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MessagePad | Details | Details |
MessagePad | Screen and input | Screen and input
With the MessagePad 120 with Newton OS 2.0, the Newton Keyboard by Apple became available, which can also be used via the dongle on Newton devices with a Newton InterConnect port, most notably the Apple MessagePad 2000/2100 series, as well as the Apple eMate 300.
Newton devices featuring Newton OS 2.1 or higher can be used with the screen turned horizontally ("landscape") as well as vertically ("portrait"). A change of a setting rotates the contents of the display by 90, 180 or 270 degrees. Handwriting recognition still works properly with the display rotated, although display calibration is needed when rotation in any direction is used for the first time or when the Newton device is reset.
thumb|right|upright|eMate 300
thumb|right|upright|MP2000 |
MessagePad | Handwriting recognition | Handwriting recognition
In initial versions (Newton OS 1.x) the handwriting recognition gave extremely mixed results for users and was sometimes inaccurate. The original handwriting recognition engine was called Calligrapher, and was licensed from a Russian company called Paragraph International. Calligrapher's design was quite sophisticated; it attempted to learn the user's natural handwriting, using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing, and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen, whether hand-printed, in cursive, or a mix of the two. By contrast, Palm Pilot's Graffiti had a less sophisticated design than Calligrapher, but was sometimes found to be more accurate and precise due to its reliance on a fixed, predefined stroke alphabet. The stroke alphabet used letter shapes which resembled standard handwriting, but which were modified to be both simple and very easy to differentiate. Palm Computing also released two versions of Graffiti for Newton devices. The Newton version sometimes performed better and could also show strokes as they were being written as input was done on the display itself, rather than on a silkscreen area.
For editing text, Newton had a very intuitive system for handwritten editing, such as scratching out words to be deleted, circling text to be selected, or using written carets to mark inserts.
Later releases of the Newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility, but added a hand-printed-text-only (not cursive) recognizer, called "Rosetta", which was developed by Apple, included in version 2.0 of the Newton operating system, and refined in Newton 2.1. Rosetta is generally considered a significant improvement and many reviewers, testers, and most users consider the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives even 10 years after it was introduced.HWR accuracy:
See comments in Wired's Apple Newton Just Won't Drop:
See text under "Handwriting Recognition" in Pen Computing's First Look at Newton OS 2.0:
See "Opportunity Squandered" in Pen Computing's Why did Apple kill the Newton?:
See comments under "Software" in MacTech's MessagePad 2000 review:
Comments by Pen Computing's editor:
See user testing results discussed in part 6 of this A.I. Magazine article on Newton HWR:
MessagePad 2000 review at Small Dog Electronics:
See comments under "Note-taking" in MessagePad 2000 review at "The History and Macintosh Society":
What's Right With The Newton: HWR:
Assessment by Apple developer:
Prof. Warden's MessagePad 130 review: Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as "1 + 2 =" was also under development but never released. However, users wrote similar programs which could evaluate mathematical formulas using the Newton OS Intelligent Assistant, a unique part of every Newton device.
The handwriting recognition and parts of the user interface for the Newton are best understood in the context of the broad history of pen computing, which is quite extensive.
A vital feature of the Newton handwriting recognition system is the modeless error correction. That is, correction done in situ without using a separate window or widget, using a minimum of gestures. If a word is recognized improperly, the user could double-tap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus. Most of the time, the correct word will be in the list. If not, a button at the bottom of the list allows the user to edit individual characters in that word. Other pen gestures could do such things as transpose letters (also in situ). The correction popup also allowed the user to revert to the original, un-recognized letter shapes - this would be useful in note-taking scenarios if there was insufficient time to make corrections immediately. To conserve memory and storage space, alternative recognition hypotheses would not be saved indefinitely. If the user returned to a note a week later, for example, they would only see the best match. Error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process, greatly increasing the interruption to a user's workflow that a given correction requires. |
MessagePad | User interface | User interface
Text could also be entered by tapping with the stylus on a small on-screen pop-up QWERTY virtual keyboard, although more layouts were developed by users. Newton devices could also accept free-hand "Sketches", "Shapes", and "Ink Text", much like a desktop computer graphics tablet. With "Shapes", Newton could recognize that the user was attempting to draw a circle, a line, a polygon, etc., and it would clean them up into perfect vector representations (with modifiable control points and defined vertices) of what the user was attempting to draw. "Shapes" and "Sketches" could be scaled or deformed once drawn. "Ink text" captured the user's free-hand writing but allowed it to be treated somewhat like recognized text when manipulating for later editing purposes ("ink text" supported word wrap, could be formatted to be bold, italic, etc.). At any time a user could also direct their Newton device to recognize selected "ink text" and turn it into recognized text (deferred recognition). A Newton note (or the notes attached to each contact in Names and each Dates calendar or to-do event) could contain any mix of interleaved text, Ink Text, Shapes, and Sketches.
While the Newton offered handwriting recognition training and would clean up sketches into vector shapes, both were unreliable and required much rewriting and redrawing. The most reliable application of the Newton was collecting and organizing address and phone numbers. While handwritten messages could be stored, they could not be easily filed, sorted or searched. While the technology was a probable cause for the failure of the device (which otherwise met or exceeded expectations), the technology has been instrumental in producing the future generation of handwriting software that realizes the potential and promise that began in the development of Newton-Apple's Ink Handwriting Recognition. |
MessagePad | Connectivity | Connectivity
The MessagePad 100 series of devices used Macintosh's proprietary serial ports—round Mini-DIN 8 connectors. The MessagePad 2000/2100 models (as well as the eMate 300) have a small, proprietary Newton InterConnect port. However, the development of the Newton hardware/software platform was canceled by Steve Jobs on February 27, 1998, so the InterConnect port, while itself very advanced, can only be used to connect a serial dongle. A prototype multi-purpose InterConnect device containing serial, audio in, audio out, and other ports was also discovered. In addition, all Newton devices have infrared connectivity, initially only the Sharp ASK protocol, but later also IrDA, though the Sharp ASK protocol was kept in for compatibility reasons. Unlike the Palm Pilot, all Newton devices are equipped with a standard PC Card expansion slot (two on the 2000/2100). This allows native modem and even Ethernet connectivity; Newton users have also written drivers for 802.11b wireless networking cards and ATA-type flash memory cards (including the popular CompactFlash format), as well as for Bluetooth cards. Newton can also dial a phone number through the built-in speaker of the Newton device by simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker and transmitting the appropriate tones. Fax and printing support is also built in at the operating system level, although it requires peripherals such as parallel adapters, PCMCIA cards, or serial modems, the most notable of which is the lightweight Newton Fax Modem released by Apple in 1993. It is powered by 2 AA batteries, and can also be used with a power adapter. It provides data transfer at 2,400 bit/s, and can also send and receive fax messages at 9,600 and 4,800 bit/s respectively. |
MessagePad | Power options | Power options
The original Apple MessagePad and MessagePad 100 used four AAA batteries. They were eventually replaced by AA batteries with the release of the Apple MessagePad 110.
The use of 4 AA NiCd (MessagePad 110, 120 and 130) and 4x AA NiMH cells (MP2x00 series, eMate 300) give a runtime of up to 30 hours (MP2100 with two 20 MB Linear Flash memory PC Cards, no backlight usage) and up to 24 hours with backlight on. While adding more weight to the handheld Newton devices than AAA batteries or custom battery packs, the choice of an easily replaceable/rechargeable cell format gives the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply. This, together with the flash memory used as internal storage starting with the Apple MessagePad 120 (if all cells lost their power, no data was lost due to the non-volatility of this storage), gave birth to the slogan "Newton never dies, it only gets new batteries". |
MessagePad | Later efforts and improvements | Later efforts and improvements
The Apple MessagePad 2000/2100, with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system, 162 MHz StrongARM SA-110 RISC processor, Newton OS 2.1, and a better, clearer, backlit screen, attracted critical plaudits. |
MessagePad | eMate 300 | eMate 300
thumb|The eMate 300
The eMate 300 was a Newton device in a laptop form factor offered to schools in 1997 as an inexpensive ($799 US, originally sold to education markets only) and durable computer for classroom use. However, in order to achieve its low price, the eMate 300 did not have all the speed and features of the contemporary MessagePad equivalent, the MessagePad 2000. The eMate was cancelled along with the rest of the Newton products in 1998. It is the only Newton device to use the ARM710 microprocessor (running at 25 MHz), have an integrated keyboard, use Newton OS 2.2 (officially numbered 2.1), and its batteries are officially irreplaceable, although several users replaced them with longer-lasting ones without any damage to the eMate hardware whatsoever. |
MessagePad | Prototypes | Prototypes
thumb|Siemens NotePhone
Many prototypes of additional Newton devices were spotted. Most notable was a Newton tablet or "slate", a large, flat screen that could be written on. Others included a "Kids Newton" with side handgrips and buttons, "VideoPads" which would have incorporated a video camera and screen on their flip-top covers for two-way communications, the "Mini 2000" which would have been very similar to a Palm Pilot, and the NewtonPhone developed by Siemens, which incorporated a handset and a keyboard. |
MessagePad | Market reception | Market reception
Fourteen months after Sculley demoed it at the May 1992, Chicago CES, the MessagePad was first offered for sale on August 2, 1993, at the Boston Macworld Expo. The hottest item at the show, it cost $900. 50,000 MessagePads were sold in the device's first three months on the market.
The original Apple MessagePad and MessagePad 100 were limited by the very short lifetime of their inadequate AAA batteries.
thumb|right|The Original Apple Newton's handwriting recognition was made light of in The Simpsons episode "Lisa on Ice".
Later versions of Newton OS offered improved handwriting recognition, quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the devices among Newton users. Even given the age of the hardware and software, Newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of comparatively aged PDAs produced by other companies. In 2006, CNET compared an Apple MessagePad 2000 to a Samsung Q1, and the Newton was declared better. In 2009, CNET compared an Apple MessagePad 2000 to an iPhone 3GS, and the Newton was declared more innovative at its time of release.
A chain of dedicated Newton-only stores called Newton Source, independently run by Stephen Elms, existed from 1994 until 1998. Locations included New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago and Boston. The Westwood Village, California, near UCLA featured the trademark red and yellow light bulb Newton logo in neon. The stores provided an informative educational venue to learn about the Newton platform in a hands on relaxed fashion. The stores had no traditional computer retail counters and featured oval desktops where interested users could become intimately involved with the Newton product range. The stores were a model for the later Apple Stores. |
MessagePad | Newton device models | Newton device models
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Brand
| colspan="2" |Apple Computer
|Sharp
|Siemens
| colspan="2" |Apple
|Sharp
|Apple Computer
|Digital Ocean
|Motorola
|Harris
|Digital Ocean
| colspan="4" |Apple
| colspan="3" |Harris
|Siemens
|Schlumberger
|-
!Device
|OMP (Original Newton MessagePad)
|Newton "Dummy"
|ExpertPad PI-7000
|Notephone.[better source needed]
|MessagePad 100
|MessagePad 110
|Sharp ExpertPad PI-7100
|MessagePad 120
|Tarpon
|Marco
|SuperTech 2000
|Seahorse
|MessagePad 130
|eMate 300
|MessagePad 2000
|MessagePad 2100
|Access Device 2000
|Access Device, GPS
|Access Device, Wireline
|Online Terminal, also known as Online Access Device(OAD)
|Watson
|-
!Introduced
|August 3, 1993 (US) December 1993 (Germany)
|?
|August 3, 1993 (US and Japan)
|1993?
| colspan="2" |March 1994
|April 1994
|October 1994 (Germany), January 1995 (US)
| colspan="2" |January 1995 (US)
|August 1995 (US)
|January 1996 (US)
|March 1996
| colspan="2" |March 1997
|November 1997
| colspan="3" |1998
|Announced 1997
|?
|-
!Discontinued
| colspan="3" |March 1994
|?
| colspan="2" |April 1995
|late 1994
|June 1996
|?
|?
|?
|?
|April 1997
| colspan="3" |February 1998
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!Code name
|Junior
|
|?
|?
|Junior
|Lindy
|?
|Gelato
|?
|?
|?
|?
|Dante
|?
|Q
|?
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!Model No.
|H1000
|
|?
|?
|H1000
|H0059
|?
|H0131
|?
|?
|?
|?
|H0196
|H0208
|H0136
|H0149
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!Processor
| colspan="13" |ARM 610 (20 MHz)
|ARM 710a (25 MHz)
| colspan="7" |StrongARM SA-110 (162 MHz)
|-
!ROM
| colspan="7" |4 MB
| colspan="2" |4 MB (OS 1.3) or 8 MB (OS 2.0)
|5 MB
|4 MB
| colspan="5" |8 MB
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!System Memory (RAM)
| colspan="5" |490 KB* SRAM
|544 KB SRAM
|490 KB* SRAM
| colspan="2" |639/687 KB DRAM
|544 KB SRAM
|639 KB DRAM
| colspan="2" |1199 KB DRAM
|1 MB DRAM (Upgradable)
|1 MB DRAM
|4 MB DRAM
| colspan="3" |1 MB DRAM
|?
|1 MB DRAM
|-
!User Storage
| colspan="5" |150 KB* SRAM
|480 KB SRAM
|150 KB* SRAM
| colspan="2" |385/1361 KB Flash RAM
|480 KB SRAM
|385 KB Flash RAM
| colspan="2" |1361 KB Flash RAM
|2 MB Flash RAM(Upgradable)
| colspan="5" |4 MB Flash RAM
|?
|4 MB Flash RAM
|-
!Total RAM
| colspan="5" |640 KB
|1 MB
|640 KB
| colspan="2" |1.0/2.0 MB
| colspan="2" |1 MB
| colspan="2" |2.5 MB
|3 MB (Upgradable via Internal Expansion)
|5 MB
|8 MB
| colspan="3" |5 MB
|?
|5 MB
|-
!Display
| colspan="5" |336 × 240 (B&W)
|320 × 240 (B&W)
|336 × 240 (B&W)
|320 × 240 (B&W)
|320 × 240 (B&W) w/ backlight
|320 × 240 (B&W)
| colspan="3" |320 × 240 (B&W) w/ backlight
| colspan="6" |480 × 320 grayscale (16 shades) w/ backlight
|
|480 × 320 greyscale (16 shades) w/ backlight
|-
!Newton OS version
| colspan="3" |1.0 to 1.05, or 1.10 to 1.11
|1.11
| colspan="2" |1.2 or 1.3
|1.3
| colspan="2" |1.3 or 2.0
| colspan="2" |1.3
| colspan="2" |2.0
|2.1 (2.2)
| colspan="2" |2.1
| colspan="5" |2.1
|-
!Newton OS languages
|English or German
|
|English or Japanese
|German
|English, German or French
|English or French
|English or Japanese
|English, German or French
| colspan="4" |English
|English or German
| colspan="2" |English
|English or German
| colspan="3" |English
|German
|French
|-
!Connectivity
| colspan="3" |RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared
|Modem and Telephone dock Attachment
| colspan="4" |RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared
|RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared
|RS-422, LocalTalk, Infrared, ARDIS Network
|RS-232, LocalTalk WLAN, V.22bis modem, Analog/Digital Cellular, CDPD, RAM, ARDIS, Trunk Radio
|RS-232, LocalTalk, CDPD, WLAN, Optional dGPS, GSM, or IR via modular attachments
|RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared
|IrDA, headphone port, Interconnect port, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock
|Dual-mode IR;IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock, Phone I/O
|Dual-mode IR; IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock
| colspan="3" |Dual-mode IR;IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock, Phone I/O
|?
|Dual-mode IR;IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock, Phone I/O
|-
!PCMCIA
| colspan="13" |1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v
|1 PCMCIA-slot I/II/III, 5v
| colspan="2" |2 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v
| colspan="2" |1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v
|1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v, 2nd slot Propriety Rado Card
| colspan="2" |1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v, 1 Smart Card Reader
|-
!Power
| colspan="5" |4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply
|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply
|4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply
|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply
| colspan="2" |NiCd battery pack or external power supply
|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply
|NiCd battery pack or external power supply
|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply
|NiMH battery pack (built-in) or external power supply
| colspan="2" |4 AA or NiMH rechargeable or external power supply
| colspan="3" |Custom NiMH rechargeable or external power supply
|? Unknown, but likely external power supply
|4 AA or NiMH rechargeable or external power supply
|-
!Dimensions
(HxWxD)
|
|
|
(lid open)
| colspan="2" |
|
|
(lid open)
|
|
|
|?
|
|
|
| colspan="2" |
|?
|?
|?
|9 x 14.5 x 5.1 inches
(23 x 37 x 13 cm)
|?
|-
!Weight
|
|
|
with batteries installed
|
|
| with batteries installed
|
with batteries installed
|with batteries installed
|
|
|?
|
|
with batteries installed
|
| colspan="2" |
|?
|?
|?
|?
|?
|}
* Varies with installed OS
Notes: The eMate 300 actually has ROM chips silk screened with 2.2 on them. Stephanie Mak on her website discusses this:
If one removes all patches to the eMate 300 (by replacing the ROM chip, and then putting in the original one again, as the eMate and the MessagePad 2000/2100 devices erase their memory completely after replacing the chip), the result will be the Newton OS saying that this is version 2.2.00. Also, the Original MessagePad and the MessagePad 100 share the same model number, as they only differ in the ROM chip version. (The OMP has OS versions 1.0 to 1.05, or 1.10 to 1.11, while the MP100 has 1.3 that can be upgraded with various patches.) |
MessagePad | Timeline | Timeline |
MessagePad | Third party licenses | Third party licenses
The Newton OS was also licensed to a number of third-party developers including Sharp and Motorola who developed additional PDA devices based on the Newton platform. Motorola added wireless connectivity, as well as made a unique two-part design, and shipped additional software with its Newton device, called the Marco. Sharp developed a line of Newton devices called the ExpertPad PI-7000/7100; those were the same as Apple's MessagePad and MessagePad 100, the only difference is the physical design (the ExpertPads feature a screen lid, which Apple added in 1994 with the release of the MessagePad 110) and the naming. |
MessagePad | Other uses | Other uses
250px|thumb|right|Petrosains uses Newton technology.
There were a number of projects that used the Newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums. For example, Visible Interactive created a walking tour in San Francisco's Chinatown but the most significant effort took place in Malaysia at the Petronas Discovery Center, known as Petrosains.
In 1995, an exhibit design firm, DMCD Inc., was awarded the contract to design a new science museum in the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur. A major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a Newton device to access additional information, find out where they were in the museum, listen to audio, see animations, control robots and other media, and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit.
The device became known as the ARIF, a Malay word for "wise man" or "seer" and it was also an acronym for A Resourceful Informative Friend. Some 400 ARIFS were installed and over 300 are still in use today. The development of the ARIF system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers, designers, and writers. ARIF is an ancestor of the PDA systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since.
Anyway & Company firm was involved with the Petronas Discovery Center project back in 1998 and NDAs were signed which prevents getting to know more information about this project. It was confirmed that they purchased of MP2000u or MP2100's by this firm on the behalf of the project under the name of "Petrosains Project Account". By 1998 they had invested heavily into the R&D of this project with the Newton at the center. After Apple officially cancelled the Newton in 1998 they had to acquire as many Newtons as possible for this project. It was estimated initially 1000 Newtons, but later readjusted the figure to possibly 750 Newtons. They placed an “Internet Call” for Newtons. They purchased them in large and small quantities.
The Newton was also used in healthcare applications, for example in collecting data directly from patients. Newtons were used as electronic diaries, with patients entering their symptoms and other information concerning their health status on a daily basis. The compact size of the device and its ease of use made it possible for the electronic diaries to be carried around and used in the patients' everyday life setting. This was an early example of electronic patient-reported outcomes (ePRO). |
MessagePad | See also | See also
Newton (platform)
Newton OS
eMate 300
NewtonScript
Orphaned technology
Pen computing |
MessagePad | References | References |
MessagePad | Bibliography | Bibliography
Apple's press release on the debut of the MessagePad 2100:
Apple's overview of features & limitations of Newton Connection Utilities:
Newton overview at Newton Source archived from Apple:
Newton FAQ:
Newton Gallery:
Birth of the Newton:
The Newton Hall of Fame: People behind the Newton:
Pen Computing's Why did Apple kill the Newton?:
Pen Computing's Newton Notes column archive:
A.I. Magazine article by Yaeger on Newton HWR design, algorithms, & quality:
Associated slides:
Info on Newton HWR from Apple's HWR Technical Lead:
Notes on the History of Pen-based Computing:
This links to: |
MessagePad | External links | External links |
MessagePad | Additional resources and information | Additional resources and information
Defying Gravity: The Making of Newton, by Kounalakis & Menuez (Hardcover)
Hardcover: 192 pages
Publisher: Beyond Words Publishing (October 1993)
Complete Developer's manual for the StrongARM SA-110
Beginner's overview of the StrongARM SA-110 Microprocessor |
MessagePad | Reviews | Reviews
MessagePad 2000 review at "The History and Macintosh Society"
Prof. Wittmann's collection of Newton & MessagePad reviews
Category:Apple Newton
Category:Products introduced in 1993
Category:Apple Inc. personal digital assistants |
MessagePad | Table of Content | Short description, History, Details, Screen and input, Handwriting recognition, User interface, Connectivity, Power options, Later efforts and improvements, eMate 300, Prototypes, Market reception, Newton device models, Timeline, Third party licenses, Other uses, See also, References, Bibliography, External links, Additional resources and information, Reviews |
A. E. van Vogt | Short description | Alfred Elton van Vogt ( ; April 26, 1912 – January 26, 2000) was a Canadian-born American science fiction writer. His fragmented, bizarre narrative style influenced later science fiction writers, notably Philip K. Dick. He was one of the most popular and influential practitioners of science fiction in the mid-twentieth century, the genre's so-called Golden Age, and one of the most complex."Although [van Vogt] catered for the pulps, he intensified the emotional impact and complexity of the stories they would bear". The Science Fiction Writers of America named him their 14th Grand Master in 1995 (presented 1996). |
A. E. van Vogt | Early life | Early life
Alfred Vogt (both "Elton" and "van" were added much later) was born on April 26, 1912, on his grandparents' farm in Edenburg, Manitoba, a tiny (and now defunct) Russian Mennonite community east of Gretna, Manitoba, Canada, in the Mennonite West Reserve. He was the third of six children born to Heinrich "Henry" Vogt and Aganetha "Agnes" Vogt (née Buhr), both of whom were born in Manitoba and grew up in heavily immigrant communities. Until he was four, van Vogt spoke only Plautdietsch at home.Panshin, Alexei "Man Beyond Man. The Early Stories of A. E. van Vogt" (page 1). Retrieved August 29, 2010.
For the first dozen or so years of his life, van Vogt's father, Henry Vogt, a lawyer, moved his family several times within central Canada, moving to Neville, Saskatchewan; Morden, Manitoba; and finally Winnipeg, Manitoba. Alfred Vogt found these moves difficult, later remarking:
By the 1920s, living in Winnipeg, father Henry worked as an agent for a steamship company, but the stock market crash of 1929 proved financially disastrous, and the family could not afford to send Alfred to college. During his teen years, Alfred worked as a farmhand and a truck driver, and by the age of 19, he was working in Ottawa for the Canadian Census Bureau.
In "the dark days of '31 and '32," van Vogt took a correspondence course in writing from the Palmer Institute of Authorship. He sold his first story in fall 1932."Palmer Graduate Now Leading Author of Science Fiction," Palmer ad, The Author & Journalist, October 1949, p. 19. His early published works were stories in the true confession style of magazines such as True Story. Most of these stories were published anonymously, with the first-person narratives allegedly being written by people (often women) in extraordinary, emotional, and life-changing circumstances.
After a year in Ottawa, he moved back to Winnipeg, where he sold newspaper advertising space and continued to write. While continuing to pen melodramatic "true confessions" stories through 1937, he also began writing short radio dramas for local radio station CKY, as well as conducting interviews published in trade magazines. He added the middle name "Elton" at some point in the mid-1930s, and at least one confessional story (1937's "To Be His Keeper") was sold to the Toronto Star, who misspelled his name "Alfred Alton Bogt" in the byline. Shortly thereafter, he added the "van" to his surname, and from that point forward he used the name "A. E. van Vogt" both personally and professionally. |
A. E. van Vogt | Career | Career
By 1938, van Vogt decided to switch to writing science fiction, a genre he enjoyed reading.Elliot, Jeffery: "An Interview with A. E. Van Vogt", Science Fiction Review #23, 1977. Available online https://www.angelfire.com/art/megathink/vanvogt/vanvogt_interview.html Retrieved on August 29, 2010 He was inspired by the August 1938 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, which he picked up at a newsstand. John W. Campbell's novelette "Who Goes There?" (later adapted into The Thing from Another World and The Thing) inspired van Vogt to write "Vault of the Beast", which he submitted to that same magazine. Campbell, who edited Astounding (and had written the story under a pseudonym), sent van Vogt a rejection letter in which Campbell encouraged van Vogt to try again. Van Vogt sent another story, entitled "Black Destroyer", which was accepted. It featured a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of a spaceship, and served as the inspiration for multiple science fiction movies, including Alien (1979). A revised version of "Vault of the Beast" was published in 1940.
thumb|right|Van Vogt's "Ship of Darkness" was the cover story in the second issue of Fantasy Book in 1948.
While still living in Winnipeg, in 1939 van Vogt married Edna Mayne Hull, a fellow Manitoban. Hull, who had previously worked as a private secretary, went on to act as van Vogt's typist, and was credited with writing several SF stories of her own throughout the early 1940s.
The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 caused a change in van Vogt's circumstances. Ineligible for military service due to his poor eyesight, he accepted a clerking job with the Canadian Department of National Defence. This necessitated a move back to Ottawa, where he and his wife stayed for the next year and a half.
Meanwhile, his writing career continued. "Discord in Scarlet" was van Vogt's second story to be published, also appearing as the cover story."The Voyage of the Space Beagle" (cover images for numerous editions and adaptations of "The Black Destroyer" and its series). The Weird Worlds of A. E. van Vogt. Magnus Axelsson (pre-2000 to 2009). Now hosted by icshi.net. Retrieved April 4, 2013. It was accompanied by interior illustrations created by Frank Kramer and Paul Orban. Panshin, Alexei (1994). "Introduction to Slan". Connecticut: The Easton Press. Quote: "His first published SF story was "Black Destroyer" in the July 1939 Astounding. Not only was "Black Destroyer" pictured on the cover of the magazine, but it would be recognized as one of the most significant stories published in Astounding that year". (Van Vogt and Kramer thus debuted in the issue of Astounding that is sometimes identified as the start of the Golden Age of Science Fiction.For example, Peter Nicholls () says "The beginning of Campbell's particular Golden Age of SF can be pinpointed as the summer of 1939" and goes on to begin the discussion with the July 1939 issue. Lester del Rey () comments that "July was the turning point".) Among his most famous works of this era, "Far Centaurus" appeared in the January 1944 edition of Astounding.
Van Vogt's first completed novel, and one of his most famous, is Slan (Arkham House, 1946), which Campbell serialized in Astounding (September to December 1940). Using what became one of van Vogt's recurring themes, it told the story of a nine-year-old superman living in a world in which his kind are slain by Homo sapiens.
Others saw van Vogt's talent from his first story, and in May 1941 van Vogt decided to become a full-time writer, quitting his job at the Canadian Department of National Defence. Freed from the necessity of living in Ottawa, he and his wife lived for a time in the Gatineau region of Quebec before moving to Toronto in the fall of 1941.
Prolific throughout this period, van Vogt wrote many of his more famous short stories and novels in the years from 1941 through 1944. The novels The Book of Ptath and The Weapon Makers both appeared in magazines in serial form during this period; they were later published in book form after World War II. As well, several (though not all) of the stories that were compiled to make up the novels The Weapon Shops of Isher, The Mixed Men and The War Against the Rull were published during this time. |
A. E. van Vogt | California and post-war writing (1944–1950) | California and post-war writing (1944–1950)
In November 1944, van Vogt and Hull moved to Hollywood; van Vogt would spend the rest of his life in California. He had been using the name "A. E. van Vogt" in his public life for several years, and as part of the process of obtaining American citizenship in 1945 he finally and formally changed his legal name from Alfred Vogt to Alfred Elton van Vogt. To his friends in the California science fiction community, he was known as "Van". |
A. E. van Vogt | Method and themes | Method and themes
Van Vogt systematized his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. Several of his stories hinge on temporal conundra, a favorite theme. He stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from three books: Narrative Technique by Thomas Uzzell, The Only Two Ways to Write a Story by John Gallishaw, and Twenty Problems of the Fiction Writer by Gallishaw. He also claimed many of his ideas came from dreams; throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90 minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams.Platt, Charles, "A. E. van Vogt – A Profile". From Who Writes Science Fiction? (London: Savoy Books, 1980); Dream Makers: The Uncommon People Who Write Science Fiction (Berkeley Books, 1980).
Van Vogt was also always interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge (akin to modern meta-systems). The characters in his very first story used a system called "Nexialism" to analyze the alien's behavior. Around this time, he became particularly interested in the general semantics of Alfred Korzybski.
He subsequently wrote a novel merging these overarching themes, The World of Ā, originally serialized in Astounding in 1945. Ā (often rendered as Null-A), or non-Aristotelian logic, refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using intuitive, inductive reasoning (compare fuzzy logic), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive reasoning. The novel recounts the adventures of an individual living in an apparent Utopia, where those with superior brainpower make up the ruling class... though all is not as it seems. A sequel, The Players of Ā (later re-titled The Pawns of Null-A) was serialized in 1948–49.
At the same time, in his fiction, van Vogt was consistently sympathetic to absolute monarchy as a form of government. This was the case, for instance, in the Weapon Shop series, the Mixed Men series, and in single stories such as "Heir Apparent" (1945), whose protagonist was described as a "benevolent dictator". These sympathies were the subject of much critical discussion during van Vogt's career, and afterwards.
Van Vogt published "Enchanted Village" in the July 1950 issue of Other Worlds Science Stories. It was reprinted in over 20 collections or anthologies, and appeared many times in translation. |
A. E. van Vogt | Dianetics and fix-ups (1950–1961) | Dianetics and fix-ups (1950–1961)
In 1950, van Vogt was briefly appointed as head of L. Ron Hubbard's Dianetics operation in California. Van Vogt had first met Hubbard in 1945, and became interested in his theories, which were published shortly thereafter. Dianetics was the secular precursor to Hubbard's Church of Scientology; van Vogt would have no association with Scientology, as he did not approve of its mysticism.
The California Dianetics operation went broke nine months later, but never went bankrupt, due to van Vogt's arrangements with creditors. Shortly afterward, van Vogt and his wife opened their own Dianetics center, partly financed by his writings, until he "signed off" around 1961. From 1951 until 1961, van Vogt's focus was on Dianetics, and no new story ideas flowed from his typewriter. |
A. E. van Vogt | Fix-ups | Fix-ups
However, during the 1950s, van Vogt retrospectively patched together many of his previously published stories into novels, sometimes creating new interstitial material to help bridge gaps in the narrative. Van Vogt referred to the resulting books as "fix-ups", a term that entered the vocabulary of science-fiction criticism. When the original stories were closely related this was often successful, although some van Vogt fix-ups featured disparate stories thrown together that bore little relation to each other, generally making for a less coherent plot. One of his best-known (and well-regarded) novels, The Voyage of the Space Beagle (1950) was a fix-up of four short stories including "Discord in Scarlet"; it was published in at least five European languages by 1955.
Although Van Vogt averaged a new book title every ten months from 1951 to 1961, none of them were entirely new content; they were all fix-ups, collections of previously published stories, expansions of previously published short stories to novel length, or republications of previous books under new titles and all based on story material written and originally published between 1939 and 1950. Examples include The Weapon Shops of Isher (1951), The Mixed Men (1952), The War Against the Rull (1959), and the two "Clane" novels, Empire of the Atom (1957) and The Wizard of Linn (1962), which were inspired (like Asimov's Foundation series) by Roman imperial history; specifically, as Damon Knight wrote, the plot of Empire of the Atom was "lifted almost bodily" from that of Robert Graves' I, Claudius. (Also, one non-fiction work, The Hypnotism Handbook, appeared in 1956, though it had apparently been written much earlier.)
After more than a decade of running their Dianetics center, Hull and van Vogt closed it in 1961. Nevertheless, van Vogt maintained his association with the organization and was still president of the Californian Association of Dianetic Auditors into the 1980s. |
A. E. van Vogt | Return to writing and later career (1962–1986) | Return to writing and later career (1962–1986)
Though the constant re-packaging of his older work meant that he had never really been away from the book publishing world, van Vogt had not published any wholly new fiction for almost 12 years when he decided to return to writing in 1962. He did not return immediately to science fiction, but instead wrote the only mainstream, non-sf novel of his career.
Van Vogt was profoundly affected by revelations of totalitarian police states that emerged after World War II. Accordingly, he wrote a mainstream novel that he set in Communist China, The Violent Man (1962). Van Vogt explained that to research this book he had read 100 books about China. Into this book he incorporated his view of "the violent male type", which he described as a "man who had to be right", a man who "instantly attracts women" and who he said were the men who "run the world". Contemporary reviews were lukewarm at best, and van Vogt thereafter returned to science fiction.
From 1963 through the mid-1980s, van Vogt once again published new material on a regular basis, though fix-ups and reworked material also appeared relatively often. His later novels included fix-ups such as The Beast (also known as Moonbeast) (1963), Rogue Ship (1965), Quest for the Future (1970) and Supermind (1977). He also wrote novels by expanding previously published short stories; works of this type include The Darkness on Diamondia (1972) and Future Glitter (also known as Tyranopolis; 1973).
Novels that were written simply as novels, and not serialized magazine pieces or fix-ups, had been very rare in van Vogt's oeuvre, but began to appear regularly beginning in the 1970s. Van Vogt's original novels included Children of Tomorrow (1970), The Battle of Forever (1971) and The Anarchistic Colossus (1977). Over the years, many sequels to his classic works were promised, but only one appeared: Null-A Three (1984; originally published in French). Several later books were initially published in Europe, and at least one novel only ever appeared in foreign language editions and was never published in its original English. |
A. E. van Vogt | Final years | Final years
When the 1979 film Alien appeared, it was noted that the plot closely matched the plots of both Black Destroyer and Discord in Scarlet, both published in Astounding magazine in 1939, and then later published in the 1950 book Voyage of the Space Beagle. Van Vogt sued the production company for plagiarism, and eventually collected an out-of-court settlement of $50,000 from 20th Century Fox.
In increasingly frail health, van Vogt published his final short story in 1986.
Van Vogt's first wife, Edna Mayne Hull, died in 1975. Van Vogt married Lydia Bereginsky in 1979; they remained together until his death.
On January 26, 2000, A. E. van Vogt died in Los Angeles from Alzheimer's disease. He was survived by his second wife. |
A. E. van Vogt | Critical reception | Critical reception
Critical opinion about the quality of van Vogt's work is sharply divided. An early and articulate critic was Damon Knight. In a 1945Van Vogt, A E (1970). Introduction to The World Of Null-A (London: Sphere Science Fiction, 1976), p. viii chapter-long essay reprinted in In Search of Wonder, entitled "Cosmic Jerrybuilder: A. E. van Vogt", Knight described van Vogt as "no giant; he is a pygmy who has learned to operate an overgrown typewriter". Knight described The World of Null-A as "one of the worst allegedly adult science fiction stories ever published". Concerning van Vogt's writing, Knight said:
About Empire of the Atom Knight wrote:
Knight also expressed misgivings about van Vogt's politics. He noted that van Vogt's stories almost invariably present absolute monarchy in a favorable light. In 1974, Knight retracted some of his criticism after finding out about Vogt's writing down his dreams as a part of his working methods:
Knight's criticism greatly damaged van Vogt's reputation. On the other hand, when science fiction author Philip K. Dick was asked"Vertex Interviews Philip K. Dick" . Vertex, Vol. 1, No. 6, February 1974. which science fiction writers had influenced his work the most, he replied:
Dick also defended van Vogt against Damon Knight's criticisms:
In a review of Transfinite: The Essential A. E. van Vogt, science fiction writer Paul Di Filippo said:
In The John W. Campbell Letters, Campbell says, "The son-of-a-gun gets hold of you in the first paragraph, ties a knot around you, and keeps it tied in every paragraph thereafter—including the ultimate last one".
Harlan Ellison (who had begun reading van Vogt as a teenager)Ellison, Harlan (June 1999), "Van is Here, But Van is Gone". Introduction to Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A. E. van Vogt (Kilimanjaro Corp., 1999). Reprinted in "A. E. van Vogt, 1912–2000" (SFRevu 2001-01-28). Retrieved 2001-08-31. Quote: "Van is still with us, as I write this, in June of 1999, slightly less than fifty years since I first encountered van Vogt prose in a January 1950 issue of Startling Stories..." wrote, "Van was the first writer to shine light on the restricted ways in which I had been taught to view the universe and the human condition".
Writing in 1984, David Hartwell said:
The literary critic Leslie A. Fiedler said something similar:
American literary critic Fredric Jameson says of van Vogt:
Van Vogt still has his critics. For example, Darrell Schweitzer, writing to The New York Review of Science Fiction in 1999,Schweitzer, Darrell (1999), "Letters of Comment", The New York Review of Science Fiction, May 1999, Number 129, Vol. 11, No. 9. quoted a passage from the original van Vogt novelette "The Mixed Men", which he was then reading, and remarked: |
A. E. van Vogt | Recognition | Recognition
In 1946, van Vogt and his first wife, Edna Mayne Hull, were Guests of Honor at the fourth World Science Fiction Convention.
In 1980, van Vogt received a "Casper Award" (precursor to the Canadian Prix Aurora Awards) for Lifetime Achievement.
The Science Fiction Writers of America (SFWA) named him its 14th Grand Master in 1995 (presented 1996). Great controversy within SFWA accompanied its long wait in bestowing its highest honor (limited to living writers, no more than one annually). Writing an obituary of van Vogt, Robert J. Sawyer, a fellow Canadian writer of science fiction, remarked:
It is generally held that a key factor in the delay was "damnable SFWA politics" reflecting the concerns of Damon Knight, the founder of the SFWA, who abhorred van Vogt's style and politics and thoroughly demolished his literary reputation in the 1950s.Hartwell, David: "The Way We Were: A. E. van Vogt, 1912-2000", The New York Review of Science Fiction, March 2000, Number 139, Vol. 12, No. 7, page 24.
Harlan Ellison was more explicit in 1999 introduction to Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A. E. van Vogt:
In 1996, van Vogt received a Special Award from the World Science Fiction Convention "for six decades of golden age science fiction". That same year, the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in its inaugural class of two deceased and two living persons, along with writer Jack Williamson (also living) and editors Hugo Gernsback and John W. Campbell.
The works of van Vogt were translated into French by the surrealist Boris Vian (The World of Null-A as Le Monde des Å in 1958), and van Vogt's works were "viewed as great literature of the surrealist school".Watson, Ian (1999), "Science Fiction, Surrealism, and Shamanism", The New York Review of Science Fiction, June 1999, Number 130, Vol. 11, No. 10, page 9. In addition, Slan was published in French, translated by Jean Rosenthal, under the title À la poursuite des Slans, as part of the paperback series 'Editions J'ai Lu: Romans-Texte Integral' in 1973. This edition also listing the following works by van Vogt as having been published in French as part of this series: Le Monde des Å, La faune de l'espace, Les joueurs du Å, L'empire de l'atome, Le sorcier de Linn, Les armureries d'Isher, Les fabricants d'armes, and Le livre de Ptath.À la poursuite des Slans, A. E. Van Vogt, Editions J'ai Lu, 31, rue de Tournon, Paris-VIe, 1973 Van Vogt's last novel, 1985's To Conquer Kiber, has only been released in French (as À la conquête de Kiber.) |
A. E. van Vogt | Works | Works |
A. E. van Vogt | Novels and novellas | Novels and novellas
+ The following table can be sorted to show van Vogt's novels in chronological order,or arranged alphabetically by title, or by series. Primary dates list first publication in book form. Year Title Series Notes Alternate titles1946SlanOriginally serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, September – December 1940.1947The Weapon Makers IsherSignificantly revised version of a novel serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, February – April 1943 It was revised again in 1952.One Against Eternity (1964)1947The Book of PtathOriginally appeared (complete) in Unknown, October 1943.Two Hundred Million A.D. (1964) Ptath (1976)1948The World of Ā Null-ARevised and shortened version of a novel originally serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, August – October 1945. It was revised again in 1970.The World of Null-A (all editions from 1953 forward)1950The House That Stood Still The Mating Cry (1960, revised) The Undercover Aliens (1976)1950The Voyage of the Space Beagle Fix-up of four short stories, originally published 1939 – 1950.Mission: Interplanetary (1952)1951The Weapon Shops of Isher IsherFix-up of three short stories, originally published from 1941 to 1949.1952The Mixed MenFix-up of three short stories, originally published 1943 to 1945. Significant modifications to the second story and a new 18,000 word section inserted between it and the first one, plus a new chapter-length epilogue.Mission to the Stars (1955)1953The Universe MakerExtensively rewritten and expanded version of the short story "The Shadow Men" (1950).1954The Pawns of Null-ANull-AOriginally serialized (as The Players of Ā) in Astounding Science Fiction, October 1948–January 1949.The Players of Null-A (1966)1957The Mind CageExtensively rewritten and expanded version of the short story "The Great Judge" (1948].1957Empire of the AtomClaneFix-up of five short stories, originally published 1946 to 1947.1959Siege of the UnseenOriginally serialized (as The Chronicler) in Astounding Science Fiction, October – November 1946.The Three Eyes of Evil (1973)1959The War Against the RullFix-up of six short stories, originally published 1940 – 1950.1960Earth's Last FortressNovella. Originally appeared (complete, as "Recruiting Station") in Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942. Collected as "Masters Of Time" in the van Vogt collection Masters Of Time (1950). 1962The Wizard of LinnClaneOriginally serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, April–June 1950. 1962The Violent ManNon-sf political thriller. 1963The BeastSubstantially revised fix-up of three short stories, originally published from 1943 to 1944. Moonbeast (1969)1965Rogue ShipFix-up of three short stories, originally published 1947 to 1963. 1966The Winged Man (with E. Mayne Hull)Originally serialized (and credited solely to E. Mayne Hull) in Astounding Science Fiction, May–June 1944. Greatly expanded (from 35,000 to 60,000 words) by van Vogt for book publication.1967The ChangelingNovella, originally appeared (complete) in Astounding Science Fiction, April 1944. Previously collected in the van Vogt collection Masters Of Time (1950). 1969The SilkieFix-up of three short stories originally published 1964 to 1967.1970Children of Tomorrow1970Quest for the FutureFix-up of three short stories originally published 1943 to 1946.1971The Battle of Forever1972The Darkness on Diamondia1973Future GlitterTyranopolis (1977)1974The Man with a Thousand Names1974The Secret GalacticsEarth Factor X (1976)1977SupermindFix-up of three short stories, originally published 1942 to 1968. The 1965 story "Research Alpha", minimally revised to form chapters 23-36 of this novel, was credited on its original publication to van Vogt and James H. Schmitz.1977The Anarchistic Colossus1979Renaissance1979Cosmic Encounter1983ComputerworldComputer Eye (1985)1984Null-A ThreeNull-A1985To Conquer KiberUnpublished in English. It was published in French as A la conquête de Kiber and in Romanian as Cucerirea Kiberului |
A. E. van Vogt | Special works published as books | Special works published as books
Planets for Sale by E. Mayne Hull (1954). A fix-up of five stories by Hull, originally published 1942 to 1946. Certain later editions (from 1965) credit both authors.
The Enchanted Village (1979). A 25-page chapbook of a short story originally published in 1950.
Slan Hunter by Kevin J. Anderson (2007). A sequel to Slan, based an unfinished draft by van Vogt.
Null-A Continuum by John C. Wright (2008). An authorized continuation of the Null-A series which ignored the events of Null-A Three. |
A. E. van Vogt | Collections | Collections
Out of the Unknown (1948), with Edna Mayne Hull
Masters of Time (1950) (a.k.a. Recruiting Station) [also includes The Changeling, both works were later published separately]
Triad (1951) omnibus of The World of Null A, The Voyage of the Space Beagle, Slan.
Away and Beyond (1952) (abridged in paperback in 1959; abridged (differently) in paperback in 1963)
Destination: Universe! (1952)
The Twisted Men (1964)
Monsters (1965) (later as SF Monsters (1967)) abridged as The Blal (1976)
A Van Vogt Omnibus (1967), omnibus of Planets for Sale (with Edna Mayne Hull), The Beast, The Book of Ptath
The Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt (1968)
The Sea Thing and Other Stories (1970) (expanded from Out of the Unknown by adding an original story by Hull; later abridged in paperback as Out of the Unknown by removing 2 of the stories)
M33 in Andromeda (1971)
More Than Superhuman (1971)
The Proxy Intelligence and Other Mind Benders, ), with Edna Mayne Hull (1971), revised as The Gryb (1976)
Van Vogt Omnibus 2 (1971), omnibus of The Mind Cage, The Winged Man (with Edna Mayne Hull), Slan.
The Book of Van Vogt (1972), also published as Lost: Fifty Suns (1979)
The Three Eyes of Evil Including Earth's Last Fortress (1973)
The Best of A. E. van Vogt (1974) later split into 2 volumes
The Worlds of A. E. van Vogt (1974) (expanded from The Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt by adding 3 stories)
The Best of A. E. van Vogt (1976) [differs to 1974 edition]
Away and Beyond (1977)
Pendulum (1978) (almost all original stories and articles)
Tales from the Vulgar Unicorn (1980) (one short story by Van Vogt in a fantasy anthology by various authors)
Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A.E. Van Vogt (1999)
Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt (2002)
Transgalactic (2006) |
A. E. van Vogt | Nonfiction | Nonfiction
The Hypnotism Handbook (1956, Griffin Publishing Company, with Charles Edward Cooke)
The Money Personality (1972, Parker Publishing Company Inc., West Nyack, NY, )
Reflections of A. E. Van Vogt: The Autobiography of a Science Fiction Giant (1979, Fictioneer Books Ltd., Lakemont, GA)
A Report on the Violent Male (1992, Paupers' Press, UK, ) |
A. E. van Vogt | See also | See also
|
A. E. van Vogt | Explanatory notes | Explanatory notes |
A. E. van Vogt | Citations | Citations |
A. E. van Vogt | References | References
|
A. E. van Vogt | External links | External links
Sevagram, the A.E. van Vogt information site
Obituary at Locus
"Writers: A. E. van Vogt (1912–2000, Canada)" – bibliography at SciFan
A. E. van Vogt Papers (MS 322) at the Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas
A. E. van Vogt's fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online
Category:1912 births
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Category:American male novelists
Category:American male short story writers
Category:American science fiction writers
Category:Analog Science Fiction and Fact people
Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States
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Category:Pulp fiction writers
Category:SFWA Grand Masters
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Category:Deaths from Alzheimer's disease in California
Category:Deaths from dementia in California |
A. E. van Vogt | Table of Content | Short description, Early life, Career, California and post-war writing (1944–1950), Method and themes, Dianetics and fix-ups (1950–1961), Fix-ups, Return to writing and later career (1962–1986), Final years, Critical reception, Recognition, Works, Novels and novellas, Special works published as books, Collections, Nonfiction, See also, Explanatory notes, Citations, References, External links |
Anna Kournikova | Short description | Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova Iglesias (née Kournikova; ; born 7 June 1981) is a Russian model and television personality, and former professional tennis player. Her appearance and celebrity status made her one of the best known tennis stars worldwide. At the peak of her fame, fans looking for images of Kournikova made her name one of the most common search strings on Google Search.
Despite never winning a singles title, she reached No. 8 in the world in 2000. She achieved greater success playing doubles, where she was at times the world No. 1 player. With Martina Hingis as her partner, she won Grand Slam titles in Australia in 1999 and 2002, and the WTA Championships in 1999 and 2000. They referred to themselves as the "Spice Girls of Tennis".
Kournikova retired from professional tennis in 2003 due to serious back and spinal problems, including a herniated disk. She lives in Miami Beach, Florida, and played in occasional exhibitions and in doubles for the St. Louis Aces of World TeamTennis before the team folded in 2011. She was a new trainer for season 12 of the television show The Biggest Loser, replacing Jillian Michaels, but did not return for season 13. In addition to her tennis and television work, Kournikova serves as a Global Ambassador for Population Services International's "Five & Alive" program, which addresses health crises facing children under the age of five and their families. |
Anna Kournikova | Early life | Early life
Kournikova was born in Moscow, Russia, on 7 June 1981. Her father, Sergei Kournikov (born 1961), a former Greco-Roman wrestling champion, eventually earned a PhD and was a professor at the University of Physical Culture and Sport in Moscow. As of 2001, he was still a part-time martial arts instructor there. Her mother Alla (born 1963) had been a 400-metre runner. Her younger half-brother, Allan, is a youth golf world champion who was featured in the 2013 documentary film The Short Game.
Sergei Kournikov has said, "We were young and we liked the clean, physical life, so Anna was in a good environment for sport from the beginning".
Kournikova received her first tennis racquet as a New Year gift in 1986 at the age of five. Describing her early regimen, she said, "I played two times a week from age six. It was a children's program. And it was just for fun; my parents didn't know I was going to play professionally, they just wanted me to do something because I had lots of energy. It was only when I started playing well at seven that I went to a professional academy. I would go to school, and then my parents would take me to the club, and I'd spend the rest of the day there just having fun with the kids." In 1986, Kournikova became a member of the Spartak Tennis Club, coached by Larissa Preobrazhenskaya. Original redirects to Facebook. In 1989, at the age of eight, Kournikova began appearing in junior tournaments, and by the following year, was attracting attention from tennis scouts across the world. She signed a management deal at age ten and went to Bradenton, Florida, to train at Nick Bollettieri's celebrated tennis academy. |
Anna Kournikova | Tennis career | Tennis career |
Anna Kournikova | 1989–1997: early years and breakthrough | 1989–1997: early years and breakthrough
Following her arrival in the United States, she became prominent on the tennis scene. At the age of 14, she won the European Championships and the Italian Open Junior tournament. In December 1995, she became the youngest player to win the 18-and-under division of the Junior Orange Bowl tennis tournament. By the end of the year, Kournikova was crowned the ITF Junior World Champion U-18 and Junior European Champion U-18.
Earlier, in September 1995, Kournikova, still only 14 years of age, debuted in the WTA Tour, when she received a wildcard into the qualifications at the WTA tournament in Moscow, the Moscow Ladies Open, and qualified before losing in the second round of the main draw to third-seeded Sabine Appelmans. She also reached her first WTA Tour doubles final in that debut appearance – partnering with 1995 Wimbledon girls' champion in both singles and doubles Aleksandra Olsza, she lost the title match to Meredith McGrath and Larisa Savchenko-Neiland.
In February–March 1996, Kournikova won two ITF titles, in Midland, Michigan and Rockford, Illinois. Still only 14 years of age, in April 1996 she debuted at the Fed Cup for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win a match.
In 1996, she started playing under a new coach, Ed Nagel. Her six-year association with Nagel was successful. At 15, she made her Grand Slam debut, reaching the fourth round of the 1996 US Open, losing to Steffi Graf, the eventual champion. After this tournament, Kournikova's ranking jumped from No. 144 to debut in the Top 100 at No. 69. Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1996, she was named WTA Newcomer of the Year, and she was ranked No. 57 in the end of the season.
Kournikova entered the 1997 Australian Open as world No. 67, where she lost in the first round to world No. 12, Amanda Coetzer. At the Italian Open, Kournikova lost to Amanda Coetzer in the second round. She reached the semi-finals in the doubles partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, before losing to the sixth seeds Mary Joe Fernández and Patricia Tarabini.
At the French Open, Kournikova made it to the third round before losing to world No. 1, Martina Hingis. She also reached the third round in doubles with Likhovtseva. At the Wimbledon Championships, Kournikova became only the second woman in the open era to reach the semi-finals in her Wimbledon debut, the first being Chris Evert in 1972. There she lost to eventual champion Martina Hingis.
At the US Open, she lost in the second round to the eleventh seed Irina Spîrlea. Partnering with Likhovtseva, she reached the third round of the women's doubles event. Kournikova played her last WTA Tour event of 1997 at Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt, losing to Amanda Coetzer in the second round of singles, and in the first round of doubles to Lindsay Davenport and Jana Novotná partnering with Likhovtseva. She broke into the top 50 on 19 May, and was ranked No. 32 in singles and No. 41 in doubles at the end of the season. Original redirects to Facebook. |
Anna Kournikova | 1998–2000: success and stardom | 1998–2000: success and stardom
In 1998, Kournikova broke into the WTA's top 20 rankings for the first time, when she was ranked No. 16. At the Australian Open, Kournikova lost in the third round to world No. 1 player, Martina Hingis. She also partnered with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland in women's doubles, and they lost to eventual champions Hingis and Mirjana Lučić in the second round. Although she lost in the second round of the Paris Open to Anke Huber in singles, Kournikova reached her second doubles WTA Tour final, partnering with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland. They lost to Sabine Appelmans and Miriam Oremans. Kournikova and Savchenko-Neiland reached their second consecutive final at the Linz Open, losing to Alexandra Fusai and Nathalie Tauziat. At the Miami Open, Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour singles final, before losing to Venus Williams in the final.
thumb|left|upright|Kournikova practices her backhand for a match at the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, in 2002
Kournikova then reached two consecutive quarterfinals, at Amelia Island and the Italian Open, losing respectively to Lindsay Davenport and Martina Hingis. At the German Open, she reached the semi-finals in both singles and doubles, partnering with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland. At the French Open Kournikova had her best result at this tournament, making it to the fourth round before losing to Jana Novotná. She also reached her first Grand Slam doubles semi-finals, losing with Savchenko-Neiland to Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva. During her quarterfinals match at the grass-court Eastbourne Open versus Steffi Graf, Kournikova injured her thumb, which would eventually force her to withdraw from the 1998 Wimbledon Championships. However, she won that match, but then withdrew from her semi-finals match against Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Kournikova returned for the Du Maurier Open and made it to the third round, before losing to Conchita Martínez. At the US Open Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Her strong year qualified her for the year-end 1998 WTA Tour Championships, but she lost to Monica Seles in the first round. However, with Seles, she won her first WTA doubles title, in Tokyo, beating Mary Joe Fernández and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the final. At the end of the season, she was ranked No. 10 in doubles.
At the start of the 1999 season, Kournikova advanced to the fourth round in singles at the Australian Open before losing to Mary Pierce. In the doubles Kournikova won her first Grand Slam title, partnering with Martina Hingis to defeat Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva in the final. At the Tier I Family Circle Cup, Kournikova reached her second WTA Tour final, but lost to Martina Hingis. She then defeated Jennifer Capriati, Lindsay Davenport and Patty Schnyder on her route to the Bausch & Lomb Championships semi-finals, losing to Ruxandra Dragomir. At The French Open, Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion Steffi Graf. Once the grass-court season commenced in England, Kournikova lost to Nathalie Tauziat in the semi-finals in Eastbourne. At Wimbledon, Kournikova lost to Venus Williams in the fourth round. She also reached the final in mixed doubles, partnering with Jonas Björkman, but they lost to Leander Paes and Lisa Raymond. Kournikova again qualified for year-end WTA Tour Championships, but lost to Mary Pierce in the first round, and ended the season as World No. 12.
thumb|right|Kournikova (left) with doubles partner Martina Hingis
While Kournikova had a successful singles season, she was even more successful in doubles. After their victory at the Australian Open, she and Martina Hingis won tournaments in Indian Wells, Rome, Eastbourne and the WTA Tour Championships, and reached the final of The French Open where they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, Kournikova also reached the final in Stanford. On 22 November 1999 she reached the world No. 1 ranking in doubles, and ended the season at this ranking. Kournikova and Hingis were presented with the WTA Award for Doubles Team of the Year.
Kournikova opened her 2000 season winning the Gold Coast Open doubles tournament partnering with Julie Halard. She then reached the singles semi-finals at the Medibank International Sydney, losing to Lindsay Davenport. At the Australian Open, she reached the fourth round in singles and the semi-finals in doubles. That season, Kournikova reached eight semi-finals (Sydney, Scottsdale, Stanford, San Diego, Luxembourg, Leipzig and Tour Championships), seven quarterfinals (Gold Coast, Tokyo, Amelia Island, Hamburg, Eastbourne, Zürich and Philadelphia) and one final. On 20 November 2000 she broke into top 10 for the first time, reaching No. 8. She was also ranked No. 4 in doubles at the end of the season. Kournikova was once again, more successful in doubles. She reached the final of the US Open in mixed doubles, partnering with Max Mirnyi, but they lost to Jared Palmer and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. She also won six doubles titles – Gold Coast (with Julie Halard), Hamburg (with Natasha Zvereva), Filderstadt, Zürich, Philadelphia and the Tour Championships (with Martina Hingis). |
Anna Kournikova | 2001–2003: injuries and final years | 2001–2003: injuries and final years
Her 2001 season was plagued by injuries, including a left foot stress fracture which made her withdraw from 12 tournaments, including the French Open and Wimbledon. She underwent surgery in April. She reached her second career grand slam quarterfinals, at the Australian Open. Kournikova then withdrew from several events due to continuing problems with her left foot and did not return until Leipzig. With Barbara Schett, she won the doubles title in Sydney. She then lost in the finals in Tokyo, partnering with Iroda Tulyaganova, and at San Diego, partnering with Martina Hingis. Hingis and Kournikova also won the Kremlin Cup. At the end of the 2001 season, she was ranked No. 74 in singles and No. 26 in doubles.
left|thumb|upright|At the 2002 Medibank International Sydney
Kournikova regained some success in 2002. She reached the semi-finals of Auckland, Tokyo, Acapulco and San Diego, and the final of the China Open, losing to Anna Smashnova. This was Kournikova's last singles final. With Martina Hingis, she lost in the final at Sydney, but they won their second Grand Slam title together, the Australian Open. They also lost in the quarterfinals of the US Open. With Chanda Rubin, Kournikova played the semi-finals of Wimbledon, but they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Janet Lee, she won the Shanghai title. At the end of 2002 season, she was ranked No. 35 in singles and No. 11 in doubles.
In 2003, Anna Kournikova achieved her first Grand Slam match victory in two years at the Australian Open. She defeated Henrieta Nagyová in the first round, and then lost to Justine Henin-Hardenne in the 2nd round. She withdrew from Tokyo due to a sprained back suffered at the Australian Open and did not return to Tour until Miami. On 9 April, in what would be the final WTA match of her career, Kournikova dropped out in the first round of the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, due to a left adductor strain. Her singles world ranking was 67. She reached the semi-finals at the ITF tournament in Sea Island, before withdrawing from a match versus Maria Sharapova due to the adductor injury. She lost in the first round of the ITF tournament in Charlottesville. She did not compete for the rest of the season due to a continuing back injury. At the end of the 2003 season and her professional career, she was ranked No. 305 in singles and No. 176 in doubles.
Kournikova's two Grand Slam doubles titles came in 1999 and 2002, both at the Australian Open in the Women's Doubles event with partner Martina Hingis. Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the US Open and at Wimbledon, and reaching the No. 1 ranking in doubles in the WTA Tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200–71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between 10 and 15 (her career high singles ranking was No.8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one.
Her singles record is 209–129. Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which caused her ranking to erode gradually. As a personality Kournikova was among the most common search strings for both articles and images in her prime. |
Anna Kournikova | 2004–present: exhibitions and World Team Tennis | 2004–present: exhibitions and World Team Tennis
thumb|right|Kournikova at a USO-sponsored tour at Forward Operating Base Sharana on 15 December 2009
Kournikova has not played on the WTA Tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by Elton John and by fellow tennis players Serena Williams and Andy Roddick. In January 2005, she played in a doubles charity event for the Indian Ocean tsunami with John McEnroe, Andy Roddick, and Chris Evert. In November 2005, she teamed up with Martina Hingis, playing against Lisa Raymond and Samantha Stosur in the WTT finals for charity. Kournikova is also a member of the St. Louis Aces in the World Team Tennis (WTT), playing doubles only.
In September 2008, Kournikova showed up for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon held at Zuma Beach in Malibu, California. The Race raised funds for children's Hospital Los Angeles. She won that race for women's K-Swiss team. On 27 September 2008, Kournikova played exhibition mixed doubles matches in Charlotte, North Carolina, partnering with Tim Wilkison and Karel Nováček. Kournikova and Wilkison defeated Jimmy Arias and Chanda Rubin, and then Kournikova and Novacek defeated Rubin and Wilkison.
On 12 October 2008, Anna Kournikova played one exhibition match for the annual charity event, hosted by Billie Jean King and Elton John, and raised more than $400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund. She played doubles with Andy Roddick (they were coached by David Chang) versus Martina Navratilova and Jesse Levine (coached by Billie Jean King); Kournikova and Roddick won.
Kournikova was one of "four former world No. 1 players" who participated in "Legendary Night", held on 2 May 2009, at the Turning Stone Event Center in Verona, New York, the others being John McEnroe (who had been No. 1 in both singles and doubles), Tracy Austin and Jim Courier (both of whom who had been No. 1 in singles but not doubles).Big Time Tennis Names to CNY CNY Central, 17 March 2009 The exhibition included a mixed doubles match in which McEnroe and Kournikova defeated Courier and Austin.
In 2008, she was named a spokesperson for K-Swiss. In 2005, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again.Elle July 2005, page #?
In June 2010, Kournikova reunited with her doubles partner Martina Hingis to participate in competitive tennis for the first time in seven years in the Invitational Ladies Doubles event at Wimbledon. On 29 June 2010 they defeated the British pair Samantha Smith and Anne Hobbs. |
Anna Kournikova | Playing style | Playing style
Kournikova plays right-handed with a two-handed backhand. She is a great player at the net. She can hit forceful groundstrokes and also drop shots.
Her playing style fits the profile for a doubles player, and is complemented by her height. She has been compared to such doubles specialists as Pam Shriver and Peter Fleming. |
Anna Kournikova | Personal life | Personal life
Kournikova was in a relationship with fellow Russian, Pavel Bure, an NHL ice hockey player. The two met in 1999, when Kournikova was still linked to Bure's former Russian teammate Sergei Fedorov. Bure and Kournikova were reported to have been engaged in 2000 after a reporter took a photo of them together in a Florida restaurant where Bure supposedly asked Kournikova to marry him. As the story made headlines in Russia, where they were both heavily followed in the media as celebrities, Bure and Kournikova both denied any engagement. Kournikova, 10 years younger than Bure, was 18 years old at the time.
Fedorov claimed that he and Kournikova were married in 2001, and divorced in 2003. Kournikova's representatives deny any marriage to Fedorov; however, Fedorov's agent Pat Brisson claims that although he does not know when they got married, he knew "Fedorov was married".
Kournikova started dating singer Enrique Iglesias in late 2001 after she had appeared in his music video for "Escape". The couple have three children together, fraternal twins, a son and daughter, born on 16 December 2017, and another daughter born on 30 January 2020.
It was reported in 2010 that Kournikova had become an American citizen. |
Anna Kournikova | Media publicity | Media publicity
upright|thumb|alt=Anna Kournikova playing tennis in white outfit. Left hand is extended as if she has just tossed a ball and right hand is cocking back for the serve.|Kournikova preparing to serve in 2002
In 2000, Kournikova became the new face for Berlei's shock absorber sports bras, and appeared in the "only the ball should bounce" billboard campaign. Following that, she was cast by the Farrelly brothers for a minor role in the 2000 film Me, Myself & Irene starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger. Photographs of her have appeared on covers of various publications, including men's magazines, such as one in the much-publicized 2004 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, as well as in FHM and Maxim.
Kournikova was named one of Peoples 50 Most Beautiful People in 1998 and was voted "hottest female athlete" on ESPN.com. In 2002, she also placed first in FHM's 100 Sexiest Women in the World in US and UK editions. By contrast, ESPN – citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player – ranked Kournikova 18th in its "25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years". Kournikova was also ranked No. 1 in the ESPN Classic series "Who's number 1?" when the series featured sport's most overrated athletes.
She continued to be the most searched athlete on the Internet through 2008 even though she had retired from the professional tennis circuit years earlier. After slipping from first to sixth among athletes in 2009, she moved back up to third place among athletes in terms of search popularity in 2010.
In October 2010, Kournikova headed to NBC's The Biggest Loser where she led the contestants in a tennis-workout challenge. In May 2011, it was announced that Kournikova would join The Biggest Loser as a regular celebrity trainer in season 12. She did not return for season 13. |
Anna Kournikova | Legacy and influence on popular culture | Legacy and influence on popular culture
A variation of a White Russian made with skim milk is known as an Anna Kournikova.
A video game featuring Kournikova's licensed appearance, titled Anna Kournikova's Smash Court Tennis, was developed by Namco and released for the PlayStation in Japan and Europe in November 1998.
A computer virus named after her spread worldwide beginning on 12 February 2001 infecting computers through email in a matter of hours. |
Anna Kournikova | Career statistics and awards | Career statistics and awards |
Anna Kournikova | Doubles performance timeline | Doubles performance timeline
Tournament199519961997199819992000200120022003SRW–LGrand Slam tournamentsAustralian OpenAA1R2RWSFQFW3R2 / 722–5French OpenAA3RSFF3RAAA0 / 413–4WimbledonAA2RAASFASFA0 / 39–3US OpenAQF3R2RA2RAQFA0 / 510–5Win–loss0–03–15–46–311–111–43–113–22–12 / 1954–17Year-end championshipTour ChampionshipsAAAQFWWAAA2 / 36–1Career statisticsYear-end ranking704010142611176 |
Anna Kournikova | Grand Slam tournament finals | Grand Slam tournament finals |
Anna Kournikova | Doubles: 3 (2–1) | Doubles: 3 (2–1)
ResultYearChampionshipSurfacePartnerOpponentsScoreWin 1999 Australian Open Hard Martina Hingis Lindsay DavenportNatasha Zvereva 7–5, 6–3Loss 1999 French Open Clay Martina Hingis Serena WilliamsVenus Williams 3–6, 7–6(7–2), 6–8Win 2002 Australian Open (2) Hard Martina Hingis Daniela HantuchováArantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–2, 6–7(4–7), 6–1 |
Anna Kournikova | Mixed doubles: 2 (0–2) | Mixed doubles: 2 (0–2)
ResultYearChampionshipSurfacePartnerOpponentsScoreLoss 1999 Wimbledon Grass Jonas Björkman Leander PaesLisa Raymond 4–6, 6–3, 3–6Loss 2000 US Open Hard Max Mirnyi Jared PalmerArantxa Sánchez Vicario 4–6, 3–6 |
Anna Kournikova | Awards | Awards
1996: WTA Newcomer of the Year
1999: WTA Doubles Team of the Year (with Martina Hingis) |
Anna Kournikova | Books | Books
Anna Kournikova by Susan Holden (2001) ( / )
Anna Kournikova by Connie Berman (2001) (Women Who Win) ( / ) |
Anna Kournikova | References | References |
Anna Kournikova | External links | External links
Category:1981 births
Category:Australian Open (tennis) champions
Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles
Category:Iglesias family
Category:ITF World Champions
Category:Living people
Category:Olympic tennis players for Russia
Category:Participants in American reality television series
Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States
Category:Russian emigrants to the United States
Category:Russian female models
Category:Russian female tennis players
Category:Russian socialites
Category:Sportspeople from Miami-Dade County, Florida
Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Category:Tennis players from Moscow
Category:WTA number 1 ranked doubles tennis players
Category:21st-century Russian sportswomen |
Anna Kournikova | Table of Content | Short description, Early life, Tennis career, 1989–1997: early years and breakthrough, 1998–2000: success and stardom, 2001–2003: injuries and final years, 2004–present: exhibitions and World Team Tennis, Playing style, Personal life, Media publicity, Legacy and influence on popular culture, Career statistics and awards, Doubles performance timeline, Grand Slam tournament finals, Doubles: 3 (2–1), Mixed doubles: 2 (0–2), Awards, Books, References, External links |
Alfons Maria Jakob | Short description | Alfons Maria Jakob (2 July 1884 – 17 October 1931) was a German neurologist who worked in the field of neuropathology.
He was born in Aschaffenburg, Bavaria and educated in medicine at the universities of Munich, Berlin, and Strasbourg, where he received his doctorate in 1908. During the following year, he began clinical work under the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin and did laboratory work with Franz Nissl and Alois Alzheimer in Munich.Alfons Maria Jakob at Who Named It
In 1911, by way of an invitation from Wilhelm Weygandt,Neurological Eponyms edited by Peter J. Koehler, George W. Bruyn, John M. S. Pearce he relocated to Hamburg, where he worked with Theodor Kaes and eventually became head of the laboratory of anatomical pathology at the psychiatric State Hospital Hamburg-Friedrichsberg. Following the death of Kaes in 1913, Jakob succeeded him as prosector. During World War I he served as an army physician in Belgium, and afterwards returned to Hamburg. In 1919, he obtained his habilitation for neurology and in 1924 became a professor of neurology. Under Jakob's guidance the department grew rapidly. He made significant contributions to knowledge on concussion and secondary nerve degeneration and became a doyen of neuropathology.The Man Behind the Syndrome by Greta Beighton
Jakob was the author of five monographs and nearly 80 scientific papers. His neuropathological research contributed greatly to the delineation of several diseases, including multiple sclerosis and Friedreich's ataxia. He first recognised and described Alper's disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (named along with Munich neuropathologist Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt). He gained experience in neurosyphilis, having a 200-bed ward devoted entirely to that disorder. Jakob made a lecture tour of the United States (1924) and South America (1928), of which, he wrote a paper on the neuropathology of yellow fever.
He suffered from chronic osteomyelitis for the last seven years of his life. This eventually caused a retroperitoneal abscess and paralytic ileus from which he died following operation. |
Alfons Maria Jakob | Associated eponym | Associated eponym
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease: A very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disease. It is the most common form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies caused by prions. Eponym introduced by Walther Spielmeyer in 1922.Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease at Who Named It |
Alfons Maria Jakob | Bibliography | Bibliography
Die extrapyramidalen Erkrankungen. In: Monographien aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Neurologie und Psychiatry, Berlin, 1923
Normale und pathologische Anatomie und Histologie des Grosshirns. Separate printing of Handbuch der Psychiatry. Leipzig, 1927–1928
Das Kleinhirn. In: Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie, Berlin, 1928
Die Syphilis des Gehirns und seiner Häute. In: Oswald Bumke (edit.): Handbuch der Geisteskrankheiten, Berlin, 1930.Alfons Maria Jakob - bibliography at Who Named It |
Alfons Maria Jakob | References | References
Category:People from Aschaffenburg
Category:Academic staff of the University of Hamburg
Category:German neurologists
Category:German neuroscientists
Category:1884 births
Category:1931 deaths |
Alfons Maria Jakob | Table of Content | Short description, Associated eponym, Bibliography, References |
Agnosticism | Short description | Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, the divine, or the supernatural is either unknowable in principle or unknown in fact. (page 56 in 1967 edition)"When used in this epistemological sense, the term “agnosticism” can very naturally be extended beyond the issue of what is or can be known to cover a large family of positions, depending on what sort of “positive epistemic status” is at issue. For example, it might be identified with any of the following positions: that neither theistic belief nor atheistic belief is justified, that neither theistic belief nor atheistic belief is rationally required, that neither belief is rationally permissible, that neither has warrant, that neither is reasonable, or that neither is probable." It can also mean an apathy towards such religious belief and refer to personal limitations rather than a worldview. Another definition is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist."
The English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley said that he originally coined the word agnostic in 1869 "to denote people who, like [himself], confess themselves to be hopelessly ignorant concerning a variety of matters [including the matter of God's existence], about which metaphysicians and theologians, both orthodox and heterodox, dogmatise with the utmost confidence." Earlier thinkers had written works that promoted agnostic points of view, such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta, a 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife;Bhaskar (1972). and Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about the existence of "the gods". |
Agnosticism | Defining agnosticism | Defining agnosticism
Being a scientist, above all else, Huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation. A hypothesis with no supporting, objective, testable evidence is not an objective, scientific claim. As such, there would be no way to test said hypotheses, leaving the results inconclusive. His agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth, or falsehood, of the claim at hand. Karl Popper would also describe himself as an agnostic.Edward Zerin: Karl Popper On God: The Lost Interview. Skeptic 6:2 (1998) According to philosopher William L. Rowe, in this strict sense, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist.
George H. Smith, while admitting that the narrow definition of atheist was the common usage definition of that word,George H. Smith, Atheism: The Case Against God, pg. 9 and admitting that the broad definition of agnostic was the common usage definition of that word,George H. Smith, Atheism: The Case Against God, pg. 12 promoted broadening the definition of atheist and narrowing the definition of agnostic. Smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism (the view of those who do not hold a belief in the existence of any deity but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable) and agnostic theism (the view of those who believe in the existence of a deity(s) but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable). |
Agnosticism | Etymology | Etymology
Agnostic () was used by Thomas Henry Huxley in a speech at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in 1869 to describe his philosophy, which rejects all claims of spiritual or mystical knowledge.
Early Christian church leaders used the Greek word gnosis (knowledge) to describe "spiritual knowledge". Agnosticism is not to be confused with religious views opposing the ancient religious movement of Gnosticism in particular; Huxley used the term in a broader, more abstract sense. Huxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical, evidence-based inquiry.
The term agnostic is also cognate with the Sanskrit word ajñasi, which translates literally to "not knowable", and relates to the ancient Indian philosophical school of Ajñana, which proposes that it is impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge were possible, it is useless and disadvantageous for final salvation.
In recent years, scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean "not knowable".Oxford English Dictionary, Additions Series, 1993 In technical and marketing literature, "agnostic" can also mean independence from some parameters—for example, "platform agnostic" (referring to cross-platform software), or "hardware-agnostic". |
Agnosticism | Qualifying agnosticism | Qualifying agnosticism
Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt. He asserted that the fallibility of human beings means that they cannot obtain absolute certainty except in trivial cases where a statement is true by definition (e.g. tautologies such as "all bachelors are unmarried" or "all triangles have three corners").Hume, David, "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" (1748) |
Agnosticism | Types | Types |
Agnosticism | Strong agnosticism | Strong agnosticism
Also called "hard", "closed", "strict", or "permanent agnosticism", strong agnosticism is the view that the question of the existence or nonexistence of a deity or deities, and the nature of ultimate reality is unknowable by reason of our natural inability to verify any subjective experience with anything but another subjective experience. A strong agnostic would say, "I cannot know whether a deity exists or not, and neither can you." |
Agnosticism | Weak agnosticism | Weak agnosticism
Also called "soft", "open", "empirical", "hopeful", or "temporal agnosticism", weak agnosticism is the view that the existence or nonexistence of any deities is currently unknown but is not necessarily unknowable; therefore, one will withhold judgement until evidence, if any, becomes available. A weak agnostic would say, "I don't know whether any deities exist or not, but maybe one day, if there is evidence, we can find something out." |
Agnosticism | Apathetic agnosticism | Apathetic agnosticism
The view that no amount of debate can prove or disprove the existence of one or more deities, and if one or more deities exist, they do not appear to be concerned about the fate of humans. Therefore, some may feel their existence has little to no impact on personal human affairs and should be of little interest. An apathetic agnostic would say, "I don't know whether any deity exists or not, and I don't care if any deity exists or not."Rauch, Jonathan, Let It Be: Three Cheers for Apatheism, The Atlantic Monthly, May 2003 |
Agnosticism | History | History |
Agnosticism | Hindu philosophy | Hindu philosophy
Throughout the history of Hinduism there has been a strong tradition of philosophic speculation and skepticism.
The Rig Veda takes an agnostic view on the fundamental question of how the universe and the gods were created. Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) in the tenth chapter of the Rig Veda says: |
Agnosticism | Hume, Kant, and Kierkegaard | Hume, Kant, and Kierkegaard
Aristotle,
Anselm,
Aquinas,
Descartes,
and Gödel presented arguments attempting to rationally prove the existence of God. The skeptical empiricism of David Hume, the antinomies of Immanuel Kant, and the existential philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard convinced many later philosophers to abandon these attempts, regarding it impossible to construct any unassailable proof for the existence or non-existence of God.
In his 1844 book Philosophical Fragments, Kierkegaard writes:Kierkegaard, Søren. Philosophical Fragments. Ch. 3
Hume was Huxley's favourite philosopher, calling him "the Prince of Agnostics". Diderot wrote to his mistress, telling of a visit by Hume to the Baron D'Holbach, and describing how a word for the position that Huxley would later describe as agnosticism did not seem to exist, or at least was not common knowledge, at the time. |
Agnosticism | United Kingdom | United Kingdom |
Agnosticism | Charles Darwin | Charles Darwin
thumb|upright|Charles Darwin in 1854
Raised in a religious environment, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) studied to be an Anglican clergyman. While eventually doubting parts of his faith, Darwin continued to help in church affairs, even while avoiding church attendance. Darwin stated that it would be "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist".Letter 12041 – Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, May 7, 1879. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014.Darwin's Complex loss of Faith The Guardian September 17, 2009. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 Although reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind." |
Agnosticism | Thomas Henry Huxley | Thomas Henry Huxley
thumb|upright|Thomas Henry Huxley in the 1860s. He was the first to decisively coin the term agnosticism.
Agnostic views are as old as philosophical skepticism, but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley (1825–1895) to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the "unconditioned" (William Hamilton) and the "unknowable" (Herbert Spencer). Though Huxley began to use the term agnostic in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time before that date. In a letter of September 23, 1860, to Charles Kingsley, Huxley discussed his views extensively:
And again, to the same correspondent, May 6, 1863:
Of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude, Huxley gave the following account: |
Agnosticism | William Stewart Ross | William Stewart Ross
William Stewart Ross (1844–1906) wrote under the name of Saladin. He was associated with Victorian Freethinkers and the organization the British Secular Union. He edited the Secular Review from 1882; it was renamed Agnostic Journal and Eclectic Review and closed in 1907. Ross championed agnosticism in opposition to the atheism of Charles Bradlaugh as an open-ended spiritual exploration.Alastair Bonnett 'The Agnostic Saladin' History Today, 2013, 63,2, pp. 47–52
In Why I am an Agnostic () he claims that agnosticism is "the very reverse of atheism". |
Agnosticism | Bertrand Russell | Bertrand Russell
thumb|upright|Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) declared Why I Am Not a Christian in 1927, a classic statement of agnosticism.
He calls upon his readers to "stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world with a fearless attitude and a free intelligence".
In 1939, Russell gave a lecture on The existence and nature of God, in which he characterized himself as an atheist. He said:
However, later in the same lecture, discussing modern non-anthropomorphic concepts of God, Russell states:Collected Papers, Vol. 10, p. 258
In Russell's 1947 pamphlet, Am I An Atheist or an Agnostic? (subtitled A Plea For Tolerance in the Face of New Dogmas), he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself:
In his 1953 essay, What Is An Agnostic? Russell states:
Later in the essay, Russell adds: |
Agnosticism | Leslie Weatherhead | Leslie Weatherhead
In 1965, Christian theologian Leslie Weatherhead (1893–1976) published The Christian Agnostic, in which he argues:
Although radical and unpalatable to conventional theologians, Weatherhead's agnosticism falls far short of Huxley's, and short even of weak agnosticism: |
Agnosticism | United States | United States |
Agnosticism | Robert G. Ingersoll | Robert G. Ingersoll
thumb|Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert G. Ingersoll (1833–1899), an Illinois lawyer and politician who evolved into a well-known and sought-after orator in 19th-century America, has been referred to as the "Great Agnostic".
In an 1896 lecture titled Why I Am An Agnostic, Ingersoll stated this:
In the conclusion of the speech he simply sums up the agnostic position as:
In 1885, Ingersoll explained his comparative view of agnosticism and atheism as follows: |
Agnosticism | Bernard Iddings Bell | Bernard Iddings Bell
Canon Bernard Iddings Bell (1886–1958), a popular cultural commentator, Episcopal priest, and author, lauded the necessity of agnosticism in Beyond Agnosticism: A Book for Tired Mechanists, calling it the foundation of "all intelligent Christianity". Agnosticism was a temporary mindset in which one rigorously questioned the truths of the age, including the way in which one believed God. His view of Robert Ingersoll and Thomas Paine was that they were not denouncing true Christianity but rather "a gross perversion of it". Part of the misunderstanding stemmed from ignorance of the concepts of God and religion. Historically, a god was any real, perceivable force that ruled the lives of humans and inspired admiration, love, fear, and homage; religion was the practice of it. Ancient peoples worshiped gods with real counterparts, such as Mammon (money and material things), Nabu (rationality), or Ba'al (violent weather); Bell argued that modern peoples were still paying homage—with their lives and their children's lives—to these old gods of wealth, physical appetites, and self-deification. Thus, if one attempted to be agnostic passively, he or she would incidentally join the worship of the world's gods.
In Unfashionable Convictions (1931), he criticized the Enlightenment's complete faith in human sensory perception, augmented by scientific instruments, as a means of accurately grasping Reality. Firstly, it was fairly new, an innovation of the Western World, which Aristotle invented and Thomas Aquinas revived among the scientific community. Secondly, the divorce of "pure" science from human experience, as manifested in American Industrialization, had completely altered the environment, often disfiguring it, so as to suggest its insufficiency to human needs. Thirdly, because scientists were constantly producing more data—to the point where no single human could grasp it all at once—it followed that human intelligence was incapable of attaining a complete understanding of universe; therefore, to admit the mysteries of the unobserved universe was to be actually scientific.
Bell believed that there were two other ways that humans could perceive and interact with the world. Artistic experience was how one expressed meaning through speaking, writing, painting, gesturing—any sort of communication which shared insight into a human's inner reality. Mystical experience was how one could "read" people and harmonize with them, being what we commonly call love. In summary, man was a scientist, artist, and lover. Without exercising all three, a person became "lopsided".
Bell considered a humanist to be a person who cannot rightly ignore the other ways of knowing. However, humanism, like agnosticism, was also temporal, and would eventually lead to either scientific materialism or theism. He lays out the following thesis:
Truth cannot be discovered by reasoning on the evidence of scientific data alone. Modern peoples' dissatisfaction with life is the result of depending on such incomplete data. Our ability to reason is not a way to discover Truth but rather a way to organize our knowledge and experiences somewhat sensibly. Without a full, human perception of the world, one's reason tends to lead them in the wrong direction.
Beyond what can be measured with scientific tools, there are other types of perception, such as one's ability know another human through loving. One's loves cannot be dissected and logged in a scientific journal, but we know them far better than we know the surface of the sun. They show us an indefinable reality that is nevertheless intimate and personal, and they reveal qualities lovelier and truer than detached facts can provide.
To be religious, in the Christian sense, is to live for the Whole of Reality (God) rather than for a small part (gods). Only by treating this Whole of Reality as a person—good and true and perfect—rather than an impersonal force, can we come closer to the Truth. An ultimate Person can be loved, but a cosmic force cannot. A scientist can only discover peripheral truths, but a lover is able to get at the Truth.
There are many reasons to believe in God but they are not sufficient for an agnostic to become a theist. It is not enough to believe in an ancient holy book, even though when it is accurately analyzed without bias, it proves to be more trustworthy and admirable than what we are taught in school. Neither is it enough to realize how probable it is that a personal God would have to show human beings how to live, considering they have so much trouble on their own. Nor is it enough to believe for the reason that, throughout history, millions of people have arrived at this Wholeness of Reality only through religious experience. The aforementioned reasons may warm one toward religion, but they fall short of convincing. However, if one presupposes that God is in fact a knowable, loving person, as an experiment, and then lives according to that religion, he or she will suddenly come face to face with experiences previously unknown. One's life becomes full, meaningful, and fearless in the face of death. It does not defy reason but exceeds it.
Because God has been experienced through love, the orders of prayer, fellowship, and devotion now matter. They create order within one's life, continually renewing the "missing piece" that had previously felt lost. They empower one to be compassionate and humble, not small-minded or arrogant.
No truth should be denied outright, but all should be questioned. Science reveals an ever-growing vision of our universe that should not be discounted due to bias toward older understandings. Reason is to be trusted and cultivated. To believe in God is not to forego reason or to deny scientific facts, but to step into the unknown and discover the fullness of life. |
Agnosticism | Demographics | Demographics
thumb|upright=2.5|Nonreligious population by country, 2010
thumb|Percentage of people in various European countries who said: "I don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force." (2005)
Demographic research services normally do not differentiate between various types of non-religious respondents, so agnostics are often classified in the same category as atheists or other non-religious people.
A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non-religious people or the agnostics made up about 9.6% of the world's population.
A November–December 2006 poll published in the Financial Times gives rates for the United States and five European countries. The rates of agnosticism in the United States were at 14%, while the rates of agnosticism in the European countries surveyed were considerably higher: Italy (20%), Spain (30%), Great Britain (35%), Germany (25%), and France (32%).
A study conducted by the Pew Research Center found that about 16% of the world's people, the third largest group after Christianity and Islam, have no religious affiliation.
According to a 2012 report by the Pew Research Center, agnostics made up 3.3% of the US adult population.
In the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, conducted by the Pew Research Center, 55% of agnostic respondents expressed "a belief in God or a universal spirit",
whereas 41% stated that they thought that they felt a tension "being non-religious in a society where most people are religious".
According to the 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 38.9% of Australians have "no religion", a category that includes agnostics.
Between 64% and 65% of Japanese, and up to 81% of Vietnamese, are atheists, agnostics, or do not believe in a god. An official European Union survey reported that 3% of the EU population is unsure about their belief in a god or spirit. |
Agnosticism | Criticism | Criticism
Agnosticism is criticized from a variety of standpoints. Some atheists criticize the use of the term agnosticism as functionally indistinguishable from atheism; this results in frequent criticisms of those who adopt the term as avoiding the atheist label. |
Agnosticism | Theistic | Theistic
Theistic critics claim that agnosticism is impossible in practice, since a person can live only either as if God did not exist (etsi deus non-daretur), or as if God did exist (etsi deus daretur). |
Agnosticism | Christian | Christian
According to Pope Benedict XVI, strong agnosticism in particular contradicts itself in affirming the power of reason to know scientific truth. He blames the exclusion of reasoning from religion and ethics for dangerous pathologies such as crimes against humanity and ecological disasters.
"Agnosticism", said Benedict, "is always the fruit of a refusal of that knowledge which is in fact offered to man ... The knowledge of God has always existed". He asserted that agnosticism is a choice of comfort, pride, dominion, and utility over truth, and is opposed by the following attitudes: the keenest self-criticism, humble listening to the whole of existence, the persistent patience and self-correction of the scientific method, a readiness to be purified by the truth.
The Catholic Church sees merit in examining what it calls "partial agnosticism", specifically those systems that "do not aim at constructing a complete philosophy of the unknowable, but at excluding special kinds of truth, notably religious, from the domain of knowledge". However, the Church is historically opposed to a full denial of the capacity of human reason to know God. The Council of the Vatican declares, "God, the beginning and end of all, can, by the natural light of human reason, be known with certainty from the works of creation".
Blaise Pascal argued that even if there were truly no evidence for God, agnostics should consider what is now known as Pascal's Wager: the infinite expected value of acknowledging God is always greater than the finite expected value of not acknowledging his existence, and thus it is a safer "bet" to choose God. |
Agnosticism | Atheistic | Atheistic
According to Richard Dawkins, a distinction between agnosticism and atheism is unwieldy and depends on how close to zero a person is willing to rate the probability of existence for any given god-like entity. About himself, Dawkins continues, "I am agnostic only to the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden."The God Delusion (2006), Bantam Press, p. 51 Dawkins also identifies two categories of agnostics; "Temporary Agnostics in Practice" (TAPs), and "Permanent Agnostics in Principle" (PAPs). He states that "agnosticism about the existence of God belongs firmly in the temporary or TAP category. Either he exists or he doesn't. It is a scientific question; one day we may know the answer, and meanwhile we can say something pretty strong about the probability", and considers PAP a "deeply inescapable kind of fence-sitting".The God Delusion (2006), Bantam Press, pp 47–48 |
Agnosticism | Ignosticism | Ignosticism
A related concept is ignosticism, the view that a coherent definition of a deity must be put forward before the question of the existence of a deity can be meaningfully discussed. If the chosen definition is not coherent, the ignostic holds the noncognitivist view that the existence of a deity is meaningless or empirically untestable. A. J. Ayer, Theodore Drange, and other philosophers see both atheism and agnosticism as incompatible with ignosticism on the grounds that atheism and agnosticism accept the statement "a deity exists" as a meaningful proposition that can be argued for or against.Ayer, Language, 115: "There can be no way of proving that the existence of a God ... is even probable. ... For if the existence of such a god were probable, then the proposition that he existed would be an empirical hypothesis. And in that case it would be possible to deduce from it, and other empirical hypotheses, certain experimental propositions which were not deducible from those other hypotheses alone. But in fact this is not possible."Drange, Atheism |
Agnosticism | See also | See also |
Agnosticism | References | References |
Agnosticism | Further reading | Further reading
Alexander, Nathan G. "An Atheist with a Tall Hat On: The Forgotten History of Agnosticism." The Humanist, February 19, 2019.
Annan, Noel. Leslie Stephen: The Godless Victorian (U of Chicago Press, 1984)
Cockshut, A.O.J. The Unbelievers, English Thought, 1840–1890 (1966).
Dawkins, Richard. "The poverty of agnosticism", in The God Delusion, Black Swan, 2007 ().
Lightman, Bernard. The Origins of Agnosticism (1987).
Royle, Edward. Radicals, Secularists, and Republicans: Popular Freethought in Britain, 1866–1915 (Manchester UP, 1980).
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Agnosticism | External links | External links
Albert Einstein on Religion Shapell Manuscript Foundation
Why I Am An Agnostic by Robert G. Ingersoll, [1896].
Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Agnosticism
Agnosticism from INTERS – Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science
Agnosticism – from ReligiousTolerance.org
What do Agnostics Believe? – A Jewish perspective
Fides et Ratio – the relationship between faith and reason Karol Wojtyla [1998]
The Natural Religion by Brendan Connolly, 2008
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Agnosticism | Table of Content | Short description, Defining agnosticism, Etymology, Qualifying agnosticism, Types, Strong agnosticism, Weak agnosticism, Apathetic agnosticism, History, Hindu philosophy, Hume, Kant, and Kierkegaard, United Kingdom, Charles Darwin, Thomas Henry Huxley, William Stewart Ross, Bertrand Russell, Leslie Weatherhead, United States, Robert G. Ingersoll, Bernard Iddings Bell, Demographics, Criticism, Theistic, Christian, Atheistic, Ignosticism, See also, References, Further reading, External links |
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