funding. In summary, the additional annex was unconvincing and did not materially change the ISPC's opinions of the underlying issue about poor prioritization."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Assessment of CRP response to the ISPC major comments Initial ISPC comment (16 June 2016) CRP response/changes proposed (31 July) ISPC assessment (14 September)  FP Initial ISPC comment (16 June Main strengths CRP response/changes proposed (31 July) Weaknesses/Risks ISPC assessment (14 September) Rating FP Initial ISPC comment (16 JuneMain strengths CRP response/changes proposed (31 July)Weaknesses/Risks ISPC assessment (14 September)Rating reducing deforestation while meeting 2016) the proponents' ability to deliver, and  reducing deforestation while meeting 2016)the proponents' ability to deliver, and growing demand for high-value crops. 2. While the team of FP leaders is indicative of high quality research. The Addendum notes that recruitment of a   growing demand for high-value crops. 2. While the team of FP leaders isindicative of high quality research. The Addendum notes that recruitment of a • Established partnerships and track record consistent with strong comparative advantage. • Strong comparative advantage and scientific track record of the researchers involved. • Innovative research on an important topic. • Sophisticated understanding of why some interventions are successful. FTA responded by stating that given the FP4: Landscape dynamics, productivity and resilience Place-based research that aims to support negotiation of trade-offs among the SDGs -examining the inter-linkages between land-use / land-cover change and the provision of ecosystem services -through new policy instruments. 1. \"The mismatch between evidence of documented historical impacts, and expected future impacts, is stark. Even though targets are overly optimistic for many CRPs, FTA is an outlier among all CRPs regarding targets that lack credibility, particularly the one relating to the number of farmers likely to be lifted out of poverty. Sections of the proposal which refer to targets or provide magnitude of the areas and populations living in and/or depending from FT&A systems, they continue to believe their targets were realistic. However, they recognized that they had used an additive model, to calculate the impressive, FTA directorship new FTA Director has been carefully has been unclear for some time, considered by the Independent Steering and despite expectations that a Committee, especially in light of uncertain director would be appointed in funding and future scenarios for the CRP (for late 2015 this has not been example, not long ago there were plans to resolved. (\"At the date of merge FTA with WLE). However, the Acting submission, the DDG-Research Director has assumed full responsibilities sum of the targets across an FP for one of CIFOR is the acting FTA during this period of adjustment, and as such country. In response to the reviewers' director as the position is under there has been no void in leadership. comments, they agreed that it seems more reasonable to use a combined model, as the beneficiaries are likely to be the same -at least partially -when several FPs operate in the same country. recruitment\" p. 38). The Recruitment timeline: uncertainty regarding this • The FTA Director position was still open vacancy should be resolved during the full proposal preparation and before 31 July 2016. closed on 31/03. justification for the figures A completely revised Annex 3.12 was • A long list was created in concert with the quoted need to be rewritten. The included. The assumptions and evidence used Independent Steering Committee. revised CRP should have a stronger rationale for targets, including past evidence, especially for SLO 1.\" to develop aspirational targets provides a • A short list was developed and candidates stronger rationale as well as revised were interviewed by phone in June 2016. assumptions behind our targets, supported by • Two potential candidates have been examples of past achievements. Each target selected and will be interviewed in person now details the total target population, how FTA research can bring solutions, our by a panel on 1 August 2016. • It is not clear how the research in this FP will generate a broader understanding of diverse contexts, hence raising questions about capacity to deliver proposed targets. • Over-emphasis on contribution of trees to smallholder livelihoods. • The coherence of the set of different • Lack of strong evidence of the effectiveness of \"landscape approaches\" in reconciling conservation and economic development objectives has been well-documented. Partially addressed. The evidence presented of past adoption rates was not well referenced in support of uptake by millions. The evidence on FTA research lifting people out of poverty was even less convincing. The pathways between research outputs and income are not as straightforward as appears to be assumed on p 156 of the Annexes. The key objective for the addendum, to provide a stronger rationale for targets, especially for SLO 1, has been addressed but the information presented does not materially change our opinion of the underlying problem i.e. there is little evidence of a central priority-setting function by the CRP management. Weak • Established partnerships and track record consistent with strong comparative advantage. • Strong comparative advantage and scientific track record of the researchers involved. • Innovative research on an important topic. • Sophisticated understanding of why some interventions are successful. FTA responded by stating that given the FP4: Landscape dynamics, productivity and resilience Place-based research that aims to support negotiation of trade-offs among the SDGs -examining the inter-linkages between land-use / land-cover change and the provision of ecosystem services -through new policy instruments. 1. \"The mismatch between evidence of documented historical impacts, and expected future impacts, is stark. Even though targets are overly optimistic for many CRPs, FTA is an outlier among all CRPs regarding targets that lack credibility, particularly the one relating to the number of farmers likely to be lifted out of poverty. Sections of the proposal which refer to targets or provide magnitude of the areas and populations living in and/or depending from FT&A systems, they continue to believe their targets were realistic. However, they recognized that they had used an additive model, to calculate the impressive, FTA directorship new FTA Director has been carefully has been unclear for some time, considered by the Independent Steering and despite expectations that a Committee, especially in light of uncertain director would be appointed in funding and future scenarios for the CRP (for late 2015 this has not been example, not long ago there were plans to resolved. (\"At the date of merge FTA with WLE). However, the Acting submission, the DDG-Research Director has assumed full responsibilities sum of the targets across an FP for one of CIFOR is the acting FTA during this period of adjustment, and as such country. In response to the reviewers' director as the position is under there has been no void in leadership. comments, they agreed that it seems more reasonable to use a combined model, as the beneficiaries are likely to be the same -at least partially -when several FPs operate in the same country. recruitment\" p. 38). The Recruitment timeline: uncertainty regarding this • The FTA Director position was still open vacancy should be resolved during the full proposal preparation and before 31 July 2016. closed on 31/03. justification for the figures A completely revised Annex 3.12 was • A long list was created in concert with the quoted need to be rewritten. The included. The assumptions and evidence used Independent Steering Committee. revised CRP should have a stronger rationale for targets, including past evidence, especially for SLO 1.\" to develop aspirational targets provides a • A short list was developed and candidates stronger rationale as well as revised were interviewed by phone in June 2016. assumptions behind our targets, supported by • Two potential candidates have been examples of past achievements. Each target selected and will be interviewed in person now details the total target population, how FTA research can bring solutions, our by a panel on 1 August 2016.• It is not clear how the research in this FP will generate a broader understanding of diverse contexts, hence raising questions about capacity to deliver proposed targets. • Over-emphasis on contribution of trees to smallholder livelihoods. • The coherence of the set of different • Lack of strong evidence of the effectiveness of \"landscape approaches\" in reconciling conservation and economic development objectives has been well-documented. Partially addressed. The evidence presented of past adoption rates was not well referenced in support of uptake by millions. The evidence on FTA research lifting people out of poverty was even less convincing. The pathways between research outputs and income are not as straightforward as appears to be assumed on p 156 of the Annexes. The key objective for the addendum, to provide a stronger rationale for targets, especially for SLO 1, has been addressed but the information presented does not materially change our opinion of the underlying problem i.e. there is little evidence of a central priority-setting function by the CRP management. Weak  expected contribution based on FTA Phase I, • Depending on the actual fate of FTA and  production systems selected for research expected contribution based on FTA Phase I, • Depending on the actual fate of FTA andproduction systems selected for research  the geographic coverage and existing portfolio on available funding, the selected candidate  remains unclear. the geographic coverage and existing portfolio on available funding, the selected candidateremains unclear. FP3: Sustainable global value chains and investments for supporting forest achievements, and caveats wherever relevant. • Strategically relevant research that aims to reconcile trade-offs among of activities, examples of past or current will begin at the start of 2017.  • CGIAR investment in the CoA on 'Scaling through responsible finance and Strong FP3: Sustainable global value chains and investments for supporting forest achievements, and caveats wherever relevant. • Strategically relevant research that aims to reconcile trade-offs among of activities, examples of past or current will begin at the start of 2017.• CGIAR investment in the CoA on 'Scaling through responsible finance andStrong conservation and equitable development Section 1.0.2 -Goals, objectives, targets has SLOs 1 and 3 on a regional to global investments' is low, with the assumption conservation and equitable development Section 1.0.2 -Goals, objectives, targets has SLOs 1 and 3 on a regional to globalinvestments' is low, with the assumption scale. also been revised and updated with the new integrated agricultural production and forest Supports uptake of more intensive and management systems, with the goal of revised targets values. • Synthesis of state of research in the PIM Table A has been updated in the online field is excellent, giving confidence in tool and the aligned proposal document that there will be complementary investment from the private sector. Without this outside investment, targets will not be met. scale. also been revised and updated with the new integrated agricultural production and forest Supports uptake of more intensive and management systems, with the goal of revised targets values. • Synthesis of state of research in the PIM Table A has been updated in the online field is excellent, giving confidence in tool and the aligned proposal documentthat there will be complementary investment from the private sector. Without this outside investment, targets will not be met.  "}],"sieverID":"152f9666-090e-41c8-9f65-4330e72ff747","abstract":"The CRP on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry supports a portfolio of projects of high strategic importance to the CGIAR related to forest management, agroforestry, land-use change, and climate change. In aggregate, the CRP aims to: assist 19 million people to exit poverty through improved livelihood options and food security to 31 million farm households; improve governance in 25 countries and business practices in 20 multinational companies (directly), indirectly influencing 500 private sector actors; reduce 0.2 Gt CO2eq /yr in GHG emissions; and restore 30 million ha of degraded land area 2 .• The CRP is structured as five Flagship Projects (FPs) responding to research challenges that, while subject to feedback loops that create inter-dependencies across scales, are broadly nested in ascending scale from the level of genes to the level of the integrated global climate system. • The impact pathways from research at each of these scales usually hinge on achieving changes in government policy or private sector practice, or through institutional innovations. The major outputs are a range of new decision-support tools, and participation in multi-stakeholder / colearning / landscape approaches. While it is certainly difficult to generate rigorous evidence of effectiveness in these kinds of complex change processes, the CRP could be doing more to document the linkages between research outputs, research outcomes, through to development outcomes. • The underlying biophysical / ecological / forest management research taking place at ICRAF and CIFOR is often of very high quality. However, the CRP theory of change is strongly based on the assumption that a lack of technical knowledge is the binding constraint to improved management of competing land-uses at all scales. One of the risks for the FTA CRP is that it generates a supply-driven portfolio of technical research. • The alignment with the SRF is strong for SLO3. There is however a generally low level of clear differentiation regarding how the individual FPs are expected to contribute to sub-IDOs. This is symptomatic of both a lack of prioritization and a difficulty in articulating credible, focused theories of change at CRP and FP level. • FTA contains some high quality biophysical research with potentially significant policy implications, and a number of strong flagship projects. There is also research within the CRP that has the characteristics of international public goods. • A permanent leader has yet to be appointed for the FTA CRP, which has contributed to the fact that it has yet to live up to the potential shown at the pre-proposal stage.1 A+: Outstanding -of the highest quality, at the forefront of research in the field (fully evolved, exceeds expectations; recommended unconditionally).A: Excellent -high quality research and a strongly compelling proposal that is at an advanced stage of evolution as a CRP, with strong leadership which can be relied on to continue making improvements.A-: Very good -a sound and compelling proposal displaying high quality research and drawing on established areas of strength, which could benefit from a more forward-looking vision. B+: Good -a sound research proposal but one which is largely framed by 'business as usual' and is deficient in some key aspects of a CRP that can contribute to System-wide SLOs. B: Fair -Elements of a sound proposal but has one or more serious flaws rendering it uncompetitive; not recommended without significant change. C: Unsatisfactory -Does not make an effective case for the significance or quality of the proposed research."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d719e5275fee3ec8d9bb9879945f5b1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/426bc353-52a5-4f83-b0c7-6d2c26d63b02/retrieve"},"pageCount":61,"title":"Cover photo: Sulaiman Sebuliba and Brenda Makyanzi, technicians at CIAT's Kawanda, Uganda research station, examine bean varieties. G. Smith (CIAT)","keywords":["Department of Education, Climate Change Commission Read more Website: The Infomediary Campaign","Blog: The Infomediary Campaign: Reinventing instruction approaches to win young people's minds","Blog: Philippine student journalists primed for climate change reporting"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"In Nepal, the national government began rolling out the CSV approach as part of its key policies for 2016-17 with the aim to create linkages between farmers, government and private sector. This was catalyzed by learnings from CCAFS projects Nepal and the South Asia region. Focus areas of the government's CSV program are promotion of solar-based irrigation systems, improved seeds, nutrient management, ITC-based climate information and agro-advisory services, and agriculture insurance."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"CCAFS has teamed up with Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) and an ICT provider to offer mobile and web-based climate information and agro-advisory services to farmers in CSVs. CCAFS has partnered with Practical Action Consulting, the International Finance Corporation and the government to link 15,000 farmers to lead companies in sugarcane, rice and maize in order to enhance the long-term productivity of these key crops."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Expansion of CSVs is also taking off in India, where state governments, NGOs and private sector are using the lessons learned from CCAFS CSV AR4D approach to scale up CSA practices and technologies in 6 different states. In 2016, the State Governments of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh integrated CSVs in its agricultural development plan that targets many districts, helping several hundreds of thousands smallholder men and women farmers to improve their food, nutrition and livelihoods while coping with climate risks."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"CCAFS is also partnering with ITC Limited, a private agribusiness company, to promote the CSV approach in three states of India (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan) in 2,000 communities by 2019. "}]},{"head":"Climate-smart coffee and cocoa value chains on the rise","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The global coffee and cocoa industries rely heavily on the production of millions of smallholder farmers, for whom these tropical crops are primary source of income for farmers. They are also key foreign revenue generators for many economies. But cocoa and coffee are particularly sensitive to climate change and variability, so climate change is posing a threat to millions of farmers, to entire countries' national economies of (such as Ghana), and to the global coffee, cocoa and chocolate industries. "}]},{"head":"13","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Impact through policies and partnerships guidelines, trainings and tools for farmers, businesses and investors. Research and development activities ensure that the best climate-smart science informs farmers and that risks, costs and rewards are shared by everyone in the value chain -from farmers to consumers."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"\"The CCAFS initiative brings a lot of value to the work we are doing. They have shared with us the maps and we will make sure that the interesting outcomes are well-articulated in the document we are developing.\" Yaw Kwakye, Forestry Commission of Ghana on developing a new 10-year policy for climate-smart cocoa."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"In 2016, 3 new development and research initiatives were approved for a total of nearly 9 million dollars. USAID Feed the Future provided funding for two climate related initiatives on coffee and cocoa. \"As the CEO of a leading agribusiness, I have seen climate change rise up the risk register faster than I ever believed possible. And while largescale farmers and processors such as ourselves are already putting CSA measures in place, it is the world's millions of smallholders providing our daily coffee, cotton and chocolate fix that we have to reach, teach and support. We urge the agri industry and their customers to unite … to help scale the understanding and adoption of climate-smart practices by rural communities.\" Sunny Verghese, CEO and co-founder of Olam."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"The Climate-Smart Value Chain project has begun scaling up successful practices in the pilot countries of Ghana, Nicaragua and Peru in a partnership of CIAT, IITA, Rainforest Alliance, Root Capital, Sustainable Food Lab, and support from government, research and farmer organizations in producing countries, as well as development partners and donors."},{"index":5,"size":151,"text":"In 2016, work was expanded from the three pilot countries to include seven additional countries (Côte d'Ivoire, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda), guided by earlier work on climate change impact on CCAFS 2016 Annual Report agriculture by CIAT-CCAFS. In Liberia and Uganda, for instance, IFAD relied on CIAT-CCAFS science and tools to design and implement cocoa value chain projects as part of their Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP). In Côte d'Ivoire, the world's largest cocoa producer, CIAT engages directly with stakeholders in the Ivorian cocoa supply chain to help the country become more climate smart. Organizations from different agriculture sectors regularly meet in Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees (LTACs). Here representatives from government, civil society, local-authorities, meteorological-services and farmers discuss climate forecasts and decide which climate-smart practices to implement. This allows them to use CIAT-CCAFS climate information for their decision-making, and to produce national and regional agroclimatic bulletins."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"South-South knowledge exchange programs between CCAFS partner countries have been a key component of this approach and the success in Colombia is now also being replicated in Honduras. Such collaboration introduces farmers to new skills, best practices, and knowledge on how to incorporate local, reliable and timely climate and site-specific information from trusted sources into their planning systems and strategies. In both countries up to 330.000 farmers are now being reached through 9 LTACs, and in Colombia alone, 154,059 farmers are receiving tailored agroclimatic advisory services, and an additional 6,000 have adopted climate-smart practices. In the medium-term, the project is expected to reach 1,588,640 farmers. "}]},{"head":"Partners","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Open data help countries to act on climate change","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"If we are to successfully tackle threats to food security, much more robust climate and agricultural data -including data from smallholder farmers in tropical, developing countries -is needed. CCAFS, along with CGIAR, is taking bold steps to make data freely available and usable to scientists and policy makers around the globe."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"\"Farmers need to plan for the short and long term, and climate change throws a major wrench in the works,\" said Andy Jarvis, a senior scientist at CCAFS. \"Ten years ago, we struggled to find the data to understand climate change and its implications for agriculture. Today, the challenge is to harness data's power to give farmers real advice on how to manage climate more effectively.\" "}]},{"head":"Costa Rica adopts digital emergency response system in wake of Hurricane Otto","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"We all know that extreme weather events -droughts, floods, and hurricanescause enormous damage. In Costa Rica, extreme events have negatively impacted food production, and the country is taking action to protect its agricultural production and food security."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock is responsible for the government's agricultural emergency response to such extreme climatic events. In the past, the Ministry was unable to respond quickly to such emergencies because it lacked access to local, reliable and timely agro-climatic information to make"},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Throughout 2015, Bioversity International, a CGIAR Research Centre, engaged with the Ministry to showcase its work on agro-climatic risk management undertaken as part of CCAFS' AgroClimas program in Guatemala and to demonstrate its relevance for Costa Rica."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"In response to flooding in late 2015, Bioversity successfully piloted a digital system for emergency response data collection and decision-making in partnership with local government in Siquirres. This joint effort built mutual trust among partners and helped validate the system in Costa Rica."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"In the wake of Hurricane Otto in November 2016, the Ministry was eager to scale up the pilot. Officials visited farms throughout the country to assess hurricane damage, and were able to collect and send data through a mobile applicationthe app allowed them to locate farms via GPS and send data to Bioversity servers in real time. Together with the Ministry, Bioversity created a national-scale system that was able to document US$57 million in agricultural losses and help build a detailed response plan in \"record time\"."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"The investment in this new digital system helped the government integrate agroclimatic information in its decision-making, allowing for more in-depth data analysis and significantly reducing its emergency response time."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"\"We are working with our partners on studies about the damage produced by different climate events and formulation of strategies for adapting the agriculture. Usually there is an immediate response in giving support and aid to farmers when a climatic event happens,\" explained Dr. "}]},{"head":"Agricultural emissions reduction target set; call for ambitious action","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"In climate change plans submitted to the United Nations in 2016, 104 countries included intentions to reduce emissions in the agriculture sector, but no global target for mitigation from agriculture had been set. To fill this gap, scientists from CCAFS, with partners from 5 CGIAR centers (CIAT, CIFOR, CIMMYT, ILRI, and IRRI) and 15 partner organizations, calculated, for the first time, the reduction in emissions from the agriculture sector needed to limit warming to 2°C in 2100."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Through analyzing an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"CCAFS 2016 Annual Report"}]},{"head":"29","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Breakthrough science and innovation scenario that results in a 66% or 'likely' chance of staying below the 2 °C warming limit and comparing it with business-as-usual emissions in agriculture from three integrated assessment models, scientists found that annual emissions from agriculture must be reduced by 1 gigatonne of carbon dioxide equivalents per year (GtCO2e/yr) by 2030 to stay within the 2°C limit."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Analysis also revealed that currently available interventions -such as sustainable intensification of dairy production, alternate wetting and drying in irrigated rice, and nutrient management for annual crops -to achieve emission efficiencies will be necessary, yet insufficient, to achieve these targets. Scientists found that current interventions in the agriculture sector would only deliver between 21-40% of mitigation required."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"\"This research is a reality check,\" Lini Wollenberg, leader of the CCAFS low emissions development research program and based at the University of Vermont's Gund Institute for Environment, said. \"Countries want to take action on agriculture, but the options currently on offer won't make the dent in emissions needed to meet the global targets agreed to in Paris. We need a much bigger menu of technical and policy solutions, with major investment to bring them to scale.\" Scientists called for urgent development and implementation of transformative technical options, such as methane inhibitors in the livestock sector and nitrogen inhibitors for major annual crops; innovative policies and standards, including climate finance and government and private sector support for sustainability standards; and support for farmers' capacity to use new practices. They identified the need for more research on sequestering soil carbon, increasing agroforestry and avoiding deforestation, decreasing food loss & waste and shifting dietary patterns."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Setting mitigation targets for agriculture is an issue that has continued to the climate change negotiations. At the meetings in Bonn in May 2016, and with support from the United States Agency of International Development (USAID), delegates from Ethiopia, Viet Nam and Colombia joined scientists from CCAFS, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), and the National Wildlife Federation to discuss how countries can determine targets that are feasible, fair, and necessary to limit climate change. Since 2016, the 1 GtCO 2 e was also presented at the Eighth SBSTA Research Dialogue."}]},{"head":"Partners BREAKTHROUGH SCIENCE AND INNOVATION","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Photo: N. Palmer (CIAT) Region-by-region, the study examined the likely effects of different climate change scenarios on nine crops that constitute 50% of food production in sub-Saharan Africa; they found that maize, bananas and beans are most at risk. The research was the first to allocate specific timeframes for changes in policy and practice in order to maintain required production levels and avoid placing food security and the livelihoods of smallholder farmers at risk."}]},{"head":"Scientists call for massive transformation in African agriculture by 2025 to protect production of key food crops","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"While six of the nine crops studied are expected to remain stable under moderate and extreme climate change scenarios, up to 30% of areas growing maize (Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe) and bananas (Benin, Ghana, Togo), and up to 60% of those producing beans (Angola, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda) are projected to become unviable by the end of the century. In some areas transformations will need to take place as soon as 2025. Transformation could mean changing the type of crop grown in the area in question, improving irrigation systems, or in extreme circumstances, moving away from agriculture altogether."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"\"It can take decades to adjust national agricultural development and food security policies,\" said Andy Jarvis, co-author of the paper and leader of CCAFS research on Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices. \"Our findings show that time is running out to transform African agriculture. Solutions will require not only increased funding but also a supportive policy environment. We also need to ensure that the needs of women and marginalized groups are built into adaptation policies, to ensure they can be successfully implemented,\" he explained. "}]},{"head":"Study finds strong economic case for investing in agriculture under climate change","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"With the Paris Climate Agreement now in force, agriculture has emerged as an important sector for action among participating countries: more than 80 % of climate pledges propose mitigation actions in agriculture and land-use, while 92 % of adaptation plans prioritize agriculture. Now, more than ever, countries must act on their Paris commitments by giving agriculture a prominent place in CCAFS 2016 Annual Report"}]},{"head":"35","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Breakthrough science and innovation their national climate change plans and programs."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"The economic advantage: assessing the value of climate change actions in agriculture, a report produced as part of the IFAD-CCAFS Learning Alliance for Adaptation in Smallholder Agriculture, offers strong evidence of how investments in agriculture can pay off at the country, commodity and farm levels. The study analyzed IFAD's Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture (ASAP) program and found that all the investments are set to deliver positive returns, with benefit-to-cost ratios of up to 7:1 over the project lifespan of 20 years."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"\"There is a strong economic case to be made for investing in agriculture for future food security, even under changing climate conditions,\" said IFAD's Director of Environment and Climate, Margarita Astralaga. \"IFAD's ASAP, the world's largest program for smallholder farmers' adaptation, shows that where investments are made that help farmers adapt to climate change, the returned financial benefit to farmers is much, much higher.\""},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"This is good news for private sector investors, public sector funders and governments, as it shows that agriculture does not have to be a risky investment, even under climate change. However, unleashing significant public and private finance requires proposals on agriculture that are supported by credible economic and financial plans. Importantly, the analysis also revealed that investments must cover a spectrum of interventions to be successful."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"In Vietnam, for instance, IFAD is investing US$34 million to build the adaptive capacity of communities and institutions in the Mekong Delta. The project is expected to provide additional value across smallholders and other project beneficiaries of about US$1.63 per US$1 spent on an annual basis over a time frame of 20 years. This puts Vietnam in the top two most valuable country investments in the Asia and Pacific Region, representing 37% of the overall regional value generated under ASAP."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"If correctly targeted, investments can pay off for farmers and rural development in general. However, the report found that focused activities are often needed to ensure that farmers benefit from investments in an equitable way. In Vietnam, for example, where rising sea levels have spurred farmers to switch from growing rice to growing coconut and sugarcane, research revealed that that only the richest farmers were able to make the transition -the poorer farmers struggled to switch crops and as a result were left behind."}]},{"head":"CCAFS 2016 Annual Report","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The report thus emphasizes the importance of designing socially inclusive programs. Taking into account the heterogeneity of populations is necessary to ensure that vulnerable groups, including women, youth and the poorest farmers, benefit."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"International significant biodiversity loss, along with increased greenhouse gas emissions, and a vast dependency on food imports."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"However, experts found that closing the yield gap is not enough. The paper, Can sub-Saharan Africa feed itself?, suggests that climate-smart agricultural practices such as sustainably intensifying the number of crops grown on existing croplands, nutrient management, and expanding use of irrigation in a responsible manner, are important, but insufficient. Future food security requires immediate and adequate research and development investments by the public and private sectors, accompanied by government policies that ensure intensification without negative environmental consequences, authors state."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"\"With improved cultivars, hybrid seeds, coupled with increased use of irrigation, fertilizers, modern pest management practices and good agronomy, it's possible to achieve accelerated rates of yield gain,\" study co-author Kindie Tesfaye, a scientist with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in Addis Ababa, said. \"It's achievable, but we have to break the complacency that we can continue with business as usual … (and) still feed ourselves\" Tesfaye, told CNBC Africa."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"A second CCAFS study published in PNAS analyzed the key drivers of household food availability by examining land use and production data from more than 13,000 smallholder farm households in 93 sites in 17 countries across sub-Saharan Africa. The analysis suggests that targeting poverty through improving market access and off-farm opportunities is a better strategy to increase food security than focusing only on agricultural production and closing yield gaps."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"The study calls for multi-sectoral policy harmonization and incentives, improved interconnectedness of people to urban centers, and diversification of employment sources, rather than a singular focus on agricultural development among smallholder farmers."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"\"We need to ensure that farmers have access to markets for their produce and opportunities to diversify their income by working outside the farm… to target poverty and improve food security "}]},{"head":"African countries call for gender-inclusive climate change policies","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Given the enormous negative impact that climate change will have on women and youth, the CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy calls for the gender gap to be addressed in agricultural and climate change adaptation and mitigation practices, budgets and policies. Currently, the gender gap is perpetuated by a lack of understanding of gender mainstreaming and limited consideration for gender in analysis, budgets, and data. The Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy also calls for women and youth to have a more active role in shaping policymaking and implementation, as their participation is often ignored. Historically, African women tend to lack representation in key leadership roles at levels CCAFS 2016 Annual Report gender-based disparities in resource access and use, how they contribute to production differences between men and women, and potential solutions that can reduce the disparities and increase agricultural productivity. The July 2016 special issue continues the international conversation that started at a March 2015 seminar co-organized by CCAFS, the International Social Science Council (ISSC) and Future Earth."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Closing the gender gap in farming under climate change."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"As farmers around the world adapt to climate change, unequal access to assets and resources is likely to prevent women from adapting at the same pace as their male counterparts. Leaving women out of the ongoing climate conversations and not developing gender sensitive climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices will be detrimental not only to women, but to entire communities."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"\"We often do not recognize the role of the woman as a farmer, incomeearner and contributor to the economy,\" Dr Thelma Paris, socioeconomist and gender specialist with CCAFS, said at a roundtable discussion on enhancing the resilience of smallholder farmers."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Research shows that, in comparison to men, women have limited access to irrigation, information and communication technologies, and agro-advisory and extension services. Further, agricultural technologies do not always take into account the specific needs and priorities of women. Findings presented in the special issue demonstrate how providing women with engagement opportunities and adaptation resources can greatly reduce the gender gap (which ranges from 4 to 25 % globally) between men and women."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Examples highlighted in the special issue indicate the potential of agriculturebased innovation to strengthen and increase women's and their communities' adaptive capacity. As the global community continues to grabble with the challenges of climate change, especially in the agriculture sectors, development and utilization of gender sensitive and gender transformative innovations and technologies should be a key component of global efforts."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Youth and teachers embrace climate-smart agriculture in the Philippines","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"CCAFS and partner Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) collaborated on a nation-wide Infomediary Campaign that mobilizes high school students and teachers to share information -serving as \"infomediaries\" -on climate-smart agriculture for rice (CSA4Rice) in their communities."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"CCAFS An unintended (but welcome) result is that the campaign contributed to the increase in agriculture-related modules among participating schools and a 71% increase in enrollment in agriculture-related tracks among randomly monitored schools. The project is helping to promote agriculture as a viable career option."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"We should have the mindset that the youth is a force to be reckoned with when it comes to ensuring a food secure future for generations to come. And this would require the brightest minds in agriculture from the youth sector.\" Mr. Manalo, Jaime Manalo IV, PhilRice senior research specialist."}]},{"head":"INTEGRATING GENDER AND YOUTH","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Photo: V. Atakos (CCAFS) for the future."}]},{"head":"Women farmers increase incomes and plant fruit trees after exposure to \"farms of the future approach\"","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"\"We help the community to go and visit what would be their [future] community, according to climate scenarios. And we organize an exchange visit between these two communities so they can learn from the opportunities in the future community and then try to prevent their community from reaching this future scenario.\" Robert Zougmoré, the CCAFS West Africa regional program leader, explained."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"A visit organized for leaders from Daga-Birame -a CCAFS climate-smart village (CSV) in Senegal -showed a path to economic opportunity from agroforestry that they began immediately."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"When representatives of Daga-Birame visited Linguère-Dahra, a community a few hours' drive away, to see how people there were coping with drought-a condition that is becoming increasingly likely in Daga-Birame -they were welcomed with fresh baobab fruit juice. Daga-Birame farmers do not regularly use the baobab fruit themselves, so they were impressed that people from the host locality demonstrated both the value of the fruit and its output capacity."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"The women farmers from Daga-Birame were inspired to create a \"one woman, one fruit tree\" juice business to generate income and increase nutrition. If the villagers could make the most of what they had -an abundance of baobab treesthey could create a homegrown solution to increase their income and resilience in the face of climate variability."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Upon return home, the women realized that the available baobab trees had been poorly managed, so they teamed up with the Senegalese Agricultural Research Institute (ISRA), the World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) and other local partners to protect existing trees and cultivate new ones. They also decided to seek ways to increase the number of local fruit trees in their village. Along the way, they introduced other drought-resistant, fruit-bearing tree crops that offer incomegenerating opportunities, such as jujube, tamarind, guava and soursop."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"\"Tree fruit farmers will tell you that since they started collecting the baobab fruit, and processing it, packaging it, and selling it, they realized that it is also a source of nutrition for their children,\" said Jules Bayala, ICRAF scientist in West Africa. \"It's a complement in terms of vitamins.\""},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"In the short term, the \"One Woman, One Fruit Tree\" project has generated additional income and improved the quality and quantity of food. In the longterm, improved tree biomass in the community will reduce the risk of damage from strong winds, improve soil fertility and thus increase productivity. Table 1 shows budget and expenditures by natural classification. Table 2 shows budget and expenditures by unit, differentiating participating centers from core team units such as flagship leaders, regional program leaders and cross-cutting units. "}]},{"head":"Partners","index":21,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"\" Photo: N. Palmer (CIAT) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" To address this challenge, the CCAFS Climate-Smart Value Chain project assesses climate change exposure of coffee and cocoa systems and leverages existing smallholder value chain interventions to translate CCAFS science and site-specific climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices into actionable strategies,  "},{"text":" The Climate-Smart Coffee Consortiumled by the Hanns R. Neumann Foundation and including CCAFS, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Conservation International, World Coffee Research, Root Capital and the Sustainable Food Lab -focuses on connecting global climate science with plot-level agronomic practices in Central America and East Africa. The Climate-Smart Cocoa Initiative -led by the World Cocoa Foundation and including ACDI-VOCA and private sector companies such as Barry Callebaut, Cargill, Ecom Agrotrade, The Hershey Company, Lindt & Sprüngli, Mars, Inc., Nestlé, Olam International Ltd, and Touton -builds on CCAFS climate exposure mapping and private sector engagement work. Finally, the German government (BMZ) awarded International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and partners a large grant to deepen existing work under the Climate-Smart Value Chains project in both West African cocoa systems and East African coffee systems.  "},{"text":"Read more Data: From site-level to regional adaptation planning for tropical commodities: cocoa in West Africa and Vulnerability to climate change  we develop value chain programs that address climate risks? we develop value chain programs that address climate risks? International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) ACDI-VOCA   ACDI-VOCA Conservation International   Conservation International Hanns R. Neumann Foundation   Hanns R. Neumann Foundation Rainforest Alliance   Rainforest Alliance Root Capital   Root Capital Sustainable Food Lab   Sustainable Food Lab World Cocoa Foundation   World Cocoa Foundation World Coffee Research   World Coffee Research Development partners: Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Photo: N. Palmer (CIAT) Development partners: Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Photo: N. Palmer (CIAT) Development of Germany (BMZ), German Federal Enterprise for CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATIVE COMMUNICATION Development of Germany (BMZ), German Federal Enterprise for CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATIVE COMMUNICATION International Cooperation (GIZ), United States Agency for International International Cooperation (GIZ), United States Agency for International Development (USAID)   Development (USAID) Private sector: Barry Callebaut, Cargill, Ecom Agrotrade, The Hershey Private sector: Barry Callebaut, Cargill, Ecom Agrotrade, The Hershey Company, Lindt & Sprüngli, Mars, Inc., Nestlé, Olam International Ltd, Company, Lindt & Sprüngli, Mars, Inc., Nestlé, Olam International Ltd, Touton   Touton   of of cocoa in West Africa: Patterns, opportunities and limits to adaptation. cocoa in West Africa: Patterns, opportunities and limits to adaptation. Story map: Bittersweet chocolate: the climate change impacts on cocoa Story map: Bittersweet chocolate: the climate change impacts on cocoa production in Ghana.   production in Ghana. Video and presentation: Climate-smart agriculture in the global coffee Video and presentation: Climate-smart agriculture in the global coffee sector. Re;Co Annual Symposium -Atlanta, GA USA. Video. Presentation. sector. Re;Co Annual Symposium -Atlanta, GA USA. Video. Presentation. Blog: Mainstreaming climate-smart practices in cocoa production in Blog: Mainstreaming climate-smart practices in cocoa production in Ghana.   Ghana. Blog: Setting the climate change agenda for the world's largest cocoa Blog: Setting the climate change agenda for the world's largest cocoa producer   producer Outcome validation report: Nyangaga J. How CIAT's climate research Outcome validation report: Nyangaga J. How CIAT's climate research informs and influences decision making in IFAD and the cocoa and coffee informs and influences decision making in IFAD and the cocoa and coffee sector globally.   sector globally. Info note: Dinesh D, Vermeulen SJ, Läderach P, Mwongera C. How can Info note: Dinesh D, Vermeulen SJ, Läderach P, Mwongera C. How can CCAFS 2016 Annual Report CCAFS 2016 Annual Report 16 Impact through policies and partnerships CCAFS 2016 Annual Report CCAFS 2016 Annual Report16Impact through policies and partnerships  "},{"text":"Weather and climate information, South-South cooperation help farmers in Colombia and Honduras manage climate change  impacts of climate fluctuations and weather extremes. While these farming impacts of climate fluctuations and weather extremes. While these farming communities have survived by adapting to an increasingly uncertain climate, communities have survived by adapting to an increasingly uncertain climate, their traditional knowledge and coping practices have been overwhelmed by the their traditional knowledge and coping practices have been overwhelmed by the recent scale of changes.   recent scale of changes. Supporting farmers with weather and climate information services for Supporting farmers with weather and climate information services for agricultural decision-making is an essential strategy for enhancing food security agricultural decision-making is an essential strategy for enhancing food security in already vulnerable areas, and a key component of climate-smart agriculture in already vulnerable areas, and a key component of climate-smart agriculture (CSA). Although existing initiatives have been successful in reaching out to (CSA). Although existing initiatives have been successful in reaching out to smallholder farmers, the challenge of broadening the impact of climate services smallholder farmers, the challenge of broadening the impact of climate services for vulnerable communities remains. CCAFS and its partners have used for vulnerable communities remains. CCAFS and its partners have used innovative approaches -including site-specific agro-climatic forecasts -to innovative approaches -including site-specific agro-climatic forecasts -to overcome this challenge   overcome this challenge In Colombia, CCAFS has worked closely with CIAT and the Ministry of In Colombia, CCAFS has worked closely with CIAT and the Ministry of Small-scale farmers in the developing world are particularly vulnerable to the Small-scale farmers in the developing world are particularly vulnerable to the CCAFS 2016 Annual Report 17 Capacity development and innovative communication CCAFS 2016 Annual Report17Capacity development and innovative communication  "},{"text":" University Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) Honduras: Secretariat of Agriculture and Livestock of Honduras (SAG), Permanent Contingency Commission of Honduras (COPECO) Colombia: Producers associations, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Colombia (MADR), Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA), Fundación Universitaria de San Gil -UNISANGIL, Centro de Investigación de la Caña de Azúcar de Colombia (CENICAÑA), Centro Nacional de Investigaciones de Café (CENICAFE), Federación Nacional de Cultivadores de Cereales y Leguminosas (FENALCE), Federación Nacional de Arroceros (FEDEARROZ), Federación Nacional de Cafeteros (FNC), Asociación de Bananeros del Magdalena y La Guajira (ASBAMA), Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM) Read more Read more  "},{"text":" CCAFS maintains 19 open access databases, which were used by 60,000 different users in 2016. Scientists also contribute to scores of other databases and use the CCAFS data management support pack to ensure that information and data products are available for long-term use by partners and the scientific community. Together, the big data forms the basis of increasing numbers of analyses by scientists and policy makers alike.The CCAFS-Climate portal is a comprehensive portal that provides users with high-resolution climate datasets that can help assess the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, agricultural and livestock production, ecosystem services and hydrology, etc. The portal is freely accessible online and the data is easy-touse, regularly updated, and widely accessed by policy and decision makers, researchers, donors, and NGOs.  "},{"text":"maprooms\" support climate risk management in Africa Almost Jacob van Etten, the Bioversity International Costa Rica Office coordinator, at the signing of the Technical Cooperation Agreement with the Ministry of Agriculture of Costa Rica in Turrialba in May 2016. \"But a strong long-term plan is urgently required because these events are becoming more frequent\". News: Partnering with Costa Rica to help farmers face climate change. News: Innovative drought system to help Guatemala better deal with dry spells. Paper: Vernooy R, Kiwuka C. Seeds of resilience: novel strategies for using crop diversity in climate change adaptation. Presented at: Tropentag 2016: Solidarity in a competing world -fair use of resources. Paper: Hellmuth ME, Mason SJ, Vaughan C, van Aalst MK, Choularton R. (eds) A Better Climate for Disaster Risk Management. International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), Columbia University. News: Pérdidas millonarias en sector agropecuario costarricense por huracán Otto.Press release: Presidency of Costa Rica. 13 January 2017. Sector Agropecuario afina planes de inversión para recuperar producción agropecuaria afectada por huracán Otto. 80% of all agricultural production is rainfed, more so in the developing world, where smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of weather fluctuations and climate extremes. CCAFS has found that farmers need effective climate information and advisory services to help them adapt to climate change and manage climate-related risks. However, good climate information and services depend on the quality of data available, which is often very limited, particularly in Africa.CCAFS is working with International Research Institute for Climate and Society'sCCAFS 2016 Annual Report (IRI's) Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS) initiative and with other partners to enable African national meteorological services and regional climate centers to strengthen and scale-up such services for agriculture by improving quality, accessibility and availability of climate data tools for decision-making.\"Farmers are very enthusiastic to attend trainings because they are getting the information that can help them find solutions to their crop losses related to extreme weather events,\" explained J. D'Amour Nzabandeba, a farmer promoter from Ngororero district, Rwanda during a monitoring and evaluation visit.CCAFS is working with IRI and the IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) to support national meteorological services in several African countries in East Africa, and the Agriculture, Hydrology, and Meteorology (AGRHYMET) Regional Center in West Africa to overcome data gaps and provide high quality climate information.In 2016, CCAFS helped support development and use of the ENACTS approach to create graphical climate information and seasonal forecast products regionally and for countries. Already in action in projects in Ghana, Mali, and Rwanda, these online \"maprooms\" provide the information that African countries need to provide actionable climate information to rural communities and support both large scale and farmer-level decision-making. CCAFS is also currently helping train staff to use the maprooms effectively. CCAFS also leveraged two projects (WISER-ENACTS and WISER-SCIPEA) within the DFID-funded Weather and Climate Information Services for Africa (WISER) program.These projects have strong synergies with the two USAID-funded projects -Climate Services for Africa and Rwanda Climate Services for Agriculture -which aim to build capacity for climate services in Rwanda and throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Read more IRI Climate and Society Map Room.  Read more IRI Climate and Society Map Room. Blog, webinar, presentation: How can climate services improve the lives Blog, webinar, presentation: How can climate services improve the lives of smallholder farmers and pastoralists? of smallholder farmers and pastoralists? Blog: Reaching a million farmers in Rwanda with useful climate services. Blog: Reaching a million farmers in Rwanda with useful climate services. Blog: Delivering targeted climate information services and products for Blog: Delivering targeted climate information services and products for farmers in Rwanda.   farmers in Rwanda. Report: Regional Climate Services for Agriculture Project Presentation, Report: Regional Climate Services for Agriculture Project Presentation, and Demonstration and Discussion of Agricultural Maprooms: Launch and Demonstration and Discussion of Agricultural Maprooms: Launch Events at 44th Greater Horn of Africa Climate Outlook Forum. Events at 44th Greater Horn of Africa Climate Outlook Forum. Report: Climate Data Tools Training at AGRHYMET, Niamey, Niger, Report: Climate Data Tools Training at AGRHYMET, Niamey, Niger, August 2016.   August 2016. Video and report: ENACTS and climate services for farmers video and Video and report: ENACTS and climate services for farmers video and report   report Partners   Partners International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), Columbia International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), Columbia University   University IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) Partners Agriculture, Hydrology, and Meteorology (AGRHYMET) Regional Center Partners Agriculture, Hydrology, and Meteorology (AGRHYMET) Regional Center United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) United Kingdom Met Office   United Kingdom Met Office United States Agency for International Development (USAID) United States Agency for International Development (USAID) National meteorological services in several sub-Saharan Africa countries National meteorological services in several sub-Saharan Africa countries Read more   Read more CCAFS 2016 Annual Report 27 Capacity development and innovative communication CCAFS 2016 Annual Report27Capacity development and innovative communication  "},{"text":" CCAFS 2016 Annual Report outlets and trade publications (including BBC, Reuters and ScienceDaily). Given that solutions can take at least 15 years to implement, time is running out to transform agriculture. \"This study tells where, and crucially when, interventions need to be made to stop climate change destroying vital food supplies in Africa,\" said Julian Ramirez-Villegas, lead author of the study, working with CCAFS. \"We know what needs to be done, and for the first time, we now have deadlines for taking action,\" he added.  "},{"text":" Adaptation strategies will vary greatly across sub-Saharan Africa, given the highly different local contexts. Extensive research by CCAFS is already informing African governments and policymakers on the technologies and policies that can successfully help farmers to adapt to climate change in these countries. Partners Partners International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) Australian National University Australian National University Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)  "},{"text":" The campaign engages students through a \"read, surf and text\" strategy. Students are taught the basics of rice farming and climate change with the help of printed reading materials, and shown how to access information platforms such as the Pinoy Rice Knowledge Bank to get agricultural information that they can pass on to the larger farming communities. In addition, students can access a text center or SMS facility, where they can send questions and receive answers on a variety of topics. In 2016, the PhilRice Text Center received over 2,000 text messages for information requests on issues such as rice varieties, seed availability and pest management.\"At first, my father would just nod at me when I tell him about our topics on rice production. Nevertheless, I persisted in sharing my lessons learned. It was when we experienced losses in the farm that he tried to apply what he heard from me.\" Zoila Gracilla, a 15-year old Grade 10 pupils of Corazon C. Aquino High School in Gerona, Tarlac At the same time, teachers attend expert lectures and field tours and are taught how to integrate PhilRice's various information and social media platforms on CSA4Rice into their curricula. Infomediary Campaign Teaser.   Infomediary Campaign Teaser. \"Our teachers learned a lot; they were able to upgrade their knowledge \"Our teachers learned a lot; they were able to upgrade their knowledge and skills [on climate-smart rice agriculture]. This is also true among and skills [on climate-smart rice agriculture]. This is also true among students and their farmer-parents\". Dr. Perpetua M. Eslava, Principal, students and their farmer-parents\". Dr. Perpetua M. Eslava, Principal, Luna National Vocational High School, La Union.  Luna National Vocational High School, La Union. The project is now implemented in 208 high schools (including 81 vocational The project is now implemented in 208 high schools (including 81 vocational schools), and 225 teachers have been trained. The campaign directly involved schools), and 225 teachers have been trained. The campaign directly involved about 9,000 students, and indirectly reached 225,000 students nationwide about 9,000 students, and indirectly reached 225,000 students nationwide through various school activities. Many teachers have also s conducted through various school activities. Many teachers have also s conducted community outreach activities such as technology seminars for farmers. community outreach activities such as technology seminars for farmers. 2016 Annual Report 48 Integrating gender and youth 2016 Annual Report48Integrating gender and youth  "},{"text":" Exchange visits among rural communities show farmers how others are adapting and building resilience to climate change. CCAFS uses a \"farms of the future\" approach and organizes exchange visites for community leaders to places that have a climate that is similar to what their communities' might experience in the future. Farmers are able to see what they can do now and how they can prepare  "},{"text":" In 2016, the total budget of CCAFS was USD 70.558 million composed of: CGIAR W1&2 funds of USD 23.7 million as per the final revised financing plan; USD 42.323 of Bilateral & W3 sources from all CGIAR Participating Centers; CGIAR W1&2 carry-over of USD 2.184 million; and Additional funding confirmed at the end of year of USD 2.351 million.Total execution was USD 51.981 million (73.7%). Gender and social inclusion research activities accounted for USD 5.014 million, approximately 10% of the total annual execution. Total W1&2 2016 funds were paid in three tranches, 28% ($7,265 million) in June, 40% ($10,487 million) in September and 32% ($8,299 million) in December. 56% of the funds were W1 (USD 14,502 million), and 44% were W2 (USD 11,549 million).  ANNEXES  ANNEXES  Financials  Financials Financial results for 2016   Financial results for 2016 CCAFS 2016 Annual Report 52 Integrating gender and youth CCAFS 2016 Annual Report52Integrating gender and youth  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Execution as of 31 December 2016 per natural classification and funding source (thousands of USD)  Budget Categories Budget Expenditures Execution % Budget CategoriesBudgetExpendituresExecution % Personnel 16,604 14,296 86% Personnel16,60414,29686% Collaborators Costs - 1,967 898 46% Collaborators Costs -1,96789846% CGIAR Centers    CGIAR Centers Collaborator Costs - 19,580 15,308 78% Collaborator Costs -19,58015,30878% Partners    Partners Supplies and services 15,599 11,891 76% Supplies and services 15,59911,89176% Operational Travel 4,547 3,154 69% Operational Travel4,5473,15469% Depreciation 402 63 16% Depreciation4026316% Contingency 2,462 51 2% Contingency2,462512% Subtotal 61,159 45,661 75% Subtotal61,15945,66175% Indirect Costs 9,399 6,321 67% Indirect Costs9,3996,32167% Total -All Costs 70,558 51,981 74% Total -All Costs70,55851,98174%  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Execution as of 31 December 2016 per unit (thousands of USD)  Unit Budget Expenditures Execution % UnitBudgetExpendituresExecution % AFRICARICE 28 28 100% AFRICARICE2828100% BIOVERSITY 7,741 4,635 60% BIOVERSITY7,7414,63560% CIAT CENTER 12,797 8,477 66% CIAT CENTER12,7978,47766% CIFOR 521 828 159% CIFOR521828159% CIMMYT 7,823 5,691 73% CIMMYT7,8235,69173% CIP 310 241 78% CIP31024178% ICARDA 61 61 100% ICARDA6161100% ICRAF 4,696 4,033 86% ICRAF4,6964,03386% CCAFS 2016 Annual Report  58 Annexes CCAFS 2016 Annual Report58Annexes  "},{"text":"the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) CCAFS is implemented in collaborationwith all CGIAR Centers.  "}],"sieverID":"63ec37ba-dbc6-4e7b-a7a1-eb05056bba25","abstract":"This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with support from CGIAR Fund Donors and through bilateral funding agreements. For details please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), brings together some of the world's best researchers in agricultural science, development research, climate science and Earth System science, to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and tradeoffs between climate change, agriculture and food security. www.ccafs.cgiar.org. CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food secure future. Its research is carried out by 15 CGIAR centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d7947820a04206ec0e6b15102bbd32e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad42e3f7-8c6b-4788-bafd-a6b55b103cb1/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"El concepto de 'maleza' o mala hierba es antropocéntrico, es decir, el hombre hizo que algunas especies vegetales fueran malezas en el momento mismo en que dio inicio a la agricultura. La maleza, como entidad y concepto agronómicos, ha sido definida de muchas maneras, y casi todas estas definiciones están basadas en la relación entre el ser humano y el cultivo racional de las plantas (Sen, 1981). En la lengua española se usa, como sinónimo de maleza, el término 'arvense', que designa, según el Diccionario de la Real Academia de España, las plantas que crecen en los sembrados (http://drae2.es/arvense)."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"Identificar las especies consideradas como malezas y conocerlas bien es la clave para emprender cualquier acción respecto a ellas, por ejemplo la investigación básica o la aplicada, o la planeación y ejecución de un programa para manejarlas. Si se consideran entonces las malezas como un problema agrícola, el primer paso para solucionarlo será siempre su correcta determinación. Por ejemplo, Cyperus luzulae y Scleria pterota son ciperáceas conocidas vulgarmente como 'cortaderas' y catalogadas como plantas de 'hoja angosta'; pues bien, el Diurón (fórmula comercial de un herbicida constituido por la mezcla de los compuestos activos atrazina + diurón, este último proveniente de la urea) controla la última especie pero no la primera, porque fue recomendado para un nombre vulgar (cortadera) y no para una especie correctamente definida. Es importante, por tanto, que la etiqueta de los envases de herbicidas mencione las especies que éstos controlan por su respectivo nombre científico (Doll et al., 1989)."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Otro caso interesante de desconocimiento de la identidad de las especies de malezas es el de las especies de los géneros Digitaria y Leptochloa. Las primeras se conocen como 'guarda rocío', y hay al menos cuatro de ellas asociadas con los campos de arroz de América Latina: D. bicornis, D. horizontales, D. ciliaris y D. sanguinalis. Hay, igualmente, cuatro especies del género Leptochloa conocidas como 'pajas': L. virgata, L. scabra, L. mucronata y L. uninervia. Ahora bien, las etiquetas de los herbicidas no identifican, generalmente, por su nombre científico, la especie que dicen controlar cuando se refieren a la maleza 'guarda rocío' o a las llamadas 'pajas'. Por tal razón, se han observado en el campo diferencias en la respuesta de las especies de Digitaria y de Leptochloa a algunos herbicidas (Alvarez, 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"En un campo de arroz típico, la flora de malezas está constituida por cerca de una treintena de especies, que se pueden distribuir en cuatro grupos:"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"• Cinco de ellas llegan a ser dominantes porque su densidad es alta en el terreno."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• La mayoría de ellas tienen un valor intermedio, en términos de abundancia, y se denominan secundarias."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Unas pocas son las llamadas malezas poco frecuentes."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• Hay, finalmente, unas pocas especies denominadas por algunos autores especies raras, que ocupan el cuarto grupo."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"En trabajos recientes de reconocimiento de la flora de malezas asociada con los arrozales de la zona del Tolima, en Colombia, se registraron más de 100 especies pertenecientes a 36 familias botánicas. Cerca del 31% pertenecían a sólo dos familias, las gramíneas (22%) y las compuestas (9%); un 28% estaban en las ocho familias siguientes: fabáceas (sensu stricto), euforbiáceas, ciperáceas, rubiáceas, solanáceas y amarantáceas; las especies restantes (un 40%) se agrupaban en otras 26 familias (Puentes y Fuentes, 2003;Fuentes et al., 2006)."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"El siguiente listado contiene 25 de las principales especies de malezas asociadas con los campos de arroz de América Latina: "}]},{"head":"Familia y especies","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Descripción botánica de las especies de malezas del arroz","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Se presenta enseguida una descripción morfológica detallada de cada una de las especies antes mencionadas."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"[NV = nombre vulgar, sin. = sinónimo(s)]."}]},{"head":"Amaranthaceae","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"1. Amaranthus dubius Martius sin. Amaranthus tristis Willd."},{"index":2,"size":272,"text":"NV: bledo, bledo blanco, bleo, bledo rojizo, quelite Hierba erecta, hasta de 1 m de alta; monoica. Tallos carnosos, rojizos en fresco, angulosos, de glabros a pubérulos, con marcadas costillas longitudinales en seco. Hojas simples, alternas, limbo ovado a elíptico, de 0.5 a 4.5 cm largo x 0.4 cm ancho; ápice de obtuso a redondeado, a veces emarginado, base cuneada o atenuada, raras veces truncada, margen entera a levemente crenada; glabras, diminutas papilas a lo largo de las venas, cuerpos de sílice a menudo presentes (> 30x), de 5 a 12 venas secundarias subopuestas y alternas sobre la vena media, ascendentes; pecíolos de 0.5 a 5 cm largos, inconspicuamente alados, acanalados, glabrescentes, de patentes a ascendentes. Inflorescencias que son axilares y terminal, esta última más desarrollada, hasta 15 cm de larga, erectas espiciformes, atenuándose hacia el ápice, a veces ramificadas desde la base. Flores dispuestas en cimas agregadas y congestas, ocultando el raquis, subtendidas por una bráctea; ésta de 1 a 1.5 mm larga (sin incluir la arista), escariosa, con una vena media, ovada, con arista dorsal ca. 0.5 mm larga; perianto tepaloide, escamoso, 5 piezas, ca. 2 mm largo x 0.4-0.5 mm ancho, oblongo-elípticas, de ápice acuminado. Flores femeninas en mayor número que las masculinas; ovario ovoide, uniseminado, ca. 1 mm largo, apicalmente convexo, coronado por 3 estigmas, ca. 0.7 mm largos, filiformes, papilosos. Flores masculinas con androceo de 5 estambres, exertos en antesis, ca. 1 mm largos, oblongos, base sagitada, con filamentos 1.5 mm largos, dehiscencia longitudinal. Fruto dehiscente, tipo pixidio, ca. 1.5 mm largo, uniseminado. Semilla lenticular, color negro, brillante, glabra, de 0.7 a 1 mm diámetro, margen engrosada."}]},{"head":"Asteraceae (Compositae)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"2. Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. sin. Verbesina alba L., V. postrata L., Eclipta punctata Jacq., Bellis ramosa Jacq., Eclipta erecta L., Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Micrelium tolak Forsk."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"NV: botón blanco, yerba de laguna, palo de agua, antonio-díaz, tangolele, pimienta, chisacá Hierba de decumbente a erecta. Tallos teretes, rojizos en fresco, levemente estriados cuando secos, pubérulos, con tricomas cortos y rígidos, < 0.5 mm largos. Hojas opuestas, estrigosas, tricomas ca. 1 mm largos; limbo ovadoelíptico o lanceolado, de 1 a 7 cm largo x 0.5 a 2.5 cm ancho, margen levemente denticulada, base atenuada, ápice agudo, 3-venada desde la base, venación braquidódroma, consistencia membranosa. Inflorescencias dispuestas en el ápice de las ramas y en las axilas de las hojas, de 1 a Hierba fruticosa, erecta, ramificada, de 0.5 a 2 m de alta. Tallos estriados principalmente en ramas nuevas, esencialmente glabros, verdes cambiando a castaño al madurar. Hojas compuestas, paripinnadas, de 2 a 3 pares de folíolos; folíolo de 2 a 6 cm largo x 1 a 3 cm ancho, obtuso; ápice redondeado o mucronato o retuso; base asimétrica, obtusa, margen entera y ciliada, haz y envés glabros; pecíolo de 15 a 45 mm largo, acanalado adaxialmente, con pulvínulo basal; raquis de 1.7 a 3 cm largo, acanalado, pubérulo; estipulas hasta de 1.5 cm largas, libres, lineales, pubérulas en la margen; en medio de los 2 pares de folíolos inferiores aparece una glándula con forma de vírgula de color marrón a castaño, ca. Tallos erectos, simples, sustentan una sola inflorescencia, trígonos, glabros, de 30 a 60 cm largos. Hojas numerosas, de longitud semejante a la del tallo, de 5 a 6 mm ancho, con sección en V (quilladas), que emergen en conjuntos de tres, lineales, glabras, de márgenes ásperos, de coloración verde pálido; involucro formado por 3 a 6 brácteas, de longitud variable, más cortas o largas que las ramas de la inflorescencia."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"Inflorescencia en umbela simple o compuesta, con 5 a 12 ramas de longitud variable, hasta 12 y 16 cm largas; simples o compuestas, con 1 a 3 ramificaciones cortas; cada ramificación termina en espiga formada por 5 a 25 espiguillas distanciadas y dispuestas en un raquis trígono y escabroso; espiguillas divaricadas, lineales, de 5 a 30 mm largas y de 1 a 3 mm anchas, maduras se tornan túrgidas, no comprimidas, de color amarrillo a castaño amarillento. Flores de 8 a 40, raquilla alada; glumas laxamente imbricadas, de 2.5 a 4.0 mm largas, quilladas, de color amarillo hasta café pálido, quilla de color verde, membranáceas, ovado-oblongas, de ápice obtuso; 6-nervadas, con nervaduras realzadas. Flores 3-estaminadas, de estigma trífido. Fruto en aquenio, de 1.5 a 2 mm largo, ampliamente oblongo, trígono, de ápice obtuso, no apiculado, de color castaño oscuro, ligeramente brillante, con superficie bruscamente tuberculada."},{"index":4,"size":198,"text":"7. Cyperus iria L. sin. Chlorocyperus iria (L.) Rikli, Cyperus santonoci Rottoell, Cyperus panicoides Lam., Cyperus resinosus Hoechst NV: menta, ajillo Planta anual, moderadamente cespitosa, de porte mediano, toda con olor a menta. Sistema radical subterráneo constituido por raíces fasciculadas, sin rizomas ni tubérculos. Tallos finos, trígonos, glabros, de coloración verde amarillenta, de 30 a 50 cm largos. Hojas lineallanceoladas, pocas, generalmente más cortas que el tallo, de 3 a 6 mm anchas, lisas y glabras, con márgenes ásperos hacia la parte apical. Inflorescencia en umbela de espigas, de tamaño variable, divergente, abierta; espigas alargadas, de 1 a 3 cm largas; 3-7 brácteas involucrales, desiguales; espiguillas pediceladas, densamente agrupadas, en racimos orientados en forma ascendente a lo largo del raquis, de 5 a 15 espiguillas por racimo; espiguillas de forma linealelíptica, de 5 a 8 mm largas x 1.5 a 2 mm anchas, color amarillo oro, con 6 a 15 flores cada una. Flores con 3 estigmas; glumas distanciadas entre sí, oblongo-elípticas, de ápice obtuso, cortamente apiculadas o no apiculadas, de 1 a 1.5 mm largas x ca. 1 mm anchas, de color amarillo, quilla prominente de color verde, consistencia membranácea, 3-nervadas hacia el centro de la gluma."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Fruto en aquenio, obovado, trígono, ca. 1 mm largo, de color castaño, superficie reticulada."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"8. Cyperus rotundus L. sin. Chlorocyperus rotundus (L.) Palla NV: coquito, coquito morado, coyolillo, tiririca Esta especie es de amplia distribución geográfica y tiene gran importancia económica."},{"index":7,"size":578,"text":"Planta perenne, cespitosa, glabra. Sistema radical subterráneo constituido por rizomas, tubérculos, bulbos basales y raíces. De un bulbo basal se forman cadenas de rizomas y tubérculos, que se extienden horizontalmente y pueden profundizar hasta 50 cm en el suelo. Un bulbo basal es una estructura engrosada en la base de la planta, da origen a brotes aéreos, hojas y tallos o a rizomas; éstos se diferencian dando origen a tubérculos; de las yemas de cada tubérculo se forman nuevamente rizomas o brotes aéreos. Los rizomas y tubérculos jóvenes son carnosos y de color blancuzco; al madurar, se lignifican y toman color café oscuro y consistencia fibrosa, endurecida; cada tubérculo tiene de 6 a 9 yemas, mide hasta 2.5 cm largo x 1 cm ancho. Tallo trígono, de superficie lisa, de color verde brillante, de 10 a 50 cm largo x 5 mm ancho. Hojas nacen basalmente, dispuestas en 3 series, de vaina membranosa, cerrada, de lámina foliar lineal-lanceolada, plana, sulcada longitudinalmente; más largas generalmente que el tallo, de 3 a 5 mm anchas, ápice agudo, color verde brillante; involucro formado por 3 a 4 hojas involucrales, semejantes a hojas caulinares, de longitud desigual, pueden ser más largas que ramas de la inflorescencia. Inflorescencia en umbela simple o compuesta, con 3 a 9 ramas de longitud desigual, hasta 5 cm largas, guarnecidas por pequeños prófilos; del ápice de cada rama nacen espiguillas muy vistosas, lineallanceoladas, de color rojizo oscuro a rojizo castaño, de 0.8 a 2.5 cm largas x 2 mm anchas, comprimidas, con ápice agudo; cada espiguilla contiene muchas flores (hasta 40); glumas dispuestas en dos series, de 2.5 a 3.5 mm largas, laxamente imbricadas, ovado-oblongas, de ápice obtuso, con 7 a 9 nervaduras, quilladas, con quilla de color verde y lados de coloración rojiza. Fruto en aquenio trígono de lados redondeados, de elipsoide a oblongo, color castaño oscuro a negro, de 1.2 a 1.5 mm largo x 0.5 a 0.7 mm ancho, de ápice cortamente apiculado, base atenuada, de superficie brillante, minutamente reticulada. Hierba suculenta, emergente. Rizoma erecto, emite raíces adventicias, rico en tejidos aerenquimatosos, con exodermis suberizada. Hojas suculentas, simples, con pecíolos largos, dispuestas en roseta basal, envainadas en la base; limbo de color verde pálido, ovado, oblongo-ovado u ovalado, de 5 a 20 cm largo x 3 a 15 cm ancho, ápice obtuso a redondeado, mucronado, base redondeada a redondeado-cuneada; lámina glabra, venación 9-11, curvinervia, venas paralelas transversales a las primarias; pecíolos fistulosos, trigonales, erguidos, de 10 a 40 (> 40) cm largos x 0.5 a 1 cm diámetro; suculentos. Inflorescencia subtendida por un escapo, de 1 a 1.5 cm diámetro, de igual longitud o mayor que los pecíolos; cimas umbeliformes, generalmente de 3 flores, subtendidas por una bráctea suculenta, de 1.5 a 3 cm larga, ovada a oblonga, de 1 a 1.5 cm larga, ápice emarginado o mucronado; pedicelos alados, suculentos, de 2 a 5 cm largos. Flores hermafroditas, perianto biseriado, libre; cáliz de 3 sépalos suculentos, de 1.5 a 2 cm largos x 1 a 1.5 cm anchos, ovados, ápice redondeado a obtuso; corola de 3 pétalos, hasta 2 cm largos x 1 a 1.5 cm anchos, color blanco, membranáceos, caducos, ovalados, con 7 a 11 venas; androceo generalmente 2-verticilado, con numerosos estambres (> 10), con filamentos planos, de 8 a 12 mm largos; anteras oblongas, de 1.5 a 3 mm largas, de dehiscencia longitudinal; gineceo con ca. 20 carpelos, planos, fusionados axialmente por un eje, alargados, de 6 a 8 mm largos."},{"index":8,"size":146,"text":"Fruto agregado, globoso-elipsoide, que desarrolla un folículo de cada carpelo, folículos sujetos por un eje común, de 1 a 1.5 cm largos. Semillas ca. 1 mm largas, forma de herradura, papilosas, multicostadas transversalmente. 8 estambres, anteras de 2 a 3 mm largas, ventrifijas; polen cae en tétradas; disco nectario en base del ovario con collar de pelos blancos alrededor; estilo de 1.5 a 2.5 mm largo, estigma de 1.5 a 2 mm diámetro, redondo, globoso; ovario de 0.7 a 1.5 cm largo, ínfero, 4-angulado, 4-alado, con brácteas ca. 1 mm largas, deltoides. Fruto en cápsula de 1 a 2 cm larga x 3 a 7 mm diámetro, de color marrón pálido, con 4 costillas oscuras y aladas, con 4 lóculos. Semillas de 0.4 a 0.6 mm largas, pluriseriadas en cada lóculo, libres, de color marrón pálido, el rafe es 1 / 5 del diámetro del cuerpo."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"14. Ludwigia erecta (L.) H. Hara sin. Jussiaea acuminata Sw., Jussiaea altisima Perr. ex DC., Jussiaea erecta L., Jussiaea onagra Mill., Jussiaea plumeriana Bello, Jussiaea ramona Jacq. ex Rchb."},{"index":10,"size":427,"text":"NV: palo de agua, palo de laguna, mata de ciénaga Hierba erecta, anual, generalmente de 0.3 a 2.5 mm alta, que presenta líneas de oxalato de calcio sobre todas las estructuras excepto los pétalos. Tallo principal con ramas primarias abundantes, rojizo o verde, glabro, de ramas cuadrangulares afiladas, decurrentes desde la base de las hojas. Hojas de 2 a 13 cm largas x 0.4 a 4 cm anchas, de lanceoladas a eliptolanceoladas, de agudas en ambos extremos a subacuminadas en ápice, finamente papilosas, con pecíolo de 2 a 15 mm largo; de 13 a 25 venas secundarias a lado y lado de vena primaria. Flores solitarias en las axilas superiores, sésiles, con 4 sépalos de 3 a 6 mm largos, acuminados, de lanceolados a deltoides, glabros; 4 pétalos, de 3.5 a 5 mm largos, amarillos, obovados, libres; 8 estambres, ca. 1.3 mm largos, con anteras de 0.7 a 1 mm largas x ca. 0.4 mm anchas, polen que sale en tétradas; disco nectario en base del ovario con collar de pelos blancos alrededor; estilo hasta 1.5 mm largo, estigma ca. 1 mm diámetro, cupulado; bractéolas ca. 0.5 mm largas en base del hipanto; ovario ca. 7 mm largo, ínfero, 4-loculado, multiseminado. Fruto en cápsula de 0.8 a 1.9 cm larga x 2 a 3 mm diámetro, de glabra a glabrescente, 4-angular, oblonga, con cáliz persistente. Semillas de 0.3 a 0.6 mm largas, globoso-oblongas, pluriseriadas en cada lóculo, libres, de color café pálido. NV: grama de horqueta, pata de gallina Hierba anual. Tallos de 15 a 70 cm altos, erectos, ramificados, de entrenudos fistulosos y glabros. Hojas con vaina glabra excepto por tricomas largos sobre márgenes superiores y garganta; lígula ca. 1 mm larga; lámina de 10 a 25 cm larga x 4 a 6 mm ancha, glabra por el envés, con tricomas ralos y largos en el haz. Inflorescencia es un verticilo de 5 a 8 espigas, de 6 a 10 cm largo; 1 ó 2 espigas tienen de 1 a 5 cm largas, dispuestas debajo del verticilo; raquis ca. 1 mm ancho. Espiguillas sésiles, de 5 a 7 mm largas, comprimidas lateralmente, dispuestas en 2 hileras sobre lado inferior del raquis aplanado, con 4 a 7 flósculos, el superior estéril; gluma inferior de 1.8 a 2.5 mm larga, 1-nervada; gluma superior de 2.4 a 3.1 mm larga, 5-nervada; lemmas de 2 a 3 mm largas, glabras, generalmente 3-nervadas; pálea ligeramente más corta que la lemma; 2 lodículas, 3 estambres, ca. 0.7 mm largos, 2 estilos plumosos. Fruto en utrículo. Semilla rugosa, envuelta por un pericarpio delgado."}]},{"head":"Poaceae","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"18. Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. sin. Meoschium rugosum (Salisb.) Nees NV: falsa caminadora Hierba anual. Tallo de 50 a 130 cm alto, erecto o decumbente en la base, ramificado, con entrenudos glabros y fistulosos, nudos pilosos. Hojas con vaina ciliada, pilosa hacia el ápice, algunas veces con la margen violácea; lígula de 3 a 5 mm larga, glabra; lámina de 4 a 20 cm larga x 6 a 12 mm ancha, pubescente, de tonalidades moradas por el haz. Inflorescencia compuesta por 2 racimos, de 3 a 8 cm largos, apretadamente adpresos, con apariencia de espiga solitaria y cilíndrica; raquis articulado. Espiguillas pareadas, de 3.8 a 5 mm largas, las dos espiguillas y el entrenudo del raquis caedizos como una unidad, una espiguilla cortamente pedicelada y otra sésil, esta última con 2 flósculos, el inferior 3-estaminado y el superior pistilado ó bisexual; gluma inferior tan larga como la espiguilla, sus 3 / 5 inferiores endurecidos, amarillentos, corrugados transversalmente, con nervaduras no visibles, sus 2 / 5 superiores herbáceos, verdosos, de ápice obtuso y cortamente ciliada hacia el ápice; gluma superior tan larga como la inferior, membranácea; lemma superior hialina, 2-lobada hacia la mitad, aristada entre los lóbulos, la arista geniculada y torcida, de color marrón en la parte basal y blanquecina en la parte terminal, hasta de 2.5 cm larga; 3 anteras, de 1.3 a 1.7 mm largas; 2 estilos plumosos. Fruto en cariópside, ca. 2.5 mm largo, de triangular a oblongo."}]},{"head":"Género: Leptochloa","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"El complejo de especies de Leptochloa asociadas con el agroecosistema arrocero está conformado por cuatro especies, por lo menos: L. mucronata, L. virgata, L. uninervia y L. scabra."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Como se explicó en el género Digitaria, toda especie de Leptochloa que crecía en los campos de arroz se identificaba como L. filiformis, pero se sabe que L. filiformis es un sinónimo de L. mucronata (Fuentes et al., 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":182,"text":"A continuación se presenta una clave para separar las cuatro especies y se describe luego a L. mucronata porque es la especie más común: NV: paja mona, paja de loma, paja dulce Hierba anual. Tallos erectos de 10 a 130 cm altos, glabros. Hojas de vaina rojiza, redondeada, pubescente, con presencia de un anillo de color púrpura externamente en la base de la vaina, con lígula de 1.5 a 2.5 mm larga, ciliada; lámina de 8 a 23 cm larga x 5 a 11 mm ancha, con margen escabrosa. Inflorescencia en panícula de racimos, abierta, hasta 50 cm larga, blancuzca; racimos de 5 a 10 cm largos, numerosos, patentes. Espiguillas de 1.8 a 3 mm largas, dispuestas en 2 hileras, comprimidas lateralmente, con desarticulación arriba de las glumas y entre los flósculos; raquis triqueto; glumas de 1.5 a 2.5 mm largas, desiguales, 1-nervadas; de 3 a 4 flósculos, fértiles; lemma inferior de 1.1 a 1.6 mm larga; 3 anteras en el flósculo inferior, ca. 0.4 mm largas, ápice dividido; 2 estigmas plumosos. Fruto en cariópside, sulcado, ventralmente comprimido, globoso por el dorso."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"20. Oryza sativa L."}]},{"head":"NV: arroz rojo","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"La siguiente descripción del arroz rojo es la más general; hay muchas formas de arroz rojo."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"Hierba anual. Tallos de 40 a 150 cm altos, glabros, fistulosos. Hojas con vaina glabra, auriculadas; lígula de 1 a 3 cm larga, membranosas, deltoidelanceoladas, glabras; aurícula ciliada, hasta 7 mm de long.; lámina de 27 a 60 cm larga x 1 a 2 cm ancha, margen y haz escabrosos. Inflorescencia en panícula terminal, de 20 a 35 cm larga, laxamente contraída; ramas inferiores hasta 13 cm largas. Espiguillas fuertemente comprimidas lateralmente, con 3 flósculos que se desarticulan de una cúpula como una unidad, de 7 a 12 mm largos x 1.6 a 2.5 mm anchos, oblongos; glumas reducidas a crestas diminutas o a cúpula en la parte del pedicelo; flósculos inferiores estériles, cada uno reducido a una lemma subulada, 1-nervada; flósculo terminal bisexual; lemmas estériles de 2 a 4 mm largas, 1-nervadas; lemma fértil de 7 a 12 mm larga, escabrosa sobre las nervaduras y entre ellas, sin arista o con una hasta de 7 cm larga, 5-nervada, navicular, coriácea; pálea 3-nervada, oblonga; 2 lodículas; 2 estilos; 3 ó 6 estambres. Fruto en cariópside."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"21. Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. Clayton sin. Rottboellia exaltata L. f., Stegosia cochinchinensis Lour."},{"index":4,"size":433,"text":"NV: caminadora, pela bolsillo Hierba anual, cespitosa, generalmente con raíces fúlcreas. Tallos de 50 a 200 cm altos, sólidos, ramificados; entrenudos y nudos glabros. Hojas con vainas que tienen pelos hirsutos sentados en una base abultada; lígula como membrana ciliada de ca. 1.4 mm larga y lámina de 15 a 45 cm larga x 1 a 1.5 cm ancha; lineales anchas, fuertemente híspido-escabrosas por el haz y en la margen. Inflorescencias en racimo solitario, cilíndrico, con espiguillas hundidas en el raquis grueso y fistuloso; racimos de 5 a 12 cm largos, terminal y axilares, atenuados, el extremo terminal con espiguillas reducidas o rudimentarias; el raquis es articulado, con entrenudos de 3.5 a 7 mm largos, adnado a la margen del pedicelo adyacente. Espiguillas pareadas, comprimidas dorsalmente, 2 espiguillas y 1 entrenudo del raquis caedizos como una unidad; espiguilla sésil de 4 a 5.5 mm larga, bisexual; gluma inferior tan larga como la espiguilla, coriácea, con oxalato de calcio en la cara exterior que produce textura rugosa; gluma superior navicular, tan larga como la espiguilla, cartácea, blanquecina; 2 flósculos sésiles, insertos en el mismo plano, uno con lemma y pálea hialinas, membranosas, unisexual o bisexual, el otro con lemma y pálea cartáceas, generalmente bisexual; 3 anteras, ca. 2 mm largas; 2 estigmas plumosos; 2 lodículas. Espiguilla pedicelada de 4 a 5.5 mm larga, verde; gluma inferior tan larga como la espiguilla; gluma superior ligeramente más pequeña que la inferior; un flósculo estaminado. Fruto en cariópside. limbo ovado a ovado-lanceolado, de 1 a 5 cm largo x 0.5 a 2.5 cm ancho, ápice redondeado u obtuso, margen entera, base levemente inequilátera, truncada, subredondeada o subcordada, venación paralelinervia; lámina glabra; pecíolos glabros, suculentos, los de hojas centrales erguidos y los periféricos postrados sobre el sustrato; de 2 a 20 cm largos, envainados por una estipula escotada de 1 a 6 cm larga, ápice mucronado, púrpura al secado. Flor única, subtendida por una espata foliosa, plegada, que encubre el ovario, de 1 a 4 cm larga, pedúnculo de 2 a 7 cm largo, basalmente subtendido por una vaina espatosa, plegada, con un conspicuo entrenudo entre las dos espatas. Perianto petaloide, de color azul, salviforme, 6-lobulado, el tubo de 2 a 4 cm largo, lóbulos oblongos de ápice obtuso, de 1 a 2 cm largos x 0.3 a 0.4 cm anchos. Androceo de 3 estambres, uno central más desarrollado de color azul, exertos, adnados al tubo de la corola; filamentos lineales a lo largo del tubo, planos sobre el mismo; 2 anteras, oblongas, de 3 a 4 mm largas, una antera mayor (4 ó 5 mm larga), sagitada."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Ovario súpero, 3-locular, multiseriado, de 1 a 1.5 mm largo, oblongo, estilo púrpura, glabro, plano, estigma dorsalmente curvo, de 2 a 3 mm largo."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Fruto en cápsula, oblongo-elipsoide, de 1.5 a 2 cm largo. Semillas numerosas, de 0.6 a 0.8 mm largas, oblongoelipsoides, con ca. 10 costillas longitudinales. "}]},{"head":"Portulacaceae","index":9,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"bicornis (Lam.) Roemer et Schultes  alternos; eje de inflorescencia de 19 a D. bicornis eran confundidas con espiguilla, 5-nervada; flósculo inferior alternos; eje de inflorescencia de 19 aD. bicornis eran confundidas con espiguilla, 5-nervada; flósculo inferior 35 cm largo, raquis de 0.7 a 1.1 mm D. sanguinalis (Fuentes et al., 2006). estéril; palea inferior casi tan larga como 35 cm largo, raquis de 0.7 a 1.1 mmD. sanguinalis (Fuentes et al., 2006). estéril; palea inferior casi tan larga como ancho, plano, marginalmente escabroso. la lemma superior, pero más angosta; ancho, plano, marginalmente escabroso.la lemma superior, pero más angosta; Espiguillas de 2.9 a 3.3 mm largas, A continuación se presenta una clave flósculo superior fértil, ca. 2 mm largo; Espiguillas de 2.9 a 3.3 mm largas,A continuación se presenta una clave flósculo superior fértil, ca. 2 mm largo; comprimidas dorsalmente, para separar las tres especies del género 3 anteras, de 0.7 a 0.8 mm largas; comprimidas dorsalmente,para separar las tres especies del género 3 anteras, de 0.7 a 0.8 mm largas; desarticuladas debajo de las glumas, Digitaria más frecuentes en los arrozales, 2 estigmas plumosos. Fruto en desarticuladas debajo de las glumas,Digitaria más frecuentes en los arrozales, 2 estigmas plumosos. Fruto en pareadas, una subsésil infértil, la otra y se describe luego a D. bicornis porque cariópside, de 1.5 mm largo, aplanado- pareadas, una subsésil infértil, la otray se describe luego a D. bicornis porque cariópside, de 1.5 mm largo, aplanado- pedicelada y fértil; gluma inferior hasta es la especie más diseminada: convexo, ampliamente elíptico. pedicelada y fértil; gluma inferior hastaes la especie más diseminada: convexo, ampliamente elíptico. 2.5 mm larga, enervia; gluma superior  2.5 mm larga, enervia; gluma superior tan larga como la espiguilla, 3-nervada, Clave: 17. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. tan larga como la espiguilla, 3-nervada,Clave: 17. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. con margen fuertemente ciliada; flósculo 1. Pedicelo de la espiguilla sin. Eleusine gracilis Salisb., con margen fuertemente ciliada; flósculo1. Pedicelo de la espiguilla sin. Eleusine gracilis Salisb., inferior estéril, flósculo superior bisexual; pedicelada más corto que la mitad Cynosurus indicus L., Cynodon inferior estéril, flósculo superior bisexual;pedicelada más corto que la mitad Cynosurus indicus L., Cynodon lemma inferior tan larga como la de la espiguilla sésil, espiguilla indicus Rasp., Chloris repens Steud. lemma inferior tan larga como lade la espiguilla sésil, espiguilla indicus Rasp., Chloris repens Steud. espiguilla; lemma superior escasamente subtendida por un tricoma; vaina espiguilla; lemma superior escasamentesubtendida por un tricoma; vaina más corta que la lemma inferior; pubescente; nudos y entrenudos más corta que la lemma inferior;pubescente; nudos y entrenudos 2 lodículas; 3 anteras, basifijas, con glabros: ................... D. horizontalis 2 lodículas; 3 anteras, basifijas, conglabros: ................... D. horizontalis ápice divido hasta la mitad; 2 estigmas, 1´. Pedicelo de la espiguilla ápice divido hasta la mitad; 2 estigmas,1´. Pedicelo de la espiguilla plumosos. Fruto en cariópside, de 2 mm pedicelada más largo que la mitad plumosos. Fruto en cariópside, de 2 mmpedicelada más largo que la mitad largo, oblongo-elíptico. de la espiguilla sésil, base de la largo, oblongo-elíptico.de la espiguilla sésil, base de la  espiguilla sin tricoma, vaina glabra espiguilla sin tricoma, vaina glabra 16. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link o pubescente, nudos glabros o 16. Echinochloa colona (L.) Linko pubescente, nudos glabros o sin. Panicum colonum L. pilosos sin. Panicum colonum L.pilosos  2. Anteras de 1 mm largas; 2. Anteras de 1 mm largas; NV: arrocillo, grama salada, vaina pubescente; nudos NV: arrocillo, grama salada,vaina pubescente; nudos liendrepuerco, liendre de puerco,  liendrepuerco, liendre de puerco, paja salada  paja salada Hierba cespitosa, anual. Tallos de 20 a  Hierba cespitosa, anual. Tallos de 20 a 90 cm altos; nudos enraizadores,  90 cm altos; nudos enraizadores, híspidos o glabros, entrenudos glabros.  híspidos o glabros, entrenudos glabros. Hojas con vainas glabras, lígula ausente,  Hojas con vainas glabras, lígula ausente, con collar pubérulo; lámina de 7 a 24 cm  con collar pubérulo; lámina de 7 a 24 cm larga x 4 a 10 mm ancha, velutina, con  larga x 4 a 10 mm ancha, velutina, con margen púrpura. Inflorescencia en sin. Digitaria diversiflora Swallen, margen púrpura. Inflorescencia ensin. Digitaria diversiflora Swallen, panícula terminal de racimos Paspalum bicorne Lam. panícula terminal de racimosPaspalum bicorne Lam. unilaterales, de 6 a 15 cm larga; de 7 a  unilaterales, de 6 a 15 cm larga; de 7 a 14 racimos, de 0.7 a 3.3 cm largos, NV: gaudín, guarda rocío, hierba 14 racimos, de 0.7 a 3.3 cm largos,NV: gaudín, guarda rocío, hierba simples, con tricomas filiformes de hasta coneja simples, con tricomas filiformes de hastaconeja 3 mm largos, frecuentes en la base;  3 mm largos, frecuentes en la base; Género: Digitaria raquis con tricomas simples, ca. 0.2 mm Hierba de tallos decumbentes, de 10 a Género: Digitaria raquis con tricomas simples, ca. 0.2 mmHierba de tallos decumbentes, de 10 a Las tres especies más comunes son largo. Espiguillas de 2 a 3 mm largas, 85 cm altos, que emiten raíces de los Las tres especies más comunes son largo. Espiguillas de 2 a 3 mm largas,85 cm altos, que emiten raíces de los D. horizontalis, D. ciliaris y dispuestas en 4 hileras, generalmente nudos. Macollas erectas; entrenudos D. horizontalis, D. ciliaris y dispuestas en 4 hileras, generalmentenudos. Macollas erectas; entrenudos D. bicornis. D. sanguinalis es mucho pareadas, aplanadas dorsalmente, con glabros, nudos con pelos ralos. Hojas D. bicornis. D. sanguinalis es mucho pareadas, aplanadas dorsalmente, conglabros, nudos con pelos ralos. Hojas menos frecuente que las anteriores. desarticulación por debajo de las glumas, con vainas que tienen pelos esparcidos menos frecuente que las anteriores. desarticulación por debajo de las glumas,con vainas que tienen pelos esparcidos de ápice agudo o apiculado; gluma hacia la base, lígula de 2 a 4 mm larga; de ápice agudo o apiculado; glumahacia la base, lígula de 2 a 4 mm larga; inferior de 1 a 1.5 mm larga, 3-nervada, lámina de 7 a 16 cm larga x 0.5 a 0.7 cm inferior de 1 a 1.5 mm larga, 3-nervada,lámina de 7 a 16 cm larga x 0.5 a 0.7 cm adaxialmente glabra, abaxialmente ancha, lineales, glabrescentes. adaxialmente glabra, abaxialmenteancha, lineales, glabrescentes. pubérula, con tricomas simples Inflorescencia de 10 a 16 cm larga, con pubérula, con tricomas simplesInflorescencia de 10 a 16 cm larga, con principalmente sobre las venas; gluma 8 a 10 racimos de 7 a 16 cm largos, los principalmente sobre las venas; gluma8 a 10 racimos de 7 a 16 cm largos, los superior casi tan larga como la inferiores verticilados, los superiores superior casi tan larga como lainferiores verticilados, los superiores  "}],"sieverID":"0cc0e949-67d5-4bad-a5c3-d69d72fe5691","abstract":"la flora de malezas está constituida por cerca de 30 especies, que se han distribuido en cuatro grupos: dominantes, porque su densidad en el terreno es alta; secundarias, porque su densidad es intermedia; poco frecuentes, y raras. En la franja arrocera de América Latina y el Caribe, 25 especies de malezas (pertenecientes a 12 familias botánicas) son las especies más frecuentes. Se sugiere que la clave para emprender cualquier acción respecto a estas plantas es identificar las especies consideradas como malezas o arvenses y conocerlas bien. Los fabricantes de herbicidas, por ejemplo, deben reconocer correctamente las especies que son controladas por las sustancias que ellos producen."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0dcf38f6bf734cd96273effcbcd2e752","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3f755f4c-02b2-4312-8a77-7f18cbca312d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Study #4445 Contributing Projects: • P838 -Climate Services for Resilient Development (CSRD) in South Asia and Bangladesh • P1764 -USAID-Cereal Systems for South Asia (CSISA)-Phase III • P1401 -Scaling CA based SI through enhanced capacity, knowledge, partnerships and policy engagement","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"• # of more farm households have adopted improved varieties, breeds or trees • Reduce agriculturally related greenhouse gas emissions compared to business-as-usual scenario 2022 Description of activity / study: Scientists identified mitigation options, their potentials and cost or benefit of adoption in the form of Marginal Abatement Cost Curves (MACC). Based on their analysis, total GHG emissions from agricultural sector in Bangladesh for the year 2014-15 is 76.79 million tonne (Mt) carbon-dioxide equivalent (CO2e). Business-as-usual GHG emissions from the agricultural sector in Bangladesh are approximately 86.87 and 100.44 Mt CO2e year−1 by 2030 and 2050, respectively. Adoption of climate-smart crop and livestock management options would offer GHG mitigation opportunities of 9.51 and 14.21 Mt CO2e year−1 by 2030 and 2050, respectively. Of this mitigation potential, 70-75% can be achieved through cost-saving options that could benefit smallholder farmers. Examples of climate smart management practices and mitigation options: Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) for rice, improved nutrient-use-efficiency particularly for N, adoption of strip-tillage; for livestock: Green fodder supplement, increased concentrate feeding and improved forage/diet management for small ruminants."}]},{"head":"Geographic scope:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• National 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:13 (GMT+0) Country(ies):"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"• Bangladesh"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147344 2 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:13 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" production risk • Reduce pre-and post-harvest losses, including those caused by climate change Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets: "}],"sieverID":"3b5ac446-90ae-4bd0-bd12-ead437d1f83e","abstract":""}