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data/part_5/001a84db9ca07a6edce89993a8fa7bcf.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"001a84db9ca07a6edce89993a8fa7bcf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f9d98822-e81c-4857-b0a7-50bc782ef2e5/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"IWMI's research group on urban and peri-urban agriculture started operations in Ghana in 1999 1 under the coordination of Dr. Pay Drechsel. Pay has over 20 years of professional experience in natural resources management and has been living in Ghana for the past eight years. He is an expert in urban agriculture in Africa, a board member of the 'RUAF Foundation' and in the steering committee of the CGIAR initiative 'Urban Harvest'. Since 2005, Pay has been heading IWMI's new global research theme on \"Agriculture, Water and Cities\". He works closely with Dr. Liqa Raschid-Sally who has more than 25 years of professional experience in wastewater management in agriculture with special focus on Asia and Africa, and Dr. Olufunke Cofie, who is the coordinator of the Network of Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF) in Anglophone West Africa. The three are supported by a number of staff including Philip Amoah, George Danso, Bernard Keraita and Emmanuel Obuobie, who started their scientific careers as MSc students in IWMI's projects on urban and peri-urban agriculture in Ghana. Today, they are Ph.D. students having affiliations with universities in Ghana, Canada, Denmark and Germany, respectively. George is an Agricultural Economist, Philip studied Environmental Science/Microbiology, and Ben and Emmanuel graduated as Irrigation and Water Engineers. All authors are IWMI staff based in IWMI's Office for Africa in Ghana. The team has over 40 publications on urban and peri-urban agriculture to its credit","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Foreword","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Exotic vegetables, like lettuce, are not part of the traditional Ghanaian diet. However, more than 200,000 urban dwellers eat them daily on Accra's streets, and in canteens and restaurants. About 90% of the perishable vegetables are produced in closest market proximity due to their fragile nature and the common lack of cold transport and storage. These vegetables are a preferred cash crop, which can lift poor farmers out of poverty. On the other hand, farmers have huge problems finding in and around the cities unpolluted water sources for irrigation. This dilemma is directly linked to uncontrolled urbanization and poor sanitation. Ghana is in this regard a representative example for sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Over the last five years, IWMI's research in Ghana has had a major thrust in urban and periurban agriculture in general and irrigated (open-space) vegetable farming in particular. This book summarizes results from a large number of students' theses and research reports. It gives a comprehensive overview of urban and peri-urban vegetable farming in Ghana's major cities, and highlights besides economic impacts, consequences and perceptions related to the use of wastewater. The book ends with recommendations on how in a low-income country like Ghana health risks for consumers could be effectively reduced, while simultaneously supporting the important contribution of open-space urban and peri-urban agriculture. The book will certainly serve students, the academia and policy makers as an invaluable resource."}]},{"head":"Akiça Bahri","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Director for Africa IWMI"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"5. QUANTIFICATION OF MARKETING CHANNELS FOR LETTUCE 7. WATER QUALITY IN AND AROUND THE CITIES 7.WATER QUALITY IN AND AROUND THE CITIES 7.1 Key indicators 7.1Key indicators 7.2 Sampling sites and methods 7.2Sampling sites and methods 7.3 Changes in water quality along the main stream 7.3Changes in water quality along the main stream 7.4 Seasonal variations of coliform levels 7.4Seasonal variations of coliform levels 7.5 Water quality in vegetable farming sites 7.5Water quality in vegetable farming sites INTRODUCTION 7.6 Conclusions and recommendations INTRODUCTION 7.6 Conclusions and recommendations 1.1 The urbanization challenge 1.1The urbanization challenge 8. 1.2 IRRIGATION PRACTICES Urban and peri-urban agriculture 8.1.2 IRRIGATION PRACTICES Urban and peri-urban agriculture 1.3 8.1 Sanitation, water quality and irrigation Sources of irrigation water 1.3 8.1Sanitation, water quality and irrigation Sources of irrigation water 1.4 8.2 Objective and overview of the book Irrigation methods and technologies used 1.4 8.2Objective and overview of the book Irrigation methods and technologies used 8.3 Water and land productivity 8.3Water and land productivity 2. STUDY SITES, CROPPING SYSTEMS AND PROFILE OF FARMERS 8.4 Options and constraints to technology change 2.STUDY SITES, CROPPING SYSTEMS AND PROFILE OF FARMERS 8.4 Options and constraints to technology change 2.1 8.5 The study sites in Ghana Faecal sludge as a source of nutrients 2.1 8.5The study sites in Ghana Faecal sludge as a source of nutrients 2.2 8.6 Irrigated urban agriculture in Accra Conclusions and recommendations 2.2 8.6Irrigated urban agriculture in Accra Conclusions and recommendations 2.3 Irrigated urban agriculture in Kumasi 2.3Irrigated urban agriculture in Kumasi 9. 2.4 QUALITY OF VEGETABLES IN URBAN MARKETS Irrigated urban agriculture in Tamale 9.2.4 QUALITY OF VEGETABLES IN URBAN MARKETS Irrigated urban agriculture in Tamale 2.5 9.1 Irrigated urban agriculture in other cities Sampling and analyses 2.5 9.1Irrigated urban agriculture in other cities Sampling and analyses 2.6 9.3 General farming characteristics Coliform counts 2.6 9.3General farming characteristics Coliform counts 2.7 9.4 Profile of urban vegetable farmers in Ghana Helminth eggs 2.7 9.4Profile of urban vegetable farmers in Ghana Helminth eggs 9.5 Heavy metals 9.5Heavy metals 3. GENDER IN IRRIGATED URBAN VEGETABLE FARMING 9.6 Pesticides 3.GENDER IN IRRIGATED URBAN VEGETABLE FARMING 9.6 Pesticides 3.1 9.7 General situation Conclusions and recommendations 3.1 9.7General situation Conclusions and recommendations 3.2 Male dominance in urban open-space vegetable farming 3.2Male dominance in urban open-space vegetable farming 10. 3.3 PERCEPTIONS OF STAKEHOLDERS Female dominance in marketing of urban farm produce 10.3.3 PERCEPTIONS OF STAKEHOLDERS Female dominance in marketing of urban farm produce 3.4 10.1 Data collection Conclusions 3.4 10.1 Data collection Conclusions 10.2 Perceptions of farmers 10.2 Perceptions of farmers 4. FINANCIAL BENEFITS AND TRADE-OFFS 10.3 Perceptions of vegetable sellers 4.FINANCIAL BENEFITS AND TRADE-OFFS 10.3 Perceptions of vegetable sellers 4.1 10.4 Perceptions of consumers Financial analysis 4.1 10.4 Perceptions of consumers Financial analysis 4.2 10.5 Perceptions of city officials Comparing informal and formal irrigation 4.2 10.5 Perceptions of city officials Comparing informal and formal irrigation 4.3 10.6 Perceptions of the Government Socio-economic impact and urban food supply 4.3 10.6 Perceptions of the Government Socio-economic impact and urban food supply 4.4 10.7 Perceptions and role of the media Externalities 4.4 10.7 Perceptions and role of the media Externalities 4.5 10.8 Conclusions Conclusions 4.5 10.8 Conclusions Conclusions 11. INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF URBAN FARMING AND 11.INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF URBAN FARMING AND 5.1 \"WASTEWATER IRRIGATION\" Background and objectives 5.1 \"WASTEWATER IRRIGATION\" Background and objectives 5.2 11.1 Informality of irrigated urban farming Details on surveys 5.2 11.1 Informality of irrigated urban farming Details on surveys 5.3 11.2 Agencies relevant to irrigated urban farming Marketing 5.3 11.2 Agencies relevant to irrigated urban farming Marketing 5.4 11.3 Regulatory bylaws Food flows 5.4 11.3 Regulatory bylaws Food flows 5.5 11.4 Integration into city planning Customers and consumers 5.5 11.4 Integration into city planning Customers and consumers 5.6 11.5 Conclusions Conclusions and strategies for improved hygiene 5.6 11.5 Conclusions Conclusions and strategies for improved hygiene 6. 12. SANITATION AND URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT THE WAY FORWARD: HEALTH RISK MANAGEMENT IN 6. 12.SANITATION AND URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT THE WAY FORWARD: HEALTH RISK MANAGEMENT IN 6.1 LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES Review on wastewater concepts 6.1 LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES Review on wastewater concepts 6.2 12.1 Applying international guidelines Domestic wastewater disposal and treatment in Ghana 6.2 12.1 Applying international guidelines Domestic wastewater disposal and treatment in Ghana 6.3 12.2 The new WHO guidelines Kumasi as a case study 6.3 12.2 The new WHO guidelines Kumasi as a case study 6.4 12.3 Prioritizing risk management strategies Situation in Accra and Tamale 6.4 12.3 Prioritizing risk management strategies Situation in Accra and Tamale 6.5 12.4 Intermediate options for risk management Applicability of conventional wastewater treatment systems 6.5 12.4 Intermediate options for risk management Applicability of conventional wastewater treatment systems 6.6 12.5 Need for further research Conclusions and recommendations 6.6 12.5 Need for further research Conclusions and recommendations "}],"sieverID":"b8b51d33-4c60-4b77-a751-64340203653a","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0027a683d15618bce35846f933a17eac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1245b38c-6c48-4c35-b0c2-f705be619444/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"chance of mixing the new variety wilh Ihe existing farmer' S variety from seed sowing through to post-harvest assessment. The area of Ihe trial plots was measured by researchers, while farmers measured yield in local volumetric units, which were later converted to metric units. A paired !-test was used to test the significance of the difference for yield between Ihe test entry and the existing rice variety,"},{"index":2,"size":230,"text":"To conduct Ihe trials, each trial site was joint1y identified and demarcated by Ihe participating farIIlers and researchers. There were regular visits by researchers to the trial plots with Ihe participating farmers to see Ihe performance of the variety at different growth stages, A farm walk was orgaruzed in which researchers, participating farmers, and olher interested farmers saw Ihe standing crop in al! or most of Ihe plots when Ihe crop was near to rnaturity. Immediately after each farm walk, a focus-group discussion was held, which included preparing a narrative summary of each rice variety, describing al! its positive and negative traits, and preparing an overall preference ranking of al! Ihe varieties. A post-harvest evaluation ofthe rice varieties was done on Ihe basis offarmers' perceptions two to three monlhs afier the harvest of Ihe crop, This gave the farmers enough time to assess post-harvest traits. A structured questionnaire was used, which included questions on grain quality, market preference, and the farmers' intentions on whether to adopt or reject Ihe variety, Questions were also asked on Ihe distribution of Ihe seed of the variety by fanners to monitor the adoption and spread of Ihe new rice varieties through 1997 to 1999. In 1999, households that receíved seeds in 1997 and 1998 were visited first (purposive sampling) and then new adopters were interviewed based on the distribution list provided by each farmer."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The project mobilized existing farmers' groups in the project villages. These groups had been formed for different purposes, including agriculture, livestockldairy, and water use. Dístribution of the seed of the new varieties was done following discussions with the groups. Participatory well-being ranking was done to identiIY farmers from dífferent resource categories, Through group consensus, an equal numberoffarmers from all tbree well-being categories were selected to participate in the trials. A brief overview of all the varieties included in the trials was gíven to farmers."}]},{"head":"Varietal diversity in the project area before peI","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The baseline study showed that varietal díversity was low in chaite rice, wheat, and maize (Rana et al. 2000). In chaile rice, CH 45 covered over 97% ofthe chaite rice area in the project villages. In maíze, varieties Arun 2 and AIUn 4 occupied ahout 70% ofthe area, and Rampur Composite about 30%. In wheat, two varieties, UP 262 (50%) and RR 21 (20%), occupied most ofthe area."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"For main-season rice, the greatest varietal diversity was in the East Chitwan cluster (ECC) of víllages where 11 different rice varieties were grown by the farmers, ofwhich Masuli and Ekhattar'(a sister line ofSabitri) together occupied two-thirds ofthe rice area (figure 1). Six differem rice varieties were grown by the furmers in the West Chitwan cluster (WCC) but Masuli alone covered 98% ofthe total rice area (figure 2). The narrow varietal diversity in this cluster could be attributed to a more uniform physical environment as the majority of the area is low lying and retains standing water during most of the rice-growing season. Another reason is that in WCC, in contrast to ECC, few vegetables are grown. Vegetable growing promotes diversity because farmers grow rice varieties of shorter duration than Masuli to allow timely sowing of the vegetable crops. The varietal díversíty at the Nawalparasí cluster (NPC) is closer to WCC than to ECC. The main differences are that in N awalparasi there is more Masuli and Sabítri and no Ekhattar at al! (figure 3). "}]},{"head":"Varietal dynamics","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"The distribution ofvarieties over time is dynamic, as new varieties are adopted and old and obsolete varieties are dropped, How dynamic the system is can be quantified by measuring temporal diversíty. A dynarnic sítuatíon ís found not only in high-potential systems with modem varieties, it also occurs in marginal areas and even for Iandraces (Joshi and Witcombe, this volume). As a result of the introduction of new varieties by PVS, most farmers indicated that the new varieties they were adopting would replace Masuli. Other varieties also likely lo be replaced were Kanchhi Masuli, Radha 4 (also known as Chaurasi or Bammorcha) and Sabitri. Twenty varieties were listed as likely to be replaced, but 16 ofthem accounted for only 18% ofthe total varietal replacement indicated by farmers."}]},{"head":"On-farm varietal diversity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The introduction of new modern varieties contributed lo an increase in on-farm varietal diversity when diversity is measured simply as the number ofvarieties grown in each village (figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Grain yield","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Four varieties (Swarna, PNR 381, Pant 10, and PR103) had a statistically significant yield advantage over the farmers' existing varieties (table 2). From a few kilograms of seeds in 1997, these four variel:tes covered 22 ha by 1999 in the F AMP AR víllages, which contributed 65 t of additional yield. A further 25 ha were occupied by four other new varieties: Rampur Masulí, Sarwati, IR51672, and Pusa 44. On average, these yielded 7% more than existing varieties (p <.05 in a pooled analysis). The added yield from these varietíes was about 9 t. A similar or higher amount can "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The existing varietal diversity in main-season rice was low in general and very low in the West Chitwan cluster. The differences between clusters reflected their physical and agronomic diversity."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Because the dominant crop varieties grown by the fanners in the villages of the study area were 30 to 35 years old, fanners were not benefitting from several decades of progress in plant breeding, and because ofnarrow varietal diversity, these systems may be more vulnerable to pests and disease attacks, which contribute to instability in food production."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"The participatory varietal selection program was successful in thÍs high-potential production systemo F anners identified and adopted seven new rice varieties from the 16 given in PVS, Some of these, such as Swarna, PNR 381, PR 1 03, and Pant 10, had a distinct yield advantage over the varieties fanners were currently growing. Others were preferred for therr early maturity, lower water and nutrient requirements, or berter grain quality. New varieties were adapted to specific niches. For example Swarna is suitable for fields where the water stands for nearly all ofthe growing season; Pant 10, PNR 381, and Sarwati are suited to conditions ofpartial irrigation and medium fertility; and PR 103 and PR 106 were adopted for more fertile, higher yíelding environments. Radha 11 was found to be suitable for late planting conditions and for transplanting when the seedlings are more than one and one-half months old. This is an important trait for areas where rice transplanting is dependent on unpredictable monsoon rains."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Varietal diversÍty can be quantified but such quantification is scale sensitive. Diversity estimated overall the FAMPAR villages as one unit gíves differentresults Ihan ifit's estimated on the basis of clusters. The varietal diversity in the WCC increased far more than in the other two clusters, whích"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" NR = not released; PR:: pre-release; (-) infonnation not avaiJable. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Area under main-season rice varieties in three study villages of East Chitwan cluster, 1997 (Himali and Chaite 6 occupied an insignificant area and are not shown.) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Area under main-season rice varleties in three villages of West Chitwan Cluster, 1997 (Sabitri, Kanchhi Masuli, and Radha 4 occupied an insignlficant area and are not shown.) "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Area under main-season rice varieties in tbree villages oC Nawalparasi cluster, 1997 (Kanchbi Masuli and Radha 7 occupled an insigníficant area and are not shown.) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Varietal diversity io rice before aod after a participatory crop improvement program across all nioe FAMPAR villages, 1997 lo 1999 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Yields ofNew Main-Season Rice Varieties Compared to Existing Varieties in Participatory Varietal Trials in Eight FAMPAR Villages, Main Season, 1999be expected for the IRD víllages that were found to have higher fanner-to-fanner spread of new varieties than the F AMP AR ones. The monitoring of varietal adoption and spread done in 1999 confirmed that Swama, Rampur Masuli, PNR 381, Pant 10, PR 103, and Sarwati covered significant areas, although other varieties, such as IR 51672, Radha 11, PR 106, and NDR 80, were also adopted to some extent. Graln Yleld of riCé Difference relative Graln Yleld of riCéDifference relative varieties (t ha-1 J lo Masuli varieties (t ha-1 Jlo Masuli Maturity Area covered MaturityArea covered Variety name New Exisling Yield ('Yo) (da)!s¡ (%) by 1999 Variety nameNewExislingYield ('Yo)(da)!s¡(%) by 1999 Swama 4.40 3.35 31.0 m +5 5.2 Swama4.403.3531.0 m+55.2 PNR 381 4.04 3.45 17.0' -30 2.1 PNR 3814.043.4517.0'-302.1 Pan! 10 4.37 3.95 13.5' -25 0.7 Pan! 104.373.9513.5'-250.7 PR 103 4.45 3.86 15.3\" -18 0.8 PR 1034.453.8615.3\"-180.8 Other new varieties I 4.17 3.80 7.0' 3.0 Other new varieties I4.173.807.0'3.0 • p<.05 . • p<.05 . .. p<.Ol. .. p<.Ol. "}],"sieverID":"848acf05-fd64-4eaa-bb4d-eadaa589d4d1","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0077841978f61c028641285b2970064b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR70.pdf"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"1 1."}]},{"head":"Background and Objective","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Sectoral demand for water has been growing, with industry and urban water use being the fastest growing sectors. According to the Union Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), 80 percent of India's utilizable water is devoted to agriculture, mostly in the form of irrigation. Demand from the domestic sector has remained low and accounts for only 5 percent of the annual freshwater withdrawals in India. The industrial sector in India is the second largest user of water, but it is not exactly known how much water these industries consume (CSE 2004). Competition is growing rapidly as a result of declining water supplies and growing sectoral demands. Allocation of water from public systems is not based on social, economic, environmental and fundamental rights considerations, and thus it is inequitable. Growing inequity in access to and control over water leads to conflicts among different sectors."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"For instance, during the monsoon, water from irrigation reservoirs in Sauarashtra is reallocated from low-valued agricultural uses to high-valued drinking and industrial use by urban water utilities and private water supply companies. Such reallocation puts tremendous additional pressure on the already water-stressed rural areas. The better-off residents of cities around the world typically consume around 200 liters per capita per day (lpcd). It is believed that finding ways of providing similar quantity of water in support of the livelihoods of the rural poor is vital (Moriaty and Butterworth 2003). Even within the rural areas the existence of inequality persists among different sectors. As the absolute scarcity of water increases, access to water becomes inequitable."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Scarcity of water influences the social structure, in that water is distributed in accordance with the influential power of groups-caste, class and gender. The three types of stratification systems of the community have a strong relationship with water (Zwarteveen 1997)."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"The water requirements of the poor always extend beyond domestic needs. Productive uses of water at the household level include a range of small-scale activities that enable poor men and women to grow subsistence food, fruit and vegetables, rear livestock and undertake informal microenterprises."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Without access to sufficient and reliable water for productive uses in and around the household, people are excluded from a range of options that would otherwise enable them to secure their sources of food and income. At the most basic level, poverty entails a lack of opportunity."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"In almost all rural communities in developing countries, it is primarily women and girls, who collect water, protect the water source and maintain the water systems, and store water. Women spend a significant amount of time with these activities. They also determine the use of water, and this decision-making has direct impact on the health of children and other family members."},{"index":7,"size":119,"text":"Over the past several decades, development planners have assumed that women are only concerned about water for domestic purposes and men are responsible for productive water use. This underlying assumption has not only led to a number of unsustainable development interventions around water, but has also underestimated women's productive role. Because of this assumption, water projects neither explicitly focus on the need to promote equal balance of power between men and women nor recognize the need for equity in water allocation. Thus, water allocation has been gendered and in most cases women are ignored in terms of access to water. The allocation priority gets further deteriorated in times of scarcity and could become the cause of intra-and inter-household conflicts."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"Recognizing the multiple uses of water in and around households, where women play an important role in the use and management of water, in agriculture and in small-scale activities that allow both men and women to grow more crops, vegetables and to rear livestock-is a mounting need."},{"index":9,"size":68,"text":"This study tries to examine gender roles as both domestic activities and productive water users and how these roles help women improve their socioeconomic status. The specific objectives of the paper are: to examine gender roles and responsibilities of multiple water users with an estimation of actual water use for domestic and livestock purposes and to analyze the operational income and expenditure associated with water-based home enterprises. 1"}]},{"head":"Survey Design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"A comparative village-level case-study approach was used in the study. A total of nine villages, three from every block, were selected. These villages are similar in socioeconomic and physical attributes but different in terms of water supply. These villages of North Gujarat are famous for livestock rearing, which is considered a female domain. For the purpose of this study, villages in each pair were termed as either no-source or source villages based on the criteria shown in table 1. The survey covered a total of 90 respondents using different participatory research tools."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The roles of men and women were determined by actual physical labor in mean working hours per day in livestock rearing and irrigated agriculture. A daily routine diagram was also used, particularly while interviewing women in order to get a better idea of the total time allocation per activity per day. Participant observation also supplemented information on physical involvement. In addition, focus group discussions were held separately for both men and women groups."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"In order to understand actual water use for domestic and livestock purposes the following method of computation was used; Per capita human use of water = total water for drinking and cooking per day/ number of family members+ (water use for sanitation and other household uses/ number of family members). Similarly, the daily water use for livestock was obtained by measuring actual water used for livestock in bathing, cleaning and drinking. "}]},{"head":"Study Area and Socioeconomic Characteristics","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The surveyed villages are located in Banaskantha district of North Gujarat, India. Three villages from three blocks, namely, Dantiwada, Vadgam and Palanpur, were selected. The total population of the studied villages ranges from 642 in Marvada (no-source village) to 4,440 in Khumbasan (source village). The cultivable area ranges from 40.47 hectares to 897.5 hectares. Population density varies from 156 to 547 per capita per square kilometer. Chaudary, Harijan, Muslim, Patel, Kodri, Rajput and Suthar with minority of Prajapati, Desia, Vankar and Vagar communities dominate the population in the surveyed villages."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"The livelihood of the farmers in the study area is predominantly agriculture-based. Source village farmers grow crops in all three seasons. The majority of respondents of the source area grow millet sorghum, cumin, mustard, wheat and fodder. Other crops like castor, groundnut and pulses are also grown. For fodder, the majority of farmers grow alfa-alfa, which lasts for 6-8 months in winter and summer. Crops grown in Kharif (October through March) are usually rain-fed, but farmers were forced to irrigate their crops in the last Kharif due to the 3 preceding drought years."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Livestock rearing is common in the villages and women are significantly involved in this activity. A majority of the households rear buffalos and cows. The size of the livestock population varies widely within villages and among households. Basic statistics of the surveyed villages are summarized in Appendix 1."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Bansakantha is a socially and economically backward district in Gujarat. In Gujarat, droughts are estimated to occur every 3 years on average, and in 1999, a large part of Gujarat suffered from the worst drought experienced in 50 years. Banaskantha is one of the poorest and hardest hit districts in this respect with frequent droughts grinding down any interim livelihood gains."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"The region receives a range of low to moderate rainfall and has arid to semi-arid climatic zones. The rainfall is highly erratic. The mean annual rainfall varies from 578 mm in the Banaskantha district to 807 mm in the Sabarkantha district. The mean annual rainfall for the entire region is about 627 mm (GoI 2000). Groundwater is the major source of water in Gujarat."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"The types of groundwater extraction mechanisms used in Gujarat are dug wells, dug-cumbore wells and tubewells. Dug wells and dug-cum-bore wells are used in the alluvial areas of North Gujarat for irrigation purposes. The total annual withdrawal of groundwater in Gujarat stands at 9,708.9 MCM, with maximum withdrawal in North Gujarat (IRMA/UNICEF 2000)."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"Most source villages have multiple sources of domestic water, including bore wells and government stand posts. But in both source and no-source villages, traditional water sources are almost non-existent, as excessive groundwater withdrawal, mostly by richer farmers, has lead to a rapid fall in water tables."},{"index":8,"size":89,"text":"Access to groundwater is highly inequitable even in source villages. Many small and marginal farmers are deprived of direct access to groundwater. They sustain irrigated agriculture by purchasing water from rich well owners, while some of the better-endowed farmers invest in partnership wells and continue abstraction, enjoying unlimited access to groundwater. For instance, in the Khumbasan village, all the studied households irrigated their land using partnership wells for water extraction and allocation. Water allocation among the shareholders is done on the basis of their share in the total investment."},{"index":9,"size":69,"text":"In villages where the wells are still yielding water, farmers irrigate their land. However, in villages of Datiwada taluka, water is sufficient only for domestic purposes, and is distributed by government tankers. Frequent drought and over extraction of groundwater resulted in the drying up of all the traditional water sources, and farmers are now finding it difficult to get to the water table even after boring/drilling 500 ft deep. "}]},{"head":"Result and Discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Women, water and basic needs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Water is a fundamental basic need and an essential resource for economic activities with strong cultural and symbolic value for millions of people in developing countries. A domestic water supply is universally acknowledged as not only a basic right, but a key development indicator. It is also accepted as an excellent entry point to reaching the poorest women, who have the responsibility of finding domestic water supplies. It is also widely recognized that water is vital for multiple and universally agreed-upon aspects of human well-being, such as health, economic security and freedom from drudgery."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Poor women disproportionately bear the burden of the unpaid chore of fetching water for domestic uses. In North Gujarat, women are almost exclusively responsible for domestic chores and for maintaining hygiene in their households. Water scarcity has a direct impact on the time that women and girls spend in water collection and hence on the time available for other work as well as on their access to water within the household."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Due to inadequate water for basic consumption in the no-source villages, women fetch water from nearby villages, where applicable, walking for more than 2 hours per trip. The physical strain of collecting water is doubly compounded during the peak of summer, when the temperature is up to 45 o C, and women have to wait in long queues at water sources. This shows the precarious situation of women in no-source villages and also indicates how women are compelled to shoulder additional burdens for the welfare of their families."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"In the no-source villages, 90 percent of the women are reported as having a very hard time in fetching water from other villages. Water distributed from the government tanker is not enough even for their basic needs. The poor people are facing inequality even in accessing water distributed by the tanker. They hardly get adequate water for consumption, whereas the rural elite are able to collect more than 40-50 liters regardless of their family size. This inequity is breeding social conflict among the users, and poorest women are the hardest hit."}]},{"head":"Women, water and livestock","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"Rural women need access to water resources not only to carry out their domestic activities, but also to undertake potentially beneficial works for themselves and their families. Sometimes their needs are in direct conflict with those of the male members of households, although at other times their interests are shared or are complementary. Livestock is not only a source of employment, income and food, but also critical to strong socio-cultural linkages in countries like India. These animals are given a place of importance by the society in recognition of their contribution to human welfare. Studies in India on gender roles In the source villages, majority of the villagers use government supplied water for basic consumption needs-drinking, cooking bathing, cleaning, washing clothes and utensils and sometimes even for livestock. The volume used varied among the villages according to their proximity to the water source (usually tap) and the size of the household. The average per capita water use per day for human use in source villages is 36.1 liters, whereas in no-source villages-where the only source is a government tanker-the water use per day per household is 18.6 liters (Figure 2). in livestock have indicated that activities like feeding, cleaning, milking, care of animals and administration of medicines are done mostly by women (WRI 2003;Niamir-Fuller 1994;FAO 2002). In all the surveyed villages, both men and women are found to be involved in livestock rearing activities."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"When total activity related to livestock rearing is assessed at the household level, women are found to be significantly involved. Women also possess a good knowledge of various aspects of livestock production management. They know about each animal's production characteristics, feeding behavior and the need for good quality feed to achieve better production. Women's roles and responsibilities were observed in terms of total time allocation per day/ per activity (Table 2). The data show that women spend 5.3 hours per day in livestock rearing. In no-source villages, during the time of insufficient supply, women reported spending almost 3-4 hours per day to fetch water. Similarly, data on the gender division of labor in livestock rearing show that the total mean working hours of women was significantly higher than that of men in all the surveyed areas. Women's significant involvement was seen in activities like feeding, collecting fodder, milking and delivering milk (Figure 3)."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"A majority of households in the surveyed areas are sustaining their livelihood basically from livestock income during the time of drought and monsoon failure. No-source farmers are prioritizing animal husbandry over irrigated agriculture because of water scarcity. In North Gujarat, livestock are integrated into smallholders' livelihood through mixed farming systems. The average number of cows and buffalos in the source villages is three and six, respectively, compared to two and three in no-source villages (Figure 4)."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"In no-source villages, the drying up of most wells has severely affected the average size of livestock holding. This implies that the growing scarcity of water has started affecting the dairy industry, which has been sustaining the rural household economy since the monsoon failed to arrive in the villages of North Gujarat."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"Livestock is an important consumer of water. In rural areas, people raise livestock as an essential enterprise for supplementing their family income. In order to understand water allocation for livestock, average water use per day per animal was calculated. The data reveal that average drinking water use for a buffalo and a cow is 35.7 and 27.5 lpcd, respectively. Similarly, average water use for bathing and cleaning purposes for buffalo and cow are 35.4 and 26.1 lpcd, respectively. Thus, the total per capita water use for a buffalo and a cow in source villages is 71.1 and 53.6 lpcd, respectively. 2 Average water use by a cow and a buffalo in a no-source village is 14 and 20 lpcd, respectively (Figure 5). "}]},{"head":"Activities","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Men (%) Women (%) Jointly (%) Due to the limited supply of water by government tankers, women reported difficulties in providing enough water to livestock. In worse cases, women are even herding large animals in search of water and green fodder to nearby villages. If the water source is not available in nearby villages, women force their male counterparts to buy water for their livestock."}]},{"head":"4.3","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Women, water and irrigated agriculture Rural Indian women are extensively engaged in agricultural activities. However, the nature and extent of their involvement differs with the variations in agro-production systems. The mode of female participation in agriculture varies with the land-owning status of farm households. Their roles range from that of managers to landless laborers. In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at being between 55 percent to 66 percent of the total labor with percentages much higher in certain regions. In the Indian Himalayas, a pair of bullock works 1,064 hours, a man 1,212 hours and a woman 3,485 hours in a year on a one-hectare farm (FAO 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"There are only few activities in agricultural production in which women are not actively involved in the surveyed source villages. Women were basically found to be jointly involved in activities such as irrigation, chemical spraying, fertilizer application and land preparation with their male counterparts (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Source: Survey, 2003. With groundwater being the only source of irrigation, more than 80 percent of the respondents in the source villages reported that the water level has been decreasing by 10-20 ft every year."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Water use for crops slightly varies between two talukas of source villages. This might be because of differences in soil type and the method of water application. Respondents used open channels, underground pipelines, or a combination of both, and plastic pipes to convey water to the field. Due to the alternative power supply schedule of days and nights every fortnight, farmers pump water into the tank-a majority of the farmers have constructed these surface tanks in their fields to have better control over the water supplies-and use them when required."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"In no-source villages of Datiwada takula, farmers are totally dependent on rain-fed agriculture. Water distributed from government tankers is hardly sufficient for domestic and livestock purposes. Respondents reported that they are sustaining their livelihood from the dairy income brought home by women. Many farmers have migrated in search of work and sharecropping opportunities to support their families."},{"index":6,"size":120,"text":"Though women are found to be significantly involved in irrigated agriculture, the revenue generated from agriculture is entirely controlled by men. This clearly separated intra-household activities according to gender. These activities, however, are not also separate from the water users' perspective, and this often impede women's access to and control over this scarce resource. For instance, men usually have a greater say in water provision for irrigated agricultural production, which in turn influence associations responsible for infrastructure and determining allocation schedules. Even production from women's fields and household gardens is often controlled by men to a certain degree, as is the availability of water for nonagricultural tasks. This bias allocation and control is even greater in times of water scarcity."}]},{"head":"Women, productive activities and household income","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"As stated earlier, women in the surveyed villages are found to be significantly involved in livestock rearing. On an average, US$36.6 and US$57.2 is spent monthly on a cow and a buffalo, respectively (Appendix 2), taking into consideration the opportunity costs of all inputs. These figures depreciate drastically when the actual expenses incurred by farmers are exclusively taken into account. If green fodder is not available in-house, farmers allow their livestock to open graze elsewhere for the whole day, regardless of whether there is green fodder available anywhere in the village or not."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Farmers reported no practice of buying or selling green fodder in the villages, despite the shortage situation. Those farmers who still have some water in their wells, allow needy farmers to fetch water for livestock free of any charge. However, depending on the conveyance distance and volume of water, the latter may have to incur the cost of tractor rental. This type of transaction is only true when the former has a surplus of water."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Thus, the expenses for green fodder, water and labor are seldom incurred. Consequently, farmers only incur US$13 and US$20.4 on a cow and a buffalo, respectively. Costs are computed on the basis of daily expenses incurred on each livestock, except for veterinary services, which are incurred once in every 3 months on an average. If a farmer is a dairy cooperative member and calls a veterinarian through his/her institution, he/she has to pay US$1.36 per visit, while if veterinarians are called privately they charge US$5.2-US$6.3 for each visit."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Respondents cited this as one of the incentives for joining the dairy cooperatives. The analysis excludes the initial investment required for a cow or a buffalo, and this gives an idea of operational gains that have become an integral part of household livelihood strategy. Respondents said that they buy additional livestock out of the yearly savings they make."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"Village dairy officials reported average fat contents of 4 percent in cow's milk and 7 percent in buffalo's milk. Farmers are paid for the milk based on the fat content. Milk containing less than 3 percent fat is rejected. Every incremental percentage content of fat (above 3%) fetches an additional Rs.1.70. 3 Revenues have been calculated accordingly (Appendix 3). Farmers reported a general preference for green fodder over dry fodder, supported by the perception that the former fetches more and high-fat milk. Farmers in no-source villages have devised their own coping mechanism. Since they do not enjoy an adequate supply of green fodder and water, they feed their livestock with a combination of dry fodder and feed. Farmers even reported feeding livestock with soaked dry fodder."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"Costs of labor hours for women are never considered as \"real\" costs since women are never paid for their contribution. Opportunity costs of water and green fodder are also never considered. Going with local practices and omitting these opportunity costs, a family in source village will bring home US$26.9 from cows and US$158.4 from buffalos."},{"index":7,"size":117,"text":"The no-source village farmers are not able to realize this earning potential yet, as they are trapped in a vicious cycle of less water, less fodder, less animals, less milk, and of course, less income. As a result of less milk production, farmers having two cows and three buffalos just manage to cross the break-even point and generate US$22.7 monthly. Members of these households reported being employed under government relief schemes-which are offered from time to time in the no-source distress villages-to support their living. In such schemes, the farmers are offered daily wages in exchange for their labor. Those not employed in these schemes often resort to seasonal and/or prolonged migration to find paid labor elsewhere."},{"index":8,"size":104,"text":"Women do most of the livestock rearing related works, such as, cleaning sheds and animals, collecting fodder, grazing, feeding animals, milking, carrying milk to the dairy, etc. Data revealed that more than 90 percent of women in both source and no-source villages collect the fortnightly payment for milk and take custody of that money at home. They reported that this money is being used for household expenses as well as for children's medical and school fees, where applicable. The majority of women (60%) reported that male members of the family have to approach the female custodian for money for their personal or other use."},{"index":9,"size":145,"text":"No-source village farmers reported that in the absence of irrigated agriculture, livestock is helping sustain their livelihoods, and farmers in water abundant areas agreed that livestock is the only cash generator throughout the year. Thus, in any case, livestock has been playing a very crucial role is making cash available to the rural families in times when they need it most. Above all, it has not only helped improve women's access to and control over resources, but has also empowered them with decision-making opportunities related to the use of available household resources. Lack of women's access to and control over resources has been cited as one of the greatest gender biases in many South Asian villages. This example of rural Gujarat has, thus, offered an interesting insight on how the socioeconomic status of women has been enhanced due to the introduction of village dairy cooperatives."},{"index":10,"size":151,"text":"It can be clearly inferred that women's access to and control over resources increased their intra-household bargaining power. Women's involvement in productive activities like this give them much greater bargaining power within the household in terms of their input in all aspects of household decision-making. Two explanations can be offered for this phenomenon. First, women who participate in productive activities make measurable contribution to the household income and second, they are more likely to control their assets, while women engaged only in domestic activities do not make any economic contribution to the household and their domestic work is seriously undervalued. A weak bargaining position not only affects a woman's own welfare (i.e., determining what is in their best interest in terms of resources-water, money, time, labor or other materialsat their disposal.) at an intra-household level and their fall-back position in community, but also limits their access to and control over resources."},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"Hence, improving women's bargaining power would strengthen their socioeconomic status and could change gender-based norms and perceptions. It also implied that norms and perceptions are changeable and can be usefully viewed as endogenous, although most of the time they are ignored. It is clearly reflected in the study how traditional household customs-governed by the patriarchal ideology of devaluing women's contribution in support of the household and community-have been changed by the altering of the social hierarchy."},{"index":12,"size":88,"text":"It can be argued that women's involvement in an activity like livestock rearing not only sustain rural livelihood, but also strengthen women's bargaining power leading them towards empowerment. Interestingly, the most essential input in this enterprise is water, while the value of other inputs cannot be denied. The data also revealed how the scarcity of water is affecting this enterprise, in no-source villages, leading the rural community towards uncertainty. This explicitly portrays why there is a need for a proper and demand-responsive water allocation strategy in rural areas."},{"index":13,"size":103,"text":"In addition, the recognition of women's need for water as productive users will increase their independent entitlements and will help determine their individual bargaining position in inter-intrahousehold arenas. Otherwise, the trend towards the devolution of water resource management even to the lowest level of political organization may not benefit women who have little influence at family and community levels. In this respect, NGOs Nongovernmental Organizations) and CBOs (Community-based Organizations) have critical roles to play in facilitating women's participation at all levels of water management as productive users. Recognizing women as productive users may thus become an increasingly critical entry point towards their empowerment."},{"index":14,"size":50,"text":"As argued by Agrawal (1997), rural person's bargaining power would depend especially on five factors: private ownership and control over assets; access to employment and other income generating activities; access to communal resources; access to traditional external social support systems; and, access to support from the state or from NGOs."},{"index":15,"size":73,"text":"These five factors impinge upon a person's ability to fulfill subsistence needs outside the family. The greater a person's ability to physically survive outside the family, the greater would be her/his bargaining power at least in relation to resource sharing for subsistence within the family. Inequalities among family members with respect to these factors would place some members in a weaker bargaining position relative to others. Gender is one such basis of inequality."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and Policy Implications","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The paper analyzed micro-level situations of no-source and source villages of the Banaskantha district of North Gujarat and explained gender roles and responsibilities in multiple uses of water."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"In relation to household activities, women are solely responsible for all domestic chores and the welfare of the family. The study provided a clear picture of women's physical involvement in collecting water during times of shortage and particularly of the time and energy they spent in collecting water, especially in no-source villages."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Women are found to be significantly involved in livestock rearing in both source and no-source villages. With respect to this, women's contribution was more than 70 percent, compared to the male involvement of less than 30 percent. Similarly, overall involvement of women in irrigated agriculture was greater than that of their male counterparts in source villages."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Income generated from livestock was collected and controlled by women, as they were responsible for household expenditure. This clearly shows that given appropriate institutional support and access to resources, rural women can sustain their household economy by participating in productive activities. In particular, the study revealed how women's economic contribution to the household strengthened their bargaining position and empowered them to make household decisions."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"It can also be inferred that if water supply is improved, it not only saves time previously spent by women to collect water and reduces women's drudgery, but also helps generate additional household income."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"In developing countries like India, fundamental issues of the social sector are gaining prominence. Basic needs, particularly those of rural poor, continue to attract the attention of planners and policymakers. Such needs like an improved domestic water supply are fundamental to community development and in turn, the socioeconomic development of rural men and women."},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"The paper reiterates the fact that recognizing women's multiple roles as domestic and productive water users is an important aspect to consider in integrated water resource management (IWRM), and this aspect should not be overlooked by planners and policymakers. And, to ensure efficient, equitable and sustainable water use, to reduce poverty and to improve the well-being of communities, irrigation and water resources policies need to take into account all uses and users of water for better allocation policies."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Gujarat map showing study area. "},{"text":" Source: Survey, 2003. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Average human use per day. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Average hours spent on livestock rearing, by gender. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Average number of livestock. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Per capita water use by animals. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Categorization of villages with their characteristics. Category Name of Village Characteristics CategoryName of VillageCharacteristics No-source villages Chodungri • Women walk more than 1 km to fetch water for domestic purpose No-source villagesChodungri• Women walk more than 1 km to fetch water for domestic purpose Marvada • Most households suffer severe shortages of water Marvada• Most households suffer severe shortages of water Gonguvada • Predominantly rain-fed agriculture Gonguvada• Predominantly rain-fed agriculture • Supply of domestic water by a government tanker • Supply of domestic water by a government tanker • Non-availability of green fodder • Non-availability of green fodder • Common out-migration • Common out-migration Source villages Khumbasan • Most households have access to stand posts Source villagesKhumbasan• Most households have access to stand posts Kholda • Households have private or partnership wells Kholda• Households have private or partnership wells Khruksal • Predominantly irrigated agriculture Khruksal• Predominantly irrigated agriculture Dhonta • Availability of green fodder Dhonta• Availability of green fodder Saklana • Thriving dairy economy Saklana• Thriving dairy economy Magarvada Magarvada 1 Livestock raising has been taken as a home-based enterprise in the study. 1 Livestock raising has been taken as a home-based enterprise in the study. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Average time spent daily by women. Activity type Description Average hours/day Activity typeDescriptionAverage hours/day Livestock rearing Collecting fodder, bathing, feeding, milking, cleaning 5.3 Livestock rearingCollecting fodder, bathing, feeding, milking, cleaning5.3 shed, delivering milk, medicine administration shed, delivering milk, medicine administration Domestic Cooking, feeding, child caring, washing utensils 5.2 DomesticCooking, feeding, child caring, washing utensils5.2 and clothes, house cleaning and clothes, house cleaning Personal Socializing, taking rest etc. 8.5 PersonalSocializing, taking rest etc.8.5 Other Fetching water, working in the field 5 OtherFetching water, working in the field5 Total 24 Total24 Source: Survey, 2003. Source: Survey, 2003. "},{"text":"Table 3 . Percentage of irrigated agricultural activities by gender in source villages. Sowing 3 59 38 Sowing35938 Plowing 100 0 0 Plowing10000 Irrigating 22 20 58 Irrigating222058 Applying fertilizer 55 16 29 Applying fertilizer551629 Weeding 4 55 41 Weeding45541 Harvesting 0 24 76 Harvesting02476 Threshing 17 7 76 Threshing17776 Marketing 45 15 40 Marketing451540 "}],"sieverID":"4e59dbbc-7d1f-46b2-a2f3-774dcd15498e","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0093e6eab9e55373e30210b2fdcdd75f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f89d246-45ee-4fbf-a15c-9222b2d061ad/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"We have audited the accompanying statements of financial position of CIFOR as of 3 1 December 2006 and 2005, and the related statements of activities, changes in net assets, and cash flows for the years then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of CIFOR's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audits."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"We conducted our audits in accordance with auditing standards established by the Indonesian Institute of Accountants. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance . about whether the financial statements are fiee of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the.amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion. . In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of CJFOR as of 3 1 December 2006 and 2005, and the changes in its net assets and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in Indonesia."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Our audits were conducted for the purposes of forming an opinion on the basic financial statements taken as a whole. The supplementary information in Schedule 1 and Schedule 2 is presented for the purpose of additional analysis and is not a required part of the basic financial statements. Such information has been subject to the auditing procedures applied in the examination of the basic financial statements and, in our opinion, is fairly stated in all qterial respects in relation to the basic financial statements taken as a whole. The accompanyingfinancial statements are not intended to present thefinancial position, changes in net msets and cash flows in accordance with accounting principles and practices generally accepted in countries and jurisdictions other than Indonesia. The standards, procedures, and practices to audit such financial statements are those generally accepted and applied in Indonesia."}]},{"head":"Center for International Forestry Research","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Siddhana Siddharta & Widlaja . Registered Public Accountants."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"an Indonesian pannership and a member firm of ¶he KPMG netwrk of independent member firms affiliated with KPMG International. a Swss cooperative. See Notes to the Financial Statements, which form an integral part of these financlal statements. "}]},{"head":"--","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"See Notes to the Financial Statements, which form an integral part of these financial statements. See Notes to the Financial Statements, which form an integral part of these financial statements. CIFOR's cash inflows and outflows are predominantly in US Dollar (\"USD\") and accordingly, US Dollar has been used as CIFOR's recording and reporting currency. The financial statements are prepared on the accrual basis, using the historical cost concept."}]},{"head":"CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The statements of cash flows present the changes in cash and cash equivalents from operating, investing and financing activities. CIFOR considers short-term time deposits with maturities of not more than three months at the date of placement to be cash equivalents. The statements of cash flows are prepared using the indirect method."}]},{"head":"b. Revenue recognition","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Unrestricted mants:"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Unrestricted grants are grants received that are not restricted by donors and may be used for the purposes specified in CIFOR's articles of association. Unrestricted grants are recognized as revenue in the year in which the grants are pledged, as long as collection is probable, and when the donor imposed conditions are met."}]},{"head":"Restricted mints:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Restricted grants are grants received in support of specified projects or activities mutually agreed upon by CIFOR and donors. Restricted grants are recognized as revenue when the grant conditions have been met and the related expenses have been incurred."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"At each period end, to the extent there are grants that are conditional upon incurrence of expenditures, the excess of the amounts received over the amounts expended is considered to be a refundable advance and is presented as an account payable."}]},{"head":"c. Expenses","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Expenses are recognized in the statement of activities as incurred. Equipment that is restricted for use in restricted projects and that requires approval from donor upon disposition at the conclusion of the related project, is directly expensed as acquired."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Indirect expenses charged to restricted project activities and classified as part of research programs expenses are credited to an indirect expense recovery account. The rate of the indirect expense recovery is determined by the agreement with each donor. Property, plant and equipment acquired through the use of grants restricted for certain projects are to be expensed outright and the expenses are charged directly to the restricted projects."}]},{"head":"CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"NOTES","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"e. Net assets","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Net assets that are derived from donor-restricted grants are classified as restricted net assets. Unrestricted net assets are subdivided as designated if they have been appropriated by the Board of Trustees for specific purposes such as capital build-up reserve for replacement of property, plant and equipment, or earmarked for contingent liabilities. Designated net assets are identified on an annual basis by the Board of Trustees."}]},{"head":"f. Foreign currency translation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Transactions denominated in currencies other than USD are converted to USD at the exchange rate prevailing at the date of the transaction. Monetary assets and liabilities denominated in currencies other than USD are translated into USD at the exchange rates prevailing at the year end."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"As of 3 1 December 2006 and 2005, the rates used for the translation are as follows: Exchange gains and losses arising on transactions in currencies other than USD and on the translation of monetary assets and liabilities in currencies other than USD are recognized in the statement of activities."}]},{"head":"g. Use of estimates","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The preparation of financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates."}]},{"head":"CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 2. SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES (Continued) d. Property, plant and equipmentProperty, plant and equipment are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation. Property, plant and equipment are depreciated using the straight line method over their estimated useful lives as foiiows "},{"text":"Registered Public Accountants 33rd Floor Wisrna GKBl 28, JI. Jend. Sudirman Jakarta 10210 Indonesia Telephone +62 (0) 21 574 2333 +62 (0) 21 574 2888 Fax +62 (0) 21 574 1777 +62 (0) 21 574 2777 Independent Auditor's Report Independent Auditor's Report NO.: L.06 -3733 -07 NO.: L.06 -3733 -07 The Board of Trustees of The Board of Trustees of Center for International Forestry Research (\"CIFOR\") Center for International Forestry Research (\"CIFOR\") "},{"text":"SE, BAP Public Accountant License No. 04.1.0936 Jakarta, 27 April 2007 Siddharta Siddharta & Widjaja Siddharta Siddharta & Widjaja Registered Public Accountants Registered Public Accountants n n Joseph bittono Pesik, Joseph bittono Pesik, "},{"text":" .................................................................................................. STATEMENTS OF ACTIVITIES STATEMENTS OF ACTIVITIES YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 2006 2005 20062005 Notes Unrestricted Restricted Total Total Notes UnrestrictedRestrictedTotalTotal USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000USD 000USD 000USD 000 REVENUES REVENUES Grants 2b,7 7,811 7,925 15,736 16,846 Grants2b,77,8117,92515,73616,846 Other revenues 462 462 473 Other revenues462462473 Total revenues 8,273 7,925 16,198 17,319 Total revenues8,2737,92516,19817,319 EXPENSES 2c,8 EXPENSES2c,8 Program related expenses Management and general expenses 6 3 13) (2.8 12) (7,925) (1 4,238) (2,8 12) (1 4.9 18) (3,427) Program related expenses Management and general expenses6 3 13) (2.8 12)(7,925)(1 4,238) (2,8 12)(1 4.9 18) (3,427) (9,125) (7,925) (I 7,050) (1 8,345) (9,125)(7,925)(I 7,050)(1 8,345) Indirect expense recovery 527 527 66 1 Indirect expense recovery52752766 1 Total expenses CHANGES IN NET ASSETS (8,598) (325) (7,925) (1 6,523) (325) --(1 7,684) 065) Total expenses CHANGES IN NET ASSETS(8,598) (325)(7,925)(1 6,523) (325) --(1 7,684) 065) SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE BY NATURE OF EXPENSES OF EXPENSES -CLASSIFTED SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE BY NATURE OF EXPENSES OF EXPENSES -CLASSIFTED Personnel costs 5,143 2,957 8,100 7,456 Personnel costs5,1432,9578,1007,456 Supplies and services 1,960 778 2,738 4,093 Supplies and services1,9607782,7384,093 Partnership activities 1,048 3,716 4,764 5.309 Partnership activities1,0483,7164,7645.309 Operational travel 574 414 1,048 1,142 Operational travel5744141,0481,142 Depreciation of property, plant and Depreciation of property, plant and equipment 400 400 345 equipment400400345 Indirect expense recovery (527) (527) (66 1) Indirect expense recovery(527)(527)(66 1) Total expenses 8,598 7,925 16,523 17,684 Total expenses8,5987,92516,52317,684 15,792 . 15,792 . "},{"text":"3 1 December 2006 Designated Designated Reserve for Reserve for Invested In replacement Invested Inreplacement property, of property, property,of property, plant and plant and plant andplant and Undesignated equipment Equipment Total UndesignatedequipmentEquipmentTotal USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000USD 000USD 000USD 000 5,848 1,698 1,305 8,85 1 5,8481,6981,3058,85 1 (345) 345 (345)345 295 (295) 295(295) (365) (365) (365)(365) 5,483 1,648 1,355 8,486 5,4831,6481,3558,486 (400) 400 . (400)400 . 314 (3 14) 314(3 14) Changes in net assets for the year ended Changes in net assets for the year ended 3 I December 2006 (325) (325) 3 I December 2006(325)(325) Balance as at 3 1 December 2006 , 5,158 1,556 1,447 8,161 Balance as at 3 1 December 2006,5,1581,5561,4478,161 "},{"text":"2006 AND 2005 2006 2005 USD 000 USD 000 CASH FLOWS FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES Changes in net assets Changes in net assets Adjustments to reconcile changes in net assets to net cash Adjustments to reconcile changes in net assets to net cash provided by (used in) operating activities: provided by (used in) operating activities: Depreciation Depreciation Gain on the disposal of property, plant and equipment Gain on the disposal of property, plant and equipment Changes in: Changes in: Accounts receivable Accounts receivable Donors Donors Employees Employees Others Others Prepaid expenses Prepaid expenses Other assets Other assets Accounts payable Accounts payable Donors Donors Others Others Accrued expenses Accrued expenses Employee benefits obligation Employee benefits obligation "},{"text":"NET CASH PROVIDED BY (USED lN) OPERATING ACTIVITIES CASH FLOWS FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES Acquisition of property, plant and equipment Acquisition of property, plant and equipment Proceeds from the disposal of property, plant and equipment Proceeds from the disposal of property, plant and equipment "},{"text":"NET CASH USED IN INVESTING ACTIVITIES NET INCREASE (DECREASE) IN CASH AND CASH CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS, BEGINNING OF EQUIVALENTS (280) (248) (280)(248) 3 (49) (4) 26 1 3 (49)(4) 26 1 (295) 9 (295)9 566 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ... ( 1,074) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ...( 1,074) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"text":"3 14) (295) (271) (287) 43 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"text":"YEAR 8,876 10,237 CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS, END OF THE YEAR 9,171 8,876 I See Notes to the Financial Statements, which form an integral part of these financial statements. CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 1. GENERAL 1. GENERAL a. The Center for International Forestry Research (\"CIFOR\") was established on 5 March 1993 in a. The Center for International Forestry Research (\"CIFOR\") was established on 5 March 1993 in Canberra, Australia. CIFOR is operating as a non-profit organization, international in status and Canberra, Australia. CIFOR is operating as a non-profit organization, international in status and non-political in management, staffing and operations. CIFQR is financially supported primarily non-political in management, staffing and operations. CIFQR is financially supported primarily by the members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (\"CGIAR\"). by the members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (\"CGIAR\"). The purpose of CIFOR is to contribute to the sustained well-being of people in developing The purpose of CIFOR is to contribute to the sustained well-being of people in developing countries, particularly in the tropics, through strategic partnerships and applied research and countries, particularly in the tropics, through strategic partnerships and applied research and related activities in forest systems and forestry, and by promoting the transfer of appropriate new related activities in forest systems and forestry, and by promoting the transfer of appropriate new technologies and the adoption of new methods of social organization for national development. technologies and the adoption of new methods of social organization for national development. CIFOR's headquarters is in Bogor, Indonesia. The Government of Indonesia provides CIFOR CIFOR's headquarters is in Bogor, Indonesia. The Government of Indonesia provides CIFOR with a land area for its headquarters and research activities, as set forth in an agreement dated with a land area for its headquarters and research activities, as set forth in an agreement dated 15 May 1993. Based on this agreement, CIFOR is exempted from all taxes in Indonesia. 15 May 1993. Based on this agreement, CIFOR is exempted from all taxes in Indonesia. b As at 31 December 2006 and 2005, the members of the Board of Trustees were as follows: bAs at 31 December 2006 and 2005, the members of the Board of Trustees were as follows: "},{"text":". 2006 Chair of the Board of Vice Chair of the Board of CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) YEARS ENDED 3 1 YEARS ENDED 3 1 2005 2005 Trustees : Dr. Andrew Bennett, CMG Ms. Angela Cropper Trustees: Dr. Andrew Bennett, CMGMs. Angela Cropper Trustees : Dr. Christine Padoch Dr. Christine Padoch Trustees: Dr. Christine PadochDr. Christine Padoch Members : Dr. Jurgen Blaser Dr. Jurgen Blaser Members: Dr. Jurgen BlaserDr. Jurgen Blaser Dr. Walter P. Falcon Dr. Walter P. Falcon Dr. Walter P. FalconDr. Walter P. Falcon Dr. Cristian Samper Dr. Cristian Samper Dr. Cristian SamperDr. Cristian Samper Ms. Yumiko Tanaka Ms. Yumiko Tanaka Ms. Yumiko TanakaMs. Yumiko Tanaka Dr. Eugene Terry Dr. Eugene Terry Dr. Eugene TerryDr. Eugene Terry Dr. Jacques Valeix Dr. Jacques Valeix Dr. Jacques ValeixDr. Jacques Valeix Mr. Wahjudi Wardojo MSc. Mr. Wahjudi Wardojo MSc. Mr. Wahjudi Wardojo MSc.Mr. Wahjudi Wardojo MSc. Dr. Sunita Narain Dr. Sunita Narain Dr. Sunita NarainDr. Sunita Narain Dr. Benchaphun Ekasingh Dr. Benchaphun Ekasingh Dr. Benchaphun EkasinghDr. Benchaphun Ekasingh Dr. Francois Tchala-Abina Dr. Francois Tchala-Abina Dr. Francois Tchala-AbinaDr. Francois Tchala-Abina Ms. Frances Seymour Dr. Andrew Bennett, CMG Ms. Frances SeymourDr. Andrew Bennett, CMG Ms. Angela Cropper Dr. David Kaimowitz Ms. Angela CropperDr. David Kaimowitz Dr. Stephen Karekezi Dr. Stephen Karekezi e. As of 31 December 2006 and 2005, CIFOR had 178 and 180 employees, respectively. e.As of 31 December 2006 and 2005, CIFOR had 178 and 180 employees, respectively. d. The financial statements were authorized for issuance by the Board of Trustees on 27April d.The financial statements were authorized for issuance by the Board of Trustees on 27April 2007. 2007. "},{"text":"DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 2. SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES The accounting and reporting policies adopted by CIFOR, which are based on CGIAR accounting The accounting and reporting policies adopted by CIFOR, which are based on CGIAR accounting policies and reporting practices manual, are in accordance with the accounting principles generally policies and reporting practices manual, are in accordance with the accounting principles generally accepted in Indonesia and the financial statements are presented in conformity with the Statement of accepted in Indonesia and the financial statements are presented in conformity with the Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 45, \"Financial Statements of Not-for-profit Organizations\". The Financial Accounting Standards No. 45, \"Financial Statements of Not-for-profit Organizations\". The significant accounting policies, consistently applied in the preparation of the financial statements for significant accounting policies, consistently applied in the preparation of the financial statements for the years ended 3 1 December the years ended 3 1 December "},{"text":"2006 and 2005, were as follows: a. Basis for preparation of the financial statements "},{"text":"2006 200s USD USD Indonesian Rupiah 1,000 0.1 109 0.1021 Indonesian Rupiah 1,0000.1 1090.1021 British Poundsterling 1 1.9620 1.7232 British Poundsterling 11.96201.7232 European Euro 1 1.3147 1.1848 European Euro 11.31471.1848 "},{"text":"2006 AND 2005 5. PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT (Continued) CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 3. CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS 3. CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS 2006 2005 20062005 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000USD 000 Cash on hand 2005 19 34 Cash on hand20051934 Cash in banks Short-term deposits Beginning balance Additions 2,026 7,126 Disposals $23 1 Ending 3,611 balance Cash in banks Short-term depositsBeginning balanceAdditions2,026 7,126 Disposals$23 1 Ending 3,611 balance USD 000 USD 000 9,171 USD 000 8,876 USD 000 USD 000USD 0009,171 USD 0008,876 USD 000 Acquisition cost: Acquisition cost: lnfrastructure and leasehold lnfrastructure and leasehold improvements 1,53 1 22 1,553 improvements1,53 1221,553 Oftice furniture and equipment 829 63 (44) 848 Oftice furniture and equipment82963(44)848 Computers 1,537 138 (339) 1,336 Computers1,537138(339)1,336 Vehicles 1,104 ' 72 (51) 1,125 Vehicles1,104'72(51)1,125 5.001 295 2006 (434) . - 2005 4.862 5.0012952006(434) . -2005 4.862 Accumulated depreciation: USD 000 USD 000 Accumulated depreciation:USD 000USD 000 Advances to suppliers and consultants Advances to partners Interest receivables lnfrastructure and leasehold improvements Oftice furniture and equipment Computers (388) (737) (1,295) (55) (40) (1 52) 492 319 37 339 44 522 (443) 194 (733) 12 (1,108) Advances to suppliers and consultants Advances to partners Interest receivables lnfrastructure and leasehold improvements Oftice furniture and equipment Computers(388) (737) (1,295)(55) (40) (1 52)492 319 37 339 44522 (443) 194 (733) 12 (1,108) Vehicles , (98) (3.303) ---(345) (883) 848 434 SI b 728 i (930) (3,214) Vehicles, (98) (3.303) ---(345) (883)848 434 SIb728 i (930) (3,214) Net book value 1,698 Net book value1,698 5. PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT 5. PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT 2006 2006 Beginning Ending BeginningEnding balance Additions Disposals balance balanceAdditionsDisposalsbalance USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000USD 000USD 000USD 000 Acquisition cost: Acquisition cost: Infrastructure and leasehold Infrastructure and leasehold improvements 1,553 IO 1,563 improvements1,553IO1,563 Office furniture and equipment 848 12 860 Office furniture and equipment84812860 Computers 1,336 61 (62) 1,335 Computers1,33661(62)1,335 Vehicles 1,125 23 1 (133) 1,223 Vehicles1,12523 1(133)1,223 4,862 314 (195) 4,98 1 4,862314(195)4,98 1 Accumulated depreciation: Accumulated depreciation: Infrastructure and leasehold Infrastructure and leasehold improvements improvements Oftice furniture and equipment Oftice furniture and equipment Computers Computers Vehicles Vehicles Net book value 1,648 1,556 Net book value1,6481,556 "},{"text":"468,866 and USD 455,736, respectively. 6. EMPLOYEE BENEFITS OBLIGATION In accordance with the CIFOR Provident Fund Policy Manual, CIFOR provides the Indonesian nationally recruited staff members with a contribution of 12.5% of each member's base salary. The fund is managed by a Committee which consists of three national staffs elected by the members and two ex oflcio members, the Controller and the Human Resources Manager. The number of participating staff members as of 3 1 December 2006 and 2005 was 105 and 106, respectively. The costs of this program were USD 109,000 in 2006 and USD 101, 6. EMPLOYEE BENEFITS OBLIGATION (Continued) 6. EMPLOYEE BENEFITS OBLIGATION (Continued) Accruals were made for separation payments, unutilized leave and other entitlements for staff Accruals were made for separation payments, unutilized leave and other entitlements for staff members as follows: members as follows: 2006 2005 20062005 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000USD 000 Internationally recruited staff 1,254 1,697 Internationally recruited staff1,2541,697 Nationally recruited staff 1,724 1,376 Nationally recruited staff1,7241,376 2,978 3,073 2,9783,073 Funds separately invested for CIFOR Provident Fund of the nationally Funds separately invested for CIFOR Provident Fund of the nationally recruited staff members (979) (779) recruited staff members(979)(779) 1,999 2,294 1,9992,294 "},{"text":"000 in 2005. 7. GRANTS 2006 2005 Beginning balance from Fund exchange Ending balance from CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 7. GRANTS (Continued) 7. GRANTS (Continued) 2006 2005 20062005 Revenue Foreign Revenue RevenueForeignRevenue Beginning balance from Fund Exchange Ending balance h m Beginning balancefromFundExchangeEnding balanceh m DOnOrS AIR AI? grants Received gain (loss) A/R AI? grants DOnOrSAIRAI?grantsReceived gain (loss)A/RAI?grants USD000 USDO00 USD000 USDOOO USD000 USD000 USD000 USD000 USDO00 USD000 USDOOO USD000 USD000 USD000 Restrlcted Restrlcted Asian Development Bank Asian Development Bank Australian Centre for International Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Agricultural Research African Wildlife African Wildlife Foundation Foundation Brazil (EMBRAPA) Brazil (EMBRAPA) Belgium Canada Revenue Foreign Revenue Belgium CanadaRevenueForeignRevenue DOnOrS CGIAR Secretariat CARF' E CARREFOUR AIR USDO00 USD000 USD000 USD000 USD000 USD000 USD000 NP grants received gain(loss) AIR 'AIP grants DOnOrS CGIAR Secretariat CARF' E CARREFOURAIR USDO00 USD000 USD000 USD000 USD000 USD000 USD000 NP grants received gain(loss) AIR 'AIPgrants CECOFORMA Unrestricted CIRAD-Fomt CECOFORMA Unrestricted CIRAD-Fomt Australia Canada China Finland France Germany Japan Netherlands Norway Philippines Ford Foundation Organization of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Israel Finland Indonesia Environment (Switzerland) European Commission Federal Oflice of Conservation International CORDAID Foundation I37 6 50 IO 395 89 633 189 53 1,223 1,146 8 50 189 376 IO 440 96 230 54 139 590 1,146 5 50 189 376 IO 404 185 230 54 2 9 53 9 50 IO 440 137 7 984 -1,329 -50 189 217 IO 395 89 50 -323 --548 Australia Canada China Finland France Germany Japan Netherlands Norway Philippines Ford Foundation Organization of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Israel Finland Indonesia Environment (Switzerland) European Commission Federal Oflice of Conservation International CORDAID FoundationI37 6 50 IO 395 89633 18953 1,223 1,146 8 50 189 376 IO 440 96 230 54139 590 1,146 5 50 189 376 IO 404 185 230 542 953 9 50 IO 440137 7 984 -1,329 -50 189 217 IO 395 89 50 -323 --548 Sweden Switzerland USA United Kingdom France Germany (GTZBMZ) German Foundation for International Cooperation World Bank Global Forest Watch . 181 - 179 200 375 41 1 725 1,164 1,261 408 41 1 906 1.164 1,100 161 212 -414 400 -725 -1,101 200 900 Sweden Switzerland USA United Kingdom France Germany (GTZBMZ) German Foundation for International Cooperation World Bank Global Forest Watch.181 -179 200375 41 1 725 1,164 1,261408 41 1 906 1.164 1,100161212 -414 400 -725 -1,101 200 900 Sub total, unrestricted Indonesia IlTA 868 1,201 7.81 1 7,367 11 723 601 7,679 Sub total, unrestricted Indonesia IlTA8681,2017.81 17,367117236017,679 INRENA INRENA IRM IRM International Centre for International Centre for Research in Agroforestry Research in Agroforestry International International Development Research Development Research Centre Centre International Food and International Food and Policy Research lnstitute Policy Research lnstitute International Fund for International Fund for Agricultural Agricultural Development Development "},{"text":"81 30 302 I88 414 113 333 51 I37 CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 7. GRANTS IContinued) 7. GRANTS IContinued) 2006 2005 20062005 Revenue Foreign Revenue RevenueForeignRevenue Beginning balance from Fund exchange Ending balance from Beginning balancefromFundexchangeEnding balancefrom Donors AIR AIP grants received gain (loss) AIR A/P grants DonorsAIRAIPgrantsreceived gain (loss)AIRA/Pgrants USD000 USDOOO USD000 USDOM) USD000 USDO00 USDOM) USDOOO USD000 USDOOO USD000 USDOM) USD000 USDO00 USDOM) USDOOO 223 ~~- 206 1 07 223 ~~-2061 07 1,724 1,684 3,742 4,180 1,076 1,474 4,362 1,7241,6843,7424,1801,0761,4744,362 "},{"text":"Restricted (continued) Brought forwnrci International Plant International Plant Genelic Resources Genelic Resources International Institute for International Institute for Environment and Environment and Development Development International Tropical International Tropical Timber Ormnimlion Italy Timber Ormnimlion Italy M A (Spain) M A (Spain) Japan Japan Korea Korea MacArthur Foundation MacArthur Foundation Netherlands Netherlands N -Y Organisation Africaine du N -Y Organisation Africaine du Bois Bois Overseas Development Overseas Development Institute Institute Others Others Netherlands Development Netherlands Development Organization Organization PI Environmental PI Environmental Consulting Consulting RSCI-Peruvian Secretariat RSCI-Peruvian Secretariat Secretariat of the Secretariat of the Convention on Convention on Biological Diversity Biological Diversity Swedish University of Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Agricultural Sciences Sweden Sweden Swiss National Science Swiss National Science Foundation Foundation Switzerland Switzerland Swiss Agency for Env. Swiss Agency for Env. Forests & Landscape Forests & Landscape The Overbrook The Overbrook Foundation Foundation The Nature Conservancy The Nature Conservancy Tropical Forest Tropical Forest Foundation Foundation The Tinker Foundation The Tinker Foundation Incorporated Incorporated Tropenbos International Tropenbos International USA USA United Kingdom (DFID) United Kingdom (DFID) United Nations United Nations Environment Programme Environment Programme Cnrried forwnrd Cnrried forwnrd "},{"text":"Wild Fruits of Cameroon CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH Schedule 1/1 Schedule 1/2 Schedule I/3 Schedule 114 Schedule 115 CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (Continued) CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCHSchedule 1/1 Schedule 1/2 Schedule I/3 Schedule 114 Schedule 115 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEARS ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 AND 2005 YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 ~ ~~ ~~~ 7. GRANTS (Continued) 8. EXPENSES Donors and projects Grant period Grant period MMIYY Grant period Grant period Grant period Grant Grant pledged Prior years Current year Cumulative expenses Cumulative expenses Grant Cumulative expenses Grant Cumulative exDenses Grant Cumulative expenses Total 7. GRANTS (Continued) 8. EXPENSES Donors and projectsGrant period Grant period MMIYY Grant period Grant period Grant periodGrant Grant pledged Prior years Current year Cumulative expenses Cumulative expenses Grant Cumulative expenses Grant Cumulative exDenses Grant Cumulative expensesTotal Donors and projects Donors and projects Donors and projects Donors and projects MMIYY MMNY MMNY MMNY pledged USD 000 pledged Pledged Prior years Current year Prior years Current year USD 000 USD 000 Prior years Current year pledged Prioryears Current year Total USD 000 Total Total Total Donors and projects Donors and projects Donors and projects Donors and projectsMMIYY MMNY MMNY MMNYpledged USD 000 pledged Pledged Prior years Current year Prior years Current year USD 000 USD 000 Prior years Current year pledged Prioryears Current yearTotal USD 000 Total Total Total 53 3,000 Beginning balance USD000 USDO00 2,667 from Revenue 7.517 252 USD000 8,882 356 2006 Fund AIR A/P grants received gain (loss) exchange USDOOO Foreign 3,000 2,667 2 88 98 -. 17 21 7 7.5 I7 8,882 2 1 2 12 40 14 14 182 255 20 35 141 153 35 I S .-25 _ _ 3,109 2,816 7,925 9,395 (71) 3,038 2,816 7,925 9,395 3,906 4,017 15,736 16,762 11 --------51 153 1,919 2.951 8,805 2005 Ending balance from USD000 USD000 USD000 Revenue AIR A@ granu Restricted (continued) Donors Brought forward United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizetion Service Forum on Forests United States Forest United Nations W F F ) Wageningen University World Bank World Conservation Union (IUCN) Institute World Rcsourccs World Wildlife Fund 1,919 2 9 1 28 2.95 1 8,805 1 28 92 266 33 9 26 85 S 2 for Nature -1,959 3,136 9.167 Allowance for uncollectible accounts receivable Sub total, restricted 1,959 3,136 9,167 Total unreshicted andrestricted 2,682 3,737 16,846 The following summarizes the expenses of each activity group classified by function and nature of expenses: Unrestricted Personnel casts Supplies and services Partnership activities Operational travel Depreciation of property, plant and Indirect expense recovery equipment Restricted Personnel costs Supplies and services Partnership activities Operational travel 2006 2005 Program Management related and general expenses expenses Total Total USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 3,238 1,905 5,143 4,215 1,252 708 1,960 2,954 1,048 1,048 1,134 454 120 574 530 32 1 79 400 345 (257) (270) (527) (661) 6,056 2,542 8,598 8,517 2,957 2,957 3,241 778 778 1,139 3,716 3,716 4,175 474 474 612 7,925 7,925 9,167 17,684 4 -13,981 2,542 16,523 -, 9. NETASSETS The account represented unrestricted net assets as follows: Undesignated-operating finds Designated-invested in property, plant and equipment Designated-reserve for replacement of property, plant and equipment 2006 2005 USD 000 USD 000 5,158 5,483 1,556 1,648 1,447 1,355 3.003 3.003 -. ~ -8,161 8,486 I 10. CONTINGENT LIABILITIES USD000 USDO00 USD000 USD000 Asian Development Bank Poverty Reduction in Upland Communities in the Mekong Region OUO4-06/06 103 51 18 69 Brought jorward Community Participation in Foreshy Management 10104-07/06 1,361 83 975 32 194 51 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 ~ ~~ USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD000 USDO00 USD000 USD000 USD 000 1,169 83 Brought forward 9,142 3,583 1,883 5,466 Brought forward I 1,976 4,843 2,677 Brought forward 7,520 Forest Management by Small Farmers in Model Forest Pilot Site Selection in Learning to be Responsible: Addressing the Amazon 02/05-01108 83 19 4 23 Social, Economic, and Environmental Cameroon 09104-1 I 104 Carbon Sequestration through Clean Development Mechanism Australian Centre for International 09104-03106 100 45 55 100 Workshop on Carbon Sequestration University of Alberta CGIAR-Canada Linkage Fund 2004 -05 1 1 104-1 Z06 0 1105-0 I108 74 128 53 32 21 64 74 Forest Management in South Cameroon Finland 09104-02/06 I I6 103 13 I16 Issues for Social Responsibility of Forest-based Businesses OW06-06/08 500 16 Madel Forest Development in Cameroon -16 Phase 2 10105-03106 Germany (GTZIBMZ) 96 Finnish Associate Expert Programme 09104-09/07 I95 81 82 163 Making Local Government More Global Forest Rights Action Research 0 1106-1 2/08 Agricultural Research Lessons from the Chinese Forest Policy Experience Can Decentralization Work for Forests and the Poor? Policy Research to Promote 0410 1 -open 26 24 2 26 Quality Line Project on Teak Products CARREFOUR CECOFORM A The State of the Forest Report 0103-open 03/06-06/06 40 15 37 3 IS Finnish Associate Expert Programme 1 1 /06-1 0/08 195 28 28 Responsive to the Poor: Developing New Model Forest in Cameroon 06/06-03107 Indicators and Tools to Support 40 IS Sustainable Livelihood Development International Fund for Agricultural France Secondment of French Scientists 0 1 105-1 2/06 352 188 I64 under Decentralization 05103-04/06 1,553 997 288 1,285 Development (IFAD) 352 Understanding and Reducing Barriers to Forests that benefit the poor 04104-06107 Sustainable Forest Management, and Secure Local Livelihoods in Indonesia Community Development through Rehabilitation of lmperata Grassland Using Trees: A Model Approach Growing Vitex Pubescents for Charcoal Production in Kalimantan, Indonesia Impact of Fires and Its Use for Sustainable Land and Forest Management in Indonesia and Northern Australia Improving and Maintaining Productivity of Eucalypt Plantations in India and Australia Publication of the Manual \"Diseases of Eucalyptus in South East Asia\" Enhancing Forestry in Indonesia and Australia Avoiding Elite Capture of Forestry Decision-making and Benefits Asia Forest Partnership -Meeting and Information African Wildlife Foundation Policy Analysis of the Legal and Technical Means for lncentivebased Conservation Agreements in the Democratic Republic of Congo Fanner Enterprise Development Forest Livelihoods and Change Carried fonuurrd Belgium Canada 0 1103-06107 305 279 0 1 10 1 -open 07102-06105 01103-12105 06103-open 01 105-1 U07 07105-06107 08106-open 10104-open 07103-06108 04102-o~en 41 123 148 14 76 154 7 11 149 104 39. 124 153 IO 17 13 4 283 2 41 (1) 123 (5) 148 4 14 22 39 51 64 3 3 9 2 I I 1 IO 37 147 101 101 1,36 I 975 194 Carried forward 9, I42 3,583 1,883 5,466 1,169 Food & Agriculture Organization of the Adoption of Sustainable Forest International Institute for Environment and CIRAD-Foret United Nations Management Practices 07103-06/06 308 171 78 249 Development Biodiversity in Managed Forested Landscapes Leveling the Playing Field: Fair Partnership for Local Development to Improve the Forest Sustainability in Southeast Asia Implementing the FORINFO in Central Africa Ecotourism for Sustainable Development in the Congo Basin Conservation International Foundation (CIF) 'Conservation in Embrapa -Amazonia MLA in the Mamberamo -Phase 11 CORDAID Mitigating Conflict in Papua, Indonesia European Commission Rehabilitation and Re-dynamization of the Research Station of I'RET with Makakodlpassa Feeding China's Expanding Demand for Wood Pulp: A Diagnostic Assessment of and Impacts on Natural Forests in China and in the South East Asia Region Tropical Forests and Climate Change Adaptation 05103-1 1 0 5 544 473 3 476 03105-02/09 3,973 464 691 1,155 Global Forest Rights Action Research Carried forward 01/06-12108 500 138 138 1 1,976 4,843 2,677 7,520 Community Forestry in Nepal : The Role of Adaptive Collaborative Management Carried forward 15,355 631 1 3,203 9,714 Carried forward 02104-02/07 -368 203 84 287 Option Investment -Phase 3 Field Test COAIT -the Community Improving Livelihoods and Equity in Plantation Development, Fiber Supply, 08/06-08108 11105-1 1/06 03106-12/06 07105-06106 0 1102-0 1 106 I75 80 23 394 1,047 2 53 810 37 78 23 263 37 80 316 1 I3 923 Grassroots Organizations in Latin America Focused on Natural Resources Management Responsive Policy Research and Equitable Forest Management 11: Moving Forward Strategy Forest Law Enforcement on Behalf of Poor Forestdependent Communities 1 W02-11/06 09103-1 2/06 325 55 244 1 1 82 44 55 Women and Forest Products to Escalating Logging in Eastern Amazon 12/03-03/06 108 101 4 Option Investment 105 Field Test COAIT -the Community Innovative Resource Management (IRM) Vulnerability and Resilience : Response of 326 (IDRC) Durability\" International Development Research Centre le Bassin du Congo\" La Quete de la Development for Sustainable and 09102-open 430 414 (22) Paradigms in Recovery from Tsunami in Aceh 041063-1 1 I06 IO 6 Gestion des Concessions Forestieres dans 6 Publication of a Book Entitled \"La 392 Security Programs (CLIFS) Integrated NRM and Livelihood 10/03-09/05 120 155 (35) 120 The Bulungan Model Forest -Phase 2 (ITTO) Support to Strengthen the Operations of Congo Livelihood Improvement and Food International Tropical Timber Organization 23 Support to Young Professional Reform in Indonesia Social Forest Workshop 04102-1 2/07 2005 415 2 178 2 119 (2) Agroforestry (ICRAF) Sector Governance Reform International Centre for Research in Sustainability after Uganda's Forest 297 Cameroon 05/06-01 I07 12 12 12 Renegotiating Livelihoods and Development and Leadership for Forestry Ford Foundation The Interactive Forestry Atlas for Management in Indonesia Global Forest Watch Institutional Change in Forest Assessing Local Impacts of Forest Policies 0 1102-1 107 08/03 48/07 01105-12107 0 1 106-1 2106 144 992 39 30 93 539 20 27 259 16 25 1 20 798 25 The Realization of a Study Relating to the Socio-economic Context of the Use of the 02106-04/06 6 5 5 International Course 1 llO2-open 46 41 5 46 Decentralization, Democracy and PFNL in Central Africa Cooperation Governance Systems German Foundation for International Capture of Natural Resource Benefits and 36 Toward Effective Watershed and Flood Management 1 210 1 -open 35 18 16 Forest Governance Learning Group 06106-12/08 Strengthening Scientific Collaboration in 34 Forestry 08/06-02/07 60 40 International Plant Genetic Resources 40 The Impact of Timber Harvesting in Forest Rural and Forest Land Policy in Southeast Asia Poverty Impact Assessment of Community Forest Management in Jharkhand I2/05-03106 I WO5-03/06 03106-06106 IO 30 85 2 8 30 85 IO 30 85 Institute(lPGR1) Tropical Forest Climate Change and Vulnerability 10/06-1 2/06 IO IO IO Rights for the Poor: Avoiding Elite Convergence Plan Collective Action to Secure Property the Implementation o f the COMIFAC (IFPRI) A System of Monitoring and Evaluation of 1 1106-I 0/03 284 18 International Food Policy Research Institute 18 10/04- 53 3,000 Beginning balance USD000 USDO00 2,667 from Revenue 7.517 252 USD000 8,882 356 2006 Fund AIR A/P grants received gain (loss) exchange USDOOO Foreign 3,000 2,667 2 88 98 -. 17 21 7 7.5 I7 8,882 2 1 2 12 40 14 14 182 255 20 35 141 153 35 I S .-25 _ _ 3,109 2,816 7,925 9,395 (71) 3,038 2,816 7,925 9,395 3,906 4,017 15,736 16,762 11 --------51 153 1,919 2.951 8,805 2005 Ending balance from USD000 USD000 USD000 Revenue AIR A@ granu Restricted (continued) Donors Brought forward United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizetion Service Forum on Forests United States Forest United Nations W F F ) Wageningen University World Bank World Conservation Union (IUCN) Institute World Rcsourccs World Wildlife Fund 1,919 2 9 1 28 2.95 1 8,805 1 28 92 266 33 9 26 85 S 2 for Nature -1,959 3,136 9.167 Allowance for uncollectible accounts receivable Sub total, restricted 1,959 3,136 9,167 Total unreshicted andrestricted 2,682 3,737 16,846 The following summarizes the expenses of each activity group classified by function and nature of expenses: Unrestricted Personnel casts Supplies and services Partnership activities Operational travel Depreciation of property, plant and Indirect expense recovery equipment Restricted Personnel costs Supplies and services Partnership activities Operational travel 2006 2005 Program Management related and general expenses expenses Total Total USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 3,238 1,905 5,143 4,215 1,252 708 1,960 2,954 1,048 1,048 1,134 454 120 574 530 32 1 79 400 345 (257) (270) (527) (661) 6,056 2,542 8,598 8,517 2,957 2,957 3,241 778 778 1,139 3,716 3,716 4,175 474 474 612 7,925 7,925 9,167 17,684 4 -13,981 2,542 16,523 -, 9. NETASSETS The account represented unrestricted net assets as follows: Undesignated-operating finds Designated-invested in property, plant and equipment Designated-reserve for replacement of property, plant and equipment 2006 2005 USD 000 USD 000 5,158 5,483 1,556 1,648 1,447 1,355 3.003 3.003 -. ~ -8,161 8,486 I 10. CONTINGENT LIABILITIES USD000 USDO00 USD000 USD000 Asian Development Bank Poverty Reduction in Upland Communities in the Mekong Region OUO4-06/06 103 51 18 69 Brought jorward Community Participation in Foreshy Management 10104-07/06 1,361 83 975 32 194 51 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 ~ ~~ USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD 000 USD000 USDO00 USD000 USD000 USD 000 1,169 83 Brought forward 9,142 3,583 1,883 5,466 Brought forward I 1,976 4,843 2,677 Brought forward 7,520 Forest Management by Small Farmers in Model Forest Pilot Site Selection in Learning to be Responsible: Addressing the Amazon 02/05-01108 83 19 4 23 Social, Economic, and Environmental Cameroon 09104-1 I 104 Carbon Sequestration through Clean Development Mechanism Australian Centre for International 09104-03106 100 45 55 100 Workshop on Carbon Sequestration University of Alberta CGIAR-Canada Linkage Fund 2004 -05 1 1 104-1 Z06 0 1105-0 I108 74 128 53 32 21 64 74 Forest Management in South Cameroon Finland 09104-02/06 I I6 103 13 I16 Issues for Social Responsibility of Forest-based Businesses OW06-06/08 500 16 Madel Forest Development in Cameroon -16 Phase 2 10105-03106 Germany (GTZIBMZ) 96 Finnish Associate Expert Programme 09104-09/07 I95 81 82 163 Making Local Government More Global Forest Rights Action Research 0 1106-1 2/08 Agricultural Research Lessons from the Chinese Forest Policy Experience Can Decentralization Work for Forests and the Poor? Policy Research to Promote 0410 1 -open 26 24 2 26 Quality Line Project on Teak Products CARREFOUR CECOFORM A The State of the Forest Report 0103-open 03/06-06/06 40 15 37 3 IS Finnish Associate Expert Programme 1 1 /06-1 0/08 195 28 28 Responsive to the Poor: Developing New Model Forest in Cameroon 06/06-03107 Indicators and Tools to Support 40 IS Sustainable Livelihood Development International Fund for Agricultural France Secondment of French Scientists 0 1 105-1 2/06 352 188 I64 under Decentralization 05103-04/06 1,553 997 288 1,285 Development (IFAD) 352 Understanding and Reducing Barriers to Forests that benefit the poor 04104-06107 Sustainable Forest Management, and Secure Local Livelihoods in Indonesia Community Development through Rehabilitation of lmperata Grassland Using Trees: A Model Approach Growing Vitex Pubescents for Charcoal Production in Kalimantan, Indonesia Impact of Fires and Its Use for Sustainable Land and Forest Management in Indonesia and Northern Australia Improving and Maintaining Productivity of Eucalypt Plantations in India and Australia Publication of the Manual \"Diseases of Eucalyptus in South East Asia\" Enhancing Forestry in Indonesia and Australia Avoiding Elite Capture of Forestry Decision-making and Benefits Asia Forest Partnership -Meeting and Information African Wildlife Foundation Policy Analysis of the Legal and Technical Means for lncentivebased Conservation Agreements in the Democratic Republic of Congo Fanner Enterprise Development Forest Livelihoods and Change Carried fonuurrd Belgium Canada 0 1103-06107 305 279 0 1 10 1 -open 07102-06105 01103-12105 06103-open 01 105-1 U07 07105-06107 08106-open 10104-open 07103-06108 04102-o~en 41 123 148 14 76 154 7 11 149 104 39. 124 153 IO 17 13 4 283 2 41 (1) 123 (5) 148 4 14 22 39 51 64 3 3 9 2 I I 1 IO 37 147 101 101 1,36 I 975 194 Carried forward 9, I42 3,583 1,883 5,466 1,169 Food & Agriculture Organization of the Adoption of Sustainable Forest International Institute for Environment and CIRAD-Foret United Nations Management Practices 07103-06/06 308 171 78 249 Development Biodiversity in Managed Forested Landscapes Leveling the Playing Field: Fair Partnership for Local Development to Improve the Forest Sustainability in Southeast Asia Implementing the FORINFO in Central Africa Ecotourism for Sustainable Development in the Congo Basin Conservation International Foundation (CIF) 'Conservation in Embrapa -Amazonia MLA in the Mamberamo -Phase 11 CORDAID Mitigating Conflict in Papua, Indonesia European Commission Rehabilitation and Re-dynamization of the Research Station of I'RET with Makakodlpassa Feeding China's Expanding Demand for Wood Pulp: A Diagnostic Assessment of and Impacts on Natural Forests in China and in the South East Asia Region Tropical Forests and Climate Change Adaptation 05103-1 1 0 5 544 473 3 476 03105-02/09 3,973 464 691 1,155 Global Forest Rights Action Research Carried forward 01/06-12108 500 138 138 1 1,976 4,843 2,677 7,520 Community Forestry in Nepal : The Role of Adaptive Collaborative Management Carried forward 15,355 631 1 3,203 9,714 Carried forward 02104-02/07 -368 203 84 287 Option Investment -Phase 3 Field Test COAIT -the Community Improving Livelihoods and Equity in Plantation Development, Fiber Supply, 08/06-08108 11105-1 1/06 03106-12/06 07105-06106 0 1102-0 1 106 I75 80 23 394 1,047 2 53 810 37 78 23 263 37 80 316 1 I3 923 Grassroots Organizations in Latin America Focused on Natural Resources Management Responsive Policy Research and Equitable Forest Management 11: Moving Forward Strategy Forest Law Enforcement on Behalf of Poor Forestdependent Communities 1 W02-11/06 09103-1 2/06 325 55 244 1 1 82 44 55 Women and Forest Products to Escalating Logging in Eastern Amazon 12/03-03/06 108 101 4 Option Investment 105 Field Test COAIT -the Community Innovative Resource Management (IRM) Vulnerability and Resilience : Response of 326 (IDRC) Durability\" International Development Research Centre le Bassin du Congo\" La Quete de la Development for Sustainable and 09102-open 430 414 (22) Paradigms in Recovery from Tsunami in Aceh 041063-1 1 I06 IO 6 Gestion des Concessions Forestieres dans 6 Publication of a Book Entitled \"La 392 Security Programs (CLIFS) Integrated NRM and Livelihood 10/03-09/05 120 155 (35) 120 The Bulungan Model Forest -Phase 2 (ITTO) Support to Strengthen the Operations of Congo Livelihood Improvement and Food International Tropical Timber Organization 23 Support to Young Professional Reform in Indonesia Social Forest Workshop 04102-1 2/07 2005 415 2 178 2 119 (2) Agroforestry (ICRAF) Sector Governance Reform International Centre for Research in Sustainability after Uganda's Forest 297 Cameroon 05/06-01 I07 12 12 12 Renegotiating Livelihoods and Development and Leadership for Forestry Ford Foundation The Interactive Forestry Atlas for Management in Indonesia Global Forest Watch Institutional Change in Forest Assessing Local Impacts of Forest Policies 0 1102-1 107 08/03 48/07 01105-12107 0 1 106-1 2106 144 992 39 30 93 539 20 27 259 16 25 1 20 798 25 The Realization of a Study Relating to the Socio-economic Context of the Use of the 02106-04/06 6 5 5 International Course 1 llO2-open 46 41 5 46 Decentralization, Democracy and PFNL in Central Africa Cooperation Governance Systems German Foundation for International Capture of Natural Resource Benefits and 36 Toward Effective Watershed and Flood Management 1 210 1 -open 35 18 16 Forest Governance Learning Group 06106-12/08 Strengthening Scientific Collaboration in 34 Forestry 08/06-02/07 60 40 International Plant Genetic Resources 40 The Impact of Timber Harvesting in Forest Rural and Forest Land Policy in Southeast Asia Poverty Impact Assessment of Community Forest Management in Jharkhand I2/05-03106 I WO5-03/06 03106-06106 IO 30 85 2 8 30 85 IO 30 85 Institute(lPGR1) Tropical Forest Climate Change and Vulnerability 10/06-1 2/06 IO IO IO Rights for the Poor: Avoiding Elite Convergence Plan Collective Action to Secure Property the Implementation o f the COMIFAC (IFPRI) A System of Monitoring and Evaluation of 1 1106-I 0/03 284 18 International Food Policy Research Institute 18 10/04- "},{"text":"06/06 07104-1 2106 11/06-05107 08106-08/07 CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH Schedule 116 CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCHSchedule 116 SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) SUPPLEMENTARY SCHEDULE OF RESTRICTED GRANTS (Continued) YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 YEAR ENDED 3 1 DECEMBER 2006 Grant period Grant Cumulative expenses Grant periodGrantCumulative expenses Donors and projects M M / W pledged Prior years Current year Total Donors and projectsM M / WpledgedPrior years Current yearTotal USD000 USDO00 USD000 USD000 USD000USDO00USD000USD000 Brought forward 15,355 GJ11 3,203 9,714 Brought forward15,355GJ113,2039,714 MIA (Spain) MIA (Spain) Amazon Initiatives 28 22 3 25 Amazon Initiatives2822325 Forma CDM in Latin America Forma CDM in Latin America MRENA 85 56 30 86 MRENA85563086 Training Forest Concessionaires in the Pemvian 1,038 192 192 Training Forest Concessionaires in the Pemvian1,038192192 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture 90 ' 40 40 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture90'4040 (1 ITA) (1 ITA) ACM Activities in Cameroon Amamn ACM Activities in Cameroon Amamn Italy 900 259 223 482 Italy900259223482 Italian JPO Italian JPO Japan Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical 89 3 3 Japan Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical8933 Forest Ecosystem Forest Ecosystem Asia Forest Partnership (AFP) -Phase 2 Sustainable Utilization of Diverse Forest 3 3 3 Asia Forest Partnership (AFP) -Phase 2 Sustainable Utilization of Diverse Forest333 Environmental Benefits Environmental Benefits Supporting Partnership for the Promotion Supporting Partnership for the Promotion of Sustainable Forest Management in Asia of Sustainable Forest Management in Asia Korea Korea Attribution 125 72 42 1 I4 Korea Korea Attribution12572421 I4 MacArthur Foundation Extra Sectoral Influence of Forests -Indonesia 20 7 7 MacArthur Foundation Extra Sectoral Influence of Forests -Indonesia2077 Capacity Building to Improved Capacity Building to Improved Biodiversity Conservation and Human Well-being in East Asia 29 23 23 Biodiversity Conservation and Human Well-being in East Asia292323 Netherlands Netherlands Dutch Associate Expert Programme 01103-1 2106 809 662 I28 790 Dutch Associate Expert Programme01103-1 2106809662I28790 Dutch Associate Expert Programme Dutch Associate Expert Programme Dutch Associate Expert Programme Dutch Associate Expert Programme Dutch Associate Expert Programme Forest Partnership 03104-08106 20 4 16 20 Dutch Associate Expert Programme Forest Partnership03104-081062041620 Netherlands Development Organization Netherlands Development Organization The Congo Basin Forest and Water Management Program 08103-open 19 6 (4) 2 The Congo Basin Forest and Water Management Program08103-open196(4)2 Carried forward Carried forward 10/03-open IS 6 (1) 5 10/03-openIS6(1)5 18,625 7,598 3,908 11,506 18,6257,5983,90811,506 "}],"sieverID":"25ae8d27-0dfe-4e30-ae82-46de594cbb48","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"009fb231ce1e63f2cdd676bd90e669a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b312c8bf-a863-49fa-9eba-a3b0db52312a/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Is the bacterial leaf nodule symbiosis obligate for Psychotria umbellata? The development of a Burkholderia-free host plant","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"A plant is not a sterile entity, but interacts with many microorganisms, including fungi, protozoans and bacteria [1][2][3][4]. Many of these interactions are not pathogenic, but ameliorate the fitness of the host by facilitating nutrient uptake (e.g., mycorrhizal fungi, rhizobia), by increasing resistance to abiotic or biotic stress (alkaloid producing fungi) or by stimulating growth or germination [1,[5][6][7][8][9][10]. Despite the importance of these interactions, the potential benefits for some specific hosts and/or endophytes remain unclear [4,[11][12][13]. New molecular tools may help towards identifying possible benefits for the host; for example, genomic tools identified possible functional benefits of the microbiome for Arabidopsis thaliana [14,15], and transcriptomics increased the knowledge on the communication between the plant-growth promoting Burkholderia Q208 and sugarcane [16]. Despite the progress made, identifying the benefits of the interaction is still challenging. While most of the functional genes were discovered in axenic cultures of the endophytes [4,15,17], some endophytes cannot be cultivated as pure cultures [1,4,11,12]. Furthermore, the natural environment is much more complex than one-on-one interactions. Hosts interact with multiple endophytes, and endophytes can have more than one benefit or even differ in benefits depending on the environment. These diverse possibilities make it challenging to disentangle the effect of the endophytes on the phenotype of the host [1,4,7,11,12,17,18]."},{"index":2,"size":284,"text":"Bacterial leaf nodule symbiosis is an interaction between bacteria and host plant species, characterised by the occurrence of the endophytes in structured cavities in the leaves, visible as nodules [19][20][21][22]. It has been identified in three flowering plant families, i.e. Dioscoreaceae, Primulaceae and Rubiaceae, and it has been suggested that they also occur in Styracaceae [20,21,23,24]. This intimate interaction is unique in angiosperms due to its high specificity and the presence of vertical transmission [19][20][21]24,25]. In addition to its high specificity and its (mainly) vertical transmission, leaf nodulation is suggested to be obligate for both partners [19][20][21]. In Rubiaceae, culture-independent methods were necessary to identify the nodulated endophytes as Burkholderia [21,26,27], because endosymbionts that occur with this genus are commonly unculturable outside the plant hosts [19,20,28]. Naturally nodule-free host plants can occur in small numbers when Psychotria punctata (a synonym of P. kirkii [29]) are cultivated from seed [20,30]. In contrast to the nodulating plants, these plants cease their growth and development after the second or third leaf pair [20,30]. To further investigate the obligatory nature of the interaction, several studies have attempted to produce a nodule-free plant by exposing seedlings to hot and dry conditions [20,31,32]. These seedlings displayed a 'crippled' phenotype with distorted leaves and a stunted appearance, and lacked the characteristic nodules. However, after placing the plants under optimal growing conditions, leaf nodules appeared on the new lateral branches [31], suggesting that they were not truly Burkholderiafree. This indicates that the observation of nodule-free leaves is not enough to confirm the symbiont-free status of the host plant. For this reason, morphological observations should ideally be complemented with microscopic and molecular analyses in order to confirm the Burkholderia-free status of the plants."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Despite the uniqueness of the bacterial leaf nodule symbiosis, the benefits of the interaction are still not clear. Although morphological observations of nodule-free seedlings seemed to suggest that the endophyte is beneficial for the growth and development of the host [20,31], later studies using molecular tools pointed towards a role in protection against herbivory [28,33,34]. If the main function of the endophytes is indeed solely providing protection against herbivory, the endophytic presence should not be obligate for the host plant when cultivated under controlled conditions (in vitro and greenhouse conditions). Furthermore, the aposymbiotic phenotype should be similar to the natural nodulating phenotype under these conditions. In this study, our aim was to develop Burkholderia-free Psychotria umbellata plants using the embryo culture. These aposymbiotic plants were further used to assess the obligatory nature of the nodule-forming endosymbiont of Psychotria umbellata."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Embryo culture of Psychotria umbellata (EC plants) and the natural Burkholderia-free P. nervosa","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The technique of embryo culture was applied to produce Burkholderia-free Psychotria umbellata by isolating plant embryos from seeds and growing them in vitro on a nutrient-rich medium. It is commonly used to reduce the dormancy period, or to avoid germination difficulties caused by disease, endophytic dependence or embryogenic failure [35][36][37][38]. Embryo culture (EC) was chosen because: (1) the endophytes are present in the seeds, but they have not infected the embryos [25]; and (2) the number of endophytes in the seeds is low [25,30], which reduces the risk of accidentally transferring endophytes."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"We collected 300 fresh stone fruits (drupes) of Psychotria umbellata from the living collection at Meise Botanic Garden. All drupes were collected from one shrub (accession number 19620512) to minimize genetic differences. In addition, we collected 30 fruits of the natural Burkholderia-free P. nervosa to use as a control to screen for putative effects of the in vitro methodology. We removed the fleshy mesocarp and stored the pyrenes (seeds encapsulated by a hardened endocarp) at 6˚C and 10% relative air humidity (Fig 1A)."},{"index":3,"size":216,"text":"We sterilised the surface of the pyrenes under a laminar flow by subsequently treating them with 96% (v/v) ethanol for three minutes; 1.6% (w/v) sodium hypochlorite with 0.1% (v/v) Tween20 for 20 minutes; and by rinsing them with sterile water. We excised the embryos by making an incision along the longitudinal axis of the pyrene away from the micropyle (Fig 1A). Subsequently, the pyrene was ruptured along the same axis, exposing the embryo (Fig 1B). In total, 240 embryos of P. umbellata and 24 of P. nervosa (control) were isolated and transferred to nutrient-rich sterile ½ Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium in sealed test tubes [39]. We grew the embryos in dark conditions at 27˚C during the first month to avoid rapid germination and photo-oxidation [40], and subsequently transferred them to day/night conditions (16 h light and 8 h dark period) under white fluorescent lamps at 25±2˚C [41]. Each month, we transferred the EC plantlets to fresh medium to avoid nutrient depletion and checked for the presence of leaf nodules. If abundant axillary shoots were present, some of them were used as cuttings and transferred to new sealed tubes to increase the number of plantlets (i.e., shoot multiplication). We micropropagated the plantlets for three years to ensure that these plantlets remained in their putative endophyte-free status."}]},{"head":"In vitro shoot culture of nodulating Psychotria umbellata (SC plants)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"We used a second in vitro technique to develop nodulating plants under the same in vitro conditions as the EC plantlets. To this end, we collected twigs of nodulating Psychotria umbellata from one shrub at Meise Botanic Garden and divided the twigs in plant cuttings containing two nodes each. We surface sterilised 40 plant cuttings with 96% (v/v) ethanol (three minutes), 1.6% (w/v) sodium hypochlorite (10 minutes) and subsequently rinsed them three times with sterile water. To improve the uptake of nutrients, the outer ends of the cuttings were trimmed to remove possible damage caused by the sterilising agents. We subsequently transferred the cuttings to nutrient-rich ½ MS plant cultivation medium under a laminar flow (Fig 1I). Each month, these SC plantlets were transferred to new plant cultivation medium. We preferred this cutting technique over in vitro seed germination to avoid possible delays due to seed dormancy. We used these nodulating in vitro plantlets as positive control to visualise possible phenotypic differences between the putative Burkholderia-free plant and the natural nodulating phenotype under in vitro conditions. If abundant axillary shoots were present, shoot multiplication was also used to increase the number of plantlets."}]},{"head":"Morphological analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":291,"text":"Once a month, we screened the EC and SC plantlets for the presence of nodules and monitored them over a period of three years. To assess the presence or absence of leaf nodules, we investigated the plantlets microscopically after three years. We collected three leaves of equal size from each of the two different plant types (EC, SC). To assure that the cultivation technique and the small leaf size did not influence the growth and development of the nodules, three leaves, equal in size of those of the in vitro plantlets, were added from an adult plant at Meise Botanic Garden. All leaves were fixed in 4% (v/v) formaldehyde in PEM buffer (100 mM 1,4-piperazinediethanesulfonic acid, 10 mM MgSO 4 , and 10 mM ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid, pH 6.9), rinsed in water and subsequently analysed with a Nikon SMZ800 stereo microscope (equipped with a Nikon DS-Ri1 camera). Subsequently, we dissected a small part of the leaf blades along the midvein containing nodules and embedded it in 8% agarose. In case no obvious nodules were visible, we dissected a small part of the leaf blades along the midvein close to the petiole. This region is where nodules would occur under natural circumstances. After hardening, we glued the agarose-embedded samples to the vibratome stage with superglue (Roticoll, Carl Roth, Karlsruhe, Germany) and made series of 30 μm sections with a vibrating microtome (HM650V, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Afterwards, sections were stained for three minutes with 0.5% (w/v) astra blue, 0.5% (w/v) chrysoidine and 0.5% (w/v) acridine red. These were then rinsed with water, dehydrated with isopropyl alcohol and subsequently mounted in Euparal. We observed the sections with a Nikon Eclipse Ni-U bright field microscope equipped with a Nikon DS-Filc camera."}]},{"head":"Molecular analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"We preserved a leaf of each EC and SC plantlet in silica gel in each of year 1, 2 and 3. Dried leaves were pulverised with a tissue homogeniser and total genomic DNA was extracted using a modified CTAB protocol [42]. We subsequently tested whether endophytic DNA could be detected using the specific bacterial primers 16S rDNA [43], recA and gyrB [44]. To reduce the possibility of false negatives, we added two positive controls (a leaf sample of a nodulating P. umbellata and a culture of the soil bacteria Burkholderia caledonica) and one negative control in each PCR run. In addition, we tested for the presence of plant DNA with plant primers for trnL-F [45]."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"When bacterial DNA was detected in samples of the EC plantlets, the PCR products were purified and bidirectionally sequenced by Macrogen Facilities (Macrogen Europe, Amsterdam, the Netherlands). Subsequently, the sequences were assembled and compared with sequences on GenBank with the online BLAST tool."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic analyses","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"In vitro phenotype. To assess the effect of the endophyte on the growth of the Psychotria host, we compared the embryo-cultured (putative Burkholderia-free) plantlets to the in vitro cultivated shoots (containing Burkholderia). To avoid the influence of the different cultivation techniques (embryo culture vs. shoot culture), we applied the same cultivation technique on both EC and SC plantlets. Shoots (shoot apical meristem and one node) of 24 SC plantlets and of 40 EC plantlets were obtained, and transferred to fresh nutrient-rich medium (Fig 1I) (shoot multiplication). During the next four months, we monitored the growth every two weeks by measuring the length starting from the first node and counting the developing nodes. The differences in length and the number of developing nodes were statistically assessed using a non-parametric Wilcoxon rank test in R [46]."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Phenotype under greenhouse conditions. Due to the presence of a high sugar concentration and the poor light conditions, the in vitro phenotype can differ from the natural phenotype [47]. In order to evaluate for possible in vitro effects, we transferred 11 EC and 2 SC plantlets of P. umbellata, and 3 EC plantlets of P. nervosa to greenhouse conditions (16 hours light at 26˚C and 80% humidity, 8 hours dark at 16˚C and 70% humidity). All plantlets were selected based on their size (>40 mm) and the presence of roots and a minimum of four leaves. The plantlets were planted in pots containing soil mixed with 15% Rhine sand and covered with a plastic cover to increase the air humidity. To acclimatize these plants to less humid conditions, the plastic cover was gradually removed after four weeks. The plants were monitored every month to analyse their growth by counting the extra nodes or axillary shoots and their survival."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Micropropagation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Two months after embryo rescue, 58% of the embryos of Psychotria umbellata developed into seedlings (Fig 1D). Additionally, adventive embryony was observed in 27% of the developing embryos of P. umbellata. These were transferred to new sealed tubes and thereby increased the number of obtained seedlings (Fig 1C). Neither bacterial nor fungal contamination was observed in any of the in vitro tubes. After one year, only 35% of the seedlings survived, and developed new leaves and a root system (Fig 1C -1F). Most of the surviving plantlets originated from adventive embryogenesis (i.e., new embryo clones developed from the somatic cells of an embryo; 452 clones derived from 20 original embryos) or via shoot multiplication (572 clones derived from 30 original embryos). After three years, 12% of the original embryos survived of which three quarters were multiplied via adventive embryogenesis (generating 123 clones) and one quarter were multiplied via shoot multiplication (18 clones)."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"For the natural Burkholderia-free P. nervosa, 100% of the embryos developed to seedlings. In contrast to P. umbellata, adventive embryony was not observed. After one year, 70% of the original embryos survived and, due to their fast growth, generated 48 Two months after the transfer of the nodulating plant cuttings of P. umbellata, 26 out of 40 of the SC plantlets survived (Fig 1I -1K). In contrast to the EC plantlets, the leaves of 24 of the surviving SC plantlets had nodules along the midvein, visible on the abaxial leaf surface (Fig 1K ). The other two of the surviving SC plantlets were nodule-free."}]},{"head":"Morphological analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The nodules of P. umbellata are dark elongated structures positioned along the midvein with the highest density closest to the petiole (Fig 2A and 2B). The nodules are embedded in the spongy parenchyma of the mesophyll, and the cavity, containing the endophytes, is enclosed by two or three cell layers of compressed mesophyll (Fig 2C )."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Every month, we investigated each EC plantlet of P. umbellata macroscopically for the presence of nodules on the abaxial side of the leaves, yet these specialised structures were never observed (Fig 2D and 2E). We analysed the nodule-free leaves microscopically as well to confirm the absence of smaller or less-developed nodules. From these plantlets (two obtained by adventive embryony and one via subculture), we selected a leaf region close to the petiole where normally the highest number of nodules can be observed in infected plants, but no structured cavities or nodules were detected in the leaf lamina (Fig 2F)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"In contrast to the EC plantlets of P. umbellata, we observed elongated nodules in the leaves of the SC plantlets, close to the petiole and along the midvein in the spongy parenchyma, as well as in the leaves of the woody adult plants growing at Meise Botanic Garden (Fig 2G -2I)."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Besides the bacterial nodules, dark protruding structures were observed on leaves of P. umbellata. These structures could be differentiated from the bacterial nodules by their less elongated shape, and they were not located close to the midvein but instead scattered over the leaf lamina. These spots were also observed on the leaves of nodule-free P. umbellata plantlets (S1B Fig) . Transverse sections through these structures showed that these were protrusions of plant tissue (S1C Fig) . On the nodulating leaves of adult plants, these protruding dark spots were also observed (S1D Fig) . One of the most prominent protruding spots was analysed microscopically. Transverse sections through these structures indicated that these were protrusions of leaf tissue due to the local development of periderm tissue. Taken together, none of the aforementioned structures are bacterial nodules (S1E and S1F Fig)."}]},{"head":"Molecular analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"During the three-year monitoring, we extracted DNA from whole leaves of 88 EC plants. This procedure was repeated three times on new leaves of the same EC plants. Endophytic DNA was never detected with the specific 16S rDNA, recA and gyrB primers in these EC plantlets (Table 1). Furthermore, we collected and analysed shoot tips of six of these 88 molecularly analysed EC plantlets and an additional set of leaves of thirteen extra EC plantlets with dot-like structures on the abaxial leaf surface (S1B Fig), but no endophytic DNA was detected in any of these samples. From the second year onwards, we additionally tested whole leaves of the SC plants and repeated this analysis twice on new leaves of the same SC plants and showed that the majority of the DNA extractions contained DNA of Burkholderia (Table 1). The two plantlets that tested negative lacked nodules and we were able to confirm the absence of Burkholderia DNA (Table 1). This was also confirmed in the third year, thus establishing their Burkholderia-free status."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"To examine possible false negatives, the quality of the DNA extractions and PCR runs were investigated. Each DNA sample was tested for the presence of plant DNA with the trnL-F primer. All the analysed DNA samples tested positive on the presence of plant DNA, indicating a successful DNA extraction. In each PCR run, the positive control tested positive for the presence of Burkholderia DNA, indicating a successful PCR run."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic analyses","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"After two years, we selected 40 EC plantlets (36 from adventive embryony and 4 from germinated embryos) and 24 SC plantlets for phenotypic analyses. Before the experiment, DNA was extracted from the selected plants to test for the presence of endophytic DNA. In 23 of the SC plants endophytic DNA was detected, while no endophytic DNA was detected in all EC plantlets and one SC plantlet. Subsequently, we transferred the shoot (shoot apical meristem and one node) of each plantlet (SC and EC) to new medium (Fig 1I). For four months, we monitored the growth and measured the shoot length starting from the first node above the plant nutrient medium and counted the number of developed nodes every two weeks (S1 Table ). During the four-month-period, two of the EC and eight of the SC plantlets were excluded from the analysis due to fungal infection or decay. To analyse the differences in length, and the number of newly-developed nodes, between the aposymbiotic (38 EC + 1 SC) and symbiotic (15 SC) plantlets, a non-parametric Wilcoxon rank test was performed (Fig 3). The aposymbiotic plantlets grew on average 5.4 mm in length, while the symbiotic plantlets grew 20.6 mm in length (S2 Table ). Correspondingly, the aposymbiotic plantlets developed on average 1.1 new nodes, while the symbiotic plantlets developed on average 2.4 new nodes (S2 Table ). When the individuals without growth or individuals without new nodes were removed, the same conclusions were obtained (S2 Table )."},{"index":2,"size":233,"text":"To further characterise the Burkholderia-free phenotype, we transferred the in vitro grown plantlets to soil in the greenhouse. This way, we investigated whether these plants survived without their endophyte in an ex vitro environment. Eleven Burkholderia-free EC plantlets, as well as two nodulating SC plantlets and three P. nervosa-that is the natural Burkholderia-free Psychotria species-were transferred to soil (Fig 4A -4C). During the acclimatisation, one of the SC plantlets died due to a fungal infection. After three months, the EC plants did not grow or develop new leaves, in contrast to the SC plant and P. nervosa that developed two or three new nodes (Fig 4D -4F). After five months, eight EC plantlets died without developing new leaves. Two EC plantlets of P. umbellata developed one extra node at an axillary shoot and the stipules of these plantlets turned brown after seven months. The new leaves of the EC plantlets were nodule-free (Fig 4G). The SC plantlet of P. umbellata grew and developed five new nodes, produced new nodulating leaves, and the internodes elongated (Fig 4H). The three EC plantlets of P. nervosa made on average three to four new nodes and the internodes elongated as well. Furthermore, the stipules of the non-growing EC plants turned brown. This was in contrast to the green stipules covering the apical bud of the nodulating SC plantlets and the apical buds of natural Burkholderia-free P. nervosa."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":479,"text":"The use of embryo culture enabled us to develop Psychotria umbellata plantlets that are truly Burkholderia-free, as confirmed with microscopic and molecular analyses. We showed that Table 1. Results of the molecular screening of the in vitro cultivated EC and SC plantlets. Summary of the DNA extractions from whole leaves of the embryo-cultured (EC) and shoot-cultured (SC) plantlets. After the extractions, the presence of Burkholderia DNA was analysed with specific 16S rDNA, recA, and gyrB primers. these aposymbiotic plantlets survived in a sterile in vitro environment, but noticed that their growth and development was significantly slower than for the nodulating plantlets. Previous research has attempted to develop Burkholderia-free plants, too. In Primulaceae, antibiotics and heat shock treatment were applied [20,48], whereas in Rubiaceae, nodule-free plants were observed after seed germination [20,30] or after heat shock treatment [20,31,32]. However, nodulating leaves reappeared after the heat shock treatments, indicating that the endophytes were still present in the axillary buds [31]. In the present study, we used an in vitro cultivation technique in order to create Burkholderia-free plants and we took several measures to ensure that the endophytes were not latently present. First, we cultivated the EC plants for a long period of time (three years), during which they were continuously monitored. Second, we show that the absence of nodules on the EC plants was not caused by the developmental stage, small leaf size or the in vitro environment. Previous studies showed that the first nodules appear on the first leaves of a P. punctata seedling [20,49], confirming that the developmental stage of the EC plantlets does not explain the missing nodules. We also observed nodules on small leaves of woody adult plants, confirming that the absence of nodules is not caused by the presence of a small leaf size (Fig 2). Furthermore, we detected nodules on the SC plantlets, confirming that the absence of the nodules is not triggered by the in vitro environment. The absence of nodules in the leaf lamina of the EC plantlets was also confirmed via light microscopy (Fig 2F). Third, while previous studies only used morphological observations to confirm the absence of the endophyte [20,30,31], we additionally corroborated the Burkholderia-free status of the EC plantlets via molecular analysis. Each analysed leaf tested negative for the specific Burkholderia primers. To investigate the possibility of false negatives, we repeated this analysis yearly on whole leaves and also tested the vegetative buds for the presence of bacterial DNA. The use of molecular techniques, combined with the long-term monitoring and microscopic observations, provided us with the necessary confidence to confirm that the EC plantlets are truly Burkholderia-free and that this condition is permanent. The molecular analysis also confirmed that in vitro shoot culture produced two Burkholderia-free plantlets. In contrast to the previously used techniques [20,30,31] and the in vitro shoot cultivation, all surviving plants obtained through embryo culture are Burkholderia-free."},{"index":2,"size":306,"text":"The endophyte is vertically transmitted to the next generation via the seeds, which was confirmed in previous studies in P. punctata [19][20][21]25,28]. Despite the presence of the endophytes close to the embryo, embryo culture prevented the transmission to the offspring, which can be explained by several reasons. First, the mucus in the nodulating species of Rubiaceae is assumed to be important for the endophyte as a source of nutrients and a method of transport [20,49,50]. In the seeds of P. punctata, the cavity between embryo and endosperm is filled with this mucus, which most probably enables the endophytes to survive until the infection of the apical bud [25]. The isolation and subsequent transfer of the embryo to a nutrient-rich medium can influence the presence and/or production of the mucus, which could impact the survival and transport of the endophytes. Second, adventive embryogenesis can prevent infection of the apical buds. The low concentration of endophytes in the seeds [25,30] and the development of new embryos by adventive embryogenesis increases the chance of developing Burkholderia-free plants. In Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), it occurs uncommonly in vitro, but it is mostly induced during plant cultivation with plant hormones (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or naphthalene acetic acid) [51,52]. We observed adventive embryogenesis in 10-30% of the developing embryos after EC in the absence of plant hormones. Third, the nodules of P. umbellata differ from P. punctata in size, form (round vs elongated) and position (scattered vs along the midvein) on the leaf lamina [20,43,53]. This variation strongly suggests a different mode of leaf infection by the Burkholderia symbiont in P. umbellata. Besides these variations in nodule morphology and location, the symbiotic cycle of Candidatus Burkholderia umbellata can also diverge from the one of Candidatus Burkholderia kirkii in its vertical transmission to the next generation, facilitating the development of Burkholderia-free seedlings via embryo culture."},{"index":3,"size":398,"text":"Apart from developing Burkholderia-free plants of P. umbellata, we maintained and grew them in vitro. In order to evaluate the Burkholderia-free phenotype, we cultivated the nodulating plants (SC plants) in the same in vitro environment. Our results showed a reduced growth rate when the endophyte is absent. This reduction in growth rate in a sterile controlled environment indicates that leaf nodulation is beneficial for the host plant P. umbellata. Dwarfed plants without nodules have been observed in Rubiaceae and Primulaceae when they were exposed to hot and dry conditions, or-in small numbers-when they are cultivated from seed [20,[30][31][32]48]. However, in contrast to the crippled phenotype [20,30,31], our plantlets did not produce distorted leaves nor callus at apical meristems (Fig 1D -1F). These features might have been caused by the heat/drought treatments used to produce bacteria-free plants in the previous studies [20,30,31]. Drought is known to cause a reduced growth in Coffea arabica, for example [54,55]. To avoid these problems, we opted to use embryo culture and a controlled set-up. In vitro cultivation has an effect on the photosynthesis due to the high sugar concentrations and the suboptimal light conditions [47,56]. To take these effects into account, we used a controlled set-up by cultivating natural Burkholderia-free P. nervosa plants via embryo culture and shoot culture of P. umbellata. The observations of the cultivated P. nervosa plants using embryo culture suggests that the isolation of the embryo had no effect on the development of the plantlets (Fig 1G and 1H). The cultivation of nodulating SC plants enabled us to compare them with the endophyte-free EC plants in the same sterile in vitro environment. To remove possible effects due to the use of a different cultivation technique, shoots of both SC and EC plants were cultivated and monitored. The observation of a reduced growth rate of the shoots of the aposymbiotic plants (EC+1SC) could indicate that the growth rate of the aposymbiotic plantlets is reduced due to the absence of endophytes. Differences in growth rate as a result of genetic variability are negligible since all plantlets are derived from one single specimen. The SC plants are genetic clones of the mother plant and most of the EC plants are derived from adventive embryogenesis. Although the EC plants are the F1 generation of the mother plant and P. umbellata is a heterostylous species (suggesting out-crossing), self-pollination cannot be excluded under greenhouse conditions."},{"index":4,"size":283,"text":"To characterise the Burkholderia-free phenotype under more natural conditions, we transferred some plantlets to greenhouse conditions. Each EC plantlet had a low survival rate and most of the plantlets were not able to produce new leaves or grow normally. This seems to contrast with the nodulating SC plantlet and the natural Burkholderia-free P. nervosa plants that grew, developed new nodes and expanded their leaves. Unfortunately, because we were only able to grow one nodulating SC plantlet, we cannot confirm whether the low survival rate of the aposymbiotic plants is due to the absence of the endophyte or an effect of the acclimatisation to a new environment. Plants that are transferred from in vitro to greenhouse conditions need to acclimatise to drier and less nutrient-rich soil by protecting their water content via the stomatal closure and by activating photosynthesis [47,56,57]. These adaptations make the transfer the most critical step for the survival of in vitro cultivated plants and a high percentage of plants may get lost [57][58][59][60][61]. Most of the Burkholderia-free plantlets did not survive under greenhouse conditions and often died after the degeneration of the shoot apical meristem, or due to low resistance against aphids and fungal infections. Only two plantlets produced an extra pair of nodule-free leaves after four months (Fig 4G). After seven months, the meristem of the axillary shoots degenerated as well. Despite the low number of SC plantlets and EC plantlets of P. nervosa, our findings demonstrate that nodulating and control plantlets can be transferred from in vitro to greenhouse conditions and survive, while the aposymbiotic plantlets cannot (Fig 4). These observations might indicate that the presence of the endophyte is an advantage to adapt to a new environment."},{"index":5,"size":291,"text":"The growth difference between the Burkholderia-free and nodulating plantlets in sterile in vitro environment indicates that the endophyte might influence plant growth and survival. In nature, many bacterial endophytes that influence the fitness and survival of their hosts have been identified [1,4,7]. They can enhance the growth of the plants via the production of phytohormones, provision of nutrients or reinforce the host's resilience to biotic or abiotic stress [8][9][10]. Some of these endophytes can influence the host's fitness via several pathways. Burkholderia phytofirmans, for instance, can increase the host's biomass by the production of phytohormones or by reducing the abiotic stress (degradation of complex organic compounds, heavy metal efflux mechanisms, etc.) [62][63][64][65]. During genomic analyses of the Burkholderia endophytes of several Psychotria, Pavetta and Ardisia species, known metabolic pathways for growth hormones were not discovered [28,34,66,67]. Instead, it was found that Candidatus Burkholderia kirkii produces kirkamide, a secondary compound that might protect the host against insect herbivores [33]. However, this secondary metabolite was not detected in all investigated leaf nodulating plant species; it is for example, not found in the studied specimens of P. umbellata and Pavetta schumanniana [66]. In addition to kirkamide, other glucosides, such as streptol glucoside, were identified in P. punctata [28,34,66,68]. Streptol glucoside has been shown to inhibit germination of lettuce seeds, which could give the host an allelopathic advantage [66,68]. Although we did not investigate functional pathways within our study to support one of these hypotheses, the growth difference in a controlled nutrient-rich environment (and in absence of any herbivores) suggests that benefits of the bacterial leaf nodulation are not solely ameliorating the host's defence. For P. umbellata, the benefits are not yet completely understood and can maybe even differ from those identified in P. punctata."},{"index":6,"size":305,"text":"In summary, embryo culture had a high success rate to produce Burkholderia-free plants of Psychotria umbellata. This was corroborated in a three-year survey using observations, and microscopical and molecular techniques. The in vitro and greenhouse experiments showed that these plantlets had a lower growth rate compared to the nodulating phenotype, which suggest that the benefits of this intimate interaction are more complex and not yet completely understood. The development of aposymbiotic plants is an important first step to further disentangle the effects of this unique endosymbiosis and embryo culture could facilitate further experimental research due to its high success rate in producing Burkholderia-free plants. . Dataset used for statistical analysis of the four-month monitoring of Burkholderia-free EC and nodulating SC P. umbellata plant cuttings in an in vitro environment. Molecular analysis before the start of the experiment confirmed the absence (0) or the presence (1) of Burkholderia DNA. After four months, the length difference between the first node and the shoot apical meristem (i.e., growth), and the number of new nodes developed were calculated. (DOCX) S2 Table . Results of the four-month monitoring of aposymbiotic (38 EC + 1 SC) and symbiotic (15 SC) P. umbellata plant cuttings. For both the EC and the SC plantlets, the average length difference between the first node and the shoot apical meristem (i.e., growth), and the average of newly-developed nodes are given. A non-parametric Wilcoxon rank test was used to compare these averages between aposymbiotic (38 EC + 1 SC) and symbiotic (15 SC) plantlets. In addition to the full dataset, the non-parametric Wilcoxon rank test was performed on two subsets. In subset 1, individuals without growth were removed (removal of 12 EC and 1 nodulating SC plantlets), while in subset 2 the individuals without extra nodes were removed (removal of 17 EC and 3 nodulating SC plantlets). "}]},{"head":"Supporting information","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"S1 Table","index":15,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig 1 . Fig 1. In vitro cultivation of Psychotria umbellata and natural endophyte-free Psychotria nervosa using embryo culture and shoot culture. (A-H) Illustration of the technique embryo culture. (A) Example of an incision in the pyrene of P. umbellata along the longitudinal axis away from the micropyle to expose the embryo. (B) The isolated embryo of P. umbellata before sterile transfer to nutrient-rich plant medium. (C) Adventive embryony on an embryo of P. umbellata. (D) Two-week-old P. umbellata seedling obtained via embryo culture. (E) Three-month-old P. umbellata plantlet obtained via embryo culture. (F) Shoot from a 2.5-year-old P. umbellata plant obtained via embryo culture. (G) Three-month-old P. nervosa plantlet obtained via embryo culture. (H) Shoot from a 2.25-year-old P. nervosa culture obtained via embryo culture. (I-K) Illustration of the technique of shoot culture. (I) Example of a sterilized cutting transferred to in vitro culture medium of P. umbellata. (J) Twoweek-old P. umbellata plantlet obtained via shoot culture. (K) Eight-month-old P. umbellata plantlet with nodules obtained via shoot culture. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219863.g001 "},{"text":" clones via shoot multiplication (Fig 1G). After three years, 30% of the original embryos survived, generating 23 clones (Fig 1H). "},{"text":"Fig 2 . Fig 2. Morphological and microscopic analysis of an adult plant, in vitro nodulating SC and in vitro nodule-free EC plantlets of Psychotria umbellata. (A-C) Woody adult plant in Meise Botanic Garden. (A) Overview of the adult plant. (B) Abaxial lamina surface of a young leaf (sampled of A) showing the presence of nodules (arrows) and the site of the section (red line). (C) Stained vibratome section of the leaf (B) showing the presence of two nodules in the spongy mesophyll close to the midvein. (D-F) In vitro cultivated Burkholderia-free plantlet obtained via embryo culture. (D) Overview of an in vitro EC plant. (E) Abaxial lamina surface (obtained of an in vitro Burkholderia-free plantlet) without nodules, showing the site of section (red line). (F) Stained vibratome section of the leaf (E) where no structured cavities or nodules are detected. (G-I) In vitro cultivated plant cutting. (G) In vitro SC plant showing the presence of nodules (arrows). (H) Abaxial lamina surface (obtained of an in vitro nodulating plantlet) showing the presence of nodules (arrows) and the site of the section (red line). (I) Stained vibratome section of the leaf (H) showing the presence of a nodule in the spongy mesophyll close to the midvein. n, nodule; m, midvein. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219863.g002 "},{"text":"Fig 3 . Fig 3. Results of the four-month growth monitoring of aposymbiotic (38 EC+ 1 SC) and symbiotic (15 SC) P. umbellata plant cuttings. (A) Shoot length monitoring between the first node and the shoot apical meristem (i.e., growth), p = 3.688 x 10 −4 . (B) Development of new nodes in four months, p = 4.715 x 10 −3 . https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219863.g003 "},{"text":"Fig 4 . Fig 4. Morphological observations of in vitro cultivated Burkholderia-free EC plantlets, nodulating SC of P. umbellata and natural nodule-free P. nervosa after transfer to soil in greenhouse conditions. (A) EC P. umbellata, one month after transfer. (B) SC P. umbellata, one month after transfer. (C) P. nervosa, one month after transfer. (D) EC P. umbellata, three months after transfer to the greenhouse. (E) SC P. umbellata, three months after transfer. (F) P. nervosa, three months after transfer. (G) Newly developed leaf on an EC plantlet of P. umbellata without any nodules. (H) Newly developed leaf on the SC plantlet showing nodules under ex vitro conditions (arrows). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219863.g004 "},{"text":" and microscopic observation of protruding darker structures on leaves of Burkholderia-free EC plantlets (A-C) and nodulating adult plants (D-F) of P. umbellata. (A) Nodule-free leaf. (B) Nodule-free leaf showing dark structures at the abaxial lamina surface close to the midvein (arrows). (C) Microscopic detail of a stained transverse vibratome section through one of these structures, confirming that these protruding structures (arrow) are not bacterial nodules. (D) Macroscopic detail of one of the most prominent protruding dark structures (arrow) on the abaxial lamina surface of an adult nodulating leaf. (E) Microscopic detail of a transverse unstained vibratome section through this dark structure showing protrusion of leaf tissue caused by periderm activity (arrow) and the presence of phenolic compounds is suggested by red-brown colouration. (F) UV-autofluorescence of suberin allows distinction of peridermal phellem cells. p, phellem. (TIF) "}],"sieverID":"a74a7831-bbd5-4ff1-a457-60f80861fb4d","abstract":"The bacterial leaf nodule symbiosis is an interaction where bacteria are housed in specialised structures in the leaves of their plant host. In the Rubiaceae plant family, host plants interact with Burkholderia bacteria. This interaction might play a role in the host plant defence system. It is unique due to its high specificity; the vertical transmission of the endophyte to the next generation of the host plant; and its supposedly obligatory character. Although previous attempts have been made to investigate this obligatory character by developing Burkholderia-free plants, none have succeeded and nodulating plants were still produced. In order to investigate the obligatory character of this endosymbiosis, our aims were to develop Burkholderia-free Psychotria umbellata plants and to investigate the effect of the absence of the endophytes on the host in a controlled environment."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"012320dab0c6450de0ccd44ba859fefa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77edcf72-3859-45d5-96be-607d843c88cd/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"T r a i n i n g o f T r a i n e r s ( T o T ) o n E n h a n c i n g N a t i o n a l C l i m a t e S e r v i c e s ( E N A C T S ) M a p r o o m s f o r U s e r s i n Z a m b i a","keywords":["Zambia","agriculture","climate change","climate variability","food security","capacity development","climatesmart agriculture","climatology","monitoring systems","forecasting","Goal 2 Zero Hunger"],"chapters":[{"head":"1","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Ensuring all institutions that play a role in promoting the use of climate information and services are aware of and have the capacity to train users within Zambia on the best-available climate information products for decision-making is critical for building resilience of the agricultural sector. The training had participation from institutions responsible for generating, translating, and communicating climate information to extend the reach and co-production of climate information to the most local levels and integrate it within decisionmaking processes and planning."}]},{"head":"6","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The hands-on, practical training covered climate basics and how to use Maprooms to analyse past, current, and future climate information to meet the needs of adaptive decisionmaking for the agricultural sector in both the near and long-term."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Improved availability and quality of climate data and information has been necessary but not sufficient in the development of effective, decision-relevant, sustainable, and locally-led climate services for the agricultural sector in Zamvia. In particular, while the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD) has long produced high quality information available at high resolution, this has not been enough to ensure that it is easily accessed, understood, or able to be used at the sectoral level in decisionmaking for agriculture. Rather, intentional efforts to both promote the translation (contextualization) and transfer (communication) of this information alongside capacity building for its use have been needed."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"An important platform for facilitating the access and wider use of climate information in decisionmaking by governments, as well as the public and private sectors, is the IRI's Climate Data Library. The Data Library is a powerful and freely accessible online platform that allows users to view, analyse, download, and share hundreds of terabytes of multidisciplinary climate-related data through a standard web browser (Blumenthal et al., 2014). ICT solutions like this and especially co-created map visualizations such as the IRI's interactive \"Maproom\" visuals and graphs of climate data can play a large role in making climate information more usable by translating past, present, or future conditions into expected impacts and management advisories for different decision-makers (Christel et al., 2018;Daron et al., 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":244,"text":"In Zambia, the Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS) initiative has helped the country overcome gaps in its meteorological records by combining quality-controlled station records with proxies (satellite data for precipitation and climate model reanalysis data for temperature) that are freely available from global sources. In doing so, it has enabled the provision of long-term (more than 35 years for rainfall and 50 years for temperature) daily and decadal (10-day) gridded time series data at a 4km resolution. This downscaled location-specific climate information, made possible through the ENACTS approach (Nsengiyumva et al., 2021), represents a huge stride in climate information availability for the country because it is important for informing a wide variety of choices and planning decisions at the farm level in Zambia's various agro-ecological zones, from planting date to cultivar selection, timing of fertilizer application, and other practices affected by the crop calendar (Grossi & Dinku, 2022). However, it is the ensuing activities of the ENACTS initiative that move beyond data availability to promoting its access and use through freely available online visualizations and analyses (\"Maprooms\"), alongside capacity building to promote the use and co-production of new products, that have enabled and will continue enable the information to become locally relevant services at scale. \"Maprooms,\" or visualizations and automations of climate analyses derived from these gridded datasets, in particular, have been instrumental in co-producing and communicating locallyrelevant and demand-driven analyses in the 22 countries where the ENACTS initiative has been implemented, including Zambia."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"The training of trainers (ToT) described in this report, which took place from November 7-11, 2022, in Lusaka, Zambia aimed to ensure that all major institutions that play an important role in promoting the use of climate information and services and broader resilience of the agricultural sector are aware of and have the capacity to train users within Zambia on the best-available climate information products for decision-making in ZMD's suite of online \"Maprooms\" (Zambia Meteorological Department, 2022)."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"These institutions included the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD), which is mandated with generating and devolving climate information for the country's multifarious user communities, as well as the Zambia Agriculture Research Institute (ZARI), the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE), the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), which play important roles in tailoring, communicating, and otherwise building capacity of users to understand and act on this information in support of climate adaptation."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"The ENACTS maproom products which were the subject of the training are freely available through ZMD's website, and provide locationspecific (4 km grid) historical, monitoring, and forecast information that is important for activities related to planning, monitoring, and response for the agricultural sector and wider food system."},{"index":8,"size":110,"text":"The maps, graphs, and other visualizations that comprise the ENACTS maprooms are not premade or ready-made maps but are rather generated live based on the analysis that any user would like to do. Towards its overarching goal of ensuring that institutions playing a role promoting the use of climate information and services in the agricultural sector are aware of and have the capacity to train users within Zambia on the best-available climate information products for decision-making, the workshop aimed to achieve the following: 1) Provide foundational knowledge about climate concepts, data, common data analyses, and the forecast, as well as local and global factors that influence Zambia's climate (climate basics)"},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"2) Introduce participants to basic analytical tools and visualizations for understanding historical climate (climatology) for any given area of interest (\"Climate Analysis\" maprooms)"},{"index":10,"size":102,"text":"3) Introduce participants to basic analytical tools and visualizations for understanding current climatic conditions (monitoring), including identification of extremes and anomalies (\"Climate Monitoring\" maprooms) 4) Introduce participants to basic analytical tools and visualizations for understanding future climatic conditions (forecasting), including the flexible forecast format for communicating uncertainty for agricultural decision-makers (\"Climate Forecast\" maprooms) 5) Introduce participants to Maprooms for understanding how climate interacts with particular sectors, namely the agricultural sector (\"Climate and Agriculture\" maprooms), and how these Maprooms and the other aforementioned maprooms can be used to answer common questions confronting the agricultural sector, such as crop suitability for a given area."}]},{"head":"2: Approaches and Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The workshop was an important forum not only for capacitating trainees on the use of ZMD's ENACTS \"Maprooms,\" but also for promoting and encouraging interactions between those who generate climate information and those who ultimately use it. Pictured here, staff from the Zambia Meteorological Department interface with staff from ZARI, MGEE, WARMA, and the MoA. With an eye towards scaling the use of such products in agricultural decision-making, there was representation from Zambia's agricultural extension system as well. The climate basics and Maprooms covered in this training are part of a wider planned curriculum targeting Zambia's agricultural extension system with critical knowledge and skills to manage climate risk in 2023."}]},{"head":"Awareness of climate information tools such as","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Maprooms helps to ensure that the development of new climate services such as Maprooms meets the real and not just perceived needs of the agricultural sector, and that climate services are truly locally-led."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The ToT on ENACTS Maprooms for Users in Zambia provided an important forum for achieving these goals, as well as for promoting interfacing amongst those who produce climate information and products (ZMD) and those who ultimately translate and use them (ZARI, MGEE, WARMA, the MoA.). The still-yet-to-be launched National Framework for Climate Services (NFCS) will help systematize these interactions between actors with different but complementary roles in the development of user-centred climate information and services (Faniriantsoa et al., 2022)."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"A full list of participants and their affiliate institutions can be found in Box 1, while the list of trainers and support staff can be found in Box 2. The full agenda for the workshop can be found in Section 6 (Agenda)."}]},{"head":"Staff from the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA), and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) work together on a group exercise to determine the suitability of a hypothetical crop with specific water, temperature, and other requirements in a given location using the Maprooms.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"All 18 participants from ZMD, ZARI, the MGEE, WARMA, the MoA, ICRISAT, and IWMI were successfully capacitated on how to access, navigate, and use ZMD's suite of free online Maproom products for analysing past, current, and future climate in relation to the agricultural sector. This was evidenced in a culminating group project and presentation whereby groups of 5-6 people selected a sub-county and created 10-slide PowerPoints to answer a series of questions related to: rainfall and temperature seasonality, La Niña's impact on seasonal rainfall, interpretation of the seasonal forecast, and crop suitability given specific parameters related to total rainfall, temperature tolerance, dry spell tolerance, and wet spell requirements."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Moreover, through presentations from various ZMD staff, the training raised awareness about climate information products beyond ENACTS products that are available through ZMD."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"In addition to this, specific feedback on the improvement of existing ZMD Maprooms and development of new Maprooms was gathered. These requests and comments, which will be addressed in 2023 by the IRI and ZMD through the AICCRA project, are outlined below:"}]},{"head":"The Seasonal Climate Forecast Maproom","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"There was positive feedback on the Seasonal Climate Forecast Maproom and its presentation of the forecast in the flexible forecast format with probabilities of exceedance. In general, participants felt that the ability to see the probability of exceeding any given amount of rainfall (rather than having probabilities lumped into three terciles) was very beneficial and practical for decision-making and planning."}]},{"head":"3: Key Results and Findings","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"\"I feel like I'm sitting on a pot of gold-There is such a wealth of information in the Maprooms!\" -Kabenuka Munthali, Senior Agricultural"}]},{"head":"The New Python Maprooms","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"In a move to modernize and improve the ability of others to create and modify Maprooms, the IRI is working to transition the programming language with which they are made from Ingrid to that of Python. While most of ZMD's Maprooms have yet to be translated to Python, trainees at this workshop were exposed to three of ZMD's Maprooms that have already been translated to Python: the Planting and Harvest Decision Support Maproom (also known as the Onset and Cessation Maproom) and the Monthly Climatology Maproom, and the Seasonal Forecast Maproom. Generally, participants found these maprooms more visually appealing and intuitive."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"However, participants did make specific requests for improvement of these maprooms:"}]},{"head":"Monthly Climate Maproom","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Participants requested that the colour bar of this Maproom have more clearly contrasting colours to show the rainfall gradients (currently, there are just different shades of green). In addition, there are no units or labels included on the legend/colour bar (should be mm of rainfall) below the graphs, which participants requested to clearly label and add."}]},{"head":"For All Maprooms","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Many agricultural decisions in Zambia are made at the district level. However, the Maprooms do not have districts labelled. There was an emphatic request by all participants to therefore have districts clearly labelled on the maps, especially those that are downloaded, such that they can be more easily integrated with reports, communications, and other materials, and generally be useful in decision-making at and for the most local levels."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"In this same vein, for clarity of visualization, there was a unanimous request to be able to have other regions or districts masked out when one clicks on a certain area."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"If you click a location generally, as well, the location name does not come up in the new Python Maprooms."},{"index":4,"size":171,"text":"Lastly, while participants greatly appreciated the ability to download the Maproom outputs, the function to download outputs as a \"geotif\" was not working at the time of the training, resulting in an error message that read \"Error, Page Not Found.\" \"Climate information is very very critical in Zambia. When ZMD produces information and shares it with the agricultural sector, it has to be relevant, and it has to be user-friendly. And, for people to have the demand for it, they need to understand it. We need to transform it.\" For the Climate Monitoring Maproom, participants requested additional information and visuals to contextualize the outputs of this Maproom and more easily aid in interpretation and decision-making. In particular, in the \"Rainfall Anomalies\" output graph for a given location, there was a request to put the anomaly values as percentages of what is expected (the normal) for more context. It is currently unknown, for example, by looking at the graph, if 80 mm of rainfall is good or bad for a given area."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"In addition, there are some aspects of the Climate Monitoring Maproom (seasonal) that are not intuitive and should be adjusted. For example, when selecting a beginning and ending dekad for analysis, participants requested that the boxes to enter this information be placed side-by-side, on the same line (currently, one is in the menu bar and one in the graph)."}]},{"head":"Regular and Automated Updates of Underlying Data","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"While updated data exists up to 2021, there are areas of the ZMD Maprooms where data stops at much earlier years. For example, for all of the \"ENSO\"-related maproom products within the Climate Analysis (historical) tab of the Climate Maproom, the data (temperature, precipitation, etc.) stops at 2014. The data related to Niño is simply missing, but could easily be updating from global data automatically."}]},{"head":"Downloading, Saving, and Sharing Maproom Outputs","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Participants had a lot of feedback related to the ease of saving and sharing the Maproom outputs. In particular, if data is able to be delinked from the output products, participants wanted to be able to download maps and graphs within any given Maproom especially as a batch, rather than downloading each output one by one."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"In addition to this, participants complained that functions related to downloading Maproom outputs do not function ideally. In particular, when one downloads maps or graphs, the legends/keys must be downloaded separately. Participants requested that the \"Download\" function be automated such that maps/graphs and their corresponding legends are downloaded together (grouped) and with appropriately labelled units such that visuals are self-explanatory with minimum additional editing for use in decision-making."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"Lastly, while it is standard on the web to right click an image to download it, if one does this in any Maproom, a right click on a mouse within the Data Library is treated as a left click, and the Maproom will begin recalculating for a new location when all one wanted to do was save an image. Participants requested that this glitch be addressed. In terms of next steps, the detailed feedback outlined in the Results & Findings section needs to be addressed, including the improvement of existing Maprooms and development of new ones in line with identified priorities. These improvements and additions will be made in early 2023, and then another training will be held with these participants (led by the IRI) to ensure that they are capacitated in the use of these new and improved Maproom products through ZMD."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"In addition to this, the ENACTS Maprooms Users Guide for Zambia, which will walk users through the purpose of each of ZMD's Maprooms, as well as how to navigate and use them in great detail, should be completed to support the expanded utilization of these important climate information products in the agricultural sector."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Participants appreciated the hands-on nature of the training and the practical exercises to help them navigate the various Maprooms to answer common questions confronting those who work in the agricultural sector most. For future trainings, they requested that even more exercises be given after each Maproom is presented and explained rather than just at the end for the culminating group project, to better hone their skills and give them more confidence in navigating the tools."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"In this same vein, they requested to have more opportunities to present to their colleagues or that the final presentation be conducted as a group (such as with each member of the group presenting 1-2 slides), to ensure they are communicating effectively across sectors and for increased confidence in teaching for the ToTs. It was also suggested that group exercises might be done in pairs (one climate professional and one agricultural professional, for example) to promote interactions and improved communication between those who produce and those who ultimately tailor and promote the use of the climate information and products."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"Going forward, therefore, these pedagogical considerations will be taken into account by the IRI and incorporated in future trainings both within Zambia and elsewhere. They should also be incorporated to the extent possible by the trainees when cascading this training through the ToT approach within the participating institutions."}]},{"head":"4: Conclusions and Recommendations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Participants from ICRISAT and the MGEE work together to prepare their final group presentation. The project tied together training on all of the Maprooms by asking trainees to answer specific questions requiring the use of various Maprooms for a given location."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2 From November 7-November 11, 2022, a five-day training on the use of the Zambia Meteorological Department's Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS) Maprooms was implemented in Lusaka, Zambia by the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), in collaboration with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). "},{"text":"3A total of 21 participants from ZMD, ZARI, the MGEE, WARMA, the MoA, IWMI, and ICRISAT were capacitated on how to access, navigate, and use ZMD's suite of free online Maproom products for analysing past, current, and future climate in relation to the agricultural sector. Detailed feedback and priorities on the improvement of existing Maprooms and the development of new ones was gathered. to be trained on ZMD's existing suite of free online ENACTS Maprooms. development of new ones was gathered. The participants who were trained on climate basics and ZMD's Maprooms will share the knowledge, skills, and resources gained from the training with their institutional counterparts, following a training of trainers (ToT) approach in Zambia. "},{"text":" Participants of the November 2022 Training of Trainers (ToT) on the Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS) Maprooms forUsers pause for a group photo inside the Radisson Blu Hotel in Lusaka, Zambia. "},{"text":"Module 3 : Climate-Sensitive Agricultural Decisions strengthens participants' understanding of the interaction between climate and farm decision-making. It enables them to perform basic analyses of climate-sensitive farm management decisions under uncertainty. A number of factors, in addition to crop and livestock productivity, influence farm management decisions, particularly at seasonal and longer time scales. To equip participants Participants from the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD) practice navigating through different \"Maproom\" products available for the agricultural sector during a November 2022 training of trainers on the topic. The training provided an important opportunity for ZMD to interact with key institutions in the agricultural sector to better understand their climate information needs. ** **************************************************************** "},{"text":"6) Gather feedback for the improvement of existing Maprooms and the development of new Maprooms for the agricultural sector in 2023.The workshop was a training of trainers (ToT) of national ZMD staff, as well as other relevant staff from the Zambia Agriculture Research Institute (ZARI), the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE), the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). It also included staff from the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in order to examine how the Data Library and Maproom products might be integrated with the national ag-data hub currently under development through the AICCRA project. "},{"text":" ************************************************************* The Climate Monitoring Maproom "},{"text":" ************************************************************* "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" AICCRA Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension Refresher Training • 14 ** ** \"It is my wish that \"It is my wish that every person who is every person who is offering extension offering extension services or advisory services or advisory services have a taste services have a taste of what these of what these Maprooms are, Maprooms are, because the because the maprooms can help maprooms can help inform not only inform not only themselves, but also themselves, but also the farmers to the farmers to improve the kind of improve the kind of farming they are farming they are doing.\" doing.\" -Dominic Namanyungu, -Dominic Namanyungu, Principal Extension Principal Extension Methodologist, Zambian Ministry Methodologist, Zambian Ministry of Agriculture of Agriculture "}],"sieverID":"d237cd9f-f043-4620-a87e-447e59350a78","abstract":"A five-day training of trainers (ToT) workshop was implemented from November 7 to November 11, 2022, in Lusaka, Zambia by the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) in collaboration with the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The workshop, which was organized as part of the World Bank's Accelerating the Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project, brought together 18 participants from the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD) alongside the Zambia Agriculture Research Institute (ZARI), the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE), the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) to be trained on ZMD's existing suite of free online ENACTS Maprooms. The major objective of the workshop was to ensure that each of these institutions that play an important role in promoting the use of climate information and services and broader resilience of the agricultural sector are aware of and have the capacity to train users within Zambia on the best-available climate information products for decision-making. The ENACTS maproom products, which are freely available through ZMD's website, provide location-specific (4 km grid) historical, monitoring, and forecast information that is important for activities related to planning, monitoring, and response for the agricultural sector and wider food system."}
data/part_5/02dd26dd8f89798ad2fb2c95e27ef3b6.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"02dd26dd8f89798ad2fb2c95e27ef3b6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7998429a-b9db-4fff-afb2-b021783bddd0/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF FIGURES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Evidence and Action Towards Safe, Nutritious Food. In order to learn from past endeavors in Nigeria, a desk review of previous investments in food safety in Nigeria was undertaken using the available database of the Global Food Safety Partnership (GFSP), a public private initiative hosted by the World Bank. This effort is aimed at gauging the level of funding directed at food safety compared to other components of projects funded. The findings are expected to provide a better picture of the food safety investment situation at the country level. EatSafe also sees value in this review as a resource for policy makers who can use the findings to determine the food safety investments for the country, and to assess the need for increased donor support to fund food safety projects."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"In 2017-2018, the Global Food Safety Partnership undertook an intensive analysis of recent food safety investment in sub-Saharan Africa (2010-2017). The database was reviewed, and data specific for Nigeria extracted. A total of 45 projects were analyzed. Fifteen (15) lasted for at least one year and 18 were \"short-term\" (workshops and trainings). Six of the 15 (>1 year) projects were implemented in Nigeria only. The average food safety project in the country lasted three years and are currently coming to a close. A majority (>50%) of the projects were implemented by non-government entities. Nine of the 15 projects (60%) addressed aflatoxin, two were on microbiological hazards, and one was on pesticide reduction in cocoa."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Approximately half of the projects were focused on African markets versus export outside the continent. The public health link was not clear in majority of the projects. We could not find any project that specifically addressed food safety in informal markets focusing on the consumer and the related public health impact -EatSafe's proposition. In addition, we found very few rigorous evaluations of donor funded investments. However, the projects tended to focus on formal private sector enterprises and legislation which likely benefits the richer entrepreneurs and consumers more (than the domestic consumers)."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"The following conclusions can be drawn (based on findings from the Nigeria review):"},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"• current donor investment in food safety is focused on access to regional and overseas export markets; • there is an enormous under-investment in food safety relative to its public health and economic impacts; • risk-based approaches to prioritization and of incentive-based approaches to interventions are lacking, with too much emphasis on the \"trivial many\" hazards and not enough on the \"vital few\"; • evaluation is difficult to find and lacking in rigor; and lastly, • donors and national governments should consider a new strategic approach to capacity building."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"Food safety is a global public health concern. Contaminated food impairs food security and interferes with livelihoods. In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) analyzed 31 foodborne disease hazards and found their burden to be similar to that of major infectious diseases including malaria and tuberculosis (1). An estimated 600 million people became sick and 420,000 died that year. World Bank estimates that unsafe food costs about $110 billion in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) ($95.2 billion is lost productivity and $15 billion is medical cost/ year) (2). Another part of this study looked at the impact of an additional burden from four foodborne metals: this estimate that in 2015, ingestion of arsenic, methylmercury, lead, and cadmium resulted in more than one million illnesses, over 56,000 deaths, and more than 9 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) worldwide. It is likely that the impact in developing countries is even higher because of the inadequacies in surveillance systems and perceptions linked to foodborne diseases. Food safety will play a key role in achieving several of the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (2) (2, 3); ending poverty (SDG1), ending hunger (SDG2), good health and well-being (SDG3), gender equality (SDG5), clean water and sanitation (SDG6), decent work and economic growth (SDG8), sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11), and responsible production and consumption (SDG12)."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"Despite the fact that the impact of unsafe foods is better understood, policy makers have not given the topic the attention it requires (food safety only tends to capture attention when there is a crisis) (2,4). It is now evident that much of the previous attention has been on investments that promote access to regional and international markets (5); with less focus on safety of what is sold in domestic markets. There is no doubt that exports are important for national development, however, unsafe foods present significant challenges to domestic consumers who access much of their food through informal market channels (4). Fresh products are implicated in FBD outbreaks (6); animal source foods may be responsible for 35% or more of global burden of foodborne diseases (7) and vegetables transmit a number of foodborne pathogens (8). Besides animal source products and fresh produce, interventions should also consider safety of the \"ready-to-eat\" (street) foods, with the intention to safeguard the benefits they provide (9)."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"The Global Food Safety Partnership (GFSP) is a public-private partnership that fosters capacity building on food safety (https://www.gfsp.org/). The GFSP Food Safety in Africa database, released to the public in February 2019, contains 518 donor investments in food safety in sub-Saharan Africa from 2010-2017. The projects were identified through online, keyword searches and validated with each of the 31 donors (United Nations organizations, bilateral donors, multi-donor trust funds, foundations, and development banks). Reports on FAO and WHO activities from the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) Africa (10) and Capacity Building (11). Committees were also used to identify projects and activities, as were the WTO Committee on SPS communications regarding SPS-related technical assistance provided by the EU, US, Japan, and Canada since 2010 (12). Data on each project was obtained from official descriptions and report documents available online or through donors. Although it does not include 2018-2020 projects, the database is the most comprehensive compilation available and provides a fair basis for analyzing patterns and trends in food safety investments."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"For this analysis, the GFSP database was reviewed, and projects specific to Nigeria were extracted and synthesized into a report. We did not extend the analysis beyond the GFSP database, which covered 2010-2017 (final year was partial), and many of these investments are ongoing through 2020. The findings are expected to provide a better picture of the food safety investment situation at the country level and inform activities of the EatSafe project."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"In addition, policy makers can also use the findings to determine the food safety investments for the country and assess the need for increased donor support. It is the responsibility of national government to ensure safety of products available for consumption. They can use the resources that become available to implement projects that have clear links to public health, in addition to providing a regulatory mechanism that is supportive of the needs of the different food actors."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The Global Food Safety Partnership (GFSP) food safety database was sorted to include only those projects implemented in Nigeria. The development of the database is described in depth in the GFSP report (5). In brief, data was collected through public, online sources, with an emphasis on donor websites. Sources were searched using key words and a template was developed to extract information on each project. Summaries were shared with donor institutes to validate accuracy."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Number of investments","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"There were 15 investments lasting at least one year and 18 \"short-term\" projects (including workshops and trainings). Twelve additional projects were identified as having some food safety components. These were mostly focused on trade and market access for cash crops such as cashews, fruits, and vegetables. Results presented below are for the 15 investments (>1 year in length) and those that were focused on food safety. Forty percent (6) of these projects were implemented in Nigeria only. Among the regional projects, 4 projects were implemented in 6 or more countries, including Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Implementing organizations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Over half of the projects were implemented by non-government entities including international research organizations such as the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), global organizations such as the International Cocoa Organization (ICCO) and civil society organizations such as Rural Development Institute Ltd. (now Landesa) (collectively designated as non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The second most important implementors were multilateral organizations included FAO, WHO, and the African Union."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Other actors had minor roles (Figure 1). "}]},{"head":"Time of implementation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The number of projects trended up between 2010 and 2017 (Figure 2). Note that data collection only occurred through mid-2017, thus the apparent drop in project number that year is likely artificial. This growth may reflect the \"Trade not Aid\" strategy which became popular in the 2000s. Nigeria has a strong history of export of agricultural commodities, but recent decades have seen a decline of Nigeria's share of world agricultural exports and an increase in agricultural imports. Increasing numbers of projects is also compatible both with the growing consumer concerns over food safety, a common feature of urbanization, and growing donor concerns over food safety as evidence emerged on the enormous health and economic burden of foodborne disease in domestic (national) markets. "}]},{"head":"Duration of projects","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The average food safety project in Nigeria lasted 3 years. There were no projects lasting 6 or more years (Figure 3). Many development experts believe it is difficult to attain lasting change with short duration projects and that time frames of ten or more years are optimal for impact. The short duration of projects is, hence, unfortunate."}]},{"head":"Figure 3. Project Length","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"We identified 18 projects lasting less than 1 year (not included in the above analysis). Ten of these projects were implemented in Nigeria only, while the other 8 were regional/multicountry."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• USDA-FAS had 7 projects. These were trainings, workshops, and fellowships dedicated to HACCP, good laboratory practices, and food safety policy. USAID funded an additional 5 projects with similar themes."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• FAO funded a risk-based Microbiological Food Safety Management workshop and follow up (2 projects)"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• EC (DG SANTE) held 2 food testing workshops, on mycotoxins and veterinary drugs. DG DEVCO funded some work on the SPS harmonization within ECOWAS. Length of Nigeria FS projects (2010-2017) number of years"},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"• WFP reported investments in capacity building for high-level officials of public sector partners: the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) and the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). They aimed to build local capacity to certify safety and quality of locally procured foods and develop specific standards and specifications."}]},{"head":"Foods and hazards addressed","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Nine of the 15 projects (60%) addressed aflatoxin. According to the WHO, in the Africa D region where Nigeria is located, aflatoxins are responsible for 2% of the total domestic food safety disease burden. This focus on aflatoxins may reflect a lack of prioritization of domestic health or understanding on which are the priority hazards for human health. In addition, IITA is based in Nigeria and have been leaders in research into all aspects of aflatoxins, helping develop a powerful advocacy community to address this problem. Moreover, aflatoxicosis outbreaks have killed dozens of people in highly visible outbreaks: this makes them much more salient than the microbial \"silent killers\" which, while having many more victims, attract much less publicity."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Programs addressed one or more of the following commodities: groundnut (6 projects), maize and other grains (5 projects), chili peppers (1 project), sesame seed and sheanut butter (1 project). According to the WHO, most of these commodities are low risk commodities although several are exported and for several the main hazard is aflatoxin. This supports the prioritization issues highlighted by choice of hazard."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Two projects were focused on microbiological hazards in unspecified foods, and one project aimed to reduce pesticides in cocoa. The remainder of the projects dealt with Nigeria's national control system and food safety policy more generally, thus foods/hazards were unspecified. Most of the risky food (fresh animal source food and vegetables) are sold in traditional markets which are under-served by the national control system. Approximately half of the Nigerian FS projects were focused on African markets versus export outside the continent."}]},{"head":"Investment and Donors","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Budgets were not available for 3 food safety projects. The sum of the other 12 project budgets was $80.9M, split between the different focal donors (Table 1). The mean budget of the 12 programs was $7.5million, ranging from $165,000-$33.66M. Three multi-year programs had budgets over $10M: the 2 PACA (Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa) projects (phases I and II) and AgResults' Aflasafe™ Pull Mechanism Pilot Project, to Incentivize Adoption of aflasafe™. Unfortunately, it was not possible to define how much of a multi-country/regional project was spent in a single country. However, the total FS investment in Nigeria alone between 2010-17 over 6 projects was approximately $14M. World Bank estimates the cost of foodborne illness in Nigeria, in lost human capital alone, to be more than $6 billion USD per annum, showing a huge discrepancy between the investments and extent of the problem. Despite the exiguity of investments relative to the extent of the problem, Nigeria was among the top ten countries for investment in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Food Safety Activities","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Looking at the specific activities of all 45 food safety projects in Nigeria ('short' & 'long' term), the most common were: Although useful in other contexts, most of the activities were quite remote from benefiting the health of the poor domestic consumer. Public sector staff/certification and laboratory methods is often aimed at benefiting the export sector. Projects tended to focus on formal private sector enterprises and legislation which benefits the richer entrepreneurs and consumers. Research on hazards is most likely to support rational prioritization but this does not seem to translate to action on the ground. Only research on interventions is directly linked to reduction in risk (whether for domestic consumers or consumers of exported products is not clear)."}]},{"head":"Food safety & nutrition","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"While there has been considerable investment in improving nutrition in Nigeria, we found very little investment in Nigerian food safety (i.e. one that is directly tied to improving nutritional status in the country). A few large projects were designed to increase food safety and quality of fruits and vegetables (e.g. PIP2 and Fit for Market, funded by EC), but these were primarily concerned with securing market access abroad. Moreover, there was only one small investment, a Better Training for Safer Food workshop on food testing, that built food safety capacity related to animal source foods, which are important sources of protein."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Nigeria was one of four countries chosen for STDF's Total Diet Study (2014-2017) (Benin, Cameroon, Mali and Nigeria). The project value was $1,333,853. The study was restricted to chemical hazards such as persistent organic pollutants (PCBs and organochlorine pesticides), mycotoxins, heavy metals, veterinary drug residues, and pesticide residues (3). Eight study sites were involved including Nigeria`s Lagos (301 households) and Kano (765 households). A total of 872 analytes were screened. Exposure was determined by multiplying the estimated consumption (84 foods: units/kg bodyweight) with the mean occurrence of food chemical concentration (table 2). Exposure levels were then compared with the chemical hazard characterisation established by Joint Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and WHO Expert Committees. A total of 305 food chemicals were detected. No major public health issue was shown by arsenic, cadmium, and mercury."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Risk associated with dietary exposures to 68 detected chemicals was estimated (aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, 11 mycotoxins, 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and 39 pesticides), based on availability of toxicological references and in consultation with national stakeholders (3). Liver cancer cases per 100,000 per year was 0.4 (in Lagos) and 1.4 (in Kano). Fumonisin exposure beyond the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake was 12% (in Lagos) and 39% (in Kano). Ochratoxin A exposure beyond the provisional tolerable weekly intake was 0% (in Lagos) and 23% (in Kano). For lead, intelligence quotient point loss was 2.4 (in Lagos) and 4.4 (in Kano). Blood pressure increase due to lead (mm Hg) was 1.1 (in Lagos) and 2.2 (in Kano). For the 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, margin of exposure was 4226 (in Lagos) and 3657 (in Kano). "}]},{"head":"Evaluation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"We found very few rigorous evaluations of donor funded investments. In particular there was a paucity of peer-reviewed publications. Although information was not available in the sources we accessed, it is likely that many projects were not designed in a way which allowed evaluation. One of the few projects where evaluation was substantive and available was one of the largest -the AgResults project which aimed to leverage market mechanisms to reduce aflatoxin in maize in Nigeria at scale (13). Although this project was not without successes and benefits, its evaluation is illustrative of some of the challenges in trying to understand which donor investments are most impactful."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Our conclusions for Nigeria were not different from the overall conclusions of food safety investments in Africa."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"1. Current donor investment in food safety is substantially focused on access to regional and overseas export markets, with emphasis on oversight by national control systems to facilitate trade, but relatively little is being done to reduce foodborne illness among African consumers."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"2. There is enormous under-investment in food safety relative to the public health and economic impacts."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"3. There is an absence of risk-based approaches to prioritization and of incentive-based approaches to interventions."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"4. Evaluation is difficult to find and lacking in rigor reducing opportunities for learning from previous investments."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"5. Much donor investment involves training and laboratory activities that are not linked to a holistic strategy."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"6. Donors and national governments should consider a new strategic approach to capacity building. This new approach should have increased public health focus and investment and greater emphasis on harnessing consumer awareness and market forces to drive progress."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for Intervention Design and Future Studies under EatSafe","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"EatSafe [Nigeria] aims to generate the evidence and knowledge on leveraging the potential for increased consumer demand for safe food to substantially improve the safety of nutritious foods in informal market settings in Nigeria and other countries where EatSafe may operate. Central to EatSafe's work is understanding (and potentially shaping) the motivations, attitudes, beliefs, and practices of consumers and food vendors. While EatSafe will undertake novel primary research on consumer and vendor motivations and practices, it is essential to ensure that this work is informed by and builds on what has already been done-both in terms of methods used and results obtained. The following lessons emerging from this document can be considered to influence the design of EatSafe's interventions going forward:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• The interconnection between investments in food safety and potential positive public health outcomes and business partnerships in the food sector."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• To make it easier for operators in the informal sector to invest in food safety, the regulatory environment should be conducive to allow for continued food safety improvements and generating an environment for investment."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Investment to improve safety of foods sold through informal markets is key in safeguarding the health and wellbeing of domestic consumers (the majority of whom are dependent on these markets for their foods)."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"• Investments aimed at overcoming critical issues surrounding food safety in Nigeria require a multi-sectoral and consumer-centric approaches, considering that contamination can occur at any level of the food value chain, and should be considered when planning for interventions."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"• New Investments to support improvements in food safety in informal markets should recognize the interconnection between consumers, gender and individual roles, and tailor food safety training components and other technical assistance to reach actors at both the state and LGA level, including women, who stand to benefit the most, and translate such information to make greater impact on food safety in Nigeria."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"engage with public and private sector stakeholders to increase an aflatoxin-free food supply Strengthening the Nigeria National Food Control System and Safety To strengthen public health by reducing the risk of foodborne illness and protect consumers from unsanitary, unwholesome, mislabeled, and adulterated food. "}]},{"head":"Strengthening Safety Management System of Agricultural Products","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This programʼs aims are to encourage participants' comprehension of Japanʼs safety management systems of agricultural products and to enhance the participants' capacity for improving safety management systems of agricultural products in their countries through site visits and lectures by Japanese government officials, farmers, distributors and processors."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Japan 2015-2017 $165,000"},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Regional total diet study for sub-Saharan Africa Contribute to strengthen capacity of risk managers to implement international standards based on a good knowledge of hazards, risks and exposure levels to harmful substances in commonly produced and consumed food. The expected long term impacts of this project are threefold: (1) improved market access for producers of foodstuffs by increasing compliance with international standards;"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"(2) mitigated effects of poverty through the reduction of burden of foodborne diseases; and (3) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................................... 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 2. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 3. RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 3.1 Number of investments ................................................................................................................... 3.2 Implementing organizations ........................................................................................................... 3.3 Time of implementation .................................................................................................................. 3.4 Duration of projects ........................................................................................................................ 3.5 Foods and hazards addressed ....................................................................................................... 3.6 Investment and Donors ................................................................................................................. 3.7 Food Safety Activities .................................................................................................................... 3.8 Food safety & nutrition ................................................................................................................. 3.9 Evaluation ..................................................................................................................................... 4. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................ 5. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. APPENDIX ONE: PROJECT COLLABORATORS ............................................................ APPENDIX TWO: DESCRIPTION OF PROJECTS (2010-2017)...................................... APPENDIX THREE: LIST OF SHORT-TERM PROJECTS (2010-2017)........................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Project Implementors ....................................................................................................................................................... Figure 2. Project Number................................................................................................................................................................. Figure 3. Project Length...................................................................................................................................................................Figure 4. Top Ten Countries for FS Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa ........................................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 1. Project Implementors ....................................................................................................................................................... Figure 2. Project Number................................................................................................................................................................. Figure 3. Project Length...................................................................................................................................................................Figure 4. Top Ten Countries for FS Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa ........................................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Project Implementors "},{"text":" Figure 2. Project Number "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Top Ten Countries for FS Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa "},{"text":"FAO Cost effective, farmer-and environment-friendly biocontrol of aflatoxin in chili peppersTo test the efficacy of the aflatoxin biocontrol technology (aflasafe™) in chili peppers in Nigeria.Germany 2012-2013 . "},{"text":"TABLE OF CONTENTS "},{"text":"Table 1 . Investment in Nigerian FS Projects, by Donor (2010-2017) ........................................................................................... "},{"text":"Table 2 . HumanBelow is a list of all acronyms and abbreviations used in the report.Food safety is a global concern. It not only impacts human health but also food security and economic development. Starting in April 2020, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) started supporting a new five-year food safety project in Nigeria titled, EatSafe: BMGF Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation BMGFBill & Melinda Gates Foundation CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission CACCodex Alimentarius Commission DG DEVCO Directorate-General for International Cooperation and Development DG DEVCODirectorate-General for International Cooperation and Development DG SANTE Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety DG SANTEDirectorate-General for Health and Food Safety EC European Community ECEuropean Community ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ECOWASEconomic Community of West African States EU European Union EUEuropean Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAOFood and Agriculture Organization FBD Foodborne Diseases FBDFoodborne Diseases FS Food Safety FSFood Safety GFSP Global Food Safety Partnership GFSPGlobal Food Safety Partnership HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point HACCPHazard Analysis Critical Control Point ICCO International Cocoa Organization ICCOInternational Cocoa Organization IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IITAInternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture LMICs Low-and Middle-income Countries LMICsLow-and Middle-income Countries NAFDAC National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control NAFDACNational Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control NGO Non-Governmental Organizations NGONon-Governmental Organizations SDG Sustainable Development Goals SDGSustainable Development Goals SON Standards Organization of Nigeria SONStandards Organization of Nigeria SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary SPSSanitary and Phytosanitary STDF Standards and Trade Development Facility STDFStandards and Trade Development Facility US United States USUnited States USD United States Dollar USDUnited States Dollar USAID United States Agency for International Development USAIDUnited States Agency for International Development USDA-FAS United States Department of Agriculture-Foreign Agriculture Service USDA-FASUnited States Department of Agriculture-Foreign Agriculture Service WFP World Food Program WFPWorld Food Program WHO World Health Organization WHOWorld Health Organization WTO World Trade Organization WTOWorld Trade Organization "},{"text":"Table 1 . Investment in Nigerian FS Projects, by Donor (2010-2017) Amount of investment (USD) Number of projects Nigeria-only projects AgResults 12,680,000 1 1 AgResults12,680,00011 BMGF 36,920,000 4 0 BMGF36,920,00040 EC (DG SANTE) 1,176,550 1 0 EC (DG SANTE)1,176,55010 Germany n/a 1 1 Germanyn/a11 Japan 165,000 1 0 Japan165,00010 FAO 495,000 1 1 FAO495,00011 WHO n/a 1 0 WHOn/a10 USAID 22,399,856 5 2 USAID22,399,85652 STDF 7,057,602 3 1 STDF7,057,60231 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Human Dietary Exposure Levels in Lagos and Kano, Nigeria (3) Lagos Kano LagosKano "},{"text":"s exports of sesame seeds and sheanut/butter through improved SPS capacity building for private and public sector increased contribution of African countries to the work of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. To implement quality control along the sesame and shea product supply and value chains, rather than reliance on end-point food quality and aflatoxin analysis just prior to export. STDF 2014-2017 $1,206,208 STDF2014-2017$1,206,208 Expanding Nigeria'STDF 2010-2013 $545,040 Expanding Nigeria'STDF2010-2013$545,040 SPS capacity building SPS capacity building "},{"text":"in Africa to mitigate the harmful effects of pesticide residues in cocoa and to maintain market access STDF 2011-2013 $5,306,354 STDF2011-2013$5,306,354 "}],"sieverID":"59b09315-364c-497b-a2b8-fbcf69124ee8","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0321635808cf5e42a4b1f5065a2efe5d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6bc3e236-b93a-48ec-9a39-244802e4adbb/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Co-creation applied to digital innovations for smallholder farmers An example from Brazil","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Agricultural extension is centered on the idea of applying scientific research to agricultural practices through farmer education, aiming to empower farmers in improving their management, production, and marketing practices (Leite et al., 2021). Agricultural extension programs often rely on the transmission of technical content generated in academic environments with little or no direct connection to the reality experienced by farmers. These programs typically adhere to the conventional approach of technology transfer and knowledge diffusion, wherein the only valid knowledge is generated in academic settings or derived from the market. Information is imposed from the top down onto the farmers and local rural extension agents, who are expected to assume a passive position in relation to the \"holders of information.\" While such hierarchical knowledge structures have been predominant within industrial agricultural research and extension, the agroecology movement recognizes that incorporating localized expertise and traditional tacit knowledge from rural communities into academic-scientific environments is central to transforming food systems (Utter et al., 2021). The concept of co-creation has been consolidating as an alternative to the conventional model of knowledge diffusion for promoting the necessary changes in food production systems, especially in low-income regions and countries (Utter et al., 2021). Knowledge co-creation is understood here as the interaction among different actors who intentionally seek to integrate their knowledge, learning, and experiences in the pursuit of"}]},{"head":"KEY MESSAGES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"◼ The integration of local traditional wisdom with academic-scientific knowledge has the potential to generate innovative and more effective solutions to challenges faced by farmers."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"◼ Adopting co-creation in digital innovations can support digital tool development that better meets the needs and expectations of farmers and extension agents, fostering a sense of ownership and increasing adoption."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"◼ The experience of Solidaridad in the state of Pará, Brazil, illustrates how applying co-creation principles to the development of digital tools allows for the emergence of new innovations rooted in the needs of farming communities."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"◼ This example illustrates the dilemmas that may arise in the practical application of the Principles for socially inclusive digital tools for smallholder farmers and brings to light the limitations of developing co-creation through digital technology."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"solutions to common problems. Applied specifically to agricultural practices, it refers to the collaborative development of farm practices among farmers, researchers, technical advisors, and others. It is framed as an approach of social inclusion to support farmers' agency, ability to express their needs and perspectives, and to make informed decisions (Dittmer et al., 2022)."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"Concurrently, with a wider interest for co-creation approach, traditional agricultural extension methods are undergoing transformation driven by the proliferation of digital tools for advisory services. Digital tools are framed as a way to overcome challenges of rural extension in accessing farmers in remote areas and are disrupting the way knowledge is transferred to farmers. Digital technologies are reshaping how information about practices, processes, and work organization is disseminated (Schnebelin et al., 2021). The widespread availability and affordability of mobile phones and internet access, even in isolated regions and low-income countries, is making it possible to break the longstanding isolation from knowledge, information, and connections experienced by farmers (Fabregas et al., 2019)."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"However, the positive impacts of using digital tools for agricultural extension are still modest (Coggins et al., 2022)."},{"index":8,"size":173,"text":"In a study by the Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS) on the status of digital advisory services across Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia, a very low number of digital rural advisory services manage to effectively onboard and retain users over time and survive beyond the pilot phase (Larsen and Keller, 2023). One of the factors that may explain this scenario is that many digital solutions designed to facilitate rural advisory services often lack an attractive value proposition for the end user, whether it be the farmer or the extension agent. The most common business model among digital tool developers relies on delivering services in exchange for the information provided by the user. This tends to bias the value proposition of the product or service toward favoring data collection over delivering services and benefits to the end user. As a result, it is common that the farmer or extension agent struggle to use the tool or simply do not derive value from its use, discontinuing using the tool after one experience."},{"index":9,"size":38,"text":"In this context, applying co-creation principles to the development of digital tools emerges as a potential avenue to address these limitations and genuinely provide value to farmers as they strive for more productive, profitable, and climate-resilient production systems."},{"index":10,"size":70,"text":"The approach and methodology adopted at each stage of the ATDT project carried out by the Alliance of Biodiversity and CIAT and Solidaridad in the Brazilian Amazon were grounded in the Principles for digital development (2022) and the Principles for socially inclusive digital tools for smallholder farmers (Dittmer et al., 2022), providing a practical example of the application of these principles and the challenges and trade-offs it entails (Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Approach adopted in the context of the ATDT project in Brazil and results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Situated in the heart of the legal Amazon region, the state of Pará stands out as one of Brazil´s major cattle hubs. The deforestation rate is still alarmingly high due to agricultural expansion, despite significant progress in recent years. With 95% of smallholder-farms in the region not receiving any type of technical assistance service, it is a pivotal area for the development of a low-carbon beef cattle production system. Solidaridad has been working in the Southeast and Southwest Pará, in the municipalities of Novo Repartimento, Pacajá and Anapu, for over 10 years, focusing on developing and implementing with farmers a production model that promotes an increase in family income, while ensuring a reduction in carbon emissions and deforestation. The rural extension model developed by Solidaridad incorporates the use of digital tools to systematize information and facilitate the dissemination of technical content, following a conventional model of knowledge and technology diffusion. The approach taken within the framework of the ATDT project involved a fundamental reconsideration of this conventional top-down approach to the use of digital tools for agricultural extension. The framework aims to combine top-down (expert-to-farmer) with bottom-up (farmer-to-expert) and peer-to-peer (farmer-to-farmer) modes of communication to increase farmers´ agency and create practical conditions for the co-creation of locally relevant practices."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"The first step was to engage a diverse group of farmers and local extension agents. The next step was to foster an environment conducive to farmers expressing their needs and perceptions of the challenges to dissemination and adoption of low-carbon practices and to the emergence of new ideas for practical solutions and strategies, including digital tools, to overcome these challenges. For that purpose, a round of in-person participatory workshops was carried out in the territories, involving in total 90 people, including 15 Solidaridad's extension staff, five digital tool developers and 70 farmers with diverse profiles. Farmers raised a significant number of challenges centered around the accessibility of pertinent and locally tailored information. This extends beyond technical and productive aspects to encompass crucial sociocultural considerations and the importance for farmers to identify with the information sender. The significance of local influencers and success stories within the community emerged as pivotal in building trust and guaranteeing that action is taken towards the adoption of new practices."},{"index":3,"size":195,"text":"These insights shaped the requirements and specifications for new digital innovations developed by Solidaridad. The first step of the co-creation process resulted in the design and prototyping of a new digital tool, Solis, that builds on applications and social media widely used by producers and extension agents and on an existing Solidaridad mobile application to support extension staff in their daily routine, called Extension Solution. Solis encourages two-way interaction between extensionists and farmers and fosters the co-creation and sharing of audiovisual content on locally relevant practices among farmers and local agents (see this presentation on the development of Solis, 2023). On Solis, farmers can access the list of priority practices and individual guidance provided by their extension officer, update status of tasks, upload evidence and request validation from the extensionist. The most innovative part of the app is the social and gamified experience to encourage users to create their own videos, upload them on existing video platform (such as YouTube, Kwai, TikTok), interact and cooperate with other users online and offline. The end goal is to create and sustain a community-driven repository and social mechanisms to foster and sustain the generation and sharing of knowledge."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"Three months after the co-creation workshops, Solidaridad's team went back to the field to share a beta version of Solis with the farmers, get their feedback and start the second phase of the co-creation process, consisting in producing collaborative audiovisual content about production practices for publication on Solis. The feedback from the farmers and extension agents who participated in the session were incorporated in the 1.0 version of the app, which was launched one month later. During the activation sessions, the farmers were invited to access Solis, share their feedback on the product and to volunteer to record the first videos to be published on Solis."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"The next steps, planned for 2024, will focus on organizing dissemination and activation activities to scale the use of the tool, provide user support, and monitor the uptake and usage of the tool."}]},{"head":"Dilemmas in applying co-creation to digital innovations and example of practical solutions","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Building on trusted relationships while acknowledging and addressing potential social desirability bias","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"There is no co-creation without trust, and building trust with farming communities takes time. A key success factor in creating the conditions for a genuine engagement and co-creation process with farmers has been the diversity of the skills and perspectives from the members of the Solidaridad team involved in this project, combined with the existence of a long-standing trust relationship between the organization and the farmers community. The multidisciplinary team, composed of developers, UX/UI specialists, product analyst and rural development professionals with field experience in the region, made it possible to build an approach that resonated with the language and mindset of farmers while following the process for digital product development. However, the team acknowledged that farmers engaged in the co-creation process were already beneficiaries of Solidaridad´s technical assistance and could inhibit the expression of challenges or unmet needs, either due to a fear of displeasing Solidaridad's technical staff or a desire to be positively perceived by the Solidaridad team."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Researchers are aware of this kind of social desirability bias: the desire to be viewed positively or avoid criticism can influence people to present themselves in a more favorable light, potentially distorting the true picture of their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. Attempting to minimize this potential bias, a limited number of Solidaridad staff attended each session, participating as unobtrusive observers during the discussions. While the existing trust relationship remains the key factor for successful, enduring, and high-quality engagement in an authentic cocreation process, it is crucial to be mindful of the impact of social desirability mechanisms and to adopt measures to try to limit them."}]},{"head":"Ensuring inclusion of diverse farmers while harnessing the enthusiasm of early adopters","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Engage diverse farmers is the first Principle for digital tool use and co-creation of best practices with farmers and a well-established pre-requirement for designing inclusive digital products. This requires gathering baseline data to understand the types of diversity among the targeted population (e.g., gender, age, language, ethnicity, land tenure, etc.), define subgroups relevant to the local context, and plan activities to enable genuine participation of individuals from these various subgroups."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"In any collaborative project, existing social relations and power relations may affect actors' willingness to share their opinion or advocate for their own needs priorities or even inhibit participation of specific groups."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Observations from previous interventions in farming communities indicated that women and young men and women often tend to be inhibited in the presence of older male producers. Conversely, older producers may experience discomfort discussing about digital tools in the presence of younger individuals, who are generally more acquainted and at ease with technology. To minimize the biases that may arise from existing or perceived power dynamics, the workshops with farmers were organized in non-mixed groups (respectively composed of women, young men and women, and men farmers) and in small settings, so that each participant could feel comfortable sharing their perspective."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"In this farming community, women tend to be more involved in administrative and farm management activities, sometimes having a higher level of education than men, and are generally more accustomed to using digital tools."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"In this context, it proved to be more effective to prioritize the engagement of young people and women in the design of the digital innovations and in the co-creation of practices as they tended to be more comfortable with the use of digital tools and the production of audiovisual content in the workshops."},{"index":6,"size":168,"text":"The proactivity of these individuals identified as \"digital early-adopters\" has been strategic for initiating the process of collaborative content creation, but it also poses challenges in terms of inclusivity as their ownership of the process may influence the format and type of content and result in an unintentional exclusion of older farmers that may not identify with the tool. Meeting high standards of inclusivity is crucial to ensure that nobody is left behind, but it is also important to recognize that some profiles of producers do not have an affinity for technology. In these cases, seeking solutions for their inclusion in the process should extend beyond digital innovations, involving the creation of alternative forms of participation not directly reliant on digital tool usage. In the case of Solis, encouraging younger producers to capture video and conduct interviews with their more experienced counterparts, valuing their knowledge and enabling them to contribute to the co-creation of practices without being direct users of the tool is an approach to be tested."}]},{"head":"Building on existing digital resources while mitigating secondary negative impacts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"In addition to collecting data on users' profile to understand diversity of profiles and socio-cultural norms, it is essential that the baseline for the development or scaling of digital tools includes a deep dive into the existing digital infrastructure and the determining factors associated with the use of digital technology. This encompasses factors such as the availability, coverage, and quality of broadband, as well as the affordability, type of devices (e.g., feature phones or smartphones) and digital services utilized by the target group. In the context of this project, nearly all farmers have a smartphone and use WhatsApp for farming activities and daily communication."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"While mobile internet coverage is relatively limited in the region, the overwhelming majority of farmers have a stable on-farm internet connection facilitated by satellite technology."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"One noteworthy insight shared by young farmers and women regarding their actual use of digital tools was their reliance on social media, such as WhatsApp, TikTok, Instagram, and Kwai, to access information about production, despite the challenges they may encounter in accessing the internet, including cost and poor signal quality. Building upon this insight, the development team made two decisions:"},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"◼ Use WhatsApp as the point of entry to Solis: A valuable lesson from Solidaridad´s past experiences developing digital solutions is the process of downloading, installing, and creating an account is a challenge for older farmers compared to their younger counterparts. Therefore, it is essential for the initial access and registration process to be extremely simple and tailored to this audience. To address the difficulties faced by producers less familiar with using applications, Solis employs a technology that eliminates app store search, download, and registration hassles. Producers can access Solis through a link shared by extensionists on WhatsApp, requiring internet for automatic download only before offline use."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"◼ Use existing social media as the service to upload and publish content: once the video is published on these platforms, content can be embedded and shared on Solis."},{"index":6,"size":105,"text":"While capitalizing on the current high engagement level of producers on these applications and reducing storage costs, this approach has a downside, which is the dependency on external platforms that may not adhere to the principles of digital development. The lack of control over external platforms raises concerns about privacy and potential misuse of content shared on these platforms, as farmers may inadvertently expose sensitive data or compromise privacy when sharing information on these platforms. It is therefore essential to consider these risks and implement measures to ensure that farmers have a comprehensive understanding of the potential consequences associated with sharing data on such platforms."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"Navigating diverse needs and prioritize ideas within budget and time constraints, while avoiding user frustration and maintaining their engagement"},{"index":8,"size":101,"text":"Applying the principles of co-creation concept to the development of digital innovations starts with the creation of a conducive environment for the emergence of new ideas generated by the farmers themselves. This engagement of farmers from the early stage of ideation is crucial for creating tools that fit local needs and context, and for ensuring ownership, facilitating greater tool adoption and continued use. However, this also creates the challenge of managing expectations to prevent frustrations that could lead to disengagement. Prioritizing ideas based on time and budget constraints is inevitable and must occur early enough in the process, with clear communication."},{"index":9,"size":161,"text":"In this project, farmers proposed numerous solutions to address specific challenges in farm and livestock management. These suggestions encompassed tools for expense and income management, access to meteorological and market information, or health and animal weight management tools. When prioritizing the design of digital innovation, the development team thoroughly considered all these ideas, considering feasibility within time and budget constraints, potential for scalability and the versatility of the proposed solutions to address a wide range of needs expressed by farmers. While tools focused on digitizing specific aspects of the production or farm management process would bring significant benefits to producers, they would be confined to very specific value propositions with limited scaling potential. Moreover, solutions to fulfill these needs are already available in the market and could be introduced to farmers with proper support and training. The development team therefore opted to prioritize the primary overarching challenge identified by farmers: the absence of locally relevant and customized information on low-carbon practices."},{"index":10,"size":111,"text":"When the development team returned to the field to present the first version of Solis to the farmers and get their feedback, particular attention was given to communication to explain why this idea was prioritized over other needs and avoid creating frustrations. As stated in the \"design with the user\" principle of The Principles for digital development, it is critical to maintain a strong proximity to users and embrace an iterative process, that allows for incorporating feedback and adapting the tool after the initial testing and launch. Transparent communication regarding budget and time constraints and the logic of prioritization is also crucial for maintaining trust in the process and sustaining engagement."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"Facilitating information flows among farmers while ensuring quality of content and easy access"},{"index":12,"size":163,"text":"Facilitating information flows among farmers, and between farmers and advisors is a sub-principle for digital tool use and co-creation of best practices with farmers (Dittmer et al., 2022). It also forms the core value proposition of Solis, stemming from the recognition that farmers are eager to share their own experiences and learn from \"familiar faces.\" The content quality and technical validity of co-created practices is key to ensure that Solis effectively helps farmers transition to low-carbon and climate-resilient production models. Developing costefficient mechanisms for the curation and classification of content becomes an essential requirement to ensure the tool's credibility while facilitating access and retaining users. However, to expand access to tens or hundreds of thousands of users, the publication, curation, and classification of content cannot be managed manually. This brings forth a dilemma: while co-creation inherently entails direct and human interaction among farmers, researchers, extension staff and other custodians of knowledge, the scalability imperative dictates the automation of certain facets of the process."},{"index":13,"size":201,"text":"In the case of Solis, the development team is exploring how to incorporate Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence technologies-already widely utilized by platforms like YouTube and Instagram for content management -to support the curation of co-created content. However, it is also clear that sustaining a genuine process of co-creation of practices requires ongoing in-person support activities in the field. Solis is not intended to replace face-to-face interactions among or between farmers and extension staff. Instead, its purpose is to complement and enhance spontaneous exchange within communities and during rural extension events. In essence, Solis was conceived as a social technology, harnessing the power of a digital tool to facilitate the establishment of an \"informational solidarity network\" aimed at supporting individual and collective capacitybuilding and decision-making by using content generated by the community. For this reason, the deployment strategy of Solis will involve the formation of a specialized team for content creation and social media management, as well as a specialist in agroecology to provide individualized assistance in the field and coordinate engagement actions for producers and other extension technicians with the new digital tool. Local agents will also be trained to as ambassadors for agroecology and the digitization of their communities."},{"index":14,"size":37,"text":"Although the use of digital technology is the enabler of this new format of exchange between farmers, extension workers and other specialists, the challenge of content curation also highlights the limitations of developing cocreation through digital tools."},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"Creating the support ecosystem needed for adoption and retention while ensuring a sustainable business model"},{"index":16,"size":44,"text":"The need to provide support through human intermediaries to help farmers adopt the tool also poses a financial challenge: how to develop a sound business model that facilitates affordable farmer access while covering the costs of maintaining a digital tool and the support system?"},{"index":17,"size":133,"text":"Developing and maintaining a support infrastructure for the use of digital tools by smallholder farmers includes dissemination and activation campaigns, training and user support activities, and complementary engagement activities to enable continuous creation and updating of content and co-creation of practices. These activities incur a high cost that, unlike maintenance costs of a digital tool, does not decrease significantly with scale. One of the most common business models in the space of digital solutions for small-scale producers is to monetize the data collected from farmers to provide intelligence services to other stakeholders in the value chain. This model may require making trade-offs with the principles of using farmers' data responsibly and its implementation requires caution to preserve producers' privacy and ensure they provide informed consent for all type of uses of their data."},{"index":18,"size":57,"text":"At this stage of the process, Solidaridad is still refining the business model for Solis, in complementarity with other digital solutions in its portfolio and is considering moving towards a hybrid business model, combining grants, government support and fees for services derived from the use of Solis, while keeping Solis fully free for farmers and extension staff."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The experience of The Alliance of Biodiversity and CIAT and Solidaridad illustrates the transformative potential of applying co-creation principles to the development of digital tools within the context of agricultural extension, but also provides a practical example of the dilemmas and challenges this entails. Leveraging digital tools to enable cocreation of practices requires a paradigm shift in how rural extension programs are conceived and executed, as well as a different approach to digital product development to ensure the needs and expectations of intended users are, and remain, at the forefront of the process."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Initial findings and reactions to the new digital development suggest that the co-creation approach, coupled with local capacity building, holds significant potential for uncovering solutions aligned with farmers' expectations, provided that all actors remain aware that digital technology will not replace human interactions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Principles for socially inclusive digital tools for smallholder farmers to scale informed-agroecological transitions for agriculture "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"92a40dca-9e65-4f94-b63f-057a3a9deec0","abstract":"This policy brief summarizes key learnings derived from the initial phase of a project carried out by the Alliance of Biodiversity and CIAT and Solidaridad in the Brazilian Amazon. The project as part of the Agroecological TRANSITIONS program's Inclusive Digital Tools (ATDT) project. ATDT aims to promote innovations related to digital tools that enhance inclusiveness, integrate climate change resilience and mitigation with agroecological aims, and enable climateinformed agroecological transitions at scale. Drawing insights from this experience, this brief shares reflections on the success factors and dilemmas encountered, as well as practical solutions to overcome them."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"03564f360f5ecae8f3a6328b13b2e391","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/936abd04-946c-4b8a-b381-68c969e4fc21/retrieve"},"pageCount":55,"title":"","keywords":["diversity","biomass","carbon","forests","hut fields","bush fields","Kolda"],"chapters":[{"head":"RESUME","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":360,"text":"La dégradation de la forêt provoque une perte de carbone et contribue indirectement au changement climatique. Ainsi, l'objectif de cette étude est d'évaluer la contribution des systèmes d'utilisation des terres de la commune de Coumbacara à l'atténuation du changement climatique à travers une estimation de la diversité ligneuse et de leur stock de carbone. Ainsi, un inventaire de la végétation ligneuse a été réalisé sur 72 placettes de 30 m x 30 m dans les forêts adjacentes aux champs et de 50 m x 50 m dans les champs de case et de brousse. Les mensurations ont porté sur la hauteur totale (m), le diamètre à hauteur de poitrine (DBH) ≥ 10 cm et le diamètre du houppier (m) des individus des espèces ligneuses. En plus de la diversité de cette végétation, les données dendrométriques collectées ont permis d'élaborer la structure de la végétation ligneuse, d'estimer la biomasse aérienne et souterraine ainsi que les stocks de carbone à l'aide des équations allométriques. Dans les forêts adjacentes aux champs, ce sont les Combretaceae (61,9%) et les Mimosaceae (52,4%) qui dominent. Le peuplement ligneux de ce système d'utilisation des terres a une structure de type exponentiel décroissant avec une densité moyenne de 4,92 ±0,39 pieds/ha. La richesse spécifique moyenne est de 7,85±3,48 espèces. Le carbone qui y est stocké s'élève respectivement de 1,57± 0,19 tC/ha pour la biomasse épigée et de 1,58±0,57 tC/ha pour la biomasse hypogée. Au niveau des champs de brousse et des champs de case, les Anacardiaceae et les Malvaceae sont les plus fréquentes. Ces systèmes agroforestiers ont une structure de type exponentiel décroissant pour les champs de brousse et une structure irrégulière pour les champs de case. La densité moyenne y est de 3,01±0,57 pieds/ha (champs de brousse) et de 1,89±0,65 pieds /ha (champs de case). Les champs de brousse ont une richesse spécifique de 3,31±1,82 contre 1,63±1,09 espèces pour les champs de case. En outre, les quantités de carbone stockées dans la biomasse aérienne de ces systèmes sont respectivement de 1,05 ±0,3 tC/ha et 0,99 ±0,51 tC/ha pour les champs de brousse et de case contre 0,51±0,37 tC/ha et 0,54±0,49 tC/ha pour la biomasse souterraine des ligneux."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Mots clés : diversité, biomasse, Carbone, champs de case, champs de brousse, forêt, Kolda i Introduction L'atténuation des effets néfastes liés au chamgement climatique est devenue une urgence mondiale comme en témoigne les multiples conférences et accords sur le climat (Luedeling & Neufeldt, 2012). Malgré celà, le réchauffement climatique est sans équivoque (Ekoungoulou et al., 2014) avec des conséquences sur l'homme et son écosystème. En zone tropicale, depuis 1990, le changement d'usage des sols émet annuellement environ 15 à 25 % de Gaz à Effet de Serre (GES), avec comme principal facteur la déforestation (Angelsen & Rudel, 2013 ;Ahmad et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"Au Sénégal, les changements de la couverture végétale se font à un rythme inquiétant. Ainsi en Haute-Casamance, entre 1987 et 2018, 66 485,5 ha des forêts claires et 36 470,6 ha de la savane boisée ont été déboisés entrainant un accroissement de 71 995,9 ha des zones de culture qui ont augmenté et de 48 711,6 ha de la savane arborée à arbustive (Solly et al., 2020). Ainsi, cette dégradation du couvert végétal, par le biais des phénomènes anthropiques ou naturels, conduit à la libération de carbone dans l'atmosphère (Brown, 2002). En plus de cette source de Gaz à Effet de Serre (GES) liée au changement de couverture, il existe d'autres sources notamment l'agriculture, l'énergie, l'industrie, le transport, le bâtiment et le traitement des déchets entre autres (Folega et al., 2011 ;Solly et al., 2018 ;Kombate et al., 2019 ;Folega et al., 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":183,"text":"En effet les écosystèmes terrestres sont menacés et font face aux effets des concentrations de GES notamment la forte variation des précipitations, les inondations, la sécheresse et l'augmentation des températures (Gibbs et al., 2007 ;Diwediga et al., 2017). Ainsi, il s'avère nécessaire de développer des stratégies qui fassent de la forêt, un lieu de stockage de carbone plutôt qu'une source de carbone (Dimobe, 2017). Pour ce faire, le mécanisme de Réduction des Emissions issues de la Déforestation et de la Dégradation des forêts (REDD) fut introduit en 2005 à la onzième Conférence des Parties (COP11) tenue à Montréal et révisé à la COP13 tenue à Bali en 2007. On assista ainsi au passage de REDD à la REDD+, qui vise à réduire les émissions liées à la déforestation et la dégradation des forêts et engage désormais les actions qui contribuent à augmenter les stocks de carbone forestier dans les pays en développement (Angelsen et al., 2013). En effet, les forêts jouent un rôle essentiel dans le bilan global de carbone en réabsorbant près de 30% du CO 2 anthropique total émis (GIEC, 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"Aussi pour satisfaire les besoins de la population africaine grandissante en terres arables, l'accent est de plus en plus mis sur la promotion des systèmes agroforestiers qui sont des systèmes diversifiés et écologiquement durables (Saj et al., 2013). Les multiples avantages qu'ils procurent à l'environnement et aux populations en termes de séquestration de carbone ont fortement influencés sur le choix des axes de recherche dont, la quantification du stock de carbone dans le contexte des changements climatiques (Kumar and Nair, 2011). Les études réalisées par plusieurs auteurs montrent que ce système agroforestier présente un fort potentiel de stockage de carbone par rapport à la monoculture (Kumar and Nair, 2011 ;Diatta, 2015). D'autres auteurs ont ainsi estimé les stocks de carbone dans des parcelles d'application et de diffusion de technologies agroforestières approvées au Mali (Takimoto et al., 2008) et au Sénégal (Woomer et al., 2004;Tschakert et al., 2004;Liu et al., 2004)."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"A ces travaux s'ajoutent les études portant sur les estimations de la biomasse forestière et le potentiel de séquestration de carbone des écosystèmes (Feldpausch et al., 2012 ;Fayolle et al., 2013 ;Chave et al., 2014) (Djemde, 1999)."}]},{"head":"Systèmes agroforestiers","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"La définition de l'agroforesterie officiellement adoptée par le World Agroforestry Centre (WAC) est celui de Nair (1993) qui est l'un des pionniers de l'agroforesterie. Selon cet auteur, « l'agroforesterie consiste en l'association délibérée d'arbres et de cultures végétales et/ou animaux sur une même parcelle sous tout autre forme d'arrangement spatial ou temporel, et dont les interactions (écologiques et/ou économiques) entre les composantes arborées et non arborées sont significatives ». Ainsi l'agroforesterie a pour but d'optimiser les interactions entre les composantes ligneuses et non ligneuses pour assurer une bonne production. Elle vise aussi à assurer le maintien de la fertilité et conserver le sol donc sa durabilité. En effet les ressources nécessaires pour le développement de l'agroforesterie comprennent les ressources matérielles, des sols adaptés, la main d'oeuvre, le financement, et le suivi (Baets et al., 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Ainsi, trois critères ont été définis pour distinguer ce qui est ou pas de l'agroforesterie (Gold et al., 2000). Un système agroforestier doit répondre à chacun des trois critères dont intensionnel, intégré et interactif."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":" Pour le critère intensionnel, les combinaisons de cultures, arbres et ou d'animaux sont conçues, aménagées ou gérées d'une façon intensionnelle et produisent de multiples produits, services ou bénéfices, contrairement aux éléments qui peuvent se trouver sur un même espace mais qui sont gérés séparément."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":" Quant au critère intégré, les composantes des pratiques agroforestières sont associées fonctionnellement et structurellement dans un seul système intégré qui permet de répondre au besoin des usagers ; cela réfère autant à l'intégration de plusieurs éléments sur un seul espace physique qu'à l'intégration des objectifs de production et environnementaux."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":" En fin, pour le critère interactif, il est stipulé que l'agroforesterie manipule et utilise les interactions biophysiques entre les composantes du système afin de récolter de multiples produits et, parallèlement, de fournir des services et des bénéfices écologiques et environnementaux. Young (1989), il existe une diversité de systèmes agroforestiers qui répondent à ces critères en zone tempérée. Les plus importants pratiques et aménagements rencontrés sont : la culture en couloir, les haies vives, les brises vents, les cultures sous couvert arboré, etc. Les systèmes agroforestiers assurent ainsi deux fonctions à savoir la fonction de production et la fonction de service. La classification des systèmes agroforestiers se focalise sur la nature des composantes associées, la répartition spatiale et la durée de l'association (Béer et al., 2003). Il existe différents types de systèmes agroforestiers suivant l'association des composantes à savoir :"}]},{"head":"D'après","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":" le système agrosylvicole qui se défini par l'association des arbres et des cultures pérennes ;"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":" le système sylvopastorale qui est l'association des arbres et des animaux ;"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":" le système agrosylvopastorale qui consiste en l'association des arbres, cultures et/ou animaux."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Suivant la répartition des composantes dans le temps et dans l'espace on distingue les systèmes agroforestiers séquentiels et les systèmes agroforestiers simultanés."},{"index":5,"size":167,"text":"Les systèmes agroforestiers sont reconnus comme présentant un potentiel énorme en termes de séquestration de carbone. Ainsi l'IPCC (2000) a estimé que si les 630 Mha de terres dégradées et les pâturages étaient aménagés en agroforesterie, 586 Gg C.an -1 seraient potentiellement séquestrés d'ici 2040. En effet, contrairement, aux pratiques agricoles où le stockage de carbone se fait uniquement dans le sol, les systèmes agroforestiers peuvent stocker du carbone dans la biomasse aérienne, dans la biomasse racinaire ou souterraine et dans le sol. D'après Nair et al. (2009a), les stocks de carbone dans la biomasse aérienne des systèmes agroforestiers tropicaux varient de 6 à 172 Mg C.ha -1 et ceux dans la biomasse souterraine (racines grossières) ; de 1 à 20 Mg C.ha -1 avec des types de densités d'arbres très différents suivant les systèmes. Nair et al. (2009b) ont également donné des valeurs indicatives de stocks de carbone du sol, et des potentiels de séquestration de carbone pour différents types de systèmes agroforestiers en milieux tropicaux."}]},{"head":" Biens et services des systèmes agroforestiers","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Selon Daily et al. (1997), les services écosystémiques peuvent être définis par « les bénéfices apportés aux sociétés humaines par les écosystèmes ». Pour ce faire, les auteurs du Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) ont classé les services écosystémiques en quatre grandes catégories à savoir les services d'approvisionnement, les services de régulation, les services culturels et les services de soutien ou d'entretien (Barnaud et al., 2011;Salles, 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Le service d'approvisionnement donne des produits issus des écosystèmes tels que la nourriture, les médicaments pour la population et le fourrage pour les animaux. Ce service peut être aussi source d'énergie pour les ménages urbain et ruraux (Ngom et al., 2014) et fournisseur de bois de service et d'artisanat (Camara et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Le service de régulation contribue à conserver les ressources en eau, à purifier l'eau et atténuer les effets du changement climatique par le biais de la séquestration du carbone atmosphérique à travers la photosynthèse (Boffa, 2000). Par ailleurs l'association des arbres et des cultures crée un microclimat propice au bon développement des cultures en jouant un rôle de régulateur thermiques par leur ombrage (Diédhiou, 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Les services culturels apportent des bénéfices immatériels issus des écosystèmes à travers le spirituel et la religion, l'esthétique, le loisir, le cognitif, l'écotouristique et les systèmes de savoir (MEA, 2005)."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Enfin, le service d'entretien ou de soutien intervient aussi dans le cycle des nutriments, la pédogénèse, le cycle primaire, les flux organiques par leur capacité à produire de la biomasse recyclable et l'augmentation du taux d'humus (Sarr et al., 2013)."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"Ces biens et services écosystémiques montrent que l'agroforesterie peut être un espoir de l'humanité pour créer une Agriculture Intelligente face au Climat (AIC) et ainsi aussurer une sécurité alimentaire durable et une réduction de la pauvreté des couches vulnérables. Ceci permettra de garantir la préservation des forêts de notre planète pendant encore très longtemps (Agridape, 2011). Plus de 100 millions d'hectares de forêts dans le monde souffrent de diverses agressions : incendies, action des ravageurs, maladies, espèces envahissantes, sécheresse et événements climatiques dommageables (FAO, 2012). L'expansion de l'agriculture reste le facteur principal de la déforestation, de la fragmentation des forêts et de la perte de biodiversité qui en résulte (Gibbs et al., 2010)."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"Au Sénégal, en zone soudano-guinéenne, la végétation est caractérisée par des espèces subguinéennes comprenant Khaya senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. , Afzelia africana Smith ex Pers., Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir., Daniella oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. & Dalziel., Chlorophora regia (A.Chev.) C.C.Berg, Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn., etc. La strate herbacée est constituée de graminées grossières telles que les Andropogon associées à Spermacoce stachydea (Boyé, 2001). Cependant les menaces qui pèsent sur les ressources génétiques forestières sont nombreuses et variées tels que la sécheresse, l'érosion éolienne, la salinisation, l'acidification, les feux de brousse, l'exploitation forestière, les défrichements agricoles, le surpâturage (Solly, 2020)."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"Ces forêts, qui représentent un réservoir exceptionnel de carbone et de biodiversité, offrent selon (Dalimier et al., 2021), des moyens de subsistance et de nourriture et jouent un rôle social et culturel essentiel pour les peuples autochtones et les communautés locales."}]},{"head":"Changement climatique","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Causes et conséquences","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":359,"text":"Le changement climatique se présente comme des déviations de la climatologie régionale déterminée par l'analyse des mesures à long terme, généralement sur une période d'au moins 30 ans (IPCC, 1998). Les changements climatiques sont causés par les modifications de l'atmosphère qui proviennent de sa transformation chimique par les GES (Camirand et Gingras 2011). Ainsi, les GES absorbent en partie les rayons solaires (infra rouges) réfléchis par la terre. Ces derniers sont répercutés au niveau de la surface du sol entrainant le réchauffement de la surface du globe. En l'absence GES la plus grande partie de la chaleur pénétrant dans l'atmosphère terrestre serait directement réémise dans l'espace, et la température moyenne de la terre serait de -18 °C au lieu de 15 °C (GIEC, 2019). La perturbation de l'équilibre atmosphérique, liée à l'augmentation des GES, se traduit par une augmentation des températures moyennes sur la terre, modifiant ses caractéristiques physiques, chimiques et biologiques. En effet, la période préindustrielle (1850-1900) est marquée par la hausse de la température moyenne de l'air à la surface des terres émergées devenant supérieure à la température moyenne à la surface de la planète (GMST). Ainsi, le Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat (GIEC) a comme objectif à long terme de contenir l'élévation de la température moyenne de la planète nettement en dessous de 2 °C par rapport aux niveaux préindustriels et de poursuivre l'action menée pour limiter l'élévation de la température à 1,5 °C par rapport aux niveaux préindustriels (GIEC, 2018). Selon les prévisions du GIEC avec ce rythme actuel des émissions, le seuil de 1,5 °C sera franchi d'ici 2040. Le changement climatique est une réalité et leurs effets se font de plus en plus sentir. Parmi ceux-ci on peut citer l'élévation des températures, les inondations, les sècheresses, la réduction des rendements des cultures et de la productivité agricole, les approvisionnements incertains en eau, la migration accrue de la flore et de la faune, la fonte des glaciers et l'augmentation de la fréquence de l'intensité des incendies de forêts en raison des sècheresses (Opere et al., 2011). Les impacts biophysique, social ou économique du changement climatique, sont donc une source de grande préoccupation."}]},{"head":"Stratégies d'adaptation et d'atténuation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"Pour faire face aux aléas du changement climatique, des stratégies d'adaptation et d'atténuation ont été mis en place. La capacité d'adaptation est définie comme la capacité d'un système à s'accommoder aux changements climatiques, à atténuer les dommages potentiels, à tirer des avantages ou opportunités, ou à faire face aux conséquences (IPCC, 2001). En outre l'adaptation consiste à utiliser des ressources naturelles comme la plantation d'arbres résistants à la sècheresse (Boven et Morohashi, 2002) ou à pratiquer des systèmes agroforestiers qui jouent un rôle important dans la protection des terres de culture contre l'érosion et les tempêtes de sable, contribuant ainsi à une production agricole et une sécurité alimentaire durables (Agobia, 1999). L'atténuation du changement climatique est une intervention anthropique pour réduire les sources ou renforcer les puits de GES (Larwanou et al., 2011). Le Protocole de Kyoto relatif à la CNUCC adopté en 1997 est entré en vigueur en 2005. Il a mis en place un cadre pour la mise en oeuvre des politiques climatiques nationales et a stimulé la création de marché du carbone et de nouveaux mécanismes de flexibilité (la mise en oeuvre conjointe (MOC), et le Mécanisme de Développement Propre (MDP) qui pourraient servir de base à de futurs efforts d'atténuation (Geoff, 2009). Les mesures d'atténuations dans le secteur forestier sont conçues de façon à réduire les émissions dues au déboisement et à la dégradation des forêts, à conserver et à renforcer les stocks de carbone forestiers et à gérer durablement les forêts (Chidumayo et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Séquestration et stockage de carbone (C)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"Les concepts de stockage et de séquestration du carbone sont intimement liés. La séquestration de Carbone est le processus correspondant à un stockage du carbone dans le système sol-plante. En effet, les plantes fixent le carbone lors de leur croissance à partir du CO 2 présent sous forme dissoute dans les océans ou sous forme gazeuse dans l'atmosphère (GIEC, 2003). La séquestration (ou fixation) du carbone est le processus de captage et d'incorporation du carbone dans la biomasse de l'arbre. Tandis que le stockage du carbone par l'arbre est la quantité de carbone accumulée dans sa biomasse. Ainsi le stockage de carbone (C) atmosphérique dans le sol ou dans la végétation est une alternative permettant d'atténuer la concentration des GES dans l'atmosphère. Bien que l'émission de ces gaz soit un phénomène naturel, on assiste à l'augmentation de leurs concentrations pendant la période préindustrielle (GIEC, 2018). Ainsi, le dioxyde de carbone (CO 2 ), le méthane (CH 4 ) et l'oxyde nitreux (N 2 O) sont les principaux GES. Pour faire face aux augmentations de la teneur de ces GES, des méthodologies sont mises en place afin de réduire les émissions en augmentant leurs séquestrations et leurs stockages dans des compartiments stables. Ainsi les compartiments considérés comme puits potentiel de carbone sont la plante et les océans."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Selon Follett (2001), le sol constitue un important réservoir de carbone est estimé à 1500 Gt de C organique dans le premier mètre ; réservoir 2 à 3 fois plus élevé respectivement que ceux de la végétation (600 Gt de C) et l'atmosphère (780 Gt de C). Certains systèmes d'utilisation des terres notamment les systèmes agroforestiers permettent de séquestrer du carbone dans le sol et la plante. Ce système permet à la fois de stocker du carbone dans la biomasse végétale et dans le sol via l'association de l'arbre dans le système de culture et/ou élevage (Nair et al., 2009a)."}]},{"head":"Potentiel de stockage de carbone dans les systèmes d'utilisation des terres","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Selon Dixon (1995), l'agroforesterie présente un double avantage à savoir l'augmentation du captage du CO 2 tout en diminuant l'émission des Gaz à Effet de Serre causée par la déforestation et l'agriculture migratoire. Dans la zone soudanienne du Bénin, Saidou et al."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"(2012) ont montré que le stock total de carbone dans le parc à karité (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Gaertn.) et néré (Parkia biglobosa Jacq. G. Don) est de 32,62 t Cha -1 soient 20,17 t Cha -1 pour la biomasse aérienne vivante, 4,25 t Cha -1 pour la biomasse souterraine, 2,35 t Cha -1 pour la matière organique morte et 5,85 t Cha -1 dans le sol. Au Sénégal, l'espèce Faidherbia albida (Del.) Chev. a généré 11 Mg Cha -1 (Ndour et al., 2020). Au Burkina Faso, Ouedraogo et al."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"(2019) ont montré que dans la savane, le carbone stocké dans la biomasse épigée s'élève à 17,66 ± 22,05 t Cha -1 et celui de la biomasse hypogée ainsi que de la végétation herbacée ont été respectivement de 2,28 ± 2,41 t Cha -1 et de 1,39 ± 0,61 t Cha -1 . Au niveau d'une plantation de Tectona grandis L. f. et d'une zone agroforestière, les quantités de carbone contenues dans la biomasse aérienne ligneuse ont été respectivement de 54,38 ± 12,04 t Cha -1 et 2,50 ± 3,28 t Cha -1 contre 7,09 ± 1,40 t Cha -1 et 0,35 ± 0,42 t Cha -1 dans les racines. Au Sénégal, les résultats de Diatta (2015) ont montré que le carbone stocké dans la biomasse végétale et le sol varie en fonction de l'espèce, de la technologie agroforestière et de la texture du sol."},{"index":5,"size":113,"text":"Faidherbia albida a plus de potentiel de stockage de carbone dans les systèmes agroforestiers suivi de Acacia raddiana , de Neocarya macrophylla (Sabine) Prance, de Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. et enfin de Euphorbia balsamifera qui emmagasine la plus petite quantité de carbone. De même, Diatta (2015) a également noté que les jachères, les parcs arborés et les parcours naturels peuvent stocker respectivement une quantité de 40 Mg C. ha -1 , 36 Mg Cha -1 et 27 Mg Cha -1 . Selon Nair et al. (2009b), le stockage de carbone dans le sol et la plante varie suivant les systèmes et est compris entre 0,3 à 15 Mg Cha -1 an -1 ."},{"index":6,"size":516,"text":"Cette caractérisation de l'évaluation du potentiel de stockage de carbone de la végétation ligneuse est rendue possible grâce à la mise au point d'équations allométriques (Panzou et al., 2016). biomasse aérienne à l'échelle des arbres et des forêts (Stephenson et al., 2014). Cependant, dans certaines études, la hauteur de l'arbre était absente dans les prédicteurs. En effet, elle a été incluse pour une meilleure précision des équations (Djomo et al., 2011). Toutefois, la validité des équations pantropicales de Chave et al. (2005) en Afrique tropicale a été fortement discutée. La limite majeure serait liée à l'absence de données provenant des ecosystèmes d'Afrique tropicale dans la calibration des équations. En ce qui concerne les forêts de type « Dry », les prédictions, testées dans trois sites du Nord-Est de la Tanzanie dans les forêts claires de type Miombo sur 167 arbres répartis entre 1 et 110 cm de diamètre, montrent une sous-estimation systématique de la biomasse des arbres de l'ordre de 10 à 20 % (Mugasha et al., 2013). Dans les forêts de type « Moist », l'équation a été validée au Sud-Est du Cameroun dans une forêt dense humide de transition entre les types de forêt sempervirent et semi-caducifolié sur 138 arbres répartis entre 5 et 192 cm de diamètre (Fayolle et al., 2013). Le modèle a aussi été validé au Nord-Est de la République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) dans les forêts denses humides semi-caducifoliées sur 12 arbres répartis entre 24 et 52 cm de diamètre (Ebuy et al., 2011). Par contre, des biais importants de 10 et 40 % ont été identifiés respectivement dans les forêts sempervirentes du Ghana sur 42 arbres répartis entre 2 à 180 cm de diamètre (Henry et al., 2010) En effet les conditions climatiques locales ont été prises dans les climatologies maillées mondiales, qui utilisent les données de stations météorologiques disponibles (New et al., 2002 ;Hijmans et al., 2005). Les variables de températures et de précipitations ont été acquises de la base de données WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005), qui rapporte des valeurs climatiques moyennes quadrillées pour la période 1950-2000. Ainsi les données de stress hydrique ont permis de prédire la forme des équations allométriques. Des variables dendrométriques à savoir le diamètre à hauteur de poitrine (cm) et la hauteur totale de l'arbre H (m) ont été relevés pour chaque arbre de même que la densité du bois q (g/cm 3 ), et la biomasse aérienne (AGB) total (kg) obtenue par séchage au four. Lors de l'abattage, les arbres ont été pesés frais et leur volume frais mesuré ensuite le poids du bois a été converti en poids sec au four et le taux d'humidité a été calculé. Cependant pour les arbres les plus gros, il n'était généralement pas pratique de peser l'individu entier, de sorte que le volume de bois a souvent été déduit à partir de considérations géométriques (Henry et al., 2010), et le volume de bois a été converti en poids sec en multipliant le volume par la densité du bois (Chave et al., 2009) La commune de Coumbacara appartient au domaine sud soudanien continental (Sagna, 2005)."}]},{"head":"Equations allométriques","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Caractérisé par une saison des pluies de juin à octobre et une saison sèche de novembre à mai, la température y varie entre 28 et 40°C avec un vent chaud et sec. La mousson marque le début de la saison des pluies qui souffle du Sud au Nord. La pluviométrie dépasse généralement 1 000 mm.an -1 et le nombre de jours de pluie varie selon l'année (ANSD, 2015). "}]},{"head":"Méthodes utilisées","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Pour la collecte des données, un inventaire de la végétation ligneuse et une mesure des paramètres dendrométriques des individus recensés ont été effectués. les espèces qui n'ont été identifiées sur place, des photographies de différents parties (feuilles, fruits, tronc, etc.,) ont été réalisées et des échantillons collectés pour une identification au laboratoire à l'aide de documents de la nomenclature (Berhaut, 1967 ;Giffard, 1974 ;Tourneux et Yaya, 1998 ;Arbonnier, 2009) et d'autre fonds documentaires de la flore (Ndiaye, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Inventaire floristique","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Photo 1: parcelles de champs de case « Bambé » (A) ; champs de brousse « Nguéssa » (B) ; forêts « Ladé » (C). Le diamètre exprime la grosseur d'une section d'arbre (Rondeux, 1993). Le diamètre à hauteur de poitrine (1,3 m au-dessus du niveau du sol) des arbres a été mesuré à l'aide d'un compas forestier. Cependant quand il est supérieur ou égale à 100 cm, c'est la circonférence du tronc qui est mesurée à l'aide d'un ruban métrique. Il existe des cas particuliers qui nécessitent un réajustement de la hauteur de mesure du diamètre ou de la circonférence."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":" Lorsque la forme du tronc de l'arbre n'est pas cylindrique, le diamètre maximum et le diamètre minimum sont déterminés pour une déduction de la valeur du diamètre moyen qui est retenu comme le diamètre du tronc de l'abre dans la base de données. "}]},{"head":" Equitabilité de PIÉLOU (J')","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Il permet de mesurer l'équitabilité des espèces du peuplement par rapport à la répartition des individus entre l'ensemble des espèces."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"H'= indice de SHANNON-WEARVER et S = richesse spécifique La valeur de l'équitabilité varie de 0 à 1. Elle tend vers 0 quand la quasi-totalité des effectifs des individus est concentrée sur une espèce, et vers 1 lorsque toutes les espèces ont la même abondance (Ramade, 1990)."}]},{"head":"Estimation de la biomasse et du stock de carbone","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Détermination de la biomasse aérienne et souterraine des espèces ligneuses","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"La biomasse aérienne (AGB) est déterminée à partir des équations allométriques applicables pour les espèces végétales des forêts tropicales. Le choix de ces équations est fonction du nombre de paramètres qu'elles intégrent (diamètre, hauteur et densité spécifique du bois) et de leur simplicité (Abani, 2012). En effet, pour l'estimation de la biomasse souterraine, l'équation de Cairns et al. (1997) est appliquée. En outre la densité du bois est prise dans la base de données de l'ICRAF wood density et de celle de Zanne et al. (2009). Cette méthode est la plus utilisée en matière de quantification de la biomasse forestière et du stock de carbone (Bakayoko et al., 2012). Elle présente l'avantage d'être rapidement opérationnelle en termes de temps et de coût d'estimation. Cependant, plusieurs auteurs ont souligné que l'utilisation de ces équations allométriques en dehors des sites pour lesquels elles ont été développées pourrait entrainer des biais au niveau des estimations (Panzou et al., 2016). Cependant, tenant compte des révisions des études de Chave et al. (2005) "}]},{"head":"Caractéristiques structurales et dendrométriques de la végétation ligneuse des SUT","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"L'analyse de variance portée sur les valeurs normalisées des paramètres structuraux de la végétation ligneuse a montré une différence significative entre les systèmes d'utilisation des terres (Tableau 3). Les valeurs des paramètres struturaux à savoir la densité moyenne, le taux de couverture moyen et la surface terrière moyenne sont plus élevés au niveau de la forêt avec respectivement 4,92 ind. ha -1 ; 4,05% et 0,16 m²ha -1 . Les donnnés des ces paramètres dans les champs de brousse (3,01±0,5 ind. ha -1 ; 2,45±0,88% et 0,035±0,034 m²ha -1 ) sont ainsi plus faibles que celles des forêts mais plus élevés que celles enrégritrées dans les champs de case"},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"(1,89 ± 0,65 ind. ha -1 ; 1,91 ± 1,12% et 0,046 ± 0,054 m²ha -1 ). Le groupe 2 (cluster 2) met en évidence les espèces qui caractérisent les champs de case et qui sont fortement corrélées à la dimention 2 (axe des ordonnées). Il s'agit spécifiquement de Mangifera indica et Adansonia digitata."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Le groupe 3 (cluster 3) illustre les forêts qui sont fortement corrélés à la dimension 1 (axe des abcisses). Ce groupe est caractérisé par les espèces Combretum glutinosum, Terminalia macroptera, Piliostigma reticulatum, Prosopis africana, Lannea acida. (Assogbadjo et al., 2021). La structure et la distribution spatiale des parcs à baobab dans la zone d'étude sont également en partie déterminées par des facteurs socio-économiques et culturels (Bationo et al., 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Le dernier groupe représente les forêts où dominent Combretum glutinosum, Terminalia macroptera, Piliostigma reticulatum, Prosopis africana, Lannea acida. Ce groupe renferme plus de Combretaceae. Il regroupe des espèces capables de coloniser facilement le milieu avec comme conséquence leur dominance et une modification de la structure ligneuse (Mbow et al., 2005). Selon Diatta, (2019), les Combretaceae constituent un indicateur pertinent pour mesurer l'état de la végétation, mais également la pression anthropique sur les ressources."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"L'estimation de la biomasse aérienne (AGB) et souterraine (BGB) des espèces ligneuses a été faite à l'aide de l'équation de Chave et al. (2014) et de Cairns et al. (1997) Il apparaît ainsi nécessaire de mettre en place une politique de restauration de ces milieux anthopisés afin d'accroitre leur potentiel de séquestration de carbone en vue d'une meilleure contribution à l'atténuation des effets du changement climatique."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":17,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1 : Carte de découpage administrative de la commune de Coumbacara. .................................... "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2 : dispositif des placettes d'inventaire des systèmes d'utilisation des terres, réadapté (Faye et al. (2008)) ................................................................................................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3 : dendromètre Blum Leiss (A) et diagramme de la méthode de mesure de la hauteur (B). ..... "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4 : distribution des individus du peuplement ligneux par classes de hauteur selon les différents SUT de la commune de Coumbacara .................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5 : distribution des individus du peuplement ligneux par classes de diamètres selon les différents SUT de la Commune de Coumbacara ................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6 : diagramme de l'Analyse en Composantes pricipales (ACP) du cercle de corrélation des systèmes d'utilisation des terres (F1= Champs de Case ; F2= Champs de brousse et F3= Forêts). ...... "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7 : diagramme de la classification hiérarchiques des espèces sur les composantes principales. ............................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8 : carte de la typologie des SUT sur la base des paramètres de stockage du carbone générée par l'ACP ............................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":" Une équation allométrique est une estimation directe ou indirecte d'une quantité, d'une production entre autres en fonction des outils de prédiction établis par certains auteurs (la biomasse totale ou partielle d'un arbre, stock de carbone, etc., pour cette étude). Selon Chave et al. (2005), les outils les plus importants de la biomasse sont le diamètre, la hauteur totale et la densité du bois. Dans une première approche, des équations allométriques pantropicales ont été développées par Brown et al. (1989) puis Chave et al. (2005) séparément pour les forêts de type « Dry » (pluviométrie < 1500 mm, saison sèche > 5 mois), « Moist » (pluviométrie 1500-3 500 mm, saison sèche 1-5 mois) et « Wet » (pluviométrie > 3 500 mm, saison sèche < 1 mois). Les équations pantropicales développées par Chave et al. (2005) ont largement été utilisées en Afrique tropicale. Ces équations ont permis de convertir les données de diamètre, issues d'inventaires forestiers, et de densité du bois, provenant de bases de données, en "},{"text":" et dans les forêts de transition du Nord-Est du Gabon sur 101 arbres répartis entre 11 à 109 cm de diamètre(Ngomanda et al., 2014). Dans une seconde approche,Feldpausch et al. (2012) ont proposé deux équations pantropicales de type « Moist » incorporant des données de biomasse pour 116 arbres d'Afrique tropicale dans leur construction. Ces équations ont trois outils, le diamètre, la densité du bois et la hauteur totale. Ainsi, les études sur l'appliquation des équations allométriques de Chave et al. (2014) ont été menées en Afrique, en Amérique Latine, en Australie et en Asie du sud. Il faut également noter que ces équations sont une révision des études de Chave et al. (2005) et Feldpausch et al. (2012). En effet les données sont recueillies dans 58 sites d'étude avec 4 004 arbres mesurés individuellement. Cependant 20 sites d'étude avec 1 481 arbres ont été pris dans l'étude de Chave et al. (2005) dont tous les paramètres dendrométriques sont disponibles. Les sites inclus dans cette base de données comprennent 1 429 arbres dans le domaine afro-tropical y compris le Madagascar, 1 794 arbres en Amérique latine, et 781 arbres en Asie du Sud-Est et en Australie. Cette compilation a été réalisée entre 2008 et 2013. "},{"text":" . Les résultats de Chave et al. (2014) montre que, lors de l'estimation la biomasse aérienne (AGB) avec ces trois paramètres ρ* D²* H, le modèle pantropical apparaît le mieux adapté. Le calcul est éffectué par la formule suivante : ( ) ρ : Densité spécifique du bois (g/cm3) H: Hauteur (m) D : Diamètre à hauteur de poitrine d'homme (cm) 1.6. Valorisation économique du stock de carbone Le Protocole de Kyoto prévoit des engagements de réductions pour certains pays dont ceux indrustrialisés et des mécanismes de flexibilité. Ainsi ce protocole a mis en place trois mécanismes de flexibilité, il s'agit de la Mise en OEuvre Conjointe (MOC) du Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP) et le marché de permis d'émission(Murphy et al., 2009).Concernant le marché de permis d'émission, chaque pays industrialisé ayant ratifié le protocole, reçoit une allocation initiale de permis d'émissions (ou droits à émettre) correspondant à son engagement de réduction. Les permis sont détenus par les gouvernements des pays du Nord qui peuvent se les échanger. Dans ce système, un objectif de réduction des émissions est fixé avec la possibilité d'échanger des permis. Cependant, une entreprise qui ne respectera pas ses engagements se verra attribuée une pénalité de 100 € (à partir de 2008) par tonne de CO 2 émise en plus de son quota (Hamon et al., 2009). Les systèmes de marchés de permis ou quotas d'émission ont montré leur efficacité économique pour résoudre des problèmes environnementaux. Un objectif d'émission totale est fixé et les acteurs réduisent leurs émissions en fonction de leurs coûts de réduction et de la valeur du permis d'émission. Pour La Mise en OEuvre Conjointe (MOC) ou Joint Implementation (JI) et le Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP) ou Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), dans le cadre de ces mécanismes, des projets génèrent des crédits proportionnellement à leur contribution à l'atténuation du changement climatique et peuvent les vendre à des pays industrialisés ayant ratifié le protocole (Winebrake et al., 1995). En effet les projets éligibles sont le boisement, le reboisement, les plantations à usage multiple et les systèmes agroforestiers. Il est à noter que ces projets sont une source de financement et de promotion de l'arbre dans les systèmes agraire. Au-delà de l'échange de permis il est possible d'effectuer des transactions entre un projet et une entité désireuse de compenser ses émissions. Le projet peut être de réduction d'émissions (projet énergétique ou industriel) ou d'absorption (projet forestier). L'objectif de ces mécanismes est de faciliter la transmission de fonds et de technologie aux pays en voie de développement pour qu'éventuellement ceux-ci soient en mesure de contrôler leurs propres émissions (Péltier et al,. 2007).Egalement une stratégie a été développée, qui fait de la forêt un lieu de stockage de carbone et non une source(Dimobe, 2017). En effet, le mécanisme de réduction des émissions issues dela déforestation et de la dégradation des forêts (REDD) fut introduit en 2005 à la 11 ème conférence des parties (COP11) tenue à Montréal et révisé à la 13 ème conférence des parties (COP13) à Bali en 2007. Par conséquent le mécanisme REDD a été étendu à REDD+ qui comprend également des mesures de conservation des stocks forestiers existants, la gestion durable des forêts et l'accroissement des stocks de carbone forestiers par le biais de la restauration ou de la plantation de nouvelles forêts (Angelsen et al., 2013). A ce titre, l'émergence du mécanisme de REDD+ dans le marché carbone a conduit à une demande d'informations crédibles, accessibles et actualisées sur les stocks de carbone, souligne Brown (2002). Elle permet aussi de récompenser les individus, les communautés, les projets et les pays qui réduisent les émissions de Gaz à Effet de Serre (GES) liées aux forêts. Le mécanisme REDD est en mesure de réduire en peu de temps et à faible coût les émissions de CO 2 tout en contribuant en même temps à la réduction de la pauvreté et au développement durable. a été menée dans la commune de Coumbacara, située dans l'arrondissement de Mampatim à 63 Km de la commune de Kolda. Celle-ci polarise 59 villages et couvre une superficie de 342 km² (PLD, 2011). La population est de 13 014 habitants pour une densité moyenne de 38 habitants au km². La commune est limitée au nord par les communautés rurales (CR) de Bagadadji, Dialembéré (ex CR de Dabo) et Mampatim, à l'Est par le fleuve Thiayanga qui la sépare de la communauté rurale Ouassadou, au Sud par la République de Guinée Bissau et à l'Ouest par la communauté rurale de Guiré Yoro Bocar (ex CR de Salikégné). Cette commune a été répartie en 6 zones en tenant compte des aspects socioculturels, économiques et agro-écologiques (PLD, 2011). Ces zones sont : Coumbacara, Diambourcombo, Bambadinka, Dialacoumbi, Saré Niyel et Thidelly (Ndiaye, 2020). "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1 : Carte de découpage administrative de la commune de Coumbacara. Source : DTCG-2013 et Diva-Gis.org "},{"text":" Un inventaire floristique a été effectué dans six villages (Thidélly, Coumbacara, Saré niyel, Bambadinka, Diambourkombo et Dialacoumbi) de la commune de coumbacara choisis suivant les six zones définies par le PLD (2011). Pour ce faire, un échantillonnage aléatoire et simple a été effectué suivant un transect qui concerne les trois unités d'utilisation de terres que sont les champs de case « Bambé », des champs de brousses « Ngessa » et les forêts adjacentes « Ladé ». Dans chaque village, 12 placettes ont été installées suivant les quatre points cardinaux (Est, Ouest, Nord et Sud) dont 8 placettes dans les systèmes agroforestiers (champs de case et champs de brousse) avec une dimension de 50 m * 50 m et 4 placettes dans les forêts adjacentes avec une dimension de 30 m * 30 m(Ilboudo, 2018). Chaque point cardinal a trois (3) placettes dont une placette dans les champs de case, une placette dans les champs de brousse et une placette dans les forêts adjacentes qui sert de témoin. Au total 72 placettes devraient être installées, mais 62 ont pu être installées sachant que les 10 placettes manquantes correspondent soit à des vallées ou à des lieux de cullte (cimetières, etc.,) et le rapprochementdes villages. Pour la délimitation des placettes, la méthode 3-4-5 du théorème de Pythagore a été utilisée avec un ruban mètre et des piqués. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2 : dispositif des placettes d'inventaire des systèmes d'utilisation des terres, réadapté (Faye et al. (2008)) Dans chacune des placettes installées, l'ensemble des espèces ligneuses ont été inventoriées. Sauf les individus des espèces ligneuses dont le DBH est inférieur à 10 cm qui sont considérés comme régénération dans cette étude, (Kebenzikato et al., 2014). Cet inventaire a permis d'apprécier la diversité floristique pour chaque faciès ou système d'utilisation des terres. Pour "},{"text":" Figure 3 : dendromètre Blum Leiss (A) et diagramme de la méthode de mesure de la hauteur (B). "},{"text":" Photo 2 : Mesure du diamètre du tronc (DBH) avec un compas forestier (A) et de la circonférence du tronc avec un ruban mettre (B). Le diamètre du houppier est mesuré à l'aide d'un ruban métrique. Pour ce faire, deux mesures croisées ont été effectuées au niveau de chaque arbre (Est-Ouest et Nord-Sud) puis le diamètre moyen du houppier a été calculé. "},{"text":" [-1,0587 + 0,8836 × In (AGB)] Cairns et al. (1997)  AGB = Biomasse aérienne ligneuse (Kg) ;  BGB=Biomasse racinaire ligneuse (Kg) ;  ρ : Densité spécifique du bois (g/cm3) ;  H: Hauteur (m) ;  D : Diamètre à hauteur de poitrine d'homme (cm) ;  ln = logarithme népérien. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4 : distribution des individus du peuplement ligneux par classes de hauteur selon les différents SUT de la commune de Coumbacara "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5 : distribution des individus du peuplement ligneux par classes de diamètres selon les différents SUT de la Commune de Coumbacara "},{"text":"Forêts d'utilisation des terres ; *** traduit le degré de significativité P<10 -3 . Les chiffres suivis de ± représentent l'écart type. Les chiffres reliés par les mêmes lettres, sur la même colonne, ne sont pas significativement différents.3.1.5. Typologies des espèces en fonction des systèmes d'utilisation des terresLa Figure6ci-dessous est une représentation de l'analyse en composantes principales de la matrice des systèmes d'utilisation des terres et la fréquence des espèces inventoriées. Les deux premiers axes absorbent 90,8% de l'information. Ainsi, les champs de brousses (F2) et les Forêts (F3) sont fortement et positivement corrélés à l'axe des abcisses avec des valeurs respectives de 50,90% et 40,51%. Par contre, les champs de Case (F1) sont positivement corrélés à l'axe des ordonnées avec une contribution de 80,17 % sur cette dimension. La première dimension (axe des abscisses) représente des SUT relativement peu anthropisés liés à l'éloignement des concessions (champs de brousse) alors que l'axe des ordonnées est caractérisé par les SUT des champs de case qui sont fortement anthropisés. "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6 : diagramme de l'Analyse en Composantes pricipales (ACP) du cercle de corrélation des systèmes d'utilisation des terres (F1= Champs de Case ; F2= Champs de brousse et F3= Forêts). "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7 : diagramme de la classification hiérarchiques des espèces sur les composantes principales. "},{"text":" La présente étude a pour objectif d'évaluer la diversité et d'estimer la biomasse aérienne et souterraine ainsi que le stock de carbone des arbres dans les systèmes d'utilisation des terres de la commune de Coumbacara. Il est ressorti de cette étude que les forêts adjacentes aux champs sont caractérisées par une forte densité, une diversité élevée et une faible hauteur et diamètre des arbres. La quantité de biomasse produite et la quantité de carbone stockée y sont plus importantes. Quant aux champs de case et aux champs de brousse, ils sont caractérisés par une diversité et une densité faible et par une hauteur et un diamètre du tronc des arbres relativement élevés. La biomasse produite et le stock de carbone y sont relativement élevés. Ces résultats permettent d'affirmer que la biomasse et le stock de carbone des ligneux évoluent suivant un gradient décroissant d'anthropisation des formations naturelles plus stables (forêt) vers celles perturbées (champs de case et champs de brousse). Toutefois, ces dernières destinées à l'agriculture ont un potentiel de stockage de carbone relativement élevé qui mérite d'être préserver. "},{"text":" "},{"text":"estimer la biomasse aérienne et souterraine et leur stock de carbone dans les systèmes d'utilisation des terres de la commune de Coumbacara. . Cependant, peu d'études se sont intéressées aux capacités de stockage de la végétation ligneuse selon les systèmes d'utilisation des terres. Il est alors nécessaire et urgent d'évaluer la quantité de la biomasse forestière à travers les Il est alors nécessaire et urgent d'évaluer la quantité de la biomasse forestière à travers les différents systèmes d'utilisation des terres afin de disposer d'une base de données fiable qui différents systèmes d'utilisation des terres afin de disposer d'une base de données fiable qui permettra aux pays africains de mieux optimiser leur accès sur le \"crédit carbone\" et leur permettra aux pays africains de mieux optimiser leur accès sur le \"crédit carbone\" et leur contribution à l'atténuation du changement climatique. C'est dans cette logique que s'inscrit contribution à l'atténuation du changement climatique. C'est dans cette logique que s'inscrit cette étude en vue d'une meilleure connaissance de la contribution des systèmes forestier cette étude en vue d'une meilleure connaissance de la contribution des systèmes forestier (forêt claires) et agroforestier (champs de brousse et champs de case) de la commune de (forêt claires) et agroforestier (champs de brousse et champs de case) de la commune de Coumbacara à l'atténuation du changement climatique. Plus spécifiquement, il s'agit : Coumbacara à l'atténuation du changement climatique. Plus spécifiquement, il s'agit :  d'évaluer la diversité de la végétation ligneuse des différents systèmes d'utilisations des  d'évaluer la diversité de la végétation ligneuse des différents systèmes d'utilisations des terres de la commune de Coumbacara ; terres de la commune de Coumbacara ;  et d'Le présent mémoire est composé de quatre (4) chapitres. Le premier chapitre présente l'état  et d'Le présent mémoire est composé de quatre (4) chapitres. Le premier chapitre présente l'état des connaissances sur la diversité de la végétation ligneuse et l'estimation de la biomasse des connaissances sur la diversité de la végétation ligneuse et l'estimation de la biomasse aérienne et souterraine ainsi que son stock de carbone. Le deuxième chapitre fait état du aérienne et souterraine ainsi que son stock de carbone. Le deuxième chapitre fait état du matériel et des méthodes utilisées. Le troisième chapitre porte sur les résultats obtenus. En fin matériel et des méthodes utilisées. Le troisième chapitre porte sur les résultats obtenus. En fin la discussion des résultats est déclinée dans le quatrième chapitre dont les conclusions sont la discussion des résultats est déclinée dans le quatrième chapitre dont les conclusions sont suivies de perpectives. suivies de perpectives. "},{"text":"CHAPITRE 1 : SYNTHESE BIBLIOGRAPHIQUE 1.1. Généralités sur les systèmes d'utilisation des terres Un système d'utilisation des terres est un ensemble d'unités d'exploitations caractérisées par Un système d'utilisation des terres est un ensemble d'unités d'exploitations caractérisées par une combinaison de sous systèmes de production agricole (culture, élevage, ligneux) à une combinaison de sous systèmes de production agricole (culture, élevage, ligneux) à interactions spécifiques opérant dans un environnement biophysique et socio-économique interactions spécifiques opérant dans un environnement biophysique et socio-économique relativement homogène relativement homogène "},{"text":" Trois types de sol se distinguent. Il s'agit des sols sablo-argileux (deck-dior) qui dominent dans la commune, des sols argileux localisés au niveau des dépressions aptes à la riziculture et des sols latéritiques dont les potentialités pourraient être utilisés pour l'aménagement de pistes latéritiques au niveau de certains axes prioritaires(ANSD, 2015). La commune de Coumbacara dispose de deux grandes forêts classées (Koudoura et Toutouné) La commune de Coumbacara dispose de deux grandes forêts classées (Koudoura et Toutouné) mais, son couvert végétal subit de plus en plus des agressions qui entrainent sa dégradation. mais, son couvert végétal subit de plus en plus des agressions qui entrainent sa dégradation. Ainsi, la végétation de plus en plus clairsemée, est plus dense en zones protégées où le droit Ainsi, la végétation de plus en plus clairsemée, est plus dense en zones protégées où le droit d'usage prédomine (PLD, 2011). Les principales espèces rencontrées sont Daniellia oliveri d'usage prédomine (PLD, 2011). Les principales espèces rencontrées sont Daniellia oliveri (santan), Khaya senegalensis (caïlcedrat), Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (palmier à huile), (santan), Khaya senegalensis (caïlcedrat), Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (palmier à huile), Pterocarpus erinaceus (Ven), Cordyla pinnata (Lepr. ex A. Rich.) Milne-Redh. (Poirier du Pterocarpus erinaceus (Ven), Cordyla pinnata (Lepr. ex A. Rich.) Milne-Redh. (Poirier du Cayor) etc. Cayor) etc. "},{"text":"Analyse statistique des données et Feldpausch et al. (2012) et des études sur l'appliquation des équations allométriquesde Chave et al. (2014) en Afrique, ces algorithmes sont applicables à notre site d'étude. 2.2.3.2.2. Estimation du stock de carbone 2.2.3.2.2. Estimation du stock de carbone Elle consiste à multiplier la biomasse aérienne et/ou souterraine par le coefficient 0,47 selon Elle consiste à multiplier la biomasse aérienne et/ou souterraine par le coefficient 0,47 selon le GIEC (2006). Le stock de carbone est calculé par la formule suivante : le GIEC (2006). Le stock de carbone est calculé par la formule suivante : 2.2.3.3. 2.2.3.3. "},{"text":": RESULTATS 3.1. Caractéristiques de la végétation ligneuse des systèmes d'utilisation de terres (SUT) 3.1.1. Cortège floristique et fréquence de présence des espèces ligneuses dans les SUT Le tableau 2 illustre la composition floristique et la fréquence de présence des espèces dans les différents Systèmes d'Utilisation des Terres (SUT) de la commune de Coumbacara. Au total, 48 espèces ont été inventoriées dans la commune de Coumbacara. Ces espèces sont réparties en 44 genres et 24 familles. Considérant les différents systèmes d'utilisation des terres, il est apparu que les forêts sont plus diversifiées floristiquement avec 41 espèces réparties en 37 genres et 20 familles. Elles sont suivies des champs de brousse qui renferment 23 espèces réparties en 21 genres et 10 familles. Les champs de case sont les moins diversifiés avec 18 espèces réparties en 16 genres et 11 familles. Tableau 2 : composition floristique et fréquence de présence (F%) des espèces dans les différents SUT. (F%) Systèmes d'utilisation (F%) Systèmes d'utilisation Familles Genres Espèces des terres Champs de case Champs de brousse Forêt FamillesGenresEspècesdes terres Champs de case Champs de brousseForêt Anacardium Anacardium occidentale L. 4,5 21,1 14,3 AnacardiumAnacardium occidentale L.4,521,114,3 Anacardiaceae Lannea Mangifera Lannea acida A. Rich. Mangifera indica L. 0 50 15,8 21,1 52,4 0 AnacardiaceaeLannea MangiferaLannea acida A. Rich. Mangifera indica L.0 5015,8 21,152,4 0 Spondias Spondias mombin L. 0 0 9,5 SpondiasSpondias mombin L.009,5 Annonaceae Hexalobus Hexalobus monopetalus (A. Rich.) Engl. et Diels. 0 0 19 AnnonaceaeHexalobusHexalobus monopetalus (A. Rich.) Engl. et Diels.0019 Apocynaceae Holarrhena Holarrhena floribunda (G. Don.). 0 15,8 47,6 ApocynaceaeHolarrhenaHolarrhena floribunda (G. Don.).015,847,6 Saba Saba senegalensis (A. DC.). 0 0 4,8 SabaSaba senegalensis (A. DC.).004,8 Arecaceae Elaeis Elaeis guineensis (Jacq.) 0 0 38,1 ArecaceaeElaeisElaeis guineensis (Jacq.)0038,1 Celastraceae Maytenus Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exll. 0 0 9,5 CelastraceaeMaytenusMaytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exll.009,5 Afzelia Afzelia africana Smith ex pers. 4,5 0 0 AfzeliaAfzelia africana Smith ex pers.4,500 Cassia Cassia sieberiana Del. 0 5,3 4,8 CassiaCassia sieberiana Del.05,34,8 Cordyla Cordyla pinnata (Rolfe) Hutch. et Dalziel. 0 15,8 33,3 CordylaCordyla pinnata (Rolfe) Hutch. et Dalziel.015,833,3 Caesalpiniaceae Daniellia Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. et Dalziel. Erythrophleum africanum 9,1 5,3 42,9 CaesalpiniaceaeDanielliaDaniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. et Dalziel. Erythrophleum africanum9,15,342,9 Erythrophleum (Welw. ex Benth.). Erythrophleum suaveolens 0 0 4,8 Erythrophleum(Welw. ex Benth.). Erythrophleum suaveolens004,8 (Guill. Et Perr.). 0 0 4,8 (Guill. Et Perr.).004,8 Piliostigma Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst. 4,5 15,8 52,4 PiliostigmaPiliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst.4,515,852,4 Tamarindus Tamarindus indica L. 0 10,5 4,8 TamarindusTamarindus indica L.010,54,8 Chrysobalanaceae Neocarya Neocarya macrophylla (Sabine). 0 0 4,8 Chrysobalanaceae NeocaryaNeocarya macrophylla (Sabine).004,8 Combretum glutinosum Combretum glutinosum Combretum Perr. Combretum nigricans Lepr. 4,5 57,9 61,9 CombretumPerr. Combretum nigricans Lepr.4,557,961,9 Combretaceae Ex Guillem. et Perrot. Terminalia avicennoides 10,5 33,3 10,5 CombretaceaeEx Guillem. et Perrot. Terminalia avicennoides10,533,310,5 Terminalia Guill. et Perr. Terminalia macroptera 5,3 4,8 5,3 TerminaliaGuill. et Perr. Terminalia macroptera5,34,85,3 (Guill. Et Perr.). 36,8 66,7 36,8 (Guill. Et Perr.).36,866,736,8 Euphorbiaceae 3.1.2. Jattropha Jatropha curcas L. 4,5 0 0 Euphorbiaceae 3.1.2.JattrophaJatropha curcas L.4,500 "},{"text":"Structure démographique du peuplement ligneux des différents SUT les champs de brousse et les champs de case. Quel que soit le SUT, ce sont les classes de hauteur intermédiaire qui sont les plus représentées traduisant ainsi un bon niveau de recrutement des individus de faible hauteur vers les classes intermédiares. En effet, dans les forêts et dans les champs de brousse, c'est la classe de hauteur comprise entre [5-10 m[ qui prédomine avec respectivement 33,17 et 40% du peuplement. Dans les champs de case, c'est la classe de hauteur comprise entre [10-15 m[ qui prédomine avec 29,73% du peuplement. Elle est suivie de la classe de hauteur [5-10 m[ avec 27,03% du peuplement. Icacinaceae Icacina Icacina senegalensis A. Juss. 4,5 26,3 14,3 IcacinaceaeIcacinaIcacina senegalensis A. Juss.4,526,314,3 Lamiaceae Vitex Vitex doniana (L.) 0 0 9,5 LamiaceaeVitexVitex doniana (L.)009,5 Loganiaceae Strychnos Strychnos spinosa Lam. 0 0 14,3 LoganiaceaeStrychnosStrychnos spinosa Lam.0014,3 Adansonia Adansonia digitata (L.) 31,8 10,5 4,8 AdansoniaAdansonia digitata (L.)31,810,54,8 Malvaceae Bombax Bombax costatum Pellegr. et Vuillet. 0 5,3 19 MalvaceaeBombaxBombax costatum Pellegr. et Vuillet.05,319 les forêts, Cola Cola cordifolia (Cav.) 0 5,3 4,8 les forêts,ColaCola cordifolia (Cav.)05,34,8 Meliaceae Azadirachta Khaya Azadirachta indica (Desr.). Khaya senegalensis (Desr.). 0 9,1 5,3 5,3 0 9,5 MeliaceaeAzadirachta KhayaAzadirachta indica (Desr.). Khaya senegalensis (Desr.).0 9,15,3 5,30 9,5 Acacia Acacia ataxacantha DC. 0 0 9,5 AcaciaAcacia ataxacantha DC.009,5 Dicrostachys Dicrostachys cinera (Wight. et Arn.). 0 0 9,5 DicrostachysDicrostachys cinera (Wight. et Arn.).009,5 Parkia Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. 0 5,3 9,5 ParkiaParkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth.05,39,5 Mimosaceae Faidherbia Faidherbia albida Del. (A. Chev.). 4,5 0 9,5 MimosaceaeFaidherbiaFaidherbia albida Del. (A. Chev.).4,509,5 Prosopis africana (Guill. et Prosopis africana (Guill. et Perr.). 4,5 10,5 52,4 Perr.).4,510,552,4 Prosopis Prosopis juliflora (SW.) ProsopisProsopis juliflora (SW.) DC. 0 0 4,8 DC.004,8 Moraceae Ficus Ficus gnaphalocarpa (Miq.) Steud. ex A. Rich 4,5 5,3 9,5 MoraceaeFicusFicus gnaphalocarpa (Miq.) Steud. ex A. Rich4,55,39,5 Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Dehnh.) 4,5 0 0 MyrtaceaeEucalyptusEucalyptus camaldulensis (Dehnh.)4,500 Papilionaceae Erythrina Pterocarpus Erythrina senegalensis A. DC. Pterocarpus erinaceus (Poir.) 0 0 0 0 4,8 4,8 PapilionaceaeErythrina PterocarpusErythrina senegalensis A. DC. Pterocarpus erinaceus (Poir.)0 00 04,8 4,8 Rubiaceae Gardenia Mitragyna Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. et Thonn Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Ktze 0 0 0 0 4,8 9,5 RubiaceaeGardenia MitragynaGardenia ternifolia Schumach. et Thonn Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Ktze0 00 04,8 9,5 Rutaceae Citrus Citrus sinensis (L.*) Osbeck* 0 5,3 0 RutaceaeCitrusCitrus sinensis (L.*) Osbeck*05,30 Sterculiaceae Sterculia Sterculia setigera Del. 0 0 19 SterculiaceaeSterculiaSterculia setigera Del.0019 Tiliaceae Grewia Grewia bicolor Juss. 0 0 14,3 TiliaceaeGrewiaGrewia bicolor Juss.0014,3 Verbenaceae Gmelina Gmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm. 4,5 0 0 VerbenaceaeGmelinaGmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm.4,500 Zygophyllaceae Balanites Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile 0 0 4,8 Zygophyllaceae BalanitesBalanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile004,8 Total èspèces 41 23 18 Total èspèces412318 "},{"text":"Diversité spécifique de la végétaion ligneuse des différents SUT La diversité spécifique du milieu a été appréciée par la richesse spécifique moyenne, l'indice de Shannon moyen et l'équitabilité de Piélou moyen. L'examen des résultats de l'ANOVA portés dans le tableau 4 révèle une différence significative de la diversité spécifique au niveau 3.1.4. des SUT. Ainsi, la richesse spécifique, l'indice de Shannon et l'équitabilité de Piélou sont 3.1.4. des SUT. Ainsi, la richesse spécifique, l'indice de Shannon et l'équitabilité de Piélou sont significativement plus élevés au niveau des forêts avec des valeurs respectives de significativement plus élevés au niveau des forêts avec des valeurs respectives de 7,85±3,48 espèces ; 1,8±0,49 bits et 0,90± 0,08 ; suivies des champs de brousse 7,85±3,48 espèces ; 1,8±0,49 bits et 0,90± 0,08 ; suivies des champs de brousse (3,31±1,82 espèces ; 0,86 ±0,6 bits et 0,65±0,40) et enfin des champs de case (3,31±1,82 espèces ; 0,86 ±0,6 bits et 0,65±0,40) et enfin des champs de case (1,63±1,09 espèces ; 0,33± 0,49 bits et 0,35±0,47). Non seulement les forêts sont plus (1,63±1,09 espèces ; 0,33± 0,49 bits et 0,35±0,47). Non seulement les forêts sont plus diversifiées, mais la répartition des individus y est régulière entre les espèces. Pour les diversifiées, mais la répartition des individus y est régulière entre les espèces. Pour les champs de case et les champs de brousse, une différence significative n'est observée que pour champs de case et les champs de brousse, une différence significative n'est observée que pour Tableau 3 : Caractéristiques des paramètres structuraux et dendrométriques de la végétation l'indice de Shannon et l'indice d'équitabilité de Piélou avec des valeurs significativement plus Tableau 3 : Caractéristiques des paramètres structuraux et dendrométriques de la végétation l'indice de Shannon et l'indice d'équitabilité de Piélou avec des valeurs significativement plus ligneuse en fonction des systèmes d'utilisation des terres importantes au niveau des champs de brousse. ligneuse en fonction des systèmes d'utilisation des terres importantes au niveau des champs de brousse. SUT Tableau 4 : variation de la diversité spécifique du peuplement ligneux en fonction des Densité (indha -1 ) Taux de couverture (%) Surface terrière (m².ha -1 ) Diamètre (cm) Hauteur (m) systèmes d'utilisation des terres SUT Tableau 4 : variation de la diversité spécifique du peuplement ligneux en fonction des Densité (indha -1 ) Taux de couverture (%) Surface terrière (m².ha -1 ) Diamètre (cm) Hauteur (m) systèmes d'utilisation des terres Champs de case SUT 1,89±0,65 a Richesse spécifique Indice de Shannon 1,91 ±1,12 a 0,046± 0,054 a 81,56±53,10 a 14,14±6,97 a Equitabilité de Piélou Champs de case SUT1,89±0,65 a Richesse spécifique Indice de Shannon 1,91 ±1,12 a 0,046± 0,054 a 81,56±53,10 a 14,14±6,97 a Equitabilité de Piélou Champs de case 1,63±1,09 a 0,33± 0,49 a 0,35±0,47 a Champs de case1,63±1,09 a0,33± 0,49 a0,35±0,47 a Champs de brousse Champs de brousse 3,01±0,57 b 3,31±1,82 a 2,45±0,88 a 0,035±0,034 a 0,86 ±0,62 b 39,57±30,91 b 11,17±5.46 b 0,65±0,40 b Champs de brousse Champs de brousse 3,01±0,57 b 3,31±1,82 a 2,45±0,88 a0,035±0,034 a 0,86 ±0,62 b39,57±30,91 b 11,17±5.46 b 0,65±0,40 b Forêt 4,92 ±0.39 c 4,05±0.57 b 0,16±0,084 b 37,26±28,55 b 12,32±5,74 ab Forêt4,92 ±0.39 c4,05±0.57 b0,16±0,084 b37,26±28,55 b 12,32±5,74 ab Probabilité 2e -16 *** 3,01e -10 *** 6,47e -9 *** 2,77e -12 *** 3,43e -2 * Probabilité2e -16 ***3,01e -10 ***6,47e -9 ***2,77e -12 ***3,43e -2 * SUT : Système d'utilisation des terres ; *** traduit le degré de significativité P<10 -3 . Les chiffres qui suivent ± SUT : Système d'utilisation des terres ; *** traduit le degré de significativité P<10 -3 . Les chiffres qui suivent ± représentent l'écart type. Les données des paramétres structuraux ont été normalisées par Ln (x+1). Les chiffres représentent l'écart type. Les données des paramétres structuraux ont été normalisées par Ln (x+1). Les chiffres reliés par les mêmes lettres, sur la même colonne, ne sont pas significativement différents. reliés par les mêmes lettres, sur la même colonne, ne sont pas significativement différents. L'ANOVA portée sur les données des paramètres dendrométriques (hauteur moyenne et L'ANOVA portée sur les données des paramètres dendrométriques (hauteur moyenne et diamètre moyen du tronc), révèle une différence significative entre faciès. Ces paramètres diamètre moyen du tronc), révèle une différence significative entre faciès. Ces paramètres sont aussi plus élevés au niveau des champs de case avec respectivement 14,14±6,97 m et sont aussi plus élevés au niveau des champs de case avec respectivement 14,14±6,97 m et 81,56±53 cm pour la hauteur moyenne et le diamètre moyen du tronc des arbres. Ces champs 81,56±53 cm pour la hauteur moyenne et le diamètre moyen du tronc des arbres. Ces champs de cases sont suivis par les champs de brousse avec une hauteur moyenne de 11,17±5,46 m et de cases sont suivis par les champs de brousse avec une hauteur moyenne de 11,17±5,46 m et un diamètre moyen du tronc de 39,57±30,91 cm et des forêts avec 12,32±5,74 m et un diamètre moyen du tronc de 39,57±30,91 cm et des forêts avec 12,32±5,74 m et 37,26±28,55 cm respectivement pour la hauteur moyenne et le diamètre moyen du tronc. 37,26±28,55 cm respectivement pour la hauteur moyenne et le diamètre moyen du tronc. "},{"text":"Estimation du carbone stocké dans la végétation ligneuse des SUT La quantité de carbone stockée dans la biomasse aérienne et dans la biomasse souterraine des ligneux a varié significativement suivant les systèmes d'utilisation des terres (Tableau 5). Une différence très hautement significative est notée entre les forêts, les champs de case et les champs de brousses avec des p values respectives de 1,12 e -5 et 5,41e -10 pour le carbone stocké dans la biomasse aérienne et souterraine. La quantité de carbone stocké dans la SUT AGB (t. ha -1 ) BGB (t. ha -1 ) Biomasse totale (t. ha -1 ) SUTAGB (t. ha -1 )BGB (t. ha -1 )Biomasse totale (t. ha -1 ) Champs de case 2,04±1,35 a 0,85 ±0,70 a 2,90± 2,05 a Champs de case2,04±1,35 a0,85 ±0,70 a2,90± 2,05 a Champs de brousse 2,05±1,04 a 0,83 ±0,55 a 2,88± 1,59 a Champs de brousse2,05±1,04 a0,83 ±0,55 a2,88± 1,59 a Forêts 3,92±0,88 b 2,19±0,66 b 6,12 ±1,55 b Forêts3,92±0,88 b2,19±0,66 b6,12 ±1,55 b Probabilité 3,97e -7 *** 1.31e -9 *** 4.27e -8 *** Probabilité3,97e -7 ***1.31e -9 ***4.27e -8 *** SUT : Système d'utilisation des terres ; AGB : biomasse aérienne ; BGB : biomasse souterraine SUT : Système d'utilisation des terres ; AGB : biomasse aérienne ; BGB : biomasse souterraine *** traduit le degré de significativité P<10 -3 les chifres qui suivent ± représentent l'écart type. Les données ont *** traduit le degré de significativité P<10 -3 les chifres qui suivent ± représentent l'écart type. Les données ont été normalisées par Ln (x+1). Les chiffres reliés par les mêmes lettres, sur la même colonne, ne sont pas été normalisées par Ln (x+1). Les chiffres reliés par les mêmes lettres, sur la même colonne, ne sont pas significativement différents. significativement différents. 3.2.2. biomasse aérienne et souterraine de la végétation ligneuse des forêts (1,57± 0,19 et 1,58±0,57 3.2.2. biomasse aérienne et souterraine de la végétation ligneuse des forêts (1,57± 0,19 et 1,58±0,57 t C. ha -1 ) est statistiquement plus élevée que celle obtenue dans les champs de case (0,99 t C. ha -1 ) est statistiquement plus élevée que celle obtenue dans les champs de case (0,99 ±0,51 et 0,54±0,49 t C. ha -1 ) et dans les champs de brousse (1,05 ±0,38 et 0,51±0,37 t C. ha -1 ). ±0,51 et 0,54±0,49 t C. ha -1 ) et dans les champs de brousse (1,05 ±0,38 et 0,51±0,37 t C. ha -1 ). Aucune différence significative n'a été observée entre le carbone stocké dans la végétation Aucune différence significative n'a été observée entre le carbone stocké dans la végétation ligneuse des champs de case et celui de la végétation ligneuse des champs de brousse. ligneuse des champs de case et celui de la végétation ligneuse des champs de brousse. Tableau 6 : variation des valeurs normalisées de Carbone stocké dans la végétation ligneuse Tableau 6 : variation des valeurs normalisées de Carbone stocké dans la végétation ligneuse des différents systèmes d'utilisation des terres des différents systèmes d'utilisation des terres SUT Carbone aérien (t C. ha -1 ) Carbone racinaire (t C. ha -1 ) Carbone total (t C. ha -1 ) SUTCarbone aérien (t C. ha -1 )Carbone racinaire (t C. ha -1 )Carbone total (t C. ha -1 ) Champs de case 0,99 ±0,51 a 0,54±0,49 a 1,54±0,98 a Champs de case0,99 ±0,51 a0,54±0,49 a1,54±0,98 a -7 et 1,31e -9 . En effet, la biomasse aérienne ligneuse (AGB) et la biomasse souterraine Champs de brousse 1,05 ±0,38 a 0,51±0,37 a 1,56± 0,74 a -7 et 1,31e -9 . En effet, la biomasse aérienne ligneuse (AGB) et la biomasse souterraine Champs de brousse 1,05 ±0,38 a 0,51±0,37 a 1,56± 0,74 a (BGB), des forêts avec des valeurs respectives de 3,92±0,88 et 2,19±0,66 t.ha -1 est Forêts 1,57± 0,19 b 1,58±0,57 b 3,16± 0,76 b (BGB), des forêts avec des valeurs respectives de 3,92±0,88 et 2,19±0,66 t.ha -1 est Forêts 1,57± 0,19 b 1,58±0,57 b 3,16± 0,76 b statistiquement plus importante que celle des champs de case (2,04±1,35 et 0,85 ±0,70 t. ha -1 ) et des champs de brousses (2,05±1,04 et 2,88±1,59 t. ha -1 ). Par contre la biomasse aérienne et Probabilité 1, 12 e -5 *** 5,41e -10 *** 1,53e -8 *** statistiquement plus importante que celle des champs de case (2,04±1,35 et 0,85 ±0,70 t. ha -1 ) et des champs de brousses (2,05±1,04 et 2,88±1,59 t. ha -1 ). Par contre la biomasse aérienne et Probabilité 1, 12 e -5 *** 5,41e -10 *** 1,53e -8 *** souterraine produite par les ligneux n'est pas significativement différente entre les champs de SUT : Système d'utilisation des terres ; *** traduit le degré de significativité P<10 -3 . Les chiffes qui suivent ± souterraine produite par les ligneux n'est pas significativement différente entre les champs de SUT : Système d'utilisation des terres ; *** traduit le degré de significativité P<10 -3 . Les chiffes qui suivent ± case et les champs de brousse. case et les champs de brousse. Tableau 5 : variation des valeurs normalisées de la biomasse aérienne et souterraine de la Tableau 5 : variation des valeurs normalisées de la biomasse aérienne et souterraine de la végétation ligneuse des systèmes d'utilisation des terres. végétation ligneuse des systèmes d'utilisation des terres. "},{"text":"3. Relation entre les paramètres de stockage du carbone et les SUT La figure 8 représente le diagramme de l'analyse en composantes principales réalisée à partir de la matrice 3 Systèmes d'utilisations /7 paramètres de l'estimation de la biomasse et du stock de carbone. Cette figure avec une inertie de 84,5 % (60,9 % pour la dim1 et 23,6 % pour Les systèmes d'utilisation des terres de la commune de Coumbacara sont répartis en champs de case, champs de brousse et forêts. L'analyse globale de la flore révèle une richesse spécifique de 48 espèces appartenant en 44 genres et 24 familles botaniques. Ainsi les Cesalpiniaceae (8 espèces) et les Mimosaceae (6 espèces) sont les plus représentées. Les Anarcardiaceae et les Malvaceae représentées respectivement par Mangifera indica (50%) et Adansonia digitata (31,8%) sont plus fréquentes au niveau des champs de case. Dans les champs de brousse les espèces les plus fréquentes sont celles des familles des Combretaceae telle que Terminalia macroptera (66,7%) et des Anarcardiaceae représentée par Anacardium occidantale (21,1%). Dans les forêts, les espèces les plus fréquentes sont Combretum Ces caractéristiques indiquent que dans les champs de case, le peuplement est vieillissant comme l'a affirmé Diédhiou et al. (2014). En effet, la pression anthropique y étant très forte entrainant ainsi une faible régénération des espèces ligneuses. Dans les champs de brousse et dans les forêts, le peuplement ligneux présente une structure de type exponentiel décroissant synonyme d'un bon état de renouvellement des ressources végétales ; c'est à dire un peuplement relativement jeune et équilibré. Cette analyse soutient les observations de Bationo et al. (2001) qui considèrent que la structure de type exponentiel décroissant des populations indique une bonne régénération de l'espèce.Les champs de case sont caractérisés par une faible densité (1,89±0,65 ind. ha -1 ), une faible richesse spécifique (1,63±1,09 espèces), un faible taux de couverture (1,91 ±1,12%) et de faible surface terrière (0,046± 0,054 m²/ha). Les faibles valeurs de la densité et de l'indice de régularité dans les champs de case résulteraient de l'exploitation des espèces à usage multiple par les populations come le révèlentMbow et al. (2005).Les valeurs élevées des indices de diversité (richesse spécifique, l'indice de Shannon et l'équitable de Piélou) et de la densité dans les forêts et dans les champs de brousses comparées à celles des champs de cases, semblent être correlées au gradient de l'effet anthropique. Ces résultats corroborent ceux dePullan (1974) qui soutient que sur les parcs agroforestiers de l'Afrique de l'Ouest, la différence entre les zones caractérisées par un grand nombre de petits arbres et celles qui ne comportent que quelques arbres aux larges couronnes s'expliquent souvent par la durée d'exploitation agricole » La Classification Hiérarchique sur les Composantes Principales révèle trois groupes selon leurs caractéristiques. Il s'agit du groupe d'espèces caractéristiques des champs de brousses dominé majoritairement par Anacardium occidentale, Icacina senegalensis et Tamarindus indica. Ce groupe est caractérisé par des espèces de faible diamètre et de faible hauteur avec une faible densité et une diversité relativement élevée. La forte présence de Anacardium occidentale est due à sa rentabilité économique qui pousse davantage les producteurs à exploiter les espaces agricoles pour la mise en place de nouvelles plantations (Lawal et al, 2007) comme c'est le cas pour cette Acacardiaceaea. Le groupe 2 représente les champs de case où dominent Mangifera indica et Adansonia digitata. Ces sont de grands arbres caractérisés par de gros diamètre avec des densités faibles. Ce sont des fruitiers délibérément introduits et/ou préservés par les populations malgré les fortes pressions exercées sur le milieu. Ce phénomène caractérise la volonté des habitants d'accéder aux produits et d'affirmer leur droit de propriété la dim2) montre que le plan factoriel constitué par les axes 1 et 2 contient l'essentielle de la dim2) montre que le plan factoriel constitué par les axes 1 et 2 contient l'essentielle de l'information sur les relations systèmes d'utilisation des terres/paramètres d'estimation du l'information sur les relations systèmes d'utilisation des terres/paramètres d'estimation du stock de carbone. Le groupe F1 et le groupe F2 sont formés par la dimension 2 (axe des stock de carbone. Le groupe F1 et le groupe F2 sont formés par la dimension 2 (axe des ordonnées), et représentent les champs de case et les champs de brousse. Ainsi ces deux ordonnées), et représentent les champs de case et les champs de brousse. Ainsi ces deux groupes sont corrélés à la hauteur (h) totale et au diamètre à hauteur de poitrine (d) des arbres. groupes sont corrélés à la hauteur (h) totale et au diamètre à hauteur de poitrine (d) des arbres. Cependant le groupe F3 (forêt) est formé par la dimension 1 (axe des abcisses) et est Cependant le groupe F3 (forêt) est formé par la dimension 1 (axe des abcisses) et est "},{"text":" respectivement.Les résultats révèlent que les biomasses aériennes et souterraines des forêts adjacentes aux terres cultivées sont supérieures à celles des champs de case et des champs de brousse. Dans ces forêts, les valeurs réelles de biomasse aérienne et de biomasse souterraine sont respectivement de 68,13 t.ha -1 et 9,88 t.ha -1 et correspondant à 32,02 t C.ha -1 et 4,64 t C.ha -1 respectivement pour un stock de carbone. Selon l'analyse de la typologie des SUT en fonction des variables, cette production de biomasse et du stock de carbone des espèces ligneuses sont fortement plus corrélés aux densités de bois élevés plutôt qu'à la hauteur et le diamètre. Ainsi le stock moyen de carbone estimé parIfo et Binsangou (2019) dans les forêts récemment exploitées au Congo est de 45,5 t C.ha -1 . Cette quantité est légèrement supérieure à celle obtenu dans le cadre de cette étude. En effet la densité du bois est un paramètre essentiel pour l'estimation de la biomasse. Cependant la quantité de la biomasse estimée sans la densité du bois tend vers une surestimation ou à une sous-estimation des résultats. Comme les résultats deMbow (2009) dans les savanes soudaniennes et soudano-guinéennes des forêts classées de Bala, Kantora, Mampaye, Ouli, Patako et Welor au Sénégal. L'estimation de la biomasse et la quantité de carbone pour ces résultats avec le modèle allométrique de type polynomial varient de 7,9 à 102,2 t MSha -1 pour la biomasse et de 3,93 à 50,89 t C.ha -1 pour le stock de carbone.Au Burkina Faso,Ouedraogo et al. (2019) ont obtenu des valeurs de 35,33 et 4,55 tMS.ha -1 respectivement pour la biomasse aériennne et la biomasse racinaire et des valeurs de 17,66 et 2,28 t C ha -1 respectivement pour le stock de carbone aérien et racinaire.Dans les systèmes destinés à l'exploitation agricole, il n'y a pas eu de différence significative entre les champs de case et les champs de brousse pour la biomasse aérienne et souterraine ainsi que le stock de carbone. Les quantités réelles de biomasse aérienne et souterraine obtenues correspondent respectivement à 15,54 tMS.ha -1 et 2,01 t.ha -1 dans les champs de case et 11,29 t MS.ha -1 et 1,66 t MS.ha -1 dans les champs de brousse. Ces valeurs correspondent à des stocks de carbone respectifs de 7,30 tC.ha -1 et 0,94 tC.ha -1 dans les champs de case et 5,31 tC.ha -1 et 0,78 t C.ha -1 dans les champs de brousse. Cette faible production de biomasse ligneuse et de stock de carbone dans ces systèmes agricoles est expliquée parMonssou et al. (2016) comme étant liée à la faible diversité des espèces ligneuses et par conséquent à des densités de bois faibles caractéristiques de Adansonia digitata et de Mangifera indica qui dominent dans les champs de Case. Ainsi, la production de biomasse et de stock de carbone dans les systèmes de culture est plus expliquée par les variables hauteur et diamètres à hauteur de poitrine. Aussi, nos résultats en termes de stock de carbone restent largement inférieurs à ceuxde Saïdou et al. (2012) qui ont obtenu pour la partie aérienne ligneuse et vivante des systèmes agroforestiers à karité et à néré en zone soudanienne du Bénin un stock de 20,17 ± 4,19 tC.ha -1 . Ils sont par contre plus importants que ceux obtenus par Peltier et al. (2007) et Diatta et al. (2016) qui ont respectivement trouvé un stock de carbone de 5,046 tC.ha -1 dans la biomasse aérienne d'un parc à Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn. du Nord Cameroun et 2,40 tC.ha -1 dans la biomasse aérienne d'un parc agroforestier à Cordyla pinnata dans le Sud du Bassin Arachidier (Sénégal). Diatta et al. (2016) affirment également que le parc agroforestier dans le Bassin Arachidier sénégalais est dans un état de dégradation poussée et entrainerait un déséquilibre dans les flux de carbone. "}],"sieverID":"81822bd4-14a4-49e5-a0fd-7937dadf4ee7","abstract":"Je rends grâce à ALLAH le Tout Puissant, Créateur et Maître de Tout l'Univers de m'avoir accordé la santé, le courage, la volonté et la patience qui m'ont permis de réaliser ce travail.Ce travail n'aurait jamais pu voir le jour sans l'appui technique, moral et financier de plusieurs personnes et institutions. Ainsi, je me fais le plaisir et le devoir de remercier tous ceux qui ont de près ou de loin contribué à l'élaboration de ce mémoire. Qu'ils trouvent ici toute ma reconnaissance et ma gratitude.Je tiens à remercier le Directeur Général de l'Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA) pour avoir accepté de m'accueillir en stage au sein de son institut. Mes remerciements vont aussi à l'endroit des autorités de l'Université Assane Seck qui ont fait de moi ce que je suis aujourd'hui en me gratifiant d'une formation de qualité.Je témoigne ma reconnaissance au Directeur du Centre de Recherches Zootechniques (CRZ) de Kolda, Dr Younouss CAMARA et, à travers lui, tout le personnel pour l'appui et les conseils qu'ils nous ont gratifiés."}
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Si une bonne partie de la population rurale des ACP n'utilise pas encore les TIC, c'est parce que villes et villages ne sont pas raccordés au réseau électrique principal. Les sociétés d'énergie et les gouvernements disent manquer de financements pour l'électrification des campagnes car la densité de la population y est si faible qu'un tel investissement ne serait pas rentable. Or ce sont ces régions productrices de denrées qui ont le plus besoin d'une fourniture d'énergie fiable."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Les progrès récemment enregistrés en matière d'énergies renouvelables vont toutefois dispenser les communautés rurales d'attendre un raccordement au réseau en installant des unités indépendantes, capables de desservir de quelques centaines à plusieurs milliers de ménages. Le village de Kibae, situé au nord-est du Kenya, est l'exemple même d'une communauté rurale ayant réussi à se doter d'un réseau électrique indépendant. En concertation avec le ministère de l'Énergie, la population de Kibae a créé un pôle d'énergie communautaire (PEC) dans le cadre de l'initiative « Énergie rurale » de l'Organisation des Nations unies pour le développement industriel (ONUDI)."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"À partir de l'énergie solaire et hydroélectrique, ce pôle alimente un centre industriel où les paysans peuvent transformer leurs produits agricoles. Plus besoin de les transporter dans les grands centres urbains. Cette électricité sert aussi à produire des jus de fruits et de la farine de maïs. Ces nouveaux produits créent des revenus supplémentaires et couvrent en partie les frais d'entretien de l'installation."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"Celle-ci alimente aussi un nouveau centre communautaire où chacun a accès à Internet et à une télévision satellite. Un service de recharge des téléphones portables permet aux paysans de rester en contact avec les acheteurs et de se tenir au courant de l'évolution du marché."},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"L'énergie solaire aussi peut compléter les revenus des populations rurales de Zambie, du Malawi et de Tanzanie. Depuis sa création en 2006, l'ONG SolarAid a formé des centaines d'entrepreneurs au montage et à la vente d'équipements solaires. La gamme des produits va du petit panneau solaire suffisant pour une radio (ce qui évite l'achat récurrent de piles dangereuses pour l'environnement) à des systèmes suffisamment puissants pour des écoles, des entreprises et des centres communautaires."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"D'après le rapport 2007 sur l'état des énergies renouvelables, toutes ces énergies, du solaire à l'éolien, ont connu un taux de croissance annuel de 50 à 60 % au cours des dix dernières années, ce qui les place en tête des secteurs technologiques à forte croissance mondiale. Autre marché en plein essor, souvent controversé mais essentiel pour l'agriculture, celui de la bioénergie."},{"index":7,"size":105,"text":"Courant 2008, de nombreux analystes ont imputé la hausse du prix des denrées au fait que des productions destinées à la bioénergie remplaçaient de plus en plus les cultures traditionnelles. Une étude menée par l'ICTSD (International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development) montre qu'on peut cultiver des variétés non alimentaires dans les zones où la terre ne se prête à aucune autre culture et que le matériau ou l'huile produits peuvent alimenter des générateurs de biomasse. Des variétés rustiques, résistantes à la sécheresse comme le jatropha apportent une solution alternative aux paysans, un revenu supplémentaire et régénèrent la terre dans les régions arides et semi-arides."},{"index":8,"size":111,"text":"Quelques pays ACP, comme le Sénégal et le Mali, investissent dans des projets d'étude sur les possibilités à long terme de la bioénergie. En produisant leur électricité localement à partir d'énergies renouvelables, ces pays pourraient réduire leur dépendance visà-vis des importations de Le continent africain peut particulièrement miser sur l'énergie solaire, compte tenu de l'ensoleillement important dont il bénéficie la plupart du temps. Il peut également, suivant les endroits, compter sur l'éolien pour combler une bonne partie des besoins, et il n'exploite actuellement que 5 % de son potentiel hydroélectrique. Très peu de nations ont toutefois pris des mesures concrètes pour investir dans les énergies renouvelables ou définir une politique énergétique."},{"index":9,"size":62,"text":"Vu le peu de zones rurales disposant d'un approvisionnement en énergie suffisant, la majeure partie des denrées produites par les agriculteurs sont actuellement transformées en ville. En donnant la priorité à la fourniture d'énergie dans les communautés agricoles, on augmenterait la productivité en général, les revenus des zones rurales et on réduirait la pression qui s'exerce sur des centres urbains déjà surpeuplés."},{"index":10,"size":153,"text":"L'attention croissante accordée ces dernières années au développement de systèmes de bioénergie est encourageante. Plusieurs pays autour du Sahel cultivent déjà des espèces La solution passe par l'installation de petites unités dans les zones rurales. Ces systèmes d'approvisionnement autonomes peuvent être réalisés en deux ou trois ans. Une fois installées et stabilisées, ces unités décentralisées pourront être raccordées au réseau national, prélude à des réseaux régionaux mis en place par plusieurs pays. En évoluant de cette manière, nous donnons la priorité à l'approvisionnement énergétique des zones rurales et nous développons des systèmes adaptés aux ressources locales et répondant aux besoins des communautés. ■ Dr Youba Sokona ([email protected]) est secrétaire exécutif de l'Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (www.oss-online.org) telles que le jatropha. Cette plante, que les paysans utilisent pour régénérer des terres appauvries et ensuite y faire pousser des cultures, produit en outre une huile qui peut servir de carburant [voir page 10]."},{"index":11,"size":40,"text":"Il importe toutefois d'utiliser le jatropha pour récupérer des terres destinées à la production de denrées, plus que pour ses vertus énergétiques. Il faut éviter une surproduction de cette espèce non comestible, qui se traduirait par une pénurie de denrées."}]},{"head":"Pensée innovante","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Le coût technologique des énergies renouvelables a considérablement baissé ces dernières années, mettant le coût et l'entretien des projets énergétiques à la portée d'un plus grand nombre. Ce coût devrait encore baisser, mais il faudra de l'inventivité et injecter quelques idées nouvelles dans nos vieux systèmes et institutions pour obtenir un approvisionnement électrique fiable dans les communautés rurales."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Je me souviens avoir cru qu'on ne parviendrait jamais à développer le biogaz en Afrique de l'Ouest car les éleveurs locaux n'y confinent pas leur bétail dans des zones réduites facilitant la collecte des bouses destinées aux générateurs de biomasse. J'ai ensuite visité un projet à Bangalore où les clients paient leur électricité en amenant leur bouse à l'usine de biogaz. Les sociétés d'électricité doivent envisager des pratiques autres que l'envoi de factures mensuelles à des gens qui n'ont pas de revenu mensuel."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"L e village de Kibae se situe à 150 km au nord de Nairobi, sur les pentes du mont Kenya. Sur son sol fertile, les petits paysans cultivent toutes sortes de fruits et de légumes, surtout des bananes, du thé et du café. Mais à l'instar de la plupart des ruraux kényans, les habitants de Kibae et des alentours ne sont pas raccordés au réseau électrique principal (d'après le gouvernement kényan, 63 % de la population rurale ne serait pas raccordée)."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"En 2004, les villageois ont donc décidé d'exploiter une autre ressource naturelle locale, une cascade de 12 mètres, pour produire de l'électricité. Ils ont construit un bâtiment près de la rivière pour y abriter un générateur, ainsi qu'un barrage pour contrôler le débit de l'eau, puis ils ont sollicité le ministère de l'Énergie afin d'obtenir une turbine hydroélectrique. Le Ministère et la communauté, en concertation avec les bureaux locaux de l'Organisation des Nations unies pour le développement industriel (ONUDI), ont élaboré un plan pour résoudre le problème d'énergie de Kibae."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"L'ONUDI, agence des Nations unies spécialisée dans l'élaboration de processus de production respectueux de l'environnement ou peu énergivores, s'est attelée à créer un pôle d'énergie communautaire (PEC). Ces pôles, également appelés kiosques à énergie, fournissent à la communauté de l'électricité issue de sources renouvelables et l'occasion de dégager de nouveaux revenus."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"La faible densité et l'éparpillement de la population rurale ne permettent généralement pas aux fournisseurs d'énergie de rentabiliser l'extension de leur réseau. L'ONUDI voit dans les PEC, qui sont essentiellement des installations décentralisées (non raccordées au réseau), un moyen de générer de l'électricité à partir de ressources renouvelables et de contribuer dans une large mesure à l'éclosion de petites entreprises en milieu rural. Avec une source d'alimentation fiable, les paysans peuvent transformer leur production agricole sur place et commercialiser une large gamme de produits. Grâce à ce revenu supplémentaire, ils peuvent investir dans d'autres services locaux, tels que des équipements Internet et de téléphonie mobile fournis par d'autres membres de la communauté, et ainsi relancer l'économie locale."},{"index":7,"size":70,"text":"Les sources d'énergie choisies et les services fournis par les pôles varient en fonction de facteurs tels que la localisation, le nombre d'habitants, les types de services nécessaires et les besoins énergétiques de la communauté. En général, un PEC dessert 400 ménages, soit en moyenne 2 000 habitants. Il tire ses revenus de la vente d'énergie et des prestations de services qu'il peut offrir grâce à une fourniture stable d'électricité."},{"index":8,"size":82,"text":"Un PEC soutient différents types d'activités dont il tire profit : services liés aux TIC (initiation à l'informatique, accès à Internet, kiosques téléphoniques) mais aussi processus industriels légers tels que minoterie, fonte de métaux, atelier de menuiserie, salon de coiffure, salon de beauté ou entrepôt frigorifique. À mesure qu'il trouve ses marques dans la communauté, le pôle devient également un centre de commerce local avec une offre de services bancaires mobiles et d'information sur les marchés pour les paysans et les acheteurs."}]},{"head":"Conjuguer les énergies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"À Kibae, le nouveau pôle d'énergie communautaire combine deux sources d'énergie différentes : l'eau, qui fait tourner deux petites turbines produisant 2 kilowatts, et une installation solaire qui génère 500 watts, soit une production totale de 2,5 kW. Les deux systèmes chargent un parc d'accumulateurs à partir desquels un convertisseur modifie l'alimentation de courant continu (DC) en courant alternatif (AC). La communauté est ainsi alimentée de manière stable en 240 volts, tension qui convient à la plupart des appareils électriques."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Tous les équipements de production d'électricité sont regroupés dans un seul bâtiment, baptisé « la centrale ». De là, le courant est acheminé vers les deux principaux points du village : le centre industriel et le pôle d'énergie communautaire. Les PME se servent de l'électricité fournie au centre industriel pour moudre le maïs, pour faire chauffer les incubateurs d'un petit centre de couvage, pour extraire le jus des fruits produits localement et même pour faire du savon. Ces produits apportent un revenu supplémentaire aux paysans et à d'autres membres de la communauté qui peuvent se payer l'électricité grâce aux bénéfices réalisés."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Rien que le premier mois, la vente de jus, de farine et de savon produits par le centre a rapporté plus de 11 000 KSh (140 dollars), bien au-delà des prévisions et du montant estimé pour assurer l'entretien du système d'approvisionnement en électricité."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"La troisième partie du projet, le centre communautaire, permet de dégager des recettes. Le centre de Kibae dessert quelque 300 ménages. Bien que ceux-ci ne soient pas directement raccordés à l'électricité, ils utilisent des batteries de voiture pour faire fonctionner de petits appareils électriques. Ces batteries doivent être régulièrement rechargées, de même que les deux cents téléphones portables de la communauté. Des entrepreneurs locaux louent un espace dans le centre"}]},{"head":"Pôle d'énergie communautaire","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Un village rural du Kenya est le fier propriétaire de la première centrale hybride sans émission de CO 2 du pays. Sa centrale hydroélectrique et solaire lui fournit une alimentation électrique stable et donc l'accès à Internet et à la téléphonie mobile."}]},{"head":"Dossier","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Paul Njuguna ([email protected]) est expert en énergies renouvelables. Il travaille pour l'ONUDI au Kenya (www.unido.org/index.php?id=6552) Le projet, connu sous le nom de CBEND (Combattre l'embroussaillement au profit du développement de la Namibie), n'en est qu'à ses débuts : les chercheurs procèdent à des tests et les études de faisabilité valident le concept. Jusqu'ici, les résultats sont encourageants et il apparaît que le problème d'embroussaillement pourrait se muer en une aubaine économique pour le secteur agricole namibien et procurer un emploi à une partie de ses 50 % de chômeurs."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Bien que l'équipe du projet n'ait pas encore choisi le lieu d'implantation exact du générateur d'électricité de biomasse, elle compte l'installer dans une des zones rurales ravagées par les variétés de broussailles invasives, afin de réduire le coût de transport du matériau récolté. Elle songe pour l'instant aux alentours de Tsumeb, Grootfontein et Otavi, au nord du pays, car de nombreuses exploitations de la région sont très affectées par l'embroussaillement. Plusieurs lignes électriques traversent aussi cette partie du pays, ce qui permettrait de réinjecter facilement l'électricité produite par la centrale dans le réseau national."}]},{"head":"Livraison constante","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Les paysans de cette région coupent déjà les espèces de broussailles envahissantes en petites quantités pour les brûler et les vendre sous forme de charbon de bois, et ainsi arrondir leurs fins de mois. L'équipe du projet espère associer et former ces paysans à la création d'entreprises en marge de la centrale et à la gestion des terres agricoles regagnées suite au débroussaillement."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Ces nouvelles opportunités verront les paysans communaux et indépendants ainsi que d'autres intervenants du monde rural se muer en « énergiculteurs ». L'équipe du CBEND espère que les personnes associées à ce projet créeront leur propre petite entreprise pour fournir la biomasse nécessaire à cette première centrale. Par l'affinement de leurs méthodes de récolte et de livraison, ces nouvelles entreprises prouveront qu'il y a suffisamment de ressources disponibles pour d'autres centrales de petit gabarit en zone rurale."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Les paysans travailleront en équipe pour récolter les broussailles invasives et indésirables. Le volume de biomasse Les broussailles indésirables envahissent souvent une bonne partie des terres agricoles namibiennes. Elles ne poseront plus problème dès lors qu'elles pourront servir à alimenter de petites centrales électriques."}]},{"head":"Image sOurCe / anp","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Claus-Peter hager ([email protected]) est coordinateur du « Land desk » à la Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (www.drfn.org.na)"}]},{"head":"Étude de cas","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"John Keane ([email protected]) est directeur des programmes chez SolarAid (www.solar-aid.org) J ohari vit en Tanzanie, dans la région d'Iringa. Elle gagnait sa vie comme ouvrière, en cassant des pierres pour les vendre comme matériau de construction. Aujourd'hui, après une rapide formation, elle assemble et vend de petits panneaux solaires que ses clients utilisent pour alimenter leur radio ou pour recharger les batteries de leurs lampes et de leur téléphone portable."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Johari est l'une des sept cents personnes déjà formées par SolarAid, une ONG créée en 2006 pour lutter contre le changement climatique et la pauvreté dans le monde. SolarAid concentre actuellement ses efforts au Malawi, en Tanzanie et au Kenya, et fait le promotion du développement économique en formant des entrepreneurs à la création de boutiques qui fabriquent et vendent des équipements solaires. Les personnes ainsi formées se créent une nouvelle source de revenu en ouvrant des boutiques d'équipements solaires à un prix abordable pour que les plus pauvres aient accès à une production électrique propre et renouvelable."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Il y a un gros marché de l'électricité solaire à bas coût. En Tanzanie, par exemple, 2 % seulement des zones rurales sont raccordées au réseau principal, ce qui oblige les 98 % restants à brûler du pétrole, du mazout et des bougies pour s'éclairer la nuit."}]},{"head":"Générer de l'argent et de l'électricité","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Grâce aux centrales solaires installées chez elles, les communautés rurales d'Afrique de l'Est s'ouvrent de nouveaux horizons économiques et obtiennent de l'électricité fiable et à bon prix. Les projets micro-solaires s'emploient à surmonter les obstacles financiers en faisant la promotion des petits panneaux solaires et des produits qui, par leur taille, s'avèrent moins coûteux que les systèmes solaires habituels. Comme ils sont petits, ces équipements ne génèrent que peu d'énergie (en général moins de 2 watts), mais 0,3 watt suffit à faire fonctionner un poste de radio toute la journée pendent des années durant, et à alimenter des ampoules LED économiques et longue durée. Les communautés rurales utilisent cette énergie fiable et peu coûteuse pour recharger leurs téléphones mobiles. Les paysans peuvent ainsi mieux communiquer avec les acheteurs, négocier leurs produits au meilleur prix, avoir accès à de nouveaux marchés et court-circuiter les intermédiaires."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Vu leur petite taille, les produits micro-solaires peuvent être facilement amenés dans les zones rurales par des marchands ambulants ou proposés sur les marchés des villages non raccordés, où ils sont très demandés. Un consommateur converti au solaire ne doit plus acheter autant de pétrole ou de piles ; il dispose donc d'une réserve d'argent pour couvrir d'autres besoins."}]},{"head":"Macro-solaire","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Les projets macro-solaires visent les grandes institutions rurales non raccordées : écoles, cliniques, centres communautaires. Les installations solaires fournissent ici entre 100 et 500 watts. Tous les projets macrosolaires sont conçus pour améliorer les services de proximité et pour générer un revenu en incluant un volet économique tel qu'un service de recharge des téléphones."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"En Zambie, dans le district de Mumbwa, par exemple, une de ces installations fournit l'éclairage d'un centre communautaire abritant une petite bibliothèque et permet à l'association féminine locale de fabriquer des vêtements le soir. Ce système fournit également un revenu au centre via la recharge de téléphones portables. Ailleurs, au Malawi, un centre de formation professionnelle utilise son système solaire pour l'éclairage et pour faire fonctionner une télévision sur laquelle les membres de la communauté, contre paiement, peuvent voir les grands événements sportifs."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Bien que la finalité de chaque système soit variable, tous les projets ont en commun la génération de revenus. Un système incapable de générer des fonds est voué à péricliter. SolarAid s'emploie à ce que chaque installation s'accompagne d'un volet économique qui permettra d'économiser, de gérer et de réinvestir une partie des fonds dans le système."},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"Les grands systèmes solaires dépassent généralement les moyens financiers des particuliers et des communautés, mais SolarAid ne les fournit pas gratuitement. Trop de projets ont en effet échoué suite à une mauvaise planification ou à un manque d'implication de la communauté, celle-ci n'ayant aucun intérêt direct dans le système. Pour éviter cela, SolarAid informe les utilisateurs du coût de chaque composant, de sa durée de vie et, à partir de là, définit le seuil minimum de recettes que la communauté doit atteindre par mois et par an. SolarAid ne voit toutefois dans ces projets micro-et macro-solaires que le point de départ de son action en Afrique et ailleurs. Les pays qui bénéficient de taux d'ensoleillement élevés ne doivent pas envisager l'énergie solaire que comme un substitut au raccordement, mais aussi comme le moyen d'étendre le réseau électrique principal. Au final, SolarAid veut aider les gouvernements à percevoir les avantages de l'énergie solaire pour qu'ils soient à l'avenir plus disposés à adopter des solutions solaires plutôt que de dépendre des combustibles fossiles qui émettent du CO 2 . ■ Le centre de formation de SolarAid à Nkhata Bay, Malawi, éclairé à l'énergie solaire."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"dépendants des importations de pétrole et leur permettrait de répondre aux besoins énergétiques du secteur agricole et d'électrifier les campagnes. L'affectation des cultures alimentaires à des fins énergétiques soulève néanmoins un problème : de nombreux pays africains importateurs de denrées connaissent déjà des difficultés d'approvisionnement, notamment parce que les céréales comme le maïs, le soja et le blé sont utilisées pour la production de biocarburants dans d'autres parties du monde. Le véritable potentiel réside sans doute dans la production d'énergie à partir de cultures non alimentaires telles que le jatropha, ou à partir de vastes réserves agricoles et forestières."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"L'attention se porte aujourd'hui sur le « Jatropha curcas », également connu sous les noms de noix de la Barbade ou de pourghère. Traditionnellement utilisé pour créer des haies de protection ou pour délimiter les terres agricoles, le jatropha pousse un peu partout en Afrique. Il se contente d'un sol pauvre et résiste bien à la sécheresse ; il s'acclimate donc parfaitement à de nombreuses régions d'Afrique, y compris les régions sèches de l'Ouest."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"En 2006, un programme national de biocarburants a été lancé au Sénégal afin de planter plus de 300 000 hectares de jatropha, au rythme de 1 000 ha par communauté rurale. D'ici 2012, ce sont plus de 3 millions de tonnes de semences qui seront ainsi produites et qui livreront plus d'un milliard de litres d'huile de jatropha"}]},{"head":"Le carburant de la productivité","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Pour de nombreux pays ACP, la hausse de la productivité agricole suppose une consommation accrue d'énergie, fournie par des carburants coûteux. Un problème qui pourrait être résolu grâce à la bioénergie."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Q ui dit production agricole dit énergie. Il en faut pour faire fonctionner les équipements, les tracteurs, les moissonneuses, les systèmes d'irrigation et les pompes électriques, au fioul ou à d'autres carburants. Il en faut aussi pour la transformation, la conservation, le transport et le stockage des produits agricoles."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Vu les cours du baril, l'importation de pétrole engloutit 50 % des recettes à l'exportation de plusieurs pays africains, et nombre d'entre eux se démènent pour faire face à leurs besoins en énergie. Un plus large accès à l'énergie dans les zones rurales africaines est par ailleurs indispensable à la modernisation et à l'essor de l'agriculture, ce qui fait de l'énergie à la fois un problème mais aussi une partie de la solution."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Le secteur agricole se profile comme un gros consommateur d'énergie mais aussi un producteur potentiel. La production d'énergie à partir de l'agriculture est au coeur de l'envolée de la bioénergie. De nos jours, la plupart des biocarburants sont en effet, issus de l'agriculture."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"Nombreuses sont les variétés cultivées en Afrique qui peuvent se muer en bioénergie : la canne à sucre, la betterave sucrière, le maïs, le sorgho et la cassave peuvent produire de l'éthanol, tandis que l'arachide, le jatropha et l'huile de palme peuvent être transformés en biodiesel. D'après les estimations publiées par l'institut Copernic, l'Afrique pourrait d'ici 2050 produire quelque 317 exajoules de bioénergie à partir des terres agricoles excédentaires, soit l'équivalent de 142 millions de barils de pétrole par jour. Il s'agit de la production potentielle en conditions optimales, c'est-à-dire le volume maximum d'énergie pouvant être produit sans nuire à l'environnement ni menacer l'approvisionnement alimentaire d'une population en augmentation constante."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"La concrétisation de ce potentiel rendrait de nombreux pays moins moustapha Kamal Gueye ([email protected]) est directeur de programme à l'ICTSD (International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, www.ictsd.org) raffinée qui pourront servir de biodiesel. Au Mali aussi, plusieurs expériences ont été menées ces dernières années : elles ont prouvé que l'huile de jatropha pouvait servir à la production agricole et à l'électrification rurale tout en apportant ses bienfaits sociaux et environnementaux."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"Aujourd'hui, plusieurs initiatives génèrent de la bioénergie à partir de l'agriculture et s'en servent pour répondre à la demande énergétique de la production agricole. Certains projets, par exemple, utilisent de la bioénergie pour faire fonctionner les systèmes de pompage et d'irrigation, pour éclairer ou faire fonctionner des groupes électrogènes qui alimentent à peu près tout, du réfrigérateur aux meules en passant par les équipements de transformation des céréales."},{"index":8,"size":196,"text":"Si l'on parvenait à développer la bioénergie sans déséquilibrer un système agricole déjà fragile, mais en intégrant harmonieusement l'énergie et les cultures alimentaires, on relèverait le défi énergétique posé par l'augmentation de la productivité agricole. Pour ce faire, les pays africains devront formuler des stratégies et des politiques précises qui tiennent compte des diverses implications économiques et environnementales que suppose l'intégration des productions énergétique et agricole. La prise en compte de ces facteurs n'est qu'un aspect important parmi toutes les actions à envisager afin d'assurer le développement durable de l'agriculture en Afrique. ■ Des cultures destinées aux biocarburants sont-elles le moyen pour les agriculteurs des pays ACP de dégager un revenu supplémentaire ? ➜ Avec la hausse du prix du pétrole, les biocarburants ont la cote. Ils feront indubitablement partie de l'offre énergétique de demain. Les biocarburants seront une culture de rente, à l'instar de nombreuses autres cultures. Les gouvernements des ACP devraient néanmoins protéger leurs agriculteurs des fluctuations des prix qui sont inévitables. Les petits exploitants qui ne cultivent que des variétés destinées aux biocarburants jouent leur avenir, comme les planteurs de thé ou de café qui, d'une année à l'autre, voient les cours s'effondrer."}]},{"head":"Étude","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"On dit que l'expansion des cultures destinées aux biocarburants est responsable de la hausse des prix des denrées et de leur rareté dans certaines régions. Faut-il y voir les prémices d'un véritable problème à long terme ? ➜ C'est un problème complexe. Tout dépend du lieu et du type de culture considérés. On a dit que la production d'éthanol était responsable de la hausse des prix du maïs en Amérique. Il va falloir trouver un équilibre dans l'affectation des cultures mais je trouve le débat disproportionné. Si les gens s'inquiètent tant de l'affectation des sols pour la production de biocarburants, ils pourraient aussi bien se préoccuper des terres fertiles « gâchées » à cultiver du sucre, du thé, du cacao et du café. L'utilisation de carburants pour le transport et la production de boissons et d'aliments sucrés de luxe est de plus en plus en contradiction avec les impératifs alimentaires mondiaux. ■ "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" pétrole et commencer à investir dans des projets d'électrification en profitant du fait que les zones ruralers deviennent d' importants fournisseurs d'énergie. ■ Trouver d'autres énergies Le développement des sources d'énergie renouvelable arrive en tête des secteurs technologiques à forte croissance mondiale. http://ictupdate.cta.int ICT Update numéro 46, décembre 2008. ICT Update est un magazine multimédia disponible à la fois sur Internet (http://ictupdate.cta.int), en version papier et sous forme d'une newsletter diffusée par courriel. Le prochain numéro paraîtra en février. Il traitera des systèmes d'information commerciale. Veuillez adresser vos propositions d'article à [email protected] Le CTA, Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (ACP-UE), est un institut du Groupe des États ACP et de l'UE, créé dans le cadre de l'Accord de Cotonou. Il est financé par l'UE. Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Pays-Bas (www.cta.int) Production et gestion du contenu Web : Contactivity bv, Stationsweg 28, 2312 AV Leiden, Pays-Bas (www.contactivity.com) P eu importe l'amplitude des estimations (de 5 à 100 ans), une chose est sûre : les réserves de combustibles fossiles sont limitées et diminueront lentement avant de disparaître complètement dans un proche avenir. Ce qui ne veut pas dire que nous ne disposions pas d'assez d'énergie sur cette planète pour combler une demande croissante. Il faudra néanmoins changer de comportement pour réduire notre dépendance envers l'électricité. Diverses énergies renouvelables comme l'eau, le vent et le soleil sont à même de combler nos besoins. "},{"text":" pour proposer leurs services de recharge. Les entreprises ne paient que l'électricité consommée en fonction du relevé du compteur. La recharge d'un portable coûte 10 KSh (0,13 dollar) ; à raison de deux recharges par semaine en moyenne, l'entreprise fait un chiffre d'affaires d'environ 16 000 KSh (200 dollars) par mois. D'autres membres de la communauté ont investi dans des ordinateurs et proposent des cours de formation et des services Internet. Les paysans vont au centre pour avoir des informations sur les cours du marché et les nouvelles méthodes plus productives. Le centre dispose également d'une télé satellite et d'un lecteur DVD qu'il loue aux particuliers pour regarder les grands événements sportifs ou à des organisations qui veulent diffuser des vidéos d'information. La lumière compte Autre source importante de revenus et objectif important du projet ONUDI, la fourniture de sources d'éclairage alternatives. Pour le moment, la plupart des villageois de Kibae s'éclairent au pétrole. Un ménage normal dispose de trois lampes : une pour la cuisine, une pour le salon et une pour que les enfants puissent étudier. Une famille utilise ces lampes en moyenne quatre heures le soir, soit une consommation journalière d'environ un demi-litre de pétrole. Cela équivaut à plus de 1 200 KSh (15 dollars) par mois, sans compter le prix d'achat de la lampe et des mèches de rechange. Ces lampes peuvent provoquer des incendies et les vapeurs de combustion du pétrole peuvent polluer l'air de la maison et entraîner divers désordres respiratoires et ophtalmologiques. Les LED (diodes électroluminescentes), en revanche, suppriment tout risque de pollution et d'incendie, diffusent une lumière stable et de meilleure qualité que l'éclairage vacillant d'une lampe à pétrole. Plus besoin non plus de racheter continuellement du pétrole car les LED fonctionnent sur une batterie qu'il ne faut recharger qu'une fois par semaine si on ne les utilise que quatre heures par soir. Les familles paient 20 KSh (0,25 dollar) pour une recharge, soit 240 KSh (3 dollars) par mois pour trois lampes. Un coût mensuel nettement moindre que celui du pétrole. [Voir le tableau comparatif des coûts annuels respectifs d'une LED et d'une lampe à pétrole.] Autant le coût de fonctionnement des LED est plus avantageux et permet de réaliser des économies de plus de 11 000 KSh (140 dollars) par an, autant leur prix d'achat de 4 500 KSh (57,50 dollars) reste hors de portée de nombreuses familles. Les LED sont par conséquent proposées au prix initial de 500 KSh (6,40 dollars) pièce, à charge pour les familles d'acquitter le solde par mensualités de 300 KSh (3,80 dollars), la lampe durant 8 mois. Les économies de pétrole réalisées durant cette période couvrent largement le montant des mensualités. Les familles ont aussi la possibilité de tester préalablement l'éclairage LED car l'école primaire locale donne aux enfants des LED qu'ils peuvent utiliser chez eux durant une semaine. Modèle d'affaires Bien que le centre de Kibae fonctionne unIDO Le pôle d'énergie communautaire de Kibae Schéma de production électrique du Pôle d'énergie communautaire de Kibae "},{"text":" récolté par hectare dépend de la méthode choisie. Soit mécanique, au moyen d'équipements d'excavation, qui risque toutefois d'arracher aussi des espèces utiles, soit manuelle, au moyen de haches et de tronçonneuses, ce qui permet un travail plus sérié et plus calibré mais nécessite plus de temps et de main-d'oeuvre. Il ne s'agit pas tant d'éliminer que d'éclaircir les zones envahies par espèces de broussailles invasives. Les paysans doivent en laisser suffisamment derrière eux pour permettre la repousse et réalimenter constamment le générateur. Les premières études montrent qu'un hectare de broussailles peut donner entre 0,5 MW et 2,5 MW d'électricité, ce qui équivaut grosso modo à la consommation annuelle d'un ménage. L'objectif est de débroussailler 1,5 million d'hectares par an pour apporter un complément d'énergie important au réseau d'électricité national. La technologie utilisée par la centrale garantit une production quasi nulle de dioxyde de carbone Le projet CBEND pourrait être un important vecteur de réhabilitation des terres et de diversification des revenus dans les campagnes namibiennes. Ce projet suscite déjà un intérêt commercial considérable auprès de sociétés désireuses de reproduire ce schéma ailleurs. L'équipe du projet espère que ses centrales électriques aux broussailles et l'expertise agricole et technologique qui les accompagnes, vont non seulement d'apporter une énergie renouvelable au pays, mais aussi devenir dans un proche avenir un de ses produits d'exportation. ■ "},{"text":" oeuvre des programmes par lesquels les communautés à faible revenu des zones rurales auront accès à une fourniture d'électricité correspondant aux besoins locaux et qui générera des revenus par la vente de services fonctionnant à l'énergie solaire. Pour obtenir l'installation d'un système, la communauté doit d'abord élaborer un solide plan d'entreprise qui précise les avantages pour les utilisateurs finaux, l'origine des recettes et les modalités de gestion. Les communautés doivent s'engager financièrement mais aussi physiquement, en fournissant des heures de travail pour installer le système, par exemple, et accepter de former d'autres membres de la communauté à l'utilisation de l'énergie solaire. Les utilisateurs finaux doivent également suivre des cours de formation avant l'installation, pour être certain que le système sera utilisé correctement et que les utilisateurs sauront comment le surveiller et le réparer si un élément tombe en panne. "},{"text":"Chargeurs Débranchez les chargeurs d'accus pour ordinateurs, téléphones portables et appareils photos numériques lorsque ceux-ci sont totalement rechargés ou éteints. De nombreux chargeurs continuent de convertir l'énergie même lorsqu'ils ne sont plus raccordés à l'appareil. Si le chargeur est chaud au toucher, c'est qu'il continue de consommer de l'électricité.■ OnLIne BILDagenTur / hh Liens corrélés Économies d'énergie sous Vista Conseils d'économie d'énergie pour les utilisateurs du système d'exploitation Windows Vista. ➜ www.worldstart.com/tips/tips.php/4638 « big Green Switch » Astuces à propos des économies d'énergie, de l'énergie verte, de la réduction des déchets, du recyclage et du suivi écologique. Inclut une calculatrice pour vous aider à déterminer votre « empreinte carbone ». ➜ www.biggreenswitch.co.uk « Guide to Green Living » Comment réduire la consommation énergétique de votre ordinateur. ➜ http://guidetogreenliving.blogspot.com/ 2006/05/tips-to-reducing-your-computers-energy.html Pourquoi la fourniture d'électricité reste-t-elle si médiocre, voire inexistante, dans tant de communautés rurales des pays ACP ? ➜ Le raccordement des villages ruraux au réseau d'électricité coûte plus de 10 000 dollars du kilomètre. Dans les pays développés, la majorité des habitants vivent en ville : les taxes prélevées auprès des 90 % de citadins couvrent les frais engendrés par la fourniture d'électricité aux 10 % de ruraux. La majorité des pays en développement connaissant la situation inverse : 25 % de citadins qui ne paient pas assez de taxes pour installer l'électricité chez 75 % de ruraux. Les réseaux de la plupart des pays ACP ne sont en outre pas assez puissants pour alimenter les campagnes. La plupart des zones rurales ne peuvent-elles donc que rêver d'un réseau électrique stable ? ➜ Nombreux sont les pays ACP qui ont amélioré l'électrification de leurs Quel avantage les communautés rurales retireraient-elles d'un accès à une source d'électricité fiable pour alimenter les ordinateurs et les téléphones ? ➜ Qui dit services de communication dans les zones rurales dit accès aux marchés et à des revenus cash. Premier avantage. Les téléphones mobiles permettent aussi de garder le contact avec les membres de la famille, les entreprises et les banques. Deuxième avantage. L'accès au téléphone et à l'ordinateur, c'est aussi un meilleur enseignement, des loisirs, des infos, la santé, voire des services agricoles. Les ruraux se rendent vite compte des multiples améliorations que ces technologies apportent à leur quotidien. "},{"text":" campagnes. L'Afrique du Sud, par exemple, est passée de 35 % à 75 % de zones électrifiées en l'espace de 10 ans, grâce à une initiative publique concertée et dotée d'un financement sustantiel, prise par le Président Mandela dès son accession au pouvoir. Les nations asiatiques progressent également. C'est malheureusement dans les pays les plus pauvres que l'électrification ne suit pas la croissance démographique. Il y a toutefois une lueur d'espoir. Pour l'éclairage et la communication de base, il existe des solutions peu coûteuses, les LED, par exemple, qui ne nécessitent pas de raccordement au réseau. L'initiative Éclairer l'Afrique de l'IFC (Société financière internationale) soutient ce type de technologies à bas prix. C'est aux gouvernements qu'il appartient de redéfinir l'électrification des campagnes pour que les populations pauvres puissent avoir accès à ces technologies peu coûteuses, à l'instar des opérateurs de téléphonie mobile qui les ont libérées des lignes téléphoniques fixes terrestres.Beaucoup de gens trouvent les sources d'énergies renouvelables -l'éolien, l'eau et le solaire -difficiles à utiliser et chères à installer. Y a-t-il des alternatives plus simples et moins chères ?➜ Si les énergies renouvelables ont mauvaise réputation dans les pays en développement, c'est souvent à cause d'une mauvaise planification ou du souscalibrage des systèmes installés. Si les gens ne sont pas correctement formés à l'usage et à la maintenance d'un équipement, qu'il s'agisse d'une voiture ou d'un système d'éclairage à l'énergie solaire, il finira par tomber en panne. Les énergies renouvel ables, ça marche quand on sait s'en servir et c'est souvent la solution la moins chère pour des zones non raccordées. Dans ces zones, les principales alternatives aux énergies renouvelables sont les groupes électrogènes, les batteries au plomb et des combustibles comme le kérosène. Tantôt, ce sont les groupes électrogènes qui sont la meilleure solution, tantôt les batteries au plomb. Plus d'un millions de Kényans, par exemple, se servent de batteries au plomb qu'ils vont recharger à des stations raccordées au réseau. Le recours aux énergies renouvel ables reste cependant le meilleur choix lorsque les charges sont faibles et l'acheminement du combustible onéreux. "},{"text":" africaonline.co.ke) est consultant, spécialiste en énergie rurale et renouvelable à Nairobi, Kenya Énergie rurale renouvelable aLex WeBB / magnum phOTOs / hh "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"unido.org Site web de l'ONUDI au Kenya ➜ www.unido.org/office/kenya En général, un pôle dessert 400 ménages, soit une population moyenne de 2 000 personnes, mais on peut facilement le redimensionner pour ne desservir que quelques centaines ou au contraire plusieurs milliers de personnes. : Comparaison du coût total entre lampes à pétrole et LED. Montants en KSh. Lighting up Kenya Lighting up Kenya Blogue traitant des activités menées par TYPe COûT D'aChaT COûT aNNUeL COûT aNNUeL COûT Blogue traitant des activités menées parTYPeCOûT D'aChaTCOûT aNNUeLCOûT aNNUeLCOûT l'ONUDI pour apporter une énergie DeS eN TOTaL l'ONUDI pour apporter une énergieDeSeNTOTaL renouvelable et durable aux communautés CONSOmmabLeS COmbUSTIbLe renouvelable et durable aux communautésCONSOmmabLeSCOmbUSTIbLe rurales du Kenya et leur ouvrir de (mèChe OU OU reCharGe rurales du Kenya et leur ouvrir de(mèChe OUOU reCharGe nouveaux horizons économiques. ➜ http://lightingupkenya.org/ incontrôlée de certaines variétés de C es 50 dernières années, la croissance broussailles a fortement réduit la LED REChARGEABLES (3 LAMPES) 4 500 PILeS) 1 080 2 880 7 860 nouveaux horizons économiques. ➜ http://lightingupkenya.org/ incontrôlée de certaines variétés de C es 50 dernières années, la croissance broussailles a fortement réduit laLED REChARGEABLES (3 LAMPES)4 500PILeS) 1 0802 8807 860 ONUDI productivité agricole de la Namibie. La ONUDIproductivité agricole de la Namibie. La prolifération d'arbustes sur des terres vouées au pâturage a souvent entravé la pousse d'herbes et de plantes utiles et freiné la régénération de la nappe aquifère, ressource vitale pour les régions arides et semi-arides. L'embroussaillement, comme on l'appelle, entraîne la perte de nombreux ➜ www.à l'énergie solaire et hydroélectrique, pâturages sur des terres communales et LAMPE-TEMPêTE à PÉTROLE (3 LAMPES) LAMPE à PÉTROLE (3 LAMPES) 1 500 150 240 200 14 400 18 720 16 140 19 070 prolifération d'arbustes sur des terres vouées au pâturage a souvent entravé la pousse d'herbes et de plantes utiles et freiné la régénération de la nappe aquifère, ressource vitale pour les régions arides et semi-arides. L'embroussaillement, comme on l'appelle, entraîne la perte de nombreux ➜ www.à l'énergie solaire et hydroélectrique, pâturages sur des terres communales etLAMPE-TEMPêTE à PÉTROLE (3 LAMPES) LAMPE à PÉTROLE (3 LAMPES)1 500 150240 20014 400 18 72016 140 19 070 le PEC offre un modèle qui s'adapte à privées et explique que le nombre de le PEC offre un modèle qui s'adapte à privées et explique que le nombre de n'importe quelle source d'énergie têtes de bétail en Namibie ait chuté de n'importe quelle source d'énergie têtes de bétail en Namibie ait chuté de disponible. Il s'accommode aussi bien 2,5 millions en 1958 à seulement disponible. Il s'accommode aussi bien 2,5 millions en 1958 à seulement d'une seule énergie renouvelable que 800 000 en 2001. d'une seule énergie renouvelable que 800 000 en 2001. d'un système hybride combinant C'est dans ce contexte que la DRFN d'un système hybride combinant C'est dans ce contexte que la DRFN plusieurs sources, comme dans le cas (Desert Research Foundation of plusieurs sources, comme dans le cas (Desert Research Foundation of de Kibae. Namibia), en collaboration avec la NAU de Kibae. Namibia), en collaboration avec la NAU Des éoliennes, par exemple, (Namibian Agricultural Union) et la Des éoliennes, par exemple, (Namibian Agricultural Union) et la conviendront mieux à des villages qui NNFU (Namibia National Farmers conviendront mieux à des villages qui NNFU (Namibia National Farmers n'ont pas de ressources hydriques Union) a initié un projet visant à utiliser n'ont pas de ressources hydriques Union) a initié un projet visant à utiliser pérennes à proximité. On peut aussi le matériau végétal des broussailles pérennes à proximité. On peut aussi le matériau végétal des broussailles avoir des systèmes uniquement envahissantes pour produire de avoir des systèmes uniquement envahissantes pour produire de photovoltaïques ou des générateurs de l'électricité. L'idée est d'installer un photovoltaïques ou des générateurs de l'électricité. L'idée est d'installer un biomasse qui brûlent des végétaux générateur de 0,5 MW qui convertira le biomasse qui brûlent des végétaux générateur de 0,5 MW qui convertira le comme du maïs, de la canne à sucre et matériau végétal indésirable en gaz comme du maïs, de la canne à sucre et matériau végétal indésirable en gaz du sorgho. Les générateurs de biomasse combustible pour alimenter une centrale du sorgho. Les générateurs de biomasse combustible pour alimenter une centrale peuvent également être alimentés en au gaz. L'électricité produite par ce peuvent également être alimentés en au gaz. L'électricité produite par ce déjections du bétail environnant. Une générateur, première centrale électrique déjections du bétail environnant. Une générateur, première centrale électrique autre solution consiste à utiliser des indépendante namibienne fonctionnant autre solution consiste à utiliser des indépendante namibienne fonctionnant huiles végétales pour carburant (HVC, à la biomasse, sera réinjecte dans le huiles végétales pour carburant (HVC, à la biomasse, sera réinjecte dans le ou huiles végétales pures, HVP) à partir réseau de distribution national. ou huiles végétales pures, HVP) à partir réseau de distribution national. de variétés locales. de variétés locales. Un PEC peut tout aussi bien Un PEC peut tout aussi bien fonctionner à partir du réseau électrique fonctionner à partir du réseau électrique lorsqu'un raccordement est disponible. lorsqu'un raccordement est disponible. Ce dispositif peut paraître superflu mais Ce dispositif peut paraître superflu mais l'ONUDI s'est aperçue que, dans les l'ONUDI s'est aperçue que, dans les zones rurales raccordées au réseau zones rurales raccordées au réseau principal, seuls 20 % des ménages principal, seuls 20 % des ménages pouvaient s'offrir un raccordement et pouvaient s'offrir un raccordement et payer régulièrement ce service. Le PEC, payer régulièrement ce service. Le PEC, en revanche, dessert tous les membres en revanche, dessert tous les membres de la communauté qui ne paient que de la communauté qui ne paient que l'électricité consommée sans forfait l'électricité consommée sans forfait mensuel. Les divers services et activités mensuel. Les divers services et activités du PEC devraient lui rapporter du PEC devraient lui rapporter suffisamment d'argent pour couvrir ses suffisamment d'argent pour couvrir ses frais de fonctionnement, ses réparations frais de fonctionnement, ses réparations et dégager un bénéfice. C'est la seule et dégager un bénéfice. C'est la seule façon de viabiliser et de reproduire le façon de viabiliser et de reproduire le modèle PEC dans tout le Kenya et de modèle PEC dans tout le Kenya et de convaincre d'autres pays de se rallier à convaincre d'autres pays de se rallier à cette initiative. cette initiative. Les frais d'installation d'un PEC vont Les frais d'installation d'un PEC vont de 5 000 à 100 000 dollars en fonction de 5 000 à 100 000 dollars en fonction de la taille du pôle et de la technologie de la taille du p��le et de la technologie choisie pour la production d'électricité. choisie pour la production d'électricité. "},{"text":"de cas TIC et économie d'énergie TechTip Aux organisations et aux particuliers qui ne disposent pas encore d'une source d'énergie fiable, on ne peut que conseiller de réduire leur consomma- tion. Les ordinateurs, les imprimantes voire les téléphones portables représen- tent une part importante de l'électricité consommée au bureau et à la maison. Un usage réfléchi des appareils professionnels et domestiques peut se traduire par une réduction notable de votre facture ou accroître la durée de vie de l'alimentation ou des accumula- teurs. MoniteursLes moniteurs représentent jusqu'à deux tiers de l'énergie totale consommée par votre ordinateur. Éteignez-le lorsque vous vous absentez pour plus de quelques minutes. Cela vaut aussi bien pour les anciens écrans cathodiques (CRT) que pour les nouveaux écrans plats LCD. ordinateur de bureau consomme Notez que les économiseurs d'écran ne ordinateur de bureau consommeNotez que les économiseurs d'écran ne généralement 150 watts/heure, mais sont pas des économiseurs d'énergie. généralement 150 watts/heure, maissont pas des économiseurs d'énergie. certains en consomment le double. Un Utiliser un économiseur d'écran requiert certains en consomment le double. UnUtiliser un économiseur d'écran requiert ordinateur portable se contente de 30 plus d'énergie que de s'en passer. Les ordinateur portable se contente de 30plus d'énergie que de s'en passer. Les watts. La plupart des grands fabricants de économiseurs d'écran servent uniquement watts. La plupart des grands fabricants deéconomiseurs d'écran servent uniquement portables proposent aujourd'hui des à éviter les points de brûlure, ce qu'on portables proposent aujourd'hui desà éviter les points de brûlure, ce qu'on modèles encore moins énergivores. obtient également en éteignant le modèles encore moins énergivores.obtient également en éteignant le Beaucoup de gens pensent qu'en moniteur. Beaucoup de gens pensent qu'enmoniteur. éteignant l'ordinateur ils usent davantage éteignant l'ordinateur ils usent davantage le disque dur. C'était vrai avec les anciens Imprimantes le disque dur. C'était vrai avec les anciensImprimantes ordinateurs, mais, depuis quelques années, Les imprimantes restent généralement ordinateurs, mais, depuis quelques années,Les imprimantes restent généralement les équipements sont conçus pour des allumées durant des heures, y compris la les équipements sont conçus pour desallumées durant des heures, y compris la allumages / extinctions répétés. nuit, alors qu'elles ne servent que allumages / extinctions répétés.nuit, alors qu'elles ne servent que quelques minutes par jour. Résultat : un quelques minutes par jour. Résultat : un Beaucoup d'ordinateurs modernes beau gâchis, surtout avec les lasers, les Beaucoup d'ordinateurs modernesbeau gâchis, surtout avec les lasers, les Ordinateurs supportent sans problème 40 000 plus voraces en énergie. Beaucoup Ordinateurssupportent sans problème 40 000plus voraces en énergie. Beaucoup Éteignez vos ordinateur, écran et réamorçages sur leur durée de vie, bien d'imprimantes sont pourvues d'un système Éteignez vos ordinateur, écran etréamorçages sur leur durée de vie, biend'imprimantes sont pourvues d'un système imprimante lorsque vous ne les utilisez plus que vous n'en aurez jamais même si de « veille » qui permet d'économiser 50 % imprimante lorsque vous ne les utilisezplus que vous n'en aurez jamais même side « veille » qui permet d'économiser 50 % pas : quand vous quittez le bureau le soir, vous gardez votre appareil 10 ans. d'énergie par rapport à celles qui ne le pas : quand vous quittez le bureau le soir,vous gardez votre appareil 10 ans.d'énergie par rapport à celles qui ne le par exemple. Si vous devez laisser votre L'extinction de votre ordinateur la nuit sont pas. par exemple. Si vous devez laisser votreL'extinction de votre ordinateur la nuitsont pas. ordinateur allumé, utilisez les plans réduit l'usure et les contraintes ordinateur allumé, utilisez les plansréduit l'usure et les contraintes d'alimentation intégrés à votre système thermiques sur votre système et peut d'alimentation intégrés à votre systèmethermiques sur votre système et peut d'exploitation. Dans Windows, cliquez sur donc allonger sa durée de vie. d'exploitation. Dans Windows, cliquez surdonc allonger sa durée de vie. « Démarrer », puis sur « Panneau de « Démarrer », puis sur « Panneau de configuration » et « Options L'énergie consommée pour allumer votre configuration » et « OptionsL'énergie consommée pour allumer votre d'alimentation ». Pour les Apple Mac, allez ordinateur équivaut à 3 minutes d'alimentation ». Pour les Apple Mac, allezordinateur équivaut à 3 minutes dans « Préférences système » puis d'utilisation. Même si votre ordinateur dans « Préférences système » puisd'utilisation. Même si votre ordinateur « Économiseur d'énergie ». met du temps à démarrer, économisez de « Économiseur d'énergie ».met du temps à démarrer, économisez de l'énergie en l'éteignant le soir. l'énergie en l'éteignant le soir. Configurez l'extinction de votre écran Configurez l'extinction de votre écran après 20 minutes d'inactivité, celle de après 20 minutes d'inactivité, celle de votre disque dur après 30 minutes, et la votre disque dur après 30 minutes, et la mise en veille normale ou prolongée de mise en veille normale ou prolongée de votre ordinateur portable / de bureau au votre ordinateur portable / de bureau au bout de 90 minutes d'inactivité. bout de 90 minutes d'inactivité. Les ordinateurs portables ont une Les ordinateurs portables ont une meilleure efficacité énergétique. Un meilleure efficacité énergétique. Un "}],"sieverID":"64970824-66ef-4bb1-898a-f67eb0f8804d","abstract":"Le débroussaillement des pâturages donne de l'électricité en Namibie Le solaire, source potentielle de revenus en Afrique de l'Est Business et TIC à portée des paysans kényans grâce à l'énergie locale Numéro 46 Décembre 2008 http://ictupdate.cta.int L'énergie en milieu rural Un bulletin d'alerte pour l'agriculture ACP ICT 2 Éditorial Trouver d'autres énergies 3 Perspectives Priorités de la production d'énergie Dr Youba Sokona Dossier 4 Pôle d'énergie communautaire"}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04a60ced2a798506f7ee2873136ed4e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7a96224-bb40-4463-a734-1383e7593ced/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"For more information on the project please contact: Saskia Hendrickx","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Mobilization of livestock research and extension for food security and poverty alleviation in Mozambique","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Success story 1: Mrs Brumo Mrs Lilai Brumo from Bairro-2 in Mukumbura (Magoe district) is a 42 year old widow, mother of 3 children. She provides a living for her family by working in agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Mrs Brumo started keeping goats in 2005 after a neighbor gave her a goat for having prepared his land for the cropping season. Unfortunately in 2009, 3 of the 5 goats she had at that moment died of diseases mostly due to poor housing conditions."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"In 2010, she got involved in the project activities and attended a course facilitated by Agricultural Research Institute of Mozambique (IIAM) in Angónia on how best to feed cattle and goats in the dry season. In July 2011 it was decided by the group members of Bairro-2 that the first improved shelter would be built at her place. Shortly after, her 5 animals started using the shelter. Currently she has 21 animals, 19 females and 2 males. Since 2011, none of her animals have died. Mrs Brumo has not yet started selling goats since she has only 2 males and they are still small. She wants to keep the females to further increase her herd. She learned a lot from the training courses provided by the project especially the one on health she found very interesting."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Plans for the future Mrs Brumo's goal is to increase the number of goats and sell them to buy food and clothing for her family, pay school fees and possible hospital costs. The chickens she keeps are mostly for family consumption and to sell to pay for the milling of the maize or to buy soap. The 2 heads of cattle she has are still young but she would like to use them for animal traction in the future."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"\"Before, when it rained the floor in the goat shelter was wet and muddy. The animals used to limp, had a lot of skin problems and used to cough. Because of that, the animals died of disease, especially the young ones\" \"From the money of selling goats I hope to someday build a concrete house for my family\""}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"01dcf6b6-50cf-4b31-8f06-80a008b207ca","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04c1c24c350eba03c946645ae1a26f23","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1950/na_2329.pdf"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Parameter Estimates for Fishes of the Upper Paraná River Floodplain and Itaipu Reservoir (Brazil)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Consumption, natural mortality, trophic level and estimates of growth are very important parameters for the construction of Ecopath (trophic) models (Christensen and Pauly 1993). Consumption (Q) is the intake of food by a species over a certain time period. The ratio Q/B (Consumption/ Biomass) has been defi ned as the number of times a population consumes its own weight in a year (García and Duarte 2002;Pauly 1998a)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"According to Allen (1971), usually Natural Mortality (M), in equilibrium conditions, can be considered the production that is the \"total quantity of tissue elaborated by a fi sh population during a stated period of time\" (Ivlev 1945). Trophic Level (TL) defi nes the position of the fi sh on food web and can be estimated by stomach content analysis.Growth estimates can be described by the von Bertalanffy growth function (VBGF), which is expressed by the parameters K (growth constant) and L ∞ (asymptotic length)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"In order to infer the population response to impacts from two different ecosystems during two periods, the parameters K, L ∞ , M, QB and TL were estimated and compared for the 35 more abundant species from the upper Paraná river fl oodplain and the Itaipu reservoir."}]},{"head":"Abstract","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Estimates of the growth (K), natural mortality (M), consumption/biomass (Q/B) rate and trophic level (TL) for 35 species in the upper Paraná river fl oodplain and the Itaipu reservoir (interconnected ecosystems) are presented. A compilation of these biological statistics is made for comparison purposes and some general trends are briefl y discussed. "}]},{"head":"articles articles","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Material and Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study areas","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The Itaipu reservoir is located on the border of Brazil and Paraguay. It has an area of 1 350 km 2 and a mean depth of 22 m (mean water residence time = 40 d) (Figure 1). The reservoir was closed in 1982."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The Upper Paraná River includes approximately the first one-third of the Paraná river basin with a drainage area of 2.8 x 10 6 km 2 and 138 reservoirs with dams greater than 10 m in height. The study area is situated immediately above the Itaipu reservoir and represents as much as one-third of the original floodplain (230 km). It is the last stretch of the Paraná river in Brazilian territory that has not been impounded (Agostinho and Zalewski 1995;Gomes and Miranda 2001;Petrere et al. 2002)."}]},{"head":"Data sampling","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"From March 1992 to February 1995, sampling of fish was conducted every three months in the various habitats (river, channels and lakes) in the upper Paraná river floodplain. Gill nets (2-16 cm mesh) and trammel nets (6-8 cm mesh) were used for collecting the samples. Fishing gears were deployed for 24 hours during each sampling period, with inspections in the early morning, dusk and late evening."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"At the Itaipu reservoir, species were collected monthly during January 1983 to December 1987 and January 1988 to December 1992. Gill nets (3-16 cm mesh) were deployed for 24 hours during each sampling period (with inspections in the early morning, dusk and late evening) at various sites (lotic and lentic environments; transitional zone)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The fishes were preserved with tricaine or oil of cloves before being sorted by species, counted and measured."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Length-frequency data for species from both environments (reservoir and floodplain) were analyzed. Growth parameters were calculated using VBGF equations:"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"where L t is fish length (cm) at age t, L ∞ is the Asymptotic Length (cm), K is the curvature of the VBGF or Growth Rate (year -1 ), and t 0 (\"t -zero\") is the age intercept where fish age is assumed to be zero."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Parameter K (growth rate) of the VBGF was calculated using length-frequency data and the ELEFAN I routine of FISAT (Sparre et al. 1989;FAO-ICLARM 1996) (and with option to scan for K-values) because in tropical areas it is difficult, if not impossible, to count rings on hard parts (Lizama and Vazzoler 1993). In all cases, Asymptotic Length (L ∞ ) was calculated using maximum length (L max ), i.e., largest individual of the population sample (L ∞ = L max * 1.05)."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Natural Mortality (M) was calculated by empiric regression (Pauly 1980):"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"where M is Natural Mortality (year -1 ) and T is a mean temperature (23.4ºC)."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Palomares and Pauly (1998) The Ar value was estimated as the average measurement for three or four individuals per species. Trophic Level (TL) for each species was based on an approach used in Ecopath (Christensen and Pauly 1993), i.e., TL is equal to 1 plus the weighted mean of the prey's trophic level. Information about diet composition is provided in Hahn et al. (1997) and Agostinho et al. (1997)."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"Paired t-tests were performed to investigate K value differences between time periods within each ecosystem and among ecosystems, separating reproductive behavior (migratory and sedentary) (Zar 1996). Correlation analysis (Pearson r) was performed on all variable combinations."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"To control Type II error, p values were adjusted using the sequential Bonferroni test correction of Peres-Neto (1999)."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"Overall, correlation coefficients between parameters are very weak and not significant (p<0.001), hence are not discussed in the results."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Table 1 presents information and related estimated parameters for 35 species for different time periods and ecosystems, totaling 87 fish populations."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"The auximetric plot (from the Greek auxesis -growth and metron -measure) shows that the smaller species have high values of K, while it is the opposite with the large ones. This pattern is not associated with the survey period (Figure 2). Paired t-test (n = 8, p < 0.004) demonstrated that K declined between time periods only for sedentary species such as S. borelii, S. spilopleura and T. paraguayensis. In the Itaipu reservoir, K values for sedentary species were more constant and showed no change for nine years after the closure of the dam (n = 10, p<0.89). Other comparisons, such as between ecosystems, time periods in the Itaipu reservoir, time periods of the migratory species, etc., showed no significant differences."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The findings of this study are consistent with other studies that have proposed that smaller species have higher values of K (Pauly 1998a), for instance, the same asymptotic size, may be associated with various values of K (Figure 2 articles the \"available growth space\" by species. These patterns are similar to those observed for fish species in other latitudes and ecosystems (Pauly 1998b)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"K values decreased among the sedentary species in the floodplain, probably because these populations are affected by an irregular flood regime (Agostinho et al. 1999(Agostinho et al. , 2001) ) due to many upstream dams (26 reservoirs covering about 100 km 2 ), while reservoir populations live in an environment with more stability."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The relationship assumed by some authors that Trophic Level increases with fish size (Pauly et al. 1998) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Map of South America and Brazil identifying the Upper Paraná River floodplain and Itaipu reservoir. "},{"text":" ), showing different strategies of the occupation of NAGA, WorldFish Center Newsletter Vol. 28 No. 1 & 2 Jan-Jun 2005 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Estimated parameters for species at the Itaipu reservoir and upper Paraná river floodplain (Brazil) in two periods. Aspect Ratio of the caudal fin; n -sample size. Number 1: 1983-1987 for reservoir and 1986-1988 for floodplain; Number 2: 1988-1992 for reservoir and 1992-1995 for floodplain. � � ��� ��� ��� ��� �� ��� ����� ���������� ��� ��� ��� �� ������������� ��� ����� ��� ��� ��� ��� ��� ��� � � � �� ��� ��� ��� ������������ is not clear for the ���������������������� is not clear for the���������������������� Paraná species. The correlation (r = 0.36) Paraná species. The correlation (r = 0.36) was disproportionately influenced by the was disproportionately influenced by the longest species (P. corruscans and longest species (P. corruscans and P. luetkeni). P. luetkeni). The compilation also indicated that Q/B The compilation also indicated that Q/B varies inversely with L ∞ and Trophic Level varies inversely with L ∞ and Trophic Level (see Table 1). García and Duarte (2002) (see Table 1). García and Duarte (2002) showed similar trends for Caribbean showed similar trends for Caribbean fishes. Natural Mortality has a high fishes. Natural Mortality has a high correlation with L ∞ and K, but since M is correlation with L ∞ and K, but since M is calculated by equation 2, these relation- calculated by equation 2, these relation- ships have no biological significance. ships have no biological significance. Estimates presented here should be useful Estimates presented here should be useful for construction of Ecopath models, since for construction of Ecopath models, since in tropical regions like Brazil, ecological in tropical regions like Brazil, ecological modeling is at a development stage modeling is at a development stage (Angelini and Petrere 1996; Wolff et al. (Angelini and Petrere 1996; Wolff et al. 2000; Angelini and Agostinho 2005). 2000; Angelini and Agostinho 2005). "}],"sieverID":"dc735048-2837-4e8b-81bf-5afd646ba11a","abstract":""}
data/part_5/04cbc85664cec5f8a88c5f2cd6c5cc40.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04cbc85664cec5f8a88c5f2cd6c5cc40","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4600e2a9-03ff-426d-b82c-77bba8ff4b0b/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Achieving food and nutritional security and better lives through livestock","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"As we celebrate this year's World Food Day, let us remember the many ways that livestock can help the world meet SDG 2. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is working with partners to bring about change in livestock-related practices, policies and investments in developing countries by generating scientific knowledge, exerting influence and developing capacity for more equitable, broad-based and sustainable livestock development."}]},{"head":"World Food Day","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"A # ZeroHunger world by 2030 is possible Globally, about 1 billion people benefit from livestock in different ways. Almost half of these depend on livestock for their livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Animal-source foods (meat, milk and eggs) provide 40% of the world's protein supply."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Over the last 30 years, consumption of meat, milk and eggs in low-and middle-income countries has more than tripled."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Including animal-source foods in the diets of most infants in poor households in their first 1000 days of life (up to two years of age) is critical for meeting their basic nutritional needs."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Eggs, meat and dairy products are 3 of the 7 food groups deemed by the World Health Organization to be essential in assessing the dietary diversity of infants."}]},{"head":"Livestock and livelihoods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"October 2018 ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund ILRI envisions a world where all people have access to enough food and nutrition to reach their maximum potential. It works to make this a reality through research for efficient, safe and sustainable use of livestock, thereby ensuring better lives through livestock."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"What ILRI and its livestock partners are doing to help achieve zero hunger ILRI and its partners are working together to build a world where the communities of developing and emerging economies are empowered with the most reliable livestockrelated knowledge, where sustainable livestock productivity is fully and equitably supported, where women and men both are livestock decision-makers, and where no one goes hungry and thereby fails to achieve their full potential."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"ILRI works with partners to undertake research that leads to development outcomes that:"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• Combat food insecurity and malnutrition through research to raise livestock productivity levels. • Enhance food safety through the implementation of early-warning and risk-reduction systems. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" • Ensure women have equal access to, control over and ownership of economic, land and other resources. • Strengthen scientific and technological capacity to make livestock systems more sustainable. • Ensure livestock development is compatible with adaption to, and mitigation of, climate change. • Conserve the genetic diversity of farm animals and promote access to, and fair and equitable sharing of, benefits arising from such resources. • Strengthen partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise and technology in sustainable livestock development. "}],"sieverID":"ba048eae-60e2-4553-b6a2-4e40493fbb42","abstract":"More than two billion people worldwide are not getting all the nutrients they need. Micronutrient deficiency can lead to illness, physical stunting and impaired cognitive development. Animal-source foods-milk, meat and eggs-dense in essential micronutrients are among nature's 'first foods'. Providing poor people with greater access to these foods is a powerful way to improve human nutrition and wellbeing, both through the foods animals provide as well as through the income generated from animals, which poor households use to purchase nutritious foods.In 2015, the international community adopted the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), one of which is to have 'zero hunger' by 2030. Livestock are critical to meeting this goal (SDG 2) to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. But with more than eight billion people to feed by 2030, and the need to do so with diminishing natural resources and a changing climate, sustainably increasing livestock productivity will require highly innovative and inclusive approaches."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04d2b28b8e154625189d448284181263","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4d89c842-3281-4587-aea8-430b7d85ad0e/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"MAPPING QUANTITATIVE TRAIT LOCI FOR FUSARIUM ROOT ROT IN COMMON BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The common bean is a primary protein source in the diet of many lowincome populations. Bean root rots occur in most bean fields. Genetic resistance to Fusarium root rot caused by Fusarium solani f.sp. phaseoli is polygenic and is strongly influenced by environmental factors that confound the expression and detection of resistance mechanisms. Response to selection for root rot resistance is slow due to genetic complexity of the trait that makes it difficult to evaluate. Indirect selection for Fusarium root rot resistance based on DNA markers linked to the resistance QTL would facilitate improvement of Fusarium root rot, given the limitations of field selection. The study is aimed at identify significant QTL-simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker associations, which could be used to facilitate marker-assisted selection for Fusarium root rot resistance in common bean."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"References OBJECTIVES 1.To identify polymorphic SSR marker loci between Fusarium susceptible bean varieties K132, K20 and resistant MLB-49-89A. 2.To map quantitative trait loci conditioning resistance to Fusarium root rot in common beans."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Three parents i.e., K20, K132 and MLB 49-89A were used to identify polymorphic SSR marker loci between susceptible and resistant parents. K20 and K132 are susceptible to while MLB49-89A is resistant to Fusarium root rot. In-silico analysis was done to identify SSR's likely to be linked with the QTL's conditioning resistance to Fusarium root rot. 28 SSR's were identified and tested for polymorphism."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"To map the QTL that condition resistance to Fusarium root rot , two mapping populations (Fig. 2) of F 4:5 recombinant inbred lines were developed by single seed descent from F 2 to the F 4 generation.. The two populations K132 X MLB49-89A and K20 X MLB49-89A had 81 and 100 lines respectively. The two populations have been planted for Fusarium root rot evaluation in the screen house using lattice design with two replications. Wooden trays with Fusarium solani disease inoculum (Fig. 3) were used as blocks within replications. Polymorphic SSR's will be used to genotype the two populations at the polymorphic marker loci. The phenotypic score data from screen house evaluations and the genotypic data will be used for QTL analysis . The soil in the tray is inoculated with Fusarium solani Among the 28 SSR's loci screened for fragment size polymorphism , 11 (39.3%) were polymorphic between the resistant (MLB49) and susceptible (K20 and K132). Table 1 is the list of the identified polymorphic SSR's markers and their linkage groups. Figure 4 shows a gel picture of one of the polymorphic markers."}]},{"head":"ONGOING WORK","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The two mapping populations are being genotyped at the 11 polymorphic SSR loci and evaluated for Fusarium root rot resistance. The genotypic and phenotypic data is to be used for QTL analysis determine the number of QTL conditioning resistance to Fusarium root rot and their genomic locations Acknowledgement : The study is funded by RUFORUM. We also appreciate the support from CIAT and SADC. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 3 : Fig. 3: Experimental layout in screen house for phenotypic evaluation for Fusarium root rot. The soil in the tray is inoculated with Fusarium solani "},{"text":"Fig. 4 : Fig. 4:SSR polymorphism between the resistant and susceptible Using SSR marker BM 172. "},{"text":"Fig Fig.2:Development of F 4:5 recombinant inbred lines using single seed descent from F 2 to the F 4 generation. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Eleven SSR's that are polymorphic and linkage group to which they belong. 100bp of a 100bp of a Ladder Ladder "}],"sieverID":"44b37a85-88cf-4b21-9186-326a434e5ea7","abstract":""}
data/part_5/04f76b04e1183de0205a589966c1ec3b.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04f76b04e1183de0205a589966c1ec3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95751331-28de-4e05-a958-b7f707c7624d/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"What are knowledge networks?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Communities of interest are more loosely organized COPs and may have a larger membership. COI's are often supported by discussion forums and community software technologies."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Knowledge teams focus on a specific body of knowledge a team wants to create, improve and apply. National working groups can be considered here. These are usually groups co-chaired by a donor and a government ministry. For example, in Laos the Water Working Group is chaired by Australia and DWR MONRE and France co-chairs the Agriculture and Land Working Group with MAFF. With goodwill and good management, these groups can be quite effective."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Unstructured and structured discussion forums. Most people have at some time been involved in an unstructured discussion forum, for example a bulletin board, chat line, or discussion thread on a website. They can be useful but are difficult to manage. A structured discussion forum on the other hand is managed with a facilitator or moderator who ensures specific goals, actions and outputs are discussed and agreed within specific timeframes."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"In this paper, we offer a broad survey of Mekong knowledge networks to illustrate the types outlined above. Whereas the aims of all types of knowledge networks are similar, the discussion of what makes an effective network likewise draws from diverse sources. In the final section, the discussion is narrowed to knowledge networks designed to support Official Development Assistance (ODA) projects."}]},{"head":"Who uses knowledge networks?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Knowledge networks are widely used in industry, government, the professions, academia and development. Regardless of the sector, knowledge networks help individuals and organizations understand the processes of knowledge creation, diffusion and use (Phelps et al. 2012). These processes are not in any sense neutral. In \"Knowledge Networks and Global Policy\", Diane Stone (2003) argues that, \"As authority over global political, social and economic activity is globally diffused among a variety of public and private actors, knowledge networks become crucial arbiters and co-ordinators in policy formulation. \""}]},{"head":"Communities of practice","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (and before it, the CGIAR Challenge Programme on Water and Food) is currently one of the largest knowledge sharing platforms in the Mekong Region. 3 From 2009-2017, these programmes comprised a network of 144 formal partners that implemented 33 research-for-development projects. Nearly half of these were regional research institutions, one-third were regional government agencies, one-quarter regional NGOs, and nearly one-fifth were international research institutions. The network emphasized diversity and approaching critical water-related problems from multiple perspectives. The programme platform was organized around themes which the network coordinated. Themes emphasized capacity building, which led it to its association with M-POWER (see below), and CPWF took on the M-POWER fellowship programme after the latter ended. The Mekong Forum was the programme's flagship event and brought project-level initiatives to regional levels. In 2017, 171 institutions participated in the Forum."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"LaoFAB is a well-organized, active moderated forum for sharing information about agriculture, rural livelihoods and natural resource management in Lao PDR. The forum consists of a Google discussion group, an online library, a Facebook page and a LinkedIn group. Its 4000+ members 4 include government officials, staff of donor agencies and NGOs, project experts, academics, business people, journalists and students. Membership is free. LaoFAB is an activity of the Lao Upland Rural Advisory Service, a project approved by the Lao Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. LaoFab is managed by CLICK, a Lao social enterprise. Volunteer moderators post a steady stream of news and are also responsible for approving new members and any files uploaded to the repository."},{"index":3,"size":186,"text":"The Sustainable Mekong Research Network (Sumernet) was originally proposed by the Stockholm Environment Institute and launched in 2005 with support from the Swedish International Development Agency. It is supported by a secretariat at the Stockholm Environment Institute in Bangkok, Thailand. its aim is to connect research partners working on sustainable development in six countries of the Mekong Region: Cambodia, China (specifically Yunnan Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Its main research themes are climate, energy and health. Its stated aim is \"to meet the need for integrated research by supporting and promoting the use of scientific evidence in policy making, with the overarching goal of contributing to sustainable development in the Mekong Region. \" 5 Sumernet has over 50 individual and organization members, including research and policy making institutions and claims to have, \"a strong track record of publications and outreach activities.\" Sumernet has had three phases of funding (2005( -2009( , 2010( -2013( and 2014( to June 2017)). A fourth phase was approved in late 2017. The website shows an active calendar of events and up-to-date news bulletins. 6"},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"The Mekong Program on Water, Environment and Resilience or M-POWER, was \"a network of collaborators undertaking action-based research, facilitated dialogues and knowledge brokering to improve water governance in the Mekong Region in ways that support sustainable livelihoods and healthy communities and ecosystems. \" M-POWER sought to promote \"a high standard of democracy in water governance\". The network began in 2004 as a community of practice with members from Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and China's Yunnan Province. M-POWER's stated objective was to make it normal practice for important national and transnational water-related options and decisions to be examined in the public sphere."},{"index":5,"size":193,"text":"Activities were supported by a network of approximately 30 partners from academic and non-government organizations, international organizations and government agencies. The network received funding from several sources, including Echel Eau, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rockefeller Foundation, and the Blue Moon Fund. An M-Power fellowship program in 2006 awarded nearly 90 fellowship grants to professionals to conduct research studies on water governance in the Mekong Region. From 2011-2012, the CPWF provided funding for fellowships through a project (led by the Asian Institute of Technology) \"to improve the capacity of M-POWER fellows to critically analyze water resource management and development, as well as the challenges for democratizing water governance in the region. \" The Fellowships were small and of short duration and contributed to CPWF achieving its programme goals in the Mekong and in this sense could be regarded as a knowledge team. All Fellows worked in the Mekong Region with their fellowship sometimes fitting into a broader research initiative or degree program. The programme was carried though to the Water, Land and Ecosystems Program, a WLE activity that built on the M-POWER work). M-POWER ended in 2016 when its Steering Committee retired."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"The ASEAN University Network was established in 1995 to, \"hasten the solidarity and development of a regional identity through the promotion of human resource development to further strengthen the existing network of leading universities and institutions of higher learning in the region. \" Starting with eleven universities from six countries, AUN now has 30 university members and 16 UN, foundation and other partners. AUN aims to develop Southeast Asian interdisciplinary academic degree programs, ASEAN regional research projects to be undertaken jointly by scientists and scholars of more than one member state, and an ASEAN Visiting Professors' programme to enable academics from one member state to lecture at an institution of higher education of another member state. 7"},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"The Urban Knowledge Network Asia is a regional community of practice that \"brings together concerned scholars and practitioners engaged in collaborative research on cities in Asia. \" With over 100 researchers from 17 institutes in Europe, China, India and the United States, UKNA \"represents the largest academic international network on Asian cities. \" A 2012-2016 European Union grant led to the creation of a South East Asian Neighborhoods Network programme (2017)(2018)(2019)(2020). UKNA promotes research under three themes: 8"},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"• Ideas of the city: to explore competing ideas of the contemporary city, • Cities by and for the people: to examine who are the actors and how they interact in the production, shaping and transformation of the city, and • Future of cities: to consider the challenges of urban dwellers and users in the areas of land, housing, infrastructure, services, planning and the environment and personal well-being."},{"index":9,"size":114,"text":"Southeast Asia Regional Policy Network on Education and Skills is an OECD-funded community of practice designed to \"foster knowledge exchange in support of national growth and regional integration by encouraging a whole-of-government approach. \" In the Mekong Region, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam are members. UNNExT describes itself as a \"community of knowledge and practice for experts from developing countries and transition economies from Asia and the Pacific involved in the implementation of electronic trade systems and trade facilitation. \" However, given its formal structure of core experts and national focal points managed by a secretariat it would be more accurately described as a knowledge team than a community of practice."}]},{"head":"The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Knowledge fora and cafés","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The Greater Mekong Forum on Water, Food and Energy claims to be \"the largest annual knowledge sharing event in the Greater Mekong. \" The organizers make it clear the event is not a research forum but is designed for researchers to present their findings, ideas and innovations to potential users through 'facilitated dialogue' . Potential knowledge users are mainly government agencies and the private sector. Feedback from participants has been strongly positive."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"The Forum was initiated by the Challenge Program on Water and Food Mekong in 2011 and has been held annually ever since 10 , most recently under the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), with funding from the CGIAR and Australia. In 2017, 431 people participated in the forum, representing 171 institutions, the largest proportion of which were regional research institutions (47%), followed by regional government (27%) and regional NGOs (22%). The Mekong Tourism Forum is a \"platform for public and private sector stakeholders in the tourism industry to discuss the development, marketing and promotion of travel to, from and within the Greater Mekong Subregion and monitor sustainable and responsible tourism growth. \" The Forum was 'revived' in 2010 and held annually ever since in a different Mekong Region city with a different theme. In addition to the traditional 'talking head' sessions, the Forum offers mini film festivals, cocktail parties, press conferences, networking receptions and award ceremonies."}]},{"head":"Mekong Hub Knowledge and","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The Mekong Mission Forum / Network is \"a partnership of Church ministries in Southeast Asia. \" Since 2000, the Mekong Mission Forum, \"has been networking Christian churches, theological institutions in the Mekong River area to enhance the holistic mission of Lutheran, Evangelical and Ecumenical partners in the Mekong and around the world. \" The Forum is a mix of workshops and events."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Numerous events use the word 'forum' synonymously with 'conference' . For example:"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"The Mekong Forum is hosted by the Mekong Institute based in Khon Kean Thailand every two years and uses a traditional conference format."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"The Green Mekong Forum is organized by the Government of Japan and the Mekong countries. The first forum was in 2010, as one part of Japan-Mekong cooperation for heightening awareness of environmental problems and promoting cooperation on sustainable development and is held every two years."}]},{"head":"Communities of interest","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The International Hydropower Association uses the term 'knowledge network' to describe their community of interest. They list eleven topics ranging from 'asset management' to 'water footprint' with the stated aim of \"bringing together hydropower professionals from throughout our membership to share ideas and experiences, discuss new developments and collaborate on a range of topics of mutual interest. \" Participation is restricted to employees of an IHA corporate member or an individual member of IHA and \"offer you the chance to raise your profile and advance your professional development by showcasing successful initiatives or examples of good practice to the community. \" 12"}]},{"head":"Unstructured and structured discussion forums","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The Vietnam Development Forum (formerly the Consultative Group and more recently the Vietnam Development Partnership Forum) is a highly structured forum for discussion between government and donor agencies on development policies and donor pledges. This annual event is designed to build consensus and generate commitment among stakeholders toward the Government's development and reform priorities. Four representatives of international NGOs are invited to the meeting as observers and share one seat at the meeting table."}]},{"head":"Knowledge teams","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In 2008, World Health Organization set up nine knowledge teams designed to manage a multi-author publication process to compile reports on a range of topics including early child development, employment conditions, and globalization. Reports were funded by WHO and the writing was outsourced to partner organizations (WHO, 2011)."}]},{"head":"What makes for an effective knowledge network?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"There has been increasing research interest on social networks and networks for knowledge management since the late 1990s. Scholars and researchers were then mainly interested in network models (e.g. Beckmann, 1995;Alvi and Leidner, 1991) and their role in innovation in the private sector (cf. Swan et al., 1999;Bell and Albu, 1999), From 2000 onward, interest increased considerably and researchers sought to explain more detailed aspects of knowledge networks, for example, effective knowledge sharing in multiunit companies (Hansen, 2002), its role in product development cycles and competitive advantage (Akgün et al. 2005;Argote and Ingram, 2000), diffusion through large networks (Ernst and Kim, 2002) and the role of interpersonal factors such as trust (Abrams et al. 2003). Reviews of this vast body of literature are few and far between and usually behind publisher's paywalls (Phelps et al. 2012). What information is accessible, however, suggests a number of common factors that determine the effectiveness of a knowledge network, including organizational culture, how 'close' people are (geographically, socially, cognitively), the structure, management and administration of the network, and how those factors interact."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Organizational culture determines what qualifies as 'knowledge' , who controls it and how it is created and distributed. It also, \"…creates the context for social interaction that determines how knowledge will be used in particular situations\" (De Long and Fahey, 2000). De Long and Fahey suggest that understanding these elements, \"…is the critical first step in developing a strategy and specific interventions to align the firm's culture in support of more effective knowledge use. For example, a study at Caterpillar Inc., a Fortune100, multinational corporation, found that, \"when employees view knowledge as a public good belonging to the whole organization, knowledge flows easily. \" Factors that inhibited sharing included fear of criticism and lack of confidence that contributions would be viewed as important, accurate or relevant to a discussion."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"'Proximity' has emerged as another major factor affecting knowledge networks. Broekel and Boschma (2012) showed that \"cognitive, social, organizational and geographical proximity were crucial for explaining the knowledge network of the Dutch aviation industry. \" Geographical proximity makes it easy for members of a network to connect and exchange knowledge, but paradoxically, too much proximity may inhibit innovative performance. Similarly, Hansen (2002) looked at 120 new product development projects in 41 business units of a large multiunit electronics company and found that \"project teams obtained more knowledge from other units and completed their projects faster if the interunit network paths were short\" and that \"established relations mitigated problems of transferring noncodified knowledge. \""},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Geographical proximity was the underlying factor in the one major complaint noted in the tracer study on the M-POWER fellows the Water, Land and Ecosystems MK31, 32 and 33 projects. Fellows who were geographically far from their mentors faced larger challenges than those with mentors in the same organization or country."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"A major reason for establishing the M-POWER network was to build constructive connections between individuals and organisations across a large territorial area (the Mekong Region) where a) actions by one country influence others and b) building a more region-wide exchange and understanding and between people who are policy influencers in their own country."},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"Network structure influences the knowledge transfer process in a research and development firm. Reagans and McEvily (2003) found that both social cohesion and network range make knowledge transfer easier and were more important factors than the strength of a tie between any two people. In social network analysis, the concept of social cohesion is defined as \"the minimal number of actors in a social network that need to be removed to disconnect the group\" (Wikipedia Contributors, 2018) and network range is a measure of how an individual distributes their connections across a range of subgroups and how strongly connected those subgroups are\" (Morel, n.d.)."},{"index":7,"size":104,"text":"'Weak ties' are another feature of networks that facilitate or inhibit the flow of information. Interpersonal connections or 'ties' are defined in social network theory as \"information-carrying connections between people. \" Interpersonal ties are strong (e.g. close friends or colleagues) or weak (e.g. an acquaintance). Weak ties are responsible for most information transmission through networks of any kind. In his study of 120 new-product development projects undertaken by 41 divisions in a large electronics company, Hansen (1999) found \"weak interunit ties speed up projects when knowledge is not complex but slows them down when the knowledge to be transferred is highly complex\" (Hansen, 1999)."},{"index":8,"size":120,"text":"How factors interact is illustrated in a case study of Toyota's automotive production network by Dyer and Nobeoka (2000). They found that \"suppliers do learn more quickly after participating in Toyota's knowledge-sharing network\" and that Toyota effectively addressed three problems common to many knowledge sharing networks: how to motivate members to participate and openly share valuable knowledge, how to prevent free riders, and how to reduce the costs associated with finding and accessing different types of knowledge. They conclude that \"if the network can create a strong identity and coordinating rules, then it will be superior to a firm as an organizational form at creating and recombining knowledge due to the diversity of knowledge that resides within a network. \""}]},{"head":"The strengths and weaknesses of Mekong knowledge networks","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"In this section we briefly discuss knowledge networks related to ODA projects in the Mekong River Basin. Even with this limited scope, it is difficult to assess effectiveness because independent evaluations are generally not to be found in the public domain."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The Water, Land and Ecosystems Mekong programme did commission two tracking studies of the M-POWER fellowship program described in above and the findings are supported by the research on the role of organizational culture (De Long and Fahey, 2000) and proximity (Broekel and Boschma, 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"M-POWER and Sumernet have convened many events, and proactively engaged in many different arenas, produced a great many publications and individual members have clearly benefited in terms of personal and professional development. To assess the impact they may have had on the standard of democracy in water governance (M-POWER), and use of scientific evidence in policy making (Sumernet) would require independent evaluations. The same applies to any of the other networks mentioned in this paper."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"Informal assessments of communities of interest are relatively easy but time consuming. For example, anyone can join LaoFab (free) and observe the traffic over a few weeks."},{"index":5,"size":167,"text":"Immediately following the flood event in Attepeu in July 2018, there was a significant spike in posts. There are daily posts on the LaoFab Facebook page and most will receive comments from other users as well as likes and shares. Similarly, anyone can observe first-hand the impact of knowledge forums such as the Greater Mekong Forum on Water, Food and Energy simply by attending or visiting the webpage and viewing the outputs, photos, media coverage and statistics on how many people attended (306 from 139 organizations in 2016 13 ). The page for the 2015 forum has a detailed forum survey report 14 . In general, the following elements will give a rough estimation of how much traffic a site is getting: number of comments on their posts, number of YouTube video views, number of social shares, and engagement levels on their fan pages (i.e. Facebook page, Twitter, etc.). The easiest way to get this kind of data is to ask someone involved with managing the network."},{"index":6,"size":118,"text":"There are more systematic and quantitative methods for assessing knowledge networks. Social Network Analysis (SNA) uses mathematical graph theory to describe networks of all kinds in terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and the ties, edges, or links (relationships or interactions) that connect them (Otte and Rousseau, 2002). For example, Castellan and Kibler (2015) used SNA to conduct a comparative analysis of agroecology networks in the Greater Mekong Subregion. With the data they were able to classify agroecology schools based on their conditions of emergence, their structure and governance mechanisms. They concluded that \"agroecology schools are not necessarily well coordinated at each level (national, regional, global) nor across levels for each agroecology school."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"In Thailand, Stewart et al. (2012) organized an online discussion forum for pediatric pain practitioners across seven different hospitals to encourage them to share their knowledge and experience to help improve the management of pediatric pain. The social network analyses \"…revealed a network dominated by a single institution and a single profession and found a varied relationship between reading and posting content to the discussion forum… and suggests there is strong inter-professional and interregional communication. \" They also found that very few nurses were involved in the network."},{"index":8,"size":104,"text":"SNA is a powerful tool that can offer sometimes surprising insights into a network but its use is limited by the high level of expertise needed to gather the data and do the analysis. Traditional qualitative methods such as surveys and focus groups are of some use but cannot offer the same 'depth of vision' as SNA. For example, a socio-centred SNA analyses will show the overall network structure and \"the pattern of ties that indicate cohesive social groups, central actors that may be paramount to the integration of the social network, and asymmetries that may reflect social prestige or social stratification. \" 15"},{"index":9,"size":96,"text":"For example, the University of California San Diego Center on Gender Equity and Health used SNA to analyse a network of girls in a large US school and found that \"the larger the node 16 , the greater the behavioural risk factors for sexual violence. The clustering of nodes provides structural evidence of risk environments in which sexual violence is more likely. \" SNA also showed how, \"intimate partner violence acceptance is clustered among socially connected individuals and that IPV is generally more accepted on the periphery of the network\" in a village in Honduras. \""}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"While there appear to be a great many knowledge networks in the overseas development assistance sector, there has been very little research on their function or impact. Development organizations and NGOs often spend considerable time and effort setting up and managing a knowledge network, but is it worth the cost and are they getting an acceptable return on investment in terms of outcomes and impacts? A research agenda on knowledge networks might address some of the following questions."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"What leads individuals and organizations to set up a knowledge network and how do they choose what form of network to establish?"},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"What factors determine which type of network is best for a particular purpose? For example, to offer advice to policy makers would a knowledge forum work better than a community of practice?"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"How much time and effort do people invest in learning what knowledge and skills are needed to set up and sustain a network before they begin?"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"What is the cost of setting up and managing a network and how do we measure return on investment?"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"How can we monitor and assess if a network is having the intended impact?"},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"16 A node refers to individual actors, people, or things within the network. In this case, a node would be a group of influential actors."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) offers two knowledge networks designed to \"develop and share expertise on pressing regional challenges\" with a focus on capacity development and research, The Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on Trade (ARTNet) and The United Nations Network of Experts for Paperless Trade in Asia and the Pacific (UNNexT). 9 ARTNeT is an open regional network composed of leading trade research institutions and think-tanks across the Asia-Pacific region and aims to increase the quality and the amount of trade research in the region. Mekong Region partners are: "},{"text":" Learning Fair was first convened in July, 2018 by IFAD's Mekong Hub in Da Nang, Vietnam. The fair attracted 130 participants from Helvetas, CIAT), and farmer organizations (AFA). IFAD's Mekong Hub is composed of country offices and programmes in Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar, Lao PDR and the Philippines. The Fair was organized \"to capture the knowledge generated from 17 ongoing IFAD and related projects and to share the learning to IFAD country programmes, projects and partners within the hub. \" Based on the success of the 2018 fair, IFAD is planning to host the fair again in2019. 11 "}],"sieverID":"dc441e23-ef25-4930-b0bc-e09dcada8506","abstract":"As far back as 1646, the British chemist Robert Boyle was corresponding with friends and colleagues in what he referred to as 'our invisible college' -an informal network of 'natural philosophers' united by a common interest in advancing knowledge through experimental investigation. The invisible college is generally considered to be one of the precursors to the Royal Society. The technology has changed considerably since parchment and quill pens, but the invisible college lives on. In her book The New Invisible College: Science for Development, Caroline S. Wagner applies the idea to today's global network of communications among scientists (Wagner, 2008). Wagner argues that, \"the shift from big science to global networks creates unprecedented opportunities for developing countries to tap science's potential. Rather than squander resources in vain efforts to mimic the scientific establishments of the twentieth century, developing country governments can leverage networks by creating incentives for top-notch scientists to focus on research that addresses their concerns and by finding ways to tie knowledge to local problem solving\" (p. 13).Knowledge networks, then and now, global or local, are meant to manage knowledge. Based on a frequency analysis of common words appearing in 100 definitions, Girard et al. (2015) define knowledge management as \"the process of creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and information of an organization.\" The academic publishing house IGI Global has compiled 189 definitions, many of which add the dimension of purpose, which is absent in the Girard et al. definition. For example, \"A range of strategies and practices used in an organization to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences\" (Levy and Pliskin, 2012) or \"the discipline of enabling individuals, teams and entire organizations to collectively and systematically capture, store, create, share and apply knowledge to better achieve their objectives\". 1 A knowledge network is a platform or channel for one or more of these processes. Whatever shape they may take, their basic function is to enable individuals, teams and organizations to collectively and systematically capture, store, create, share and apply knowledge to achieve their objectives. They are widely used in industry, government, the professions, academia and development. People use the terms 'network' and 'forum' fairly loosely to refer to events and initiatives that would be more accurately described as corporate communications and conferences. Because the term 'knowledge network' is applied so broadly, it is useful to have a typology such as the one offered by Knowledge Management Online. 2 Communities of practice (COP) are \"naturally flourishing knowledge networks of people with a high interest in learning, investigating, developing and improving the knowledge subject matter and share common work goals.\" A COP requires good facilitation and moderator support.Knowledge forums and knowledge cafés emphasize the value of social interaction and face-to-face communication. These are social meeting techniques that can be organized within and between organizations with a special interest in creating and leveraging specialist knowledge."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"05622dea974fbf944f49cd292198181c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/702/4261.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Aquaculture in Kenya, which stands at 14,952 MT [1], comprises of freshwater and mariculture. Mariculture involves the farming of finfish (Milk fish) (Chanos chanos) and Grey mullets (Mugil cephalus); Shellfish (Mud crabs) (Scylla serrata), Oysters (Saccosteria cucullata), shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and Seaweeds (mainly Kappaphycus alvarezii) [2,3]. Mariculture is underdeveloped mainly due to accessibility problems, conflicts over land ownership, and lack of clear policies [4]. Production statistics of marine aquaculture for Kenya have not been captured in the FAO/national fisheries database since it has not been commercialized despite its great potential [4]. Current mariculture production data indicates that there are over 100 MT of seaweeds, milkfish, shrimps, and mud crabs produced in small scale [2,4] This is lower than the production of freshwater aquaculture which is currently at 14,852 MT [1,4]."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Fresh water aquaculture involves cold and warm water culture. Cold water culture involves Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in the Mount Kenya region while warm water fishes comprises of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) constituting 75%, African catfish (Clarias gariepinus), and other species comprising 25% [5,6]. There have been efforts to culture some indigenous fish, like the African carp (Labeo victorianus), Ngege (O. esculentus and Victoria tilapia (O. variabilis) [7][8][9]. However, culture of these indigenous species have remained on experimental basis and are not widely adopted by farmers due to low survival and poor yields [2,7]."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"The average per capita annual fish consumption in 2010 was 5 kg person −1 year −1 which is below the FAO recommended average of 20 kg person −1 year −1 [10] and the contribution of fish to overall animal protein intake in Kenya is still very low (5.7%) [11]. Freshwater fish consumption in 2014 was estimated at 195,206 tonnes. However, taking into account post-harvest food losses and negative trade balance, the total fish consumption may be lower [12]. To meet the gap between fish production locally and the increasing demand for food fish, Kenya imports about 5900 MT annually from other countries such as China, India, Pakistan, Japan, Korea and Uganda [13]. The bulk of imports in 2013 were frozen tilapia (14%) originating from China. Other imported fish include; frozen mackerel, tuna and herring. Total fish imports reached 5853 MT in 2014, whilst those of Nile tilapia increased from 14% (2013) to 30.8% (2014) [13,14]."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"As freshwater aquaculture increases, so does the movement of live fish across borders leading to higher risk of introduction of fish with unknown health histories. There are well documented indications across Africa and internationally that increase in incidences of diseases in aquaculture can cause huge economic losses. For example, in Asian countries, massive expansion and intensification of aquaculture have been reported to be followed by fish health/disease issues leading to significant costs due to losses [12]. This calls for serious management of diseases outbreaks and application of strict biosecurity measures to prevent diseases. Kenya has policies and measures in place to address aquatic animal health issues but lacks expertise in fish health disease, diagnostic laboratories and quarantine facilities, for effective surveillance and diagnosis of diseases [15,16]. The expansive growth of cage farming in Lake Victoria warrants monitoring of fish health [16]. This paper reviews aquaculture production systems and fish health management practices in Kenya in order to establish and document actions needed to monitor, mitigate and regulate effectively for future fish health problems across the country."}]},{"head":"Fresh water aquaculture production in Kenya","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Freshwater aquaculture in Kenya started in 1920's and became popular in 1960's. However, it stagnated until 2003 when the production rose from 1000 MT to 4000 MT following numerous efforts to boost production through the \"Eat More Fish Campaigns\" championed by the government [11]. Between the years 2006 and 2009, aquaculture production remained below 4895 MT until 2010 when 12,153 MT was realized (Fig. 1) [1,11]. The government nationwide Economic Stimulus Project -Fish Farming Enterprise Productivity Program (ESP-FFEPP), which for the first time, received substantial funding triggered a rapid growth in the sector [10,17], and supported fish farmers by subsidizing fingerlings, feed and pond construction."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"During the ESP-FFEPP, earthen ponds were constructed in most parts of the country after mapping areas which were suitable for aquaculture (Fig. 2). Areas with high suitability were recorded at 9, 581,169 ha, areas with medium suitability at 40,557,196 ha, whilst the areas of low suitability (mainly the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) regions of the country) at 3, 242,515 ha (Fig. 2) [19]. The ESP-FFEPP was implemented within the 2009 and 2010 financial year, leading to an increase in fish pond area from 220 ha in 2008 to 468 ha in 2009 and a total gross land for aquaculture from 728 ha (2008) to 825 ha (2009) [20]."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"Despite the gains in growth following the ESP-FFEPP, aquaculture production in Kenya reduced from 24,096 MT in 2014 to 18,656 MT in 2015 and further to 14, 952 MT in 2016 (Fig. 1) [20]. Similarly, the number of operational fish ponds reduced from 69, 194 (2013) to 60,277 (2015) shrinking the operational area from 2105 to 1873 ha in 2013 and in 2015 respectively [18,19]. Reduction in fish production was as a result of poor water retention capacity of ponds in some counties especially the Coastal and the Eastern region; poor extension services, inadequate capacity support, poor husbandry practices, low quality and quantity of fish farm inputs, poor marketing infrastructure, dependency syndrome on government/donor support and lack of value addition. The establishment of county governments and subsequent removal of aquaculture from the functions of the national government to county governments also led to a reduction in aquaculture activities in several counties in Kenya which lacked support programs for fish farming [18]."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"The distribution of aquaculture activities by region indicates a high concentration of activities in a number of counties and low concentration in others (Table 1). Highest pond numbers and aquaculture related activities are found in Kakamega, Bungoma, Busia, Kisii, Meru, Nyeri, Kisumu, Muranga, Embu counties, among others, while relatively lower activity are noted in Kitui, Lamu and Elgeyo Marakwet [11,18]."}]},{"head":"Freshwater fish species reared in Kenya","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Aquaculture species in Kenya includes Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) and African catfish (C. gariepinus). Tilapia represents 75% of the total fish produced from aquaculture, followed by African catfish (18%), common carp (6%) and trout (< 1%) [14]. Tilapia farming is mainly carried out in monoculture systems. A survey conducted in Western Kenya targeting 1000 farmers indicated that a high proportion of farmers (74%) cultured Nile tilapia and African catfish in monoculture systems, while 26% of farmers carried out polyculture of the two Fig. 1. Aquaculture production in Kenya (metric tonnes, MT) trends between 2006 and 2015. Source: [1,11,18]. species [21]. This was attributed to inadequate knowledge of polyculture by farmers [11,14]. In addition to the production of food fish, ornamental fishes are also produced at small scale for local and internal markets [5]."}]},{"head":"Aquaculture production systems","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"In Kenya, current aquaculture culture systems are made up of extensive and semi-intensive systems (Table 2). Truly intensive systems exist in a relatively small number. Reports indicate that fish farmers operating at a subsistence level are turning into commercial intensive fish farming with some earning as much as US$ 11,000.00 ha −1 year −1 in gross income [5]. More than 90% of farmers practice semi-intensive fish farming while the intensive system is practiced by only 3% due to high cost of electricity and non-availability of cheaper quality feeds [11]. In the semi-intensive systems, ponds are fertilized with either cattle, sheep, poultry or rabbit manure and supplementary feed inform of cereal bran (wheat, rice, maize) and low protein formulated feeds are given to supplement natural foods [22]. Aquaculture farm systems in Kenya are in most cases integrated with either crop or livestock production (Vegetables, bananas, goats, cattle and chicken) [23]. Crop farming is generally done at subsistence level while livestock rearing is often done for commercial purposes especially for milk and meat production [19]."}]},{"head":"Extensive fish farming","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"This system is mainly conducted in dams and water reservoirs. The Fig. 2. Map of Kenya indicating areas suitable for freshwater aquaculture: green, highly suitable, pink, medium suitable and yellow, low suitable aquaculture areas based on water availability, climatic conditions, soil type, topography, land use, access to inputs and markets. Source: https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajfand/ article/view/149194 [19]."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"farmed fishes depend on primary productivity of the culture water and no artificial feed is given. The species mainly cultured in this system are O. niloticus and C. gariepinus which are stocked to prevent breeding of mosquitoes in dams put in place for watering livestock. The dams are mainly found in Central and Rift valley regions (Table 2). Production from this system ranges between 500 and 1,500 kg ha −1 year −1 , contributing 10% of farmed fishes in Kenya [24]."}]},{"head":"Semi-intensive systems","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Semi-intensive farming is the main system adopted in Kenya. These systems are mainly used to produce O. niloticus and C. gariepinus either in monoculture or polyculture. They consist of earthen ponds, liner ponds and concrete ponds. Ponds are fertilized using organic manures (cow dung, sheep, poultry or rabbit manure) [22]. Feeding is done using supplementary feeds formulated on farm or purchased from cottage fish feed production industries. In some cases, cereal brans are used as feeds to increase pond productivity. Production from this system ranges between 1000 and 2500 kg ha −1 year −1 [24]. Most farmers prefer this system since it is less expensive in terms of feed inputs."}]},{"head":"Intensive systems","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Raceways","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"This system is mainly used for production of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). There are 6 commercial trout farms in Kenya concentrated in Mount Kenya region. According to the Kenya's State Department of Fisheries, production of trout from the raceways in 2014 was 241 MT valued at U$ 1,430,000 [13]. The contribution of rainbow trout is therefore higher in monetary value than by weight since a kg costs between U$ 3-12 [5]. Production in these systems ranges between 10,000 and 80,000 kg ha −1 year −1 [11]. The system requires high quality feed which are expensive and can only be afforded by a few farmers."}]},{"head":"Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Recirculating aquaculture systems in Kenya are mainly tank-based systems used for culturing O. niloticus and C. gariepinus. Fish are reared in tanks indoors or under green houses. There exist 8 farms operating recirculating systems in form of hatcheries and grow-out farms in Kenya. Fish are grown at high density ranging between 5 and 20 fish m −3 under controlled conditions. Production from RAS is at 200 tonnes ha −1 year −1 [18]. The adoption of the system is low due to high cost of initial capital investment in tanks, greenhouses and high cost of electricity required in running the system. Investment in recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS) for Nile tilapia production and intensive catfish production is carried out in peri-urban areas near towns like Nairobi, Kiambu, Nyeri, Meru, Kisumu, Machakos, Kilifi, Homa Bay, Kakamega and Busia [18]."}]},{"head":"Cages","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Cage farming is growing fast in Lake Victoria with the highest number of the cages located in Siaya County (Fig. 3) [25]. Intensive cage culture started in 2013 after cage trials were conducted successfully at Dunga beach in Kisumu County by Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) and Dunga Beach Cooperative Society under the Association for Strengthening Agriculture Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA) project [25,26]. Currently, cage farming is practiced in five riparian counties (Migori, Siaya, Homabay, Busia and Kisumu counties) (Fig. 3). Stocking density in the cages ranges between 60 and 250 fish m −3 with cage sizes ranging from 8 to 125 m 3 . The number of cages increased from 1663 in 2016 to 3398 cages in 2017 [26]. Nile tilapia is the only fish cultured in cages producing 12 million kg of fish every cycle (about 8 months in a year) [25,26]."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The largest cage farming enterprise in Lake Victoria is Winnie's farm in Anyanga beach which started with 60 cages in 2013 and currently owns more than 550 cages together with other groups consisting of 100 farmers [12]. Currently, the enterprises operating cages are about 43 with over 4000 cages stocked with > 3 million individual tilapia fingerlings [26]. Cage farming has a huge potential to increase aquaculture production and support economic growth around the Lake Victoria region [25]."}]},{"head":"Ponds","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Most of smallholder farmers have a minimum of 1 pond to a maximum of 60 fish ponds. The level of operations of farmers are rated as small scale, medium or large scale [20]. Large scale operators represent Source: [2]."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"a pond surface area of 4000-80,000 m 2 and more than 13 ponds while medium scale operators represent 601-3999 m 2 and 5-12 ponds. Small scale farmers have less than 5 ponds and in most cases use their own individual labour to produce fish mainly for household consumption and excess fish are sold to neighbors [20,24]. A stocking rate of 3 fish m −2 is commonly used in ponds in Kenya to achieve yields of 1 kg m −2 . At this stocking rate daily weight gain ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 g in well managed systems. Rare cases in Kenya have stocking densities of 6 juveniles m −2 in ponds giving a production of 3 kg m −2 [11]."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Most fish farmers practicing pond culture add manure or inorganic fertilizer to ponds to increase the supply of natural food organisms to fish so as to reduce production costs arising from feeds [5]. The manures in use are; cow dung, sheep, poultry and rabbit manure. These manures increase the risk of introduction of pathogens into the system [27,28]. Culture periods of 6 months or more are needed to produce fish that weigh between 250 and 300 g from the ponds. The size of fish attained at the end of the growth period depends on the climatic conditions of the area especially temperature with areas having an average temperature lower than 25 °C having smaller fish at harvest. Type of feed used and management practices like water quality management, feeding regimes and stocking density also affect the growth of fish."}]},{"head":"Husbandry practices","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Source of water","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Water used for aquaculture activities in Kenya is mainly sourced from streams, springs, rivers and boreholes which constitutes 72% of water sources for aquaculture activities [21]. Only 28% of farmers obtain water from boreholes, shallow wells and municipal tap water [20]. The water is either pumped to the culture units or directed to flow by gravity. Most farmers do not treat the water before use. Water is allowed to settle in a reservoir before being channeled to production units. This practice is not recommended since it provides opportunity for potential introduction of pathogens to the culture facility from the water source."}]},{"head":"Feeds inputs","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Various feeds are used by fish farmers in Kenya, ranging from mash (for fingerlings) to farm made pellets, pressed pellets (made locally by a number of companies) and extruded floating feeds (Table 3). Extruded floating feeds are mainly imported from other countries including, the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Israel, Mauritius, Uganda and Ghana [2,22]. Companies producing extruded pellets in Kenya are Sigma Ltd, Unga Feeds Ltd, Jewlet Enterprises, Lenalia Feeds Ltd and Food Tech Africa (Table 3) [2]. Due to unavailability of cheaper feeds in the Fig. 3. Distribution of fish cages in five riparian counties of Lake Victoria in 2016. Adapted from [25]. country, some farmers have been using pig pellets and poultry feed (grower and layer mash) to feed fish [21,29]. Some of these livestock feeds are supplemented with antibiotics, probiotics and growth promoters which farmers could be introducing to fish unknowingly. For example pig pellets contain enzymes like phytases, β-glucanases, xylanases, α-galactosidases, proteases, amylase, lipases, mannanases, cellulases, hemicellulases and pecti-nases while poultry feed are supplemented with salinomycin, sodium and virginiamycin so as to promote growth and reduce mortality [30]. The use of pig or poultry feed for fish is not recommended since fish and other livestock have different dietary requirements for efficient growth [31]. This implies that fish get nutrients in proportions, which are limited leading to wastage of feed, poor growth and occurrence of deformities and nutritional diseases."}]},{"head":"Type of feeds used","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Commercial fish feeds in Kenya, usually contain 24-30% and 30-40% crude protein for O. niloticus and C. gariepinus respectively [32]. These feeds are too expensive for some farmers such that, most farmers use locally formulated mixed feeds [33]. The feed are made by mixing dried freshwater shrimp (Caridina niloticus), commonly known as Ochonga with rice bran or maize bran with Omena (Rastrineobola argentea) meal [20,30]. This practice does not lead to formulation of balanced diets required by the fish leading to poor growth and nutritional deficiencies [31]. Other feed materials and ingredients available locally and commonly used by fish farmers in Kenya are; terrestrial plants (grasses, leaves (e.g. cassava) and seeds of leguminous shrubs and trees vegetables); aquatic plants (water hyacinth, water lettuce, duckweed); small terrestrial animals (earthworms, termites); Aquatic animals (trash fish, by catch fish); rice (broken, bran, hulls); wheat (middling, germ, bran); maize (gluten feed, germ, gluten meal); seed cakes (mustard, coconut, groundnut, cotton, sunflower, soybean); brewers waste; slaughterhouse wastes: offal, and blood [22,32,34]."}]},{"head":"Fry and fingerling supply","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"Fish seed are sourced from hatcheries which are either owned by the government or private farmers. Between the years 2010 to 2016, the government owned National Aquaculture Research and Development Training Centre, Sagana supplied 30.3% of fry and fingerlings while private hatcheries contributed 69.7% [18,35]. The total demand for both African catfish and tilapia fingerlings across Kenya was estimated at 100 million yr −1 in 2010 [17]. The common methods used in Kenya for fingerling production are; open ponds, tanks and hapas in ponds. Fry are collected from the spawning units at 0.03-0.05 g and stocked into nursery units for rearing to the fingerling stage (5 g) before they are stocked into grow out facilities [35]. Currently, there are a total of 127 authenticated hatcheries in Kenya with a capacity to produce 96 million fingerlings annually [35]. On average, the hatcheries record a survival of 70% of the hatched crop which are sold to farmers at fry or fingerling stage [17]. The hatcheries are located in different parts of the county to allow for ease of access by farmers [18,35]. The fingerlings for Nile tilapia produced include all male tilapia produced through sex reversal, naturally male tilapia produced by use of super YY males and mixed sex tilapia fingerlings [35]."}]},{"head":"Record keeping","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"This is one of the important aspects in fish farming used to determine profitability of the business. Majority of farmers (77%) have reported to keep records on their fish farming activities [21]. The records kept are for the species of fish reared, the number of fish stocked per pond, feeding records and water quality records (temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH). The records are kept in form of notebooks and files depending on the farmers' production scale. Fish health records are not kept by farmers since they don't record diseased fish and cannot establish the cause of fish mortalities. The number of dead fish is recorded without any diagnosis to determine the cause of mortality [15,21]."}]},{"head":"Fish disease occurrence in Kenya","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":429,"text":"Very limited information exists on disease outbreaks in fish farms in Kenya. Most fish health studies have focused on parasites in two most cultured species, O. niloticus and C. gariepinus [15]. These studies focused on the parasite descriptions, biology and pathology [36]. The lack of information on fish diseases could be linked to lack of diagnostic infrastructure, lack of human resource with expertise in fish health, high cost of diagnosis, lack of well-equipped veterinary laboratories for identification of pathogens, absence of outbreak reports due to poor record keeping by farmers and socio-economic status of the farmers [15]. However, some farmers have experienced mortality of fish in their farms losing between 40 and 100% of the stock in both cages and ponds [25,26]. While this is usually associated with water quality problems, it is possible that it could be health related since no diagnosis is done at the farm level to rule out diseases. Most small scale and medium scale farmers do not bother to establish the cause of mortalities, and when they do, they consult officers from the universities or fisheries officers who also have little or no knowledge on fish health [15]. A study conducted in 2014 in some fish hatcheries investigating bacterial and fungal infections in farmed fish established that the hatcheries lost most of their stocks to diseases [37]. The small scale hatcheries were reported to experience more mortality due to inadequate biosecurity measures and poor management practices to prevent infections. Most reported diseases in fish farms are; fungal mainly saprolegniasis, bacterial mainly hemorrhagic and pop eye diseases [15,38]. Some O. niloticus hatcheries have been affected by Streptococcus iniae which makes the affected fish to have a C-shape especially the newly stocked fish larvae [37][38][39]. Grow out O. niloticus have also been affected by fish louse (Argulus spp.) while C. gariepinus have been affected by freshwater white spot disease (Ichthyophthirius multilifis) [37]. Disease occurrences in farms have been attributed to poor husbandry practices including use of on-farm formulated feed with high bacterial load and use of water directly from the source without prior treatment [37,38]. Water directly sourced from the river or streams can introduce high levels of bacterial loads which affect younger fish more than adults indicating poor hatchery practices within Kenya aquaculture systems. The bacterial infections affecting pond cultured fish in Kenya are caused by Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas fluorescens and P. aeruginosa, Edwardsiella tarda, Flavobacterium columnare, Mycobacterium fortuitum and Streptococcus iniae [15,40]. In cages, symptoms like fin rot, cloudy eyes and skin lesions, have been reported indicating possibility of bacterial and fungal infections [25]."}]},{"head":"Fish health management practices","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":396,"text":"Some fish farms in Kenya especially hatcheries, use preventive measures to reduce chances of disease occurrence [16]. Unlike in growout systems, disinfection of farm equipment and culture facilities are routinely included in fish health management schemes in hatcheries. The choice of management practices and application of prophylactics are based on the farmers' knowledge and experience [41]. Commonly used drugs and chemicals in aquaculture systems in Kenya are; potassium permanganate and sodium chloride to eliminate bacterial and fungal infections [42]. Treatments in the hatchery are done at the egg incubation stage or at the fry stages to increase survival of the hatched fry [41,42]. The only antibiotic which is used in Kenya by a private hatchery is oxytetracycline [35] to prevent bacterial infections in African catfish broodstock. Use of oxytetracycline in food fish have raised concerns on antibiotic resistance in fish [43,44] which has become globally relevant issue [45,46]. 9.1. Challenges in fish health management Quarantine facilities are non-existent in Kenya and limited biosecurity measures have been put in place to monitor new introductions and occurrence of diseases in fish [20]. This is due to non-reported fish diseases and inadequate human resource specialized in fish diseases, making the establishment of such facilities unappealing. The quarantine facilities would be important with the increase in importation of broodstock especially the non-indigenous species of Nile tilapia which may lead to introduction of diseases and parasites [37]. Inadequate measures to prevent escapes of cultured fish to the wild also poses a great danger to the wild stocks [47]. These inadequate biosecurity measures may result in rapid spread of disease pathogens within the country [47]. In fact, the recent sampling and detection of Tilapia lake virus (TiLV) in Tanzanian and Ugandan parts of Lake Victoria in both fish in cages and open waters [48] put farmed fish in cages in lake Victoria at high risk of diseases. Although the TiLV was detected, there have not been any external clinical signs, clinical disease or mortality resulting from the virus [48]. However, the TiLV has led to serious losses of Nile tilapia in most countries including Israel, Ecuador and Egypt [49]. With the intensification of cage culture of tilapia in lake Victoria, more biosecurity measures need to be in place to avoid possible infections since cages are open systems that can allows exchange of pathogens between cultured and wild fish in the lake [26]."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Kenya has no specialized fish diagnostic laboratories recognized by the World Animal Health Organization (known by its French name \"Office International des Epizooties\" (OIE). In the event of disease outbreaks, diagnoses are performed at local universities and public research institutes that conduct research on fisheries and aquaculture. Kenya has several universities, including Moi, Kenyatta, Egerton and Maseno, as well as the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute conducting research in fisheries and aquaculture. A recommendation was made by [14] that since specialists in fish disease are not common in Kenya, farmers need to use preventative measures like maintaining a suitable environment for fish, stocking healthy fish, using quality feeds and limiting stress to prevent diseases in intensive farming systems."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"The high potential of aquaculture in Kenya if exploited will lead to increased production of fish. It is evident that there is no health management strategy for farmed fish in Kenya due to inadequate capacity both in human resource, infrastructure and lack of funding for fish health management. Capacity building of the various stakeholders needs to be enhanced to acquire basic skills required in the identification of sick fish. A fish pathology and diagnostic laboratory with appropriately trained and experienced staff should be established to help in diagnosis of diseased fish. Simple realistic and low cost biosecurity measures should be adopted by farmers in order to prevent occurrence of diseases in farmed fish. From earlier reports, no baseline information exists on fish health management in Kenya. A survey emphasizing the health of farmed fish and health management practices need to be carried out to provide basic information for planning necessary interventions for fish health management in the country. More research with focus on fish health need to be emphasized and setting up of a specialized government fish health inspectorate is necessary for fish disease surveillance. An understanding of the existing health management practices, dynamics, infrastructure and regulatory practices in other African countries like Egypt should be encouraged for better fish health management in Kenya."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 Number of ponds per county in Kenya and respective pond area in 2015. S/N County Ponds area (ha) 2015 No of ponds in 2015 S/NCountyPonds area (ha) 2015No of ponds in 2015 1 Kakamega 259.2 8640 1Kakamega259.28640 2 Bungoma 119.16 3972 2Bungoma119.163972 3 Kisii 93.78 3126 3Kisii93.783126 4 Meru 88.5 2950 4Meru88.52950 5 Nyeri 71.43 2381 5Nyeri71.432381 6 Kisumu 66.66 2222 6Kisumu66.662222 7 Muranga 66.6 2220 7Muranga66.62220 8 Embu 62.37 2079 8Embu62.372079 9 Migori 61.86 2062 9Migori61.862062 10 Trans Nzoia 61.29 2043 10Trans Nzoia61.292043 11 Machakos 53.34 1778 11Machakos53.341778 12 Siaya 52.35 1745 12Siaya52.351745 13 Busia 48.51 1617 13Busia48.511617 14 Tharaka Nithi 48 1600 14Tharaka Nithi481600 15 Kiambu 45.96 1532 15Kiambu45.961532 16 Homa Bay 42.69 1423 16Homa Bay42.691423 17 Makueni 41.34 1378 17Makueni41.341378 18 Kirinyaga 38.91 1297 18Kirinyaga38.911297 19 Bomet 38.4 1280 19Bomet38.41280 20 Nyamira 36.6 1220 20Nyamira36.61220 21 Nakuru 36.48 1216 21Nakuru36.481216 22 Laikipia 36.45 1215 22Laikipia36.451215 23 Uasin Gishu 32.97 1099 23Uasin Gishu32.971099 24 Vihiga 31.11 1037 24Vihiga31.111037 25 Nyandarua 28.62 954 25Nyandarua28.62954 26 Nandi 28.29 943 26Nandi28.29943 27 Kericho 28.05 935 27Kericho28.05935 28 Nairobi 26.1 870 28Nairobi26.1870 29 Kwale 26.04 868 29Kwale26.04868 30 Taita Taveta 25.29 843 30Taita Taveta25.29843 31 Baringo 21.96 732 31Baringo21.96732 32 Kilifi 18.57 619 32Kilifi18.57619 33 Narok 17.01 567 33Narok17.01567 34 Tana River 15.6 520 34Tana River15.6520 35 Kajiado 11.88 396 35Kajiado11.88396 36 Kitui 10.26 342 36Kitui10.26342 37 Lamu 9.21 307 37Lamu9.21307 38 Elgeyo Marakwet 7.47 249 38Elgeyo Marakwet7.47249 TOTAL 1808 60,277 TOTAL180860,277 "},{"text":"Table 2 The Kenya national distribution of fish culture systems and respective cover area (m 2 ). Region Semi intensive systems Extensive systems Intensive systems RegionSemi intensive systemsExtensive systemsIntensive systems (Ponds) (Dams) (Tanks) (Ponds)(Dams)(Tanks) Area Number Area Number Area Number AreaNumberAreaNumberAreaNumber Central 1609 506,605 167 1,933,809 83 18,744 Central1609506,6051671,933,8098318,744 Coast 434 58,698 - - 9 180 Coast43458,698--9180 Eastern 752 423,628 20 113,018 3 118 Eastern752423,62820113,0183118 Nyanza 2070 453,423 15 41,220 1 27 Nyanza2070453,4231541,220127 Rift Valley 1,531 761,856 129 3,385,298 65 4015 Rift Valley 1,531761,8561293,385,298654015 Western 2720 549,486 - - - - Western2720549,486---- "},{"text":"Table 3 Fish feed suppliers in Kenya. Adapted from[2,22]. Company Name Type Location Type of Feed Company NameTypeLocationType of Feed Commercial manufacturers Commercial manufacturers Sigma Feeds Ltd Local Rongai, Kajiado Floating pellets Sigma Feeds LtdLocalRongai, KajiadoFloating pellets County County Lenalia Fish feeds Local Limuru, Kiambu Floating and Lenalia Fish feedsLocalLimuru, KiambuFloating and County sinking pellets Countysinking pellets Maisha Bora Fish Feeds Ltd Local Kikuyu, Kiambu Sinking pellets Maisha Bora Fish Feeds LtdLocalKikuyu, KiambuSinking pellets County County Kwality Fish Feeds Limited Local Ruiru, Kiambu Sinking pellets Kwality Fish Feeds LimitedLocalRuiru, KiambuSinking pellets County County Sare Millers Ltd Local Kisumu County Floating and Sare Millers LtdLocalKisumu CountyFloating and sinking pellets sinking pellets Jewlet Fish Farm Local Kendubay, Floating and Jewlet Fish FarmLocalKendubay,Floating and Enterprises Homabay County sinking pellets EnterprisesHomabay Countysinking pellets Unga Feeds Ltd-Nairobi Local Industrial Area Floating pellets Unga Feeds Ltd-NairobiLocalIndustrial AreaFloating pellets Nairobi Nairobi Ugachick Fish Feeds Imported Uganda Floating pellets Ugachick Fish FeedsImportedUgandaFloating pellets Raanan Fish Feeds Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets Raanan Fish FeedsImportedNairobi CountyFloating pellets Nile Aqua Imported Uganda Floating pellets Nile AquaImportedUgandaFloating pellets Skretting Fish Feeds Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets Skretting Fish FeedsImportedNairobi CountyFloating pellets Aller Aqua fish Feeds Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets Aller Aqua fish FeedsImportedNairobi CountyFloating pellets LFL Riche Terre Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets LFL Riche TerreImportedNairobi CountyFloating pellets Food Tech Africa Local Nairobi County Floating pellets Food Tech AfricaLocalNairobi CountyFloating pellets Cottage feed industries Cottage feed industries Othaya Fish Feeders S.H.G Local Othaya, Nyeri Sinking pellets Othaya Fish Feeders S.H.GLocalOthaya, NyeriSinking pellets County County Chumara Fish Feeds Local Chuka, Meru Sinking pellets Chumara Fish FeedsLocalChuka, MeruSinking pellets County County Mabro Fish Farm Local Usigu, Siaya Sinking pellets Mabro Fish FarmLocalUsigu, SiayaSinking pellets Enterprises County EnterprisesCounty Bidii Fish Farmers S.H.G Local Luanda-Emuhaya Floating and Bidii Fish Farmers S.H.GLocalLuanda-EmuhayaFloating and Sinking pellets Sinking pellets Osifeeds Ltd. Local Kajiado County Sinking pellets Osifeeds Ltd.LocalKajiado CountySinking pellets Zibag Fish producers & Local Nyandarua County Sinking pellets Zibag Fish producers &LocalNyandarua CountySinking pellets Processors Processors Hesao Integrated Fish Local Nyalenda B, Sinking pellets Hesao Integrated FishLocalNyalenda B,Sinking pellets Farming Organization Kisumu County Farming OrganizationKisumu County Dominion Fish Feed limited Local Siaya County Sinking pellets Dominion Fish Feed limitedLocalSiaya CountySinking pellets Nyawara Animal Feed Plant Local Gem, Siaya County Sinking pellets Nyawara Animal Feed PlantLocalGem, Siaya CountySinking pellets Kenya Marine and Fisheries Local Sangoro, Kisumu Sinking pellets Kenya Marine and FisheriesLocalSangoro, KisumuSinking pellets Research Institute County Research InstituteCounty "}],"sieverID":"8c28aafa-a62b-4c2a-b232-9edb9a67fcab","abstract":"Warm water aquaculture is widely practiced in Kenya and is dominated by the culture of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) (75% of total production) followed by African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) at 18%. Aquaculture started in Kenya in 1920's and has been on upward trend until 2014 when it peaked at 24,096 MT. However, production reduced drastically in the past 3 years, with 14,952 metric tonnes (MT) reported in 2016. Most farmers practice earthen pond based semi-intensive culture system. Commercial intensive culture of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) in cages in Lake Victoria has grown significantly in the last five years with a production of 12 million kg of fish every cycle (about 8 months). Recirculation aquaculture system (RAS) is also gaining popularity mainly in intensive hatcheries. The freshwater cages have been marred by increasing frequencies of fish kills with obvious financial and environmental implications. Although limited information exists on fish disease outbreaks across the country, certain well known diseases in farmed fish have been reported. These include; fungal, mainly saprolegniasis, bacterial, mainly hemorrhagic disease and pop-eye diseases. Parasites have also been documented in farmed O. niloticus and C. gariepinus. Although prophylactic treatments are used in some hatcheries in order to prevent infections, limited biosecurity measures are in place to prevent diseases in farmed fish. This is because of inadequate knowledge of the economics of fish diseases, poor infrastructure and inadequate human resource specialized in fish diseases. This review describes the aquaculture production and health mangement practices of farmed fish in Kenya in order to document actions required for effective monitoring and regulation of future fish health problems across the country."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"058923c6d7e67cfe9037048f3a583e7d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0379457b-fe11-48d8-b0c2-cbf212197be0/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"No solo es conveniente desarrollar una tecnología clave para lograr el potencial de producción en yuca (costos bajos, rendimientos altos) I también es necesario su adopción por los agricultores (2)."},{"index":2,"size":343,"text":"Las nuevas variedades, componentes importantes de tecnología mejorada, son seleccionadas por los mejoradores basados en producciones estables comprobadas durante varios años y en múltiples sitios; además de tolerancia a plagas, enfermedades y estres edafoclimáticos (componentes básicos de estabilidad). Sin embargo, la experiencia indica, que no siempre se adoptan cuando entran al sistema de producción del agricultor, contrastando con variedades regionales, ampliamente difundidas en áreas de cultivo del pais, con producciones inestables e inferiores en algunos casos a las experimentales. Mientras más tradicional es la agricultura, más fuertemente están impresos en ella los caracteres de la sociedad que la practica. Para una situación de esta naturaleza, en la que la producción se lleva a ~abo con 'un enfoque de medios-propósitos, el desarrollo de tecnologia usando los principios de la investigación agrícola, basados a su vez en principios de causa-efecto, no tendrían en realidad tanta validez como se ha creído hasta el momento (Dillon, 1976). Asi entonces, para que la tecnología y su transferencia tengan éxito deben emplearse nuevos métodos dentro de enfoques también novedosos. La Investigación Participativa en Yuca aparece como la mejor alternativa propuesta hasta el momento; es una metodologia complementaria a la investigación tradicional, que integra Criterios de productores-mejoradores y maximiza la eficiencia de selección de variedades. La diversidad de respuestas a prácticas agronómicas, tolerancia a plagas y enfermedades, estabilidad, etc. de las variedades, frente a diferentes condiciones de producción de la yuca, conforman la base de un progama de mej oramiento (4). A través de Bancos de Germoplasma (in vitro y en Campo), evaluaciones completas de caracteristicas agronómicas en cada introducción, pruebas avanzadas con mejores materiales en condiciones representativas y finalmente Programas de Hibridación que recombinan características deseables, conforman en términos generales los esquemas tradicionales de mejoramiento en yuca (Programa de Mejoramiento de Yuca-CIAT, Figura 1). La participación de productores de yuca en el proceso mismo del desarrollo y evaluación tecnológica, fuá postulado hace cúatro años para el caso especifico de la Costa Atlántica de Colombia, actividad llevada a cabo en búsqueda de nuevas opciones de selección de mejores cultiva-, res."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Variedades provenientes de Ensayos de Rendimiento (ER) I son establecidas por los cultivadores dentro de su area de producción, usando los procedimientos de siembra y cultivo normal en la finca."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Basados' en la combinación de métodos participativos que captan opiniones de los agricultores, con métodos tradicionales de investigadores para obtener información sobre el comportamiento de variedades, se desarrolló la metodología IPY."},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"El análisis de las razones para diferenciar una variedad buena de una que no lo es, permitió identificar objetivos de agricultores que sugieren implementar la IPY en etapas preliminares de selección. (Fiqura 1). en sus planes de comunicación, transferencia de recomendaciones y asistencia técnica, basados en criterios políticos, macroeconómicos y técnicos. La caracterización de los dominios de recomendación en Colombia, identificó municipios y/o veredas que caen dentro de áreas prioritarias de la Regional 2 del lCA (Departamentos de Atlántico, Bolívar, Sucre y Córdoba) y Magdalena. lPY, en su etapa inicial de diagnóstico determinó aspectos relacionados con precocidad, asocio, características de variedades locales y época de siembra."}]},{"head":"-ESTRATEGIA DE COOPERACION INTERINSTlTUCIONAL y SELECCION DE PARTICIPANTES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"La mayoria de Instituciones de Investigacion están organizadas según programás por disciplinas y por cultivos. Es recomendable que l~ conducción propiamente dicha, de las pruebas y encuestas, se delegue a equipos multidisciplinarios r asignados a regiones o áreas geográficas específicas."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"La experiencia hasta el momento, indica que profesionales del Programa de Tuberosas de lCA (Grupo de Yuca y AsociadOS) y Secretaria de Agricultura de Bolívar, son actualmente practicantes eficientes de IPY en Colombia. El equipo asignado a cada subregión trabaja en investigación ajuste transferencia de tecnología y en algunos casos la docencia (Universi--4 -dades); interactuando con agricultores de fincas pilotos, de plantas de procesamiento, productores de almidón, productores pequeños, medianos y miembros de cooperativas. La se-lecci6n de los agricultores participantes está basada en la experiencia local de cada investigador, teniendo encuenta aspectos relacionados con el interés en la prueba, disponibilidad de area, habilidad de comunicación, fácil acceso a los mercados existentes en la reqi6n y representatividad regional."}]},{"head":"-RED DE PRUEBAS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Los productores comparten objetivos comparables, que los llevan a identificar características similares en relaci6n a variedades deseadas, así tenqan criterios especificos en la finca. IPY estudi6 las reacciones de los productores frente a las nuevas variedades estableciendo una red de mas de 90 pruebas y 200 agricultores participantes (1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)). Por el poco control de la variabilidad, se requiere de un número de 15 a 20 fincas por ciclo; el análisis reqional determina el nivel de estabilidad de las nuevas variedades y el grado de homoqenidad del dominio de recomendación."}]},{"head":"-EL PAPEL DEL AGRICULTOR","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"El aqricul tor toma un papel activo en la investiqación al movilizar toda su experiencia para evaluar la aceptabilidad de las variedades'. Una técnica adecuada consiste en darle una función de enseñanza centrada en el uso de herramientas tradicionales, métodos de siembra, prácticas de manejo, ta-I les como deshierbas o métodos de cosecha, etc de particular utilidad para el diseño de entrevistas de evaluación que conlleva conocer la terminoloqía local. Por ser los agricultores los evaluadores principales de variedades en IPY, se tiene en cuenta el •uso de sus recursos\", para que comprendan las implicaciones de las alternativas, además de un Bdiseño simple\" que les permita observar diferencias medibles con sus propios medios de medición. Así, los cultivadores establecen, dentro de su área de producción, parcelas de 30 a 50 plantas de cada variedad experimental y/o tradicional (parcela testigo), usando sus procedimientos de siembra y cultivo normal en la finca (Prácticas culturales tradicionales). Con libertad en deciciones de distancia de siembra, intercultivo, posición de la estaca, manejo en general etc, el agricultor evalúa el desarrollo del cultivo desde las primeras etapas, mientras que el profesional orienta la demarcación de parcelas, distribución e identificación de las variedades. En las regiones de caracteristicas de ambiente similares, el grupo de variedades experimentales fué idéntico variando únicamente los cultivares locales. La selección de las variedades para las pruebas se acordó con los programas de mejoramiento de las entidades participantes."}]},{"head":"-EVALUACIONES","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"-Evaluaciones Abiertas Formular preguntas es una técnica clave en la evaluación con productortes."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Hay tres tipos de preguntas: dirigidas (o condicionadas), cÚrectas y abiertas. Las primeras no deben usarse en evaluaciónes con productores, pues llevan implí-, cita la respuesta esperada; las directas están generalmente orientadas a obtener aspectos específicos de información razón por la cual tienen más uso en encuestas; las preguntas abiertas muy útiles en evaluaciones con productores, son aquellas que los estimulan a expresar y explicar ideas y opiniones, por consiguiente una evaluación abierta es un método para captar y consignar reaciones espontáneas de los a través de sus criterios."},{"index":3,"size":229,"text":"La técnica de productores diálogo con preguntas abiertas se apoya en interrrogantes como: por qué?, qué?, cómo?, cuando?, usted cree, usted que opina? etc. Las entrevistas abiertas, definen dimensiones relevantes de la investigación a nivel de fincas: producción, demanda por tecnología y mercadeo. como resultado de funciones especificas por función homogenea. Las experiencias obtenidas en el primer paso, indicaron la necesidad de un profundo estudio de términos usados en cada región, lo cual es posible caracterizando las expresiones empleadas para definir los atribUtos de las variedades y adaptar métodos de comunicación con agricultores (Tabla 1). La técnica de ordenar entre alternativas estableciendo un orden de preferencias, (variedades locales y clones experimentales), combinada con preguntas abiertas que permitían explicar al productor cada posición seleccionada, fueron herramientas útiles en el conocimiento de los criterios. Este procedimiento integró la evaluación absoluta en subgrupos de opciones promisorias (agrupación de variedades en rangos de buenas, regulares y malas) con la comparación entre pares de cada una de (juzgando cada variedad como mejor o peor las razones de los juicios (Figura 2). Con \"Métodos participativos\" (Ashby, 1986) parámetros de aceptación basados en lo que las alternativas que otras, dando se midieron los percibe el agricultor, comerciante y consumidor. Tabulando las veces que un criterio es mencionado espontáneamente, se encontró la importancia relativa de cada uno en la evaluación de las va-I riedades (-criterios de Selección\")."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"-Evaluaciones agronómicas El otro componente de IPY lo constituyen las evaluaciones agronómicas, comunes en los programas de mej oramiento cuya información ayuda a la interpretación técnica de las preferencias. La metodología IPY conformó un manual de instru-cciones con diez puntos claves, que constituyen el soporte del procedimiento."}]},{"head":"ANALISIS DE LA INFORMACION","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Evaluaciones propias de lo agricultores La aceptación o rechazo es una clasificación subjetiva en rangos de alto, intermedia o baja. Dichos rangos los definen las evaluaciones de cosecha y precosecha a través de criterios de selección. Estos calificados como buenos, regulares o malos discriminan los rangos cuando la característica observada es contrastante en un intervalo. El análisis de regresión, donde preferencia se define como la variable dependiente y los criterios como las independientes, es una herramienta útil que determina el \"peso\" de los criterios de selección de los agricultores."}]},{"head":"UN CASO DE ESTUDIO EN COLOMBIA ALGUNOS RESULTADOS IMPORTANTES","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Las evaluaciones abiertas suministraron un listado de términos diferentes para definir el mismo aspecto. Por ejemplo, almidón, harina, aguada, seca, vidriosa, rucha, etc., son expresiones referidas a contenidos de almidón de la raíz: carga, número de raíces, rendimiento, parir, producción, son sinónimos."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Con las técnicas mencionadas, expresiones como \"Buena para el mercado\" que integra principalmente el color de la cáscara, la pulpa y la corteza fueron correctamente interpretadas (Tabla 1). El siguiente paso fué el estudio de frecuencias de posibles r \"criterios de selección\", expresadas según la etapa de evaluación. Los datos iniciales mostraron mayores proporciones de conceptos referidos a la raíz, sugiriendo la necesidad de evaluaciones iniciales e intermedias en el ciclo vegetativo. Por ejemplo, la retroinformación obtenida del clon CM 1355 -2, con 4 meses de edad, mostró más susceptibilidad a ácaros en las pruebas del norte de Bolivar con respecto a las de -8 -"}]},{"head":"•","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"D91018","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Córdoba, Bucre y Magdalena. Los estudios indicaron también qúe los productores aceptan o rechazan teniendo encuenta el mercado fresco, basados en criterios referidos a color (cáscara, corteza, y pulpa); grosor, tamaño y número de raíces comerciales. Variedades como CM 3306-9, MCol 72, CM 681-2, fueron rechazadas por el color claro de la cáscara de la raíz. El análisis del criterio indicó que cambios ligeros en la intensidad del color disminuía la aceptación."},{"index":2,"size":319,"text":"Esto fué confirmado con CM 3555-6 en algunas localidades. Cambios en el contenido de almidón por estrés han disminuído calidad culinaria y aceptación de la variedad, como fué el caso de CM 523-7. Por colores crema o amarillos de la pulpa los productores rechazaron variedades como CM 3408-1, CM 3750-5 Y MCol 72 (Tabla 2). Variedades con promedios inferiores a 4 raíces comerciales/ planta y evaluaciones regulares del grosor y tamaño tienen aceptación intermedia. Por esta razón Venezolana y P-12 han ocupado posiciones intermedias a bajas en el orden de preferencia, en algunas localidades. La tecnología IPY, aplicada con los propios recursos del agricultor, ha permitido que ellos comprendan las implicaciones de las alternativas en los distintos sistemas de producción. La arquitectura de la planta, relacionada con manejo del cultivo (asocio, control de malezas, competencia, etc.) fué estudiada de la información de las pruebas. Los datos de la Tabla' 3 explican la acep,tación de los crones de prelanzamiento en asocio con maíz, otros cultivos y monocultivo. Los promedios indican que con el manejo del agricul-, tor, los rendimientos de raíces frescas en monocultivo comparado con los de las asociaciones con maíz, se reducen en 35% para Venezolana mientras que en CM 3306-4 Y CG 1141-1 la reducción es del 30%; contribuyendo a explicar la aceptación tanto en monocultivo como en asociación. DISCUSIOH IP en Yuca, en la Costa Atlántica de Colombia tuvo como enfoque el conocimiento de \"Criterios de Selección\" de productores basado en la retro información Investigador agricultor. Sin embargo, las técnicas y principios desarrollados pueden emplearse para realizar evaluaciones con productores en otras tecnologias y lugares (Ej: Estación Experimental). De este modo la retro información en un sentido amplio ha tenido las siguientes implicaciones: l. El análisis de las razones para diferenciar una tecnologia buena de una que no lo es, permite identificar objetivos de agricultores que sugieren tenerlos encuenta en etapas tempranas de selección, \"evaluación temprana\"."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"En la práctica para estudios oportunos de competencia y manejo del asocio podría incluirse el maíz como intercultivo en etapas iniciales de selección en mejoramiento. Asi, el ligar la información de la Estación Experimental con la de la finca, conlleva un proceso iteractivo para programas de mejoramiento. Por esto se recomienda la participación de productores en la evaluación de primeras alternativas a través de localidades y años."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"2. Lograda una retro información confiable y validada (nuevas posibilidades a la tecnología actual de los productores), son posibles evaluaciones más detalladas con pocas \"alternativas promisorias\". IPY evalúa con los productores variedades más rélacionadas con sus espectativas según la retroinformación de ciclos anteriores."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"3. La retro información agricultor-investigador, genera , y comparte una información sistemática, sobre las reacciones de los productor'es a las preferencias de \"variedades\" en los ensayos. La identificación de estos componentes tecnológicos antes de su promoción, incrementa el éxito de los métodos de transferencia de tecnología tanto formales como informales (agricultor a agricultor). El enfoque inicial de IPY fué desarrollar métodos de evaluación con productores para ayudarlos en el proceso de expresión de \"criterios\" frente a alternativas tecnológicas (variedades); pero su evolución llevó a la preselección de \"variedades prototipo\" como trabajo conjunto de productores y científicos. La verificación de criterios de selección ha determinado la etapa de validación y adaptación donde profesionales de ajuste y transferencia de tecnología identifican posibles variedades de prelanzamiento. En resumen, IPY no fué diseñado para liberar variedades, pero el enfoque de aceptabilidad del productor en el modelo, ha permitido este resultado como producto importante de la metodología."}]},{"head":"NECESIDADES DE IPY FUTURAS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Las evaluaciones con productores pueden ser empleadas en cualquiera de las etapas del proceso de generación tecnológica, con métodos aplicables a diferentes momentos del proceso de investigación: diagnóstico, planeación y diseño experimental, adaptación y validación. Las técnicas de evaluación con productores podrian usarse en programas de investigación por especialidades o por cultivos."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Por ejemplo, los científicos de suelos pueden obtener información diagnóstica sobre el manejo y conservación que hacen los productores, mediante el.~so de los métodos de interrogación desarrollados. Así I conocerían prácticas locales, manej o, uso de fertilizantes, etc."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"En ensayos de mejoradores que incluyan variedades con características por incorporar, I podrían los agricultores ayudar a identificar características varietales de mayor (o menor) aceptación. En un manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades seria de interés para fitopatólogos y entomólogos evaluar las reacciones de productores frente a las nuevas alternativas. En resumen, IPY en el futuro tendría como áreas de acción la integración de criterios agronómicos, económicos y de agri-cultores; una mejor colaboración investigador-agricultor y la difusión de ideas agricultor a agricultor. Ejemplo hipotético de evaluación en la fase final del ciclo vegetativo. (Establecimiento de orden de preferencia) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ESTRUCTURA BASICA DE UN PROGRAMA DE MEJORAMIENTO Y PROPUESTA DE INVESTIGACION PARTICIPA'l'IVA EN YUCA (IPY) "},{"text":"091018 5 - ESTABLECDlIENTO DE LAS PRUEBAS "},{"text":" FIGURA 2. "},{"text":",) Y Aceptación de los clones de preianZWliento y Venezolana asociado con 11118fz, Paso 1: Cosechar las plantas Que componen la parcela útil en cada clan o cultivar loeal y ubicarlas en un-espacio abierto sin perder la Tabl. 3. P......,.¡i ... de los par_tras Altura de l. Planta (AlT. PLANT), Altura de la pri ... ra ramifl• cación (ALT. PlUM. RAMIF), Niveles de , ... ¡ti.aclón (NIVELES RAMIF.), Rendimiento de rafces fresclltS (RE.. D91018 D91018 otro cultivo (OTltO WLn y/o en monocultivo (MOMOC). 1969•1990 Costa Atlántica. otro cultivo (OTltO WLn y/o en monocultivo (MOMOC). 1969•1990 Costa Atlántica. CG 1141•1 MCGL 2215* CG 1141•1MCGL 2215* identificaci6n. identificaci6n. 't'UCA 't'UCA SISTEMA 't'UCA/ OTIlO YUCA YUCA! OTIlO YUCA YUCA! OTIlO YUCA SISTEMA't'UCA/ OTIlOYUCAYUCA! OTIlOYUCAYUCA! OTIlOYUCA WlTlVO MUZ WLT. MOMOC. x M!Z WlT. MOMOC. x MIZ WLT. IDIOC. X WlTlVOMUZWLT.MOMOC.xM!ZWlT.MOMOC.xMIZWLT.IDIOC.X 1 ALi. PLANT. (cm) 197 194 183 191 224 219 225 1 ALi. PLANT. (cm)197194183191224219225 1 ALT. PRIM. RAM!F (cm) 90 1 NIveL RAM!F. 1.7 96 1.5 79 1.0 88 , .4 B lOS 2.4 103 2.5 fR 2.1 1 ALT. PRIM. RAM!F (cm) 90 1 NIveL RAM!F. 1.796 1.579 1.088 , .4BlOS 2.4103 2.5fR 2.1 RENO. (TON/HA) 19 27 27 24 16 18 23 RENO. (TON/HA)19272724161823 ACEPTACION** 1.0 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 ACEPTACION**1.01.31.01.11.01.01.1 Color oscuro de la cáscara de la'ral. y Número de ralees y mayor producción Color blanco de la cáscara de la raíz Color oscuro de la cáscara de la'ral. yNúmero de ralees y mayor producciónColor blanco de la cáscara de la raíz número de rafces de .emilla I •• tac.s) número de rafcesde .emilla I •• tac.s) Posición 1 Posición 2 Posición 3 Posición 1Posición 2Posición 3 "},{"text":"ttyenezol.ana\" ** Calificación ujetiva de los agricultores, cbnde 1 = bJena, 2 :# regular 1 TABLA 1. TABLA 1. FIGURA l. FIGURA l. TERMINOS USADOS TERMINOS USADOS REFERIDOS A SINONIMOS ANTONIMOS REFERIDOS ASINONIMOSANTONIMOS PROPUESTA METODOLOGICA Contenido de harina aguada PROPUESTA METODOLOGICA Contenido de harinaaguada Almidon tesa vidriosa Almidontesavidriosa seca rucha secarucha Numero de raices pare Numero de raicespare carga carga INTRODUCCION DE GERMOPLASMA produccion HIBRIDACIONES rendimiento INTRODUCCION DE GERMOPLASMAproduccion HIBRIDACIONES rendimiento I CONCEPTOS INTEGRALES F1 ICONCEPTOS INTEGRALESF1 I BANCO GENES ID 92 2.3 color oscuro de la 193 122 1.6 I F1C1 cascara de la raiz , pul¡5a' 200 1m 108 91 , .7 1.6 blanca , corteza morada y buen 188 107 1.6 ~ Buena para el mercado DE ~ fresco grosor I BANCO GENESID 92 2.3 color oscuro de la 193 122 1.6 I F1C1 cascara de la raiz , pul¡5a' 200 1m 108 91 , .7 1.6 blanca , corteza morada y buen 188 107 1.6 ~ Buena para el mercado DE ~ fresco grosor 19 Campos de Observaclon 11 15 17 14 19 Campos de Observaclon11151714 I Ensayos Costa Atlantica 1.1 Preliminares de 2.0 Rendimiento 2.0 1.8 1.9 I Ensayos Costa Atlantica1.1 Preliminares de2.0 Rendimiento 2.0 1.81.9 I I Ensayos de Rendimiento Ensayos de Rendimiento I I INVESTIGACION Pruebas Regionales INVESTIGACIONPruebas Regionales PARTICIPATIVA IlúDero de raoñflcación 1 Pruebas de Valldaclon PARTICIPATIVA IlúDero de raoñflcación1 Pruebas de Valldaclon I I Multlpllcaclon de Semilla Multlpllcaclon de Semilla r I rI Llberaclon Llberaclon I I Seguimiento y Monitoreo Seguimiento y Monitoreo -14 - -14 - "}],"sieverID":"11874a09-2878-48c0-9be1-b03e21cd317a","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"07147f3ca220a72d3da52f22fde3d328","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ee506f22-bb3f-4a9b-b05c-5528f8afdb24/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Slaughterhouse Zoonoses Are workers reservoirs of zoonotic disease?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 Prevalence of enteric pathogens and MRSA in slaughterhouse workers Conclusions and Future plans Conclusions and Future plans "}],"sieverID":"96fa2540-d578-4513-bf8e-d8f4a105a2d1","abstract":" Globally slaughterhouse workers are high risk due to contact with animals  Slaughterhouse workers may act as reservoirs of zoonotic organisms  No previous studies in Kenya investigating zoonoses in slaughterhouse workers Background Materials and methods"}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"07bbdb555a0dffcdfeafd188aecc1706","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f113ee5a-66ee-46bd-89b9-dc0d4f262b4c/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Annex 2-List of participants EIAR No Name Leadership Position E-mail Directorate /Center","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of acronyms","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Executive summary EIAR has made substantial structural and operational changes over the last one and a half year in an attempt to deliver outputs that are align with its mission, objectives, duties and responsibilities. In line with these changes, a significant number of new-blood young leaders have been brought on board as center and sector directors and program coordinators. In order to equip these leaders with proven leadership skill and expertise EIAR with ILRI/CGIAR organized experience sharing workshop at EIAR headquarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on 7 August 2019. The one-day workshop brought together scientists with different areas of expertise from ILRI and other CGIAR centres and 53 participants drawn from EIAR headquarters in Addis and its research centers. Twenty eight percent of the participants from the EIAR were female researchers, the majority of whom EIAR aspires, will shortly assume leadership positions of different capacities; while some of them are already at leadership positions."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The objectives of the workshop were to strengthen the partnership between EIAR and ILRI/CGIAR and to exchange ILRI/CGIAR's experience with EIAR staff. The workshop consisted of several presentations, plenary discussions and groupwork exercises."}]},{"head":"Welcome, opening remarks and introductory session","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"EIAR and ILRI organized the workshop to strengthen the partnership between EIAR and ILRI/CGIAR and to share and exchange ILRI/CGIAR's experience with EIAR staff. The workshop was held at the EIAR headquarters in Addis Ababa on 7 August 2019. There were a total of 53 participants (see Annex 2 ) from EIAR and six staff (research and support from ILRI and CGIAR)."}]},{"head":"Welcome and opening remarks","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Dr Chilot Yirga, Deputy General Director for Administration and Capacity Building, EIAR made a welcome and opening remark representing Dr Mandefro Nigussie, General Director, EIAR as he got a last-minute engagement. He thanked all participants and referred the meeting as a family gathering considering both institutions as family. He further mentioned that EIAR management team have visited different research centers, spoke with researchers as well as support staff and identified lack of management skills as one of the constraints to meeting EIAR's mission. From that assessment, the institution has organized a leadership and management course for researchers at different levels. He also noted that the timing was good as they approach the new financial year. There was a general feeling that EIAR has not exploited ILRI to its full potential, although EIAR staff have informally interacted with ILRI staff and thanked ILRI and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation for the support they have made so far and in the future."}]},{"head":"Introductory session","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The workshop was planned and organized around potential areas of partnership between ILRI and EIAR experience sharing on specific topics of research findings presented by staff from ILRI and CGIAR (For details of the program, please see Annex 1)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"During the introductory session, participants introduced themselves, highlighting ILRI/CGIAR activities that they know of."}]},{"head":"Some of these activities and projects participants mentioned included:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• The Africa Chicken Genetic Gains project (ACGG) in Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Nigeria where ILRI has the main center of excellence for adaptation and selection of different lines in breeding poultry"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Farm mechanization and intensification by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Fava bean and barley work of International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Capacity building on bioinformatics and biotechnology work of ILRI's Biosciences eastern and central Africa (BecA) Hub."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• ILRI's works on livestock research in collaboration with national researchers."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• ILRI works on technology promotion and capacity building e.g. on gender (together with CIMMYT) and policy guidance."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Some of these activities and projects participants mentioned included: (Ctd.)"},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"• ILRI's global collaboration on feeds."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"• CIMMYT's research on maize and wheat e.g. wheat rust resistance and stress-tolerant"},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"• Nutrition enhanced maize developed by CIMMYT"},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":"• Research on pulses (e.g. chickpea), iron and zinc enhancement by HOPE project of International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)"},{"index":12,"size":5,"text":"• ICARDA's works on pulses"},{"index":13,"size":19,"text":"• ILRI works towards improving the livestock sector, developing technologies on animal health, feeds, genetics, markets, and value chains."},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"• ILRI's socio-economic surveys and impact assessments, working with national agricultural systems."},{"index":15,"size":28,"text":"• The Livestock and irrigation value chains for Ethiopian smallholders (LIVES) project implemented by ILRI collaborated on value chains and irrigation for smallholder farmers to enhance their income"},{"index":16,"size":15,"text":"• Germplasm enhancement in maize by CIMMYT and sustainable intensification of maize and other crops."}]},{"head":"Presentations ILRI/CGIAR in Ethiopia","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key messages","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Moyo Siboniso ILRI Director General's representative in Ethiopia gave a comprehensive presentation about ILRI and the CGIAR. She highlighted ILRI's Direct General commitment to strengthen partnerships in countries where ILRI operates and that ILRI's aspiration for a food secure future. She further elaborated that CGIAR has 15 global centers working on different commodities where four of the centers have head offices in Africa and contributing to three Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)reduce poverty, improve food and nutrition security, and improve natural resources and ecosystem services. In Ethiopia, CGIAR contributes to Growth and Transformation Plan II. She also highlighted, the increasing demand of meat to 2 million tonnes by 2020 and the need to develop strategies to meet this global demand and that ILRI is lucky to be in a country where livestock matters to the economy."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"She also mentioned ILRI' different projects and units and further emphasized the potential areas of collaboration with EIAR like gender in livestock, communicating science, ICT in agriculture, local campaigns during the livestock week or World Food Day, information management and biosciences through ILRI's BecA Hub."}]},{"head":"Questions and answers","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Questions Answers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Livestock feed is the biggest challenge in Ethiopia, but which one of the issues mentioned is the most important? What strategy do you advise the country to pursue -genetics, health or feed?"},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"All are important but it's important to focus on the breeds. As a breeder, I am biased toward breeding. There are breeds that perform well even with minimal resources. We need to increase milk production and shift from two liters per day to eight and beyond. The whole value chain including markets is very important. We need good markets and shifts to commercial production. We are also experiencing the greenhouse gas emission problem. We need to reduce our livestock size to reduce the livestock footprint and need to push forward an integrated approach."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Chicken is the cheapest animal-sourced food in Ethiopia. Do you think we have done enough to enhance chicken production in Ethiopia?"},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"One of the flagship projects is ACGG to generate improved poultry breeds, and also improve local breeds. There is a long way to get to where we want to be. It's one sector with the potential for export outside Ethiopia."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Is the Africa Biosciences Challenge Fund (ABCF) still on?"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"It is still on but with limited funding. We are looking for more funding (response from Wellington)."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"How do you evaluate your impact on livelihoods?"},{"index":8,"size":93,"text":"Every project has the means to monitor and evaluate its impact. The LIVES project did an impact evaluation and demonstrated to have made changes to people's food and nutrition security from meat, milk, and eggs among others. We have to be intentional when designing our projects so that we measure the impact. We are called upon by donors to demonstrate impact. As researchers we do pilots but we need to demonstrate impact at scale. We cannot do this alone. We need the partners with the end line delivery system including extension and NGOs"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"According to your experience, what is the trend of partnerships -functional partnerships?"},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"This depends on programs. We have started working a lot with universities. We are being called upon by the ministry of agriculture to work on large projects funded by the World Bank or IFAD and other large grants coming to government."},{"index":11,"size":66,"text":"There are areas where we need to revisit partnerships with EIAR. We have moved out of on-farm research to working with farmers in the communities. There are corners where it is working, and areas that need to strengthen and find areas where we can improve. We run on projects. That is the only way we get funding and that is why we ask for your CVs. "}]},{"head":"Sustainable Intensification (SI) in Agriculture","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key messages","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Kindu Mekonnen and Million Getnet from Africa RISING project of ILRI made a presentation (https://www.slideshare.net/africa-rising/cgiar-eiar-partnering) on the importance of SI and the experience of Africa RISING on SI in the Ethiopian highlands. They further highlighted how to determine if the technologies from African RISING are of interest and are moving in the direction of SI. They also elaborated on lessons from the field and multi-stakeholder engagement on how to reverse the role of extension in the research process. There were discussions around the importance of SI in the Ethiopian agriculture and the competencies required to be able to undertake the SI arena."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Participants commented on the importance of mapping the impact pathway for projects to be able to measure the outcomes, determine partners that need to be involved and their contribution along the path and the need to know the path that a project will take to achieve its outcomes."}]},{"head":"Questions and answers","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Questions Answers","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"How do we measure sustainability? These are measures that are still being tested and the thinking begins from previous work."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"When How do you quantify the share of resources left for the future? I think it's something that can be understood through evolution."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"We are still working on these issues. Most of the research requires long term research."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"We are talking about natural resources degradation, hunger in this country but it's just increasing since the 70s. What model has worked globally that we can learn from? What is the best entry point for partnerships?"},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"The current government initiative on water shade management is very important to address the issue of land degradation and natural resource management. But this needs to be done carefully with knowledge base and partnerships. We need to bring partners together and work together and bring about impact. It's a challenge but the approach initiated by the government on landscape management is good. It addresses issues of food security, collective action, etc."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"The entry point for partnership is finding common interests. If the issue is not relevant for one partner, they will not be engaged. So we need to find a common agenda to initiate partnerships."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"There will be partnerships at different scales from farmers' levels to the national or global levels. There is a need to identify different partners at different scales. You have to know which scale and what partners we need e.g. in SI. Activities will also differ from farm to landscape. Africa RISING provides the opportunity to try the applicability of this framework."}]},{"head":"Do innovation platforms or","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Multistakeholder Platforms survive after projects? If I were to visit the sites after five years, will I find them?"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"There is a need for involvement of extension in research. We do not have the brokering organization to do the linkage for us to the end-users. The innovation platforms might not exist after the project. The question is whether they can help a project achieve its goal."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Using ICT for participatory variety selection, seed deployment, and exchange"}]},{"head":"Key messages","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Yosef Gebrehawaryat from Alliance for Bioversity and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) introduced participants to the ICT software used to collect trial data for seed multiplication i.e."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"the Climmob app and Open data kit (ODK). Other concepts that participants were introduced included the seeds for needs: theory of change and crowd-sourcing or citzen science."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"The research team is currently developing a seed stock software to help farmers know the availability and access to preferred seed. It is an application where all seed companies record available seed and in what amount. Men and women farmers are currently testing different varieties of seed and use the app (guided by extension staff in case the family is illiterate) to report performance and preference to the researchers."}]},{"head":"Questions and answers","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Questions Answers","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Do you have data on the nutritional composition of the varieties selected by farmers? Do farmers know the nutritional composition?"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"This is participatory research. There is information that we might not know as researchers but get it from farmers and there is information that we have and provide to the farmers. The nutritional composition is provided to farmers."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Is this technology accessible to the remote farmers for them to be entrepreneurs?"},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The platform accommodates households with literate and illiterate members. Nonetheless, some farmers might not access the platform. Development agents assist the households to record and access information. Households can also use their educated children to access the platform. Increasingly, farmers' capacity is improving with improvement in the ICT infrastructure. The challenge is how to transfer seed from the seed company to the user."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"How do we strike a balance of staying in touch with farmers in the field and using ICT to improvise our work?"},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"The beauty of our work is, we work with both conventional and innovative methods. That helps to keep the balance. We work with farmers, conventional breeders, and technology at the same time. This has been a challenge, not just for us but globally. These are people who do not normally work together."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"I have been involved in participatory research. The philosophy of participatory research is theoretically appealing but when it comes to practical plant breeding, we need to optimize our approach. Knowledge of farmers is limited. Farmers' selection criteria and breeders criteria are often similar. Farmers in different geographical contexts have different crop choices. It's practically impossible to cater to the needs of each location when you have different choices."},{"index":8,"size":43,"text":"That is why we did no institutionalize PVS. It's also expensive. Community mobilization is expensive. I advise that you establish one criterion and adopt it in your variety protocol? What are other countries doing? Is this approach an imposition from the developing world?"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"The model to follow should address local thinking."},{"index":10,"size":99,"text":"If you are short on everything then it's a disaster. If you have very little knowledge, it is dangerous. A shortage of resources is a big problem. In Ethiopia, we are not detached from our culture and we are not in the western sphere as well. We do not have much information about ourselves and how others are developing. We need to use our own knowledge and resources to uplift ourselves. We need to develop our own models. We do not have to wait for Europeans or Americans. What are the criteria that farmers are using to select varieties?"},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"We use this information as breeders to breed for the preferred traits."}]},{"head":"Questions Answers","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Are you working on released varieties or landraces? Have you considered the country's criteria for releasing varieties? Farmers should not be given landraces because there is a risk of the spread of diseases. When giving seeds to farmers, they are free to grow them the way they like. Are we getting information from small plots managed differently? The information that farmers are giving might be dictated by what they encounter on the ground. Is there any country that has tried this and is successful? We are assuming that seed is a commodity like any other commodity like shoes or dresses."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"We We need to know the communities where we work. What works for them? We are working in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. We will extend to southern Africa as well."}]},{"head":"Gender-responsive organizations","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key messages","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Annet A. Mulema from ILRI presented (https://www.slideshare.net/ILRI/eiar-ilri-annet) on genderresponsive organizatons with the objective of increasing participants' knowledge of their understanding of gender dynamics in their own organizations and beginning thinking of actions to take towards a more gender-responsive organization. The key themes discussed included the reason for gender-responsive organizations, what a gender-responsive organization looks like and a case study was analyzed to determine the key elements of a gender-responsive organization and ways to make an organization gender-responsive."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Participants shared the current situation in their organizations. EIAR recently hired over 100 female staff, and more female staff are being promoted. Another participant shared the dominance of female staff in the top leadership position within the organization and wondered whether this was biased or the right thing to do."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Growing research leadership in AR4D: Experiences from National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in Eastern Central and Southern Africa (ECSA) region"}]},{"head":"Key messages","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Wellington Ekaya ILRI's head of capacity development unit facilitated the session involving the use of visuals to elicit discussions around leadership and team building. Results from previous studies were presented to help participants relate to their experiences. Principles of good leadership (soft skills) were shared and participants were urged to reflect and develop the soft skills further and mainstream them in their work."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Other aspects discussed included strategic partnerships and teamwork/collective responsibility and visioning."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"'Change brings challenges out of our comfort zone and we may not be ready for changes and the consequences and we often are not well trained to manage the changes that we are assigned to manage' he said. He also elaborated on mainstreaming soft skills and that these are skills out of our technical training, such as time management, writing skills, managing change, work ethic, leadership, negotiation, problemsolving, humility and patience, interpersonal skills, communication, team building, agility. He also highlighted on strategic parentship and partnership management."}]},{"head":"Questions and answers","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Questions Answers","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Who is a leader? "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" All these centers were established 50 years ago and they established the locations then. If new centers come up, we can negotiate. Moving a center e.g. IITA from Nigeria to Ethiopia is a political move. We can have the CGIAR headquarters for Africa here. Ethiopia is the second most populated Ethiopia is the second most populated country in Africa and with a high livestock country in Africa and with a high livestock population. But none of the CG centers population. But none of the CG centers has headquarters in Ethiopia. What is the has headquarters in Ethiopia. What is the reason? reason? "},{"text":" Most of the interventions are from research institutions, we validated them with farmers through the action research process. The validation was intensive, and research has shown compatibility amongst the technologies. The five SI domains can help to assess technologies. you develop an SI you develop an SI intervention, limitations might come intervention, limitations might come unless compatibility is defined at a unless compatibility is defined at a prior stage. Some of the components prior stage. Some of the components are very distant. One component are very distant. One component could be aggressive on others? How could be aggressive on others? How do we tell the compatibility of do we tell the compatibility of technologies? Was it measured? technologies? Was it measured? "},{"text":" provide them with a buffet of varieties from different research centers and those produced by farmers and provide different combinations of seeds to farmers. Farmers can compare the newly released varieties with the local one and select what to take up. Farmers my use different practices and soil types may vary among others. This is taken care of by the number of repeated tests in different environments. As you increase the number of counts you increase the precision. Every year we evaluate very many varieties. Every year we evaluate very many varieties. Farmers also get confused. If I incorporate Farmers also get confused. If I incorporate farmers' preference in a breeding protocol, what farmers' preference in a breeding protocol, what is the add-on? is the add-on? "},{"text":" Siboniso Moyo made closing remarks, stressing the need for using facilitators for effective workshop facilitation and find a mentor and mentor other, embrace our role as leaders of research. 'There is need to determine what you want to do and the skills that are needed to be successful , if not you will be weak in all the things around you' she said. She finally concluded by thanking the donors USAID, UK-AID and Bill and Malinda Gets Foundations among others.Annex 1: Workshop program and objective: ILRI/CGIAR and EIAR partnering together -experience sharing workshop, 7 August 2019 Venue: Hiruy Hall, EIAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia To strengthen the partnership between EIAR and ILRI/CGIAR • To share and exchange ILRI/CGIAR's experience with EIAR staff ILRI/CGIAR ILRI/CGIAR No. Name Organization e-mail No. NameOrganizatione-mail 1. Annet A. Mulema ILRI [email protected] 1.Annet A. [email protected] Objectives: Objectives: 2. Yosef Gebrehawaryat Alliance for Bioversity and CIAT [email protected] 2.Yosef GebrehawaryatAlliance for Bioversity and CIAT [email protected] 3. Kindu Mekonnen ILRI [email protected] 3.Kindu [email protected] 4. Million Gebreyes Getnet ILRI [email protected] 4.Million Gebreyes [email protected] Do the research leadership publications have a Program 5. Siboniso Moyo ILRI Yes [email protected] Do the research leadership publications have a Program 5. Siboniso Moyo [email protected] gender perspective? 08:30 6. Tsehay Gashaw Registration ILRI [email protected] gender perspective? 08:30 6. Tsehay [email protected] 09:00 7. Wekllinton Ekaya Welcome remarks -Dr Chillot Yirga, Deputy Director General for ILRI [email protected] 09:00 7. Wekllinton Ekaya Welcome remarks -Dr Chillot Yirga, Deputy Director General for ILRI [email protected] Administration and Capacity Building , EIAR Administration and Capacity Building , EIAR 09:15 Closing remarks Objectives, agenda and participants introduction, Tsehay Gashaw Knowledge Sharing and Web Communications Officer (ILRI) 09:15 Closing remarks Objectives, agenda and participants introduction, Tsehay Gashaw Knowledge Sharing and Web Communications Officer (ILRI) 09:45 ILRI/CGIAR in Ethiopia, Siboniso Moyo, Director General's representative in 09:45ILRI/CGIAR in Ethiopia, Siboniso Moyo, Director General's representative in Ethiopia, ILRI Ethiopia, ILRI 10:00 Coffee Break 10:00Coffee Break 10:30 Sustainable intensification in Agriculture -Presentation and group work Kindu 10:30Sustainable intensification in Agriculture -Presentation and group work Kindu Mekonnen (ILRI) and Million Gebreyes (ILRI) Mekonnen (ILRI) and Million Gebreyes (ILRI) 11:15 Using ICT for participatory variety selection, seed deployment and exchange - 11:15Using ICT for participatory variety selection, seed deployment and exchange - presentation and Q&A (Yosef Gebrehawaryat, Alliance for Bioversity and CIAT) presentation and Q&A (Yosef Gebrehawaryat, Alliance for Bioversity and CIAT) 12:15 Lunch 12:15Lunch 13:15 Gender-responsive organizations -presentation and group work (Annet 13:15Gender-responsive organizations -presentation and group work (Annet Mulema, ILRI) Mulema, ILRI) 14:15 Growing research leadership in AR4D: Experiences from National Agricultural 14:15Growing research leadership in AR4D: Experiences from National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in Eastern Central and Southern Africa (ECSA) region Research Systems (NARS) in Eastern Central and Southern Africa (ECSA) region -facilitated group discussion (Wellington Ekaya, ILRI) -facilitated group discussion (Wellington Ekaya, ILRI) 15:15 Closing remarks 15:15Closing remarks 15:30 Close 15:30Close "}],"sieverID":"ae9703e7-d73d-4732-929a-fac3a86626da","abstract":""}
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The region is considered highly sensitive to environmental changes and rainfall variability (Amisigo et al., 2015), and agriculture is dominated by small-scale, rainfed production, with very few farmers having access to irrigation (less than 1% of agricultural land is irrigated; Bharati et al., 2008). As a consequence, agricultural productivity is very low."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"In Burkina Faso, these conditions are the root cause of widespread rural poverty (Sanfo and Gérard, 2012). To cope with the local challenges, many communities, governments, and NGOs have constructed small-scale reservoirs for irrigation in rural areas. More than 2000 of these structures have been built in the Upper Volta basin (Cecchi et al., 2008). They provide seasonal water storage for smallscale irrigation during the cropping season (Bharati et al., 2008), water for livestock and an opportunity for fish farming (Venot and Cecchi, 2011). They act as a buffer against extreme weather events (Boelee et al., 2013) and are considered instrumental for local food security and livelihoods (Palmieri et al., 2001;Wisser et al., 2010;Poussin et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"However, the performance of many of these reservoirs has fallen short of expectations (Barbier et al., 2011), and many are subject to degradation and poor maintenance (Venot and Hirvonen, 2013). One of the major problems is sedimentation caused by soil erosion within the reservoir catchment, which can damage the irrigation system in the short term (Kondolf et al., 2014) and eventually fill in the reservoir completely, rendering the infrastructure useless (Schmengler, 2011; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2019.01.016 Received 10 February 2018; Received in revised form 10 October 2018; Accepted 22 January 2019 Chitata et al., 2014;Kondolf et al., 2014). Rehabilitation of a reservoir damaged by sedimentation is costly at best, and sometimes not possible at all (Kondolf et al., 2014). Possible intervention points for managing sedimentation are the initial design of the reservoir, management of the agricultural activities and the establishment of structures in the riparian areas (Kondolf et al., 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"Sedimentation is a major investment risk, since it limits the time horizon, over which communities can benefit from a reservoir. This highlights the importance of appropriate management strategies, through which the productive lifetime of these structures can be greatly extended (Palmieri et al., 2001). However, the best way to manage sedimentation is often not directly apparent to communities and governments, due to uncertainty regarding the costs and benefits and the poor understanding of sediment generating processes and their response to management actions (Schleiss et al., 2016). To choose appropriate strategies, many policy-makers, development practitioners and NGOs need scientific support."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"Predicting sediment yield and accumulation through time is very difficult (Morris and Fan, 1998). The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978), later modified to the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) (Renard et al., 1997) has been widely applied for this purpose at the watershed scale (Griffin et al., 1988;Jain et al., 2001), but it suffers from high uncertainty in factors influencing reservoir sedimentation (Salas and Shin, 1999). Limitations in data availability, among other factors, can lead to high uncertainty in model results."},{"index":6,"size":141,"text":"Bayesian frameworks have been used to link model calibration and uncertainty assessment. The most common approaches include the Bayesian Monte Carlo method (Qian et al., 2003), Markov chain Monte Carlo (Kattwinkel and Reichert, 2017) and the generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation (GLUE) pseudo-Bayesian method (Zheng and Keller, 2007), which are used, among other applications, to establish uncertainty bounds for simulated flows (Fonseca et al., 2014). Chaudhary and Hantush (2017) presented a novel approach that combines a Bayesian Monte Carlo simulation with a maximum likelihood estimation. Yet such advanced treatments of uncertainty have largely been restricted to uncertainties about classic hydrological parameters, whereas the success of watershed interventions often depends on a host of additional factors, e.g. in the social and economic domains, which can have a major impact on success or failure of innovations. Comprehensive consideration of all relevant factors is required."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"Here we present the use of decision-centered models to address risks and uncertainties in sedimentation management decisions. The approach embraces complexity, makes recommendations that account for the imperfect state of available knowledge and identifies critical uncertainties that decision-supporting research should address (Luedeling and Shepherd, 2016)."},{"index":8,"size":159,"text":"Decision-centered models can be collaboratively developed between analysts, stakeholders and decision-makers through participatory processes, where all important factors involved in a decision are gathered and synthesized into an ex-ante impact projection model (Luedeling et al., 2015). Tools that determine the value of information can be used to identify the most critical knowledge gaps, from the perspective of a decision-maker aiming to optimize overall desired outcomes (Luedeling and Goehring, 2017). Such modeling techniques can prioritize the knowledge gaps that should most urgently be narrowed in order to reduce uncertainty about the decision or inform the design and prioritization of future research (Hubbard, 2014;Rosenstock et al., 2014;Strong et al., 2014;Luedeling et al., 2015). Collecting additional information on such high-value variables and using this information to update the decision model allows decision-makers to iteratively improve their ability to anticipate decision outcomes and identify the preferred option. When sufficient data is available, the coupling with a watershed hydrological transport model might be considered."},{"index":9,"size":262,"text":"Research into sedimentation control in small reservoirs has largely been based on disciplinary analyses, but it has not yet been able to capture many important uncertainties related to the social and natural systems on which reservoirs depend. We use the specific example of a small reservoir that serves the communities of Lagdwenda in the Northern Volta basin, Tenkodogo district, Bougou province, Burkina Faso, to demonstrate the application of Decision Analysis tools for sustainable management of small reservoirs. Sedimentation is the main operational concern affecting the reservoir. It impacts the reliability of irrigation systems and is a major threat for the resilience of the local communities to all types of climatic shocks. Sedimentation in the reservoir results from a number of known factors, such as, among others, poorly planned grazing of river banks or conversion of natural vegetation. We demonstrate tools that can support the difficult task of deciding which interventions to choose, if any, to mitigate the problems of sedimentation due to the absence of riparian vegetation. We make use of a causal impact pathway model, constructed and parameterized based on the knowledge of local expert stakeholders. We use Monte Carlo simulations to compare the ranges of plausible outcomes for several locally recognized interventions (buffer strips, rock dams, dredging and combinations of these). Such an exercise typically involves synergies and trade-offs between interventions, which have been shown to affect the achievement of environmental targets at large scales (Gao and Bryan, 2017). By evaluating model outputs, we seek to identify the parameters that most affect projected intervention outcomes and to highlight critical uncertainties."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The reservoir of Lagdwenda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The reservoir of Lagdwenda is located in the Northern Volta basin, in Tenkodogo district, Bougou province, Burkina Faso. The site is semiarid, with a dry season from October to mid-May and a rainy season from mid-May to October. Average annual rainfall varies between 800 and 900 mm. The warmest period is from March to May and a relatively cooler period from June to February, with an annual average temperature of 29 °C. The reservoir of Lagdwenda (Fig. 1) had a capacity of 63,000 cubic meters in 2002 (year of construction) and benefited more than 7,000 people in 2005."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The main use of the reservoir is irrigation for rice and vegetable production. Downstream from the reservoir, a formal irrigation scheme has been developed (Fig. 1a). In addition, farmers have established an informal cropping area upstream of the reservoir (Fig. 1a), which violates key recommendations on reservoir protection (Schleiss et al., 2016) and contributes to sedimentation. An important secondary use of the reservoir is water provision for livestock and animals in the riparian area, which also contributes to sedimentation."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"Reservoir size, as well as the types of crops that are cultivated, vary markedly between the wet and the dry season (Fig. 1b), with the reservoir reaching its maximum extent of 55 ha at the end of the wet season, when farmers practice paddy rice cultivation. During the dry season, farmers grow mixed vegetables and some cereals. Sedimentation control interventions are urgently needed and local decision-makers are looking for cost-effective ways to restore reservoir functions and ensure their provision over the long term."}]},{"head":"Overview of the approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"The method proposed in this paper provides a new approach to support practical decisions on agricultural systems in the face of risk and imperfect information. It is inspired by the Applied Information Economics (AIE) approach developed by Hubbard Decision Research (Hubbard, 2014). This decision analysis approach, which has been widely used in business decision support and a number of other contexts (e.g. Luedeling et al., 2015;Wafula et al., 2018), employs participatory processes to explore in detail the consequences of a particular decision. Rather than aiming to precisely predict results for all available decision options, which is usually impossible for even moderately complex systems, AIE attempts to capture the state of knowledge on all processes and input variables, e.g. in the form of probability distributions, and translate these into probabilistic simulations that predict the full range of plausible outcomes. From these outputs, critical knowledge gaps can be derived, measurements can be undertaken to narrow these gaps, and the model can successively be updated until confident decision support is possible."},{"index":2,"size":224,"text":"Building on the AIE approach, we conducted quantitative ex-ante impact analyses for several decision options, using Monte Carlo simulations to account for risks and uncertainties. The methodology combines participatory approaches and modeling techniques. As a first step, a decision-centered model is collaboratively developed between analysts, main stakeholders and decision-makers during a workshop. Model development seeks to capture all important factors for the decision, regardless of whether they can easily be measured or modeled. After synthesizing these variables into a model, the state of knowledge on all variables is quantified through the use of probability distributions. When no information is available on particular variables, values are elicited from participants. Before providing these estimates, participants are subjected to calibration training (Hubbard, 2014) to improve their ability to estimate their state of uncertainty. Such training has been shown to increase people's capacity to provide accurate estimates by reducing errors of judgment (Lichtenstein et al., 1982). All estimates are consolidated into one single probability distribution for each model parameter (Luedeling et al., 2015). In this way, uncertainty is explicitly represented as probabilities of different possible states of the world (Pannell and Glenn, 2000). A description of the process can be found in Hubbard and Millar (2014). Basically, the principle is to combine methods from decision theory, economics and actuarial science in order to improve on human expert judgments."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"In a second step, once numbers are available, the model is run in order to convert probabilistic inputs into probabilistic outputs, which express the range of plausible decision results that can be expected. We then use the expected value of perfect information (EVPI) to determine the most critical knowledge gaps (Oakley et al., 2010). The variables with the highest information value can be interpreted as priorities for measurements to be undertaken to reduce uncertainty around the decision (Rosenstock et al., 2014). The EVPI can thus be used to inform the design and prioritization of future research (Strong et al., 2014) and may help reduce the range of plausible outcomes."}]},{"head":"Analysis protocol 2.3.1. Step 1: selecting experts","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The design of an efficient sedimentation management intervention for the reservoir of Lagdwenda requires assessment of multiple uncertain quantities and risks. Beyond the lack of well-established knowledge on the natural and anthropogenic origins of sedimentation, the issue is very often context-specific. To gather appropriate information, we relied on experts' knowledge about various ways to manage sedimentation and for identifying parameters of interest (such as benefits, costs and risks)."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"Therefore, the first stage of the protocol focuses on the delicate process of selecting the most relevant experts. The selection process started five months before the decision workshop, with a field visit of the area, in which we met the local communities and their representatives. We also participated in a stakeholder workshop organized in the province by the local office of SNV (Netherlands Development Organization). We used the event as an opportunity to establish direct contacts with officers from the ministries of agriculture and environment, as well as local NGOs, and to get a better overview of local experts and relevant stakeholders. We collected names and details of potential participants and worked closely with SNV and the agricultural officer of Tenkodogo Province to maintain connections with the local community representatives."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"The list of potential invitees to a decision analysis workshop was then reduced using selection criteria, e.g. those who have relevant expertise for the specific context of the Lagdwenda reservoir. From these, we selected a group of eight national-level and local experts, who were agricultural specialists, donors, policy-makers and the local communities."}]},{"head":"Step 2: eliciting model structure","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"The process to elicit model structures through experts has several steps. First, experts are invited to participate in a decision workshop. The information collected in the participatory analysis of the decision problem is assembled into a conceptual, graphical model. This is constructed as a decision's impact pathway, with causal relationships based on experts' expectations, gathered during brainstorming sessions. The conceptual model development aims to capture the 'big picture' of the decision by gathering all system dynamics and relevant issues, without taking constraints of measurement into account. To elicit more details, we followed the four-stage procedure (Fig. 2) outlined by Whitney et al. (2018). In the first stage of the procedure the decision about sedimentation control was broken down by the entire group into specific sub-questions. In the second stage, participants were split into working groups to address the different questions both individually and within their groups. We used participatory techniques to avoid problems of variation among experts (Bolger and Wright, 2017). For example, individual outputs were peer-reviewed by the other members of the group, after which the outputs were revised until a consensus was reached. In the third stage the models produced in working groups were unified into consolidated models, one for each of the initial sub-questions. In the fourth stage the consolidated submodels were combined into one single conceptual model. The final conceptual model represented the impact pathway of the management decision that could be formally modeled and simulated."}]},{"head":"Step 3: calibrating experts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Parameters of the model are catalogued and grouped into two categories (cf. Fig. 3). The first category gathers parameters that can be documented by existing academic or technical sources (e.g. databases, reports, literature). The second category consists of all parameters for which no such sources exist and that should be estimated. These data are simply too costly (and could take too much time) to obtain through survey or field studies. To account for this in the Lagdwenda case, we relied on experts' knowledge to assess the value of these parameters, but also the uncertainty around these values. It should be noted here that this methodology can be applied regardless of whether these uncertainties result from lack of theoretically attainable knowledge or parameter uncertainties, such as future rainfall amounts, that cannot currently be known precisely."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Elicitation techniques are a well-recognized form of knowledge generation in situations where sampling efforts would be impractical or too expensive (Samantha et al., 2009), and formal procedures for eliciting and encoding have been adopted and tested for application in conservation science (Martin et al., 2012). Expert knowledge can be valuable for decision support, provided it is combined with explicit consideration of uncertainty (Fred et al., 2017). If uncertainty is ignored, however, expert knowledge can manifest as spurious opinions, which can undermine any well-intentioned decision analysis process (Morgan, 2014). It is therefore crucial to elicit this information rigorously in order to get valid estimates. This requires recognition and correction for several biases that can affect people's judgement (Lichtenstein et al., 1982;Soll and Klayman, 2004). In order to avoid such biases, we train experts in techniques that have been shown to improve people's ability to estimate their own uncertainty and thereby reduce errors of judgement. This is a crucial step in the elicitation process (Fig. 3)."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"All experts are required to undergo 'calibration training', which teaches them how to make estimates as reliably as possible. The training consists of a series of procedures, grounded on research findings in cognitive psychology. Through these procedures participants learn how to assess their state of uncertainty and reduce errors of judgement through exercises that reveal to them their personal biases (overconfidence or underconfidence). To this end, they compare their performance in responding to trivia questions to the correct answers to these questions. Rather than providing 'best guesses', participants are requested to provide two numbers, for which they are 90% sure that the correct answer is between these numbers. Perfectly 'calibrated' estimators should get 90% of their range estimates correct. Once exposed to their biases (most people are initially overconfident), experts are instructed in a set of mental techniques that has been shown to improve people's ability to provide accurate estimates. More information on these procedures can be found in Hubbard (2014)."}]},{"head":"Step 4: estimation and simulation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Calibrated experts were trained to use conscious estimation procedures to provide subjective probability distributions for uncertain variables in the decision model. This is usually done by eliciting confidence intervals (defined by their upper and lower bounds) that have a 90% chance of containing the value of interest. Selecting a distribution is not always easy for experts, who often default to a normal, uniform or triangular distribution. To help with this, common distribution shapes were displayed during the estimation process."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"When multiple experts estimate the same quantities, a subsequent process to reconcile different estimates is needed. A general conclusion from the literature on how to combine the diverse elicited values is that averaging is often a preferred strategy (Aidan et al., 2015). Since we had a small expert group, we were able to aggregate individual assessments by consensus."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"The resulting conceptual model was then reformulated as a set of equations that reflected as much as possible the experts' and analysts' understanding of the decision. This mathematical model was coded as a function in R programming language (R Core Team, 2017). All formulas and scripts are available in the supplementary materials as well as in a separate data repository (Luedeling et al., 2018). The model was then parameterized (either with hard data or \"calibrated\" estimates) and run 10,000 times as a probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation. This number of runs was sufficient for generating smooth outcome distributions for all cases, which was verified by visual inspection. Each run provided one possible outcome. The totality of all model runs generated a probability distribution that illustrates the plausible outcomes given the experts' current state of uncertainty."}]},{"head":"Step 5: sensitivity analysis and refinement of the model","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"The output of a Monte Carlo simulation often directly reveals a clearly preferable option (e.g. a specific intervention in a group of possible interventions). However, the value of expected outcomes can remain unclear, when uncertainty about input values is high. Sensitivity analysis can identify variables that outcome projections respond to. We used Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression analysis, in particular its Variable Importance in the Projection (VIP) metric, for identifying the variables that most affected the decision outcomes projected by the simulation (Wold, 1995;Luedeling and Gassner, 2012). We preferred this method over more systematic sensitivity analysis methods such as the eFAST (Gao et al., 2016) or Morris (Gao and Bryan, 2016) methods, because it determines sensitivity to input variables based on the outputs of the Monte Carlo analysis, rather than requiring computationally expensive additional simulation runs. For Monte Carlo simulation and sensitivity analysis, we used the 'decisionSupport' package (Luedeling and Goehring, 2017) in R."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"In cases where the outputs of the Monte Carlo simulation clearly identify one decision option as preferable over the alternatives, the current state of knowledge is sufficient for issuing a recommendation on how the decision should be taken. When no option emerges as clearly preferable, decision-critical uncertainties can be identified using the Expected Value of Perfect Information (EVPI). The EVPI is the difference between the value of a decision made with perfect information and the value of a decision made with information that is currently available. It can be interpreted as a rational willingness-to-pay to gain access to perfect information. Rather than referring to the absolute value of the decision outcome, the EVPI is concerned only with whether this value is positive or negative. This is the only criterion that matters to a rational decision-maker, and additional information only needs to be collected on variables that could potentially lead to a change in the sign of the decision outcome. EVPI analysis identifies such variables and assigns a value to the possible information gains that could arise from additional research on them."},{"index":3,"size":188,"text":"As a first step in the EVPI computation procedure, we used Spearman's rank correlation test to check whether each of the input variables was correlated with projected outcomes. If this was not the case, the EVPI for such variables was set to zero. For all other variables, the relationship between input and output variables was identified by first sorting the array of output values produced by the Monte Carlo simulation according to values of the respective input variable. The resulting set of values was then smoothed using a second-order low-pass Butterworth filter (Proakis and Manolakis, 1992), with a critical frequency of one divided by one tenth of the number of values in the Monte Carlo output. Smoothing is necessary at this stage to separate the signal emerging from the variable under scrutiny from the substantial noise caused by variation in all other variables, which vary randomly within the Monte Carlo simulation. The EVPI was then calculated as the sum of all outputs with a sign that did not correspond to the sign of the expected value, multiplied by the probability assigned to this outcome (Wafula et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Measurements of input variables with the highest EVPI, which can be used to update the decision model, help to narrow uncertainty about how the decision should be taken. The process is repeated until the best option is determined."}]},{"head":"Chapter 3 results","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The decision model","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Scoping and design","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"In July 2016, eight experts (see acknowledgments) were consulted in a four-day workshop, where they collaborated to produce graphical models of expected decision impact pathways."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The workshop began with framing the decision to be modeled. The overall context was defined in plenary discussions, after which the group of participants was split into working groups. Participants were asked to consider the whole impact pathway and break it down into several stages. As a second step, the team identified the most relevant interventions for sedimentation management. In order to support the process, ten interventions based on recommendations from international experts and lessons learned from other studies (Kondolf and al. 2014), were proposed and debated by the experts (see Supplementary Information). These were intended to stimulate the discussion; experts of the modeling team were free to define other sediment control interventions. Ultimately, they identified three possible interventions:"},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• Dredging along the main stream inlet, allowing water to flow to agricultural fields west of the reservoir and reduce sediment buildup. The intervention consists of dredging 3 m deep for 2 km along the main stream inlet."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"• Building permeable rock dams, also known as 'check dams', along the reservoir's tributaries, reducing flow velocities and the erosive potential of water. These are low dams of loose stone retained by mesh wire that prevent large quantities of sediment from being deposited in the reservoir. These would be constructed every 5 km along the stream network upstream of the reservoir, a spacing that has frequently been used for similar interventions in this region."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"• A buffer protection scheme around the reservoir and stream inlets, preventing sedimentation from agriculture around the reservoir and reducing deposits of sediments coming from the surrounding catchment. The protection is composed of 3 buffer strips of 75-100 m each. The first strip is made of stone barriers/contour bounding with stabilizing plants (grasses). The second strip consists of vegetables mixed with shrubs for firewood. The third zone is a mix of crops with fruit trees."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"Graphic representations of all interventions are shown in Fig. 4. We carried out comprehensive investigations of costs, benefits and risks associated with each intervention. Causal relationships between variables were taken into account."}]},{"head":"Benefits, costs and trade-offs","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Formally, we defined a benefit as an economic surplus (e.g. net revenue from agricultural production) generated by an intervention (or a combination of intervention options) in comparison to the baseline case (current situation). Broadly speaking, water for irrigation and viability of the irrigation water supply system were regarded as the main benefits of sedimentation control."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Water for irrigation -Because sediments accumulate in the reservoir, the dam gradually loses its capacity to store water. We modeled the avoided decline in irrigable area (area in both upstream and downstream irrigation schemes that can be irrigated given the water stock in the reservoir) as a benefit for the different scenarios."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Viability of the irrigation water supply system -The main irrigation scheme of Lagdwenda is located downstream from the dam. Water supply is achieved through a system of pipes underneath the dam's barrier. Sediments regularly disrupt the functioning of this system, blocking the pipes and preventing water from flowing into the agricultural area. Interventions that reduce sedimentation prevent the obstruction of irrigation pipes that supply this downstream irrigation scheme."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Changes in land use -Trade-offs were expected among land uses when implementing the buffer intervention. In the current situation (baseline case), communities of Lagdwenda grow rice and vegetables in an informal irrigation scheme, located upstream close to the shore of the reservoir, near the main inlet. The buffer protection scheme intervention consists of three buffer strips of 75-100 m each. This would result in taking this area out of cultivation. On the other hand, two buffers of the scheme are expected to be partially cultivated (vegetables, fruits and cereals)."}]},{"head":"Risks and uncertainties","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The model seeks to take into account all risks (either natural or anthropogenic) that may impact the project, along its different stages. To this end, two categories of risks were considered: ex-ante risks and ex-post risks."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Ex-ante risks impact the probability that an intervention is completed, which affects intervention costs. When the project is implemented, the full cost of the intervention applies, while a reduced, sunk cost applies otherwise. We considered three ex-ante risks: the lack of community involvement, the lack of institutional involvement and the lack of donor involvement."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Ex-post risks impact the effectiveness of the intervention, which affects the benefits. Ex-post risks can be natural, social or technical. We considered three ex-post risks: natural hazards, poor maintenance and poor design."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Additional risk factors, especially risks arising from knowledge limitations, are implicitly captured by the model's probabilistic inputs. For instance, the risk of changes to the future sediment load of the inlet streams due to climate change was not explicitly expressed but covered by experts' providing wide confidence intervals for future sedimentation rates."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"Consideration of risks and uncertainties enables a risk-adjusted costbenefit analysis to inform decision-making. The decision model that emerged integrates all benefits, costs and risks into estimates of the Net Present Value of each option (Fig. 5)."}]},{"head":"Decision model code","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"We translated information on costs, benefits and risks obtained from •"},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Step 1: Specification of input variables. Based on the conceptual model (Fig. 5), we stated the appropriate input information to run the model, either estimated by the experts or computer-generated, as well as the output results (Fig. 6). All input variables were estimated by experts except some general, rather specific parameters such as the project time horizon, the coefficient of variation or the discount factor (supplementary material, section 1.4). Time-series of intermediate variables were generated from these input parameters in order to introduce variability in estimates and randomness in risk realization. Final outputs of Monte Carlo simulation were obtained using the decisonSupport package for R (see step 3 for details on process functions)."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"•"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Step 2: Definition of assumptions."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"We made several assumptions regarding costs, land management, representation of the sedimentation processes and intervention effectiveness."},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"-Total costs for an intervention depend on the realization of ex-ante risks, as well as the type of intervention itself. Generally, if an exante risk occurs, the project is not implemented and only study costs apply. Specifically, some ex-ante risks could be irrelevant (e.g. risk of non-involvement of donors for dredging) and are not considered in that case (supplementary material, section 2.1.1). -Crop land allocation in the irrigation scheme downstream is assumed to remain unchanged following an intervention. Potential behavioral adjustments by farmers (e.g. new cropping choice in reaction to a change in the water resource available) are not considered."},{"index":7,"size":213,"text":"-The effect of sedimentation on water storage capacity is modeled as a decline in irrigable area over time. The total irrigable area (area that can be irrigated given the water stock in the reservoir) follows a sigmoid function. It is likely to be the largest in the first two years, before it gradually decreases until half of the area is able to receive irrigation water (supplementary material, section 2.3.5). -The effect of sedimentation on the functioning of the irrigation system is modeled as a reduction in the irrigated area due to an obstruction of pipes by sediments that prevent the scheme from being watered. As for the water storage, the decline in the irrigated area follows a sigmoid function: blockages are likely to be rare for a few years but gradually become more frequent until the irrigation pipes are no longer operational (supplementary material, section 2.3.6). -Interventions mitigate the sedimentation effects both regarding the water storage capacity and the functioning of the irrigation system. Formally, the impact of an intervention is modeled as delays in the decrease of the reservoir capacity to store water or in the decline of the irrigated area because of clogged pipes, as well as in the chance of the pipes being cleared (supplementary material, section 2.3.5 and 2.3.6)."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"•"},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"Step 3: Selection of functional specifications."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"As introduced in Fig. 6, we used several functions from the R deci-sionSupport package (Luedeling and Goehring, 2017)."},{"index":11,"size":208,"text":"-The chance_event() function was used for random simulation of exante risks as impacts on the implementation of interventions and of ex-post risks as impacts on the benefits (supplementary material, section 2.1) -The value varier vv() function was used to introduce variation in time-series of variables that are assumed to vary over time. The function was applied to ex-ante risks and for simulation of common random draws for all intervention model runs (supplementary material, section 2.2) -The Gompertz_yield() function was used to simulate the loss in water storage capacity (\"irrigable area\"), the loss of irrigated area (because of the obstruction of pipes), as well as the delays in these two sedimentation outcomes as a result of the implementation of an intervention. It was also applied for other minor benefits such as mitigation of the decline in fish in the reservoir (supplementary material, sections 2.3.5 and 2.3.6). -The discount() function was used to calculate the net present value, which is the sum of the discounted values of the time series of net benefits (supplementary material, sections 2.3.6.1). -The decisionSupport() function was used to perform the welfare decision analysis via a Monte Carlo simulation from input variables and to analyze the value of information from these variables (supplementary material, sections 3.1)."},{"index":12,"size":47,"text":"Step 4: Validation of the model. Acceptance of the model assumptions, process flow, choice of specifications and input parameters implies a validation of the decision analysts' model. To the extent possible, feedback on the emerging code was elicited from the experts involved in building the conceptual model."},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"The complete model code, as well as a detailed explanation of its components can be found in the supplementary materials."}]},{"head":"Simulation results","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Projected intervention outcomes and synergies","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Net Present Values projected for the various options varied widely (Fig. 7), reflecting high uncertainty about many input variables. However, some indications about overall risks and expected benefit levels could be obtained. All intervention options, and all their combinations, had positive expected values, indicating that all options promised greater benefits than inaction, though all options also incurred a risk of negative net outcomes."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Among single interventions, dredging appeared to have the lowest potential for benefits, but also the lowest risk of negative outcomes, followed by rock dams (Fig. 7). Due to relatively high up-front costs, buffer strips had the greatest potential for net losses, but they also promised the highest returns among the three options. An intervention that combines all three options looks most promising, in terms of expected value, risk of losses and potential returns."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"A careful examination of the simulation values (Table 1) provides more detailed insights. Even though dredging alone was found to be a viable low risk/low return option, it was inferior in all respects (all NPV quantiles, as well as the risk of losses) to an intervention that combined dredging with rock dams. A similar picture emerged for rock dams implemented in isolation, which promised lower returns and greater risks than a combination of rock dams and dredging. Both rock dams and dredging implemented alone can thus be excluded as candidates for the optimal sediment management strategy, regardless of the decisionmaker's perception of risk. However, combining interventions, rather than implementing only single ones, may generate synergies and thus promise greater benefits and lower risks than single interventions (Table 1)."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"A decision maker's perception of an investment depends both on its risk/return characteristics and on the investor's degree of risk aversion. The selection of an optimal intervention is therefore related to the preferences of the decision-maker. The exception to this rule is when an option is strongly dominant in all aspects, but this does not apply here. Among all intervention options, the combination of dredging and buffer strips and the combination of all three options appear to be most efficient. Associating dredging and buffer strips looks slightly less risky, but the combination of the three options promises a higher median return, and a greater expected value. The group of experts also preferred this option. Therefore, we will only present results for this option below."}]},{"head":"Projected intervention outcomes and value of information","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Our decision analysis approach produces two outputs related to the return on investmentthe probability distribution for the net present value (NPV) and the annual cash flow (Fig. 8a and b). We also provide information on the most influential uncertainties regarding the overall magnitude of the NPVthe VIP statistic of Partial Least Squares (PLS) regressionand regarding the emerging decision recommendationthe EVPI. These outputs are presented for the combined intervention consisting of dredging, rock dams and buffer strips (Fig. 8)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Monte Carlo simulation revealed a wide range of plausible outcomes for the intervention's NPV. Positive outcomes are likely (80.0%), but Fig. 7. Distributions of projected outcomes of decisions to implement dredging, rock dams and buffer scheme interventions, as well as all their combinations, to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso."}]},{"head":"Table 1","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Lower and upper bounds of 90% confidence intervals (i.e. 5% and 95% quantiles), median and mean (in USD) or the NPV distribution for different combinations of reservoir protection interventions and probability of loss (in USD) for the different interventions to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso. results also showed a significant chance of loss (20.0%). The total net present value (over 30 years) is likely to be between −64 thousand and 338 thousand USD (the 5th and 95th percentiles of the distribution), with a mean value of 102 thousand USD (Fig. 8a)."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The cash flow analysis illustrated that substantial initial investments are needed (Fig. 8b) for implementing the intervention. Accordingly, the expected cash flow in year 1 was negative, with a 90% confidence interval between −300 and −53 thousand USD. From year three, cash flow analysis shows predominantly positive annual net revenue prospects, ranging between −5 and 24 thousand USD. The cash flow stabilized around its highest level (median of 17 thousand USD) towards the end of the time series, emphasizing the viability of this intervention as an effective long-term strategy. Annual benefits appeared quite predictable, with a fairly narrow distribution and little variation over time."}]},{"head":"Important uncertainties","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The sensitivity analysis (implemented by PLS regression) indicated that a number of input variables had important effects on the NPV (Fig. 8c). A total of 15 variables had VIP scores exceeding 0.8a threshold that is often interpreted as signifying importance (Eriksson et al., 2001). The most influential variable was the profit on a ton of vegetables in the downstream irrigation scheme, followed by the discount rate (Fig. 8c)."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"The expected value of perfect information (EVPI) can be expressed in monetary terms as the decision-maker's willingness to pay to gain access to perfect information (Hubbard, 2014). Decision analysis typically reveals that the decision recommendation can only be influenced by a very small number of uncertain variables, with many others affecting the projected NPV, but not its sign (e.g. Wafula et al., 2018). This, however, is the only important criterion to a decision-maker choosing the optimal option. In the present case, only a single variablethe profitability of vegetable production in the downstream irrigation schemehad a non-zero EVPI (Fig. 8d). Even for this variable, the EVPI was only around 1,100 USD, which is low compared to the overall value of the intervention. This implies that even with the initial state of knowledge, a relatively confident recommendation can be made, but that a small investment in obtaining more information on the economics of vegetable production downstream from the reservoir would be justified by increasing certainty about the decision."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Here we have demonstrated the application of Decision Analysis techniques to support practical decisions in the face of risk and uncertainty. The approach provides customized analysis for a particular decision context (Howard and Abbas, 2016). Although the approach is widely applicable to other decision contexts, a different set of variables would likely emerge as important for decison models of other reservoirs. In the case of Lagdwenda, the profit per ton of vegetable and the yields of the different crops offered the most critical information to inform decision making. This information, especially concerning yields, is highly context specific."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"In comparison with the physical empirical models that are commonly used to evaluate intervention impacts on sedimentation, which are usually deterministic and restricted to consideration of physical system dimensions (Uusitalo et al., 2015), our modeling approach has two major advantages: First, it allows doing justice to the considerable importance of political and social factors that are often major determinants of intervention impacts (Holzkämper et al., 2012). Second, it recognizes that uncertainty is present at every step of an environmental management analysis (Refsgaard et al., 2007), allowing incorporation of such uncertainties into probabilistic models."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The extent to which a strategy is preferred over another depends on many factors, including both its costs (investments, implementation) and its benefits, which in the case of Lagdwenda are mainly the value of the agricultural output over a period of time (in our case 30 years). Costs are generally based on technical information (such that can be provided by engineers), whereas benefits depend on a number of uncertain agricultural and economic factors (e.g. profit per ha, discount rate). The use of the holistic modeling techniques described here can help decision-makers consider the uncertainties instead of making decisions based only on the available technical information."},{"index":4,"size":181,"text":"Despite being considered the most effective technical solution to prevent sedimentation (Kondolf et al., 2014;Palmieri et al., 2001;Schmengler, 2011), buffer strips were not the dominant option, mainly because of the high initial costs of implementation. This illustrates the discrepancy between the technical optimum and the best economic option for solving a problem. All intervention options, and all their combinations had positive expected values, indicating that all options promised greater benefits than inaction, though all options also incurred a risk of negative net outcomes. In the context of Lagdwenda, sedimentation can be controlled most effectively when several interventions are implemented simultaneously. Synergies are generated through the interactions of the different interventions, and the extra costs are more than offset by the benefits of the reduction in sedimentation. This is explained by the non-linear impacts of siltation on farmers' irrigation system. Sediments that originate from erosion of the reservoir shores and from the main inlets interact with each other and result in amplified effects (e.g. threshold effects in the clogging of irrigation pipes, which makes them inoperable after a certain amount of sedimentation."},{"index":5,"size":165,"text":"Assessment of the Value of Information was useful in identifying and addressing critical uncertainties in the model. The EVPI helps to focus research and decrease overall uncertainty about which decision option to choose. This capability makes the EVPI a useful addition to a wide range of decision processes. In the case of Lagdwenda, uncertainties arise predominantly regarding the value of benefits (Fig. 8). The two most important uncertainties are the profit per ton of vegetables (with a positive information value) and the discount rate. Many of the important parameters, such as yield and profit, depend mainly on exogenous factors, e.g. price, macroeconomic policy and evolution of inflation. Consequently, it could be challenging (or impossible) to gather reliable information on them, especially for a longer time horizon such as the one used in this model. The uncertainties exposed by the VIP analysis may offer insights into where decision makers may want to conduct further technical research, but such a decision should take external constraints into account."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"Through the use of the EVPI analysis, we were able to determine decision-critical uncertainties, the reduction of which could help to narrow uncertainty about how the decision should be taken. EVPI (Fig. 8d) values are low, and only the profit per ton of vegetables has a non-zero value. This means that uncertainty could be reduced by taking measurements on the profits from crop production. However, this may not even be necessary, since the low EVPI and the low chance of loss (20%) indicate that the combined intervention should be preferred over inaction. This demonstrates how decision-supporting research does not have to eliminate all uncertainty, but can focus on a few key pieces of information."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Sedimentation in Lagdwenda's reservoir impacts the reliability of irrigation and thereby the livelihoods of local people, a problem that is common for small-scale reservoirs in the Upper Volta. This problem requires a sediment management strategy that is appropriate to the local context. Development of such a strategy is hindered by data scarcity for many important variables. Decision analysis approaches allow comprehensive ex-ante assessment of the effectiveness of intervention options through collaborative development of impact pathway models. Data limitations are addressed through probabilistic simulation, for which all variables are expressed as probability distributions, and decision-critical knowledge gaps are highlighted by sensitivity analysis and Value of Information analysis."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"A combination of all three candidate interventionsdredging, rock dams and buffer stripsemerged as the most effective management strategy, with a relatively low chance of losses and long-lasting net benefits for local communities. The magnitude of net benefits depended on several uncertain variables, but only a single variablethe profitability of vegetable production in the downstream irrigation schemehad positive information value. In consequence, a relatively confident recommendation can be provided to decision-makers, even in the face of multiple uncertainties. In addition to this, the analysis revealed that most of the residual uncertainty about whether the intervention is worth doing can be addressed through limited measurements on just one variable, which is probably quite easy to measure."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Coupling local knowledge systems with rigorous simulation techniques, our methodology provides actionable information for robust decision-making. The model is grounded on the knowledge of local experts and stakeholders who provided a unique understanding of the socio-ecological system that could not have been obtained with traditional disciplinary approaches."}]},{"head":"Declaration of interest","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"None."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Lagdwenda reservoir in the Northern Volta basin of Burkina Faso. a. Map of the reservoir. The blue polygon at the bottom center represents the downstream irrigation scheme, while the top red polygon represents the upstream cropping area. b. Variation in reservoir surface area. Dark blue indicates year-round water (April 2016, 18 ha), light blue indicates low-wet season water (January 2016, 34 ha), and the outer blue layer indicates high wet-season water (October 2015, 55 ha). Data from Landsat 8 (MNDWI). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Diagram of a four-stage protocol for eliciting expert knowledge when designing a decision model of different interventions to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Diagram of the process of expert calibration training for model parameter estimation when parameterizing a decision model of different interventions to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Intervention options to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso, co-designed by workshop participants: a. dredging for 2 km along the main stream inlet to a depth of 3 m; b. low dams of loose stone retained by mesh wire every 5 km along the stream network upstream of the reservoir; c. three buffer strips of 75-100 m each. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Diagram of the overall model structure of interventions to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso. NPV is the Net Present Value for all interventions. D/S = downstream; U/S = upstream. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. Input-Output diagram of the simulation model of decisions to implement dredging, rock dams and buffer scheme interventions, as well as all their combinations, to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso. Process functions are detailed in Step 3. "},{"text":"Fig. 8 . Fig. 8. Outputs of a Monte Carlo simulation (with 10,000 model runs) for ex-ante analysis of the decision to implement an intervention consisting of dredging, rock dams and a buffer scheme to reduce sedimentation in the Lagdwenda reservoir in Burkina Faso. a) projected distribution of net present value (NPV) for the intervention (with 100%, 90%, 50% and 10% confidence intervals shown by shades of purple); b) probability distribution of annual cash flow; c) sensitivity of projected outcomes to uncertain input variables, quantified by the VIP statistic of PLS regression (colors indicate positive (green) and negative (red) input/output relationships); d) Expected Value of Perfect Information (EVPI) for all variables with non-zero EVPI (only one variable in this case). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"4b786839-c174-43a4-a18a-e5ffe292f9c2","abstract":"In the arid areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, perennial challenges of water scarcity and food insecurity are exacerbated by climate change and variability. The development of robust strategies to cope with the region's climatic challenges requires thorough consideration of uncertainty and risk in decision making. We demonstrate the use of probabilistic decision analysis to compare intervention options to prevent reservoir sedimentation in Burkina Faso. To illustrate this approach, we developed a causal impact pathway model based on the local knowledge of expert stakeholders. Input parameters were described by probability distributions derived from estimated confidence intervals. The model was run in a Monte Carlo simulation to generate the range of plausible decision outcomes, quantified as the net present value and the annual cash flow. We used Partial Least Squares regression analysis to identify the parameters that most affected projected intervention outcomes and we computed the Expected Value of Perfect Information (EVPI) to highlight critical uncertainties. Numerical results show that the preferred intervention to secure agricultural production is a combination of dredging, rock dams and a buffer scheme around the reservoir. The EVPI calculation reveals an information value for the profit per ton of vegetables, indicating that more information on this variable would be useful for supporting the decision. However, without the need for follow-up analysis, the results show high probability of benefits given the combined interventions, which, given the current state of information, should be preferred over inaction."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"08d7ec14851964fc81127f558b84b1b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9d50b841-879c-417e-8b75-20bbde20be48/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Bridging the Gap: Translating Livestock Research Knowledge into Action for Sustainable Development -Report of a Workshop, Nairobi, 16-17 November 2006","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background and context","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The workshop arose following a series of meetings and discussions with Bill Clark and Nancy Dickson of the Kennedy School of Governance, Harvard University -Robin meeting them in 2005, Shirley in early 2006 and deciding to explore how to work together given potential interests and synergies in the area of knowledge management and use for sustainable development. The subsequent phone and email discussions involving Robin, Patti, Dannie and Shirley (Ranjitha, Tom and Julius joined for one telecom) from ILRI to identify appropriate workshop goals, participants, timing and projects. The workshop was funded using a combination of funds from the Harvard group and T5 USAID linkage funds."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"In identifying the workshop focus, we needed to choose between a narrow focus on boundary partners, or a broader set of issues on knowledge to action, using a case study format that would give us a reasonable number of people who have been directly working on such issues in a diverse set of environments, and then use a cross cutting approach to identify common issues and questions to explore further. Having chosen the latter approach, we then needed to identify the appropriate projects and participants. From a long list of 8 projects, we selected 4 that we felt could be the richest and that had been on going for some time (and therefore presented the opportunity to reflect on what had been learnt and not what we hoped might happen in the future!). The projects chosen were:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Fodder innovations for small holders in India (Prasad Vishnubhotla, Dannie Romney)"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Reto-o-Reto project: Better policy and management options for pastoral lands (Robin Reid, Mohamed Said, Dickson Kaelo, Ogeli Makui)"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Poverty mapping (Patti Kristjanson, Julius Nyangaga, Paul Okwi)"},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Preventing and containing trypanocide resistance in the cotton zone of West Africa (Tom Randolph, Delia Grace, Hippolyte Affognon) Ranjitha (from the project Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers) participated, but did not present a case study because the project is relatively new."}]},{"head":"Workshop format","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The workshop was structured so that following an overview presentation by Bill, each of the four teams presented a case studyusing a number of questions provided by the Harvard team and based on their previous experience from diverse projects. Each case study was discussed and then participants all contributed ideas on what they saw as the main cross cutting issues that would warrant further discussion. These were clustered into two main groups and each of these then discussed further. The workshop concluded with identifying next steps, and concretizing a number of these for short term action. In summary, the workshop aimed to:"},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"1) Familiarize workshop participants with the teams and projects that participants have experience working with; 2) Discuss what makes some teams/projects work better than others in linking knowledge with action; and 3) Explore some characteristics of successful teams/projects. \"Users\" were defined as requiring a \"resource allocation.\" These are people whose beliefs, behaviors, convictions, and/or resources need to be changed. How can we map who those users are and figure out how to engage them? In the process of problem definition the problem will frequently get reframed. Researchers discover that their research is irrelevant and \"use a hammer to solve a problem.\" This effort encourages researchers to consider other ways to solve problems. Sometimes problems have to do with power and there's not much that a scientist can do to solve the problem."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Bringing science to bear on a problem may require that scientists take a more activist role so that we're not just increasing the power differentials, e.g., moving from being information providers to scientists entering the process and being active participants in the negotiation process. This acknowledges that conventional science can unintentionally devalue other kinds of knowledge. Where does science study problems rather than solve them? We need to assess the factors that affect the vulnerability of particular places. Curiosity-driven research is not sufficient to connect knowledge with action. Reframing an issue to solve a particular problem for a particular user or group of users is important. This makes scientists accountable to the users and allows scientists to build capacity to answer other questions in the future."}]},{"head":"Research management/Study issues but solve problems","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Are there alternative sources of basic research to that provided by the CG centers? What the CG centers can uniquely contribute is collaborative, use-driven fundamental research in which engagement of the community is key to the research agenda. Boundary work operates between two or more groups that work to different standards and objectives (e.g., basic scientists evaluated by peers v. action people who are validated by a political process). Boundary objects are joint creations at the interface of communities (e.g., models, maps, assessments, contracts, posters)."}]},{"head":"Program organization","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The decision-support system/ Systems perspective","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"To what extent is the decision support system developed by your program an end-to-end system? What are its discrete elements (e.g., a weather forecast; an impact model converting climate forecasts into yield forecasts required by decision makers; a discussion roundtable' or 'feedback workshops')? Which were the hardest elements to put in place? Why? What changes in research, decision-making, or both have occurred as a result of the system?"},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"Many efforts to link knowledge with action collapse because they locate their activities only in one part of the knowledge to action or research to development continuum. They neglect links in the hope that someone else will provide those links. Very often, especially where there is public goods production where there isn't firm demand many good ideas die in the \"Valley of Death\" e.g., in energy innovations there is a gap between funding demonstration projects and getting the innovation into the field. CG incentives tell you \"get impact\" while the other part of the system tell you to keep focused on the \"front end of the chain\" and you'll get in trouble if you scale-up. There is a fundamental contradiction between these two assertions. The challenge is where, by suitable pairing of partners, can you get specialization and have conviction that the partner will deliver the goods. In CG there is a triple jeopardy because of the early success in the Green Revolution when there was significant investment in NARS and the extension system. In the commodities area there was immediate success. There is an assumption that this would happen in noncommodities as well."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"How can we read the signs of the Valley of Death? Perhaps there is a need for an outside advisory group of people who aren't vested. Other professional communities, e.g., diplomatic and military corps, have taught contextualized story-telling."}]},{"head":"Learning orientation/Safe places","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Did your research have an expressly experimental orientation? How did it identify which risks to take? How did it identify success and failure? How did it engage outside evaluators to help it reflect on its own experience? What are the most important lessons you have learned regarding pitfalls to be avoided, or approaches to be followed in the future?"},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Providing safe places to experiment is difficult for management. Those who do something different will overtly be trying to change the power imbalance which can be unpopular. We have found organizational creativity in groups that experiment and push the limits, e.g., in the USA the Office of Naval Research.  Preventing and containing trypanocide resistance in the cotton zone of West Africa (Tom Randolph, Delia Grace, Hippolyte Affognon)"}]},{"head":"Cross-Cutting Issues","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Participants submitted candidate cross-cutting topics for discussion (verbatim list of these is on website); these were then clustered around two main issues which were further discussed. The two areas were: 1) Linking knowledge with action as a systems perspective; and 2) Boundary work/scaling-up results."}]},{"head":"Linking knowledge with action as a systems perspective","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"This topic covered a cluster of candidate topics that included: 1. Box 1. Linking knowledge to actionnarrative summary. Successful programs for linking knowledge with action require thinking in terms of end-to-end, integrated systems that connect basic scientific predictions or observations through several steps to outputs directly relevant for decision making, rather than hoping all the pieces will come together. For example, the International Agricultural Research System learned there was a need to foster national research capacity and facilitated extension services linked to International Agriculture Research Centers (IARCs). There is a need to forge \"supply chain\" perspectives on the design of systems that assure no missing or mismatched links between creation and ultimate use of knowledge."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The Research-Development continuum is a false dichotomy and 25 years out of date. We need to move beyond basic v. applied research to think about use-inspired basic research or fundamental research. What knowledge would be needed to integrate disciplinary knowledge? The ILRI Science Council should recognize that research in \"Pasteur's quadrant\" is real research. It gets its vitality from being precisely in the middle of those two worlds. This is why the global public goods argument is relevant."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"The \"Dynamics of Sustainability Science\" figure shows that little progress is made by moving from current knowledge to inventing a technology as if you weren't working through existing knowledge. Sustainability science is science harnessed for environment and development. It is engaged science responding to real problems."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Discussion focused around the following topics:"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"The importance of recognizing the space one is located in on the knowledge-action continuum and need to be aware of the tension from the start."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"The innovation systems approach is not uni-directional, it is an iterative process that incorporates feedback."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"There is a need for an agreed upon vocabulary to give this research legitimacy and to foster dialogue with those unfamiliar with some of the terms."},{"index":8,"size":92,"text":"1 Mode 2 science was referred to by ILRI Director Carlos Seré, \"The old paradigm of scientific discovery ('Mode 1') characterized by the hegemony of disciplinary science, with its strong sense of an internal hierarchy between the disciplines and driven by the autonomy of scientists and their host institutions, the universities, [is] being supersededalthough not replaced-by a new paradigm of knowledge production ('Mode 2') which [is] socially distributed, applicationoriented, trans-disciplinary and subject to multiple accountabilities.\" (Nowotny, Helga, Peter Scott, Michael Gibbons. Mode 2 Revisited: The New Production of Knowledge. Minerva 41: 179-194."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"There is a need for a toolbox/checklist for thinking about innovation systems/systems approach and what methods are available."},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"There is a need for more reflective learning on what works best to help inform future efforts."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"Research needs to be more effective, efficient, and legitimized."},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"We need to recognize the dynamic aspect of moving back and forth between the application and knowledge continuum."},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"There is a need for (best) practices for operating in the Pasteur quadrant (use-driven basic research)."},{"index":14,"size":24,"text":"The knowledge-action continuum perspective should be dropped and replaced with the \"Dynamics of Sustainability Science\" framework to change mindsets to identify the \"sweet spot.\""},{"index":15,"size":32,"text":"There is a need for prioritization of use-inspired basic research to demonstrate the usefulness or research to society. The importance of \"dialogues\" to understand \"process\" and capture and share lessons was recognized."},{"index":16,"size":14,"text":"Boundary spanning needs to be integrated with outcome mapping for a results-based management framework."}]},{"head":"Boundary work / Scaling up (replicability of research)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Participants submitted candidate cross-cutting topics for discussion that covered the following:"},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"-Where and how to institutionalize: person, organization, function \"Boundary work\" is building the \"soft stuff\". \"Soft stuff/building trust and confidence\": Need to lay the groundwork/develop trust so that multiple audiences will adopt innovation/technology/product later. The influence of the product is significantly affected by the process that generated it. \"Boundary object\" is something that the knowledge community and action community have something to say about (e.g., Tryps calendar, Mara wildlife census, RUPES 2 drawing, Reto fence map)."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Power asymmetries: Recognize that knowledge can be used as an advocacy tool. If trying to craft knowledge that both sides defer to in a negotiation the facilitator needs to remain neutral, (e.g., RUPES contract for environmental servicees)."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Issue cycle: A \"useful\" boundary object changes through time as the issue matures. Boundary objects also develop and evolve."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Tools for effective collection action (e.g., rules of the game, Constitution)."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"Scaling-up: Recognize that there will continue to be unmet demand of the development community and large amounts of unused existing knowledge."}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The following topics were suggested as areas that participants would like to pursue. ** Denotes topics that participants agreed to pursue immediately, whilst recognizing that many of these aspects may also feed in (directly or indirectly) to the development of the new unit Innovation Works under Patti's leadership."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"-ILRI support system for linking K with A -Wider sharing of group findings -Development of a framework for systematic study and comparison of on-going projects -** Create a Knowledge bankbeginning with material from this workshop being posted together on website -Capacity building in boundary spanning/negotiation (ILRI/partners) -Spanner in the works -Role of Innovation and Learning Unit at ILRI -Create a way for interaction of community (internal and external to ILRI) -Develop new projects using approach -Create a community of practice -Identify appropriate expertise to draw upon -Contextualizing vis a vis methods -How to take out of ILRI -get away from \"continuum\" concept -Interaction with universities -Reconciling language/concepts of different frameworks "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Knowledge Systems for Sustainable Development: Mobilizing R&D for decision making Bill Clark gave an overview of the Knowledge Systems for Sustainable Development project which is a broad, multi-institutional effort to improve human well-being. We hear dissatisfaction from researchers that much of what is known is not getting into practice. The practitioner community complains that it is not getting the focused attention of the science, technology and innovation communities. The goal of the KSSD project is to map the gap between knowledge and action and explain why that gap persists. We begin by focusing on the relatively small number of cases where the gap has been substantially closed. Workshop program Workshop program 1. Overview of Knowledge Systems for Sustainable Development 1. Overview of Knowledge Systems for Sustainable Development 2. Case study presentations and discussions 2. Case study presentations and discussions 3. Identification and discussion of cross cutting issues 3. Identification and discussion of cross cutting issues 4. Next steps 4. Next steps 1 This has included reviewing the 1 This has included reviewing the innovation systems literature. Comparative analysis allows us to look across sectors (e.g., innovation systems literature. Comparative analysis allows us to look across sectors (e.g., agriculture, public health, computer hardware technology, manufacturing (green chemistry), agriculture, public health, computer hardware technology, manufacturing (green chemistry), military R&D) to match the needs of decision makers with technology and knowledge needed to military R&D) to match the needs of decision makers with technology and knowledge needed to narrow the gap. narrow the gap. Our research looks at whether there is any set of general guidelines or rules of thumb that we can Our research looks at whether there is any set of general guidelines or rules of thumb that we can use to learn from so that everyone doesn't have to make the same mistakes. We begin by looking use to learn from so that everyone doesn't have to make the same mistakes. We begin by looking at the following, which were also used as a framework for the case study presentations: at the following, which were also used as a framework for the case study presentations: 1. Problem definition/need to support user-producer interactions 1. Problem definition/need to support user-producer interactions 2. Research management/ Study issues but solve problems 2. Research management/ Study issues but solve problems 3. Program organization/ Fostering boundary spanning activities 3. Program organization/ Fostering boundary spanning activities 4. Decision-support systems/Systems perspective 4. Decision-support systems/Systems perspective 5. Learning orientation/Safe places 5. Learning orientation/Safe places 6 Continuity and flexibility/Adaptive management 6 Continuity and flexibility/Adaptive management 7. Asymmetry of power 7. Asymmetry of power 1 1 "},{"text":".1 Problem definition/Need to support user-producer interactions What is the problem to be solved by your research? How -if at all -did the development of the What is the problem to be solved by your research? How -if at all -did the development of the research provide for a user-driven dialogue between scientists and decision makers to shape research provide for a user-driven dialogue between scientists and decision makers to shape problem definition? How --if at all --did the ultimate problem definition differ from initial problem definition? How --if at all --did the ultimate problem definition differ from initial formulation by scientists and decision makers, respectively? formulation by scientists and decision makers, respectively? "},{"text":"/fostering boundary spanning activities Did your research involve a boundary spanning function or organization? If not, how did you organize the dialogue between producers and users of research knowledge? If so, where and how was the boundary organization or function created? What did it do? To what extent was it accountable to both users and producers for achieving its goals?Conducting solution-oriented research with people in the user community doesn't happen by accident. It takes time and effort to get access to the user community. This work creates a brokering function to do the boundary-spanning work that is at the center of successful work. Brokering the dialogue is not the same as what a communication officer does. Boundary spanners are neither captured by the decisionmakers nor are they science-advocates for the community they work in. Boundary spanners are part of institutions that build accountability systems that credit this work. Boundary spanning work and institutions and processes that support it can structure reward and incentive systems differently and build skills in how to do it better. "},{"text":" How can managers encourage risk taking? It's difficult to institute learning because the essence of success is something that we can't talk publicly about. We recognize that a substantial number of projects should fail or irritate management. High tech R&D firms use a 70% failure rate to demonstrate that they are taking enough risks. Management needs support from independent review groups to advise what the appropriate rate of failure should be. Daring to make mistakes and learning from them rather than burying them is something that requires learning, e.g., surgeons are taught the difference between carelessness versus proceeding given a probability of success. 2 Project Presentations 2 Project Presentations Project case studies and presentations are available at: cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/548 Project case studies and presentations are available at: cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/548  Fodder innovations for small holders in India (Prasad Vishnubhotla, Dannie Romney)  Fodder innovations for small holders in India (Prasad Vishnubhotla, Dannie Romney)  Reto-o-Reto project: Better policy and management options for pastoral lands (Robin  Reto-o-Reto project: Better policy and management options for pastoral lands (Robin Reid, Mohamed Said, Dickson Kaelo, Ogeli Makui) Reid, Mohamed Said, Dickson Kaelo, Ogeli Makui)  Poverty mapping (Patti Kristjanson, Julius Nyangaga, Paul Okwi)  Poverty mapping (Patti Kristjanson, Julius Nyangaga, Paul Okwi) "},{"text":" Bill Clark presented slides on linking knowledge with action (see website) Box 1 has a narrative summary of the message around the slides. Tensions between research and development Tensions between research and development -Advocacy v. fair broker v. comparative advantage of research institutions -Co-production of knowledge/Mode 2 science 1 -Advocacy v. fair broker v. comparative advantage of research institutions -Co-production of knowledge/Mode 2 science 1 -CG tension (Science Council v. donors) -CG tension (Science Council v. donors) -Analysis of causes v. report on state of the environment -Analysis of causes v. report on state of the environment -Issue cycle/stages -Issue cycle/stages 2. Relation to outcome mapping 2. Relation to outcome mapping 3. Self-assembly v. comprehensive view 3. Self-assembly v. comprehensive view 4. Farmers as experts and actors 4. Farmers as experts and actors 5. Policy relevant knowledge 5. Policy relevant knowledge "},{"text":"- Case studies / stories -Relate to ILRI partnership review -Develop prototype checklist -Quantify impact -** Revise workshop memos and turn them into learning briefs that would go into K bank and form core of synthesis brief o Revise memos by Dec 15 o Web posting by Jan 1 o Comments by Harvard on memos o Build community of practice to reconcile languagethis is likely to become part of the workshops and other engagements developed by Innovation Works in early 2007 -**Include these approaches in new projects o West African Tryps (phase 2) o Conservation of Livestock in West Africa (GEF supported) "}],"sieverID":"967bbe5e-363e-4683-9255-ef365c483d7d","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"092a01026e332c135dba9d8e5483141f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/91754485-b0a3-4e9c-866e-9ff350f1af54/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Sectorial policy of agriculture 2019-2024 Salvador","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Outcome Impact Case Report:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• 3188 -CCAFS science backs-up a US$45million IADB loan for the Government of El Salvador to implement the National Policy of Agriculture and increase climate resilience (https://tinyurl.com/28u3gu25)"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• 3816 -Since 2017, the countries of the Central American Integration System experienced +250 transformations in their political, institutional and financial frameworks toward scaling Climate Smart Agriculture. (https://tinyurl.com/ybdm4x66)"}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• I1692 -Participatory building and analysis of multiple set of scenarios (https://tinyurl.com/2f823oh9)"}]},{"head":"Narrative of Evidence: <Not Applicable>","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Country level recommendations for policy alternatives are being developed that identify robust climate smart strategies, while taking priority setting and trade off analyses into account"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Country level recommendations feed into a total of 13 national and state level policy processes in selected countries to inform climate smart food and nutrition security policies"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"• 35 -Enabled environment for climate resilience • 41 -Conducive agricultural policy environment • 42 -Conducive environment for managing shocks and vulnerability, as evidenced in rapid response mechanisms"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"91155388-a2ec-4303-bda3-5ece8b015d07","abstract":"P771 -Shaping equitable climate change policies for resilient food systems across Central America and the Caribbean Description: The Salvadorian agricultural sectorial plan 2019-2014 elaborated with the support from CCAFS integrates strategic axes on climate change and gender."}
data/part_5/0935ed25532654b65559f7bcdcc0a23a.json ADDED
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This report summarizes activities conducted to implement field experiments in three locations: Llanos, Quilichao, and Palmira."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Experimental design was generated using FieldHub (Murillo et al., 2021). An unreplicated design with single diagonal arrangement was obtained by location using 1887 Bh22 apomictic hybrids, 225 sexual genotypes (mothers of Bh22 genotypes), and three checks (CIAT:1688, CIAT:6133, and CIAT:679). In total 2275 experimental units were obtained when 55 corresponds to each check (Figure 1). Plants were propagated in the greenhouse and later transplanted to the field. The planting distance was set at 2 meters between plants and 2 meters between rows."}]},{"head":"Traits evaluated","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"To characterize the hybrids, parameters related to biomass production and nutritional quality were assessed. For biomass production, the following parameters were evaluated: 1) establishment rate: weekly, using a drone, a digital image was captured, and the coverage area was calculated. This process was repeated over 16 weeks, and with the obtained data, coverage accumulation curves were generated, and the area under the progress curve for each genotype was calculated; 2) plant height; and 3) dry matter using a Rising Plate Meter (FarmWorks, 2008). Forage quality parameters were determined at the animal nutrition and forage quality laboratory at CIAT using Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy, according to ISO 12099:2017. Crude protein was measured using a FOSS Kjeltec ™ 8100 (Foss Company, Hillerøed, Denmark) according to the guidelines of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC, Method 2001.11 (AOAC International, 2002). Concentrations of neutral detergent and acid detergent fibers (NDF and ADF respectively) were measured sequentially, according to the operating instructions ANKOM 2000 fiber analyzer (Ankom Technology, 2011) and according to the methods of Van Soest and Robertson (1991). The digestibility parameter was determined according to Tilley and Terry (1963)."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"A mixed linear model was applied independently for each environment, incorporating rows and columns as random effects. This model was implemented using the statistical software Mr. Bean, which relies on the 'SpATS' R package (Aparicio et al., 2022). The genotype was introduced as a random factor to compute Best Linear Unbiased Predictors (BLUPs) and broad-sense Cullis heritability (Oakey et al., 2006)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"At the moment phenotypic data is in the process of being captured and analyzed. In this report, we present partial results from the Palmira location. Table 1 shows the variance components of the general model for the different traits evaluated and the heritability. Broad sense heritability was low for all traits presented (h2 <0.5). Phenotypic correlations among traits ranged from 0.39 (Plant Height vs NDVI) to 0.66 (NDVI vs CCCE; canopy chlorophyll content estimated; Figure 2A)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The analysis of principal components conducted with BLUPs (Best Linear Unbiased Predictors) clearly revealed that two factors explain more than 88.7% of the variability in the traits evaluated (Figure 2B), indicating that plant Height differed strongly from other traits evaluated. The dendrogram showed two major clusters. Cluster I consisted of plant height, while Cluster II consisted of a group of NDVI and CCCE (Figure 2C)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Extreme genotypes are shown in Figure 2D. The genotypes located on the right of the graph have the best performance in Palmira since they have the best values in plant height, NDVI, and chlorophyll content. Genotypes on the left side of the graph have low performance, expressing minimum plant height, NDVI, and chlorophyll content. It is noteworthy that in Palmira some genotypes had the same or better performance than the check (CIAT/16888)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Table 1. Variance components analysis for three traits evaluated in Bh22 population. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Field map of experiment design obtained to Palmira location. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. November 2023. Trait varG varE h2 outliers r2 cv TraitvarGvarEh2outliersr2cv NDVI 0.002 0.005 0.32 14 0.674 7.44 NDVI0.0020.0050.32140.6747.44 HEIGHT 23.4 34.363 0.39 0 0.716 22.98 HEIGHT23.434.3630.3900.71622.98 CCCE 0.174 0.27 0.38 0 0.744 24.96 CCCE0.1740.270.3800.74424.96 "}],"sieverID":"cebfd81f-b9e5-49b5-8bb9-16239c7c1738","abstract":""}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"097e29d7e0b0ec91c3687880ff169a04","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/55d487cc-8e7e-43c3-bc5f-ab6d122a17dd/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Humidtropics Strategic Research Theme 1 -Systems analysis and global synthesis Presenting Activity 1.1 -Situational analysis","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Expected results","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"• One 50-page report on the broad situation of the agricultural production, marketing and natural resources management systems in the action site • Data sets of secondary data compiled and available online • A set of key and comparable statistics on Humidtropics action sites • Key stakeholders and development partners identified and engaged to contribute further to Humidtropics activities"}]},{"head":"Resources needed","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• One Humidtropics coordinator of situational analysis at action site level (10% of staff-time during six months)"},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"• Ten experts of local production, marketing, and natural resources management systems to constitute a supervisory committee for the situational analysis and undertake focus group discussions (one local expert also holds a Secretarial role for the committee) • Two national consultants fluent in the national language to collect and analyse secondary data and report on findings • Budget for local travel, stationary, focus group discussions, supervisory committee meetings and final write-shop to produce the situational analysis report • Estimated all-encompassing budget: US$70 000/national action site"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Objectives 1 . Broadly characterize all important aspects of relevance to the Program within the target action sites 2. Inform all other Program activities in the context of attaining the Intermediate Development Objectives (IDOs), as well as ongoing field site selection 3. Initiate and facilitate engagement with stakeholders and partners as part of the R4D platform development that is needed for the long term success and scalability of the Program Methods 1. Literature review from previous research and project reports on: • Development overview • Agricultural production systems • Markets and institutions • Natural resources management 2. Collection of secondary data from international statistical sources, national statistics offices, past research and development projects 3. Analysis and synthesis of secondary data gathered to identify main constraints to the systems 4. Focus group discussions with a cross-system selection of key stakeholders to validate the findings from secondary data analysis and gather suggestions on interventions of particular relevance to the systems under study Pictures Links with other Humidtropics activities • Constraints identified and interventions suggested inform setup of integrated research-and-development activities • Holistic broad picture of inter-related components provides hypotheses for systems modelling activities • Nucleus of stakeholders involved can seed the development of R4D platforms in the action site • Key statistics constitute a baseline for monitoring contribution to IDOs across action sites "}],"sieverID":"b293e708-67ce-4bca-bec3-e96703516ffe","abstract":""}
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Estos mate r ia l es representan solo una peque~a parte de l a colección del banco de germopla~ma de CIAT (marcadas con número \"G\"), la cual está todavfa en proceso de evaluación."},{"index":2,"size":288,"text":"Hay dos cambios principales en este catálogo . El primero i nvolucra la clasificació~ del co ¡ Jr de semilla que se ha dividido en 7 grupos o familias de colores, se i s de las c uales representan la mayor ~arte de la colección de germoplasma y una que incluye otros colores poco frecuentes i.e. blanco , crema-béig ~. amarillo, café-marrón, rojo (rosadó, rojo, morado), negro y otros (como gris, ve rde, azul, e\"tc. ). Del mismo modo las formas de semi1 l a se ha ~ reducido a 3 grupos i .e. redondeadc s , alargados y arriñonados. El segundo camoio se refiere al orden en que se han listado las 80j accesiones i.e. se han listado en grupos que combinan color de semilla y hábito de crecimiento . Este tipo de presentación es útil ya que es más rápid c para c~r.sultar y al mismo tiempo da la oportunidad de comparar materiales dentro de un mismo grupo. Para aquellos que están acostumbrados a la primera edición no les será diffcil este arreglo por grupos ya que ~1 principio ~e provee una lista de referencia en orden ascendente, la cual incluye color, háb i to y la página correspondiente e n donde se encuentra toda la 1nformaci ón del número \"P\" q ~e se de see consultar . Por otra parte, se ha incluido información adicional en este cat~ logo tal como el po ~ible \"or1gen\" del material, la fu e nt e de donde ha s i do obtenido y t ambién el namero \"G\" usado por el banco de germoplasma para cada accesión,yaque en futuras publicaciones de este tipo de catálogos los materiales serán listados ún i camente por el número \"G\" correspondiente ."}]},{"head":"e","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"-----_--,\\-rr . _ • . 1 • ."}]},{"head":"1! . PROCEDIMIENTO DE LA EVALUACION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"El campo en 1ue se llev ó a cabo la evaluación de los materiales contenidos en Pste cat~lo go, e s tá loca11zado en el Centro Internac :o~al de Agrfculturd Tropical CI AT-Palmlra, r.clorbfa, cuyas caracterfsticJs geográfico-c lima ~c16gicas son: lat itu d 03°31' ~. altitud 1000 m.s. n.m., tempera! ura prome~'o 24°C y nrecipitaci6n an ual 1000 m.~. Algunos caracteres fu e:( n to -l dOS en loca lid~des dife re ntes a la del CIA-, por presentar ambientes más adecuaé ~s para obtener est e tipo dP lnformac;Án. Los ~aracteres ~omados én otras l 0ca lidades son: Peso Nó ~v,os Rh ;z obium en PopayJ n-Colomb1a (1.850 m.s.n.m.). Mustia Hilachosa en Monterfa-Colombia (13 m.s.n.m.}, Antracn osis en Pooayán, Pasto, Bogotá (más de :800 m.s.n.m. ) y M osaico Dorado e n Gtn~emala ."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Des : ripción de pa •ce las : Se utilizaron camas ) en cada una se sembraron 1 6 2 hileras de o. 1 o m."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"6.00 m. 100 . 000 plantas/ha A lo s frfjol es no arbustivos de guf~ larga se les colocó tutor es de \"guadua\" ( Cuadua angustrifolia l ) con el fin de diferenciar e l tipo 3 no trepador y el tipo 4 trep3dor."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Para fa vore cer el desarrollo nor~al de las Jccesiones se fertilizó adecuJdamente en ba se a an ális is del suelo. Se apl1caron ins ecticidas-f ungicida s ~egularm P\" te para p r ~ve nir e l desarrollo anormal de las plantas debido a prpsencia de pl~gas y/o enfermedades."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"Descriptor es empleados l. Namero promis orio (P) : es el ndmero que se asigna in ter nament e en CIAT a mater,ales de especial i~terés al ~r ograma Gc frfjol. Es asignado en orden secuen c :al y se tienen 803 mate riales has ta el momento. S! alguno (s ) material(es) s e dcscarta(n) como promisorios, su n~~ero P no volverá a asignarse al nuevo material pr omiso rio . se incluye n todos ios rango ~ de tonalidades, lo que disminuye la clasifica c ión subjetiva de los co lo res. Sólo se tiene e. 'l cuenta el color primario que es el predomi • ~1te, y e l co lo r secunda r io de la semi lla c Ja ndo se prese ntan 2 6 más colores. Tanto el colo r p r1~ario como el secundario se ~o ma en semilla recientemente cosechadas y s e~~s ."}]},{"head":"Grupos de familias:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"l."}]},{"head":"2.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"3 ."}]},{"head":"4.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"5 ."}]},{"head":".","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":".","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"N o t a :"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"blan co (incluye ciertos tonos grises o verduzcos} crema - bei.ge a~nari l lo cafémarrón rosado } rojo roj o morado 8. otros (gris, v~r de, azul, etc.}"}]},{"head":"9: neg ro","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Cuando ~e encuentre color prima rio 5 y col or secund ario 7 sign 1f i ca que la ~~~il la tiene dos tonalidades diferent es dentro de l a familia de los r o jos."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"6. Tamaño de semilla: es el peso en gra ~0 s de 100 semillas tomadas • al az ar."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"7. Fcrma de s emill a: como en e l caso de l os colores, se han formado g~upos t o~1ndo como e r it e r i o s i mi 1 it u de ~ en e u a n t o a 1 a f o nn a se re f 1 e re . la f orma se d ~ t e rm i na o b se r ; . n do la semilla de lado en r e poso. O fas a emergencia: días transc1.1rridos entre 1 a sie111bra efectiva (si es e n terreno húmed o , el día de la siembra, si es 'en ter•reno seco, el día que se efe -: t ua el riego) hasta que al menos el ~0% de las plántulas muestre sus cotiledones sobre la superficie del suelo. lO. Color de hipocotilo: se toma cuando las hojas primarias se han desarrollado completamente y/ o los cotiledones están completamente secos."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"1. Verde 2. Rosado 3. Morado 11 Longitud de hipocotilo: medida en milfmetros de la zona comprendida en t re el cuell o de las plántulas y la inserción de los cotiledones, cuando estos se han secado y estSn a punto de caerse. Promedio de diez lecturas."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"12. Largo de foliolo: medido en el foliolo c~r tral de las hojas trifoliadas situadas en el tercio medio de la planta . Se toma en floración y se mide desde la base del foliolo hasta el ápice del mismo a lo largo de la nervadura central. Promedio en m11tmetros de diez fo11olos."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"13 . Ancho de foliolo: igual que 12, pero medido en forma perpendicular a la nerv~dura central en la parte más ancha del foliolo central. "}]},{"head":"*","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"( incl uye además del rosad u uniforme, aquello s casos en que el r os a do es muy tenue, o tien e distribución desuniforme e n las difer en tes partes de la corola.)"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"16. Dfas a flor ació n: es el namero de dfas transcurridos entre la siembra ef ectiva has tJ que por l o menos el cincuenta por ciento de las plantas en la parcela muestre una fl o r abierta."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"17 . Duración de floraci ón : son l os día s comprendidos entre el inicio de floración (ver 16) hasta que no se observen flores abiertas o botones en formación, 6 su cantidad sea insignificante. "},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"< 13 14 516 17 18 19 20 121 ~223"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"1 1"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Tll'< 1 7 45 Z 7"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"BLANCO -HABITO 1 , '55 • R EtiFERI• iEOADES "},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"uc;a . ' • • S • 11."},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"• S • 11"},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"COLOR BLANCO -HABITO 3 "},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":". S R S S ."},{"index":12,"size":7,"text":",. S S S S X •"},{"index":13,"size":9,"text":"• S S S S .. st ss ."},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"• S S S T"},{"index":15,"size":6,"text":"• S t S T . "}]},{"head":"S S •","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"3 . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"1 13 46 • R "}]},{"head":"• .,. S S","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"a:: . ~/ oq; :z: . ."}]},{"head":"65","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"."}]},{"head":"S .","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"S . S ."}]},{"head":"S S","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"lt . R ."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"COLOR CREMA-BE IGE -HABITO 4 ,, 50 "}]},{"head":"... 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TRRTX.SS . ................................ . -sssrx S S ..... ~ ..•...•.•.••..•..•......•... • S S S T . . S S • • • "},{"text":" S T X S S S 16 NEMT R IJSA ...•••••.....••..•..••. • S S e; '\\ S S S • .•...•..........•.......•...•.•..• .,. S S S c; X S S S •¡• • .........•..•... , ........••.•. "},{"text":" ..... ~ ..•..........•........•....• • S S S t . "},{"text":". "},{"text":" .ssss.S • • •.....•............................• T S e; S X • S S S• . ................................. . "},{"text":". "},{"text":" 17. 57 • ~ S A 13 )A • S • e¡ 1lb .........•..................... ••....•••..•..•..•.•••.....•.••... "},{"text":" ..................••.•......•••..• "},{"text":" . ... ..•............................ .•.....•.....................•.•.. AAnT R liSA ...•..............•.... "},{"text":" .....•.••••...•••.............. "},{"text":" . .... , ..............•. ....•.• .•..• RR(lT R PRI •......•••...•.••..•. "},{"text":" \"' ,.. "},{"text":" l ENTO!PLANTA -•~ •------.. -RF. NO l 11 lE:¡ TO¡ AR EA f.: O S,l¡ CO COt~UN \"------.:_ --• -----------NQ S1 rc.o_ooRflo, ..,__--f ~~l_fQ___nucos...:o __ ~ "},{"text":" acuerdo al háb ito de creci~iento, como sigue: Frijoles Frfjoles no a rbustivos FrijolesFrfjoles no a rbustivos arbustivos de guía larga arbustivosde guía larga Distan cia entre camas 1.00 m. 1 . 00 m. Distan cia entre camas1.00 m.1 . 00 m. Hi 1 era por cama 2 Hi 1 era por cama2 Distancia entre hileras 0 .50 m. Distancia entre hileras0 .50 m. Dista nci a er.tre pl a nta s 0.08 m. Dista nci a er.tre pl a nta s0.08 m. Lon gi tud de ~j lera/accesión 6 . 00 m. Lon gi tud de ~j lera/accesión6 . 00 m. Población eQuivalente aproximada 250.000 Población eQuivalente aproximada250.000 plantas/ha plantas/ha "},{"text":" Promedio en milfmetros de cin ~o plantas. lS. Color de flor: se o ~serva en flores ab ie rtas l. blanca 4. roj a l. blanca4. roj a 2. morada 3. rosada• S. de dos colore s (c olore s difer en t ~s para alas y estandarte y / o qu illa) 2. morada 3. rosada•S. de dos colore s (c olore s difer en t ~s para alas y estandarte y / o qu illa) "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" 1 • 41 2 3 161 SA~ 1 • 57 l 161SA~ 1 • 57l 240 PI 215 717 P~OTO ()E HIJ PF~ • 20 l 3 240PI 215 717P~OTO ()E HIJ PF~• 20 l 3 241 PI 215 71A PFR 1 • 17 3 241PI 215 71APFR 1 • 173 264 Pr zAs 695 POL • 22 2 • 264Pr zAs 695POL• 22 2 • l66 PI 2A9 400 (HRIST HIJN l66PI 2A9 400 (HRISTHIJN 403 C 1R6 R1 R-10 403 C 1R6 R1R-10 4zq RLAIIICO 441 4zq RLAIIICO 441 "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" 11 "},{"text":" .................................. .................................. .................................. .................................. ... •• •• • .................. ......... . .........•.......•••••...•.•••.• • ....................... ... ... ..... .................................. .................................. .................... . .................................. ...... • ........................... . ....................... ....................... ....................... CRMV R NFT ............................. ............................. 1 1 1 /FLOR(ACION T 1 1 11/FLOR(ACION T1 1 1 1 1 1 1 p IDENTIFICACION Q, o ::r '-' pIDENTIFICACIONQ, o ::r'-' Q .... <.:1 Q .... <.:1 o ;z: o ;z: 1 1 2 47 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ~q 11 12 13 14 5 16 17 18 19 20 21 ~223 24 ?5 26 l 4S \\ 1 1247 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ~q 11 12 13 14 5 16 17 18 19 20 21 ~223 24 ?5 26 l 4S \\ COLOR BLANCO -HABITO 3 COLOR BLANCO -HABITO 3 7A1 fE~IX 4401 MFX CHL 1 • lO 1 2 ~ 1 37 106 8~ 5 1 40 34 13 4N 90 40 3 10 15 6 33 7A1 fE~IX4401 MFX CHL 1 • lO 1 2 ~ 1 37 106 8~ 5 1 40 34 13 4N 90 40 3 10 15 6 33 44o;q CRI 44o;q CRI COLOR BLANCO -HABITO 4 44<n Cl R COLOR BLANCO -HABITO 444<n Cl R 9A PI 171 747 TUIC. 1 • 29 2 1 • '5 1 30 R7 74 4 1 39 17 16 • • 121 444\"> CLR • 4 15 21 5 50 9A PI 171 747TUIC. 1 • 29 2 1 • '5 1 30 R7 74 4 1 39 17 16 • • 121444\"> CLR • 4 15 21 5 50 104 -p 1 171 777 TIIK 1 • 38 1 2 6 1 37 98 60 6 1 34 20 12 •• 102 • 4 571 Q US A 9 13 S 22 104 -p 1 171 777TIIK 1 • 38 1 2 6 1 3798 60 6 1 34 20 12 •• 102• 4571 Q US A 9 13 S 22 11 4 PI 113 022 TIJK 1 : • 34 2 3 7 1 40 8 8 74 5 1 34 29 15 5N 182 • 4 1 O 11 5 16 11 4 PI 113 022TIJK 1 : • 34 2 3 7 1 40 8 8 74 5 1 34 29 15 5N 182• 4 1 O 11 5 16 113 PI 1114 7A3 GA.,. 1 • 20 2 2 5 1 36 82 . 13 4 1 34 3'5 19 lN 177 • 4 14 16 7 31 113 PI 1114 7A3GA.,. 1 • 20 2 2 5 1 3682 . 13 4 1 34 3'5 19 lN 177• 4 14 16 7 31 254 PI 282 029 CHL 1 • 29 1 3 5 1 49 100 80 5 1 37 37 15 •• 148 • 4 20 44 4 42 254 PI 282 029CHL 1 • 29 1 3 5 1 49 100 80 5 1 37 37 15 •• 148• 4 20 44 4 42 257 PI 2112 051> CHL 1 • 28 2 3 ~ 1 41 95 80 6 1 40 38 14 3N 193 oon ~ tJSA • 4 15 18 4 19 257 PI 2112 051>CHL 1 • 28 2 3 ~ 1 4195 80 6 1 40 38 14 3N 193oon ~ tJSA • 4 15 18 4 19 364 Pl 313 6B 0345 USA en~ 1 • 21 1 2 5 t 21 •too 88 6 1 3R 24 11 'N 173 • 4 • 23 5 31 364 Pl 313 6B0345 USA en~ 1 • 21 1 2 5 t 21 •too 88 6 1 3R 24 11 'N 173 • 4 • 23 5 31 3A5 AGIIASCAL lE~TfS 1>7 MEX 1 • 33 1 2 5 1 36 84 60 6 1 34 29 20 •• on: liSA 9~ • 4 lO 20 4 2 1 3A5 AGIIASCAL lE~TfS 1>7MEX 1 • 33 1 2 5 1 3684 60 6 1 34 29 20 ••on: liSA 9~ • 4 lO 20 4 2 1 4R3 OAXACA :N MEX 1 • 14 1 3 5 1 35 72 5~ 6 1 37 32 18 1N 1ñ5 031>2 USA • 4 12 19 5 44 4R3 OAXACA :NMEX 1 • 14 1 3 5 1 35 72 5~ 6 1 37 32 18 1N 1ñ5031>2 USA • 4 12 19 5 44 507 CALIFORNIA ~MAll WHITE 522 R 21t S-?04-Rl 057 q USA 07 1A USA U~A 1 • 17 1 3 '5 1 25 76 67 9 1 36 27 13 5N 99 • 4 14 25 6 28 . . . 1 • 22 2 3 '5 t 27 87 61 7 1 40 23 • 5N 181 • 4 13 21 • 507 CALIFORNIA ~MAll WHITE 522 R 21t S-?04-Rl057 q USA 07 1A USA U~A 1 • 17 1 3 '5 1 25 76 67 9 1 36 27 13 5N 99 • 4 14 25 6 28 . . . 1 • 22 2 3 '5 t 27 87 61 7 1 40 23 • 5N 181 • 4 13 21 • sq 5 p 1 1 lb 6 71t TIIK 1 • 35 2 3 '5 1 35 93 7'5 6 1 33 24 18 5N 115 • 4 Ol!n 11 USA 9 16 5 12 sq 5 p 1 1 lb 6 71tTIIK 1 • 35 2 3 '5 1 3593 7'5 6 1 33 24 18 5N 115• 4Ol!n 11 USA 9 16 5 12 641 NAR INO zq CLR 1 • 21 2 2 5 1 41 85 57 4 1 3~ 26 18 •• 92 llh1 USA • 4 10 16 • • 641 NAR INO zqCLR 1 • 21 2 2 5 1 41 85 57 4 1 3~ 26 18 ••92llh1 USA • 4 10 16 • • 694 GREAT NORTHERW 111 6El 27 USA 1 • 32 2 2 '5 1 36 78 59 5 1 3'5 7.0 16 3N 71 • 4 20 34 USA 8 12 • 694 GREAT NORTHERW 111 6El 27 USA 1 • 32 2 2 '5 1 3678 59 5 1 3'5 7.0 16 3N71• 420 34 USA 8 12 • 69.A JULES USA 1 • 26 2 3 5 1 26 82 59 6 1 34 19 19 ~N 83 • 4 547P USA 8 13 4 t1 69.A JULESUSA 1 • 26 2 3 5 1 26 82 59 6 1 34 19 19 ~N 83• 4547P USA 8 13 4 t1 701 PANA\"'ITO F~O 1 • 18 1 3 6 1 29 91 78 1 1 45 '5 27 4N 145 1 227 USA • 4 11 14 4 25 701PANA\"'ITOF~O 1 • 18 1 3 6 1 299178 1 1 45 '5 27 4N 1451 227 USA • 4 11 14 4 25 719 GREAT NO\"THF.RN tll l.t liS A 1 • 33 2 2 t. 1 4 3 10 8 71 6 1 31, 1 A 18 ?.N 11 Z • 4 12 2 2 5 39 719 GREAT NO\"THF.RN tll l.tliS A 1 • 33 2 2 t. 1 4 3 10 8 71 6 1 31, 1 A 18 ?.N 11 Z • 4 12 2 2 5 39 04(')1' USA 04(')1' USA 3b l l VEZ 3b l l VEZ 50 \"• , P. RZ 50 \"• , P. RZ 4 Q7 P. NE T 4 Q7 P. NE T 44 qq liSA 44 qq liSA .. .. . /22 .. .. . /22 "},{"text":" .................................. . . ..... •' • .......................... . .................................. • S S (, 11. X S • • S S (, 11. XS • COLOR BLANC O -HABITO 4 COLOR BLANC O -HABITO 4 • 1 . • S S S T S S • • • 1 . • S S S TS S • • . ., S S I S S • 8R . ., S S IS S •8R "},{"text":" s s r x . S S •..... -... ......................... . .................................. .................................. .. sssr. S • ••....•.••.•••......•...•.•.•..... .. sssr.S •••....•.••.•••......•...•.•.•..... (, S • • (, S • • S • 75 . s s t s x . s . S • 75 . s s t s x . s . "},{"text":" ........................................ ............................. . T I S T X . S . T I S T X . S ., S 11. 1 1 X S • ., S 11. 1 1 XS • "},{"text":" ................................ ..... ............................................................... 1 / RE NO !-1 1 MIENTO 1 1 1 / RE NO !-1 1 MIENTO11 p p IDENTIFICACION ~ -u 2: ..., o ..., 1: 1 o u ppIDENTIFICACION~ -u 2: ..., o ..., 1: 1 o u 1 1 1 . 1 l z ... 3 4 5 6 7 8 47 14 5 16Jl 7 18 1 9 20 21 P2 23 24 2sl26 !l 8 1 .1 lz... 34 5 6 7 847 14 5 16Jl 7 18 1 9 20 21 P2 23 24 2sl26 !l 8 23 Pl\\28513 10 'jQ • S . ' • 5!153 CHL IISA2.3313 6147103 64 533715 92N 463911114417 COLOR CREMA-BEIGE -HABITO 1 23 Pl\\28513 10 'jQ • S . ' •5!153 CHL IISA2.3313 6147103 64 533715 92N 463911114417 COLOR CREMA-BEIGE -HABITO 1 43 PI 151 07.6 CRI~TAL RAYO CHL 2 • 48 2 3 ~ 1 47 107 78 S 3 31 23 6 •• 49 44 1 11 13 3 22 10 4'.i 43 PI 151 07.6 CRI~TAL RAYO CHL 2 • 48 2 3 ~ 1 47 107 78 S 3 31 23 6 •• 49 44 1 11 13 3 22 10 4'.i 47 PI 151 414 ZAQ.IALF.HO DE C:l_l\\ 2 6 48 2 3 S 1 44 123 8') 6 3 31 19 7 IN 57 50 1 11 16 3 11 47 PI 151 414 ZAQ.IALF.HO DE C:l_l\\ 2 6 48 2 3 S 1 44 123 8') 6 3 31 19 7 IN 57 50 1 11 16 3 11 53 53 PI 163 119 JA TU RnNG• lO 59 0346 US A INO 2 6 31 2 2 S 1 46 92 70 5 3 31 19 8 4N ')0 45 1 10 13 3 17 5353 PI 163 119 JA TU RnNG• lO 590346 US A INO 2 6 31 2 2 S 1 46 92 70 5 3 31 19 8 4N ')0 45 1 10 13 3 17 54 1 54 PI 163 120 JATII ROttG 6 50 0371 USA 1~0 Z 6 31 2 2 S 1 38 94 5~ 5 1 33 28 13 4N 96 43 1 lO 12 5 12 54 154 PI 163 120 JATII ROttG 6 500371 USA 1~0 Z 6 31 2 2 S 1 38 94 5~ 5 1 33 28 13 4N 96 43 1 lO 12 5 12 56 56 \"r J 64 274 9 60 041 1 USA !NO 2 6 34 2 2 ') 1 44 106 76 4 3 31 19 6 3N 49 47 1 10 12 4 15 5656 \"r J 64 274 9 60041 1 USA !NO 2 6 34 2 2 ') 1 44 106 76 4 3 31 19 6 3N 49 47 1 10 12 4 15 57 1 ' 57 p 1 lb4 3fl0 12 '.i7 0 714 liSA INO 2 6 33 2 2 S 1 49 12~ 84 S 3 32 18 6 ~N 46 50 1 12 14 4 21 571 '57 p 1 lb4 3fl0 12 '.i70 714 liSA INO 2 6 33 2 2 S 1 49 12~ 84 S 3 32 18 6 ~N 46 50 1 12 14 4 21 5A 1 58 PI 164 314 A 57 108 2 USA INO 2 6 32 2 2 ~ 1 52 lO~ 101 5 1 31 24 7 •• 49 45 1 11 14 4 14 5A158 PI 164 314 A 57108 2 USA INO 2 6 32 2 2 ~ 1 52 lO~ 101 5 1 31 24 7 •• 49 45 1 11 14 4 14 59 59 PI 164 334 AVe~F.H 9 #.4 109.1 USA INO 2 6 30 2 3 5 1 48 128 97 4 3 31 19 lO •• 45 44 1 9 12 5 14 5959 PI 164 334 AVe~F.H 9 #.4109.1 USA INO 2 6 30 2 3 5 1 48 128 97 4 3 31 19 lO •• 45 44 1 9 12 5 14 60 1 60 PI 164 746 SFJoe q 56 2540 USA !NO 2 6 ~2 2 3 5 l 47 118 78 5 3 32 19 8 •• 47 45 1 13 15 4 16 60160 PI 164 746 SFJoe q 562540 USA !NO 2 6 ~2 2 3 5 l 47 118 78 5 3 32 19 8 •• 47 45 1 13 15 4 16 6 1 1 61 PI 1b4 778 10 56 32 61 MEX INO 2 6 34 2 3 5 l 42 99 76 5 3 32 18 7 •• 45 45 1 8 10 4 18 6 1161 PI 1b4 778 10 5632 61 MEX INO 2 6 34 2 3 5 l 42 99 76 5 3 32 18 7 •• 45 45 1 8 10 4 18 73 73 PI l6h O~A 9 45 356 ~ ME X 1 NO 2 6 33 2 2 \"i 1 52 120 • 81 4 3 31 20 8 4N 50 46 1 11 12 4 20 7373 PI l6h O~A 9 45356 ~ ME X 1 NO 2 6 33 2 2 \"i 1 52 120 • 81 4 3 31 20 8 4N 50 46 1 11 12 4 20 106 1 56 9 3 USA 106 PI 172 014 LnNG nvAt. SliG ~AF 2 6 31 2 3 51 50' 97 70 53 32 20 lO 5N 44 46 1 8 10 5 14 A '.i7 106156 9 3 USA 106 PI 172 014 LnNG nvAt. SliG ~AF 2 6 31 2 3 51 50' 97 70 53 32 20 lO 5N 44 46 1 8 10 5 14 A '.i7 111 116 1 1 1 116 PI 173 07.9 AYSF.KAOIN 7 44 5 42 15 2 P 1 1 79 4 44 8 AA Rll,_. VA 52 7 5A 3937 CRI SAF 2 • 43 2 3 S 1 53 107 71 5 3 32 18 11 4N 50 47 1 8 9 5 16 054 ~ USA nJK 2 6 37 1 3 6 1 53 94 66 4 3 32 19 lO 7.N 45 35 1 lO 11 4 12 4687 CLR TIIK 2 6 39 1 3 6 1 40 99 75 5 2 33 18 9 •• 36 42 1 b 10 5 12 111 116 1 1 1 116 PI 173 07.9 AYSF.KAOIN 7 44 5 42 15 2 P 1 1 79 4 44 8 AA Rll,_. VA 52 7 5A3937 CRI SAF 2 • 43 2 3 S 1 53 107 71 5 3 32 18 11 4N 50 47 1 8 9 5 16 054 ~ USA nJK 2 6 37 1 3 6 1 53 94 66 4 3 32 19 lO 7.N 45 35 1 lO 11 4 12 4687 CLR TIIK 2 6 39 1 3 6 1 40 99 75 5 2 33 18 9 •• 36 42 1 b 10 5 12 153 ~ 54 1 l'B PI 179 71'5 RONG 4 ':iO 154 PI 1~0 31A RnNG 7 64 5477 USA INO 2 6 32 2 ~ 5 1 48 84 54 3 2 ~2 18 11 4N 36 39 1 6 • 4 A 54 76 USA JNO 2 6 31 2 3 6 1 44 97 64 4 3 32 18 9 4N 37 40 1 8 lO 5 11 153 ~ 541l'B PI 179 71'5 RONG 4 ':iO 154 PI 1~0 31A RnNG 7 645477 USA INO 2 6 32 2 ~ 5 1 48 84 54 3 2 ~2 18 11 4N 36 39 1 6 • 4 A 54 76 USA JNO 2 6 31 2 3 6 1 44 97 64 4 3 32 18 9 4N 37 40 1 8 lO 5 11 175 1 175 PI 186 496 q '.i3 .ss s rx.s. CA~ 2 b 3A 1 3 6 l 54 102 63 6 3 34 16 8 4N 42 45 1 7 10 3 17 5267 EC O 1751175 PI 186 496 q '.i3.ss s rx.s. CA~ 2 b 3A 1 3 6 l 54 102 63 6 3 34 16 8 4N 42 45 1 7 10 3 17 5267 EC O 76 1 176 PI 186 497 lO 53 • • SS S ~X CA~ 2 6 33 1 3 5 1 52 93 59 5 3 34 21 9 3N 40 46 1 6 10 4 19 S • 571 0 USA 761176 PI 186 497 lO 53• • SS S ~X CA~ 2 6 33 1 3 5 1 52 93 59 5 3 34 21 9 3N 40 46 1 6 10 4 19 S • 571 0 USA lAb 186 PI 194 3H 4 4 0 ETH 2 6 40 1 3 6 l 34 96 74 4 3 37 ~4 12 lN 44 48 1 8 9 4 lO lAb186 PI 194 3H 4 4 0ETH 2 6 40 1 3 6 l 34 96 74 4 3 37 ~4 12 lN 44 48 1 8 9 4 lO 02 1 202 PI 19 7 2 26 7 4 4 ETH 2 6 35 1 3 5 1 44 ¡04 8 1 4 1 34 ?s 11 lN 4 8 54 1 10 12 S 16 021202 PI 19 7 2 26 7 4 4ETH 2 6 35 1 3 5 1 44 ¡04 8 1 4 1 34 ?s 11 lN 4 8 54 1 10 12 S 16 17 217 9 '.ib p 1 7,05 208 TVK 2 6 42 l 3 7 1 46 97 62 6 3 H 19 10 '.N 44 46 1 lO 4 16 17217 9 '.ib p 1 7,05 208TVK 2 6 42 l 37 1 46 97626 3 H 19 10 '.N44 46 1lO 4 16 ?.0 220 4 44 p 1 207 134 IIR IRF. REOONO CLR 2 1 37 1 3 7 1 47 109 7S s 2 37 Js 11 3N 41 4? 1 6 4 9 ?.0220 4 44p 1 207 134IIR IRF. REOONO CLR 2 1 37 1 37 1 47 1097Ss 2 37 Js 11 3N41 4? 16 4 9 • . .. . /24 . .... /25 • . .. . /24 . .... /25 "},{"text":" .................................. .................................. •-• ........................... . ....•...........................• S S • ...... . ............................. PLAGAS 1 1 1 PLAGAS 1 1 1 O B S E R V A C I O N E S O B S E R V A C I O N E S 46 46 1 COLOR CR MA-BEIGE -HAB TTO 1 i 1 COLOR CR MA-BEIGE -HAB TTO 1 i S S • 4 S S •4 S S • 3 •....•.....••••..••.•.....•.• •.••• S S •3•....•.....••••..••.•.....•.• •.••• S • S .... S • 3 4 • 4 S • S .... S • 3 4 • 4 S S • S S • .. S t S S .. S t S S \" S S \"i T • \" S S \"i T • .. ssss. .. ssss. • S t S T • S t S T • T S S S )( • T S S S )( "},{"text":" .................................. .... ............................. S S • S S • S S • 2 S S •2 "},{"text":"• 2 .................................. S S 4 S S4 "},{"text":" .••••.. ......... ...... ............................. S S • 2 S S •2 S S �� S S • "},{"text":" ...... ............................. S • 2 S •2 "},{"text":" ................................... 1482 USA 1451 USA 1451 USA S S S S lOO S S S S • S • • lOO S S S S •S • • "},{"text":" .•..•...•.......... ........... •t1 S 1 S S • S S • •t1 S 1 S S •S S • "},{"text":" ••• J 38...... ............................... •• S S S T X • S • •• S S S T X • S • "},{"text":" ••~••~ ....... . ............................. • S 1 S • . . S • ' - • S 1 S • . . S •'- CO~OR CREMA -aEIGE -HABITO 2 CO~OR CREMA -aEIGE -HABITO 2 "},{"text":" • • 4 •.....•........................••.• • ssss. • S • • ssss. • S • "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" • EL~ 2 • 11 2 2 4 3 39 88 69 6 2 42 21 ll lN 6l 44 2 • 7 5 6 EL~ 2 • 11 2 2 4 3 39 88 69 6 2 42 21 ll lN 6l 44 2 • 7 5 6 ti ~A 2 • 22 ) 3 4 3 44 74 51 4 2 42 Zl U 1N lO 35 2 4 26 5 4 ti ~A 2 • 22 ) 3 4 3 44 74 51 4 2 42 Zl U 1N lO 35 2 4 26 5 4 "},{"text":" .......•....................... 1 ENFER11EOAOES 1 1 1 1ENFER11EOAOES111 1 1 COLOR CREMA-BEIGE -HABITO 2 COLOR CREMA-BEIGE -HABITO 2 14 lt7 • S . ' • 4 3ó 13 hZ • S . '• • S . . ., S S r l X S • 2 ..• 14 lt7 • S . ' • 4 3ó 13 hZ • S . '• • S . .., S S r l X S •2..• 14 54 22 A 14 54 22 A 4 33 • S . '• 4 33 • S . '• 12 411 • S 12 411 • S q 50 • S . ' • q 50 • S . ' • 24 60 • A 5 311 • S . ... 24 60 • A 5 311 • S . ... 3 'iO 2 51) • A S . . 3 'iO 2 51)• A S . . 10 4 • R S 10 4• R S 10 56 S 10 56S 10 50 S ' • 10 50S' • S • S • S '• S'• • S • S • S • ~ • • S • ~ • 6 55 • S 6 55• S 4 44 • S • '• 4 44• S • '• 6 55 • S 6 55 • S "},{"text":" .) 11 1 2 13 14 5 16 l 7 18 19 zr. 21 <; ~ 41 as b) 1) 2 35 Z7 lB 5N 113 • 15 20 f) 21 RUllll-MIErHO RUllll-MIErHO 6 21\\ AHIII>IAOO<; OE C ~IRRIPO 2 639 MICHOACAN 31 b39 .,.¡• 4 ?S . COLOR CRE~A-BEIGE -HABIT O 4 CRI 2 • 38 2 3 ') 3 3'5 'H 7 ~ 6 2 4? 71 17 MF.X 2 6 32 3 5 ~ 40 91 n 6 2 42 l1 17 4A 117 • lS 22 S ? 1 1' > 7 • 10 16 4 16 6 21\\ AHIII>IAOO<; OE C ~IRRIPO 2 639 MICHOACAN 31 b39 .,.¡• 4 ?S .COLOR CRE~A-BEIGE -HABIT O 4 CRI 2 • 38 2 3 ') 3 3'5 'H 7 ~ 6 2 4? 71 17 MF.X 2 6 32 3 5 ~ 40 91 n 6 2 42 l1 17 4A 117 • lS 22 S ? 1 1' > 7 • 10 16 4 16 640 MICHOA(AN 46 6401 fi4FX 2 • 76 1 3 665 PI 313 592 r.LR 2 4 17 2 3 5 1 23 68 c;7 4 2 40 ?1 n bA6 . 665 5 Sb 10 74 • 5 1 'i 9 640 MICHOA(AN 46 6401 fi4FX 2 • 76 1 3 665 PI 313 592 r.LR 2 4 17 2 3 5 1 23 68 c;7 4 2 40 ?1 n bA6 . 665 5 Sb 1074 •5 1 'i 9 703 703 "},{"text":" . . . . ..... ............................. "},{"text":" . S S . . 3 71 ..... , ............. •. ..........••. USII 6 . . 31 . S . • • S S 1 e; X . S S . . ' 5) "},{"text":" • • l . ...... ................ •-• ........... R3 5 42 . USA R35 42 .USA "},{"text":" . . S S S . • . S • • . 4 . . .... ~~ ...............•..........• US A )5 3 13 )53 13 "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" .. ECO 1 fLOl(AtlON 1 1 fLOl(AtlON 1 1 1 , 1 1 , p IDENTIFICACION pIDENTIFICACION 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 1Ql112 13 14 516111819 ZO Zl~2~3 24 2526 23 4 S 6 7 8 9 1Ql112 13 14 516111819 ZO Zl~2~3 24 2526 31 PI t<;O 941 AliiHUCHO 31PI t<;O 941 AliiHUCHO lB PI JJCj A71 RARRII~YA lBPI JJCj A71 RARRII~YA 1 H P 1 175 861 1 HP 1 175 861 213 PI 201 941 213 PI 201 941 "},{"text":" 80 •t 'S 1 34 27 14 lH 7 7 44 l lO 11 .S t t 252 PI 2111 9 AO 252 PI 2111 9 AO 255 PI 2112 OH 255 PI 2112 OH 258 PI 2A2 O~ 258 PI 2A2 O~ 263 PI 282 ll2 263PI 282 ll2 351 PJ )lJ 9 71t 351PJ )lJ 9 71t 378 PI 319 649 AlUFRADO 378PI 319 649AlUFRADO 3QO AGIJASCAL IE~TFS 91 3QOAGIJASCAL IE~TFS 91 407 CANARI~ C~IA h~ C 207 PEit l • 54 1 • • 1 407 CANARI~ C~IA h~ C 207PEit l • 54 1 •• 1 410 CHIAPA~ ~A 2 410 CHIAPA~ ~A 2 4Ab P~ETO 7449 1-1130 4Ab P~ETO 7449 1-1130 t-22 1114 17 t-22 1114 17 6R4 PI 207 21>2 6R4PI 207 21>2 .6R8 CANAR 10 CIJ14\\IN .6R8 CANAR 10 CIJ14\\IN "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" RRl 3 • 20 3 l ~ 3 )~ 75 61 1 2 42 ll 11 }N 109 • 3 19 31 h 47 ~fX 3 • 24 2 1 7 1 35 85 70 7 1 )9 ll lb IN ft2 36 3 12 2 2 1 ?b ~fX 3 • 24 2 1 7 1 35 85 70 7 1 )9 ll lb IN ft2 36 3 12 2 2 1 ?b "},{"text":" .. S S S S X . 1 S . . . • .•..••................... •..•.•.•. 0091 USA 5 4 2 • S • 4 "},{"text":" 1 35 101 et 6 t J9 20 15 tllt 78 •s z • • 32 524 e 63 4 • lA 2 l T5 61 5 Z 4l 20 1? 1K b~ ~2 Z 917511 524 e 634 • lA 2 lT561 5 Z 4l 20 1? 1K b~ ~2 Z 917511 5S7 11 e 5S7 11 e "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" ..... ............................. r 1 1 r 11 p IOENTIFICACION 1 pIOENTIFICACION1 o lit o lit 2 47 J' 4 S 6 7 8 9 no 11 12 13 14 S 16 17 18 19 20 21 2 23 t:'S 26 4S 247 J' 4 S 6 7 8 9 no 11 12 13 14 S 16 17 18 19 20 21 2 23 t:'S 26 4S COlOR ROJO -HABITO 1 COlOR ROJO -HABITO 1 2 5 PI 136 72R STRIPF.O ~OWN CAN 5 6 38 2 3 6 1 52 109 82 5 3 31 19 8 lN •;¡ 17 51 41 1 10 1 1 4 22 l'(ll 2 5 PI 136 72R STRIPF.O ~OWN CAN 5 6 38 2 3 6 1 52 109825 3 31 198 lN•;¡ 17 51 41 1 10 1 1 4 22 l'(ll 21> PI 136 HA CA~ 5 6 35 2 l S 1 49 lOO 77 4 3 31 19 9 IN 51 44 1 l O 1 1 4 1 3 21> PI 136 HACA~ 5 6 35 2 lS 1 49 lOO774 3 31 19 9 IN51 44 1 l O 1 1 4 1 3 45 PI 151 062 All~ 7 • 51 2 3 6 l 44 113 81 53 3?. 21 A IN 64 51 1 1 1 1 2 5 24 45PI 151 062All~ 7 • 51 2 3 6 l 44 113 8153 3?. 21A IN 64 51 1 1 1 1 2 5 24 7 1 PI 165 933 S HI~I INI'I 6 2 42 2 3 5 1 54 114 :¡os 6 3 31 33 lO JN 50 4 6 l 9 3 13 7 1 PI 165 933 S HI~IINI'I 6 2 42 2 3 5 1 54 114 :¡os 6 3 31 33 lO JN 50 4 6 l 9 3 13 7 2 p 1 16 5 q 4A S H 1 ~ 1 1 NO 7 ' • 36 2 3 5 2 47 126 92 . .. ; 6 1 33 31 ••• 8 5N Q65t USA 8 3 1 8 57 53 1 7 2p 1 16 5 q 4A S H 1 ~ 11 NO 7 ' • 36 2 35 2 47 126 92. .. ; 6 1 33 31 ••• 8 5NQ65t USA 8 3 1 8 57 53 1 R6 PI 169 7CIO OTURAK. 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"},{"text":" . "},{"text":" • • S S S T . . S . . . • • . ..... ............................. 2o6 5 USA i7 13 t.l . S ...•,¡ S 1 S S • • S S • • . "},{"text":" . • S 1 \" e¡ X . S . . . . . . ..... ............................. 15Sit USA "},{"text":" ..... .. ~ ........................ . "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" 3 "},{"text":" .• S R S S . . S . • . 3 . .... • •~............................ "},{"text":" ..•... VEZ 1 q 56 12 ll . . . S 1 S e; . . S 5 . . ' "},{"text":" • • S S S e; X . 1 S . . 1 . "},{"text":" •••.••..••.••......••••.... •.•... 3802 VEZ ¡ 9 3 S ¡93S "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" w_, ~/ f' ~ ~ o ce :::> u cr ter VI 1 p IOENTIFICACION 2 w . (.!¡ .... ,_ a:: :t: o -J ,_ O t 'OC ,_ cr cr~ !:f~ o o a:' Oft-,_ VI ._ 0 ~ w o a:: .u ce ,_, t.:) O ' t.:~ ..... o ce a:: o ~/ ....., :t: cr _, o w a::ceuo ¡ W o ~ VI ce f O ,.._ o VI o-ce::> ~ -J ce o o ~ CZI o cr: ,_,..._ .a:: O 0:: 1 CZI VI t.:) o t.:) o :::> u u o -' '0 cr ::r u o -:r ....... ~ ~ • O ~~ce VI / VI ; ; ~ _, ,_ 0 '-1 ce u CZI -ce u ce -~:t::t: u o ce u ¡U o -1 ~ w :X: ce ~ w ce IX a:: VI r 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Qll 12 1 3 14 S 16 1 7 18 19 20 21 ~ 2 23 24 2S 26 1pIOENTIFICACION 2w . (.!¡ .... ,_ a:: :t: o -J ,_ O t 'OC ,_ cr cr~ !:f~ o o a:' Oft-,_ VI ._ 0 ~ w o a:: .u ce ,_, t.:) O ' t.:~ ..... o ce a:: o ~/ ....., :t: cr _, o w a::ceuo ¡ W o ~ VI ce f O ,.._ o VI o-ce::> ~ -J ce o o ~ CZI o cr: ,_,..._ .a:: O 0:: 1 CZI VI t.:) o t.:) o :::> u u o -' '0 cr ::r u o -:r ....... ~ ~ • O ~~ce VI / VI ; ; ~ _, ,_ 0 '-1 ce u CZI -ce u ce -~:t::t: u o ce u ¡U o -1 ~ w :X: ce ~ w ce IX a:: VI r 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Qll 12 1 3 14 S 16 1 7 18 19 20 21 ~ 2 23 24 2S 26 1 COLOR \"lEGRO -HABITO 2 1 COLOR \"lEGRO -HABITO 2 13 TIIRAIALI\\A 2 CRI 9 • 17 1 2 e; 1 3<' 99 77 6 2 311 24 14 1N 'il 43 2 10 lb 7 20 13 TIIRAIALI\\A 2CRI 9 • 17 1 2 e; 1 3<' 99 77 6 2 311 24 14 1N 'il 43 2 10 lb 7 20 14 PI 310 909 Nf(. 9 • IR 1 2 e; '\\ 29 72 61> 6 2 38 2'5 14 tN 85 45 2 15 26 6 .n 14 PI 310 909Nf(. 9 • IR 1 2 e; '\\ 29 72 61> 6 2 38 2'5 14 tN 85 45 2 15 26 6 .n 17 MEXJCO 1'--l 22 PI 109 llhO CAil AOTA NEG MFX 9 • 21 1 2 '5 1 31 VF: l 9 • 1 8 1 1 , 1 43 97 72 6 2 32 35 ll .. 65 50 2 11 14 5 19 79 58 6 1 311 2t 16 \\N 82 4Q 2 l3 20 b ?.6 17 MEXJCO 1'--l 22 PI 109 llhO CAil AOTA NEGMFX 9 • 21 1 2 '5 1 31 VF: l 9 • 1 8 1 1 , 1 43 97 72 6 2 32 35 ll .. 65 50 2 11 14 5 19 79 58 6 1 311 2t 16 \\N 82 4Q 2 l3 20 b ?.6 "},{"text":" .................................. 3714 VF7. .................................. ~141> IJSA ...... ............................. 371 q VEZ . ................................ . -HABITO 2 -HABITO 2 • • • • 9 9 "},{"text":" ............................... 1264 us~ HC f.'\\ T IJ<;A ....................... l24R LISA...... ............................ . 1277 USA RC~V RC~V "},{"text":" • • S S S lj • • S S S "},{"text":" .. 3852 VEZ . 4 ., S S e; 1 . . .. , 7 14 ltl . ' .. , 714 ltl .' "},{"text":" S • . . ................................... 4) S S S 1 X S S • 3 4) S S S 1 XS S • 3 "},{"text":" • • . . S S S S . . R S S . 7. . . ..... ............................. 3781 VEZ 57 . R . '• .. S S S T X . R S S • 3 . ....••..•.....•...•.•............. 37Q2 VFZ 45 . • 41~2~3 t1 45 46 47 48 . ~ • 41~2~3 t1 45464748 . ~ 5 ?4 . COLOR NEGRO -HABITO 2 5 ?4 .COLOR NEGRO -HABITO 2 "},{"text":" • • S S S S X • 1 S •. 4 . ...... ............................. 3848 VEZ "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" ~ "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" • "},{"text":" •• 2 201 USA . 7 S4 . 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X 40B 730 PI 311 AlA M~ X 9 • 19 l 1 'j 1 2A 104 76 5 2 39 15 18 1111 74 50 2 12 17 6 25 . GIU 9 • 23 2 2 4 3 40 73 61 5 2 33 16 13 lN 74 39 2 3 6 5 7 2R 3072R PI 2611 109 M P. X 40B 730 PI 311 AlAM~ X 9 • 19 l 1 'j 1 2A 104 76 5 2 39 15 18 1111 74 50 2 12 17 6 25 . 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"},{"text":" •• • ........................... . "},{"text":" SEMILLA 1 ~lPO e} HOJA 1 IFLOR(ACIO N J fAL 0 ~RA 1 1 ~~~~y eM /l j § 3/ o 1 i~ 1 1 ..... '~ 1~1 1 1 11 2:: o .... <..J < o -J o -J o o Ct: .... 2:: '-c:c :a:._ '-2:: -¡ 2::, 2:: o .... <..J <o-Jo -Jo o Ct: ....2:: '-c:c :a:._ '-2::-¡ 2::, o z o z 47 48 4748 4795 EL~ 4795 EL~ 4485 GUA 4485 GUA 4465 CR( 4465 CR( 4HZ NIC 4HZ NIC 479q VEZ 479q VEZ 0837 USA 0837 USA 1401 USA 1401 USA 521 3 B~Z 521 3 B~Z 1316 USA 1316 USA 14S8 USA 14S8 USA ?206 USA ?206 USA 3241 GU6 3241 GU6 3090 GUA 3090 GUA 445 h CRT 445 h CRT 4524 CLR 4524 CLR 30RO G\\16 30RO G\\16 4830 RRZ 4830 RRZ 379(1 VEZ 379(1 VEZ 1644 IJS6 1644 IJS6 4143 CRI 4143 CRI 44 61 CAl 44 61 CAl 4971 GU6 4971 GU6 574q CLR 574q CLR 2 296 USA 2 296 USA "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" .. -J , o ..... ..... .... g o •o .... IDENTIFICACION c:c¡o ::a::,;z: o ;;rd / ~ ~~~ o Q.l~ :a: g ,;:: (!) Ct: :a: Ct: Ofl-(!) O ' (!) o u.. .... -J o u.. ..... a: ~¡ <¡ ~ < o u.. 2:: : et: a: ~a. ..... c:c ::;¡ c:c o ~T ~ j a: ~ Q. .' Q. :l IDENTIFICACIONc:c¡o ::a::,;z: o ;;rd / ~ ~~~ o Q.l~ :a: g ,;:: (!) Ct::a: Ct: Ofl-(!) O ' (!)o u.. ....-J o u....... a:~¡ <¡ ~< o u.. 2:: : et: a: ~a. ..... c:c ::;¡ c:c o~T ~ j a: ~ Q. .' Q. :l "},{"text":" .. ~ ..................•......... .. S S S ~ . "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" ..•..•.....•......•.... ........... 37.05 GUA "},{"text":" •• \"\"' ........................ . 31 6 R GUA "},{"text":" Ml\"le9. 22 2 1 <; ~ H 114 lOO 7 2 19 ~b lll •• llb • 4 15 24 5 ~9 1 1 11 1 1 p IDENTIFICACION pIDENTIFICACION 1 1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 lql112 13 14 516171819 20 2lt1. 223 24~526 23 4 56 7 8 9 lql112 13 14 516171819 20 2lt1. 223 24~526 COLOR NEGRO -HABITO 4 COLOR NEGRO -HABITO 4 7 PI ~\\3 7H 7 PI ~\\3 7H 16 TRII.JillO 4 VF7 9 • 21 1 1 ~ 3 35 96 BS 1 2 42 23 17 5N 257 • 4 lA 35 ~ 37 16 TRII.JillO 4VF7 9 • 21 1 1 ~ 3 3596 BS 1 2 42 23 17 5N 257 • 4 lA 35 ~ 37 l 79 P 1 1 A 6 9~ ,_ f,IIA 9 • • 23 1 3 5 3 42 96 85 6 2 4\\ 41 14 • • \\1!9 • 4 20 32 1 3R l 79 P 1 1 A 6 9~ ,_f,IIA 9 • • 23 1 35 3 42 96 85 6 2 4\\ 41 14 • • \\1!9• 4 20 32 1 3R 1 A O P 1 1 A9 0 1 1 OMO~ GIIA9.2422 S349 ll5 63 72~5391h •• ltO .41112510 1 A O P 1 1 A9 0 1 1 OMO~GIIA9.2422 S349ll5 63 72~5391h •• ltO .41112510 3 24 P 1 110 no (;IJA 9 • 25 2 2 S 3 25 102 1!2 8 2 36 Zb 20 1 N 92 • 4 21 ~9 6 30 3 24 P 1 110 no(;IJA 9 • 25 2 2S 3 25 102 1!2 8 2 36 Zb 20 1 N 92• 4 21 ~9 6 30 341! P 1 311 A 19 f,IIA 9 • 11 2 1 5 2 211 104 Al 1 2 3t. ~3 \\b 3N 102 • 4 13 ~1 5 48 341! P 1 311 A 19f,IIA 9 • 11 2 1 5 2 211 104 Al1 2 3t. ~3 \\b 3N 102 • 4 13 ~1 5 48 352 Pl31199l MEX 9 • 20 2 1 53 2R 114 81 8 2 36 21! 19 •• 9A • 4 19 28 6 78 352 Pl31199lMEX 9 • 20 2 1 53 2R 114 81 8 2 36 21! 19 •• 9A • 4 19 28 6 78 353 PI 311992 MFX 9 • 21! l 1 7 3 26 109 99 A 2 35 43 22 4N 187 • 4 39 76 6 4A 353 PI 311992MFX 9 • 21! l 1 7 3 26 109 99 A 2 35 43 22 4N 187 • 4 39 76 6 4A 35A PI 312 Ot.4 MFX 9 • 19 2 3 51 31 94 80 A 2 40 23 15 3N 128 • 4 32 58 5 17 35A PI 312 Ot.4MFX 9 • 19 2 351 3194 80 A 2 40 23 15 3N 128• 4 32 58 5 17 3t.O PI 313 4<;7 IIIFX 9 • 21 2 • l 11 3 29 89 75 6 2 43 20 1 b 1 N 116 • 4 13 2 5 5 2 8 3t.O PI 313 4<;7IIIFX 9 • 21 2 • l 11 3 298975 6 2 43 20 1 b 1 N 116• 4 13 2 5 5 2 8 371 PI 313 7H MFX 9 • 22 2 2 5 3 32 106 71 S 2 42 20 17 4A 97 • 4 15 25 6 76 371 PI 313 7HMFX 9 • 22 2 2 5 3 32 106 71S 2 42 20 17 4A 97• 4 15 25 6 76 393 1 }C'\\2 AlARA\"'A 1 IJ~A 9 • 20 2 3 1 3 25 83 71 5 2 39 7.1 21 3N 156 • 4 9 13 1 49 393 1 }C'\\2 AlARA\"'A 1IJ~A 9 • 20 2 3 1 3 2583 715 2 39 7.1 21 3N 156• 49 13 1 49 422 COMPUES Tn NF.GR.n 1 996 q .-21 1 3 92 74 6 2 39 19 17 3N 111 • 4 9 13 6 ~6 422 COMPUES Tn NF.GR.n1 996q .-21 1 392 746 2 39 19 17 3N 111• 49 13 6 ~6 426 CUNOINAMAQCA t37 ClR 9 • 33 1 ~ 1 3 31! 106 116 6 2 39 2A 17 •• 96 • 4 413b CR l • 6 35 426 CUNOINAMAQCA t37ClR 9 • 33 1 ~1 3 31! 106 116 6 2 39 2A 17 •• 96 • 4413b CR l • 6 35 432 Fll r JOL nF PARR.A 350 Gt fA 9 • 1 9 2 1 S 1 31 19'H IIS4 A 7. 7 3 6 2 47. 7 2 13 4N 1 57 • 4 31 53 6 2 9 432 Fll r JOL nF PARR.A 350Gt fA 9 • 1 9 2 1 S 1 3119'H IIS4 A 7. 7 3 6 2 47. 7 2 13 4N 1 57 • 4 31 53 6 2 9 434 ENREOAOOR OF ~ff,QO ~ll 1 (;116 9 • 72 1 • • 2 4A 165 • 4 USA • . . 434 ENREOAOOR OF ~ff,QO ~ll 1(;116 9 • 72 1 •• 2 4A165• 4USA • . . 436 NEGRO 37.4 GlfA9.2121 53271!9 77 9241ntOtN102 o41A346 44 436 NEGRO37.4GlfA9.212153271!9 779241ntOtN102o41A346 44 440 NEr.RO 3 ~O í.IIA 9 o 19 2 1 r; 3 29 74 63 3400 MEX ll 2 47. 27 1'\\ •• 170 • 4 9 17 5 35 440 NEr.RO 3 ~Oí.IIA 9 o 19 2 1 r; 3 2974 633400 MEX ll 2 47. 27 1'\\ •• 170 • 4 9 17 5 35 441 NEí.RO 3~1 441NEí.RO 3~1 USA USA 4 63 MEx ICO 1 B 5141 8RZ 4 63 MEx ICO 1 B5141 8RZ 4t.4 MEXI CO 114 EL S 4t.4 MEXI CO 114EL S 41!5 POTOMAC 1-10~4 41!5 POTOMAC1-10~4 490 PU~\"RLA 40 2 490 PU~\"RLA 40 2 501 PUF.RlA 199 501 PUF.RlA 199 "},{"text":" ••••.. ssss •• tss •• 74 . .... ~ ....•.•.•...••........•.•... "},{"text":" ..... .; .................... •.• ..... . 1 S S 1 S S "},{"text":" • • R . . . . . . •.•••.........••..........•...... • S S S S )( . S S • • "},{"text":" . "},{"text":" Fl~ 9 • 21 2 7 4 ~ 33 85 71 6 2 36 19 17. 2N A6 • 4 7 12 b 19 FL~ 9 • 21 1 2 4 3 36 71 6? 7 2 4? 20 13 tN 98 • lO 1S 5 17 VFZ 9 • 19 2 2 S 3 31 95 BS 7 2 36 76 24 3N 1h7 • 4 12 lR 6 31 VEZ 9 • 19 2 2 ~ 3 29 97 81 7 1 42 28 1~ 3N 1A7 • 4 9 14 6 41 VFZ 9 • 20 1 2 ~ 1 28 71 • 67. R 2 4? 21 14 2N 101 • 17 27 \\ 32 550 SAN ISf()qQ ME'ntA GU'IA 35 GIIA 9. 18 1 2 5 3 34 90 74 A 2 3A 24 27. 1111 159 • 51 79 5 34 . ; .; 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 IQ1112 13 14 5161718 1 9 20 21D 23Iz4ls26 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 IQ1112 13 14 5161718 1 9 20 21D 23Iz4ls26 COLOR NEGRO -HABITO 4 COLOR NEGRO -HABITO 4 564 PI 311 A11 GIIA 9 • ll 2 2 o; 3 27 109 92 A 2 42 2? 14 IN 111 • 9 14 5 46 564 PI 311 A11GIIA 9 • ll 2 2 o; 3 27 109 92 A 2 42 2? 14 IN 111• 9 14 5 46 565 PI 207 227 VAR 3S 1 CLR 9 . -13 2 2 53 24 83 6h 5 2 3h 27 25 •• 123 • 33 50 ~ 21 565 PI 207 227 VAR 3S 1CLR 9 . -13 2 2 53 24 83 6h 5 2 3h 27 25 •• 123 • 33 50 ~ 21 5A3 71?320S Gil A 9 • 26 2 2 S 3 25 78 !19 5 2 39 2 5 1 3 4N 89 • 13 20 5 17 5A3 71?320SGil A 9 • 26 2 2 S 3 25 78 !19 5 2 39 2 5 1 3 4N 89 • 13 20 5 17 602 PI 271 502 INO 9 • 19 1• 3 6 1 35 124 ~S 6 3 3h 18 1 7. 3N 84 • 13 17 4 27 602 PI 271 502INO 9 • 19 1• 3 6 1 35 124 ~S 6 3 3h 18 1 7. 3N 84 • 13 17 4 27 604 PI 7RA 01b CRf 9 • 17 1 2 S 1 32 95 69 ~ 3 33 19 1 •• 62 • 15 24 ~ 24 604 PI 7RA 01bCRf 9 • 17 1 2 S 1 32 95 69 ~ 3 33 19 1 •• 62 • 15 24 ~ 24 612 RRASIL 171 P~f.TO RRZ 9 • 38 2 3 6 3 37 118 85 5 2 lb 27 14 o;N 108 • 18 25 5 40 612 RRASIL 171 P~f.TORRZ 9 • 38 2 3 6 3 37 118 85 5 2 lb 27 14 o;N 108 • 18 25 5 40 646 PI 70~ 9SA N 203 MFX 9 • 19 1 3 6 3 39 89 80 S 2 36 31 24 4N 1h7 • 14 24 5 20 646 PI 70~ 9SA N 203MFX 9 • 19 1 3 6 3 39 89 80 S 2 36 31 24 4N 1h7 • 14 24 5 20 649 PUERll 439 Mf.X 9. 33 2 3 12 3 46 77 64 S 2 1b 34 2l •• 127 • 14 29 3 41 649 PUERll 439Mf.X 9. 33 2 3 12 3 46 77 64 S 2 1b 34 2l •• 127 • 14 29 3 41 b59 PI 311 R67 GIIA 9 • 25 2 2 t.. l 33 88 74 5 2 35 27 15 • • 138 • 15 20 5 7 b59 PI 311 R67GIIA 9 • 25 2 2 t.. l 33 88 74 5 2 35 27 15 • • 138 • 15 20 5 7 MQ P 1 311 971 141= X 9 • 1 R 2 2 5 l 30 7 2 6 l . 4 2 3 7 7. 6 16 • • 61 • 1 11 5 7 MQP 1 311 971141= X 9 • 1 R 2 2 5 l 30 7 2 6 l . 4 2 3 7 7. 6 16 • • 61• 1 11 5 7 M 1 P 1 313 2 :N C ACAHOA-TE MI=X 9 • 22 1 2 5 Z 26 82 67 4 1 35 7.4 14 3N Al • 9 14 5 17 M 1 P 1 313 2 :N C ACAHOA-TEMI=X 9 • 22 1 2 5 Z 26 82 67 4 1 35 7.4 14 3N Al • 9 14 5 17 662 PI 313 343 MF X 9 • •l 9 1 2 S l 2 1 6 2 5 R 5 2 3 5 2 t ll S N lO 8 • 9 14 5 16 662 PI 313 343MF X 9 • •l 9 1 2 S l 2 1 6 2 5 R 5 2 3 5 2 t ll S N lO 8 • 9 14 5 16 664 PI 313 5\"R CLR 9 • lA 1 • 7 3 50 664 PI 313 5\"RCLR 9 • lA 1 •7 3 50 671 2 N 671 2 N 61-1-5-1 61-1-5-1 673 MEXICO 51 N 673 MEXICO 51 N "}],"sieverID":"ead85609-2120-48e6-af50-80ec8fa84807","abstract":"Reacción a foto~eríodo: se lleva a cabo en un campo adapta do espec i almen te para tomar este caracter . En esta prueba esp e cia l las pl antas se someten a 18 horas de luz diari as , usando luz artificial. La iluminaci ón diaria norma l para la zona es 12 hrs. 21 • . Se han estab lec ido la s siguie~tes categorías: l. Retardo de inicio de floración menor de 4 días 2. Retar do de inicio de floración entre 4-10 días 3. Retardo de 1nicio de floración entre 11-20 dfas 4. Retardo de in ic io de floración entre 21-30 días S. Retardo de in i e i o de floración mayor de 30 dfas El a ato anterior se comp leme nta con las sigu ient es anota c i ones : N: sin aborto de flores A: con abor to de flores o flores to ta 1 mente ausentes 20. Altura de planta : es la distancia entre el cuello de la planta y la punta del meristemo apícal de l t a,llo prin c ipal (puede ser flor formada o merist emo vege t at i vo en materiales que produ c en guía) . Promeaío en centíme t ros de S plantas y se t om a durante el ll enado de vaina.21. Altura de cobertura del follaje: es la altura media alcanzada por el f ollaje a lafloraci6n. Promedio en centfm~tros de c\\nco mediciones representativa s de la parcela.No se toma en accesiones de h~bito trepador .22 . HSbito de cr~cimiento: se basa principalmente en 1~ caract e rfstica det e rminada (meristemo terminal co~ flor dcs•rrolladal 6 indeterminada (meristemo terminal vegetativo) del tallo principal, asf como def tipo de r amificaci ó n lateral. Se toma al finalizar f lo raci6n. Se han definido 4 ~rupos principales asf:1 • Arbustivo determinado 2. Ar b'Js tivo indeterminado con gufa corta 3. In<le terminadc. con gufa larga, pero sin ninguna o muy poca aptit~d para trepar. 4. Indeterminado con gufa l arga, trepador 23. Racimos por planta: se cuentan todos los racimos de la planta que tengan vainas.Promedio de cinco plantas cosechadas.24 . Vainas por planta: se cuentan todas las vainas de la planta que tengan semillas. Promedio de cinco plantas cosechadas .25. Semillas por vaina: se cuentan las semillas de diez vainas tomadas al azar de la parcela y se anota el promedio.26 . Materia seca total : es el peso seco ,de veinte plantas de los que se e¡ecluye hojas y peciolos. Se anota el promedio .27. Rendimiento por planta: es el peso de se~illa de veinte plantas con co~petenc i a dentro de la parcela. Se anota el promed i o.28. Indice de cosecha: Se obtiene dividiendo 27 entre 26. Se e~oresa en porcentaje .29 . Rendimiento por area o productividad experimental: es el pes o en kilogramos por hectárea en ensayos repetidos."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"09be908292cfb31fb800e083c726105f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H010760.pdf"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Studies on Rice-Based Irrigation Systems Management in Bangladesh","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"afcc61f4-a63c-46af-b9b3-109288eacdfe","abstract":"IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN Bangladesh are primarily oriented to the production of rice.Rice is grown in three overlapping seasons: aman, or rainy-season rice for which supplemental irrigation is often useful; bora, or winter rice; and aus, grown during the hot spring and early summer. The types of irrigation systems used for rice are quite varied, and include tubewells, canal systems and low-lift pumps drawing water from surface sources. Recent growth in irrigation has been most noticeable in the tubewell sector, as Bangladesh has large groundwater resources which, in most places, are amply replenished during the monsoon season. Large numbers of wells and canal command areas, however, are underutilized, raising questions as to how they can be more p\"foductivelyand equitably managed. It was in this context that the Bangladesh portion of the IIMI/IRRI collaborative project on problems of irrigation management for rice-based farming systems was started.The Bangladesh component of the lIMI/IRRI collaborative project has had a somewhat different emphasis from the components in Indonesia and the Philippines. In those countries the focus has been on irrigation management for diversified cropping, whereas in Bangladesh the emphasis has included the management of irrigation systems for rice whether or not other crops are grown. Nonrice crops do have an increasing significance in Bangladesh, but the country is not yet self-sufficient in rice and the general efficiency and equitability of its irrigation systems would appear, at this time, to be of the greatest importance. lIMI's partnership with IRRI in Bangladesh had to await the arrival of the lIMI ResidentScientist in Dhaka in late 1988. Since 1982, IRRI has already been sponsoring some on-farm irrigation work in two projects through the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRR!). Those two projects, plus one new site, were selected for the collaborative work. lIMI's part of this collaborative work was designed during 1989, but actual data collection started only with the dry season of 1989/1990, due to problems in arranging the deputation of a researcher to lead the work.The BRRI team with which lIMI has worked on this program concentrated most of its efforts on issues that could be termed on-farm. These included water availability"}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a6cef90525269f9e49ac4c92ae05cf8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/503FFF1F6BFB3F8140E97071961D2302/S1742170520000034a.pdf/multicriteria_decisionsupport_system_to_assess_the_potential_of_exclosurebased_conservation_in_ethiopia.pdf"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems","keywords":["Abay river basin","carbon sequestration","ecosystem services restoration","Ethiopia","exclosure","land degradation","land use planning","river basin"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"Land and water resources degradation remains one of the major global threats. It is negatively impacting livelihoods and returns from large-scale development activities [e.g., sedimentation of water infrastructure (Obalum et al., 2012)] in most African countries. Recent estimates put the extent of degraded land in Ethiopia at more than a quarter of the area of the country. This affects nearly a third of the population (Chirwa, 2014;Gebreselassie et al., 2016). Depending on the type of land cover and the method of estimation, the average rate of soil erosion in the Ethiopian highlands ranges from 6 to 33 tons ha −1 yr −1 (Hurni et al., 2015). The total estimated loss of fertile topsoil in the highlands of Ethiopia varies between 941 million tons and 1.5 billion tons per year (Tamene and Vlek, 2008;Hurni et al., 2015). UNDP (2002) has estimated nutrient depletion as a result of soil loss at 30 kg ha −1 yr −1 of nitrogen and 15-20 kg ha −1 yr −1 of phosphorus. Such massive soil movement has on-site and off-site impacts."},{"index":2,"size":277,"text":"The main causes of land and water degradation are complex and interactive. They include deforestation, soil erosion, agricultural land expansion and overgrazing (Tekle, 1999;Paulos, 2001;Nyssen et al., 2004;Hurni et al., 2005;Yirga and Hassan, 2010;Adimassu et al., 2017), as well as underlying drivers such as weak regulatory frameworks and institutions, demographic growth, unclear land-use rights, low empowerment of local communities and poverty (Haileslassie et al., 2005;Kirui and Mirzabaev, 2014). In Ethiopia, the direct cost of soil and essential nutrient loss due to unsustainable land management was estimated in 1994 (Bojo and Cassels, 1995) at 3% (US$106 million) of the agricultural GDP. A recent modeling study by Sonneveld (2002) estimated that the loss of agricultural value during the period 2000-2010 was about US$7 billion. A more recent study indicated that the annual cost of land degradation associated with land use and land cover change in Ethiopia is about US$4.3 billion (Gebreselassie et al., 2016). To address this problem, we need integrated actions covering different landscapes and involving various stakeholders (Pistorius et al., 2016). The government of Ethiopia, in collaboration with local and international communities, has been implementing several forms of land and water management interventions (Humphrey, 1999;Tamene and Vlek, 2008;Merrey and Gebreselassie, 2011). These interventions include construction of soil and water conservation structures, afforestation and establishment of exclosures in degraded landscapes. The Ethiopian government's voluntary commitment in the context of the Bonn Challenge to restore 15 million ha of degraded land is part of these efforts. In the context of rural Ethiopia, exclosure-based forest establishment and ecosystem service restoration provides a promising approach to reversing the widespread land degradation and supporting the livelihood expectations of millions of smallholder farmers."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Exclosures are areas fenced off from anthropogenic interventions such as wood harvesting, grazing by livestock and other agricultural activities with the objective of allowing natural regeneration of vegetation and restoration of degraded communal grazing lands and other suitable land cover and land use types (Mekuria et al., 2011a). In Ethiopia, establishment of exclosures started in the northern highlands four to five decades ago (Mekuria and Aynekulu, 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"This practice can also be applied to sensitive ecosystems (hillside forest stands) to limit anthropogenic interventions. It can be implemented in wetlands, around river or buffer areas as well as in degraded grazing and agricultural lands. Establishment of exclosures incurs less cost compared to other land restoration interventions such as bunds and terraces. It has its pros and cons (Adimassu et al., 2017). The most commonly cited opportunity costs of exclosures include decrease in communal grazing lands and curtailed availability of and access to fuelwood (Mekuria et al., 2011b(Mekuria et al., , 2015;;Mekuria and Aynekulu, 2013;Adimassu et al., 2017). Nevertheless, some of these opportunity costs can be minimized though integrating income-generating activities (e.g., apiaries) within exclosures (Adimassu et al., 2017;Mekuria et al., 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Scaling of exclosure-based ecosystem restoration in Ethiopia is constrained by several factors including the lack of a countrywide prioritization and targeting tool and a management plan following the establishment of an exclosure. The lack of incentives for forgoing limited short-term economic benefits is another complaint heard from local communities (Mekuria et al., 2017)."},{"index":6,"size":141,"text":"Geographic Information System (GIS) tools can be applied to develop a framework to support the targeting of appropriate areas for various interventions. Multicriteria analyses too are appropriate for land suitability assessment (Venkatesan et al., 2010;Worqlul et al., 2015;Akyol et al., 2016;Worqlul et al., 2017;Schmitter et al., 2018). However, there has been limited application of a multicriteria framework to identify and target potential exclosure areas in Ethiopia. The objectives of this study therefore were: (i) to develop a GIS-based multicriteria decision-support tool that helps us to identify suitable areas with potential for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration; (ii) to provide spatially explicit information on potential exclosure areas disaggregated by river basin and agroecology and (iii) to conduct an ex-ante analysis of the potential of exclosure areas for improving ecosystem services in terms of an increase in above-ground biomass (AGB) production and carbon storage."},{"index":7,"size":152,"text":"The current study has multiple benefits: first, the tool we developed from this study can be applied elsewhere to out-scale exclosure. The methodology relies on open source software and open license data sources, which allows users to improve the tool. Secondly, information generated through this study could support planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of land restoration through exclosures. For instance, it can support ongoing efforts to sustain the benefits of water infrastructure (e.g., hydropower dams) by providing information on priority areas for establishing exclosures and help in the protection of man-made and natural water bodies from erosion and sedimentation. This study also attempts to provide information on changes in the above-ground carbon stock following the establishment of exclosures. Therefore, programs such as REDD + (Reduction of Emission from Deforestation and Degradation) and Ethiopia's voluntary commitment to the Bonn Challenge and the project to plant 4 billion trees could benefit from this study."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area and selection of validation points","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"This study focused on Ethiopia at multiple but interactive scales. The overall analysis was done at the national level and disaggregated for the 11 river basins of the country (Fig. 1A). Further, two sample basins were selected and disaggregated by agroecology (Fig. 1B). At the lower end of the scale were three microwatersheds nested into the two sample basins and used for validation (note the dots in Fig. 1B)."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Overall, we followed a two-step procedure to validate the analyses. First, we selected two basins: the Abay River and the Rift Valley lakes basins (Fig. 1B and C). The key criteria we used to select the two basins included: (i) severity of land degradation and sedimentation of water bodies; (ii) the presence of large-scale development interventions (e.g., irrigation and hydropower developments); (iii) availability of diverse agroecological zones and ecosystem sensitivity to disturbance and (iv) potential for future development (McCartney and Girma, 2012;Haregeweyn et al., 2016). Secondly, we selected three sample watersheds, the Koga, Gumera and Hawassa-Zeway lake watersheds (Fig. 1B and C), in the two basins for validation. The key criterion for selecting these watersheds was the presence of heterogeneous biophysical settings where exclosures have been implemented. A total of 385 ground truthing points were set up across the three watersheds."}]},{"head":"General procedure","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"We developed a spatial analysis procedure using the GIS-based Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) method to determine potential areas for exclosure establishment. The framework was used to estimate land suitability for scaling exclosures across scale in Ethiopia. The MCDA method enables us to structure decision problems and design, evaluate and prioritize alternative scenarios or decisions (Malczewski, 2006;Worqlul et al., 2015;Worqlul et al., 2017;Schmitter et al., 2018). MCDA also enables us to combine geographical data and value judgments (the decision-maker's preferences) to obtain information for decisionmaking (Malczewski, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems S89"},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"The applied procedure involves seven steps (Fig. 2): (i) definition of the conceptual framework; (ii) assigning a score/rank to each factor (Fig. 2B); (iii) creation of a constraint layer (Fig. 2A); (iv) integration of thematic layers and spatial models (Fig. 2B); (v) validation of suitability mapping; (vi) overlay of the identified suitable areas on the actual land-use map to determine suitability in agricultural and non-agricultural land-use areas (Fig. 2C) and (vii) aggregation of suitability within river basins and disaggregation by agroecology (Fig. 2C). These steps are elaborated upon in the following sections."}]},{"head":"Conceptual framework","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"To determine the suitability factors to aid us in identifying potential land for exclosures, we explored two scenarios based on: (i) the Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO (Sheng, 1990)] exclosure suitability criteria and (ii) the land-use policy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia [FDRE (MoA, 2016)]. In both scenarios, the variables considered in the framework included slope, soil depth, biomass and proximity to wetlands (streams and lakes)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The criteria for suitability of land for exclosures vary as per FAO (Sheng, 1990) andFDRE (MoA, 2016) guidelines. According to the FAO criteria, areas with a slope above 46%, independent of land-use type, are suitable for establishing exclosures whereas the FDRE land-use policy suggests that degraded areas with a slope >50% are suitable. According to FAO, agricultural lands with a soil depth of 0-20 cm are suitable for establishing exclosures while the FDRE guidelines set this value at 0-25 cm."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"With sedimentation and pollution posing an increasing threat to lakes and rivers, the Ethiopian River Basin Development Authority has launched several initiatives to delineate buffer zones around wetlands and put them under exclosures while investing in enrichment planting. Bekele-Tesemma et al. (1993) define and suggest attributes to delineate areas with low biomass potential (Bereha). "}]},{"head":"S90","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Kefyalew Sahle Kibret et al."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"The key attribute to define these areas could be long-term biomass productivity. In this study, we applied the time series vegetation index [enhanced vegetation index (EVI)] to detect areas with longterm low biomass productivity. The following subsections provide details of the ranking of each of the factors used in the framework."}]},{"head":"Assigning scores/ranks to each factor","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The data identified and acquired for the analysis need to be reclassified so that they have the same range of values (Saaty, 1977;Schmitter et al., 2018). Accordingly, we classified each data layer as per a scale of 1-5, with 5 being the most suitable environment for exclosure land use and 1 being the least suitable (Table 1). Ranking of classes within each factor was done on the basis of literature review (Sheng, 1990;MoA, 2016) and expert opinion. The ranking/reclassifying of values in each factor was done independent of the other factors. Figure 2B shows the factors that were included and reclassified. These were slope, soil depth, biomass, proximity to water bodies (streams and lakes)."},{"index":2,"size":354,"text":"(A) Slope: Slope is one of the factors that govern runoff and soil erosion and directly influence the infiltration of rain water. The relationship between runoff and sediment yield and steepness of the slope is well-established (Haileslassie et al., 2005;Hurni et al., 2015). Runoff volume and sediment yield are higher in sloping terrain than in flat terrain (Hurni et al., 2015). A digital elevation model (DEM) with 30 m resolution from Earth Explorer web portal (http:// earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) was used to derive a slope layer (in percentage.) A score of 5 was given to a steep slope because higher runoff contributes to higher erosion. According to the FAO (Sheng, 1990), areas with a slope >46%, regardless of the land-use type, are suitable for exclosures whereas the FDRE land-use policy suggests a slope >50% (Table 1). (B) Soil depth: The depth of soil determines the use of land for a specific purpose: it limits the root depth and influences the drainage pattern. The shallower the soil, the less its capacity to store water, rendering it more prone to degradation. Implicitly, such land has to be put under exclosure and ecosystem service restoration. In this study, the soil depth layer was created from depth to bedrock with 250 m resolution as per the International Soil Reference and Information Centre [ISRIC (Hengl et al., 2015)]. According to the FAO-based scenario (Sheng, 1990), areas with a soil depth of 0-20 cm are suitable for exclosure land use while the FDRE land-use policy recommends a soil depth of 0-25 cm. In both scenarios, a score of 5 was assigned to shallow soil and a score of 1 to deep soil (Table 1). (C) Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI): The EVI composite was used from MODIS Terra and Aqua at 16 composite days with 250 m resolution from 2002 to 2016. The average and coefficient of variation of EVI were calculated in Google Earth Engine (GEE). Ranking of degradation levels was done using the long-term mean annual Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVIavg) and coefficient of variation of long-term Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVIcv) as a proxy for deriving the degradation levels of different landscapes."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Accordingly, using the above criteria, landscapes were 1). (D) Proximity to water bodies: The DEM was used to derive the stream network. Once the streams were derived, a layer showing the distance to stream was created. The distance to stream layer was reclassified into two classes: 0-30 m and above 30 m. A score of 5 was assigned to areas close to a stream, assuming that these areas are prone to erosion and needing protection. Areas far from the river were assigned a score of 2 (Table 1)."},{"index":4,"size":196,"text":"Lakes and reservoirs are affected by the human activities occurring around them. First, the water bodies layer was created from a land cover map released by the European Space Agency (Ramoino et al., 2016). This map, available for free, was created using Sentinel-2. The second layer created was a water occurrence layer based on images available since 1984 showing areas occurring from 0 to 100 of the observation periods and derived in GEE. This layer provided spatial information on water bodies. The water bodies layer from Sentinel-2 land cover and the water occurrence layer from GEE were merged into a single layer. This was then used to create the distance to lakes layer and reclassified into four classes: 0-150, 150-180, 180-8000 and greater than 8000 m. The areas close to lakes were assumed to contribute to sedimentation if not protected; and those areas far from lakes were taken to have less influence on Table 1. Reclassification criteria used for the various factors included in the MCDA under the national land use policy FDRE (MoA, 2016) and FAO (Sheng, 1990) sedimentation of lakes. Therefore, areas close to the lakes were assigned a score of 5 (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Constraint layer","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Naturally, there are areas where exclosure cannot be practised: for example, water bodies, extreme cold areas and extreme desert areas. Therefore, constraint factors, as illustrated in Table 1, were defined. A constraint layer was created for exclosure-unsuitable lands in agroecological zones, lakes and built-up areas (Fig. 2A)."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"The input data for deriving the agroecological zones in this study were the 1 arcsecond scenes of the Space Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), the DEM covering Ethiopia and the mean WorldClim rainfall data at 900 m resolution (http:// www.worldclim.org/). A total of 95 1 arcsecond scenes DEM were merged to derive a DEM covering the whole of Ethiopia. Two agroecological zones were identified as not suitable for agricultural land use (Bekele-Tesemma et al., 1993): (a) areas below 500 m a.s.l. with precipitation less than 900 mm where rainfed agriculture is not possible (desert); and (b) areas too cold regardless of the amount of rainfall (frost above 3700 m a.s.l.). Table 2 shows the different agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia based on rainfall and elevation as indicated in Bekele-Tesemma et al. (1993). Areas falling within the two classes were excluded from suitability analysis. Also, areas with a long-term EVI average below 0.15 were excluded as productive land-use practices are not practical there due to a combination of land-and weather-related factors."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"Built-up areas are supposed to be excluded from the analysis. To derive the town layer, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Night Light data were used. The NOAA data were acquired in GEE with 4 km resolution (Gorelick et al., 2017). This and the slope layer (<15%) were used to derive a built-up constraint layer. Water bodies by themselves are assumed to be not directly under exclosure areas. Therefore, lakes and reservoirs were considered as a constraint layer. This constraint layer was created from the Sentinel-2 land cover and GEE water occurrence layer. All the individual constraint layers were then merged to create a single layer excluding areas falling in any one of the several constraints."}]},{"head":"Integration of thematic layers and spatial model","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"Integration of the reclassified layers was done in three steps: (i) weighting each reclassified factor; (ii) merging the factors by applying the weights and (iii) reclassifying the result of the weighted overlay and merging steps. It is evident that the suitability and constraint factors being considered have varied degrees of influence and importance in determining exclosure suitability. Thus, defining weights is crucial for detecting the importance or preference of each factor relative to the others (Saaty, 1980). Accordingly, we transformed all the factors into similar units, and used pairwise comparisons to determine the weights of each factor relative to the other factors (Saaty, 1980). We used a standard scale with values 1-7 to determine the weight of each factor. This was done for each scenario resulting in two outputs, one for each scenario based on two scenarios, one based on FAO criteria (Sheng, 1990) and the other on FDRE (MoA, 2016) criteria. Weighting of the factors was applied in two parts. The first part considered the reclassified factors of slope, soil depth and biomass with weights of 0.6, 0.2 and 0.2, respectively (Table 3). The second part considered the reclassified factors of proximity to water bodies and degraded wetland, slope and biomass by applying weights of 0.6, 0.2 and 0.2, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The reclassified factors were then merged by applying the weights assigned to each class. This was done for the first and second parts separately. Applying the weights in the first part produced the aggregated layer WF S1 using the reclassified factors (RF) of slope, soil depth and biomass with weights (F W ) of 0.6, 0.2 and 0.2, respectively, as illustrated by Equation (1):"},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Applying the weights in the second part produced the aggregated layer WF S2 using the reclassified factors (RF) of proximity to water bodies and degraded wetland, slope and biomass with weights (F W ) of 0.6, 0.2 and 0.2, respectively, as illustrated by Equation (2):"},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"WF S1 and WF S2 were merged to produce a single thematic layer by taking the maximum of the values from the two layers. The output layer can have decimal values between 5 and 0. It is not possible to estimate area coverage of the different classes using decimal values. As a result, potential areas for exclosures following the multicriteria model were further reclassified into three classes: very highly suitable (>4.5), highly suitable (4.5 to 4) and suitable (4 to 3.5). Areas with a score below 3.5 were excluded from analysis as establishing exclosures in those areas is not possible or productive (Fig. 1B)."}]},{"head":"Land-use adjustment to conservation measures","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"We conducted land-use adjustment analysis in relation to the proposed suitability classes by overlaying a present land-use layer on the suitability maps produced for each of the two scenarios (Fig. 2C). The present land-use layer was created using the Sentinel-2 land cover (Ramoino et al., 2016) and agricultural land cover (IWMI, 2015). The outputs generated by this step indicate whether the land identified as suitable for exclosure corresponds to current degraded agricultural land or to current natural or perennial vegetation. Such analyses provide support to practitioners or land managers to make informed decisions on future land use and the adjustments needed. It helps also to understand the potential tradeoffs and mitigation measures needed as well as the need to implement land restoration interventions. In this regard the key challenge is that the current landuse map aggregates agricultural land but does not separate grazing and crop areas. Therefore, this study does not address the specific competition or tradeoff between land conversion to exclosure and other agricultural land-use types."}]},{"head":"Validation of the suitability mapping","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":291,"text":"As indicated earlier, a two-step procedure was followed to validate the analyses. First, we selected two basins-the Rift Valley lakes and Abay River basins (Fig. 1)-and nested therein three sample watersheds for validation: Koga and Gumera in the Abay basin and the Hawassa-Zeway lakes in the central Rift Valley lakes basin (Fig. 1B and C). The suitability mapping analysis was validated using ground truthing and recent high-resolution images from Google Earth. The information we collected included the presence of existing exclosures, agricultural land-use data, slope, status of land degradation, soil depth and proximity to water bodies. The current land-use type was observed for each point on Google Earth imagery, which showed detailed features around the selected points. The slope of each point was obtained from the DEM at 30 m resolution. Field data were collected from accessible areas in the three selected watersheds which included a total of 385 ground truthing points (253 in Hawassa-Zeway and 132 in Koga and Gumera). Compilation of the survey data from each ground truthing point provided information on: (a) exclosure suitability as per field observations and (b) exclosure suitability according to the suitability map. The surveyed points were assigned a suitability class value corresponding to the classes of the multicriteria model 5 indicating suitability or 1 nonsuitability for exclosure-based intervention. Accuracy assessment was done for each of the two scenarios (FDRE and FAO) using the observations and the corresponding map values. The overall accuracy was calculated by dividing the sum of the suitability class matching samples by the total number of sample points (Liu et al., 2007). Accordingly, the validation analyses conducted in the two basins indicated a suitability class accuracy of 90% for the FDRE scenario and 95% for the FAO scenario (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"Ex-ante analysis of above-ground biomass and carbon stocks","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The potential accumulation of AGB is one of the ecosystem services that exclosure-based land restoration promises. In this study, we estimated this ecosystem benefit using Ethiopia's Forest Reference Level (EFRL) submission to the UNFCCC 2017 (MEFCC, 2017). The suitability map of exclosures was overlaid on the biome and agroecology map of Ethiopia to derive the area coverage of exclosures in different biomes and agroecologies."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The biome data classify the country into biomes including Acacia-Commiphora, Combretum-Terminalia, Dry Afromontaine, Moist Afromontaine and Other (water bodies). The area coverage of exclosures in each biome was multiplied with the EFRL (tons ha −1 ) to derive the AGB in tons. The coverage considered only the very highly and highly suitable exclosure areas. Carbon stock was estimated by multiplying the estimated AGB by a carbon fraction of 0.47. A carbon fraction of 0.47 has been applied in Ethiopia, which is the default value for wood in the tropical and subtropical domains (MEFCC, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":311,"text":"Values and spatial distribution of land found suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration Table 5 and Figure 3 show the empirical values and spatial distribution of land found to be suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration under the FDRE-based (MoA, 2016) and FAO-based (Sheng, 1990) scenarios. Except for the lowlands in the northeastern, eastern and southeastern parts of Ethiopia, most of the areas were suitable for exclosures, in particular the central, northern, eastern and southern highlands, which were found to be highly suitable. The total estimated potential land was 9 million ha for the FDRE-based scenario and about 11 million ha for the FAO-based scenario. This is equivalent to 8 and 10% of Ethiopia's surface area under the two scenarios, respectively. Table 5 also shows data on enclosure-suitable areas that are currently under agricultural and non-agricultural activities. For example, as per the FDRE (MoA, 2016) scenario, 0.45 million ha of the suitable land are currently under agriculture. That is 0.4% of Ethiopia's land area. Of this, 0.08 million ha are classified as very highly suitable and 0.37 million ha as highly suitable for exclosures. Under the FAO-based (Sheng, 1990) scenario, about 0.64 million ha (0.57% of Ethiopia's land area) of the potential land are currently under agriculture. A significant proportion of the land, however, is under non-agricultural land use, including degraded lands or bush land, which have relatively lower opportunity costs when converted to exclosure compared to agricultural land. These non-agricultural lands found suitable for exclosure are distributed around the western and eastern parts of the country (Fig. 3). 6 disaggregates the same attributes by agroecology for the Abay and Rift Valley basins. Figures 4 and 5 show the spatial distribution of this land in these two basins respectively. The major purpose of this exercise was to assess the extent of area that is suitable Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems S95"},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration in the river basins and to prioritize these areas for investment to protect water infrastructure (such as hydropower reservoirs) from sedimentation. The results demonstrated that the Tekeze, Rift Valley, Mereb and Abay river basins contain the largest proportion of area suitable for exclosure (Table 5). Based on the FDRE (MoA, 2016) scenario, the Abay river basin showed a potential of about 2.2 million ha of land (11.2% of the basin area) that is suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration, whereas the Tekeze river basin contains about 1.8 million ha (22% of the basin area). The second scenario, based on FAO (Sheng, 1990), demonstrated a similar trend but with slightly different values across the river basins."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"A major part of the area in the Abay basin that was found to be suitable for exclosure is not currently under agricultural land use (Table 5). The Moist Mid-highland and Moist Highland agroecological zones host major parcels of land suitable for exclosurebased ecosystem service restoration (Table 6)."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"In the central Rift Valley basin, a total of 61.8 × 10 3 and 69.8 × 10 3 ha of land were estimated to be suitable for exclosure under the FDRE-based (MoA, 2016) and FAO-based (Sheng, 1990) scenarios, respectively (Table 5). However, a considerable proportion of this (Sheng, 1990). The white areas are either constraints or areas not suitable for exclosure measures."}]},{"head":"S96","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Kefyalew Sahle Kibret et al."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"area is currently under agricultural land use (Table 6; Fig. 5). For example, based on the MoA (2016) scenario, 19.4 × 10 3 ha of land (32% of the basin area) and 20.8 × 10 3 ha of land (30% of the basin area) based on the Sheng (1990) scenario are currently under agricultural land use. This contrasts with the Abay basin where most of the suitable land is under non-agricultural land FAO (Sheng, 1990). The white areas are either constraints or areas not suitable for conservation measures."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems S97 use. The Rift Valley lake basin has relatively fewer agroecological zones; only subtle differences were observed among these different zones in terms of suitability for exclosure interventions."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Decision-support tools to target and prioritize exclosure-based interventions can help countries in delivering their commitments","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"In the context of the Bonn Challenge, Ethiopia has voluntarily committed to restoring 15 million ha of degraded land by 2025 (Pistorius et al., 2016). Establishment of exclosures can be considered as one of the various approaches to restore lands and enhance ecosystem services (Mekuria 2011a(Mekuria , 2011b)). However, decision-support tools to prioritize investment and target hotspot areas for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration have been lacking. In principle, such tools could enhance the success of regional and national initiatives. For example, they can support the ongoing efforts to sustain the benefits of water infrastructure (e.g., hydropower dams). This approach also includes procedures to prioritize areas for intervention and provides information on changes in the aboveground carbon stock following the establishment of exclosures. Therefore, programs such as REDD + (Reduction of Emission from Deforestation and Degradation) and Ethiopia's voluntary commitment to the Bonn Challenge could benefit from this approach and its decision-support tools. The approach employs freely accessible data including Sentinel-2 land cover (Ramoino et al., 2016), DEM, EVI, water occurrence (Gorelick et al., 2017) and soil depth (Hengl et al., 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"Despite these contributions, four limitations were identified in this study. First, our analysis used a land cover data layer (IWMI, 2015) that aggregates all agricultural lands (e.g., crop and grazing land, large-scale specialized farms and smallholder mixed farms) as one class. This impeded an in-depth understanding of the competing factors and the socio-economic implications of land conversion to exclosure. Secondly, it is obvious that the type of land ownership, current economic value and the sociocultural attachment of the community determine land conversion to exclosure. Due to its limited scope, the current study did not explore this dimension. Thirdly, the agricultural land-use data used in this study had a resolution of only 250 × 250 m 2 . Use of medium-resolution land-cover maps would increase the accuracy of land adjustment maps. Given the high level of agricultural land fragmentation in Ethiopia, using medium-resolution data would greatly increase the precision of this tool. Fourthly, the study covered different agroecological zones, river basins and associated livelihoods whereas the validation points come from only two geographic areas. Validation points from more areas would be more appropriate and would lead to a higher level of accuracy."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Targeting and prioritizing river basins for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration sustains the longevity of water infrastructure"},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The government of Ethiopia has pledged to restore 15 million ha of degraded land by 2025-which is equivalent to one-sixth of the country's total land area. Our study showed that over 60% of the pledged area could be restored through establishing exclosures. The Ethiopia Highland Reclamation Study (FAO, 1986) estimated that about 14.4 million ha in the Ethiopian highlands are severely (Sheng, 1990). The white areas are either constraints or areas not suitable for conservation measures."}]},{"head":"S98","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Kefyalew Sahle Kibret et al."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"degraded and need rehabilitation. The difference between the estimates presented in FDRE ( 2015) and our study can be explained by the fact that we were concerned only with exclosure-based rehabilitation and therefore excluded all areas that needed restoration but were not suitable for exclosure."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Recent estimates show that currently about 4 million ha of land are under exclosure in Ethiopia. This indicates that there is room for expansion of the exclosure area by 60%. Information generated in this study will help in targeting and prioritizing land for expansion."},{"index":4,"size":193,"text":"Our results support the view that a considerable proportion of land that is currently being used for agriculture and nonagricultural purposes can be converted to exclosures to restore degraded landscapes or maintain non-degraded landscapes and improve ecosystem services. Several studies have reported that exclosures are effective in improving ecosystem services. The many benefits include increased vegetation and biodiversity (Mekuria and Veldkamp, 2012); enhanced ecosystem carbon stock (Mekuria et al., 2011b(Mekuria et al., , 2015)); reduced soil erosion (Mekuria et al., 2009); restoration of soil fertility (Mekuria and Aynekulu, 2013); decreased runoff and sediment load (Tefera et al., 2005;Girmay et al., 2009) and increased incomes and improved livelihoods of smallholder farmers over the medium to long term (Babulo et al., 2006;Tilahun et al., 2007;Mekuria et al., 2011a). However, converting agricultural lands into exclosures needs careful planning, and should include, for example, creation of alternative livelihoods for farm households currently using the land for agricultural and livestock production. Exploring mechanisms for productive use of exclosures including apiaries and fattening could help mitigate the potential tradeoffs. Areas under non-agricultural land-use systems have fewer opportunity costs and thus could be considered as priority areas for exclosure intervention."},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"In Ethiopia, high rainfall in the Moist Highland and Moist Mid-Highland agroecological zones, where large tracts of land are suitable for exclosure interventions, results in high rainfall erosivity. In the Abay basin, major parts of these agroecological zones overlap with the class of land characterized by severe soil erosion [30-50 tons ha −1 yr −1 (Haregeweyn et al., 2017)], and hence were selected by the applied model as highly suitable for exclosure. An additional reason why these zones have large areas suitable for exclosures might be related to the rugged topography and their long cultivation history resulting in severe land erosion and shallow soil depth (FAO, 1986). The primary drivers, according to FAO (1986), are related to anthropogenic interventions such as cultivation on the steep slopes. Given the favorable climate, these areas have been under predominantly cereal cultivation, which has resulted in depletion of soil organic matter and increased erosion leading to shallow soils."},{"index":6,"size":153,"text":"Our results show that most of the lands found suitable for establishing exclosures fall in areas that have large-scale development projects (e.g., Tekeze dam) or freshwater bodies (e.g., Lake Tana and Ziway). This suggests that exclosure interventions in such areas can be a viable strategy to reduce siltation, thereby protecting large development projects and natural lakes which play a key role in the livelihoods of the local community. Welde (2016) reported that degraded watersheds in the Tekeze river basin generated a significant amount of sediment, posing a threat to the Tekeze dam. Similarly, Haregeweyn et al. (2017), in a comprehensive assessment of the soil erosion risk in the upper Blue Nile basin, reported a continued increase in erosion and sedimentation despite decades of soil and water conservation efforts. Berhane et al. (2016) showed that more than 61% of 92 micro dams, mainly located in the subcatchment of the Tekeze basin, suffer from sedimentation."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"Studies of the upper Blue Nile basin have indicated that the Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) itself could be threatened by excessive sedimentation unless proper soil and water conservation measures are implemented upstream (Haregeweyn et al., 2017). Therefore, in the Abay basin, restoring degraded landscapes through establishing exclosures could be an option to reduce siltation and increase the service years of water infrastructure."},{"index":8,"size":142,"text":"The Rift Valley basin too is in need of proper use and management of resources as it contains sensitive ecosystems that are threatened by siltation, which has already resulted in the shrinking of lakes (e.g., Lake Abjata, Fig. 5). Our study identified major parts of the eastern and western highland areas of the Rift Valley as suitable and the valley floor as not suitable for exclosure. The volcanic ash (Andosols) in the valley floor (dry kola) is a major contributor to soil degradation and siltation of the lakes. However, as these areas act as sediment sinks for eroded material transported from the upland areas, they have deeper soil profiles. Therefore, based on the criteria used in our framework, these areas were classified as areas not needing exclosure. This entails that future exclosure mapping efforts need to include attributes that capture these gaps."},{"index":9,"size":222,"text":"A closer look at the distribution and current use of exclosuresuitable lands in the Rift Valley showed that management of exclosure areas there would have more opportunity costs compared to those in the Abay basin. Exceptionally, some of these areas in the Rift Valley basin are covered by natural forests, plantations and perennial crops. While these areas are already protected, FAO (Sheng, 1990) criteria recommend that all land >46% regardless of their land use land cover type should be under exclosure. These ecosystems are important for the livelihoods of the local communities and for the environment. For example, areas around Lake Langanao serve as the habitat for different wild animals including the native mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), and as sources of timber and fuelwood for household consumption and commerce. Exclosure-suitable areas in the Hawassa lake catchment are similarly important for the livelihoods of local communities. Sites around the lakes were deemed suitable for exclosure due to a combination of their proximity to the water body and the level of degradation (as in the case of Lake Abjata) or the slope of the surrounding terrain (as in the case of Lake Shalla). The Rift Valley basin authority is currently developing a manual for buffer zone protection around these areas, which supports our findings. This study will contribute to the implementation of this policy."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"Ex-ante analysis of impacts of exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration on above-ground biomass and carbon stock"},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"The contribution of exclosures to AGB and carbon stock varies with agroecology and biomes (Table 7). Exclosure-suitable areas located in the moist mid-highland, dry lowland, dry mid-highland and wet mid-highland zones contribute the largest share of AGB and carbon (Table 7). Our study found that Acacia-Commiphora (AC) forests cover the largest area in the dry Lowland zone and Dry Afromontaine (DA) forest in the Moist Mid-Highland zone, contributing 47.8 and 132.2 tons of above-ground carbon, respectively."},{"index":12,"size":50,"text":"Approximately 418.5 tons of carbon could be protected in the areas found to be exclosure-suitable in our study (Table 7). In moist highland and moist midland areas of Abay basin, exclosures could significantly contribute to climate change mitigation in addition to playing a role in the regulation of ecosystem services."},{"index":13,"size":202,"text":"Our results demonstrate that establishing exclosures in degraded landscapes could be an option to restore and protect the AGB and carbon and mitigate climate change. This assessment is only about protection; the actual value of additional storage as a benefit of exclosure needs to be assessed with more ground monitoring. In undertaking scaling of exclosures, the concerns of local communities including tradeoffs such as the need for grazing land and fuelwood need to be addressed. Restoration of degraded landscapes through establishing exclosures should be oriented toward managing and improving the productivity of degraded land such that the need for conservation of biodiversity and environmental sustainability and the demands of local people for biomass resources are both achieved. This concern might to some extent be addressed by planting forage species in the exclosures and practicing a cut-and-carry system. Furthermore, to deal with local people's concerns, exclosures have to be integrated with income-generating activities, for example by planting high-value trees (Mekuria et al., 2017). Also, rewarding or compensating farmers for their investments in soil and water conservation practices is crucial to sustain the exclosures and their benefits (Adimassu et al., 2017). This way exclosure land can meet both mitigation and adaptation to climate change."},{"index":14,"size":155,"text":"The exclosure policy has been the cornerstone of the dynamics of landscape recovery (Nyssen et al., 2014). Exclosure-suitability mapping done by this study identified non-agricultural land use including forests and remnants of forest areas. For instance, nonagricultural exclosure-suitable sites identified in the Hawassa watershed included the remnants of a natural forest. While sustainably excluding such areas from human influence and implementing improved protection and management of the remnant vegetation, the highest priority should be given to enhancement of access to alternative sources of urban energy and encouraging changes in cooking habits (Nyssen et al., 2014). The issue of whether benefits from carbon sequestration (e.g., through carbon credit) can meet the livelihood expectations of farmers needs to be explored further. In the context of exclosure-based ecosystem restoration carbon sequestration is only one of the multiple ecosystem services, and to sustain exclosure-based interventions, these benefits must be diversified and include incentives that enable adaptation to climate change."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"In this study, we attempted to develop a GIS-based MCDA method that helps to identify suitable areas with potential for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration. From these results we concluded that MCDA can be applied to support new and ongoing global and local initiatives related to exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration. But this exclosure bio-physical suitability information is just a first planning tool. Ground surveys and local community consultations are required to ensure that interventions are tailored to local socio-ecological conditions."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The estimated extent of land areas suitable for exclosures showed wide variations between scenarios, river basins and agroecology, which could provide guidance on prioritizing areas for future investment. Specifically, about 9-11 million ha of land in Ethiopia are suitable for establishing exclosures (depending on the scenario). A closer look at these lands shows that a significant proportion of them are currently under agricultural land-use systems. Implicitly, converting these lands to exclosure would entail opportunity costs. In view of this, we conclude that successful exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration must give due consideration to socio-economic tradeoffs."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"From our ex-ante analysis of the impacts of exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration, we estimated that about 418.5 million tons of above-ground carbon could be protected-with further additional storage in the long run-if the suitable areas under non-agricultural land use are protected and managed properly. But targeting exclosure only for climate change mitigation measures (e.g., carbon sequestration) might not serve the shortand medium-term livelihood expectations of the local people. Conversion of land to exclosures and implementation of improved management practices must be accompanied by income diversification (e.g., apiary, livestock fattening). This would serve as an incentive for adapting to exclosures and achieve climate change adaptation and mitigation goals."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Location of the study areas and their multiple spatial scales: (A) the river basins of Ethiopia and their agroecologies; (B) Abay river basin and validation points and (C) Rift Valley lakes basin and validation points. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. The framework for GIS-based MCDA applied to map land suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of land found to be suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration under two scenarios: (a) FDRE (MoA, 2016) and (b) FAO(Sheng, 1990). The white areas are either constraints or areas not suitable for exclosure measures. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of land suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration in Abay river basins under two scenarios: (a) FDRE (MoA, 2016) and (b) FAO(Sheng, 1990). The white areas are either constraints or areas not suitable for conservation measures. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of land suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration in Ethiopia's Central Rift Valley basin under two scenarios: (a) FDRE (MoA, 2016) and (b) FAO(Sheng, 1990). The white areas are either constraints or areas not suitable for conservation measures. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Different agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia based on rainfall and elevation according toBekele-Tesemma et al. (1993). Gray highlighted are zones excluded from suitability analysis Precipitation Precipitation 900-1400 900-1400 Elevation <900 mm mm >1400 mm Elevation<900 mmmm>1400 mm >3700 m a.s.l Dry Alpine Moist Alpine Wet Alpine >3700 m a.s.lDry AlpineMoist AlpineWet Alpine Wurch Wurch Wurch WurchWurchWurch 3200-3700 m a.s.l. Dry Wurch Moist Wurch Wet Wurch 3200-3700 m a.s.l.Dry WurchMoist WurchWet Wurch 2300-3200 m a.s.l. Dry Dega Moist Dega Wet Dega 2300-3200 m a.s.l.Dry DegaMoist DegaWet Dega 1500-3200 m a.s.l. Dry Weina Moist Weina Wet Weina 1500-3200 m a.s.l.Dry WeinaMoist WeinaWet Weina Dega Dega Dega DegaDegaDega 500-1500 m a.s.l. Dry Kola Moist Kola Wet Kola 500-1500 m a.s.l.Dry KolaMoist KolaWet Kola <500 m a.s.l. Dry Bereha Moist Bereha <500 m a.s.l.Dry BerehaMoist Bereha Wurch = frost, Dega = highland, Weina Dega = mid-highland, kola = lowland and Berha = Wurch = frost, Dega = highland, Weina Dega = mid-highland, kola = lowland and Berha = desert. desert. "},{"text":"Table 3 . Factors average weigh and consistency measure for the suitability analysis following a pairwise comparison Weighted overlay Weighted overlay "},{"text":"Table 4 . Field observation vs model suitability for the FDRE and FAO based scenarios (suitability and unsuitability agreement in number; total sample number = 385; producer's, user's and over all accuracy in %) Model suitability class (FDRE (MOA, 2016)) Model suitability class [FAO (Sheng 1990)] Model suitability class (FDRE (MOA, 2016))Model suitability class [FAO (Sheng 1990)] Not Highly/very Model Not Highly/very Model NotHighly/veryModelNotHighly/veryModel suitable highly suitable. Total accuracy suitable highly suitable. Total accuracy suitablehighly suitable.Totalaccuracysuitablehighly suitable.Totalaccuracy Ground Not suitable 91 0 9 1 100 91 0 9 1 100 GroundNot suitable9109 11009109 1100 truthing Highly/very 37 257 294 87 27 267 294 91 truthingHighly/very37257294872726729491 highly suitable highly suitable Total 128 257 385 118 267 385 Total128257385118267385 Model 71 100 77 100 Model7110077100 Accuracy (%) Accuracy (%) Over all accuracy (%) 90 93 Over all accuracy (%)9093 "},{"text":"Table 5 . Estimated area of land suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration under two scenarios in eleven basins of Ethiopia Suitable (in 1000 ha) % Suitable (in 1000 ha)% Scenarios Basin Basin area (ha) Agri. land Non-agri. land Total Agri. land Non-agri. land Total ScenariosBasinBasin area (ha)Agri. landNon-agri. landTotalAgri. landNon-agri. landTotal MoA (2016) Abay 19,687 161 2044 2205 0.8 10.4 11.2 MoA (2016)Abay19,687161204422050.810.411.2 Awash 11,605 55 639 694 0.5 5.5 6 Awash11,605556396940.55.56 Baro-Akobo 7724 9 367 377 0.1 4.8 4.9 Baro-Akobo772493673770.14.84.9 Danakil 6482 7 438 446 0.1 6.8 6.9 Danakil648274384460.16.86.9 Genale-Dawa 16,931 18 1015 1033 0.1 6 6.1 Genale-Dawa16,93118101510330.166.1 Mereb 576 14 82 95 2.4 14.2 16.5 Mereb5761482952.414.216.5 Ogaden 8274 1 34 35 0 0.4 0.4 Ogaden82741343500.40.4 Omo 7736 25 793 817 0.3 10.2 10.6 Omo7736257938170.310.210.6 Shebelle 19,266 30 949 978 0.2 4.9 5.1 Shebelle19,266309499780.24.95.1 Tekeze 8216 95 1714 1809 1.2 20.9 22 Tekeze821695171418091.220.922 Rift-valley lakes 5509 38 444 482 0.7 8.1 8.8 Rift-valley lakes5509384444820.78.18.8 Total 112,007 453 8517 8969 0.4 7.6 8 Total112,007453851789690.47.68 Sheng (1990) Abay 19,687 233 2366 2599 1.18 12.02 13.2 Sheng (1990)Abay19,687233236625991.1812.0213.2 Awash 11,605 77 785 862 0.67 6.76 7.43 Awash11,605777858620.676.767.43 Baro-Akobo 7724 10 451 461 0.12 5.84 5.96 Baro-Akobo7724104514610.125.845.96 Danakil 6482 11 522 533 0.17 8.06 8.23 Danakil6482115225330.178.068.23 Genale-Dawa 16,931 19 1338 1356 0.11 7.9 8.01 Genale-Dawa16,93119133813560.117.98.01 Mereb 576 21 102 123 3.64 17.67 21.31 Mereb576211021233.6417.6721.31 Ogaden 8274 1 34 35 0.01 0.41 0.42 Ogaden8274134350.010.410.42 Omo 7736 31 964 995 0.41 12.46 12.87 Omo7736319649950.4112.4612.87 Shebelle 19,266 36 1177 1213 0.18 6.11 6.29 Shebelle19,26636117712130.186.116.29 Tekeze 8216 152 2017 2169 1.85 24.55 26.4 Tekeze8216152201721691.8524.5526.4 Rift-valley lakes 5509 44 549 593 0.8 9.96 10.76 Rift-valley lakes5509445495930.89.9610.76 Total 112,007 635 10,304 10,938 0.57 9.2 9.77 Total112,00763510,30410,9380.579.29.77 "},{"text":"Table 6 . Estimated area of land suitable for exclosure-based ecosystem service restoration under two scenarios in Abay and central rift valley basins of Ethiopia disaggregated by agroecology Scenario (MoA, 2016) Scenario (Sheng, 1990) Scenario (MoA, 2016)Scenario (Sheng, 1990) Suitable areas (ha) Suitable areas (ha) Suitable areas (ha)Suitable areas (ha) River basin Agroecology Agri. land Non-agri. land Total Agri. land Non-agri. land Total River basinAgroecologyAgri. landNon-agri. landTotalAgri. landNon-agri. landTotal Abay Dry Kola 3866 60,467 64,333 6027 69,116 75,143 AbayDry Kola386660,46764,333602769,11675,143 Moist Kola 6421 325,035 331,456 7844 390,820 398,664 Moist Kola6421325,035331,4567844390,820398,664 Wet Kola 3374 158,847 162,221 3501 197,016 200,517 Wet Kola3374158,847162,2213501197,016200,517 Dry Weyna-dega 5350 46,371 51,721 9046 52,111 61,157 Dry Weyna-dega535046,37151,721904652,11161,157 Moist Weyna-dega 64,414 743,082 807,496 95,209 839,393 934,602 Moist Weyna-dega64,414743,082807,49695,209839,393934,602 Wet Weyna-dega 22,009 226,478 248,487 23,672 278,605 302,277 Wet Weyna-dega22,009226,478248,48723,672278,605302,277 Dry Dega 841 12,555 13,396 1355 13,392 14,747 Dry Dega84112,55513,396135513,39214,747 Moist Dega 48,343 394,270 442,613 74,858 432,293 507,151 Moist Dega48,343394,270442,61374,858432,293507,151 Wet Dega 6822 76,435 83,257 11,471 93,289 104,760 Wet Dega682276,43583,25711,47193,289104,760 Total 161,440 2,043,540 2,204,980 232,983 2,366,035 2,599,018 Total161,4402,043,5402,204,980232,9832,366,0352,599,018 Central rift valley basin Dry Weyna-dega 8379 15,775 24,154 8876 16,978 25,854 Central rift valley basinDry Weyna-dega837915,77524,154887616,97825,854 Moist Weyna-dega 7282 9405 16,687 7485 11,138 18,623 Moist Weyna-dega7282940516,687748511,13818,623 Moist Dega 3732 17,218 20,950 4426 20,876 25,302 Moist Dega373217,21820,950442620,87625,302 Total 19,393 42,398 61,791 20,787 48,992 69,779 Total19,39342,39861,79120,78748,99269,779 "},{"text":"Table 7 . Potentials carbon in AGB (tons) based on the Ethiopia's Forest Reference Level (FRL) submission to the UNFCCC, 2017 across traditional climatic zone Note: AC refers to Acacia Commiphora, CT refers to Combretum-Terminalia, DA refers to Dry Afromontaine, MA refers to Moist Afromontaine. Area suitable for exclosure according to Area suitable for exclosure according to biomes (1000 × ha) Biome's AGB from exclosure (×1,000,000 ton) biomes (1000 × ha)Biome's AGB from exclosure (×1,000,000 ton) Agroecology AC CT DA MA AC CT DA MA C stock (×1,000,000 ton) AgroecologyACCTDAMAACCTDAMAC stock (×1,000,000 ton) Bereha 4 0 0 0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 Bereha40000.20.00.00.00.1 Dry Kola 2423 736 0 0 133.3 47.8 0.0 0.0 85.1 Dry Kola242373600133.347.80.00.085.1 Moist Kola 57 948 0 89 3.1 61.6 0.0 17.8 38.8 Moist Kola579480893.161.60.017.838.8 Wet Kola 0 307 0 46 0.0 20.0 0.0 9.2 13.7 Wet Kola03070460.020.00.09.213.7 Dry Weyna-dega 298 454 650 9 16.4 29.5 73.5 1.8 56.9 Dry Weyna-dega298454650916.429.573.51.856.9 Moist Weyna-dega 215 467 1170 86 11.8 30.4 132.2 17.2 90.0 Moist Weyna-dega21546711708611.830.4132.217.290.0 Wet Weyna-dega 1 264 240 273 0.1 17.2 27.1 54.6 46.5 Wet Weyna-dega12642402730.117.227.154.646.5 Dry Dega 0 0 350 1 0.0 0.0 39.6 0.2 18.7 Dry Dega0035010.00.039.60.218.7 Moist Dega 0 0 897 46 0.0 0.0 101.4 9.2 52.0 Moist Dega00897460.00.0101.49.252.0 Wet Dega 0 0 157 85 0.0 0.0 17.7 17.0 16.3 Wet Dega00157850.00.017.717.016.3 Wurch 0 0 5 0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.3 Wurch00500.00.00.60.00.3 Total 2998 3176 3469 635 164.9 206.4 392.0 127.0 418.5 Total299831763469635164.9206.4392.0127.0418.5 "}],"sieverID":"14f7c284-8b99-4289-9a15-ec6fd550fd81","abstract":"Multicriteria decision-support system to assess the potential of exclosure-based conservation in Ethiopia. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 37, S88-S102."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a95956318970c702a6960dbfe696fe6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c23ea058-6d4e-4b0b-becc-24326fc0aa09/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Accelerating pond aquaculture development and resilience beyond COVID: Ensuring food and jobs in Ghana","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":471,"text":"Over the past decade, Ghana's aquaculture has experienced tremendous growth in production, contributing to improved incomes and livelihoods (Ragasa et al., 2018). Research found that recent growth in tilapia farming in Ghana is largely due to four factors: (1) an improved local Akosombo strain developed and released in 2005; (2) government policy support initiatives; (3) improved management practices and technologies at hatcheries and grow-out production systems; and (4) availability of high-quality feeds locally (Ragasa et al., 2018). This growth has inspired the government to expand its flagship program, Planting for Food and Jobs (PFJ), to include Aquaculture for Food and Jobs (AFJ) to accelerate aquaculture development. AFJ aims to increase fish production by 91,000 metric tonnes (mt) over three years (2018 to 2020), develop aquaculture value chains, and create 86,177 jobs (directly and indirectly), especially for unemployed youth and women (based on the original project document, MoFAD, 2018). The components of AFJ are (1) encouraging the private sector through economic incentives to increase investment in commercial fish farming; (2) promoting small-scale fish farming; (3) supporting institutions, such as schools, prisons, or the military, that have the potential to produce fish; (4) supporting existing and new entrant fish farmers with inputs, with a focus on youth; (5) strengthening extension services, as well as fish health and environmental management; and (6) developing fish markets and providing marketing assistance to fish farmers. Implementation of AFJ's original plans has been slow; and as of 2020, it has focused on supporting youth associations and institutions with inputs, facilities, and training to start or expand their production. 1 In 2018, the sector produced 76,600 mt of farmed fish, mostly tilapia, valued at US$200 million. Since 2018, Ghana has become the largest producer of tilapia in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), second only to Egypt on the African continent. Among African countries, Ghana's aquaculture grew the fastest, at an annual rate of 28% from 2006 to 2019 (Fig. 1). Because this growth was driven mainly by large-scale cage farming around Lake Volta, much of the investment and research have focused on cage farming, although most micro-and small-scale farmers are involved in pond farming. Pond aquaculture, however, can have stronger backward and forward linkages and a larger multiplier effect on local economic growth and poverty reduction than commercial cage farming does (Kassam and Dorward, 2017). Pond aquaculture has traditionally been extensive and with limited use of external inputs, but this paper shows that it has been transforming with an increasing amount of semi-intensive and intensive pond farming over the past decade. There is little systematic evidence on the performance and dynamics of pond aquaculture in Ghana, and more broadly in SSA (Ragasa et al., 2021), and how they can be strengthened to be drivers for food security, job creation, and resilient agri-food systems. This paper aims to contribute to this literature."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"The past two years also show the vulnerability of Ghana's aquaculture sector. In late 2018, infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) spread through tilapia farms in Lake Volta, causing high mortality of fish in cage systems (Ramirez-Paredes et al., 2019) and a drop in aquaculture production to 52,000 mt in 2019 (raw data from MoFAD, 2000MoFAD, -2020)). The outbreak was likely triggered by poor management practices, seasonal water quality issues, and illegal imports of foreign tilapia strains. Then, in March 2020, just as the sector had started to bounce back, the COVID-19 pandemic and its related lockdowns and restrictions began affecting the aquaculture value chain. Whereas ISKNV affected mainly cage aquaculture, the COVID-19 crisis has affected both pond and cage systems. Production in 2020 is estimated to be only 64,000 mt (raw data from MoFAD, 2000MoFAD, -2020))."},{"index":3,"size":209,"text":"Ghana's aquaculture value chain is particularly vulnerable to the COVID-19 crisis and related response measures for several reasons. With respect to consumption demand, the value chain relies heavily on hotels and restaurants as well as on informal chop bars or tilapia joints, all of which closed during the partial lockdown and then reopened with substantially reduced operations. Because tilapia is relatively expensive in Ghana-two to three times as expensive as imported chicken (Andam et al., 2019;Ragasa et al., 2018)-it is among the first purchases given up when incomes fall. Studies on the immediate impact of COVID-19 in Ethiopia, India, and Myanmar have shown decreased consumption of more expensive foods, even if those foods, such as meat, fish, dairy, and vegetables, are more nutritious (Harris et al., 2020;Lambrecht et al., 2020;Hirvonen et al., 2020;Headey and Ruel, 2020). On the production side, fish mortality and productivity are largely influenced by feed availability and feeding timing, which makes any disruption in feed access potentially detrimental to fish farming operations. Fingerlings and fish are highly perishable, so any disruption in transportation services and in Ghana's limited cold chain and processing facilities makes aquaculture susceptible to fingerling and fish mortality, food wastage, and opportunistic behavior that disrupt the flow of inputs, services, and fish."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"This paper is written against the backdrop of these two crises. On the one hand, strengthening pond aquaculture will help diversify production and reduce overreliance on cage farming on Lake Volta. Moreover, cage farming technologies (including for seed and feed) and experience with policies and regulations can be transferred and adapted to pond aquaculture, consequently generating positive spillovers and faster growth of the whole aquaculture sector. On the other hand, the COVID-19 crisis has affected both systems, and they could learn from each other about how to cope and build resilience."},{"index":5,"size":194,"text":"This paper focuses on pond aquaculture in Ghana and makes three contributions to the literature and to program implementation. First, it provides timely, useful, and practical recommendations to guide the strategies, investments, and implementation of Ghana's newly launched AFJ program. Second, it uses up-to-date and rich datasets, including a 2019 census of active pond farmers and hatchery operators in major pond aquaculture regions in Ghana, follow-up phone surveys conducted in June 2020 to assess the impact of COVID-19 on value chain actors, and in-depth group discussions of farmers and value chain actors conducted in July and August 2020. Third, it provides a comprehensive, systematic, and rigorous assessment of the sector and a synthesis of lessons learned, using a value chain approach and subsector analysis, and building on several years of work by the authors in the sector. The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 provides the study's data sources and methods. Section 3 characterizes fish farmers and farming households. Section 4 presents the characteristics and performance of farms. Section 5 describes the challenges of pond aquaculture and strategies for developing it. Section 6 provides some concluding remarks, recommendations, and broader implications for SSA."}]},{"head":"Data sources and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"This paper uses various sources of data, including a structured household survey, group interviews, key informant interviews, expert opinion, and desk review. First, a household survey was developed jointly by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute (CSIR-WRI), implemented by the FMMS survey firm from May to June 2019, and validated by a team of CSIR-WRI and Fisheries Commission (FC) zonal officers in October-November 2019. The survey covered all active small-scale cage and pond tilapia farmers and a sample of inactive farmers in the focus regions-Ashanti, Brong Ahafo (Bono, Bono East, Ahafo), 2 Eastern, and Volta. The total sample is farmers, of which 472 are pond farmers (Table 1). The paper reports only on those pond farmers."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"The household survey instrument covered modules on pond sizes and characteristics, performance indicators, costs and constraints in production, and socioeconomic indicators. The face-to-face interviews lasted for 2-3 h, using tablet-based and computer-assisted personal interviewing. The interviewee was either the manager or owner (if different) of the fish farm/firm, or the person who made most decisions on fingerlings and inputs and who would likely attend production trainings. Other staff or family members answered some of the modules and questions. Most interviews with the managers/owners were conducted at their fish farms (GPS coordinates were recorded)."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"The interviews included an added module on challenges and opportunities for women owners and managers. This additional module for women respondents took about 5 min. We also interviewed the oppositegender partner or spouse of the primary decision-maker in the sample households to get some sense of gender-based constraints or opportunities. The main respondent of the household survey (owner or manager) was usually a man; the second respondent was usually his wife. A total of 603 households were interviewed, of which 279 had second respondents (usually the wife of the owner or manager). Because most interviews with the managers or owners were conducted at their farms, the second respondents often could not be contacted or located."},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"Second, in August and September 2019, the IFPRI, CSIR-WRI, and FC teams conducted a semistructured survey of 18 commercial hatchery operators and additional 29 grow-out farmers with hatchery operation. Third, the IFPRI team conducted phone surveys in June and July with 369 pond and cage farmers and 425 consumers to understand how the COVID-19 crisis had affected them. Last, 10 cluster/group discussions of 225 farmers, extension officers, youth extension trainees, hatchery operators, and aquaculture experts were conducted in July and August 2020 in 19 districts in these focus regions. About one to three nearby districts (with about 20-30 fish farmers each) were clustered and provided with technical training organized by the FC, WRI, and IFPRI. Each cluster received a two-day training workshop; the first day involved lectures and discussions with experts and the second day field visits and another set of discussions and lecture. The recorded discussions provide important insights into the challenges and opportunities of pond aquaculture."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"All these data sources provide rich and systematic data and information and have been analyzed using a value chain approach to systematically examine the constraints and opportunities of developing pond aquaculture in Ghana. A value chain is the full range of activities required to bring final products or services from conception to delivery to consumers (El-Sayed et al., 2015;Hellin and Meijer, 2006;Kaplinsky and Morris, 2001). Value chains can be analyzed in terms of product flows, information flows, and management and control in the different stages of the chain (Taylor, 2005). Value chain analysis enables researchers and practitioners to identify the main actors in the sector, analyze levels of productivity and profitability, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the sector, and evaluate policy options for improving sector performance."},{"index":6,"size":170,"text":"For the measurements, we used common and comparable indicators, such as stocking density, prices, ratio of prices, costs per kilogram (kg) of tilapia produced, and feed conversion ratios (roughly defined as kg of feed used per kg of fish produced). Stocking density is the number of fingerlings stocked in the pond per square meter (m 2 ). Profits or gross margins were calculated as total value of harvest less the total costs of production per pond per cycle. One cycle usually is 6 to 7 months. Total harvest per pond per cycle was self-reported by the farmer, triangulated with data on the stocking density, survival rate, and average weight of fish harvested. Operational costs include feed, fingerlings, fertilizer, lime, electricity/fuel, drugs, disinfectants, transportation, and hired labor. These indicators are compared to available studies and figures from top tilapia-producing countries, including Bangladesh, China, and Egypt, and summarized in Ragasa et al. (2018). Figures discussed are pre-COVID-19 levels, complemented with discussions on how the COVID-19 crisis has affected the value chain actors."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"For the analysis, we used (1) descriptive and comparative analysis to characterize the production system and profitability of the ponds compared to other countries and (2) regression analysis to identify factors that are statistically associated with higher productivity and profitability of fish farms. We modeled the relationship between productivity and profitability and management practices as follows:"},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"where Y 1 is the measure for productivity and profitability for farmer i, β are the coefficients; X is the vector of management practices, and ϵ is the error term. Moreover, to understand which farmers are likely to adopt these practices and achieve higher productivity or profitability, we modeled the relationship of productivity, profitability, and management practices with the socioeconomic and geographical factors as follows:"},{"index":9,"size":46,"text":"where Y 2 is the measure for productivity, profitability, and management practices for farmer i; γ are the coefficients, Z is the vector of socioeconomic and geographical variables; and δ is the error term. The definition and descriptive statistics of variables are in Annex Table A1."}]},{"head":"Characteristics of farmers and farming households","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Household survey respondents were mainly owners (79%), who also doubled as managers in most cases. Of the owners, 13% had either no formal schooling or only primary schooling, and 33% had at least a college degree (Annex Table A2). Of managers, 17% had either no formal schooling or only primary schooling, whereas 23% had at least a college degree."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Fish farming contributed less than half of household income (Annex Source: IFPRI/WRI survey (2019). Note: /a Includes all active small-scale tilapia farmers. /b Includes a random sample of inactive tilapia farmers (did not farm in the last two years, but indicated interest in farming tilapia again)."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"Fig. A1). Most farmers, especially in Brong Ahafo and Ashanti, were also engaged in crop farming (particularly maize) or other non-farm businesses (mainly trading) as their main livelihood (Annex Fig. A2). The majority (84%) of the farms were within just 2 km (or a 15-min walk) of the respondent's house. Most farmers (77%) started fish farming on their own or as a partnership, whereas 9% purchased their fish farm from other farmers and 7% inherited from parents or relatives. The most commonly cited reasons for starting fish farming were having received training and technical assistance and having seen successful fish farmers in their community (Annex Fig. A3). Most farmers learned about fish farming for the first time from other farmers. Other sources of fish farming information were FC extension agents, reported by 36% of respondents (Annex Fig. A4)."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Fish farms are usually family farms with household members working together. Sixty-three percent of tilapia farmers used family labor, and 60% hired laborers when family labor was not available or was insufficient (Table 2). On average, a tilapia farmer used a total of 55 person-days of hired labor and 35 person-days of family labor from pond preparation to harvesting and marketing for the farm's largest pond."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Youth (ages 15-35) had a high level of engagement in fish farming. Fourteen percent of owners and 24% of managers were youth (Annex Table A3). Youth also contributed 68% of the total person-days in family and hired labor on farms (Table 2). Sixty-four percent of younger owners and 61% of younger managers were married."},{"index":6,"size":247,"text":"Fish farming is still a male-dominated sector, although some women are very active as owners and managers, and as laborers, especially in post-harvest processes. A total of 45 fish farm owners or managers were women (9%). Most women managers/owners were married or cohabiting with a husband or partner (62%); three had husbands who had been away for more than six months, so they and their children had been taking care of the fish farms. Thirty-eight percent of women owners/managers were single, divorced, or widowed. The 45 women owners/managers were asked about the advantages and disadvantages as well as the opportunities and challenges of being a woman owner or fish farmer. Commonly reported advantages are that fish farming brings income, employment, and food for the family and that it creates employment for other people in the community. One female respondent said, \"I processed my tilapia harvest into koobi 3 and it provides income for my family.\" Many of the women respondents also mentioned the empowering effect of their fish farming. One woman said, \"It brings respect and knowledge to women.\" Another woman said, \"Women become more brave, confident, and empowered.\" And another said, \"Women become more financially independent.\" When the female spouses of male owners/managers were asked if they wanted to be more engaged in fish farming, the majority said they did. They noted that helping their husbands would help reduce costs and would allow them to take over from the spouse if he decides not to continue."}]},{"head":"Characteristics and performance of farms","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"The surveys and interviews reveal varied experience of pond farmers and heterogeneity of fishponds, and we describe here some patterns. On average, almost all pond farmers in the focus regions were micro-and small-scale. 4 Pond farmers usually owned five ponds and used two in 2018. Thirty-six percent of respondents used only one pond in 2018, and 64% used more than one pond. One farmer used as many as 17 ponds in 2018. The most common pond dimensions were 10-60 m in length and 10-60 m in width. The most common depth was 1-2 m. The average area across ponds was 982 m 2 . Ponds in Ashanti were larger on average at 1819 m 2 . Ponds in Brong Ahafo and Eastern were the smallest with areas averaging 559-569 m 2 . The main specie cultured is tilapia, although catfish production is increasing. Mixed tilapia-catfish culture was common among pond farms (30% of pond farmers), and three ponds have a mix of tilapia, catfish, and heterotis fish species. Most of the ponds (92%) were earthen ponds, 6% concrete or tank, and 2% hapas or cages installed in large earthen ponds."}]},{"head":"Farm productivity, inputs, and costs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The survey asked about production, inputs, practices, costs, sales, and profits of the biggest tilapia pond 5 of the farmers surveyed in 2019, with results described below. The figures discussed below are pre-COVID-19 levels, complemented by discussions on how the COVID-19 crisis is affecting value chain actors."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Recommended stocking density in tilapia ponds is 3-8 fingerlings per m 2 (FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2010; Pant et al., 2019). Data show that 71% of farmers followed this recommendation, but 22% understocked and 7% overstocked. Surprisingly, the reported survival rate from stocking to harvest was 90% on average. Data show that 3% of farms had lower than a 50% survival rate and 25% of farms had a survival rate of less than 80%."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"If the recommended stocking density (number of fingerlings stocked per m 2 ) of 3-8 fingerlings per m 2 is followed, the survival rate is assumed to be 90%; if the average tilapia size at harvest is assumed to be 300 g, then productivity is expected to be between 0.81 and 2.16 kg per m 2 . Data show that 84% of farms achieved productivity close to this level (particularly 0.5-2.4 kg per m 2 ), whereas 15% of farms achieved very low yields (<0.5 kg per m 2 ) based on the farmers' reported total harvests (Table 3). Productivity is lower on average in Ashanti than in other regions (Table 3). Annex Table A3 shows the range of productivity measures across various ponds (largest pond by farmer) that were stocked in 2019."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Fish farmers also reported wide variability in input usage, costs, and profits. The main inputs in fish farming are feeds, fingerlings, hired labor, and other materials (Annex Table A4), and the average total cost of GHC 8.76 per kg (US$1.51) of tilapia harvested includes the following Source: IFPRI/WRI household survey (2019). SD = standard deviation."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"3 Fresh tilapia that is salted and then dried to prolong its shelf life."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"4 Micro-and small-scale farmers are defined as those producing less than 50 mt per year, which is consistent with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), FC, and WRI definitions (Karikari et al., 2016). All pond farmers are considered micro-and small-scale. 5 Thirty-six percent of farmers had one tilapia pond, and this is the farm analyzed and described in this section. For the remaining farmers with more than one tilapia pond, their biggest tilapia pond was selected and described in this section. Follow-up questions indicate that the majority of farmers usually apply similar practices and inputs across their multiple ponds, so data for the biggest pond can be generalized to all other ponds used by the farmers."},{"index":7,"size":205,"text":"breakdown of costs: feed costs amounting to GHC 6.93 per m 2 or GHC 6.60 per kg of tilapia harvested (69% of total costs on average); seed costs of GHC 1.62 per kg of tilapia harvested (17% of total costs); hired labor, which accounted for 9% of the costs; and lime, fertilizer, drugs, vaccines, disinfectants, fuel, electricity, and other costs, which accounted for 5% of the total costs. The cost to produce 1 kg of tilapia in Ghana (roughly US$1.51 on average) was much higher than in major tilapia-producing countries (Bangladesh, China, and Egypt), where it was roughly US$0.78-1.29 on average (Ragasa et al., 2018). Ghana's higher cost per kg of tilapia indicates lower productivity than in other countries and reflects the high price of feed-about twice as high in Ghana as in the other countries (Ragasa et al., 2018; see also Macfadyen et al., 2012). Interviews with Ghana's main feed producer indicate that the high cost of some ingredients, such as maize and soybeans, leads to a higher overall cost for fish feed. One feed importer indicated that 80% of the cost of imported feed goes to tariffs, taxes, and transportation. Clearly, feed costs must be reduced for Ghanaian farmers to competitively produce tilapia."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"Finally, a noticeably high proportion of the price paid by final consumers goes to trade and transportation. Other studies have pointed to higher handling and transportation costs in Ghana compared to other countries (World Bank, 2013). This can be an area that can be improved in order to lower tilapia prices for consumers, making it more affordable."},{"index":9,"size":168,"text":"With COVID-19, 54% of pond farmers experienced difficulties in getting feeds and other inputs, and 59% reported increased input prices. The average increase in feed prices was roughly GHC 2.00 per kg from 2019 average prices of GHC 19.00 per kg for starter feed and GHC 4.25 per kg for grow-out feed. Between January and June 2020, the average fingerling price rose GHC 0.27 per piece from a 2019 average price of between GHC 0.15 and GHC 0.80, depending on fingerling size, location, and hatchery. Fifty-four percent of pond farmers and 11% of cage farmers experienced difficulty in accessing labor for fish farming. Several respondents said, \"Workers did not come to work due to fear of contracting COVID-19.\" One farmer said, \"It was more difficult to maintain and hire workers because of loss of income from fish farming and other livelihoods.\" Most sample farmers did not experience any changes in wages, although 16% reported increases in fish farm wages. Cost of production will likely be higher with COVID-19."}]},{"head":"Market demand and farm profits","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"In terms of consumer demand and market, as a lower-middle-income country with a growing middle-income population, Ghana is experiencing an expanding market for high-value products, including tilapia. Fish consumption stands at about 28 kg per person annually in Ghana, one of the highest consumption levels both in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and globally (FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2018; Chan et al., 2021). Fish accounts for 60% of Ghana's national dietary intake of animal protein (Rurangwa et al., 2015; FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2018; Chan et al., 2021), about four times higher than the global average (Hishamunda et al., 2009). The current gap between fish demand and supply, which is filled by imports, is about 60% of total fish production. Expansion in fish demand (due to rapid population growth, urbanization, increasing incomes, and changing consumer preferences) is expected to continue, and therefore, the supply-demand gap is expected to widen in 2050 since only marginal increases in fish production can be expected from improved capture fisheries management and if aquaculture could not expand tremendously (Chan et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"In Ghana, there is a strong demand and established market for tilapia. Tilapia is expensive-two to three times more expensive than imported chicken (Ragasa et al., 2018)-and is the most popular fish species in hotels, restaurants, tilapia joints, and chop bars in Ghana's urban areas."},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"The tilapia value chain in Ghana is relatively short and simple, reflected in the integration of production and sales. Although salted, dried, and smoked tilapia have been traditional sources of protein in the country for decades, in recent years, consumer preference for fresh tilapia has increased significantly (Andam et al., 2019). Consumers' preference for fresh tilapia provides locally farmed tilapia with a natural comparative advantage over frozen imports, mainly from China. 6 Tilapia is sold in various sizes: Size 4, more than 800 g; Size 3, 600-800 g; Size 2, 450-600 g; Size 1, 300-450 g; Regular, 200-300 g; and Economy and Rejects, 100-200 g. Generally, basic value addition-degutting, scaling and, cleaning-is carried out by retailers who are predominantly women. The fish is held by retailers and presented for sale in alternating layers of fish and ice. Farmers report that smaller fish up to Regular size sell faster but bring in lower profits compared to fish of Size 1 and larger, for which competition is stiff and customers are usually hotels and restaurants. Larger farms such as Tropo Farms dominate the market for larger tilapia. Smaller-scale farms cannot compete in the large-sized tilapia market because they cannot provide consistent supplies of large fish."},{"index":4,"size":218,"text":"Tilapia prices per kg typically vary by the size of the fish, where it is sold, and how it is processed. The average farm gate price in Ghana at the time of the 2019 study was GHC 11.00-13.00 per kg (US$1.90-2.24 per kg) for Regular and Size 1 tilapia, the most common sizes. This price is much higher than the US$1.23-1.88 per kg at farm gate in major tilapia-producing countries, such as Bangladesh, China, and Egypt. 7 Prices at cold stores and roadside outlets in Volta and Accra range from GHC 15.00 to GHC 25.00 for Regular and Size 1 tilapia; these retail prices are what final consuming households pay for tilapia. Prices can vary widely in supermarkets, going as high as GHC 40.00 per kg. Unlike in Greater Accra, markets in Brong Ahafo and Ashanti are served mainly by pond farmers who do not sort harvested tilapia into the various sizes. Pond-farmed tilapia is sold per kg-in two main sizes, large or small-with farm gate prices ranging from GHC 15.00 to GHC 18.00 per kg. Farmers sometimes process unsold tilapia into koobi as a lossmitigating measure when they lack cold chain facilities to store fish. Although it involves additional effort, such processing reduces the market price by about 50% because most people prefer fresh tilapia to koobi."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Farmers reported selling often to aggregators who come to the farm and pick up the harvested tilapia. Others reported selling directly to sales or market outlets. On average, a farmer made a profit of GHC 3.24 per kg of tilapia produced in 2019, or a 27% profit margin; however, the profitability of fish farms of active farmers in 2019 was wide-ranging, from a loss of GHC 12.00 to a gain of GHC 46.00 per m 2 , with an average of GHC 8.82 per m 2 (Table 4). This disparity is due to the varied levels of input use, stocking, and production among farmers and the wide variety of practices and performance in fish farms."},{"index":6,"size":148,"text":"Regression analyses show a strong association between productivity A5a). Farm managers' education level, age, group membership, and access to extension services are strongly associated with higher farm performance and greater adoption of good management practices (Annex Table A5b). Education seems to matter in record-keeping: farmers with higher education level are more likely to keep more records. Younger managers are more likely to adopt more record-keeping and biosecurity practices. Those fish farmers that are in poorest groups and those with less share of income from fish farming tend to keep less records. Farmers with visits or interactions with FC zonal officers tend to keep more records. Farmers who are members of organizations or associations tend to adopt more good management practices, including water management, record keeping and biosecurity practices. Those practicing mixed tilapia-catfish systems are more like to stock more fingerlings per m2 and have higher productivity and profits."}]},{"head":"Challenges and strategies for pond aquaculture development","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"This section presents a deep dive into the challenges of pond aquaculture and discusses possible strategies to address these challenges, to accelerate pond aquaculture development, and to inform AFJ program implementation. The four top challenges reported in the interviews were high feed costs or lack of affordable local feeds, access to high-quality seeds, lack of technical know-how, and lack of capital or financial resources. These are also reflected in the reasons given by a sample of inactive farmers for discontinuing fish farming: lack of funds, expensive feeds, fingerling and fish mortality, low demand for fish (when farmers produce smaller sizes of fish), and natural disaster (such as flood or drought) (Annex Fig. A5). We structure these challenges and offer potential solutions by subsector-seed, feed, extension and credit, water quality and environmental sustainability, and marketing-and discuss the role and implications for different actors in the aquaculture value chains, from input supply and production to marketing. The role of policies and regulations is also discussed in each of these subsectors."}]},{"head":"Fingerlings","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Tilapia farming starts with and depends upon the availability of quality fingerlings. Most farmers in Ghana purchase fingerlings from hatcheries, both public and private. All the large-scale commercial farms produce fingerlings for their own farms, and some medium-scale and small-scale farmers have also integrated fingerling production. The FC estimates that there are 47 private and 3 public hatcheries: CSIR-WRI's Aquaculture Research and Development Centre (ARDEC), the Pilot Aquaculture Center (PAC), and Ashaiman Aquaculture Development Center (ADC) in current operation. Kassam (2014) asserts that the growth in aquaculture production in Ghana has been largely due to the availability of quality fingerlings. Improved strains over wild stocks, conditioning, and management of hatcheries in recent years have led to higher productivity and profitability of tilapia farming."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"For nearly two decades, the main breed for farmed tilapia in Ghana has been the local Akosombo strain, first developed in the early 2000s and now in its 11th generation (Attipoe et al., 2013). Many value chain actors interviewed indicated that the state-approved local Akosombo strain is reaching its limits in terms of performance and stress resistance and that, therefore, they experiment with mixing the available strains from hatcheries or farms. Interviewees from hatcheries also raised concerns about the deteriorating quality of the Akosombo strain, the use of illegal strains, and the lack of monitoring of these illegal strains as well as the poor quality brood stock and lack of good brood stock management practices. Productivity improvements with the current improved Akosombo strain are still possible if issues in the system of producing fingerlings and the extension services are addressed (Ansah et al., 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"The main alternative to the Akosombo strain is the newer generation of Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) strain from Asia or Genetically Improved Abbassa Nile tilapia (GIANT) strain from Egypt. The GIANT strain fueled the aquaculture revolution that saw Egypt become Africa's leading tilapia producer and third globally (Ibrahim et al., 2019). The GIFT fast-growing strain was developed in 1988 from wild strains in Africa, including strains from Egypt, Ghana, and Kenya, and continuously developed in various countries under the coordination of WorldFish, a member of the CGIAR consortium of international agricultural research centers. The GIFT strain is currently in use in several countries in Asia and Latin America (Ponzoni et al., 2007). Under the Tilapia Volta Project (TIVO) coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Ghana between 2009 and 2013, GIFT were imported to Ghana under a special state protocol for a comparative study with local strains at ARDEC. Many farmers interviewed believe that switching to the GIFT strain would cut the time to maturity by between 4 and 5 months. Farmers also view the GIFT strain as being less susceptible to disease, such as ISKNV."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"Earlier impact studies on GIFT show an 18-58% higher bodyweight at harvest compared to unimproved strains (Dey et al., 2000). Newer generations of GIFT show additional improvements in productivity. Globally, GIFT is the best documented strain of improved tilapia, with genetic gains in harvest weight ranging from 10 to 15% per generation over 10 generations of selection (Khaw, 2015). 8 The introduction of GIFT in Africa, however, has been slow and greeted with some resistance. GIFT is considered by government and research institutes in many SSA countries as an exotic crossbred species that could pose a risk to the genetic resources of wild tilapia on the continent (Gupta et al., 2004;Brummett and Ponzoni, 2009;Ansah et al., 2014). In Ghana, despite considerable interest in GIFT expressed by most industry actors interviewed, no risk assessment has been done to assess whether the commercial introduction of the fish strain in Ghana would be prudent."},{"index":5,"size":128,"text":"Although Akosombo is the only breed officially permitted by local regulatory bodies, recent assessment shows that almost all hatcheries have been using mixed strains derived from combinations of pure Akosombo strains, wild stocks, Chinese strains, or GIFT or its derivatives (CSIR-Water Research Institute, 2019). Fingerlings available to tilapia farmers are, therefore, mostly mixed. CSIR-Water Research Institute (2019) confirms the report of Frimpong and Anane-Tabeah (2018) that both Chinese and GIFT or its derivatives are exotic/alien strains that have been introduced into Ghana's aquaculture system. Current regulatory provisions permit the use of local strains, restrict the use of certified/approved imported strains for research purposes, and completely ban importation of alien strains for commercial food production (Fisheries Act 2002; Fisheries Regulations 2010 (Li1968); Environmental Regulations -Permits (Sec. 8.0, 9.6(i), 9.18(iv))."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"According to our survey, most fish farmers in Ashanti and Brong Ahafo sourced their fingerlings from a public hatchery, PAC. Others sourced from private hatcheries, directly from ARDEC in Akosombo, or from friends and neighbors. Most farmers in Eastern and Volta sourced 8 Progift Nile tilapia show a genetic gain of 11% per generation (Thodesen et al., 2013); GenomMar Supreme tilapia grows 35% faster after 17 generations of selection (GenoMar Breeding Services, 2016); and the GET-EXCEL strain grows faster by 38% compared to unimproved tilapia stocks (Tayamen, 2004)."},{"index":7,"size":241,"text":"their fingerlings from ARDEC or private hatcheries. Some farmers in the four regions produced their own fingerlings in their own hatchery facilities or just left the tilapia in the ponds to breed for the next season. A few other farmers in the four regions sourced fingerlings from the wild. Most farmers rated their source of fingerling as either good or very good (Fig. 2). Seventeen percent of farmers who sourced their fingerlings from Ashaiman ADC rated the fingerlings as somewhat good, whereas 5% of farmers buying from ARDEC and another 5% sourcing from private hatcheries rated their fingerlings somewhat good. These ratings show a need to improve fingerling production and marketing to fish farmers. The farmer interviews reveal many challenges in seed availability, seed quality, transportation issues, packaging issues, and mortality during transport. These challenges are more pronounced in Brong Ahafo and more remote areas in other regions. Seed availability reflects some degree of seasonality; many farmers stock at the same time in order to harvest for sales during the end-of-year festive season, when a peak in demand occurs. Some farmers also indicated having challenges with timely availability of fingerlings. For pond farmers in the Eastern region, the challenge is mainly related to traveling long distances to source fingerlings, rather than to availability. Farmers appear not to trust the quality of seed produced by some of the hatcheries in their vicinity. Also, some farmers indicate they lack information on fingerling sources."},{"index":8,"size":102,"text":"Farmers in all regions also mention the issue of fingerling quality, including the lack of uniformity-or differences in growth rates of the fingerlings-and incomplete sex reversal. The latter results in differences in growth performance (between male and female fish) and means that fish stocked will continue to multiply in the ponds, leading to inbreeding issues. Farmers explain that large differences exist in quality and prices at different hatcheries. Some farmers buy from multiple sources to spread the risk. Most farmers consider the relationship with the hatchery important, especially because many hatcheries, especially those in Eastern and Volta regions, also provide technical advice."},{"index":9,"size":87,"text":"Transforming the seed sector is critical for improving the productivity and profitability of aquaculture. It is fundamental under the AFJ program to invest in aquaculture research and development, including strengthening breeding capacity, facilitating the risk and economic assessment of alternative strains, enhancing the capacity to monitor seed quality, and enforcing seed policies and regulations. Active medium and large private companies and farmers working primarily in the vibrant cage aquaculture around Lake Volta could be a vehicle for the muchneeded greater attention and transformation of the seed system."}]},{"head":"Feed","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"As noted earlier, feed is the key determinant of the cost-effectiveness and competitiveness of the industry. Feed represents nearly 70% of the cost of production of farmed tilapia. The local feed sector is dominated by one producer, Raanan Fish Feed West Africa, which also imports to neighboring countries. 9 Imported feeds, such as Multifeed, Pira, Coppens, and AllerAqua, cost about 30% more than Raanan (Rurangwa et al., 2015;Ragasa et al., 2018), with prices dependent on the exchange rate."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Most farmers used Raanan feeds. Farmers with means preferred using imported feed at early stages of fish production and then continuing with cheaper locally produced feed from Raanan. Farmers who could not afford optimal use of Raanan feeds fed their tilapia selfproduced feed, mainly milled maize and other available crops. The FC has conducted training for farmers on local feed formulation, but the lack of a standard formulation leaves farmers to experiment with diverse ingredients, resulting in poor performance. Especially in Ashanti and Brong Ahafo, about 10 feed producers mix local ingredients for their own use and to sell to other farmers; however, their operations are small and unstable, depending on demand by farmers."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"On average, a farmer used 1428 kg of feeds per pond or 1.49 kg of feeds per m 2 . The average feed conversion ratio (FCR), defined as the ratio of quantity of feed used to the weight of harvested fish, was 1.32 (Annex Table A6). Across the sample farms, the reported quantity of feeds used, and therefore the FCR, was wide-ranging and mainly different from expected levels. For example, most farmers reported either lower or higher values than the expected FCR (Annex Table A6). A majority of farmers in Brong Ahafo reported an FCR of less than 1.0, which means that farmers did not use enough commercial feeds and likely used mostly self-produced feeds. Many farmers in Ashanti reported an FCR higher than 3.0, indicating that farmers used commercial feeds but were not compensated with more and larger tilapia harvested. This result is likely linked to seed quality (in-breeding) and poor management practices (such as water quality) reported by many farmers, especially in Ashanti."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Because it improved the availability and reliability of supply, the establishment of a local feed mill (Raanan) has had a positive impact on the growth of Ghana's aquaculture sector (Kassam, 2014). Raanan started operations in 2011 and has grown quickly, increasing its annual production to more than 30,000 mt by 2015. Despite a production capacity of 3500 mt per month, Ranaan currently produces 2600 mt because of lower demand for fish feed after the 2016 and 2018 disease outbreaks on Lake Volta and because of farmers leaving fish farming thanks to high production costs."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"The high cost of raw materials is the main challenge facing fish feed producers. The tedious and costly process of acquiring certification for fish feed production or for importing raw materials is another. High import tariffs and taxes and other fees, estimated at between 20 and 30% of feed costs, as well as the depreciation of the Ghanaian currency, have made imported ingredients more expensive and fish feed more expensive for tilapia farmers. For instance, although the price of soybeans has remained stable on the international market, exchange rate depreciation in Ghana has made soybean more expensive locally (Amewu et al., 2020)."},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"Just as the aquaculture sector began a gradual recovery, slowly bouncing back from the two fish disease crises, the COVID-19 pandemic hit. In June 2020, Raanan indicated that local sales of feed had dropped by about 50% because of the partial lockdown and social distancing restrictions, and that the addition of border closures reduced exports of Raanan feed to neighboring countries by about 20%. Ranaan sources 30% of its main raw materials-maize, soybeans, and fish meal-from outside Ghana and is affected by lower demand for feeds from hatcheries and grow-out farmers in Ghana and abroad."},{"index":7,"size":106,"text":"As the backbone of the aquaculture industry, the feed sector must be supported-especially during this challenging time. Tax incentives and lower tariffs can help. Micro-and small-scale feed producers will also need support through loan and stimulus packages and training on feed production as well as on biosecurity measures and marketing. The availability of safe but cheaper feeds can substantially lower production costs, encourage the use of more feeds, and improve productivity and profitability. The FC has already started offering some training on local feed production so that micro-and small-scale farmers can produce their own safe feeds using available raw materials. This effort can be further expanded."}]},{"head":"Extension and access to credit","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"Through the provision of effective and efficient response to farmers' challenges, aquaculture extension delivery is strongly linked to aquaculture development and increased productivity and food security. Aquaculture extension delivery in Ghana has gone through various phases with modifications, but the approach remains the same: the government provides free extension services to farmers. Initially, aquaculture extension was part of the general agricultural extension 9 Other local producers include Beacon Hill and some Chinese farms that have integrated feed production with aquaculture production, but they make up a very small proportion of the fish feed market in Ghana. system managed by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA); however, poor coordination and logistics and lack of trained personnel led to the creation of a unified agricultural extension system in 1992. The new system used the training-and-visit approach to extension delivery, and a Department of Agricultural Extension Services was created to enable equitable access by all farmers to extension services. The major challenge to the training-and-visit approach was the weak research extension link, found to be non-responsive to the needs of farmers. In order to make extension services pragmatic and serve the needs of farmers, MoFA together with CSIR established research extension farmer linkage committees to serve as a link between research and extension, and to provide demand-driven services to farmers. When the government adopted a decentralization policy in 1997, extension services provision and management were transferred to the agricultural units at the district level with a focus on increasing farmers' productivity and incomes."},{"index":2,"size":244,"text":"In 2006, extension provision in aquaculture saw a marked improvement when the Ministry of Fisheries was carved out of MoFA; consequently, manuals for extension agents and farmers were created, FAO training materials were adopted, staff trainings were conducted, and adaptive trials with farmers conducted. Realizing the importance of aquaculture to national development and the broad contrast between aquaculture and marine fisheries, the government then created the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (MoFAD) in 2013 to replace the Ministry of Fisheries. This led to further improvement in extension delivery with zonal officers now in charge of extension services delivery across all districts, where they work directly with farmers or farmer groups. Zonal officers have been trained in extension methods and group dynamics as well as hands-on training in aquaculture through collaborations between MoFAD and national research institutions (e.g., WRI-ARDEC and University of Ghana) and other international organizations such as FAO. Although logistical challenges still exist, the government has made efforts to provide zonal officers with vehicles, motorbikes, test kits, and other materials to aid their work. As seen in the survey, 74% of fish farmers received information on fish farming from FC extension agents (Fig. 3). These agents have been critical for disseminating aquaculture information and providing technical support to farmers. The second most common source of information on fish farming was other fish farmers in the community, reported by 39% of farmers, which indicates the strong social learning and peer effect within communities."},{"index":3,"size":231,"text":"With regard to access to capital and credit, one has to be careful of introducing distortionary measures and artificial financial support that will not be sustainable in the long-term. It appears that lack of access to credit and capital is an issue for some farmers but not for most. According to the baseline survey, more than half of farmers reported that they could access credit or a loan if needed, but only 10% had actually applied for a loan. More than half of those who did not apply for a loan said they did not need credit (Fig. 4). Twenty-eight percent said they did not have access to credit. Sixteen percent said the interest rate was too high, 10% said they did not have adequate collateral, 9% said the loan application processes were cumbersome, and 2% said there were no lenders available (Fig. 5). These figures indicate that about 28-37% of farmers needed credit but did not apply. The COVID-19 crisis has meant that most farmers have experienced lower incomes from fish farming and all other livelihoods, with implications for decreased funds available for fish farming. Challenges posed by COVID-19 may require more financial assistance for farmers-at least in the short term during recovery. Nonetheless, the profitability of fish farming is the major and more urgent issue and must be addressed to promote real demand for credit and to enable repayments."}]},{"head":"Water quality and environmental sustainability","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Water quantity and quality are key components of all aquaculture ventures. For a tropical country like Ghana, water availability generally ensures year-round production. According to the survey, water for pond fish production in Ghana is sourced from streams, groundwater, boreholes, springs, and rainfall. In interviews and group discussions, most farmers reported selecting sites for their pond aquaculture production merely at the sight of a perceived reliable water source without taking into consideration other factors such as water quality, soil type, or availability of production inputs. For most farmers these sources are perennial, but some water sources do dry up in the dry season, resulting in cessation of farming activities during these periods."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"A major challenge associated with small-scale pond fish farming is the discharge of untreated production effluent into receiving water bodies. Based on our survey, only 9% of pond farmers reported treating water before discharging to water bodies (Fig. 5). Only 7% maintained water quality records and 3% maintained wastewater management records. Half of farmers check water quality at least weekly by observing the color and smell of the water; and only 7% uses instruments or gadgets to check for water quality. Other causes of water quality deterioration in ponds are overfeeding, use of poor-quality feed, overstocking, overfertilization, absence of water quality monitoring schedules, and generally poor water quality management practices (Agyakwah et al., 2020). These causes are all attributable to a poor understanding of fish farming practices (Agyakwah et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"To support the AFJ and ensure environmental sustainability, the government will have to institute measures such as scheduled water quality monitoring programs for fish farmers and provision of regular training sessions on good farming practices. Many farmers have resources to purchase and invest in water quality equipment as long as they have the incentive and understand the usefulness of doing so. One farmer said, \"I purchased my own instruments to monitor pH and ammonia levels in my farm and this has helped me a lot.\""}]},{"head":"Marketing","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Based on the interviews and group discussions, challenges in marketing small-sized tilapia from Ashanti and Brong Ahafo regions arise because many farmers still do not regard fish farming as a serious business, do not follow good aquaculture practice to maximize productivity, and do not have marketing strategies to maximize market access and incomes. Other difficulties reported in the interviews and group discussions in Ashanti and Brong Ahafo include the lack of a dedicated market facility for tilapia, inability to produce bigger tilapia that command higher prices, and production of mostly small-size tilapia that cannot compete with cheaper imported chicken for poorer households."},{"index":2,"size":224,"text":"Before COVID-19, fresh tilapia was in high demand-especially by the hospitality industry, chop bars in urban areas, and generally well-off households. With the pandemic, demand has decreased, with almost everyone experiencing income losses and weaker purchasing power. Of those harvesting fish when COVID-19 hit (April-June 2020), 56% of pond farmers and 78% of cage farmers experienced difficulties selling their fish (Fig. 6). Higher proportions of pond farmers in Ashanti and Brong Ahafo regions than in Eastern and Volta experienced difficulty selling. The reasons reported for these difficulties were lower demand or no buyers, lower tilapia prices, and higher transportation costs (Fig. 6). One farmer said, \"Buyers are afraid of their movements to and from the production centers.\" Farmers about to harvest fish to sell were told by aggregators to wait. \"Most farmers were expecting to sell fish during the Easter celebration, which didn't happen due to the lockdown. Most of them were forced to sell the fish at lower prices after the lockdown,\" said a fish feed producer. Farmers have some flexibility to keep tilapia in their cages or ponds for a bit longer, but doing so means additional costs of continued feeding and higher risk of exposure to diseases and natural calamities. Large farms with cold storage may harvest and store, but small-scale farmers-most fish farmers in the country-do not have such facilities."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"As a result, distressed selling-farmers with tilapia to sell just trying to sell off their fish even at much reduced prices-led to an initial decrease in prices during lockdown; one farmer reported that the average price for Size 1 tilapia went from GHC 14.50 per kg before COVID-19 to GHC 12.00 during the crisis. This finding is consistent with the price monitoring effort by the Chamber of Aquaculture Ghana. Average farm gate prices reported by large fish farmers in Volta and Eastern show a sharp decline in June-July, but they slowly bounced back in September (Fig. 7). The farm gate price in September was still about GHC 1.00 lower than before COVID-19. Food prices in general have gone up, and fish registered the highest price increase since the start of the COVID-19 crisis (GSS (Ghana Statistical Service), 2020)."}]},{"head":"Policies and regulations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Aquaculture in Ghana is governed by various national policies and regulations to ensure environmental sustainability, food safety, and industry resilience. The Food and Drugs Authority (FDA) and Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) are responsible for regulating and monitoring the quality of feeds. The FC is currently pilot-testing a certification system for hatcheries. For fish traders, FDA is responsible for strategies and regulations to ensure food safety."},{"index":2,"size":286,"text":"Import restrictions on tilapia have been in place for several decades, but they have not been actively enforced; there are regular reports of illegal imported tilapia flooding the market (Ragasa et al., 2018). In 2012, the government launched the Ghana National Aquaculture Development Plan (GNADP), which sought to increase annual aquaculture production from the 2010 baseline level of 10,200 mt to 100,000 mt by the end of 2016, increasing both the market share and the value of Ghanaian farmed fish (MoFA (Ministry of Food and Agriculture), and FC (Fisheries Commssion), 2012). The plan outlined an extensive list of constraints in the aquaculture sector, which it aimed to address, including issues with fish feed, financing for local production, institutional and regulatory arrangements, and research. Several activities have been implemented under the GNADP, including training sessions for improved fingerling production, zoning of Lake Volta to facilitate site selection for new farmers, setting up a fish disease laboratory, and renovation of ARDEC. The GNADP production targets, however, were not achieved by 2016. Interviews and the authors' experience and observations indicate the targets were ambitious and part of the problem in implementing the plan was the lack of sustained investment, effective policy, and institutional and regulatory reforms. Similarly, the current AFJ program supports institutions and youth associations in starting or expanding their fish farming operations, but its budget allocation and implementation were delayed and the necessary policy and regulatory reforms and enforcement are lacking. In response to aquaculture sector actors who await a new national strategy to accelerate growth in the sector, a national aquaculture technical working committee made up of experts from different organizations was formed in early 2018 to help address some of the challenges in the sector."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"Certain policies and regulations can restrict, rather than enable, investments in the sector. Industry players highlight the regulatory hurdles that they have faced in getting productive tilapia strains, such as GIFT, approved. Other countries have also used fiscal incentives to encourage private sector growth. China has adopted a zero-tax policy for fish exportation. In Indonesia, entrepreneurs are eligible for tax holidays. Vietnam provides incentives for aquaculture through land tax exemptions to commercial farmers (Hishamunda et al., 2009). Such tax measures have encouraged investment in aquaculture, mainly by local entrepreneurs. In several of the countries studied, the capital for most activities in the sector comes from local entrepreneurs despite some small foreign investment in aquaculture (Hishamunda et al., 2009). In Ghana, however, most medium and large tilapia farms are foreignowned."},{"index":4,"size":173,"text":"The regulatory cost of doing business in Ghana has been a major complaint of these foreign investors. For example, the Ghana Investment Promotion Council (GIPC) requires a US$500,000 minimum investment, a level considered high and restrictive for smaller foreign investors interested in aquaculture. Foreign aquaculture farmers interviewed mentioned that countries like Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Zambia do not have such restrictions and are generally less bureaucratic than Ghana. Ghana ranks 118 of 190 countries in terms of the ease of doing business index of the World Bank, with a score of 60.0 out of 100 (World Bank, 2019). This score is slightly above the SSA average (51.8); better overall than Bangladesh (45.0), Ethiopia (48.0), and Nigeria (56.9); similar to Egypt (60.0) and Uganda (60.0); and worse than Zambia (66.9), Indonesia (69.6), Vietnam (69.8), Kenya (73.2), and China (77.9). On the basis of this index, Ghana can be viewed as generally less attractive to both foreign and local investors compared to many of the top aquacultureproducing countries in SSA and elsewhere (Brummett et al., 2008)."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"Tariffs are considered quite high in Ghana: import duties for imported feeds are 5%, but other taxes and fees mean that between 20 and 30% of feed cost is reported to be the difference in the price of fish feed between its arrival in port and after it leaves the port. One feed importer also mentioned that about 80% of imported feed costs goes to tariffs, taxes, and transportation. These high cost components point to the need to review regulations and consider fiscal incentives that would facilitate the development of aquaculture in Ghana, such as the tax holidays or exemption on import duties offered in countries such as Indonesia, Myanmar, and Vietnam (Ragasa et al., 2018)."}]},{"head":"Summary and concluding remarks","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"This paper provides a comprehensive and systematic assessment of pond aquaculture in Ghana, which has traditionally been extensive and had limited external inputs, but which has been transforming into semiand intensive systems over the past decade. The paper complements the research heavily focused on cage culture, which has driven the fast growth in Ghana's aquaculture sector in the last decade. It uses a unique and rich dataset from a 2019 census of 472 pond tilapia farmers and hatchery operators in major aquaculture-producing regions in Ghana. This census is complemented by a phone survey conducted in June to assess the impact of the COVID-19 crisis, 10 group discussions among farmers and other actors in July and August 2020, and 25 interviews with hatchery operators, breeders, government officials, feed producers, and consumers. We also compared Ghana's figures with those of other countries. The main findings are as follows."},{"index":2,"size":491,"text":"• Ghana's aquaculture sector has experienced rapid growth mainly due to the improved local Akosombo strain developed and released in 2006 and the local availability of high-quality feeds. The assessments conducted in 2019 identified as many as 45 public and private commercial hatcheries or fingerling producers. Nonetheless, many remote areas continued to lack access to quality fingerlings. Moreover, WorldFish's recent evaluation of the Akosombo strain showed deteriorating performance and a need to revive the strain. In the short term, supporting more hatcheries or establishing nurseries in remote areas could help increase farmers' access to quality fingerlings from the existing Akosombo strain. In the long term, investments in reviving the Akosombo strain or introducing improved foreign strains (GIFT or GIANT), bred for fast growth, stress resistance and feed efficiency, coupled with stricter enforcement of fish seed regulations and building national capacity to manage these strains, come as top priorities to sustain growth in the sector. • The majority of tilapia farmers who were actively farming in 2019 experienced positive profits, despite wide variability in experiences and production. On average, a farmer received a profit of GHC 3.24 per kg of tilapia produced (a 27% profit margin). Farmers who adopted good management practices and used mixed tilapia-catfish system are more productive and more profitable than those who did not adopt. The survey results show that most farmers had poor management practices, including poor record keeping, water management practices, and biosecurity measures. There is tremendous potential to improve productivity and profitability among smallscale farmers by improving their management practices. Despite the smaller contribution of fish farming than crop farming for most fish farmers, fish farming offers a great opportunity for income and livelihood diversification among small-scale farmers. • In terms of social inclusion, the data show that youth had a high level of engagement in fish farming but that women did not. Youth represented 14 and 24% of owners and managers, respectively, and contributed 68% of total family and hired labor on farms. Women also engaged in fish farming, but mostly in harvesting and postharvest, and their participation was much lower than men's. Nine percent of farm managers and owners were women, and an additional 9% of farms engaged women in some decision-making. Moreover, women contributed 16% of family labor and 5% of hired labor on farms. Factors contributing to low engagement of women in fish farming were time burden-juggling fish farming and domestic chores-and gender bias around women's role in domestic chores and men's role in economic activities. At most, 25% of the respondents-mainly men-believed that fish farming is a man's job. Gender awareness campaigns could help to break this gender bias and challenge gender norms. Opportunities to involve more women will arise as the productivity and profitability of these farms improve. Greater profitability will likely provide greater incentive to shift family labor and greater capacity to hire more labor, which is especially important for women to better balance domestic and productive work."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"COVID-19 exposes the vulnerability of aquaculture, causing disruptions in its supply and demand sides. More than half of farmers experienced difficulties in accessing inputs and higher input prices, resulting in lowered production and operations of producers and other value chain actors for seveal months. The hospitality industry, food service sector, and household consumers also reduced tilapia demand and purchases, leading to reduction in sales and lower tilapia prices, although prices are slowly bouncing towards the end of 2020. Decreased incomes from fish farming and other livelihoods have resulted in a sharp decline in available funds for farming operations and for expanding productive capacity. Especially in this time of crisis, the government's COVID-19 response should include strategies to sustain the growth achieved in the aquaculture value chains and build their resilience. Our recommendations for COVID-19 response and the AFJ program are as follows."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"• The weaker demand (lower purchasing power) of consumers of fresh tilapia and other high-value products points to the need to aggressively explore and expand markets and to provide market intelligence, cold chain infrastructure, and greater industry coordination. Many neighboring countries-including Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Niger-rely on fish imports, including tilapia, mainly from China (Ragasa et al., 2018). 10 With trade restrictions and greater concerns regarding food safety and the spread of COVID-19, countries are turning to local or regional production. 11 Now is an opportune time to strengthen regional trade, which can offer a winwin strategy for producers and consumers in West Africa and the continent. Ghana is in a good position to act as a producer of fresh and frozen tilapia and catfish and fish feed for the region."},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"• Support of local fish farming can be achieved through temporary subsidies or loan programs for farmers and input suppliers. The sector, unlike cocoa or maize, has not benefitted much from public policies like subsidies and other public investments (Ragasa and Byerlee, 2013;Ragasa et al., 2013). Reduced incomes from various livelihood sources, due to COVID-19, have reduced private funds available for investing in fish farming. Programs supporting the sector may need to reduce project expectations and provide shortterm financial support to help fish farmers cope with their production and marketing challenges. Small input packages, such as free fingerlings or a bag of starter feeds, may help farmers greatly in times of uncertainty. This support will also ensure that small-scale hatcheries and feed producers-critical actors in the value chain-have constant orders of fingerlings and feeds and will stay in business."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"• In the long term, transforming aquaculture in Ghana will require quality feeds at lower costs, improvements in the tilapia strain used, targeted extension services to improve farm management practices, fiscal incentives to attract investments into the sector, closer attention to water and feed quality, and enforcement of biosecurity and food safety regulations."},{"index":7,"size":381,"text":"Despite some differences, many of the experiences in Ghana mirror that of other SSA countries and lessons from Ghana are relevant for them. Many SSA countries have water bodies and agricultural lands suitable for aquaculture. Tremendous expansion of cage aquaculture has occurred across SSA inland waters in the last decade-from 9 cage aquaculture installations in 2006 to 263 installations with more than 20,000 cages in 2019 (Blow and Leonard, 2007;Musinguzi et al. 2019). Commercial cage farming in lakes and other water bodies will remain the main driver of aquaculture growth and major investment and promotion area in Ghana and other SSA countries. Nonetheless, there is vast potential to develop pond farming, the main system practiced by thousands of small-scale farmers across Ghana and other SSA countries. Concrete pond or tank systems are very productive, and many earthen ponds have been productive. Recirculation aquaculture systems (closed-loop production systems that continuously filter and recycle water, enabling large-scale fish farming with little environmental impact) are more commonly used in Asia and increasingly being used in hatcheries in SSA; more demonstrations are underway to promote these systems to grow-out farmers in the subcontinent. 12 Countries in SSA also share similar increasing trends in the fish supply and demand gap and in import dependence. Africa's fish imports in 2015-19 were 1.5 times higher than its aquaculture production (FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), [2005][2006][2007][2008][2009][2010][2011][2012][2013][2014][2015][2016][2017][2018][2019]. Rapid population growth, urbanization, and increasing incomes are expected to lead to higher demand for fish and higher-value foods, triggering higher fish imports. If aquaculture does not rapidly expand, the supply-demand gap will widen, and per capita fish consumption will drop if imports cannot fill the gap (Chan et al., 2019;FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2020). Under a business-as-usual scenario modeling, African aquaculture production will likely be 2.8 million mt in 2050; however, it needs to grow by an additional 5.0 million mt by 2030 and 10.6 million mt by 2050 to reduce dependence on imports-two and four times higher than current rates, respectively (Chan et al., 2019). Invigorating local production and accelerated aquaculture growth could generate about 8 million jobs along the value chains in the subcontinent (Chan et al., 2021). 10 See also FishStatJ database for updates at http://www.fao.org/fishery/sta tistics/software/fishstatj/en. 11 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-kenya-fish/corona virus-provides-unexpected-boost-for-kenyan-fishermen-idUSKBN21A1H8."},{"index":8,"size":83,"text":"12 https://foodtechafrica.com/ras/ This study and recent literature show that strategies to accelerate both cage and pond aquaculture growth in the subcontinent can include increasing access to genetically improved strains, lower-cost quality feeds, and highly productive and climate-smart technologies; enhancing extension services and human capacity development; and improving fish disease surveillance and fish health management practices. Stable and enabling policies, regulations, and public investments will significantly help further attract private sector investment, safeguard the environment, and ensure inclusive and sustainable growth of the sector."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fig.1. Annual growth rate in aquaculture and tilapia production, globally and in top producing countries inAfrica (2005-19). Source: FAO FishStatJ database, accessed June 5, 2021 at http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 .Fig. 3 . Fig. 2. Proportion of farmers, by perception of quality of fingerling source (%). (Source: IFPRI/WRI survey (2019). ARDEC (Aquaculture Research and Development Center), PAC (Pilot Aquaculture Center), and Ashaiman ADC (Aquaculture Development Center) are three public hatcheries.) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Proportion of farmers not applying for a loan, by reason (%). Source: IFPRI/WRI survey (2019). "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Proportion of farmers by water management practices (%). Source: IFPRI/WRI survey (2019). "},{"text":"( a ) Reasons given for difficulties in selling, percent of those selling during COVID-19 crisis (b) Anticipated changing market outlet, percent of those farming during COVID-19 crisis (c) Market outlet before and after lockdown, percent of fish farmers surveyed "},{"text":"Fig. 7 . Fig. 7. Average farmgate price of tilapia (Size 1 and Regular) and catfish, April-September 2020. Source: http://www.chamberofaquaculture.com/portfolio.html "},{"text":" Annual growth rate in aquaculture and tilapia production, globally and in top producing countries inAfrica (2005-19). Source: FAO FishStatJ database, accessed June 5, 2021 at http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en. Source: FAO FishStatJ database, accessed June 5, 2021 at http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en. Table 1 Table 1 Number of pond farmers surveyed, by region. Number of pond farmers surveyed, by region. Region Active /a Inactive /b RegionActive /aInactive /b Ashanti 112 40 Ashanti11240 Brong Ahafo 191 45 Brong Ahafo19145 Eastern 62 9 Eastern629 Volta 11 2 Volta112 Total 376 96 Total37696 "},{"text":"Table 2 Person-days of family and hired labor in largest pond, per cycle. Variable % of farmers with family/ Mean SD Min Max Variable% of farmers with family/MeanSDMinMax hired labor hired labor Hired labor Hired labor Total hired 60 55 174 0 1680 Total hired605517401680 labor labor Young male 50 35 139 0 1680 Young male503513901680 Older male 20 17 90 0 1298 Older male20179001298 Young female 7 2 22 0 278 Young female72220278 Older female 4 0 3 0 60 Older female403060 Family labor Family labor Total family 63 35 94 0 1083 Total family63359401083 labor labor Young male 43 19 58 0 580 Young male4319580580 Older male 26 10 44 0 645 Older male2610440645 Young female 11 4 49 0 903 Young female114490903 Older female 11 2 11 0 181 Older female112110181 "},{"text":"Table 3 Proportion of farmers, by productivity (tilapia harvested per m 2 ) (%), 2019. Harvest (kg per m 2 ) Ashanti Brong Ahafo Eastern Volta Total Harvest (kg per m 2 )AshantiBrong AhafoEasternVoltaTotal <0.5 15 8 5 0 10 <0.51585010 0.5-1.4 79 64 26 20 64 0.5-1.47964262064 1.5-2.4 5 19 26 20 15 1.5-2.4519262015 2.5 or more 0 9 43 60 11 2.5 or more09436011 Source: IFPRI/WRI survey (2019). Source: IFPRI/WRI survey (2019). "},{"text":"Table 4 Average profits from tilapia farms. Indicators Mean SD Min Max IndicatorsMeanSDMinMax Total revenue (GHC per Total revenue (GHC per pond) 15,439.08 21,638.12 408.00 129,080.00 pond)15,439.0821,638.12408.00129,080.00 Profit (GHC per pond) 3917.87 6198.66 − 9600.44 25,121.97 Profit (GHC per pond)3917.876198.66− 9600.4425,121.97 Profit margin per kg of Profit margin per kg of tilapia produced (%) Profits (GHC per m 2 ) 27.22 8.83 43.33 12.16 − 79.64 − 12.52 89.91 46.06 tilapia produced (%) Profits (GHC per m 2 )27.22 8.8343.33 12.16− 79.64 − 12.5289.91 46.06 Source: IFPRI/WRI household survey (2019). SD = standard deviation. Source: IFPRI/WRI household survey (2019). SD = standard deviation. "},{"text":" Effects of COVID-19 crisis on fish marketing and sales among fish farmers surveyed. Source: IFPRI/FMMS phone survey of fish farmers (June 2020). Note: * \"Other\" responses include farmers planning to focus on institutional buyers such as schools, invest in cold chain facilities, or find international buyers. Cage Cage CageCage Pond Pond PondPond All All AllAll 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0%20%40%60%80%100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Poor demand or no buyers No change With change Do not know 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Poor demand or no buyersNo changeWith changeDo not know Lower prices Lower prices Higher transportaƟon costs Higher transportaƟon costs Markets were closed RestricƟons on movement Delayed handling and transacƟons No means of transportaƟon to markets Others Pond Cage All Before AŌer Before AŌer Before AŌer Markets were closed RestricƟons on movement Delayed handling and transacƟons No means of transportaƟon to markets OthersPond Cage AllBefore AŌer Before AŌer Before AŌer 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0%20%40%60%80%100% Aggregator Retailer Households AggregatorRetailerHouseholds Supermarkets Restaurants Other* SupermarketsRestaurantsOther* 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Fig. 6. 12 ) g k / C H G ( e c i r p h s i f t a C d n a a i p a l 13 i T 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Fig. 6. 12 ) g k / C H G ( e c i r p h s i f t a C d n a a i p a l 13 i T Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep AprMayJunJulAugSep Tilapia 400-500g (Size 1) Tilapia 300-400g (Regular) Caƞish Tilapia 400-500g (Size 1)Tilapia 300-400g (Regular)Caƞish "}],"sieverID":"5533d48e-68f5-414f-8e18-22642bae1008","abstract":"Over the past decade, the aquaculture sector in Ghana has experienced tremendous growth-driven mainly by large-scale cage aquaculture. Pond aquaculture, traditionally extensive and with limited external inputs, has been transforming over the same period. Farm profitability was wide-ranging, between − 12.00 and 46.00 Ghanaian cedi (GHC) per square meter (m 2 ), with an average of GHC 8.82/m 2 for farmers active in 2019. Despite wide variability in production and profits, the majority of farmers experienced positive profits-on average, GHC 3.24 per kilogram of tilapia produced, or a 27% profit margin. Farmers who adopted good aquaculture practices and intensified their production have high productivity and positive profits. Nonetheless, the cost to produce 1 kg of tilapia in Ghana (roughly US$1.51 on average) was much higher than in other major tilapia-producing countries (averaging roughly US$0.78 to 1.29). COVID crisis further affected fish farmers: 54% experienced difficulties in accessing inputs, 56% experienced difficulties selling their fish, and farmgate fish prices went down in April-August, although slowly bounced back by end of 2020. Improving the competitiveness and resilience of Ghanaian tilapia sector will require improved seed, increased adoption of good management practices, lowercost quality feed, and enabling policies and regulations."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0aea66c6e42a721a09e9c5eeebea6b89","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4643086-62ae-47ed-95ed-a526d9aa6f73/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Case Study: Investment in sustainable seeds for sustainable agricultural intensification","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Sustainable seed systems will be critical to support the growth in food production that is needed to feed 10 billion people by 2050 without breaking planetary boundaries. Innovations in sustainable seeds and seed systems will be critical in developing accessible and affordable varieties of crops that have increased productivity, more resilience, better environmental outcomes, affordability and social outcomes, and nutrition outcomes. Adequate investments in these seed systems will be critical and the measurement of existing investment flows is the starting point to direct future investments effectively. This case study presents funding towards innovation in seed and sustainable seed systems within the Global South."}]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"This study estimates that Sustainable Seeds Systems for the Global South received approximately USD 15 billion in funding cumulatively between 2010-2019 across all sources of funders. This is roughly one-third the total funding for seeds innovation in the same time period. Though the trend should get confirmed with further data, the analysis made in this study reveals a slight decline in the trend for investments in sustainable seeds innovation over the last 2-3 years for which data was available. Finally, farmer-saved seeds and community seed systems attract only miniscule funding (<USD 50 million cumulatively between 2010-2019) or less than 0.5% of total funding, and an increase in focus and funding levels for this would likely prove very helpful."}]},{"head":"Approximately","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Global Seeds System Scale & Value","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Seed systems across the world can typically be categorized into private sector led, public sector led, and farmer self-managed with overlaps between these. There are highly scientific approaches based on formal biotechnology R&D in private sector labs and research institutions across the world. There are national and regional agriculture research systems within governments across the world with varying degrees of collaboration with the private sector and also with the development sector and organizations including CGIAR. Third there is a grassroots sector comprising of small and large Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and local NGOs that run community seed banks and promote seed storage by farmers including open-license seed activity."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The prevalence of farm-saved seed systems versus commercial seed systems varies significantly across regions as described in Figure 1 below. Farmer saved seed constitutes over a quarter of the total in Latin America and nearly two thirds of all seed in Asia and Africa (2016 estimates). While by definition, it is hard to put a value on the farmer-saved seed system, the commercial seed industry globally is estimated to vary between USD 90-110 billion in 2020 and is growing at an annual rate of roughly 10%."}]},{"head":"Overview of Funding for Sustainable Seed Systems","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"We estimate the total value of investments in sustainable seed systems innovation for the Global South to be around USD 1.3 -1.7 billion per year, totalling USD 15.5 billion between 2010-2019. This is approximately one third of the investments in seed systems innovation overall which have ranged between USD 4-5 billion annually over the last decade. 1 OECD analysis using the Kleffmann Agriglobe database. 2 Dalberg analysis."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Investments in sustainable seed systems in the Global South are concentrated in the seed production and R&D stages; marketing is a close third. Based on our analysis of the public and private sector seed players overall (excluding the informal sector), we can see that over USD 1.6 billion was spent in the R&D stage and USD 6.7 billion in the product development stages of the sustainable seed industry between 2010-2019. Additionally, at least USD 4.8 billion was spent in promoting the uptake of seeds by farm systems. "}]},{"head":"Overview of Funding by Source","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"Funding for sustainable seeds innovation is dominated by the private sector and governments in the Global South though there has been a dip in government investment. We estimate that large private sector companies spend around USD 800 million per year on innovation for seed systems in the Global South; the industry is highly concentrated and is dominated by a few global companies and is seeing greater consolidation. The private sector seed industry is dominated by large global players who are collectively spending billions of dollars on innovation in seeds. Even though these are large players, this is not a perfectly competitive market and players tend to specialize in both crops and countries that they operate in. Such spending has led to advancements in genome editing, marker-assisted selection etc. However, the private sector does not focus on crops that are either self-pollinating or are small in scale 6 as the cost of new cultivar development is substantial and can reach USD 130 million dollars taking into account the lifecycle costs of development. Over time, investment by private sector for seed innovation has gone up by 11% in real terms from 2010 to the 2015-19 average."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Governments across the world play a substantial role in seed systems innovation and we estimate that they spend around USD 600 million each year on innovation for seed systems in the Global South. National agriculture research systems (NARS) play an outsized role in plant breeding and seed systems innovation in the Global South. Many countries have a network of organizations that partner both with the private sector and also with international research institutions to develop new cultivars, scale up seeds, and distribute them to the farmer. However, there are several inefficiencies in this model where new cultivars get created but don't necessarily get commercialized, thereby reducing the value that countries and communities can derive from them. The public sector funding for seed innovation has gone up from 2010 to 2019 by about 40% in real terms."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Civil-society, public, and private philanthropic organizations play a substantial role in the global seed system, especially in the science and technical side of breeding on the one hand, and in farmer-led initiatives on the other. We estimate that they spend approximately USD 110-120 million annually on seed system innovations every year. The global development landscape has a wide variety of institutions and programs contribute in large and small ways to progress in seeds and seed innovation."}]},{"head":"Funding for Farmer-saved Seed Systems","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"It is likely that less than 0.5% of the innovation investment in sustainable seeds is focused on farmersaved seed systems though the lack of data granularity prevents an accurate assessment; more investment in this can drive substantial value for farmers in the Global South. Over the last decade, based on data available, it seems that only between USD 2-6 million is spent annually on innovations for farmer-saved seed system programs. This funding is driven largely by funders in the multilateral, bilateral, and philanthropic sectors. Multilateral and bilateral donors spend about 4% of their investment in sustainable seeds innovation on farmer-saved seeds whereas philanthropic players spend only about 1%. It is likely that there is Government spending for this theme, but the lack of data granularity makes this difficult to assess. Almost no private sector spending is focused in farmer-saved seed systems."}]},{"head":"Highlights","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Investments in sustainable seed systems are dominated by private sector and public sector spending; to ensure innovations for \"non-market\" diversified crops, innovative financing arrangements might be needed. Seed R&D is expensive, and the private sector tends to not focus on crops with open pollination or those that have traditional seed systems. However, innovations in the genetic materials of such crops will be essential to sustainable agriculture and hence blended finance instruments and other partnership mechanisms will be needed to ensure that innovation in these spaces gets adequate attention. The African Orphan Crops Consortium is an excellent example of such a partnership mechanism."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The Commission on Sustainable Agriculture Intensification (CoSAI) brings together 21 Commissioners to influence public and private support to innovation in order to rapidly scale up sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) in the Global South."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"For CoSAI, innovation means the development and uptake of new ways of doing things -in policy, social institutions and finance, as well as in science and technology."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Contact us: [email protected] wle.cgiar.org/cosai"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 55% of this funding is concentrated in the Research & Development (R&D) and Product Development stages of activity with Marketing & Behaviour Change activities also receiving about 30% of this funding. Private sector funding is concentrated in R&D and Product Development whereas Government funding is well balanced across R&D, Product Development, Marketing, Infrastructure Development. Development Funders tend to also focus on Research and Product Development. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Farmer-saved seed as share of total 1 . "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Total expenditure in sustainable seed and seed innovation in the Global South 2 . "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Total expenditure in sustainable seed innovation by innovation area 3 . Private sector investments and government investments constitute a large majority of the investment for sustainable seed systems. As can be seen in Figure 4, private sector companies mostly fund product development and marketing whereas Global South government spending covers science & technology, product development, marketing and extension, along with infrastructure development almost equally. By contrast, Development Partners invest more in science and technology (specifically breeding. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Total funding in sustainable seed innovation by innovation area 4 . "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Sustainable seed innovation expenditure by sources of funding 5 . "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"e644a203-5151-410c-8c1a-4c17ad53461a","abstract":"Important Note on the Definition of Sustainable Seeds Systems as Used in this Case Study 1. The use of the word \"Sustainable\" in the phrase \"Sustainable Seeds System\" should be understood as seeds system innovations that are likely to drive sustainability as defined in this study's framework (environmental, human, social, economic, productivity). Through this lens, innovations in sustainable seed systems involve a set of interrelated activities that bring seeds to market that meet the following criteria: improved productivity, improved resilience, improved input efficiency, reduced environmental footprint, improved nutrition goals, and improved affordability and income for farmers.2. The case study considers the entire seeds \"system\", and not just the production of seeds, based on the definition from FAO: \"A sustainable seed system ensures that farmers have timely access to affordable quality seeds and planting materials of the most suitable cultivars. Stages such as the marketing of seeds, infrastructure to store and use of seeds are also considered in this analysis."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0af52760fe55eed36e1863237a5b6b34","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3bbc023d-326f-4ebe-a455-2401899f10e9/retrieve"},"pageCount":44,"title":"KIKOLAN TO 'DURESI KO 'DEPESI TI GUGU LO NYOMOT TI LODIR NA JUR","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"KULYA YUPESI TI KUNE WURESI","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Na Manini (Hand buk) a nene nagwon jojo ko na gugu lonyomot ti lodir na jur. Yeyesi na kikitarikin na manini a wurő a na katodinonit. A wurő ko Ronnie Vernooy, Bhuwon Sthapit ko Guy Bessette (Bioversity International 2020). Kine Maniniat (buk) musala momorja a na Buk togeleŋ nagwon a wurő a kwe na kakuruk ti jur logwon nyanyar suluja ko ŋarakindya ko 'debba gugu lo nyomot ti lodir na jur."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Na kita apo i kwe na ga'yu ko riŋit to'duret na kitaejin nagwon jurja gugu lo nyomot ti lodir, kine kitayesi a ŋaraki ko katetenak ti Kurju, ti Kaden ko ti Somot ti miri lo jur lo Loki Na Africa. Yi ratakindya ko tindu nase yi na diŋit wuret na na manini (buk) nagwon yi yendu adi de ŋaŋarakin kakuruk ti jurőn liŋ ti kak. Yeyesi na wurő ni kune ati ko monye wurjő ka'de."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Na kita 'yalakine in kita na CGIAR a kwe na kulya ti kőbuŋőt logwon tikindya kudu ti 'don gwoso na 'beron koju nu, a ko kulya ti kurju ko ti yuku na kinyo, kine ŋo liŋ a kitarikin ko ŋaret na taripatat na CGIAR ko rukesi kase ko miri lo swőt Na Loki Na Africa. Denesi na jore bubulő riye i na kwake https:// ccafs. cgiar. org/donors. Kune yeyesi na worő i na manini ti bulő joŋa a 'dekesi ti kune momoresi na 'dinya kata kune."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"I ŋerot nagwon na buk tutuŋőki wurő a joŋa i tema na kulya na wirő kune in meleseno ti kakuruk i jur lo Zimbwabe ko ŋaret na lodir katetenak ti kune wuresi morja ko lodir na gugu lo nyomot logwon a ti Uzuma Maramba Pfungwe ko ti Mudzi. Jujuwesi ko 'dekesi kase a wuyu ko lyőŋőn ko kawurők ti na Buk. Pupuresi a tiki lodir katetenak ti kune wuresi i temesi nagwon a kona ti ŋina Buk a ko kulya ti kweki na nyomot ko ŋutu liŋ logwon a wurő (Buk to 1) a ko tuŋarakin i ŋina kita."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Pupuresi tőki a tiki Anna Porcuna Ferrer, Arnab Gupta ko Deendayal Research Institute ko tindu nase na ŋőjinő namomok se kune."},{"index":6,"size":123,"text":"Pupuresi tőki a tiki ko Najore ti wate ko lojore ti lunsak logwon an suluja to'durjő nagugu lo nyomot i kak 'bukuluŋ/liŋ. Tobodwan nase ko kitayesi na kitarikin i meleseno kase ko kuniye nagwon a nago ako kitarikin ko nagwon a kitarikin 'bura i to'durő na gugu lo nyomot ti lodir wurőki i na Buk. 'Dukikindyő ki ko moga na gugu lo nyonot anyen gwon ti 'doro yőŋő tindu na muggun ko diŋit i ŋina kita. Yenet adi ko na Buk kakuruk lojore de popokin i 'deba 'bura na gugu lo nyomot ti lodir. Pupuresi a tiki Sandra Gariand i nyőgu na kendya na Buk a ko Luca Pierotti i tetendya gweyet na Buk. Kiyesi na'but nagwon kitarikin i na buk se kune:"}]},{"head":"KIKOLAN TO 'DURESI KO 'DEPESI TI GUGU LO NYOMOT TI LODIR NA JUR KALETSI","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• Kweki ko jamaki kakuruk kulya ti na buk ko kitayesi kanyit i ŋerot nagwon tiki lopeŋ"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• I mukők na diŋit na'dit nagwon kakuruk aje kitari kune kulya ti buk, pipine pipi lopeŋat kode kuniye kopesi kata nagwon bubulő ririki."}]},{"head":"TETENESI LOPUKESI TI KINE BUKÖN","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Ko kine Bukőn aje wurő ko aje mőrő kitarikin ko kakuruk biya ana'but ko loŋe a jaki (Printers) anyen kebu kune saresi: -√ Ti kine Bukőn tetenani gwoso Bukőn ti Lupudyet 'bayin gwoso kitesi ti Miri √ Ti Ŋőjinő gwe a temeji mumuk pirit liŋ √ Ti wuresi gwe a nabot anye memeta 'bura √ Ti wurőni i waraga nago √ Ti geleŋ na Buk jweni i meta ko ajukiniŋerot nagwon lopeŋatliŋ kikitarikin"}]},{"head":"SONYO NA LOŊE KO BIOVERSITY INTERNATIONAL","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Bőŋő, ti jujuwesi yuyukesi na'but ti kine Bukőn sunyukine na pirit: [email protected] "}]},{"head":"Karin ti Kawurők","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ŋo nagwon yi yöŋö ŋarju ko ta","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Yi Yőŋő takindya ta kikolan logwon ta pipi'yikoŋarakindi na gugu losu lo nyomot ti lidir."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Gugu lo nyomot ti lidir gwon ko kune kiyesi. Ruruga, tirikuet ko kőkőlumbő na nyomot logwon kakuruk kikitari ko kulye logwon juwe in kuniye piritőn ka'de ka'de, kilo nyomot 'depa ko kakuruk lunsak ko wate in pirit geleŋ i diŋitan liŋ, ama i kuniye diŋitan ŋaŋaraki ko kuliye kakitak logwon a bodwat ti kurju."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Diŋitan liŋ kune kitayesi kokona:"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Ruruga na nyomot logwon kata i jur ako nyőkundyő bot na nyomot logwo aje likin i jur Togeleŋ a timundya na tuka'de na nyomot logwon kata ko muda i jurőn kaŋ ka'de ka'de."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"A Nye yi kondya kune katayesi yi de wurőkindyő geresi kase kak iŋwan:"},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"1. Kinyojinlogwon a kuru jore ko kotumitőn jore ti ŋutu ti jur liŋ 2. Kinyojin logwon a kuru jore ko kotumitőn kud'ik ti ŋutu ti jur liŋ 3. Kinyojin logwon a kuru ku'dik ko kotumitőn jore ti jur liŋ 4. Kinyojin logwon a kuru ku'dik ko kotumitőn ku'dik ti jur liŋ"}]},{"head":"Tupet to 1: Dendya na tuka'de na Kinyojin ko tokujő na loŋe lose","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Kune Geresiiŋwan ŋaŋarakin yi i dendya na kikolan kurisi ka'deka'de kőti ko ludweki ti nyomot kata jore kode ku'dik kode kulye gwe nyona ko likin i jur."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Geret na'dit to mukanat 'ya'yalaki i kine geresi iŋwan a nye kweja nyomot logwon aje likin i jur liŋ. A ŋina de gwe a geret to mukanat i kine feresi liŋ."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Kuniye wuresi kata na'di'dik tikinyojin logwon aje likin i jur wurőki i katikati na kinyojin logwon kata a denet nagwon adi kilo kinyojin aje likin i jur."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Kune wuresi/geresi bubulő nyőkő a kweyet na nyomot/ludweki ka'deka'de gwoso ti Bőmuk dedena ko muda logwo kata ko logwon aje likin."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Tupet to 1: Dendya na tuka'de na Kinyojin ko tokujő na loŋe lose"}]},{"head":"KITAYEI LILIYESI","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"I mukők nagwon liliyesi ti kine geresi aje tutuŋgő denesi de kata nagwon jurja nyomot/ludweki ti kinyo logwon aje likin muda, kwe a nyo nagwon lopeŋat a likin."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"I piritőn jore tuka'de na kinyojin I jur gwe kata ko kulya ti kak kurit. Soŋinana gweyajin ti kinyojin lo kukuru puputu kak toki kak nagwon kururikin kilo kinyoju puputu a na'dit"},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Yi bubulő tojoju adi kinyojin ka'deka'de logwon a kuru in kiŋajin mukanat (5) lo tu a muda, kode logwon a kuru i kiŋajin pwők (10) lo tu a muda a yi tőki bubulő yitő bot kulye kiŋajin pwők (10). Tojoju nikaŋ na kine diŋitan musala tindu yi dendya kinyojin ka'de ka'de logwon kata. Yi bubulő dendya kine lopukesi i kulo kikolan: - "}]},{"head":"Tupet to 4: Tetendya na todinő","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Todinő na nyunyumbő, toke'ya, loja, 'de'ya ko wurőkindu kak ŋaŋarindu 'depa na nyomot. Biya a na'but ko putaputa (Kajujuwanit lokakuruk) lo kinyojin pipiya anye bubulőŋarakindya tetendya na todinesi na 'di'dik ka'deka'de."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Kuniye laŋesi ti Gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir bubulő tuŋarakin ko laŋet na todindyő kakuruk anye deden todindyő kulye kase i momorja ko tuŋőijő na nyomot i kiko lo'but."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"A na'but ko ŋaŋarakindu ko laŋesi na'di'dik a wulwe ko kakuruk logwon deden kita na kurju 'bura logwon nyanyar galundya kinyojin ludukő ka'deka'de, tőki 'du'dunba ko tuŋőijő na nyomot i karin ti Gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir na Jur."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Tetena na gugu lo nyomot ti lodir na jur Kulya ti tobodwan na nyomot 'Depa, tuwöröju na loŋiot, Yekiyesi ako manini na ŋo na wurö liŋ BUK TO na 3 1 BUK TO na 3 2 BUK TO na 3 3 2. KITARIKIN NA BUK NA KÖNIN KA'DE KODE A TUPET NA TODINET Na buk bubulő kitarikin ka'de ko luŋa a tupet na todinesi kuniye na 'di'dik ti to'durjő ko ruruga na gugu lo nyomot ti lodir.Na buk bubulő kitarikin i pirit geleŋko nene na laŋet nase nagwon a wurő ko Bioversity Internationa. "},{"text":" Yi a laŋet nagwon jore kaŋ a ŋutu wate i jur Lo Gumbu, I koji na Limpopo, Loki na Afrika, nuona ko lokokore ko Jur lo Zimbabwi. Yi gwon i jur logwon a loteyon koloŋ a duma, jur likaŋ gwon pajo ko kőjinő kaŋ tomejik, yi tőki ti ryő kuniye ŋaresi ko kaŋarak logwon kata, kikolan kaŋ logwon yi joŋgi kinyojin i pirit tugwőrit a lorok parik. BUK TO 1 KITAYESI NAGWON A KITARIKIN I KAK NA AFRIKA BUK TO 1 KITAYESI NAGWON A KITARIKIN I KAK NA AFRIKA Yi ako Ŋa TETENA NA GUGU LO NYOMOT TI Yi ako ŊaTETENA NA GUGU LO NYOMOT TI LODIR NA JUR LODIR NA JUR Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B. Bessette, G. 2020. Community seed banks: concept and practice. Facilitator Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B. Bessette, G. 2020. Community seed banks: concept and practice. Facilitator hand book (updated version). Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. Available at: https://hdl. handle. hand book (updated version). Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. Available at: https://hdl. handle. net/10568/81286 net/10568/81286 "},{"text":"• Tindu Kwake ko Lodir i riendu na nyomot lo'but 'diri i diŋitan liŋ ko tugwőrőki kakuruk logwon yőyőŋő ko taripatat no'dit• Kita a Pirit to'duret na LodirKalesi iŋwan nogwon kekepo i to'durjö gugu lo nyomot ti lodir nasu. Tupet Tupet "},{"text":"to 1: Dendya na tuka'de na Kinyojinko toreja/tokujő na loŋe lose Na kalet to geleŋ a nagwon denarikin tuka'de na nyomot logwon kata tőki a metet ko liliyet na kikolan ti soŋinana ko tokujő na loŋe a kwe nase. "},{"text":": Dendya na tuka'de na Kinyojin ko tokujő na loŋe lose TI YI MEDITA GO KULYA TI GWILIŊIT LO NYOMOT Ti Yi nyumundye bodwat ti gwiliŋit lo nyomot/ludweki anyen dedena ko kakuruk, ti kitaesi kase denani dena ko tetemakindya kode ti temakindya ko kita na gwiliŋit lo nyomot/ludwei. Tokoret nene adi anye kakuruk bubulő nyumbő, 'de'ya ruruga ko gagaerju/ lolopugő na nyomot ku kulye kakuruk i diŋitan kuniye. Nene tokoret kőti anye ŋutu bubulő ryőwudyő kaŋo ŋo naggo nagwon tindu ruruga na nyomot gwon anago soŋinana, anyen ŋina togolon tetela a ŋutu liŋ de ryeji 'bulit kata ni. Tupet Tupet • Wurő na Karin ti kinyojin logwon a kuru soŋinana • Wurő na Karin ti kinyojin logwon a kuru soŋinana • Yeyeju na kurju na kinyojin 'beron koju gwoso i kiŋajin 10 lo tu kode kőti i • Yeyeju na kurju na kinyojin 'beron koju gwoso i kiŋajin 10 lo tu kode kőti i kiŋajin 20 lo tu kiŋajin 20 lo tu "},{"text":"to 1: Dendya na tuka'de na Kinyojin ko tokujő na loŋe lose TOREKINDYA NA LOŊE KO LODIR NA JUR Temba ko lilija na tuka'de na kinyojin soŋinana lo kukuru i Lodir na jur. Kondya na kine kitaesi ŋaŋarakindu Lodir na jur anyen deden tugwakan na ruruga na nyomot ko 'yulőkindyő na nyomot ka'de'ka'de.'Yő'yu na kakuruk i kuniye piritőn i dendya na kitayesi kase a na'but. 'Yő'yu na piritőn nagwon kinyojin kata ka'deka'de logwo a ruruka 'bura ŋaŋarakindya lodir na jur idendya na kilo kinyojin logwon ka'deka'de kulo. Tupet to 2: Tupet to 2: "},{"text":"Rugő napipi'yu na gugu lo nyomot ti lodir na jur I mukők nagwon loŋe aje torekikakuruk kulye ti jur bubulő to ŋerot i jamakindya na Lodir na jur 'busan na to'durjő na gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir na jur. Yi a tetendya momoret na kakuruk jore anye yi deden ko muda logwon a wulundyő to'durjő na gugu lo nyonot ti Lodir na jur. Yi a ryőyun adi kakuruk jore a ruk to'durőna gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir na Jur.Ŋutu bubulő pija ŋaret ko kulye kakitak ti kaŋo ko luŋa ko katikak ti jur logwon deden kulya ti to'durő na gugu lo nyomot ti lodir na Jur. Tupet to 2: Tupet to 2: "},{"text":"Rugő na pipi'yu na gugu lo nyomot ti lodir na jur Tupet to 3 Tupet to 3 Torukőkin i wulundyőna pirit na Gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir na Jur. I ŋerot Torukőkin i wulundyőna pirit na Gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir na Jur. I ŋerot nagwon pirit wuwulwe ti kune kalesi denidena: - nagwon pirit wuwulwe ti kune kalesi denidena: - • Ti pirit gwőriet na kinyo gwe nyona anyen i diŋit na kita ŋutu lo kikita • Ti pirit gwőriet na kinyo gwe nyona anyen i diŋit na kita ŋutu lo kikita bubulő gworudyő kinyo lo nyőnyői kode i diŋit nagwon ŋutu gwon i bubulő gworudyő kinyo lo nyőnyői kode i diŋit nagwon ŋutu gwon i momoret jamet na kulya momoret jamet na kulya • Ti kakitanit bodo lo kurju gwe nyona ko pirit na gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir • Ti kakitanit bodo lo kurju gwe nyona ko pirit na gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir na Jur na Jur "},{"text":": Tindu 'dokesi ko momoret na kakuruk anyen jojo 'duggő gugu lo nyomot ti Lodir I diŋitan liŋ laŋesi nagwon ŋarakindu 'dukőna gugu lo nyomot ti lodir luluŋgu kuniye ŋo kiteyesi nagwon kata ko ŋutu ti jur. Ti kakuruk gwe ko mugunya pa'de'de i kitakindya na Jur. Gwoso i jur lo Gombu momoret na lodir bubulő luŋu anyen jamarikin ŋo nagwon yőyőŋőrikin ko jur, anye kitarikin Gugu lo nyomot anyo. I diŋit na momoret ti lodir liŋ luŋweni kata, ŋutu wate ko lunsak. Teton ko kő'disi ko kakuruk liŋ logwon nyona ko logwon pajo. Anye lopeŋat liŋ titiki kwake nagwon se jamundye yeyesi rukesi kase nagwon ŋaŋarindu. "}],"sieverID":"bb83bc18-418a-4f61-be52-c1f0797bd96c","abstract":"Laŋesi ti Bioversity International ko International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) a jondya tetenesi na'but i kak liŋ a kwe na kulya ti nyesu nagwon 'bayin a na'but, ko kőbuŋőt logwon tikindya kudu ti jőn/'don gwoso na 'beron koju nu a tindi gwiliŋit lo kak liŋ kőrjikőrju.Kune Laŋesi a tindu tirikuwesi kase i kulya ti kurju ko nyesu nagwon 'bayin a na'but ako gwiliŋit lo lolopugő kak a gwe a naron. Kine laŋesi a morja kitayesi kase ko kuniye laŋesi gwoso ti jur ko ti kőji duma ko kuniye piritőn in swőt lo Africa ko Asia ko Latin Amerika ko Karibian ako kuniye Laŋesi liŋ ka'deka'de, kine Laŋesi tőki a tetenundya yeyesi na'but nagwon kitarikin kikolan lo'but nyeyesi ti kinyo ko 'depa na kak 'bura 'bak sasanyesi.Kine laŋesi a tupet na CGIAR nagwon a laŋet na kurju ko ga'yu na yeyesi ludukő ti kurisi i kak liŋ anyen kinyo gwon a duma a ŋutu liŋ ryőniryő a ju tolomerian de gwe a na'dit i kak a wőnyőn ti kak liŋ de gwo alo'but. https://alliancebioversityciat.org/ www.cgiar.org To'durő na Kurju ko Kaden ko Somot (TKKS) a kulya temejik i Miri lo jur lo Africaa Na Loki, Miri lo 'deba Yekiyesi ko jujuwesi nagwon a rukwe ko Barlaman na jur lo Sudan na Loki. Ama tőki jamesi logo katai wuresi ti tupet 27 (1) ko (2) ti yekiesiti miri lo jur lo Sudan na Loki. Kine ŋo na kikitarikin kine jurja adi anyen kinyo gwon kata logwon jujukin ŋutu liŋ. I kiden na TKKS, kega biya parik kulya ti kuru, ko 'busan na muggun ko ruruga na kine tetenesi ti TKKS nagwon katetenak a 'buruki anyen morja kine kitayesi liŋko 'depesi nagwon ŋarakindya tetena na ludweki ti nyomot ti kinyo lo kukuru. Kine jurja to'durő ko 'depa na yekiyesi kogwiliŋit lo'but logwon 'deparikin ludweki ti nyomot ti kinyo. Saresi kata nogwon jurja tuŋőiyő na ludweki ti nyomot anyen ŋo kuniye narok gwon ti kőrju kita na kurju. Na kita a 'yalaki i kita na CGIAR nagwon galundya kulya ti lopugő na jőn/ 'don na kudu nagwon gwe 'bayin gwoso na kulye kiŋajinti 'beron ako kulya ti kurju nagwon aje kakala kokwe nagwon kudu tine 'don 'bura, a kitarikin ko ŋaret na taripatat na CGIAR. Kulya na wurő i na manini ti gwe ti joŋa adi a yeyesi ti kune laŋesi na wurjő kune ka'de.Karopak, Lőpukő na bukőn (1,2,3) ko ŋaret na Miri lo Netherlands (lomore) ko petesi ti Nuffic (kapetanit duma) a ropani ko Orange Knowledge Programme."}
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0b49f206977f2920abfe75366cf67a7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/795669db-71ed-4983-8e24-ea558fa60885/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Competencies for Climate Risk Management: making climate-smart agriculture operational","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Milestones:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"• Expanded set of development organizations, sub-national initiatives testing climate services and using CCAFS outputs for climate risk management services • Additional institutions or major initiatives mainstream climate risk management services, incorporating CCAFS output. Services developed in prior years will be strengthened, scaled up, evaluated."}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• 43 -Enhanced institutional capacity of partner research organizations • 29 -Enhanced adaptive capacity to climate risks (More sustainably managed agro-ecosystems)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" New Innovation: NoInnovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and ToolsStage of innovation: Stage 1: discovery/proof of concept (PC -end of research phase) We developed the conceptual competency model for CRM, describing the capacities that farmers and extension workers require for the decision-making process in production systems based on climate information use. We will pilot it in 2021 in the WPF's PRO-RESILIENT initiative in Guatemala and the CRS's vanilla project in Uganda.Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: <Not Defined>Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage:• CRS -Catholic Relief Services • CASM -COMISIÓN DE ACCIÓN SOCIAL MENONITA • ASORECH -ASOCIACIÓN REGIONAL CAMPESINA CHORTÍ "}],"sieverID":"8230fef6-1012-4ee5-a9af-5533d8bd92c4","abstract":"P1604 -Digitally integrated approaches for managing climate risk and increasing food security Description of the innovation: With changes in climate, farmers require new skill sets to manage climate information to take actions according to the climate risks. However, our understanding of what behavioral change we want to achieve from agricultural development programs (e.g. training and extension) is still limited. A competency model approach has been developed to define goals for capacity building on CRM (what knowledge, skills, and behaviors farmers need) and use tailored information to implement CSA practices."}
data/part_5/0b75aa6742e182425845e0f8cf2b3755.json ADDED
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1
+ {"metadata":{"id":"0b75aa6742e182425845e0f8cf2b3755","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/30733038-57a2-4a3d-a6ae-a0d817ece48b/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Índice SPEI:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"El Índice Estandarizado de Precipitación-Evapotranspiración (SPEI, por sus siglas en inglés) es una medida que evalúa las condiciones de humedad en un área específica. Se calcula considerando tanto la precipitación como la evapotranspiración, proporcionando información sobre la sequía o humedad en un lugar determinado. "}]},{"head":"GUATEMALA","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EL FENÓMENO DE EL NIÑO EN GUATEMALA","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Vientos más fríos de lo normal","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"El clima de Guatemala durante años El Niño","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"El Niño y la Oscilación del Sur, es un fenómeno climático oceánico-atmosférico que se caracteriza por el calentamiento (enfriamiento en el caso de La Niña) periódico de las aguas superficiales del Océano Pacífico ecuatorial central y oriental."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Representa el promedio de las anomalías de temperatura superficial del mar en el Pacífico ecuatorial central."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Durante los eventos de El Niño entre 1980 y 2021, el indicador SPEI revela que, en la temporada agrícola de mayo a octubre, se registraron eventos de sequía en más del 60% de los casos. Estos eventos estuvieron concentrados a lo largo del Corredor Seco, destacándose particularmente en departamentos de las regiones oriental y central, así como en áreas de la costa sur del país."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"En la mayoría de los eventos de El Niño (entre el 70 % y el 80 % de los casos), se observaron sequías moderadas concentradas principalmente en el departamento de Chiquimula (región Oriente). Asimismo, se registraron en algunas áreas de los departamentos de Chimaltenango (región central), Escuintla (región centro-sur) y Huehuetenango (región Occidental)."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Sin embargo, la nube de puntos de las figuras a la izquierda muestra también que existe una amplia dispersión, la cual indica que existen otros factores del clima que influyen en el comportamiento de la lluvia o la temperatura en Guatemala."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"En general, los años de mayores valores de EN34 están acompañados por Disminución en la lluvia, y aumento tanto en la temperatura del aire como en la ET0."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"Durante años El Niño, se observa una reducción generalizada en la lluvia total entre Mayo y Octubre de hasta un 20% en relación al promedio histórico, y un aumento de la temperatura de hasta 1ºC en promedio. La evapotranspiración de referencia (ET0) muestra un leve aumento. Se observa que las zonas afectadas por sequías moderadas coincide con los valores más bajos de NDVI, indicando la probable existencia de condiciones ambientales desfavorables para el crecimiento y desarrollo de la vegetación en dichas áreas."}]},{"head":"NDVI promedio para el periodo May-Oct 2015","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Índice SPEI calculado con una escala temporal de 6 meses para octubre de 2015."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Tomando los rendimientos promedio nacional de maíz y frijol en Guatemala, se observa una relación con EN34 de menores rendimientos en maíz, y mayores rendimientos en frijol. Lo anterior puede ser indicativo de un mayor impacto de las condiciones de sequía inducidas por El Niño sobre el maíz."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Por otro lado, siendo el frijol una especie de mejor requerimiento hídrico que el maíz, su cultivo podría verse beneficiado de las mayores temperaturas durante años El Niño. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Tendencia del Rendimiento en Cultivos de Maíz y Frijol bajo la Influencia del Fenómeno El Niño. 1 °C Reducción de las lluvias totales Aumento temperatura promedio Leve aumento de la evapotranspiración Reducción de las lluvias totalesAumento temperatura promedioLeve aumento de la evapotranspiración 20 % ( 20 %( "},{"text":"ET ) °Análisis de Sequías Mediante el Índice SPEI Frecuencia de ocurrencia de sequías durante eventos de El Niño "}],"sieverID":"01a532ec-3690-44f7-a05c-ae41c555a62b","abstract":"Debilitamiento de los Vientos Alisios Aumento de la temperatura en la superficie del Océano 3 2 1 Es irregular, aparece en periodos que van de Puede Durar de 2 a 7 años 8 a 12 meses Se transfiere mucho calor a la atmósfera 4 Este calentamiento tiene efectos generalizados en los patrones climáticos globales. Durante El Niño (fase cálida), se observan alteraciones (anomalías) de las condiciones climáticas \"normales\", en cuanto a aumento o disminución de lluvias y temperaturas. Estos efectos pueden generar impactos en la agricultura, la pesca y en el tiempo meteorológico en general."}
data/part_5/0bdd3b53df5becc09f58ebc170c4f147.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0bdd3b53df5becc09f58ebc170c4f147","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1a30510a-85de-47dd-b228-eab7f87b176b/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"To cite this workshop report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"On the 23 rd of May 2023, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Alliance Bioversity International and CIAT, and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) conducted a 2 nd user test workshop on EDACaP as part of improvement process of the 2 nd version of the platform. During the user test workshop, key end users from different organizations came together to test, discuss the usability, and give pertinent feedback on the platform. The test users were from Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Digital Green (DG), Lersha, Ethiopian Meteorological Institute (EMI), Addis Ababa University (AAU), Agricultural Transformation Institute (ATI) and CGIAR."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"It is recalled that Ethiopia is heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture coupled with low adaptive capacity, and thus high vulnerability to climate change. Agriculture contributes about 47% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). About 85% of the population in Ethiopia (more than 70 million people) depend on agriculture directly or indirectly for their livelihoods. Therefore, climate variability and change effects on agriculture is significantly affect the Ethiopian economy."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"As a solution, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Alliance Bioversity International and CIAT, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) have been working for long to strengthen agrometeorological services in Ethiopia and developed with other partners the Ethiopian Digital Agroclimatic Advisory Platform (EDACaP). EDACaP is an innovative decision support system which support farmers and extension personnel for better actionable decisions to reduce potential loss to crops due to impacts of climate variability. EDACaP builds information chains and corresponding systems for processing of climate and crop information that include modules for quality control, forecasting, and tailoring to crop-specific decision-making processes."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"The first version of the platform was inaugurated in 2019. Since then, the platform has been tested and undergone in different piloting activities and successful accomplishments were recorded. However, to effectively integrate in the Ethiopian agriculture system, and utilize at full scale, it needs further improvement and development. In this regard, currently, the 2 nd version of the platform is being developed with the financial support of AICCRA project."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"In the second phase improvement, the following components are the major emphasis areas:"},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"• Operationalizing seamless climate prediction and weather forecast • Wheat and maize crop integration with seamless prediction • Integration of short and medium range extreme advisory/ alerting born and raised in time to fulfil the ambitious plan that was set at beginning. He further pointed out the need of fully operationalizing the system as fast as possible in realizing climate information services as climate change adaptation solution put in place in the Ethiopian agriculture system. Dr. Girma suggested also EDACaP should be integrated with other digital system for realization of digital agricultural in the country."},{"index":7,"size":177,"text":"Digital Green is one of the main users of this platform and piloted bundled agroclimate and fertilizer advisory in 2022 and 2023 Ethiopian main season. Representative of Digital Green, Ms. Hawinet Bekele, expressed her feeling towards the usability of EDACaP platform and the improvement process. She stated that this platform is very useful and very relevant as evidenced by the performance of the advisory of Digital green piloted in 2022 and 2023 main rainy season in which EDACaP is the base for bundled advisory. She further expressed that the improvement process makes the system to be more applicable and intact. Like Digital Green, Lersha is another user of this platform for providing agroclimatic advisory with input supply for farmers in Ethiopia. Lersha has been using this platform for more than 3 years and can give witness the progress of the platform over time. Mr. Zemene Yohannes, working with Lersha, said that he is happy about the platform and the progress towards improving the functionalities and make available of different information which can be used for informed decisions."},{"index":8,"size":115,"text":"The improvement of the platform in this version includes the integration of crop modelling module which is the base for translating climate prediction into actionable agricultural decisions and alert for stress conditions. It provides possible planting windows with crop yield estimations, assess water and nitrogen stress, and alert extreme weather conditions like heavy rain and the likes. Further it integrates climate extreme indices based on long years data and provide anomaly with respect to respective average values. All these information demonstrated in EDACaP platform and test users gave quality time to test each functionality of the platform in the workshop. Some of the outstanding points test users raised and gave suggestion for further improvement are:"},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"• The platform now has all relevant information that can be used for taking farm decision however, the way it appears in the web platform should be more user friend for different user to easily understand and use it."},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"• The system is now compatible to computers only. It is suggested to customize for tablets, cellphone and other electronic devices."},{"index":11,"size":31,"text":"• Some of the crop model outputs somehow differ from the experiences of the researchers who attended the user test workshop. Thus, it is suggested to validate with some additional data."},{"index":12,"size":26,"text":"• Guideline how to use the platform should be in place. This helps a lot for end users to easily navigate the platform and use effectively."},{"index":13,"size":66,"text":"• Some information like soil types and crop cultivars choices are expected to be specified by users. This information is very scientific, and it is not easy for end users to understand easily. It is suggested to categorize cultivars based on maturity, and soil types by local soil type name (mostly color and texture). This will make ease for end user to effectively use the information."},{"index":14,"size":54,"text":"• It is suggested the platform to be tested further by the farmers though this platform is developed for development agents and experts. It is already in planning to develop modules in the EDACaP platform that disseminate information through SMS, IVRS and mobile app which will be in between the EDACaP platform and farmers."},{"index":15,"size":25,"text":"The feedbacks and suggestions will be addressed soon by the development team, and it is planned EDACaP to be operational in the beginning of 2024."},{"index":16,"size":1,"text":"Mr "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" After the presentations, test users gave their feedbacks through EDACaP online system as well raised as relevant issues in the open discussion. Most test users very appreciated the progress of EDACaP in the improvement process, and they witnessed that there is significant change in the platform as compared with the previous version in terms of completeness of essential modules that can provide actionable agro-advisory for farmers and development workers, and versatility of information for different users. Dr. Girma Mamo, Director for Climate, Geospatial and Biometrics research at Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research stated that he is very happy seeing EDACaP at this stage as someone he knows very well how EDACaP was "}],"sieverID":"cddfa2dd-3658-4eb8-ab4a-bfec3ddcaf2a","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0be24ab0910ce3881d742f58a210c87b.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0be24ab0910ce3881d742f58a210c87b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4ffd5b53-1883-4e91-86d4-2dcf7193da11/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Role-playing game to promote the participation of key stakeholders in the livestock sector and catalog of fodder trees in Mesoamerica","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Project Title: P800 -8. Climate change adaptation"}]},{"head":"Description of the innovation:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The objective is to develop a tool to help mitigate the impact of traditional farming on the environment and the transformation of these production models into sustainable farming systems. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Social Science Stage of innovation: Stage 2: successful piloting (PIL -end of piloting phase) Geographic Scope: Regional Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Region: • Central America Description of Stage reached: In the process of validating, printing, translating to English and disseminating with the livestock sector. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: CATIE -Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • UNAG -Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos de Nicaragua • UNAN-Leon -Universidad Autonoma Nacional de Nicaragua, Leon Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: • 26 -Agricultural systems diversified and intensified in ways that protect soils and water • 23 -Enhanced conservation of habitats and resources • 6 -Increased livelihood opportunities Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • CIFOR -Center for International Forestry Research Evidence link: • https://wp.me/a9tzxB-wg "}],"sieverID":"23923a89-6291-43e7-99e3-75d29da7692d","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0bee509f481a3654e91307e162045e1b.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0bee509f481a3654e91307e162045e1b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b0e4d359-5f63-49aa-b812-e18e3c87f0e0/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Why Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources?","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Learning from Past Failures","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Expected Benefits"}]},{"head":"Poor","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Involvement of Stakeholders","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Failure of Dissemination/ Adoption","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Production Environment Degrading","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Missing Breeding Goals","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Background to the Project "}]},{"head":"Assumptions and Working Hypotheses","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"• "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"- team building and deepening of the teams' understanding of the project's objectives and activities; -agreement on methodologies & standards; -establishment of organizational procedures. plans • Importance of national \"ownership\" of project • Choice of research sites and species/breeds • Application of survey/appraisal methodologies • Training of team members Expected Outputs "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"on Biological Diversity (CBD): Duty to conserve genetic resources includes farm animal genetic resources • Genetic Diversity is prerequisite for development, sustainable use and risk reduction • 70% of the rural poor people depend on multifunctional roles of livestock Photo: Massai cattle in Kenya (Wollny 2000) "},{"text":"roles of farm animals • Livestock contributes 35% to 80% of agricultural GDP in SS-Africa • Importance of animal genetic diversity and current threats • Relatively less developed compared to plant genetic resources conservation • Importance of in-situ conservation vs. ex- situ and hence CBM Assumptions and Working Hypotheses • Indigenous Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR) of Africa are a valuable asset • Policy makers need to formulate enabling policies to utilise FAnGR • Further erosion of FAnGR poses a threat to food security in SS-Africa "},{"text":"framework for community-based management (CBM) of AnGR developed and at least one program functional in each project country • Market opportunities and institutional constraints for commercialisation of indigenous livestock identified • Producer and consumer preferences for livestock genotypes, traits and products quantified Expected Outputs (2) • Policy constraints to conservation and sustainable use of indigenous livestock identified • Policy-makers sensitised to community needs • National capacities for conservation and sustainable use of indigenous AnGR strengthened Conclusions • International and regional multidisciplinary network of CG and NARS established and functioning • Locally adapted farm animals are threatend resulting in genetic and cultural erosion • Local breeds are of key importance for sustainable agriculture Conclusions (2) • Conservation of genetic diversity through sustainable utilisation in integrated farming systems • Testing of CBM approach: Contribution to poverty reduction, food security and conservation of biodiversity by focusing on livestock keeping people and their knowledge • Change of research paradigm towards a participatory and interdisciplinary approach "}],"sieverID":"a2fcb655-85e8-4791-8a63-a8d55b33041c","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0c2d00f7b057d4ba3a6b458d374469f3.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0c2d00f7b057d4ba3a6b458d374469f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/117c9fc0-16e0-4ea0-8178-01770028c401/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"Hai and Lusnn'l'. Progra ! : uLECCION HIS10W 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Visit to Lushoto District","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Lushoto is the Tanzanian benchmark site for the African Highlands Initiative (AHI). AHI has involved community groups at Kwalei pilot site where the major concentration has been on soil erosion , fertility and nutrient management. This has been done in a farmer led approach. The IPM project has been working with these same community groups. A similar approach has been successfully utilised by the bean IPM project and there are links between the initiatives, e.g. the emphasis on utilising farmer knowledge which has increased utilisation of botanicals as sources of fertilizer (green manure) and insecticides. "}]},{"head":"Ubiri Village Information Centre","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kwalei Village Office","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Kwalei village has been the focal point for the AHI project."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"AII farmer groups at this location They have started borrowing to pay for an irrigation pump to increase their vegetable production ."}]},{"head":"Visit to Hai District","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Hai district is the base site for the bean IPM Aspirations: The farmers' desire for the future were to seek more information about markets as some bean varieties grow well but don't sel! in the local markets. Traders will be invited to field days and dishes from new varieties of beans prepared for them. Group membership was described as lifelong and for future generations, 3 farmer groups were represented at this meeting. Membership of a co-operative savings and loans account is being investigated ."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" bean IPM promotion project in eastern and southern Africa (R7965) organized a bean cluster project leaders' meeting at Arusha in mid March 2003. This meeting involved three projects funded by the DFID Crop Protection Programme In eastern and southern Africa (R 7568 \"Characterisation and epidemiology of root rot diseases caused by Fusarium and Pyfhium spp. in beans in Uganda\", R7569 \"Promotion of improved disease resistant and farmer acceptable Phaseolus beans in the southern highlands of Tanzania\" and R7965 \"Promotion 01 integrated pest management strategies of major insect pests of Phaseolus beans in hillsides systems in eastern and southern Africa\"). The first two projects current phases were coming to an end in March 2003 and the third project entered its current final year in April 2003. The objective of the meeting was to discuss the way forward for the bean cluster activities particularly the promotion strategies for products from the older two projects and the scaling up and scaling out of the strategies in the region. "},{"text":" Benefits from the project: Participating farmers have been able to access improved BSM tolerant bean varieties and knowledge on cultural practices that have enabled them to increase bean and vegetable production.They are now able to sell some of the produce at the local market and nearby schools. The increased income has enabled them to sustain household needs and send their children to private school. They hope that they will get sufficient extra income to buy a vehicle , as a group, to assist with the transportation of produce to markets. "},{"text":" AHI and IPM activities and the blend has worked very well in the dissemination of te~nologies . As in other parts ~f Lushoto beans and vegetables are replacing coffee as a cash crop. The groups visit each other for assistance in the application of botanical pesticides and fertilisers. They use similar botanicals as Ubiri farmer groups. AII village farmers are in groups and members work on individual farmer's terrace construction in turns so that they can finish quickly. AII farmers have terraces on their various farm plots. Farmer groups are now looking at broader issues than soil and water conservation. The bean IPM project has enabled them to associate poor producing crops with various pests beca use they now understand the biology and ecology of common crop pests. Some farmers are keeping improved dairy cows at zero grazing, a technology acquired during cross-site visit to Hai district in 2001 . In addition they also learned about the use of animal manure to improve soil fertility and cow urine as a pesticide. These farmers use the improved fodder established on the terraces (Pennisetum and other grass species, Caliandra sp., etc.) and bean haulm to feed the livestock. Kwalei farmer groups have also formed and registered an association (Community based association) to help them access credit facilities. "},{"text":" promotion project. Few innovative farmers from Sanya Juu village approached the district office in 1998 for solutions to the yellowing and premature senescence of their bean crop. The district authorities forwarded the request to the Northern lone Agricultural Research Institute at Selian (SARI) in Arusha where CIAT office is located . The CIAT entomologist (Dr J K O Ampofo) and the national programme scientists visited Sanya Juu and discussed the problem with the small farmer group. 80th parties agreed to research on the problem together. They diagnosed the problem to be due to Ootheca spp. where the larvae damaged the roots causing yellowing and premature plant death while the adults defoliated seedlings immediately after germination. . Among the strategies tested , cow urine, wood ash, neem oil emulsion and neem powder, synthetic insecticides (e.g. Selecron), timely land preparation and planting, improved high yielding varieties, crop rotation and post harvest tillage were found effective. Farmers however, opted for improved varieties, cow urine, wood ash, neem oil emulsion, timely land preparation and timely planting for use in further testing and verification as well as in their own individual fields. When farmers demonstrated that one or more of the strategies were effective in pest management, they requested to be assisted to disseminate the information to other bean farmers. Their request was addressed through a project proposal to CPP that has enabled the message from these farmers to reach many more farmers in other parts of Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi and Rwanda. Hai District Office Dr E. Ulicky, District Agriculture and Livestock Development Officer (DALDO) stated that, either when their extension staff lacks knowledge or when there is a need for a promotional tool.\" News, e.g., about deaths, spread through villages like wildfire. Indigenous communication structures are fast and efficient. Can this be tapped into for the good of development? Hai district has an agricultural development strategy with a heavy emphasis on research, i.e. sympathetic policy framework. Hai has a research liaison officer. The extension services in Babati, Arumeru and Hanang districts were also singled out for praise in linking farmers with research. One recent initiative has been linking farmer groups with TechnoServe for the production and marketing of pigeonpea. Six bean IPM groups have established pigeonpea intercropped with maize and beans/sunflower. The success of the groups in Hai district was credited to the link established when farmers came to CIAT to find out more about the Ootheca (1998) that was damaging their beans. From this the groups have grown from one to 52 and have been utilised by World Vision, Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), the GTZ IPM programme and the CPP armyworm project based at Tengeru, Arusha . These groups have accelerated the adoption of technologies and led research to \"be very near appropriate\", as the farmers are driving research and not just accepting extension messages. Farmers have decided to form a community-based association (Muungano wa Vikundi vya Maendeleo Wilaya ya Hai MUVIMAHA -Union of Development Groups in Hai District) to help facilitate their farming businesses. The union has been registered and will be inaugurated in July 2003. Farmers and extension staft are planning together with the farmers providing the chair to the meetings. Extension officers are becoming facilitators rather than teachers. Dr Ulicky said he would welcome the privatisation of extension beca use it would be an opportunity for him to capture more business. Sanya Juu Village This is the village for the first farmer group that has resulted in the formation of 52 farmer groups in Hai district by end of 2002. The three village groups that were represented in the meeting have over 30 members but involvement varies. There were 12 core innovators (12) in the meeting. Other members are less involved and some just watch for the results as they have less interest in discussions about how the results were obtained and the implications. A few farmers only experiment with their groups and do not adopt the technologies. When the 12 members were asked to comment on these different farmer attitudes they said that their village groups accept arr levels of involvement. Last year the 3 groups planted 16 learning plots. In June 2003 they plan a field day for 200 people including farmers, eIAT, WVI, religious people, politicians, extensionists and NGOs. They will conduct trials with 14 varieties of beans and will assess climbing beans, as they are known to be tolerant to constraints inciuding drought. This year they are experimenting with pigeonpea, soybean, cowpea, green gram, sunflower, high protein maize and grey leaf spot resistant maize. Their drama has already been recorded for radio and broadcast in Tanzania. This year all groups are going to organise a field day (with assistance from their Village Extension Officer). The 12 members have been involved ) who hosted the meeting has been able to produce 14kg of bean stem maggot tolerant seed (G 22501) from a handful within two planting occasions in 2002. Other farmers in the 3 village groups have increased seed of other improved bean genotypes (e.g., SUA 90, Rojo, Selian 94 & 97 and Lyamungo 85 & 90, etc.). Benefits from the project: Farmers have through their groups, learnt about bean pests and bean IPM. They are keen to learn more, especially vegetable pest management. One lady said that the project has increased her production and increased her stability of production. She produced an excess of vegeta bies that she was able to sell . One man (Mr Ng'enesaeli Nkini), as a result of group membership was able to apply to WVI for inputs for high yielding maize variety (85) and boosted production on her half acre plot from 12kg to 3 bags each of approximately 100kg. Another man said that he was very happy to be in a learning group and that his bean production had been boosted from 40-200kg. Group membership has improved their knowledge and farm efficiency. Through the group they learnt about high yielding improved varieties, plant spacing and row planting which have reduced the amount of seed requ ired and weeding costs but boosted production . Constraints: The following constraints were described : unpredictable weather, shortage of land for activities (plots are hired for trials at $12 per acre) , poor availability of neem products -neem products are felt to be easier to carry to the field than cow urine or other products. Farmers would like to visit other farmer sites to exchange information and share experiences. "}],"sieverID":"13146b56-2894-4805-8c22-c60733713e7b","abstract":"6S'l~O ' COLECClON {¡STORfCA Farmer group activity reports for the DFID Crop Protection Programme (CPP) Bean IPM Promotion Project in eastern and southern Africa ~\\writte/ and Edited by E,M, Minja, E( Ulicky and HA Mziray For distribution to Village Information Centres (VICs) in bean growing areas in northern Tanzania U,'•, t. C, I ,¡O.IMACIOII y l.. ~cU .. HlIACIO\""}
data/part_5/0cc9d820f7f074049e827136871b12b4.json ADDED
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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0cc9d820f7f074049e827136871b12b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/19ac65a9-7449-48e1-9009-404a6a1adcc4/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The Safe Food, Fair Food (SFFF) for Cambodia is a 3.5 year sub-award under the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems and funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The project proposes two major research areas to tackle the abovementioned issues: i) to generate evidence on the health and economic burden of foodborne diseases (FBD) in animal-source food value chains important to the poor and women, and ii) to pilot a market-based approach to improving food safety that builds on successfully implemented projects in Africa and India. Our central idea is market-based, light-touch interventions that are sustainable and scalable, changing practice through capacity building and incentives, and provision of an enabling policy environment."}]},{"head":"PROJECT OBJECTIVES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"1. Actionable evidence on FBD burden associated with animal source foods 2. Pilot incentive-based approach to improving food safety among ASF traders 3. Cambodian-led Theory of Change for improving food safety 4. Gender and equity research 5. Building capacity in food safety risk assessment, management, communication"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The overall research method is 'participatory risk analysis' to working in informal markets that combines risk analysis and participatory learning and analysis."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"A unique aspect of this project is to develop a systematic and structured approach, starting with risk profiling and moving to risk assessment and risk management, while investing in risk communication and capacity building."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"The project will adopt a gender-sensitive approach in the design and implementation of planned activities to ensure that project outcomes and impacts will be gender inclusive. ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund."}]},{"head":"RESEARCH METHOD AND APPROACH","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" : Taskforce -December 2017 Training on \"Food safety risk assessment for informal value chains\": Organized by NAHPRI in partnership with ILRI and WHO, 15-17 th Jan 2018, 30 participants (70% male, 30% female). Gender and livestock training: Organized by CelAgrid in partnership with NAHPRI and ILRI, date 22-23 Jan 2018 A household survey in Phnom Penh: in district 7 districts, with 200 households on pork consumption practices and healthcare-seeking behaviour. Student training and involvement: 2 PhD, 2 DVM, 5 undergraduates "},{"text":"1 International Livestock Research Institute, Vietnam and Kenya; 2 National Animal Health and Production Research Institute, Cambodia; 3 Centre for Livestock and Agriculture Development, Cambodia, 4 Emory University, USAH Nguyen-Viet 1 , R Chea 2 , F Unger 1 , J Lindahl 1 , K Roesel 1 , T Sothyra 2 , C Ty 3 , M Young 4 , M Brown 4 , S Alonso 1 , D Grace 1 "},{"text":"Safe Food, Fair Food for Cambodia Project PARTNERS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The SFFF for Cambodia project is led by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in partnership with the National Animal Health and Production Research Institute (NAHPRI), the Centre for Livestock and Agriculture Development (CelAgrid), and Emory University, USA. The SFFF for Cambodia project is funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and its Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems managed by the University of Florida and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and mapped under the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH). 1. Risk profiling 1. Risk profiling • Scoping visit •Scoping visit • Systematic literature review •Systematic literature review • Risk profiles •Risk profiles • Training in risk ranking •Training in risk ranking • Stakeholder prioritisation •Stakeholder prioritisation OVERALL OVERALL AIM: AIM: reducing reducing the burden of Markets the burden ofMarkets foodborn e disease emerging informal, in QMRA evidence on FBD 2. Generate Household survey foodborn e disease emerging informal, inQMRAevidence on FBD 2. GenerateHousehold survey formal, 5 formal,5 and niche markets and five urban survey studies and niche markets andfive urban survey studies targeting small and medium Cost of illness Nutrition targeting small and mediumCost of illnessNutrition scale scale producers producers 3. Develop & test solutions for 3. Develop & test solutions for wet markets wet markets RCT intervention RCT intervention "},{"text":"Multi-pathogen survey in Cambodian traditional market Province N# of Sample N# Positive Sample (%) Salmonella S. aureus ProvinceN# of SampleN# Positive Sample (%) Salmonella S. aureus Phnom Penh 24 3 (12.5) 2 (8.3) Phnom Penh243 (12.5)2 (8.3) Siem Reap 24 18 (75.5) 8 (33.3) Siem Reap2418 (75.5)8 (33.3) Takeo 16 6 (37.5) 6 (37.5) Takeo166 (37.5)6 (37.5) Kampong Cham 16 6 (37.5) 10 (62.5) Kampong Cham166 (37.5)10 (62.5) Tbong Khmom 16 8 (50.0) 6 (37.5) Tbong Khmom168 (50.0)6 (37.5) Kep 16 10 (62.5) 4 (25.0) Kep1610 (62.5)4 (25.0) Kampot 16 10 (62.5) 5 (31.3) Kampot1610 (62.5)5 (31.3) Kampong Speu 16 6 (37.5) 10 (62.5) Kampong Speu166 (37.5)10 (62.5) Kandal 16 6 (37.5) 3 (18.8) Kandal166 (37.5)3 (18.8) Kampong Chhnang 16 9 (56.3) 7 (43.8) Kampong Chhnang169 (56.3)7 (43.8) Oddor Meanchey 16 7 (43.8) 0 (0) Oddor Meanchey167 (43.8)0 (0) Total 192 89 (46.4) 61 (31.8) Total19289 (46.4)61 (31.8) Cost of Illness in Phnom Penh and Siem Cost of Illness in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap: 200 cases of FBD on direct and Reap: 200 cases of FBD on direct and indirect cost. The other 100 more cases in indirect cost. The other 100 more cases in health centers in Phnom Penh to make sure health centers in Phnom Penh to make sure the data is not error. the data is not error. "},{"text":"Nutrition survey in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap : Focus on qualitative nutrition study and quantitative nutrition study. • Qualitative nutrition study (2018) in 35 households in Phnom Penh • Quantitative nutrition study, 24 h recall survey in 200 households in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap "}],"sieverID":"4014c385-3f3c-4b61-afca-b8657f4cb098","abstract":""}
data/part_5/0dc9b4ccf0f0887bba01bbc899633d92.json ADDED
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1
+ {"metadata":{"id":"0dc9b4ccf0f0887bba01bbc899633d92","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5cf9b2e1-c331-4851-8632-d78268a2d639/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Promoción de agronegocios en el Perú: sustitución de papa importada para procesamiento industrial por papa nacional Contexto","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"En el Perú se siembran más de 35 cultivares entre mejorados (25) y nativos (15) que tienen presencia significativa en el mercado local y en el extranjero. A pesar del incremento per cápita, rendimiento y área cultivable de la papa en el país, según la Cámara de Comercio de Lima en 2016, la importación de papa prefrita se ha incrementado en un 37%. Esto a pesar de que estudios realizados en el 2012 indicaban que las papas nacionales eran más baratas que las importadas."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Esta situación, sumada a la creciente demanda, es una oportunidad para liberar una nueva variedad producida en el Perú que sea idónea para la industrialización y que cumpla con las condiciones exigidas por las cadenas internacionales. En el marco de la ley 30309 (Promoción de la Investigación Científica, Desarrollo Tecnológico e Innovación Tecnológica) y financiado por la minera Poderosa y el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) presentaron el proyecto 'Selección de clones de papa con aptitud para procesamiento industrial en bastones y horneado, resistencia a la rancha y producción de semilla de alta calidad fitosanitaria' ."}]},{"head":"Buscamos la papa idónea para procesamiento industrial","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"El objetivo principal del proyecto es liberar una variedad de papa con características idóneas para el procesamiento industrial, resistencia a la rancha y la producción de semillas de alta calidad de acuerdo con la normatividad peruana vigente."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"De esta manera, se fortalece la cadena productiva y de procesamiento del cultivo de papa y se reduce el impacto ambiental del uso indiscriminado de fungicidas sustituyendo cultivares susceptibles a la rancha (Canchán y UNICA) por otros más resistentes."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Selección de clones de papa con aptitud para procesamiento industrial en bastones y horneado, resistencia a la rancha y producción de semilla de alta calidad fitosanitaria 2. Incrementar el rendimiento del cultivo de papa en al menos 50% con respecto a las variedades tradicionales, teniendo en cuenta que el rendimiento actual es de 13 t/ha."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"3. Incrementar la venta de semilla certificada en al menos 15% de agricultores asociados en comités de productores de semilla promovidos por la empresa minera."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"4. Incrementar la oferta de papa con buena aptitud para procesamiento industrial en un 30%."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"5. Propiciar el desarrollo de cinco jóvenes investigadores de las universidades locales a través de la promoción de tesis para licenciatura o grado de ingeniero. "}]},{"head":"Duración del proyecto","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"417fbca7-47c5-4298-a517-cc5129a16c56","abstract":"La papa es un cultivo indispensable para garantizar la seguridad alimentaria a nivel mundial, pues asegura la nutrición de la población y la sostenibilidad de quienes la cultivan. El Perú se ha convertido en el primer productor de papa de América Latina, produciendo casi 4.700.000 de toneladas de este tubérculo al año, inclusive superando a Brasil. Además, su consumo per cápita ha crecido de 65 a 85 kg en los últimos 12 años."}