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= 2015 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2015 Atlantic hurricane season was a slightly below average season that produced twelve tropical cyclones , eleven named storms , four hurricanes , and two major hurricanes . It officially began on June 1 , 2015 , and ended on November 30 , 2015 . These dates historically describe the period each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . However , the first named storm , Ana , developed on May 8 , nearly a month before the official start of the season , the first pre @-@ season cyclone since Beryl in 2012 and the earliest since Ana in 2003 . The season concluded with Kate transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on November 11 , almost three weeks before the official end .
Although most of the storms impacted land , overall effects were minimal . Ana caused minor flooding and wind damage in the Carolinas and left two dead in North Carolina . Tropical Storm Bill and its remnants caused flooding primarily in the South Central , Midwestern , and Mid @-@ Atlantic regions of the United States , while its precursor also left flooding in Central America and Mexico . The storm resulted in two deaths in Honduras , two in Guatemala , one in Mexico , and three deaths in the United States . Additionally , the United States suffered about $ 17 @.@ 9 million ( 2015 USD ) in damage . Claudette and Danny left very minimal impact on land . In late August , Tropical Storm Erika brought heavy rainfall to Dominica , leading to devastating floods . Erika caused nearly $ 500 million in damage and 30 fatalities , making it the island 's deadliest natural disaster since Hurricane David in 1979 . The storm also flooded other nearby islands , but to a much lesser degree , such as Guadeloupe , Puerto Rico , and Hispaniola . Five additional deaths occurred in Haiti .
Fred prompted a hurricane warning for Cape Verde for the first time ever and was the first storm to pass through the islands as a hurricane since 1892 . Strong winds there left about $ 1 @.@ 1 million in damage . Two deaths were presumed to have occurred after two fishermen never returned to port . Seven other sailors likely drowned offshore Guinea @-@ Bissau after their fishing boat collapsed . Tropical storms Grace , Henri , and Ida left negligible impact on land . Hurricane Joaquin 's intensity and slow movement in the vicinity of the Bahamas resulted in severe damage on some islands . Additionally , the American cargo ship SS El Faro went missing near Crooked Island and eventually capsized during the storm , drowning 33 people . Rough seas in Haiti also caused damage and one death from a fisherman drowning . Joaquin was the most intense satellite era tropical cyclone of non @-@ tropical origins . The remnants of Kate affected the British Isles , particularly Wales in the United Kingdom . Throughout the season , these storms collectively caused at least $ 648 @.@ 7 million in damage and 89 deaths .
With the exception of Tropical Storm Risk 's initial season prediction in December 2014 , all major forecasting agencies called for a below or near @-@ average season . The strong possibility of an El Niño developing in 2015 and colder than average sea surface temperatures were most often cited in these predictions . Overall , the forecasts were fairly accurate .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
In advance of , and during , each hurricane season , several forecasts of hurricane activity are issued by national meteorological services , scientific agencies , and noted hurricane experts . These include forecasters from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) ' s National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center , Tropical Storm Risk , the United Kingdom 's Met Office , and Philip J. Klotzbach , William M. Gray and their associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) . The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a particular year . According to NOAA and CSU , the average Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 and 2010 contained roughly 12 tropical storms , six hurricanes , three major hurricanes , and an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) index of 66 – 103 units . NOAA typically categorizes a season as either above @-@ average , average , or below @-@ average based on the cumulative ACE Index , but the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a hurricane season are considered occasionally as well .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 9 , 2014 , Tropical Storm Risk ( TSR ) , a public consortium consisting of experts on insurance , risk management , and seasonal climate forecasting at University College London , issued its first outlook on seasonal hurricane activity during the 2015 season . In its report , the organization forecast activity about 20 % below the 1950 – 2014 average , or about 30 % below the 2005 – 2014 average , totaling to 13 ( ± 4 ) tropical storms , 6 ( ± 3 ) hurricanes , 2 ( ± 2 ) major hurricanes , and a cumulative ACE index of 79 ( ± 58 ) units . This forecast was largely based on an enhancement of low @-@ level trade winds across the tropical Atlantic during the July to September period . TSR 's report stressed that uncertainty in this forecast existed due to the unpredictability in the El Niño Southern Oscillation and North Atlantic sea surface temperatures .
A few months later , on April 9 , 2015 , TSR updated its report , detailing its prediction of activity 45 % below the 1950 – 2014 average , or about 50 % below the recent 2005 – 2014 average , with 11 named storms , 5 hurricanes , 2 major hurricanes , and a cumulative ACE index of 56 units . TSR cited what were expected to be cooler than average ocean temperatures across the tropical North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea as reasoning for lower activity . In addition , the report stated that if the ACE forecast for 2015 were to verify , the total values during the three @-@ year period from 2013 – 2015 would be the lowest since 1992 – 1994 , signalling a possible end to the active phase of Atlantic hurricane activity that began in 1995 .
On April 9 , CSU also released its first quantitative forecast for the 2015 hurricane season , predicting 7 named storms , 3 hurricanes , 1 major hurricane , and a cumulative ACE index of 40 units . The combination of cooler than average waters in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic , as well as a developing El Niño predicted to reach at least moderate intensity , were expected to favor one of the least active seasons since the mid @-@ 1990s . The probabilities of a major hurricane striking various coastal areas across the Atlantic were lower than average , although CSU stressed that it only takes one landfalling hurricane to make it an active season for residents involved . On April 13 , North Carolina State University ( NCSU ) released its forecast , predicting a near record @-@ low season with just 4 to 6 named storms , 1 to 3 hurricanes , and 1 major hurricane .
On May 21 , the United Kingdom Met Office ( UKMO ) issued its forecast , predicting a season with below @-@ normal activity . It predicted 8 storms , with a 70 % chance that the number of storms would be between 6 and 10 ; it predicted 5 hurricanes , with a 70 % chance that that number would fall in the range of 3 to 7 . UKMO 's ACE index prediction was 74 units , with a 70 % chance of the index falling in the range of 40 to 108 units . On May 27 , NOAA released its seasonal forecast , predicting a below @-@ normal season with 6 to 11 named storms , 3 to 6 hurricanes , and 0 to 2 major hurricanes . NOAA indicated that there was a 70 % chance of a below @-@ normal season , a 20 % chance of a near @-@ normal season , and a 10 % chance of an above @-@ normal season . On the same day , TSR released its preseason forecasts , slightly lowering all the number with 10 tropical storms , 4 hurricanes and 1 major hurricane .
= = = Mid @-@ season outlooks = = =
On June 1 , CSU released an updated forecast , increasing the number of predicted named storms to 8 , due to the early formation of Tropical Storm Ana , while keeping the predictions for hurricanes and major hurricanes at 3 and 1 , respectively ; the ACE index forecast was also kept at 40 units . Probabilities of a major hurricane making landfall on various coastal areas remained below average . On August 5 , TSR updated their forecast and lowered the number of hurricanes developing within the basin to 4 , with only 1 forecasted to become a major hurricane . The ACE index prediction was also reduced to 44 units .
= = Seasonal summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 2015 . It was a near average season in which twelve tropical cyclones formed . Eleven of the twelve designated cyclones attained tropical storm status . Of the eight tropical storms , four reached at least Category 1 hurricane intensity . The 2015 season extended the period without major hurricane landfalls in the United States to ten years , with the last such system being Hurricane Wilma in 2005 . The lack of activity was primarily attributed to an atmospheric circulation that favored dry , sinking air over low latitudes to the west of 40 ° W and westerly wind shear enhanced by El Niño . A few notable events occurred during the season . Ana was the first tropical cyclone to form in the off @-@ season since 2012 . Fred was one of the easternmost tropical storms recorded and made landfall in Cape Verde as a Category 1 hurricane , becoming the first hurricane to strike that country since 1892 . Joaquin was the most intense storm of non @-@ tropical origin in the satellite era and the strongest to affect the Bahamas in October since 1866 . The tropical cyclones of this season caused 89 deaths and at least $ 648 @.@ 7 million in damage . The Atlantic hurricane season officially ended on November 30 , 2015 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began early , with Ana developing on May 8 , over three weeks prior to the official beginning of the season and far ahead of the long @-@ term climatological average of July 9 . The month of June featured one tropical cyclone , Bill , which formed on June 16 . Claudette , the only system in the month of July , developed on July 13 . The rate of tropical cyclogenesis increased in August , though no storms developed in the first half of the month . Danny , the season 's first major hurricane , formed on August 16 , followed by Erika on August 24 , and Fred on August 30 . September , which is the climatological peak of hurricane season , featured five additional tropical cyclones – Grace , Henri , Tropical Depression Nine , Ida , and Joaquin . The most intense storm of the season was Joaquin , which peaked as a strong Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , just short of Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Joaquin lasted into October , though no other systems developed that month . The season 's final cyclone , Kate , developed on November 8 and became extratropical on November 11 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) rating of 63 , which was well below the 1981 – 2010 median of 92 . Broadly speaking , ACE is a measure of the power of a tropical or subtropical storm multiplied by the length of time it existed . Therefore , a storm with a longer duration or stronger intensity , such as Joaquin , will have high values of ACE . It is only calculated for full advisories on specific tropical and subtropical systems reaching or exceeding wind speeds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) . Accordingly , tropical depressions are not included here . After the storm has dissipated , typically after the end of the season , the NHC reexamines the data , and produces a final report on each storm . These revisions can lead to a revised ACE total either upward or downward compared to the operational value .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Ana = = =
A low pressure area of non @-@ tropical origins developed into Subtropical Storm Ana at 00 : 00 UTC on May 8 , while situated about 175 miles ( 280 km ) southeast of Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . The system was classified as subtropical due to its involvement with an upper trough , as well as its large wind field . Throughout the day , convection progressively increased as Ana moved north @-@ northwestward across the warm sea surface temperatures associated with the Gulf Stream . At 00 : 00 UTC on May 9 , the cyclone attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 60 miles per hour ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 998 millibars ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Six hours later , Ana transitioned into a fully tropical system . However , the storm soon began weakening after moving away from the warm waters of the Gulf Stream and increasing wind shear also contributed to the deterioration of Ana . Around 10 : 00 UTC on May 10 , the system made landfall near North Myrtle Beach , South Carolina , with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Ana weakened to a tropical depression just eight hours later and transitioned into a remnant low near the Delmarva Peninsula at 00 : 00 UTC on May 12 . The remnant low merged with a frontal system about 24 hours later .
Striking South Carolina on May 10 , Ana became the earliest U.S. landfalling system on record . In the state , a storm surge peaking at about 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) resulted in erosion and minor coastal flooding , with roads washed out at North Myrtle Beach . Inland , moderate rainfall caused a lake to rise above its bank , inundating some homes and streets . One drowning death occurred in North Carolina after rip currents caused a man to remain underwater for more than 10 minutes . Rainfall in the state peaked at 6 @.@ 7 inches ( 170 mm ) southeast of Kinston , North Carolina , where minor street flooding took place . In Lenoir County , local firefighters rescued several stranded individuals by boat when rising floodwaters isolated about 10 residences . Tropical storm @-@ force winds were confined to coastal areas , with a peak gust of 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) observed near Southport . An additional death occurred in North Carolina after a tree fell on a car in Richlands .
= = = Tropical Storm Bill = = =
The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring disorganized convection across the northwestern Caribbean Sea in association with an upper @-@ level trough on June 12 . After interacting with a broad area of low pressure near the Yucatán Peninsula , an elongated area of low pressure formed in the vicinity on June 13 . The system moved northwestward into the Gulf of Mexico and developed a well @-@ defined circulation on early June 16 . Because the system was already producing tropical storm force winds , it was immediately classified as Tropical Storm Bill while situated about 200 mi ( 320 km ) from the US . Initially continuing northwestward , Bill re @-@ curved west @-@ northwestward later on June 16 . Around 12 : 00 UTC , the storm peaked with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 997 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Just under five hours later , Bill made landfall near on Matagorda Island , Texas , at the same intensity . The cyclone weakened to a tropical depression and turned northward early on June 17 . However , possibly due to the rare brown ocean effect , Bill remained a tropical cyclone until late on June 18 , when it degenerated into a remnant low over eastern Oklahoma . The remnant low moved east @-@ northeastward until dissipating over West Virginia on June 21 .
The precursor to Bill produced widespread heavy rain in Central America . In Guatemala , flooding affected more than 100 homes while a landslide killed two people . Two others died in Honduras due to flooding with two more missing . Heavy rains fell across parts of the Yucatán Peninsula , with accumulations peaking at 13 in ( 330 mm ) in Cancún , the highest daily total seen in the city in nearly two years . One person died from electrocution in the city . In Texas , flooding was exacerbated by record rainfall in some areas in May . A number of roads were inundated and several water rescues were required in Alice and San Antonio . Major traffic jams occurred in the Houston and Dallas areas . Coastal flooding left minor damage , mostly in Galveston and Matagorda counties . One death occurred when a boy was swept into a culvert . In Oklahoma , numerous roads were also inundated by water . Interstate 35 was closed near Turner Falls due to a rockslide and near Ardmore because of high water . There were two fatalities in Oklahoma , both from drowning . There was also flooding in several others states . Across the United States , Bill was responsible for approximately $ 17 @.@ 9 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudette = = =
In early July , a shortwave trough embedded in the westerlies crossed the United States . The system emerged over the Atlantic near the Outer Banks of North Carolina on July 12 ; a surface low soon developed . Traversing the Gulf Stream , convection abruptly increased on July 13 and it is estimated that a tropical depression formed by 06 : 00 UTC that day , roughly 255 mi ( 410 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cape Hatteras . Six hours later , the depression intensified into a tropical storm and was assigned the name Claudette . The sudden development of the cyclone was not well @-@ forecast , and Claudette was not operationally warned upon until it was already a tropical storm . Embedded within southwesterly flow ahead of mid @-@ latitude trough , the storm moved generally northeast . Claudette reached its peak intensity around 18 : 00 UTC with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a pressure of 1003 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 62 inHg ) . Increasing wind shear on July 14 prompted weakening , displacing convection from the storm 's center . It subsequently degenerated into a remnant low by 00 : 00 UTC on July 15 . The remnants of Claudette were absorbed into a frontal boundary just south of Newfoundland later that day .
Foggy and wet conditions associated with Claudette forced flight cancellations and travel delays across portions of eastern Newfoundland .
= = = Hurricane Danny = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa in mid @-@ August , acquiring sufficient organization to be declared a tropical depression by 06 : 00 UTC on August 18 while located about 765 mi ( 1 @,@ 230 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Danny six hours later . Steered generally westward , the cyclone initially struggled to intensify quickly in the midst of abundant Saharan Air Layer ( SAL ) , but it managed to attain hurricane intensity around 12 : 00 UTC on August 20 . Thereafter , Danny began a period of rapid deepening , becoming a Category 3 hurricane and attaining peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) early on August 21 . The negative effects of dry air and increased shear began to affect the cyclone after peak .
Early on August 22 , the storm weakened to a Category 2 and further to a Category 1 hurricane several hours later . Danny then deteriorated to a tropical storm by 00 : 00 UTC on August 23 . After about twelve hours , the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression as it moved through the Leeward Islands . Danny degenerated into an open wave at 18 : 00 UTC on August 24 . The remnants of Danny continued to the west @-@ northwest for another day and was last noted over Hispaniola . The hurricane prompted the issuance of several tropical storm warnings for the Lesser Antilles . Leeward Islands Air Transport cancelled 40 flights and sandbags were distributed in the United States Virgin Islands . Danny ultimately only brought light rain to the region , with its effects considered beneficial due to a severe drought .
= = = Tropical Storm Erika = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave developed into Tropical Storm Erika late on August 24 while located about 1 @,@ 035 mi ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Steered briskly westward by southerly flow associated with a subtropical ridge , the storm did not strengthen further despite initially favorable conditions . On August 25 , Erika encountered wind shear and dry mid @-@ level air , causing the storm to weaken slightly and leaving the low @-@ level circulation partially exposed . Contrary to predictions of a northwesterly recurvature , the cyclone persisted on a westerly course and passed through the Leeward Islands just north of Guadeloupe on August 27 . Unfavorable conditions in the Caribbean Sea prevented Erika from strengthening beyond 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Late on August 28 , the storm degenerated into a low pressure area just south of the eastern tip of Hispaniola . Shortly thereafter , the remnants trekked across Hispaniola and later Cuba , before reaching the Gulf of Mexico on September 1 . After striking Florida on the following day , the remains of Erika became indistinguishable over Georgia on September 3 .
Several Leeward Islands experienced heavy rainfall during the passage of Erika , especially Dominica . There , 15 in ( 380 mm ) of precipitation fell at Canefield Airport , causing catastrophic mudslides and flooding . A total of 890 homes were destroyed or left uninhabitable while 14 @,@ 291 people were rendered homeless , and entire villages were flattened . With a total of 30 deaths , Erika was the deadliest natural disaster in Dominica since David in 1979 . Overall , there was up to $ 500 million in damage and the island was set back approximately 20 years in terms of development . In Guadeloupe , heavy rainfall in the vicinity of Basse @-@ Terre caused flooding and mudslides , forcing roads to temporarily close . Approximately 200 @,@ 000 people in Puerto Rico were left without electricity . The island experienced at least $ 17 @.@ 4 million in agricultural damage . In the Dominican Republic , a weather station in Barahona measured 24 @.@ 26 in ( 616 mm ) of rain , including 8 @.@ 8 in ( 220 mm ) in a single hour . A total of 823 homes suffered damage and 7 @,@ 345 people were displaced . Five people died in Haiti , four from a weather @-@ related traffic accident and one from a landslide .
= = = Hurricane Fred = = =
A well @-@ defined tropical wave developed into a tropical depression just offshore Africa about 190 mi ( 310 km ) west @-@ northwest of Conakry , Guinea , early on August 30 . About six hours later , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . The next day , Fred further grew to a Category 1 hurricane and several hours later peaked with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) while approaching Cape Verde . After passing Boa Vista and moving away from Santo Antão , it entered a phase of steady weakening , dropping below hurricane status by September 1 . Fred then turned to the west @-@ northwest and endured increasingly hostile wind shear , but maintained its status as a tropical cyclone despite repeated forecasts of dissipation . It fluctuated between a minimal tropical storm and tropical depression through September 4 – 5 before curving sharply to the north . By September 6 , Fred 's circulation pattern had diminished considerably and the cyclone degenerated into a trough several hours later while located about 1 @,@ 210 mi ( 1 @,@ 950 km ) southwest of the Azores . The remnants were soon absorbed by a frontal system .
At the threat of the hurricane , all of Cape Verde was placed under a hurricane warning for the first time in history . Gale @-@ force winds battered much of the Barlavento region through August 31 , downing numerous trees and utility poles . On the easternmost islands of Boa Vista and Sal , Fred leveled roofs and left several villages without power and phone services for several days . About 70 percent of the houses in Povoação Velha were damaged to some degree . Throughout the northern islands , rainstorms damaged homes and roads , and São Nicolau lost large amounts of its crop and livestock . Monetary losses exceeded $ 1 @.@ 1 million across Cape Verde , though the rain 's overall impact on the agriculture was positive . Swells from the hurricane produced violent seas along West African shores , destroying fishing villages and submerging large swaths of residential area in Senegal . Overall , nine deaths were directly attributed to Fred .
= = = Tropical Storm Grace = = =
A well @-@ organized tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on September 3 . Initially disorganized with a broad area of low pressure , a burst of convection on September 5 led to a more concise center , and a tropical depression developed around 06 : 00 UTC that day while positioned about 175 mi ( 280 km ) south of Cape Verde . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Grace twelve hours later . Embedded within a generally favorable environment , Grace strengthened to attain peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) around 12 : 00 UTC on September 6 , when a mid @-@ level eye feature was evident on satellite . Thereafter , cooler waters and increased shear caused the cyclone to weaken to a tropical depression early on September 8 and dissipate at 12 : 00 UTC the next day while located within the central Atlantic .
= = = Tropical Storm Henri = = =
On September 8 , an upper @-@ level trough spawned a tropical depression southeast of Bermuda ; the next day it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Henri . Struggling against strong westerly wind shear , the system attained a peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1003 mbar ( hPa ) , possibly due to baroclinity . Thereafter , increasing interaction with the same upper @-@ level trough to the west degraded Henri 's circulation . It opened up into a trough on September 11 ; the remnants were later absorbed into a non @-@ tropical cyclone over the North Atlantic several days later .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine = = =
On September 10 , a strong tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . Passing south of Cape Verde , its interaction with a convectively @-@ coupled kelvin wave resulted in increased convection and the formation of an area of low pressure . After further organization , the wave acquired sufficient organization to be declared a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC on September 16 while located within the central Atlantic . Unfavorable upper @-@ level winds caused the appearance of the cyclone to become disheveled almost immediately after formation , and despite sporadic bursts of convection atop the storm 's center , the depression dissipated at 18 : 00 UTC on September 19 without ever attaining tropical storm intensity .
= = = Tropical Storm Ida = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 13 . The wave later interacted with a Kelvin wave , the latter of which contributed to the formation of Tropical Depression Nine . Moving westward with a large area of convection , the tropical wave and the Kelvin developed into a well @-@ defined low pressure area around midday on September 15 , according to satellite imagery . However , disorganization prevented its classification as a tropical depression until 06 : 00 UTC on September 18 , while located about 750 mi ( 1 @,@ 210 km ) south of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward due to a subtropical ridge to the north and intensified into Tropical Storm Ida early the following day . Westerly wind shear exposed the storm 's low @-@ level circulation , causing Ida to strengthen only slightly .
Wind shear briefly decreased , allowing the cyclone to peak with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) at 12 : 00 UTC on September 21 . However , shear increased later that day , causing slow weakening . Ida then decelerated and began moving in a general eastward direction on September 22 after becoming embedded in the flow associated with a mid- to upper @-@ level trough . Early on September 24 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression . During the following day , the trough was replaced with a subtropical ridge , causing Ida to turn northwestward and then west @-@ northwestward on September 26 . After shear and dry air caused much of the convection to diminish , Ida degenerated into a remnant low around 12 : 00 UTC on September 27 while situated about 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 610 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbuda .
= = = Hurricane Joaquin = = =
A non @-@ tropical low developed into a tropical depression on September 28 about 405 mi ( 650 km ) southwest of Bermuda , based on the improved circulation on satellite imagery and deep convection forming near the center . The storm initially moved slowly southwestward due to a blocking ridge of high pressure to the north . Although wind shear increased slightly , Joaquin tracked over ocean temperatures of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) , allowing the cloud pattern to become better organized . On September 30 , the storm intensified into a hurricane . Joaquin then rapidly deepened , becoming a Category 4 hurricane late on October 1 . Joaquin later weakened as it passed through the Bahamas , but reintensified to a Category 4 hurricane while recurving northeastward . On October 3 , maximum sustained winds peaked at 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 931 mbar ( 27 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Thereafter , Joaquin began to rapidly weaken as it approached Bermuda . The cyclone then turned eastward and maintained hurricane status until October 7 . By the following day , Joaquin became extratropical about 445 mi ( 715 km ) west @-@ northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores . The remnants later stuck Portugal , before dissipating over the Gulf of Cádiz on October 15 .
Battering the Bahamas 's southern islands for over two days , Joaquin caused extensive devastation , especially on Acklins , Crooked Island , Long Island , Rum Cay , and San Salvador Island . Severe storm surge inundated many communities , trapping hundreds of people in their homes ; flooding persisted for days after the hurricane 's departure . Prolonged , intense winds brought down trees and powerlines , and unroofed homes throughout the affected region . As airstrips were submerged and heavily damaged , relief workers were limited in their ability to quickly help affected residents . Damage in the Bahamas totaled about $ 120 @.@ 6 million . Offshore , the American cargo ship El Faro and her 33 crew members were lost to the hurricane . Coastal flooding also impacted the Turks and Caicos , washing out roadways , compromising seawalls , and damaging homes . Strong winds and heavy rainfall caused some property damage in eastern Cuba . One fisherman died when heavy seas capsized a small boat along the coast of Haiti . Storm tides resulted in severe flooding in several of Haiti 's departments , forcing families from their homes and destroying crops . Joaquin also posed a threat to parts of the East Coast of the United States . State of emergencies were declared in Maryland , New Jersey , North Carolina , South Carolina , and Virginia , as well as a mandatory evacuation from Ocracoke , North Carolina . Joaquin ultimately curved northeast and caused little direct impact in the United States , but another large storm system over the southeastern states drew tremendous moisture from the hurricane , resulting in catastrophic flooding in South Carolina . The storm brought strong winds to Bermuda that cut power to 15 @,@ 000 customers . Damage on Bermuda was minor .
= = = Hurricane Kate = = =
On October 30 , a poorly @-@ defined tropical wave and its associated small area of disturbed weather emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa . Strong wind shear prevented significant development or organization of deep convection for a few days . However , by November 5 , cloudiness and showers increased as the system was approaching the Lesser Antilles . After a rapid increase in convection and the circulation becoming more well @-@ defined on satellite imagery , a tropical depression about 115 mi ( 190 km ) southeast of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas around 18 : 00 UTC on November 8 . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Kate early on November 9 . After initially moving northwestward , Kate briefly accelerated northward around the western periphery of a subtropical ridge over the central Atlantic . Thereafter , the cyclone accelerated further and curved northeastward due to the mid @-@ latitude westerlies .
After intensification and improvements to convective banding , Kate was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on November 11 . Twelve hours later , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . Due to very strong wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures , the storm began losing tropical characteristics shortly thereafter . Early on November 12 , the system became extratropical about 430 mi ( 690 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Late on November 13 , the remnants merged with a larger extratropical cyclone . Between November 15 and November 16 , the remnants of Kate affected the United Kingdom and Ireland . Across Wales , high winds downed trees and heavy rain flooded roadways .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2015 . The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2021 season list . This is the same list used in the 2009 season . The name Joaquin replaced Juan after 2003 , but was not used in 2009 ; therefore , it was used for the first and only time this year .
= = = Retirement = = =
On April 25 , 2016 , at the 38th session of the RA IV hurricane committee , the World Meteorological Organization retired the names Erika and Joaquin from its rotating name lists , and they will not be used again for another Atlantic hurricane . The names will be replaced with Elsa and Julian for the 2021 season , respectively .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that have formed during the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their names , duration , peak strength , areas affected , damage , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2015 USD .
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= 2016 Australian Grand Prix =
The 2016 Australian Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2016 Formula 1 Rolex Australian Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race that was held on 20 March 2016 in Melbourne . The race was contested over fifty @-@ seven laps of the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit and was the first round of the 2016 FIA Formula One World Championship . The race marked the eightieth race in the combined history of the Australian Grand Prix — which dates back to the 100 Miles Road Race of 1928 — and the twenty @-@ first time the event was held at the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit . Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton was the defending race winner .
Hamilton took the first pole position of the season and the fiftieth of his career in a qualifying session that saw the introduction of a new one @-@ by @-@ one elimination format that was widely criticised . His teammate Nico Rosberg took victory ahead of Hamilton and Ferrari 's Sebastian Vettel . The race was stopped on lap 18 following an accident involving Fernando Alonso and Esteban Gutiérrez . Mercedes used the break for a change of tyres that allowed their drivers to take a 1 – 2 finish after Vettel had initially led the race from the start . Romain Grosjean finished sixth , scoring points for the Haas F1 team on their début , the first completely new team to do so since 2002 . Mercedes equalled the record for most consecutive 1 – 2 finishes , by achieving their fifth in a row .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
= = = = Regulation changes = = = =
The race saw the introduction of a new qualifying system . As before , qualifying was divided into three parts . However , instead of eliminating the slowest drivers at the end of each respective session , the slowest driver at a given point was now eliminated from contention every ninety seconds , with the countdown starting some minutes into every session .
In a further change of regulations , tyre supplier Pirelli now made three instead of two tyre compounds available for each Grand Prix . For the Australian Grand Prix , these were the super @-@ soft , soft and medium compounds . With Pirelli providing every driver with two sets of tyres for the race ( of which one must be used ) and an additional one for the third part of qualifying , drivers were able to choose ten additional sets of tyres out of the three compounds available . Notably , Mercedes drivers Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg made different choices , with Rosberg opting for an additional set of mediums instead of soft tyres . The two Manor drivers chose the most conservative way , taking on four sets each of the medium and soft compounds .
The race saw the competitive début of the Haas F1 Team , and its car , the Haas VF @-@ 16 ; and the return of Renault as a fully manufacturer @-@ supported team after a four @-@ year absence .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2016 season , three practice sessions were held , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . Rain had fallen before the start of the first practice session , rendering the track wet and slippery , and drivers initially opted to go on their first laps on intermediate tyres . Nico Rosberg was the first to set a lap time , clocking in at 1 : 44 @.@ 037 , a time soon bettered by his Mercedes teammate Lewis Hamilton at 1 : 40 @.@ 812 . As conditions improved further , Kimi Räikkönen set a new fastest time after about half an hour of practice . Soon after , the track had dried enough for the drivers to go out on slick tyres , with Daniel Ricciardo setting the first time on the medium compound with 1 : 34 @.@ 007 . After around one hour of practice , Hamilton managed the best time of the session , at 1 : 29 @.@ 725 . Still , several wet spots on the track caused problems to a number of drivers , including Max Verstappen , who flat @-@ spotted his tyres while spinning in turn six , as well as Valtteri Bottas and Rio Haryanto , who both had to pass through the gravel traps after slipping off the track . Shortly before the end of the session , rain returned and caught out many drivers , including Räikkönen and Ricciardo , whose Red Bull RB12 got stuck in a gravel pit at turn twelve .
Due to several rain showers between first and second practice , the track was again wet during the second session , which limited the drivers to using the intermediate tyres only . Hamilton was again fastest , setting a time of 1 : 38 @.@ 841 . Teammate Rosberg crashed at turn seven thirty minutes into the session , damaging a new @-@ specification front wing that the team had deliberately not run in first practice for fear of damage . Rosberg later apologised for the incident , which saw him trying to get back to pit lane , before his team told him to stop on track , calling an early end to his session . Nico Hülkenberg , Räikkönen , Ricciardo and Carlos Sainz , Jr. all finished within one second of Hamilton 's time , while Sergio Pérez was at one point on his way to a new fastest time overall , setting best times in the first two timechecks along the track , before having to slow in the last part of the lap due to heavy rain . The two Manor drivers Pascal Wehrlein and Haryanto covered the highest number of laps , with 24 and 22 laps in 12th and 14th place respectively . Neither Renault nor Williams drivers set a time , albeit going on track . The Sauber cars and Max Verstappen 's Toro Rosso did not leave the garage at all during the session .
Although rain fell on Saturday morning , the track had dried by the start of the final free practice session . Lewis Hamilton again set the fastest time with 1 : 25 @.@ 624 , less than two @-@ tenths of a second in front of teammate Rosberg , with Sebastian Vettel in third position close behind . The fastest times had been set on the super @-@ soft tyre compound . However , Mercedes 's advantage over Ferrari proved more significant , up to seven @-@ tenths of a second on the harder soft compound , the tyre most likely to be used in the race . Toro Rosso confirmed their good pace for the weekend with fourth and sixth place for Carlos Sainz and Max Verstappen respectively , being about half a second quicker than their sister team , Red Bull Racing . A major incident occurred just seconds after the beginning of the practice session , when Rio Haryanto and Romain Grosjean collided in the pit lane . Both cars needed to equip new front wings and Haas also changed the floor on Grosjean 's car . Haryanto was later issued a three @-@ place grid penalty for the incident , as well as two penalty points added to his licence .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying got under way on Saturday afternoon with new rules in place . Just as in years before , the qualifying procedure was divided into three parts , with the first part ( Q1 ) running for 16 minutes and the second and third parts ( Q2 and Q3 ) being 15 and 14 minutes long respectively . All twenty @-@ two cars contested the first part , with seven drivers eliminated from further contention in each of the first two parts of qualifying , leaving eight drivers to compete for pole position in Q3 . However , in a change of rules , drivers were now eliminated during the session , with the slowest runner at a given point being taken out from contention every ninety seconds , beginning seven minutes into Q1 , six minutes into Q2 and five minutes into Q3 .
The new format meant that all cars took to the track quickly in Q1 , with everyone setting lap times on the super @-@ soft compound , the fastest tyre available at the event . The two Manor drivers were first to be eliminated , having set only one timed lap each , as were both Haas cars after them , being unable to cross the finishing line in time . The same fate caught out Daniil Kvyat , who qualified 18th . Both Sauber drivers were able to go out on a second timed lap , but proved too slow to avoid being the last to go out in Q1 , after Renault rookie Jolyon Palmer was able to avoid elimination , setting a faster time towards the end of the session .
Q2 started with a busy track once more , but many of the top drivers elected not to go out on a second timed run after setting sufficient lap times first time around . The eliminated drivers were determined rather quickly , with the two Renault drivers qualifying 14th and 15th respectively . The two McLarens were next to go out of contention , before Bottas was eliminated for 11th place on the grid , failing to improve on his lap time . Both Force India were the last not to make it into Q3 , with Sergio Pérez beating his teammate Hülkenberg to ninth .
The third part of qualifying determined pole position and only the two Mercedes drivers set two timed laps . After he clocked in behind both Ferrari drivers in his first run , Rosberg improved to second place on his second time out , but was unable to challenge teammate Hamilton , who took the fiftieth pole position of his career . Every other driver was limited to only one timed lap and in the end , the two Ferraris of Vettel and Räikkönen locked out the second row on the grid ahead of Max Verstappen and Felipe Massa . Sainz and Ricciardo rounded up the top eight on the grid . Therefore , Q3 saw little running with the final positions determined very early on and drivers exiting their cars five minutes before the end of qualifying .
= = = = Post @-@ qualifying = = = =
The new qualifying format was criticised immediately after the end of the session by pundits , drivers and team personnel alike . Sky Sports commentator Martin Brundle called for a swift revision of the rules , saying the procedure was " not acceptable " and calling for it to be abandoned before the next race . Mercedes 's executive director Toto Wolff and former driver Johnny Herbert were equally critical , describing it as " rubbish " and " embarrassing " . Red Bull team director Christian Horner was apologetic , describing the format as " [ not ] good for Formula One . " Niki Lauda , non @-@ executive chairman at Mercedes , was in agreement , calling it " a big mistake . " Particular criticism was aimed at the fact that many drivers did not get enough time to improve on their lap times , seeing many getting out of their cockpits while still technically in contention . 1996 World Champion Damon Hill observed that pole @-@ sitter Hamilton " could have waved his own chequered flag [ ... ] with four minutes still to go . " Nico Rosberg acknowledged that it had " not worked " , while Sebastian Vettel was equally critical , describing it as " the wrong way to go . " Lewis Hamilton joined the criticism but acknowledged the attempt to revitalise the format . Bernie Ecclestone , the commercial rights holder of Formula One , spoke out against the format as well , declaring it to be " pretty crap " . On the day of the race , the teams of Formula 1 voted a proposal to go back to the qualifying format as it had been in previous seasons , which was rejected by the FIA 's F1 Commission .
= = = Race = = =
At the end of the formation lap , Daniil Kvyat was unable to reach the grid due to an electrical issue . Therefore , the field went to another formation lap and the race was shortened accordingly to 57 laps . At the start proper , Vettel got away well , passing through both Mercedes cars into the lead , followed by his teammate Räikkönen in second . As Rosberg and Hamilton went through the first corner , Hamilton was forced wide and lost additional places , falling down to sixth . Kevin Magnussen suffered a puncture on the first lap and pitted for new tyres , while Esteban Gutiérrez had mechanical issues at the back of the field . Hamilton was able to pass fifth @-@ placed Massa on lap four , as Vettel was leading from Räikkonen , Rosberg and Verstappen . On lap eight , Sainz was the first of the top @-@ ten runners to pit for new tyres . Meanwhile , Hamilton was unable to pass Verstappen for fourth , discussing alternative tactics with his team on the radio communication . Pascal Wehrlein had a good start in his debut as well , running in 14th place at that point of the race .
On the end of lap eleven , Rosberg was the first front runner to go into the pitlane and Vettel followed suit just two laps later . A quicker stop by Rosberg saw Vettel emerge just in front of him , but the Ferrari stayed ahead and he passed Hamilton for second on lap 16 . On the same lap , both Räikkönen and Hamilton pitted as well , re @-@ establishing the order . One lap later , Fernando Alonso had a major accident as he ran into the back of Gutiérrez , being lifted into the air at 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) and hitting the left @-@ hand barrier before subsequently rolling over several times before coming to rest upside @-@ down against the barrier at turn three , experiencing a peak force of 46G . While Alonso walked away with minor injuries , a safety car was deployed for a short time before the race direction decided to red flag the race due to the huge amounts of debris across the track from both Alonso 's McLaren and damaged advertising boards , causing all cars to come back into pitlane .
While the cars waited for the restart , work on the cars was allowed and Hamilton 's front wing was changed , while Rio Haryanto ended his race . As the race resumed behind the safety car , both Ferraris were running on the super @-@ soft tyre compound , with both Mercedes now equipped with mediums , which were set to last for the rest of the race . The running order at the restart was : Vettel , Rosberg , Räikkönen , Ricciardo , Verstappen , Sainz , Hamilton , Massa , Grosjean , Bottas . Grosjean in ninth was the only driver who had not pitted before the red flag was shown , which allowed him to save one pit stop and change his tyres during the break .
Vettel led away at the restart , but his Ferrari teammate Räikkönen was forced to pull into the pits on lap 22 with fire coming from his airbox and subsequently retired , handing second place to Rosberg . Over the next couple of laps , Vettel was able to pull away from Rosberg on the softer tyre compound . Marcus Ericsson was handed a drive @-@ through penalty for having his team work on his car less than 15 seconds before the restart . By lap 31 , the gap between Vettel and Rosberg started to come down again , while Hamilton moved ahead of Sainz into fifth as the latter pitted . Two laps later , Verstappen was in as well , but a slow pit stop lost him time . On lap 35 , Rosberg took the lead as Vettel pitted , who also lost time due to a mistake during his stop . He emerged back on track in fourth place . Hamilton now started to pull back time on the leaders , while debutant Palmer held off the two Toro Rossos in a struggle for ninth place .
On lap 40 , Ericsson started to slow on track and eventually retired . One lap later , Hamilton moved into second ahead of Ricciardo on the main straight . Lap 42 saw first Sainz and then Verstappen overtake Palmer 's Renault , who fell back to eleventh . Another lap later , Ricciardo changed tyres and came out fifth behind Massa , taking fourth three laps later . At the front , Hamilton and Vettel slowly closed on Rosberg , with the gap between the two also coming down . Vettel came onto the back of Hamilton with five laps remaining , chasing him closely for several laps before making a mistake in the second to last corner of lap 55 , losing his chances at second place .
As the race ended , Nico Rosberg took victory , thirty @-@ one years after his father Keke Rosberg had won the 1985 Australian Grand Prix . Hamilton and Vettel rounded out the podium ahead of Ricciardo and Massa . With Romain Grosjean having finished in sixth , Haas F1 became the first new ( and " from scratch " ) constructor since Toyota in 2002 to score points in its inaugural Grand Prix race entry . Behind Grosjean , Hülkenberg , Bottas , Sainz and Verstappen were the other point scorers . By finishing fourth , Daniel Ricciardo equalled the highest ever finish by an Australian driver at their home event , after Mark Webber did the same in 2012 . It was Mercedes 's fifth consecutive 1 – 2 finish , equalling a record set by Ferrari in 1952 and 2002 and by themselves in 2014 .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium interviews , conducted by former Formula One driver Mark Webber , both Mercedes drivers expressed delight at their result . Hamilton in particular described his race as " great " and added that he " loved the fact that we had to come through from far behind . " Sebastian Vettel meanwhile was satisfied with his start , but lamented the red flag situation and said that Ferrari had not expected Mercedes to opt for the harder tyre compound and go until the end of the race . He later added that he was confident that Ferrari had closed the gap to Mercedes and would be able to compete for the championship throughout the season . Nico Rosberg later revealed that the team had been close to retiring his car due to persisting brake issues caused by debris caught in the brake caliper . However , he was able to manage the brake temperatures to secure victory . Rosberg also apologised to his teammate for making contact and forcing him wide at the start .
Following an inquiry into the incident between Alonso and Gutiérrez , the stewards took no action against either driver , deeming it a " racing incident " with no driver particularly to blame . Fernando Alonso shared the stewards ' opinion and was quick to express that he did not blame Gutiérrez . The accident was a talking point for days after the race , with former FIA president Max Mosley pointing out that Alonso 's impact might have been fatal about twenty years earlier . He praised the measures taken in terms of driver security ever since the fatal accident of Ayrton Senna at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , saying that due to these efforts , one was now able to " expect the driver to walk away " from a violent crash .
Particular praise after the race went to both newcomers Haas and debutant Jolyon Palmer , who delivered what The Guardian described as an " impressive " drive . Palmer had been able to hold off attacks by both Toro Rosso drivers for several laps in the closing stages of the race . Toro Rosso 's Max Verstappen was very unhappy with his team 's strategy in the race handling the situation , repeatedly complaining and swearing over the team radio . He lost several seconds in a rushed pitstop , after which he lamented that he had wanted to pit before his teammate Sainz . While driving behind Sainz when both where trailing Palmer , he asked for team orders to allow him to pass his teammate , which were denied , leading him to describe his team 's strategy as a " joke " . Verstappen received criticism for his outbursts , with Sky Sports describing him as sounding " like a teenager - and a sulky one at that " . He later apologised to his team for his outbursts .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Cy @-@ près doctrine in English law =
The cy @-@ près doctrine in English law is an element of trusts law dealing with charitable trusts . The doctrine provides that when such a trust has failed because its purposes are either impossible or cannot be fulfilled , the High Court of Justice or Charity Commission can make an order redirecting the trust 's funds to the nearest possible purpose . For charities with a worth under £ 5 @,@ 000 and no land , the trustees ( by a two @-@ thirds majority ) may make the decision to redirect the trust 's funds . The doctrine was initially an element of ecclesiastical law , coming from the Norman French cy près comme possible ( as close as possible ) , but similar and possibly ancestral provisions have been found in Roman law , both in the Corpus Juris Civilis and later Byzantine law .
Trusts where the doctrine is applicable are divided into two groups ; those with subsequent failure , where the trust 's purpose has failed after it came into operation , and initial failure , where the trust 's purposes are immediately invalid . Subsequent failure cases simply require the redirection of the funds to the nearest possible purpose , since there is no question of allowing the settlor 's next of kin to inherit the money . Initial failure cases , however , require not just a decision on whether the purpose has failed , but also on whether the funds should be subject to cy @-@ près or returned to the estate in a resulting trust . This is decided based on the charitable intention of the settlor , something determined on the facts of each individual case .
= = Definition and origin = =
The cy @-@ près doctrine is the idea that , where a charitable trust 's purposes are impossible or cannot be fulfilled for whatever reason , the funds should be reapplied to purposes as close as possible to the trust 's original goals . This is done through a formal application by the trustees , either to the High Court of Justice or the Charity Commission . This doctrine originated in ecclesiastical law , the name coming as a contraction of the Norman French cy près comme possible ( as close as possible ) , It was originally justified in an ecclesiastical way ; charitable gifts were provided to secure entry into heaven , and if the charitable gift failed , this would not be guaranteed . If it was re @-@ purposed , however , entry would be granted . The local bishop , therefore , would usually simply apply the gift to the nearest possible purpose to the testator 's original goals .
Some evidence suggests that the doctrine descends from Roman law . The Corpus Juris Civilis mentions a process that redirected money collected to celebrate a person 's life in some way that violated law to a purpose within the law . It also gives a similar justification : " [ I ] t would be unjust that the amount which [ the testator ] has destined to that end should revert to the heirs . Therefore , let ... an investigation be made to ascertain how the trust may be employed so that the memory of the deceased may be preserved in some other and lawful manner . " The Byzantine Empire used a system similar to cy @-@ près when dealing with piae causae , charitable corporations , whereby if the corporation fell its possessions were to be transferred to the Papal treasury and spent on a purpose as close as possible to that of the original corporation .
= = Requirements = =
Prior to the Charities Act 1960 , situations where the cy @-@ près doctrine applied were limited to cases where the trust 's purpose was either impossible or impracticable . The 1960 Act , however , provides in Section 13 ( 1 ) ( now part of the Charities Act 1993 ) that cy @-@ près can apply where the original purposes have :
( a ) been as far as may be fulfilled ; or cannot be carried out , or not according to the directions given and to the spirit of the gift ;
( b ) or where the original purposes provide a use for part only of the property available by virtue of the gift ;
( c ) where the property available by virtue of the gift and other property applicable for similar purposes can be more effectively used in conjunction , and to that end can suitably , regard being had to the spirit of the gift , be made applicable to common purposes ;
( d ) or where the original purposes were laid down by reference to an area which then was but has ceased to be a unit for some other purpose , or by reference to a class of persons or to an area which has for any reason since ceased to be suitable , regard being had to the spirit of the gift , or to be practical in administering the gift ;
( e ) or where the original purposes , in whole or in part , have since they were laid down been adequately provided for by other means ; or ceased , as being useless or harmful to the community or for other reasons , to be in law charitable ; or ceased in any other way to provide a suitable and effective method of using the property available by virtue of the gift , regarding being had to the spirit of the gift .
This definition was amended by the Charities Act 2006 to replace " the spirit of the gift " with " the appropriate considerations , " which are defined as " ( on the one hand ) the spirit of the gift concerned , and ( on the other ) the social and economic circumstances prevailing at the time of the proposed alteration of the original purposes " . In the case of extremely small charitable trusts ( where the charity has an income of less than £ 5 @,@ 000 and holds no land ) the trustees may agree by a two @-@ thirds majority to transfer the property to another charity , without involving the High Court or Commission . This is contained in Sections 74 @-@ 5 of the 1993 Act . Once the decision is reached , public notice must be given , and the Commission informed . Cy @-@ près powers are now enacted in the Charities Act 2011 .
= = = Subsequent failure = = =
The cy @-@ près doctrine applies to two types of situations : subsequent failures and initial failures . Subsequent failures are where money has already been applied to a charitable purpose , and that purpose has failed . It does not allow the next of kin of the original donor to recover any money , as said in Re Wright : " Once money has been effectually dedicated to charity , whether in pursuance of a general or a particular charitable intent , the testator 's next of kin or residuary legatees are forever excluded " . The courts instead simply determine whether or not the reason for failure falls within Section 13 , based on the basic intention underlying the original gift .
= = = Initial failure = = =
Cases of initial failure are where , rather than an established charitable trust failing , a gift has failed at the moment of its creation by having an invalid purpose . This raises different questions , as it is a matter of deciding " has the original charitable gift failed , and , if it has , can the money be applied cy @-@ près or must it go on resulting trust to the settlor 's estate " ?
When deciding if a gift has failed , attention is first turned to the wording of the trust instrument . The terms of such documents are taken literally ; if a particular organisation or purpose is given , the settlor 's intention is considered to be no wider or narrower than this . A different approach is used when dealing with cases like Re Faraker , which dealt with a situation where the charity named in the gift had been amalgamated with others . The Court of Appeal held that the amalgamated charities were entitled to the gift , since the charity named effectively continued as part of the amalgamated one . Farwell LJ wrote that , " In all these cases one has to consider not so much the means to the end as the charitable end which is in view , and so long as the charitable end is well established the means are only machinery , and no alteration of the machinery can destroy the charitable trust for the benefit of which the machinery is provided . "
In Re Finger , Goff J made a distinction between gifts to incorporated bodies and gifts to unincorporated bodies . When a gift is to an unincorporated body , it must be treated , whatever the wording , as a gift to that body 's purpose . This is because unincorporated bodies cannot possess things . If the body has ceased to exist but the purpose continues , the gift has not failed . Incorporated bodies on the other hand can possess property , and as such , as said by Buckley J in Re Vernon 's Will Trust , " A bequest to a corporate body ... takes effect simply as a gift to that body beneficially , unless there are circumstances which show that the recipient is to take the gift as a trustee . "
Once it has been decided that the gift has failed , the courts consider whether the gift may be applied cy @-@ près . The gift must show charitable intention ; that the settlor intended not just a gift to a particular ( failed ) purpose or organisation , but a more general charitable intention . This is something decided on the facts of each individual case , but some general principles are in place ; external evidence is admissible to override any prima facie interpretation that a gift is for non @-@ charitable purposes , as in Re Satterthwaite 's Will Trusts , and charitable intention can be found in cases where a non @-@ existent charity is the recipient of the settlor 's gift , as in Re Harwood .
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= Crash Bandicoot ( character ) =
Crash Bandicoot , or simply Crash , is the title character and primary protagonist of the Crash Bandicoot series . Introduced in the 1996 video game Crash Bandicoot , Crash is an eastern barred bandicoot who was genetically enhanced by the series ' main antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex and soon escaped from Cortex 's castle after a failed experiment in the " Cortex Vortex " . Throughout the series , Crash acts as the opposition against Cortex and his schemes for world domination . While Crash has a number of offensive maneuvers at his disposal , his most distinctive technique is one in which he spins like a tornado at high speeds and knocks away almost anything that he strikes .
Crash was created by Andy Gavin and Jason Rubin , and was originally designed by Charles Zembillas . Crash was intended to be a mascot character for Sony to use to compete against Nintendo 's Mario and Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog . Before Crash was given his name ( which stems from the visceral reaction to the character 's destruction of boxes ) , he was referred to as " Willie the Wombat " for much of the duration of the first game 's production . Crash has drawn comparisons to Mario and Sonic the Hedgehog by reviewers . His animations have been praised , and his voice has been criticized , while his redesign in the Radical Entertainment games has drawn mixed reactions .
= = Concept and creation = =
One of the main reasons Naughty Dog chose to develop Crash Bandicoot ( at the time jokingly codenamed " Sonic 's Ass Game " ) for the Sony PlayStation was Sony 's lack of an existing mascot character that could compete with Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog and Nintendo 's Mario . Naughty Dog desired to do what Sega and Warner Bros. did with the hedgehog ( Sonic ) and the Tasmanian devil ( Taz ) respectively and incorporate an animal that was " cute , real , and no one really knew about " . The team purchased a field guide on Tasmanian mammals and selected the wombat , potoroo and bandicoot as options . Andy Gavin and Jason Rubin went with " Willie the Wombat " as a temporary name for the starring character of the game . The name was never meant to be final , due both to the name sounding " too dorky " and to the existence of a non @-@ video game property of the same name . The character was effectively a bandicoot by October 1994 , but was still referred to as " Willie the Wombat " because a final name had not been formulated yet . Wanting their mascot game to be multi @-@ dimensional in character depth as well as gameplay , Gavin and Rubin chose not to base Willie around one attribute such as " fast " or " cute " . The team felt that Willie should be " goofy and fun @-@ loving , and never talk " ; the character 's muteness was based on the theory that voices for video game characters were always " lame , negative , and distracted from identification with them . "
American Exitus artist Charles Zembillas was hired ( alongside environmental artist Joe Pearson ) and met with weekly to design and develop Willie and the other characters of the game . It was decided early on that there would be no connection between the real animal and Willie 's final design . Instead the design of the character was determined " 51 % by technical and visual necessity and 49 % by inspiration " . To determine the color of Willie 's fur , Gavin created a list of popular characters and their colors , and then made a list of earthly background possibilities ( such as forests , deserts , beaches , etc . ) . Colors that wouldn 't look good on the screen were strictly outlawed , such as red , which would " bleed horribly " on older televisions . Orange was selected as the color of Willie 's fur as the last available color . Willie 's head was made large and neckless to counter the low resolution of the screen and allow Willie 's facial expressions to be discernible . Jason Rubin noted the increased difficulty in turning Willie 's head with this type of design . Small details such as the gloves , the spots on Willie 's back and a light @-@ colored chest were added to help the player determine what side of Willie was visible based on color . Willie was not given a tail or any flappy straps of clothing due to the PlayStation 's inability to properly display such pixels without flickering . The length of Willie 's pants was shortened to keep his ankles from flickering as they would with longer pants . Andy Gavin owns the original ink sketches of Crash by Charles Zembillas .
Willie 's final game model was made from 512 polygons with the only textures being for the spots on his back and his shoelaces . It took Andy Gavin a month to settle on that number of polygons . Because of the game 's use of vertex animation , Willie was capable of more facial expressions than other video game characters at or before the time . Willie 's jumping , spinning and bonking mechanisms were refined as the Naughty Dog team developed the levels " Heavy Machinery " and " Generator Room " . While preparing for the game 's demonstration at the Electronic Entertainment Expo , the team decided to finally rename the titular character " Crash Bandicoot " ( the particular name being credited to Dave Baggett and Taylor Kurosaki ) , with his surname being based on his canonical species and his first name stemming from the visceral reaction to the character 's destruction of boxes ( " Dash " , " Smash " and " Bash " were other potential names ) . The marketing director of Universal Interactive Studios insisted that the game and character be named " Wez / Wezzy / Wuzzle the Wombat " or " Ozzie the Otzel " . The name Crash Bandicoot prevailed after Naughty Dog threatened to leave the production .
After Naughty Dog presented Crash Bandicoot to Sony 's Japanese division , the executives of Sony Computer Entertainment Japan stated their dislike of the character and were unimpressed by the renderings of the character made specifically for the meeting . During a break following the initial meeting , Andy Gavin approached Charlotte Francis , the artist responsible for the renderings , and gave her fifteen minutes to close Crash 's huge , smiling mouth to make him seem less aggressive , change his eyes from green to " two small black " Pac @-@ Man " shapes " and make his spike of hair smaller . Sony Japan bought Crash Bandicoot for Japanese distribution after being shown the modified printout .
Crash served as a mascot for Sony Computer Entertainment from his creation until September 2000 when Universal Interactive Studios and Konami entered an agreement that would enable Konami to publish a Crash Bandicoot game ( which would later become Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex ) for next @-@ generation game systems , with Universal Interactive handling the production of the games ; the agreement served to break the Crash Bandicoot franchise 's exclusivity to Sony @-@ produced consoles and effectively made Crash Bandicoot a mascot character for Universal rather than Sony . Crash 's game model in Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex was composed of approximately 1 @,@ 800 polygons , which allowed an increase in detail compared to past models , including a more complex and realistic tuft of hair , a visible uvula , stitching on his jeans and shoes and a designer label on his pants .
Upon beginning development of Crash Nitro Kart , Vicarious Visions chief executive officer and chief creative officer Karthik Bala noted that Crash 's physical appearance had been inconsistent since his debut in 1996 and decided to " explore the original vision of the character " in an attempt to bring him back to his roots . Charles Zembillas and Joe Pearson were tracked down and enlisted for guidance during development of the game and were faced with the challenge of evolving the character and the franchise visually while retaining their " cartoon @-@ like charm " . To redesign Crash and the other mainstay characters of the series for Crash Nitro Kart , the Vicarious Visions team reviewed a number of original development sketches from Zembillas 's archives and then redesigned the main characters by incorporating details from the concept art and adding girth to the characters ; Crash 's appearance in the game , compared to the previous two games , sports a slightly larger nose , fuller eyebrows , and a far more textured body . Zembillas noted that " Crash is slimmer and more appealing now . There 's also more emphasis on his eyes , and you can see the craftiness in his personality . That 's Crash to me , and he 's alive again in Nitro Kart " .
Crash is voiced by Brendan O 'Brien in Crash Bandicoot , Cortex Strikes Back , Warped , Crash Bash , The Wrath of Cortex , The Huge Adventure , N. Tranced , and Ripto 's Rampage , by Billy Pope in Crash Team Racing , by Steven Blum in Nitro Kart and by Jess Harnell in Tag Team Racing , Crash of the Titans , Mind over Mutant , and Skylanders : Imaginators . In the Japanese versions of the games , he is voiced by Kappei Yamaguchi up to Crash Nitro Kart and by Makoto Ishii in Crash Boom Bang ! .
= = Characteristics = =
Crash was genetically engineered through the use of Cortex and Doctor Nitrus Brio 's Evolvo @-@ Ray . Before escaping from Doctor Neo Cortex 's island fortress , Crash became romantically attached to a female bandicoot named Tawna , who was another one of Cortex 's experiments . Crash 's separation from Tawna at the hands of Cortex serves as the primary root of Crash 's antagonisation of Cortex . Crash is a very emotional character who is quick to laugh and quick to cry . While he has a danger @-@ loving , fearless nature and loves a good fight , he prefers relaxing in the sun and rarely seeks out trouble deliberately . Crash has an extremely limited vocabulary , preferring to speak in unintelligible gibberish ; the few English words he is capable of speaking include " Whoa ! " ( which he often exclaims upon being physically harmed ) , " Nina " and " pancakes " . To the ire of his friend Crunch , but the amusement of his sister Coco , Crash is prone to impolite personal habits such as belching or scratching his posterior .
In the beginning of the series , Crash 's sole offensive maneuvers were jumping onto his enemies and a distinctive technique in which he spins around like a tornado , kicking away anyone or anything that he strikes . In later games Crash can expand his range of abilities by defeating boss characters . The expanded abilities include a powerful splash , the ability to jump while in the air , the " Death Tornado Spin " ( a variation of his spinning technique that allows him to hover through the air for a limited time ) , a bazooka that fires Wumpa Fruit , increased running speed , the ability to safely tip @-@ toe on top of explosive crates , and the ability to jump at incredibly high heights . The games Crash of the Titans and Crash : Mind over Mutant allow Crash to further expand his offensive abilities with new fighting moves learned from collecting a magical substance known as " Mojo " . In Skylanders : Imaginators , Crash has the ability to throw TNT crates , and can use his Yo @-@ yo to bring in enemies to spin attack .
= = Appearances = =
As seen in Crash Bandicoot , Crash was once an ordinary eastern barred bandicoot before he was snatched from the wild by Doctor Neo Cortex and subjected to the Evolvo @-@ Ray as part of Cortex 's plan to make Crash the " general " of his " Cortex Commandos " , which would be used to dominate the world . However , he is later deemed unworthy of being in Cortex 's army and escapes from Cortex 's castle . As an act of revenge and to rescue a female bandicoot named Tawna , Crash travels through the Wumpa Islands , defeating Cortex 's henchmen along the way . He eventually steals Cortex 's airship , defeats Doctor Cortex , and escapes alongside Tawna . A year later in Crash Bandicoot 2 : Cortex Strikes Back , Crash is sent off to get a new laptop battery for his sister Coco , but is soon abducted by Doctor Neo Cortex , who claims to have changed his ways . Crash is then ordered to gather Crystals for Cortex while fighting off opposition from Doctor Nitrus Brio . Once Cortex reveals his hidden intentions , Crash sends Cortex flying off into space and aids Nitrus Brio in destroying Cortex 's space station . In Crash Bandicoot 3 : Warped , when the remains of the space station crash into Earth and set the demonic Uka Uka free , Crash is recruited by Aku Aku to use Doctor Nefarious Tropy 's Time @-@ Twisting Machine to gather the powerful Crystals in their original places before Cortex does . Crash eventually gathers all 25 Crystals and defeats Nefarious Tropy , causing the Time @-@ Twisting Machine to implode on itself . In Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex , Crash is recruited to gather Crystals and return a group of destructive masks named the Elementals to a hibernation state and stop Cortex 's new superweapon Crunch Bandicoot . In Crash Twinsanity , after foiling another plot by Doctor Cortex to eliminate him , Crash teams up with Cortex in order to defeat the Evil Twins and restore the natural order of the universe .
In Crash of the Titans , Crash aids Coco in the development of a butter @-@ recycling device . This is interrupted when Neo Cortex arrives and kidnaps Aku Aku and Coco . Crash throws Coco 's machine at Cortex 's airship , severing the chain holding Aku Aku 's cage , which causes the cage to fall into the nearby forest . After Crash rescues Aku Aku , they discover that Cortex and Uka Uka are stealing Mojo from a nearby temple and decide to stop them . Crash is unable to rescue his sister but manages to defeat Cortex , and he begins his search for Coco , interrogating Dingodile , Tiny Tiger , N. Gin , and Uka Uka on her whereabouts . Crash finally confronts and defeats Nina Cortex inside of the Doominator robot , liberates his sister , and averts the destruction of Wumpa Island . Feeling happy for themselves , Crash and his family decide to celebrate their victory with pancakes , which he blurts out ( speaking for the first time ) in joy . Soon after , in Crash : Mind over Mutant , the NV , a personal digital assistant that everyone must possess , is released to the public . However , this turns out to be a plot by Doctor Cortex and his old partner Doctor Nitrus Brio , who use the NV 's Mojo @-@ transmitting powers to control everyone who uses the device . Because Crash is unaffected by the NV , he is able to free his friends from the control of the NV and stop Cortex 's and Brio 's plot .
= = = Other appearances in the series = = =
Crash appears as a playable character in Crash Team Racing and Crash Bash . The epilogue of Crash Team Racing states that Crash sold his life story , titled " The Color Orange " , to a major film studio , set to be released by the Christmas season . In Crash Bandicoot : The Huge Adventure , Crash is recruited to gather Crystals to power a device built by Coco that will reverse the effects of Cortex 's Planetary Minimizer , which has shrunken the Earth to the size of a grapefruit . In Crash Bandicoot 2 : N @-@ Tranced , Crash is awoken from his nap by the kidnapping of Coco and Crunch by Nefarious Tropy and N. Trance . Crash is almost kidnapped himself before being rescued by Aku Aku . He is then sent off to rescue Crunch and Coco , recruit Fake Crash , and defeat N. Trance and Nefarious Tropy . Crash is a playable character in Crash Nitro Kart , in which he is abducted ( along with other characters ) by Emperor Velo XXVII and forced to compete in the Galaxy Circuit . When Velo relinquishes his power to Crash , Crash seriously considers the possibility of ruling over Velo 's empire , but he refuses the offer and leaves Velo with his empire . In Crash Bandicoot Purple : Ripto 's Rampage , Crash is tricked into thinking that Spyro the Dragon is attacking the Wumpa Islands , but he discovers the truth after a fight on a bridge , and teams up with Spyro to defeat the combined forces of Doctor Neo Cortex and Ripto . In Crash Tag Team Racing , Crash is recruited ( along with other characters ) by Ebenezer Von Clutch to gather the stolen Power Gems of his amusement park and win the park 's ownership . He also finds Von Clutch 's lost Black Power Gem by the end of the game . Crash is a playable character in Crash Boom Bang ! , in which he interrupts the Viscount 's wish to the Super Big Power Crystal and wishes for a vast amount of Wumpa Fruit .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Crash has been featured in two series of Crash Bandicoot action figures produced by the now @-@ defunct Resaurus . For Crash Bandicoot 2 : Cortex Strikes Back , Resaurus produced a " Jetboard Crash " ( a Crash Bandicoot figure bundled with the jetboard seen in the game ) and a " Jet Pack Crash " ( a goggle @-@ wearing Crash Bandicoot figure bundled with the jet pack seen in the game ) . The Crash Bandicoot : Warped series featured three different figures of Crash , including one bundled with Aku Aku and Coco Bandicoot figures . A Crash figurine will be released as part of the Skylanders : Imaginators starter pack for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 in October 2016 ; he will be playable across all platforms .
= = = Paleontology = = =
Paleontologists have named an extinct bandicoot from the Miocene of Australia after the video game character Crash Bandicoot , under the binomial Crash bandicoot — genus Crash , species bandicoot . Although somewhat unusual for the scientific community , the name was used in an entirely unaltered form , without attempting to return to Latin or Greek roots .
= = = Reception = = =
As a mascot character , Crash has drawn numerous comparisons to competing mascots such as Mario and Sonic by reviewers . Dave Halverson of GameFan praised Crash 's animations , appearance and mannerisms as " 100 % perfection " . A reviewer for Game Revolution praised Crash 's " quirky mannerisms " as " always refreshing " , and John Broady of GameSpot described Crash as " disarmingly cute and fuzzy " . Doug Perry of IGN was critical of the character , seeing him as " insanely capitalistic " , negatively comparing his voice to Luigi of the Mario series and accusing him of being " the most see @-@ through , copycat mascot that ever existed . " Louis Bedigian of GameZone also disliked Crash 's voice , remarking " it is really annoying to hear a child say , ' Whoa ! ' every time you fall in the water , especially when you realize that the child 's voice is supposed to be Crash " . Crash 's animations , particularly in Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex , have been praised as humorous by reviewers . Ryan Davis of GameSpot analyzed Crash 's " overextended running style and self @-@ punishing attacks " as establishing him as an " empty @-@ headed but enthusiastic character " , and compared his facial contortions to those of comedian Red Skelton . In a poll held by MSN in late 2008 to determine the most iconic video game character , Crash ranked at # 8 . In the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition from 2011 , he was voted as the eleventh best video game character . However , he also ranked eighth on IGN 's top 10 list of video game characters who should die , adding that it would be a mercy killing . IGN editor Colin Moriarty stated that his games add little to innovate the series over the years , rendering the character useless .
Crash 's aesthetic design in the games developed by Radical Entertainment has received mixed reactions from reviewers . Brian Rowe of Game Revolution noted that Crash 's fingerless gloves have been replaced with " equally outdated " tribal tattoos and that Crash 's personality had been altered from his " obnoxiously extreme attitude " to that of a " bluthering , googly @-@ eyed idiot " . Although Rowe wondered when and why the change happened , he concluded that " it 's better than the popular goatee @-@ of @-@ rage that so many other platform giants are sporting these days " . Arnold Katayev of PSX Extreme , while admitting that the character detail on Crash was " pretty nice " , expressed unhappiness with the artistic choices made for the character ; he described Crash 's tribal tattoos as " a little pretentious " and noted that the increased definition on his mohawk patch made Crash come off as " trying too hard to be cool " . He added that Crash 's new fighting style begot a stance that consists of Crash " putting up his dukes like a boxer " , which he deemed " out of character " for Crash . Finally , while critiquing the voice acting in Crash of the Titans , he remarked that Crash " especially sounds awful , largely because he doesn 't actually speak - he just blabs annoying gibberish , which makes him sound like he 's an infant " . Matt Keller of PALGN also criticized Crash 's voice , which he said made Crash sound " like a confused baby " . Louis Bedigian of GameZone stated that " Crash 's character design has gone from cool to goofy and now to the dreaded place of being dorky " and said that the minute and gradual changes made to Crash 's design throughout the series " have really hurt Crash 's appearance as a leading game character " . GamePro named Crash 's new design as the second worst video game character makeover ever . Craig Harris of IGN was more positive on Crash 's new appearance and noted that Crash " looks a little floofier and a lot edgier , gaining a spikier Mohawk and trading in his fingerless gloves for tribal ink all up and down his arms " while comparing his incoherent squawking vocalizations to Kazooie of the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series . He concluded that " ultimately he 's been changed for the better . He looks a little cooler and more appealing than his more ' Japanese @-@ inspired ' edits over the years " .
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= Clarence Chesterfield Howerton =
Clarence Chesterfield Howerton ( February 9 , 1913 – November 18 , 1975 ) , also known as Major Mite , was an American circus performer who starred in the sideshow for over 25 years , 20 of which were with the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus . He was 2 ft 4 in ( 0 @.@ 71 m ) tall and performed with several groups from the early 1920s through the late 1940s , billed as the smallest man in the world . His small physique was often contrasted alongside larger circus sideshow acts , such as the juvenile obese and the excessively tall .
Regarded as a " highly successful sideshow [ novelty ] " and celebrity , Howerton visited the White House and represented recruitment efforts of the United States Marine Corps . He was featured in multiple films , including a role as a Munchkin in 1939 's The Wizard of Oz . He retired in 1949 .
= = Early life = =
Clarence Chesterfield Howerton was born on February 9 , 1913 , in Salem , Oregon , to Frank and Helen Howerton . He had five brothers , all of whom grew to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) tall . However , Howerton grew to a height of only 2 ft 4 in ( 0 @.@ 71 m ) . An expert said that he might have a " deranged ductless gland " . Howerton 's mother was just over 4 ft 0 in ( 1 @.@ 22 m ) tall , which led some to wonder if his small stature was inherited .
At age six , Howerton was living in McCleary , Washington , with his parents and five brothers , Albert , Ernest , Forrest , LeRoy , and Charles . His father was employed at the time as a factory mechanic . Howerton never attended school , likely due to his physical size and associated emotional consequences .
In January 1926 , Frank Howerton shot himself , having been in poor health previously . His mother subsequently remarried to Robert Crawford . At the time of the 1930 United States Census , Howerton was living with Crawford and his mother in Manhattan . According to the Census listing , Crawford was a " showman " while Howerton and his mother were identified as performers .
= = Career = =
Howerton 's career began at a young age , when his father entered him into a local vaudeville show . In 1923 , at the age of ten , Howerton joined the Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey Circus , where he starred as a major attraction . The circus was the largest of the kind , with 800 performers and over 1000 animals . Although he was only ten years old , the circus sought to exaggerate his diminutive size by claiming that he was 18 years old . He was billed as the smallest man in the world , exhibited and known to the public under the name , " Major Mite " . The " Major Mite " moniker had previously been used by an American comedian who died in 1900 , and a 19th @-@ century circus performer , William E. Jackson , who died in 1901 , at 24 , 2 ft 9 in ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) tall and weighing 26 pounds ( 12 kg ) . Accompanied by his mother , Howerton spent 20 years with Ringling Bothers and also worked with the Cole Brothers Circus , the Coney Island Dreamland Side Show , and the World Circus Sideshow .
In December 1922 , Howerton received national press coverage when he visited U.S. President Warren G. Harding at the White House and billed as " the world 's smallest man . " One newspaper noted at the time : " The smallest midget and the smallest Shriner in the world , known as Major Mite , caused more excitement when he called at the White House recently than many a notable has done . "
In 1927 , Howerton drew the attention of The New York Times when he led a " strange cavalcade " through the streets of Manhattan to the Hospital for Crippled and Ruptured Children . Howerton led the parade in the original coach that had previously been used by General Tom Thumb . The coach was drawn by two Shetland ponies , and Howerton was accompanied by " Tiny Doll " , described as " the Major 's sweetheart " and other circus performers . He also drew the attention of the Chicago Tribune when he visited Chicago in 1928 .
In 1928 , Howerton was paired with an extraordinarily large circus sideshow performer known as " Tom Ton " and billed as the " Human Atom " and " Big Baby Elephant . " Howerton is said to have performed with numerous human oddities , also working with Ruth Pontico , a woman weighing 700 pounds ( 320 kg ) , in his career .
In advertising and film , Howerton found success beyond the sideshow . During the 1930s , he was used as a mascot for the recruitment side of the United States Marine Corps . His biggest role in acting was with 1939 's The Wizard of Oz , in which he played the part of a trumpet @-@ playing Munchkin , Herald # 3 , who announced the arrival of the mayor . He was one of the smallest Munchkins in Oz . Howerton also appeared in several shorts of the comedy program Our Gang , including the 1932 short , " Free Eats " .
By 1940 , he was living with his mother in Manhattan . His occupation was described as an " exhibitionist " in a circus , but a 1941 document states that he registered with " Clackamas County Local Board No. 2 " , located in Estacada , Oregon ; his registration prompted the Board to state " We believe we have the smallest registrant in the United States " . In the announcement of his registration , his weight and height are given , vastly contrasting to other sources : a height of 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 07 m ) , and a weight of 52 pounds ( 24 kg ) . His last performance was for Cole Bros. , in 1948 .
= = Reputation = =
Howerton was often seen with other human oddities , for example , in 1924 , he was photographed with Martin Feig , a four @-@ year @-@ old boy who weighed 104 pounds . Feig reportedly said to Howerton , " Aw , you 're nothing but a germ @-@ weight midget . " One newspaper referred to Howerton , who was in reality only 13 years old at the time , as " the Beau Brummel of the side shows " , noting that the Doll sisters ( two female small persons working with Ringling Brothers ) declared him " a regular sheik " .
In contrast to his public persona , Howerton reportedly enjoyed cigars and beer , " often yelled obscenities , " and was known to " run the length of a bar , kicking anything in his way " , sometimes whilst dressed in children 's clothes . While working with Ringling Brothers , Howerton befriended Jack Earle who was 7 ft 7 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 2 @.@ 32 m ) tall , but at the time was advertised as being 8 ft 7 in ( 2 @.@ 62 m ) . The two were often photographed together in promotional materials for Ringling Brothers , with it being said that " it is penny @-@ ante poker which has made pals of Jack and the major " .
= = = Size = = =
Reports of Howerton 's size range vastly , the upper boundary for both height and weight is given by the United States Selective Service System , who report a height of 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 07 m ) , and a weight of 52 pounds ( 24 kg ) . A height of 2 ft 4 in ( 0 @.@ 71 m ) is given in several more modern sources , including Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! : Howerton himself claimed that was his height at 22 , and that his weight was 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) The Chicago Tribune gave his height as 2 ft 0 in ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) , and his weight as 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) . At 18 , it was reported that he weighed 13 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) .
= = Post entertainment industry and death = =
Howerton retired from the entertainment industry in 1949 , at the age of 35 . By 1970 he had moved back to Oregon and was living with a niece in the small town of Dayton . His diminutive size meant that he didn 't pay welfare to the state as it was " never collected from " children " less than 0 ft 30 in ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) tall " . His size , however , meant that he was forced to have tailor made clothing , which he additionally " demands it 's good standard " .
On November 18 , 1975 , at the age of 62 , Howerton died of pneumonia in a hospital in McMinnville , Oregon . He was buried in Mountainview Cemetery in nearby Oregon City . Aside from one brother , he outlived all of his immediate family .
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= Bristol Customshouse and Post Office =
Bristol Customshouse and Post Office is a historic two @-@ story rectangular Italian palazzo style brick building that was used as a post office and customshouse in Bristol , Rhode Island , United States . The land for the site was acquired for $ 4 @,@ 400 . The building was designed by Ammi B. Young and completed in 1858 for a cost of $ 22 @,@ 135 @.@ 75 . The building roughly measures 46 feet ( 14 m ) by 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and is constructed of deep red brick and has three arched openings on each of its sides and stories that are lined with sandstone moldings . The archways protrude from the side of the building and the center archway serves as the first floor with the adjacent archways housing large windows that are barred with iron . As it typical of the style , the second floor is more elaborate with a shallow balcony of iron supported by iron brackets and the paneling of the upper facade 's surmounting entablature is elaborately decorative . The sides and rear are similar to the front facade , but include blind recesses and the molding is of a browner sandstone .
The building was abandoned in 1962 and acquired by the Young Men 's Christian Association ( YMCA ) in 1964 . The YMCA has an adjacent structure and used the building as an ante @-@ space until 1990 . Currently , the building is used as offices . The Bristol Customshouse and Post Office is historically significant as it is an example of the Italian palazzo mode of architecture . The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 .
= = Design = =
The land for the site was acquired on April 19 , 1856 for $ 4 @,@ 400 and constructed in 1857 for a cost of $ 22 @,@ 135 @.@ 75 . Completed in 1858 from the design by Ammi B. Young , the Bristol Customshouse and Post Office is a two @-@ story rectangular Italian palazzo style brick building that rests upon a raised granite base . The building is about 46 feet ( 14 m ) by 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and is heated by steam . The front facade is made of deep red brick that has three large arched openings on both stories and a " greyish sandstone molding outlines the arches on both floors and caps the piers which separate the first @-@ floor arches and a decisive molding of the same material forms a belt between the two stories . " The archways protrude from the side of the building and the center archway serves as the first floor with the adjacent archways housing large windows that are barred with iron . As it typical of the style , the second floor is more elaborate with a shallow balcony of iron supported by iron brackets and the paneling of the upper facade is " understated , but the surmounting entablature is heavy and elaborately decorated . " The cornice as the visual top of the building and conceals the low hipped roof that is only visible from a distance . The sides and rear are similar to the front facade , but include blind recesses and the molding is of a browner sandstone .
Alterations to the building are evident in an old photograph , dated to circa 1860 @-@ 1869 , which shows pedimented dormers in the center of the roof , that is believed to have been an addition that has since been removed , but at an unknown time . According to Bristol , Rhode Island : The Bristol renaissance , a photo of the building dated to circa 1900 shows the pedimented dormers . A postcard that was postmarked in 1920 also shows the dormers and the adjacent YMCA building . Also present in the photograph are two chimneys on the front facade and it is evidenced that the side chimney probably arose near the front , however , only one chimney is extant in the rear . The two front chimneys were absent in a circa 1907 @-@ 1913 post card . The rear chimney was described as " apparently altered " without future explanation in the National Register of Historic Places nomination .
The 1971 nomination form noted that the then @-@ current state of the building was in a state of neglect . After passing through the vestibule , the front area served as the postal sorting rooms , office and mail boxes . In this area , the original iron columns are visible between the wood panels of the clerks ' windows . The tile floors were noted to be an alteration , but the second floor stair landing likely had its original tiling remain . The second floor was accessible via cast iron stairs with iron railings , that lead up the customs quarters that had a large room with " seven sets of iron @-@ framed windows , with heavy iron sills and interior shutters . " This room was described as " impressively large " because of its 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high ceilings and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) paneled door , the floor is made of hard wood and a " very plain marble fireplace is in one corner of the large room . " The supports of the building stem from the cellar where granite piers support horizontal iron beams that hold up iron columns on the first floor .
= = Use = =
The Bristol Customshouse and Post Office was used as a Post Office and Customs House , as its name implies , until it was abandoned in 1962 . Records show that $ 1 @,@ 071 @.@ 75 in repairs and $ 68 @.@ 36 for " mechanical equipment " was spent by the United States government between July 1908 and June 1909 . The Young Men 's Christian Association ( YMCA ) acquired the building in 1964 , the building was attached to a YMCA swimming pool structure and was used as an ante @-@ space until 1990 . It was remodeled and currently is used as offices .
= = Importance = =
The Bristol Customshouse and Post Office is historically significant as " an example of the rediscovery of the Italian palazzo mode of architecture after the long proliferation @-@ of the Greek Revival . " Though Young designed dozens of building for the United States Department of the Treasury , he was a master of the Greek Revival style and his designs varied throughout the years during the popularization of subsequent styles . Young also designed the United States Customshouse in Providence , Rhode Island a year prior , but its design reflected a more " classical , academic theme " in a more Tuscan style . The Bristol Customshouse and Post Office " serves as an excellent example of a style that is little represented in a town which has fine buildings of other styles and periods , and is a reminder of what was once one of the most active seaports in the northeast " .
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= Mark Webber =
Mark Alan Webber ( born 27 August 1976 ) is an Australian professional racing driver , currently competing in the FIA World Endurance Championship as a Porsche works driver in LMP1 , in which he is one of the three reigning World Drivers ' Champions .
After some racing success in Australia driving Formula Ford and Formula Holden , Webber moved to the United Kingdom in 1995 to further his motorsport career . Webber began a partnership with fellow Australian Paul Stoddart , at that time owner of the European Racing Formula 3000 team , which eventually took them both into Formula One when Stoddart bought the Minardi team . He also beat future F1 World Champion Fernando Alonso , then 19 , in the 2000 International Formula 3000 season .
Webber made his Formula One debut in 2002 , scoring Minardi 's first points in three years at his and Stoddart 's home race . After his first season , Jaguar took him on as lead driver . During two years with the generally uncompetitive team , Webber qualified on the front two rows of the grid several times and outperformed his teammates . His first F1 win was with Red Bull at the 2009 German Grand Prix , which followed second places at the 2009 Chinese Grand Prix , 2009 Turkish Grand Prix and 2009 British Grand Prix . By the end of 2009 , Webber had scored eight podiums , including another victory in Brazil . His eight podiums in 2009 compares to only two podiums in the first seven years of his career . He added ten more podiums in 2010 , including victories in Spain , Monaco , Britain and Hungary . Webber finished the 2010 season in third place having led for a long period , losing out to teammate Sebastian Vettel in the final race of the season . Webber added another race victory in the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix , as he once again finished third behind champion Vettel and runner @-@ up Jenson Button . Webber partnered Vettel again in the 2012 season , outperforming him in the early season and looked to be a major title contender but fell away with no wins in the second half of the season after two in the Monaco and British Grand Prix . He finished the season in sixth position . Webber was also a long @-@ term director of the Grand Prix Drivers ' Association , the Formula One drivers ' union .
On 27 June 2013 , Webber announced he would be retiring from Formula One at the end of the season . He began to race for Porsche in 2014 , on a long @-@ term deal , racing LMP1 Sportscars in the FIA World Endurance Championship . Webber is one of six drivers of the Porsche 919 Hybrid , and in November 2015 he became World Endurance Champion in the # 17 car , alongside Timo Bernhard and Brendon Hartley . The trio race with the # 1 on their car in 2016 . After his retirement from F1 Webber joined the BBC F1 team as an occasional pundit and reporter from 2014 @-@ 2015 and has joined the Channel 4 F1 Team in the UK for their coverage in 2016 as a full @-@ time pundit .
= = Early life and career = =
Webber was born in Queanbeyan , New South Wales , son of Alan Webber , a local motorcycle dealer , and his wife Diane . Webber has one older sister , Leanne , and two nieces . He attended Karabar High School in Queanbeyan for his secondary education . He began his relationship with sport at a young age , working as a ball boy for premiership winning rugby league team , the Canberra Raiders , during the late 1980s . However , motorsport was where his interest lay , listing Formula One World Champion Alain Prost and Grand Prix motorcycle racer Kevin Schwantz as his childhood heroes . Starting out racing motorcycles , Webber moved to four wheels in 1991 , taking up karting at age 14 . He won the New South Wales state championship in 1993 , and moved straight to the Australian Formula Ford Championship after his father bought him an ex @-@ Craig Lowndes Van Diemen FF1600 . Working as a driving instructor at Sydney 's Oran Park Raceway between races , Webber finished 14th overall in his debut season . Continuing in the series in 1995 , Webber scored several victories , including a win in the support race for the Australian Grand Prix at Adelaide . He finished the series in fourth place , but perhaps more importantly , he teamed with Championship coordinator Ann Neal , who gained him a seven @-@ year sponsorship with Australian Yellow Pages , and would become his manager , accompanying him on a trip to England to try to start a career in Europe .
= = = Europe = = =
Webber was given a test at Snetterton with the Van Diemen team , and subsequently earned a works drive for the team at the 1995 Formula Ford Festival , at Brands Hatch , where he finished third . That was good enough to prompt the team to signing him for the 1996 championship . Before moving to Europe permanently , Webber won the Formula Holden race at the 1996 Australian Grand Prix in Melbourne . During the 1996 British Formula Ford Championship , he took four victories on his way to second place overall , finishing a strong season with a win in the Formula Ford Festival . He also won the Spa @-@ Francorchamps race of the Formula Ford Euro Cup , taking third in the series despite competing in only two of the three rounds . His results throughout the year saw him voted as Australian motorsport 's " Young Achiever " and " International Achiever " of 1996 . Two days after his Festival victory Webber completed a successful test for Alan Docking Racing , and was signed by the team to graduate to Formula Three in 1997 .
= = = Formula Three and sportscar racing = = =
Without the financial backing he had enjoyed during his time in Formula Ford , Webber and his team struggled to find the money to fund their 1997 championship campaign . He was almost forced to quit halfway through the season , but was able to obtain significant financial and personal support from Australian rugby union legend David Campese , which helped him to complete the year . Mark has since stated he has been able to pay back the money Campese gave him .
Webber took victory in just his fourth ever F3 race , at Brands Hatch , leading from start to finish and setting a new lap record in the process . He took a further four podium finishes , including a second place in the support race for the 1997 British Grand Prix , and finished the season in fourth overall . Webber also took strong finishes in the Marlboro Masters at Zandvoort ( 3rd ) and the Macau Grand Prix ( 4th ) , both times making his circuit debut .
During the 1997 season , Webber was approached by Mercedes @-@ AMG to compete in sportscar racing . Although he initially declined the offer he was persuaded at the end of the year when invited to participate in a test session for the team at the A1 @-@ Ring in Austria . Mercedes @-@ AMG were suitably impressed with Webber , and he was signed as the official Mercedes works junior driver for the 1998 FIA GT Championship , alongside reigning champion Bernd Schneider . Travelling around the world , including the United States , Japan and Europe , the pair won five of the ten rounds on their way to second in the overall standings , beaten to the Championship by teammates Klaus Ludwig and Ricardo Zonta by just eight seconds in the final race at Laguna Seca . Webber remained with the Mercedes @-@ AMG team for 1999 , and was promoted to his own race car for the season . However , his sportscar career came to an early end after he flipped twice on the Mulsanne Straight during practice for the 1999 24 Hours of Le Mans race . An aerodynamic fault on the team 's Mercedes @-@ Benz CLRs caused Webber to become spectacularly airborne during both practice and race @-@ day warm up , with the same fate befalling teammate Peter Dumbreck five hours into the race . Both drivers escaped uninjured , but the crashes forced Mercedes to shelve their sportscar program for the year and Webber to reconsider a return to open wheel racing .
= = = Formula One testing and signing = = =
Webber spoke to Formula One team owner Eddie Jordan , who introduced him to fellow Australian Paul Stoddart . Stoddart offered to underwrite the necessary $ 1 @.@ 1 million budget for Webber , and gave him a drive in his Eurobet Arrows Formula 3000 team for 2000 . As a result , Webber also got his first taste of a Formula One car , completing a two @-@ day test at Barcelona in December 1999 for the Arrows F1 team .
Webber was signed as test driver for the Arrows F1 team for 2000 , and also gained sponsorship from Australian beer company Foster 's whilst competing in Formula 3000 . Webber took victory in round two of the season at Silverstone , and finished the series with two fastest laps and three podiums on his way to third overall — the highest position of any rookie that year . Contract issues meant that Webber was never able to drive the Arrows A21 car , and rejected a full contract offer for 2001 in July . However , he was offered a three @-@ day evaluation test for Benetton at the end of the year , outpacing F1 drivers Ralf Schumacher and Giancarlo Fisichella at Estoril . The results were good enough to earn him the test driver role with the team for 2001 , and he also agreed to take on team boss Flavio Briatore as manager in return for finance for a further F3000 season . Webber joined the championship @-@ winning Super Nova Racing team , and despite winning at Imola , Monaco and Magny @-@ Cours , he finished second overall to British driver Justin Wilson . Webber was replaced as test driver for Benetton for 2002 by Fernando Alonso , but Briatore managed to secure Webber a contract to race alongside Alex Yoong in the Stoddart @-@ owned Minardi team , making him the first Australian in Formula One since David Brabham in 1994 .
= = Formula One career = =
= = = Minardi ( 2002 ) = = =
Webber made his Formula One debut at his home race , the Australian Grand Prix . This was the first race of an initial three race contract and was extended until the end of the season after his first race . He qualified 18th of the 22 cars , over 4 seconds away from the pole position time , but 1 @.@ 4 seconds ahead of teammate Yoong . The start of the race featured a spectacular accident between Ralf Schumacher and Rubens Barrichello , the aftermath of which forced eight cars to retire from the race . Webber , who had a problem with his launch control at the start , battled with a broken differential to fend off the experienced Mika Salo in a much faster Toyota and finish fifth . The result made Webber just the fourth Australian F1 driver to score World Championship points , and the first Minardi driver to score points since Marc Gené in 1999 .
Webber was forced into retirement in the Malaysian Grand Prix , before picking up consecutive 11th @-@ place finishes in the following two races . He , along with Yoong , was forced to pull out of the Spanish Grand Prix due to potentially dangerous wing failures during the weekend .
Webber picked up two more 11th @-@ place finishes , but was unable to score points for the remainder of the year , his next best result coming in France , where he finished 8th . In the Hungarian Grand Prix , Webber lost two kilograms in weight over the length of the race as he was forced to drive without a drink after his water bottle broke . Webber was able to outqualify Yoong ( and Anthony Davidson , who replaced Yoong for the Hungarian and Belgian Grands Prix ) in every race , and his two points in Australia were the only points that Minardi scored all season , helping them to 9th in the Constructors ' Championship , ahead of Toyota and Arrows . Webber 's results earned him the " Rookie of the Year " award in F1 Racing magazine 's annual Man of the Year awards ( receiving 53 @.@ 70 % of public votes ) , the Autosport.com " Rookie of the Year " award and " F1 Newcomer of the Year " at the annual Grand Prix Party " Bernie " Awards . In light of his season , notable Formula One journalist Peter Windsor related Webber to 1992 World Champion Nigel Mansell , saying they had similar amounts of " raw talent " . In November 2002 it was announced that Webber would join Jaguar Racing for the following season alongside Brazilian Williams test driver Antônio Pizzonia .
= = = Jaguar ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
= = = = 2003 = = = =
Webber 's Jaguar career started disappointingly when he qualified in 14th place for the Australian Grand Prix before being forced to retire on lap 15 with a rear suspension failure . The following race in Malaysia was problematic for Webber ; Giancarlo Fisichella began reversing towards him on the starting grid and then Webber 's in @-@ car fire extinguisher discharged into his face . He was eventually forced to retire from 8th position with an oil consumption problem .
Webber took provisional pole position in Friday qualifying of the Brazilian Grand Prix , out @-@ qualifying local driver Rubens Barrichello by 0 @.@ 138 seconds during a rain @-@ affected session . He continued his good performance in the Saturday session taking a career @-@ best 3rd on the grid , Jaguar Racing 's best qualifying performance in their four @-@ year Formula One history . In the race , which was hit heavily by rain , Webber was in seventh place when he attempted to cool his tyres by driving through a puddle lying off @-@ line in the final corner . The resultant lack of grip caused Webber to crash heavily into the pit straight walls , leaving debris on the track which caused a second major crash ; Fernando Alonso hitting a stray tyre . The race was subsequently red @-@ flagged , and although Webber was originally classified in 7th , an FIA investigation found a timekeeping error which meant that Webber was placed 9th in the re @-@ classification .
Webber 's good qualifying form continued into the San Marino Grand Prix but at the start of the race he had dropped from 5th to 11th by the first corner because of a launch control failure that affected both Jaguars . He retired from the race after 54 laps with a driveshaft failure , his fourth consecutive non @-@ finish for the year . His luck improved in the following races though , taking his first points in Spain and signing a new 2 @-@ year contract with the team reportedly worth US $ 6 million per season .
He then went on to score points in five of the next six races on his way to moving into the top 10 in the World Drivers ' Championship , the run of results interrupted only by an engine failure in Monaco . One of his best races came in Austria where despite starting from the pitlane and suffering a drive @-@ through penalty he set the race 's third fastest lap , behind only the Ferraris of Michael Schumacher and Rubens Barrichello , finishing in 7th place .
At the British Grand Prix , as the procession of cars exited the Becketts corner onto the Hangar straight on lap 11 , now @-@ defrocked priest Neil Horan cleared the fence wearing a kilt whilst waving banners with the statements " Read the Bible " and " The Bible is always right " . Horan ran towards the sequence of cars forcing several cars to swerve to avoid him . Webber came closest to hitting Horan in a terrifying parallel to the accident at the 1977 South African Grand Prix where volunteer track marshal , Jansen Van Vuuren , ran across the main straight to aid a car and was hit at 274 km / h ( 170 mph ) by Welsh driver Tom Pryce . The safety car was deployed to remove Horan from the track , and Webber eventually finished 14th .
After Silverstone , Webber had scored 12 Championship points , compared to Pizzonia 's 0 , and after much speculation it was announced that Minardi driver Justin Wilson would replace the Brazilian for the remainder of the year . The German Grand Prix saw Webber 's sixth retirement of the season after he made a last lap lunge on Jenson Button in an attempt to salvage a point from the weekend .
Consecutive points finishes in Hungary and Italy saw Webber climb to ninth in the drivers ' standings with a 5 @-@ point margin over Button . He was unable to hold on to this position however , after one too many laps on dry tyres saw him spin out from the lead of the United States Grand Prix , and a disappointing 11th @-@ place result in Japan . These meant that he had finished on equal points with Button but lost out on a countback .
Although Wilson scored a point in the United States Grand Prix , Webber had still never been outqualified by a team @-@ mate and , late in the year , Jaguar announced that rookie Christian Klien would team up with Webber for the 2004 season . Webber 's results again earned him plaudits in the press , winning the 2003 " Driver of the Year " award from Autocar magazine .
= = = = 2004 = = = =
Continuing with Jaguar in 2004 , Webber qualified sixth for the first race of the season , the Australian Grand Prix , but faced his second consecutive retirement from his home race , this time as a result of a gearbox failure . At the following race , the Malaysian Grand Prix , Webber produced the best qualifying performance of his career up to that point by splitting the dominant Ferraris to line up second on the grid . The race was less rewarding with a near @-@ stall at the start meaning he was well outside the top 10 by the time the cars reached turn 1 . An aggressive lap saw him move up to ninth place but during an exciting battle with Ralf Schumacher , they collided , forcing Webber to pit with damage to his front wing and tyre . In his desperation to make up for the lost time , Webber exceeded the pitlane speed limit and was handed a drive @-@ through penalty which left him even further behind . More frustration eventually led to the end of his race as he spun into the gravel trap on the outside of the final corner on lap 23 .
The situation improved for the following race in Bahrain though , as Webber picked up his first point for the season despite a small mistake in qualifying which left him starting 14th and marked the first time he had been outqualified by his team @-@ mate in F1 . He was unable to continue his point scoring form , however , as intermittent electrical problems in San Marino and a lack of grip in Spain meant that he could do no better than 13th and 12th in those races .
Webber suffered two engine failures in practice for the Monaco Grand Prix , the first of which forced Webber to extinguish it himself after being unable to find a track @-@ side marshal willing to help . In the race , Webber was forced to retire because of a loss of engine power . He was able to pick up two Championship points in the following race with a seventh @-@ place finish in the European Grand Prix . Webber had lined up 14th on the grid , after being handed a one @-@ second penalty for yellow flag infringements during Friday practice , but was able to move through the field to take his points tally to 3 . After the race , he was criticised by Michael Schumacher for refusing to yield when Webber had emerged from his pit stop slightly ahead of ( but one lap behind ) Schumacher . Upon hearing the comments , Webber said he " would do exactly the same again " in the same situation .
There were consecutive retirements in Canada , where he was hit by Klien , and the United States where he suffered an oil leak . A change of luck gained him a 9th @-@ place finish in the French Grand Prix and preceded a further championship point in the British Grand Prix ; although his total of 4 points compared unfavourably to his 12 scored by the same time in the previous season . It was at this stage that former team @-@ mate Pizzonia returned to racing as a replacement for the injured Ralf Schumacher and accused Jaguar of favouritism towards Webber during their time as team @-@ mates saying that Webber received new car parts one or two races before Pizzonia . The claims were categorically denied by Jaguar boss David Pitchforth , and whilst Webber did not publicly comment on the situation at the time he had his best result of the season finishing sixth in the German Grand Prix , running ahead of Pizzonia for the entire race . Meanwhile , reports emerged that Jaguar could not guarantee that they would compete in Formula One for the 2005 season and on 28 July , it was announced that Webber would drive for WilliamsF1 for 2005 and beyond . He would later admit this was the team that his " heart was always set on " . Webber was unable to build on his points tally , however , and 10th place in Hungary followed by a first @-@ lap accident in Belgium with 9th in Italy and 10th in China saw him sitting 13th in the Championship .
The penultimate race of the season , the Japanese Grand Prix saw Webber produce another good qualifying effort as he set the third fastest time . His race ended prematurely though when he suffered from a badly overheating cockpit , the cause of which could not be determined by Jaguar . The Brazilian Grand Prix marked both Webber 's last race for Jaguar and Jaguar 's last race in Formula One , ending sadly for the team , as Klien turned into a corner colliding with Webber as the Australian attempted to make up for a pit stop delay earlier in the race . Webber was forced to retire due to the damage and watched the remainder of the race from the grass on the outside of turn 1 as Klien finished 14th .
= = = Williams ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
Webber was granted an early release from his Jaguar contract to be allowed to test with his new team , Williams , over the winter . Williams had announced that Jenson Button would drive for the team in 2005 alongside Webber but , after claims that Button was still contracted to BAR , his contract with Williams was overturned . With his new team @-@ mate undecided and going down to a " shootout " between Nick Heidfeld and Pizzonia , Webber hit back at Pizzonia 's claims of unfair treatment during 2003 , claiming the Brazilian was lying and saying he was a " loser " for believing that there was favouritism towards Webber , comments which led to a reprimand from his new team .
Heidfeld was finally announced as Webber 's 2005 team @-@ mate at the Williams season launch on 31 January , with Webber admitting he was pleased with the eventual decision . Webber 's move to Williams brought about comparisons to Alan Jones , Australia 's last F1 World Champion , also in a Williams . Expectations were high as Webber 's former team boss Paul Stoddart predicted Webber would take his first victory in 2005 while Williams technical director Sam Michael said Webber would eventually win the World Championship with Williams .
= = = = 2005 = = = =
In his first race for the team , the Australian Grand Prix , Webber took 3rd on the grid but was beaten to the first corner by David Coulthard and eventually finished the race in fifth which finally matched his effort with Minardi in ' 02 . His best chance to do so though came in the following race in Malaysia . After qualifying fourth , Webber was defending third position having overtaken the Renault of Giancarlo Fisichella at turn 14 . An optimistic Fisichella ( who was struggling due to a lack of downforce and tyre grip ) slip streamed Webber on the back straight and attempted a counter @-@ pass down the inside of turn 15 . Unfortunately , Fisichella locked his brakes and slid into the side of Webber 's car , eliminating both drivers from the race . This allowed Heidfeld to inherit third place and Fisichella was later reprimanded by race stewards for causing the incident . It was later revealed that Webber had competed in the first two races suffering a fractured rib , from an injury he had sustained during pre @-@ season testing at Barcelona , though he " didn 't want to make a fuss " about it and would be fully fit in time for the Bahrain Grand Prix .
After qualifying fifth in Bahrain , Webber had been as high as third place in the race but he ultimately finished sixth , taking his points tally to 7 for the season . He followed this up by qualifying fourth and finishing a disappointing 10th after twice running wide off the track in the San Marino Grand Prix , although his position was revised to 7th after the disqualification of the BAR team and a resulting penalty to Ralf Schumacher . The race was a poor one for Williams ( Heidfeld was 9th before the reclassification ) , but Webber hit back at the Spanish Grand Prix , qualifying 2nd and finishing 6th – his fourth points scoring finish in the first five races .
The following race in Monaco saw Webber take third place , the first podium finish of his career . On the rostrum Webber looked noticeably disappointed with the result after losing second place to team @-@ mate Heidfeld due to the Williams team pitting Heidfeld before Webber causing Webber to lose time behind the slow Alonso . Webber had been ahead of Heidfeld for most of the race and would probably still have been second had the team pitted them in the more regular sequence . This best result of Webber 's career was followed by one of his worst at the European Grand Prix when , after qualifying third , he locked his brakes in the very first corner of the race and collided with Juan Pablo Montoya , forcing him to retire . Heidfeld started from pole position to finish in second place overtaking Webber in championship points in the process .
The race in Canada was affected by this previous result , as Webber was only able to qualify 14th , but he was pleased with an eventual 5th @-@ place finish and a further 4 Championship points . The United States Grand Prix was the beginning of a lean streak for Webber with just one point @-@ scoring finish in the next seven races , a seventh in Hungary , and by this stage he had slipped from 6th to 10th in the World Championship . Webber had another poor race in Turkey where he collided with Michael Schumacher after the German changed lines in the braking area , causing extensive damage to both cars .
With Heidfeld injured , Webber 's former Jaguar team @-@ mate Antônio Pizzonia stepped into the second Williams seat adding pressure on Webber to perform well given the public argument the pair had towards the end of 2004 . The Italian Grand Prix saw Pizzonia driving to seventh whilst Webber was caught up in a first @-@ corner incident which led to him finishing 14th . The roles were reversed for the following race in Belgium as Webber finished in fourth place and Pizzonia retired after a collision with Juan Pablo Montoya in the closing laps . With rumours spreading that Heidfeld had in fact signed with BMW Sauber for the 2006 season , Pizzonia continued in the race seat , and in the Brazilian Grand Prix , was clipped by David Coulthard in turn one . The contact caused Pizzonia to spin into the path of Webber forcing extensive repairs to the Australian 's car . Webber took 17th place , setting the 8th fastest lap of the race , but was not classified as a finisher .
The final two races of the season saw Webber take 4th and 7th to consolidate his 10th place in the Drivers ' Championship . Webber described the 2005 season as " frustrating " and acknowledged that his reputation had somewhat diminished but opted to stay on with Williams despite an offer from BMW Sauber . Webber 's team @-@ mate for 2006 would be German Nico Rosberg , becoming the seventh driver to partner Webber since 2002 .
Webber was awarded the Lorenzo Bandini Trophy in 2006 for his 2005 season .
= = = = 2006 = = = =
For the first time in Webber 's career the first race of the season was not held in Melbourne , but in Bahrain , due to the original date clashing with the Commonwealth Games . Webber qualified 7th and had a solid race to finish 6th and pick up 3 Championship points . Although Webber was considered by some to have the better race performance , this was generally overlooked when Rosberg set the fastest lap in his debut race and moved up through the field despite a first @-@ lap incident .
Webber 's two following races in Malaysia and Australia were cut short due to mechanical problems . In Malaysia , Webber started 4th on the grid and was still running in that position before a hydraulics failure ended his race on lap 14 . In his home race , Webber qualified seventh and was leading the race before his gearbox failed on lap 22 . Webber had taken the lead of the race on lap 21 , becoming the first Australian to lead the Australian Grand Prix since John Bowe had done so in the early laps of the non @-@ championship 1984 Australian Grand Prix . A sixth @-@ place finish in San Marino saw Webber move up to 9th in the Championship . In the European Grand Prix , hydraulics failure struck again ending his race after he had fought his way back to 12th from his 19th place start on the grid due to a mid @-@ weekend engine change .
The Spanish Grand Prix marked the first time Webber failed to make the top 10 cut @-@ off in the new qualifying system and he struggled during the race finishing ninth . Monaco , however , saw a huge improvement with Webber qualifying on the front row , after Michael Schumacher 's grid penalty , holding third for a large part of the race before retiring when his exhaust burned a wiring loom . Webber 's car was not as disadvantaged as at most other venues , as aerodynamic efficiency is not as important at Monaco .
At the British Grand Prix , Webber was taken out on the first lap after an incident with Ralf Schumacher and Scott Speed . In France , Webber suffered a spectacular tyre blowout at maximum speed which he managed to control and return to the pits , parking in the garage . Germany was one of Webber 's strongest races of the year where he was on target for a podium finish until mechanical failure stopped him with only 9 laps to go . The Hungarian Grand Prix was another retirement for Webber as he slid into a barrier in the wet conditions and crushed his front wing under the chassis of the Williams . He finished only 10th in Turkey , where despite running fourth after a first @-@ lap accident , he struggled from then on .
After another disappointing qualifying session at the Italian Grand Prix where he qualified 19th , he finished in tenth place . In China , Webber scored Williams ' first point since Rosberg 's 7th in the European Grand Prix by finishing eighth , after passing the struggling David Coulthard in the closing stages of the race , after qualifying 14th . He qualified in the same position in Japan , but a lack of grip from his Bridgestone tyres saw him crash out of the race after 39 laps . His last race for Williams and the final race of 2006 at the Brazilian Grand Prix ended in disappointment . After starting 11th , he collided with his team @-@ mate Rosberg on the first lap and suffered terminal damage to the rear of the car . Overall , it was a generally dismal season for Webber , scoring only 7 points to finish 14th overall in the drivers championship .
= = = Red Bull ( 2007 – 2013 ) = = =
Webber 's two @-@ year contract with Williams ended at the end of 2006 . The team held an option on his services for 2007 which they chose not to take up on its original terms and although Webber had expressed his desire to stay with the team , Williams offered Webber a considerably smaller salary than had been stipulated in the original contract for the option year . Under advice from his manager , Flavio Briatore , Webber then sought another drive . Williams quickly elected to promote current test driver Alexander Wurz to a race seat . Williams team boss Sir Frank Williams stated that he was reluctant to wait for Webber to commit to the team once the option for future years had expired , though he did not blame Webber for waiting to see if there was a seat available at another team .
After some speculation of Webber joining the Renault team , which was run by Briatore , it was announced on 7 August 2006 that Webber would join Red Bull Racing for 2007 to partner David Coulthard , replacing former Jaguar Racing teammate Christian Klien . It is rumoured that Briatore arranged an agreement with Red Bull that , if they offered Webber a race seat , Renault would supply them with engines . On 26 January 2007 the new Red Bull RB3 challenger was unveiled in Spain , and Webber drove the car in a shakedown in Barcelona on the same day . The car featured heavy revisions to the team 's previous cars and looked very much like designer Adrian Newey 's previous cars which had either won or come close to the World Title . The car was fitted with a Renault RS27 engine .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
At the first race of the season in Melbourne , Webber qualified in 7th place and held that position for the early part of the race , managing to finish in 13th position after the RB3 suffered from a throttle @-@ related malfunction and a jammed fuel flap . At the Malaysian Grand Prix , he again out @-@ qualified his more experienced team @-@ mate Coulthard and finished tenth , which was encouraging for the team in such a new and radical car . Bahrain was also going well for both drivers , who were running in sixth and seventh positions , until both cars retired due to mechanical malfunctions . Webber again was hampered by the aforementioned jammed fuel flap , radically affecting the aerodynamic drag , a vital set @-@ up consideration for the Sakhir circuit .
The potential of both the car and Webber , who had certainly worked well to out @-@ qualify his vastly more experienced team @-@ mate , was highlighted by the closeness they had to other teams which ran the Renault engine and although the Adrian Newey @-@ designed car had flaws which contributed to Webber 's scoreless season to that point . Though the pace of the car seemed to be picking up , with Coulthard qualifying in the top @-@ 10 for the Spanish Grand Prix , Webber was unable to convert his early weekend pace into a competitive grid position due to hydraulic problems . His race was much the same with a similar hydraulic problem leading to him retiring early in the race whilst team @-@ mate Coulthard notched up the team 's first points with a fifth @-@ place finish .
Webber finally recorded the second podium of his career at the European Grand Prix after qualifying in 6th position . A rain spiced race and the retirement of Kimi Räikkönen , who was running third at the time , allowed Webber to claim third on the podium despite almost losing the position on the penultimate corner as he battled with Alexander Wurz .
His best chance at winning a race occurred at the Japanese Grand Prix where , in the wet conditions , Webber ran in 2nd place , setting the 3rd fastest lap of the race after the two McLarens . Towards the end of the race , Webber was running 2nd behind Lewis Hamilton , with no further pit stops to make , when Sebastian Vettel , driver for sister team Scuderia Toro Rosso , ran into the back of him when Hamilton suddenly reduced his speed in poor visibility and heavy rain under a safety car , taking both cars out of the race . He had been lapping faster than Hamilton due to damage on the McLaren 's sidepod from contact with Robert Kubica . Out of the current Formula One drivers , until his win at the 2009 German Grand Prix , Webber has had the second highest number of starts without a win , and is often referred to as the " unluckiest man in modern Formula One " , a title that was reinforced in Japan as Webber started the race suffering from food poisoning and vomited inside his helmet during the first safety car period . When questioned by ITV 's Louise Goodman about the race ending collision Webber commented : " Well it 's kids , isn 't it . Kids with not enough experience , doing a good job then they fuck it all up , " Webber was particularly critical of Hamilton 's driving that led to the accident , describing his antics as " shit " . Webber also stated the British press attacked him for criticising their " golden boy " Hamilton .
Webber again looked strong at the final race of the season in Brazil . Webber qualified fifth in front of both BMW Saubers and behind only the Ferraris and McLarens . Webber looked strong in the race , running as high as fourth , before yet another mechanical failure brought an end to a disappointing but promising season for the Australian .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
As per his contract , Webber started the year in Melbourne with Red Bull Racing . He recorded top @-@ six lap times in each of the three practice sessions , and was on his way to the top ten in the qualifying session when the front right brake disc in his car failed going into turn 6 during Q2 , sending him spinning off into the sand trap ending his qualifying session , and resulting in 15th position on the grid . Although starting well , he momentarily went off the track at turn 1 to avoid being involved in contact that had already erupted . Webber made several positions by turn 3 but an incident involving himself , Kazuki Nakajima and Anthony Davidson when he was slightly contacted by Davidson whilst trying to avoid the struggle between the other two drivers , ended his race .
Despite the retirement in Australia , the next 5 rounds saw a string of point @-@ scoring positions , including a 4th at Monaco in the wet , one of the few finishers not to have made a mistake and subsequent pit @-@ in , however his performance was overshadowed by Hamilton 's win . Until 2009 , this was Webber 's best start to an F1 season since 2005 with Williams , managing five consecutive points scoring races .
On the Thursday of the British Grand Prix weekend , it was announced that Webber had agreed to a one @-@ year extension to his contract at Red Bull Racing , leaving him contracted there until the end of the 2009 season . During qualifying for the Grand Prix , Webber equalled his best qualifying position with 2nd position on the grid , in front of Kimi Räikkönen and behind pole position @-@ holder Heikki Kovalainen . As a result of Timo Glock 's penalty from the Belgian Grand Prix for illegally passing Webber under yellow flags in the final lap ( s ) of the race , Webber was awarded 8th place and the point that came with it .
At the first night race in Formula One , the Singapore Grand Prix , Webber qualified in 13th position . Red Bull pulled in both Webber and David Coulthard for their pit stops as soon as they could when the safety car came on track , due to Nelson Piquet , Jr. crashing , giving them both great track position . This led to Webber running in 2nd place before a gearbox issue put him out of the race on lap 29 .
Webber qualified 13th at the Japanese Grand Prix . After some first corner incidents he was stranded in last place ; from there he progressed up the order , at one point in time sitting in fourth . Following his pit stop he emerged in 10th , with Nick Heidfeld and Nico Rosberg yet to pit , from where he continued to push , regained 8th once the two drivers in 8th and 9th both went in for their final pit stops . With two laps to go , Webber 's tyres were close to bald – being compared to slicks . Losing almost 3 seconds a lap to the chasing Ferrari of Felipe Massa , who was on fresh tyres , he defended his point vigorously . Pressured by the Ferrari , he was out @-@ powered by the superior engine of Massa and although great attempts at saving his place were shown , he finished in a hard @-@ fought 9th position , on a one stop strategy which was then upgraded to 8th position after a post @-@ race penalty to Sébastien Bourdais .
In China , Webber 's engine failed on the home straight during the final practice session leaving him with a ten @-@ place grid penalty . During qualifying on Saturday afternoon , he ended in 6th after Heidfeld was demoted for impeding Webber 's team @-@ mate Coulthard , and so Webber had to start from 16th after his penalty . Webber was on the grid in 16th and managed to end the first lap up four places in 12th before taking the 11th position off Glock on the second lap . By the first pit stop , Webber had overtaken Rubens Barrichello and Piquet Jr. for 9th place , but inevitably dropped back once he had entered the pits . The two @-@ stop strategy that the team had adopted was not successful and Webber finished in 14th place . The Brazilian Grand Prix was team @-@ mate Coulthard 's last race before his retirement from F1 . Practice was close with the leading seven cars , including Webber in 7th , being less than a second apart . In Saturday afternoon qualifying , Webber managed 10th on the grid , and finished the race in 9th position .
Webber finished the season in 11th place in the Drivers ' Championship with a total of 21 points , his most successful season after 2005 at Williams at that point in time .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Webber remained with Red Bull for 2009 , where he was joined by Sebastian Vettel after David Coulthard 's retirement at the end of 2008 . After sustaining a broken leg in a road accident during his charity event in Tasmania in the off @-@ season , he returned to testing on 11 February with steel rods in his leg .
At the opening round in Australia , an error in qualifying left him in 10th on the grid for the start of the race . On the second lap of the race , Webber crashed with Heikki Kovalainen , Adrian Sutil and Nick Heidfeld following their efforts to avoid a collision with Rubens Barrichello , causing all except Barrichello to pit .
The Malaysian Grand Prix saw Webber qualify seventh and gain two positions due to penalties to other drivers . The race , which was halted early due to monsoonal rains , ended under the safety car with Webber in fourth . He was provisionally placed eighth , but further investigation brought his position up to sixth . He was awarded 1 @.@ 5 points due to the half @-@ points decision at the conclusion of the race . The Chinese Grand Prix proved a breakthrough for Webber . Starting in third position , the race began under the safety car due to heavy rain . Webber eventually brought his car home in second position , marking Webber 's career @-@ best finish and was also the first win ( and 1 – 2 finish ) for the Red Bull team .
The Spanish Grand Prix saw Webber qualify fifth fastest and finish third , and he took fifth in Monaco . He followed this up with his equal career best second place in Turkey , equalling this result in the subsequent British Grand Prix at Silverstone .
Webber qualified on pole for the first time in Formula One at the Nürburgring for the German Grand Prix . This was the first time an Australian driver had claimed pole position since Alan Jones in 1980 . He went on to achieve his first Formula One victory despite receiving a drive through penalty early in the race for causing an avoidable collision at the start when he hit the Brawn GP of Rubens Barrichello . Webber went on to dominate the race and win ahead of his teammate Vettel , heading a Red Bull 1 – 2 and closing the gap to the Brawns in the Constructors ' Championship . Webber moved up to third in the drivers ' championship after his win , at that time his best position in Formula One , passing Barrichello in the championship standings .
On 23 July , Webber signed a new contract committing him to the Red Bull team for the 2010 Formula One season . Three days later , he finished third in Hungary , moving into second place in the Drivers ' Championship . Webber also set his first ever fastest lap in Formula One . On 21 September 2009 the FIA banned Webber 's manager , Flavio Briatore , from all FIA related activities and announced that it would not renew the superlicence for any driver managed or otherwise associated with Briatore . Since then , Briatore has been reinstated into Formula One and negotiations concerning management has since been declared legal .
Following his podium at the Hungarian Grand Prix , two ninth placings , two retirements and an unlucky Japanese Grand Prix saw Webber drop to fourth in the Championship , collecting no points . However , he went on to win his second Formula One race in Brazil , starting from second position on the grid , securing fourth place in the 2009 Championship . In the final race of the season , Webber managed second behind teammate Vettel . The result was Red Bull Racing 's fourth 1 – 2 result of the season .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
In 2010 , Webber continued to race with Red Bull . He qualified for pole position five times ( in Malaysia , Spain , Monaco Turkey and Belgium ) ; won four races ( Spain , Monaco , Britain and Hungary ) ; finished second in Malaysia , Belgium , Japan and Brazil and third in Turkey and Singapore . After the Monaco Grand Prix , Webber led the drivers ' championship , the first Australian to do so since Alan Jones in 1981 . In June 2010 , Red Bull Racing announced that Webber had signed a one @-@ year extension to his contract , meaning that he would remain with the team for the 2011 season .
At the European Grand Prix , Webber crashed into the back of Heikki Kovalainen 's Lotus , sending the car flying through the air , collecting a track advertising board and landing upside down . The car then bounced back and crashed into the tyre barrier at high speed . Webber received only minor injuries , but retired from the race .
At season 's end , Webber was third in the drivers ' championship , behind Vettel and Alonso . He had led the championship until the Korean Grand Prix , when he did not complete the race . Webber could still have won the championship if , in the final race at Abu Dhabi he had won the race and Alonso had finished no higher than third . Vettel won the race and the drivers ' championship and Red Bull Racing the constructors ' championship .
Webber drove the last four races of the season with a small fracture in his right shoulder , the result of a mountain bike accident .
At the 2011 British Grand Prix , Webber was presented with the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy for 2010 .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Webber started the 2011 season with a fifth @-@ place finish at the Australian Grand Prix , having started from third on the grid , after struggling to keep up with teammate Vettel due to a damaged chassis . In Malaysia , he qualified third but his KERS completely failed at the start and as a result , dropped down over 10 places but staged a strong recovery back to 4th , with fastest lap . In China he qualified eighteenth after another KERS failure , but passed 15 cars on track to finish third . In Turkey , Webber qualified second – his best qualifying result of the season at that point – but lost the position to Nico Rosberg at the start . After passing Rosberg and reclaiming second , he then spent the rest of the race battling with Fernando Alonso , ultimately finishing second after passing Alonso with 8 laps to go . In Spain , Webber secured pole , but lost ground at the start again and had to settle for fourth . Webber qualified third in Monaco but dropped a place at the start and later a pit stop delay dropped Webber outside the top ten , however he recovered to fourth by passing Kamui Kobayashi on the penultimate lap , and set his fourth fastest lap of the season .
Webber claimed pole position in a drying qualifying session at Silverstone , beating Vettel by 0 @.@ 032 seconds . The race however did not go as well , as a slow start followed by slow pitstops meant that Webber found himself running fourth behind Alonso , Vettel and Lewis Hamilton . Towards the end of the race , a strong charge saw Webber pass Hamilton and then close the gap to Vettel 's second position , when his team asked him to " maintain the gap " and not try to make a move on Vettel . Although Webber ignored his team 's requests and tried to pass Vettel , Vettel was able to hold him off and finish second , with Webber taking third place .
Webber took his only victory of the season at Brazilian Grand Prix , taking the lead from team @-@ mate Vettel after he developed a gearbox issue . With this result , he moved into third place in the championship , ahead of Fernando Alonso . Webber also achieved his seventh fastest lap of the season at the race , with no other drivers scoring more than three in the season . This resulted in him winning the DHL Fastest Lap Award for the first time .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
On 27 August 2011 , it was announced that Webber would remain with Red Bull into the 2012 season , alongside team @-@ mate Vettel . Webber qualified fifth for the Australian Grand Prix , ahead of team @-@ mate Vettel – sixth – and achieved his best result at his home race with fourth place .
Webber followed this result with three more fourth @-@ place finishes in succession , at the Malaysian , Chinese and Bahrain Grands Prix . He inherited pole position for the 2012 Monaco Grand Prix ; having set the second fastest time in Q3 , he was elevated to first position owing to Michael Schumacher 's five place grid penalty for an incident at the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix . He won the race ahead of Nico Rosberg and Fernando Alonso , who were second and third , respectively . This was the third win in a row for a Red Bull Racing driver at Monaco , and the first time that six different drivers won the first six races of a World Championship season . In doing this also , he became the first Australian to achieve two wins at Monaco .
Webber achieved his second win of the season at the British Grand Prix , passing Alonso late in the race . Following the victory , Webber signed a one @-@ year contract extension with Red Bull , for the 2013 season . Webber later qualified on pole for the Korean Grand Prix , ahead of team @-@ mate Vettel , but apart from this he struggled in the second half of the season with his only podiums after his win in Britain coming in Korea and India where Red Bull were unbeatable .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Webber was retained by Red Bull Racing for 2013 , which was to be his last season with the team . At the opening leg in Australia , he qualified on the front row but only managed a sixth @-@ place finish in the race . Tensions between himself and teammate Vettel rose after the German overtook Webber in the closing stages of the Malaysian Grand Prix to take the win despite the team 's order to hold positions . Webber took another podium in Monaco . In June 2013 , Webber announced that he would be leaving Red Bull at the end of the season , having signed for Porsche to drive their new LMP1 car in 2014 in the FIA World Endurance Championship ( WEC ) including the Le Mans 24 hour race . Webber took another podium in Britain after a battle for victory with Nico Rosberg during the last lap . He finished third in Italy , his fourth podium of the season . Consecutive retirements in Singapore and Korea ended his contention for second place in the championship . Webber scored his first pole of the season in Japan , outqualifying his team @-@ mate for the first time in the year , and finished second in the race . Webber scored his thirteenth pole position to equal Jack Brabham 's qualifying record for Australian F1 drivers at the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix . In November , Webber admitted that he had been ' very close ' to signing a deal with Ferrari for 2013 and 2014 .
Webber started from fourth place in his final Formula One Grand Prix at the Interlagos circuit for the Brazilian Grand Prix held on 24 November . After a race @-@ long duel with the Ferrari of close friend Fernando Alonso , Webber finished his final race in second place behind team mate Sebastian Vettel , setting the fastest lap of the race . By finishing second , Webber jumped from fifth to third in the final championship standings , overtaking both Lewis Hamilton and Kimi Räikkönen , who did not compete in the final two races of the season . Despite their frosty relationship and winning his thirteenth race of the year ( and ninth in succession ) , Vettel was happy to hand the spotlight on the podium in Brazil to his retiring team mate , congratulating him on his career .
Webber finished his Formula One career with nine wins , forty @-@ two podiums , thirteen pole positions and nineteen fastest laps from 215 race starts .
= = Sportscar racing = =
= = = Porsche ( 2014 – ) = = =
In 2013 Webber announced his return to sportscar racing , racing for Porsche as one of their drivers for the 2014 FIA World Endurance Championship as the marque returned to the top category of sportscar racing after a 16 @-@ year absence . Driving the Porsche 919 Hybrid Webber finished his first World Endurance Championship race in third at the 2014 6 Hours of Silverstone two laps behind the winning Toyota . At Le Mans , although still running at the finish , the team were thirty three laps down and were therefore listed as Not Classified . Two more third @-@ place finishes followed at Fuji and Bahrain . At the 6 Hours of São Paulo , Webber 's Porsche took pole position , but was involved in a heavy crash towards the end of the race whilst passing the Ferrari of the 8 Star Motorsports team . Webber 's car split in two , but he avoided serious injury . Webber therefore finished his first season in 9th place .
In November 2015 he became World Endurance Champion in the # 17 car , alongside Timo Bernhard and Brendon Hartley . The trio race with the # 1 on their car in 2016 .
= = Outside motorsport = =
Webber lives in Aston Clinton , Buckinghamshire , England with partner Ann Neal and her grown @-@ up son from a previous relationship , Luke Barrett . Outside motorsport , Webber enjoys " most outdoor pursuits " including road cycling , mountain biking , tennis and fitness training . He has won the annual F1 Pro @-@ Am tennis tournament in Barcelona three times ( 2002 , 2004 and 2005 ) and was also runner @-@ up to Juan Pablo Montoya in 2003 . Webber is an avid rugby league football fan , supporting the Canberra Raiders , as well as being a football fan , supporting English Premier League club Sunderland . His favourite musical acts are Pink , Oasis , INXS , Dizzee Rascal , U2 and Feeder .
Webber is also a keen fan of motorcycle racing , and has made several trips to the Isle of Man TT Races . On Saturday 2 June 2012 , he was a guest at the Superbike TT , and was on hand to congratulate his close friend John McGuinness as he secured victory , and his 18th Isle of Man TT triumph .
In July 2015 , Mark Webber released his long @-@ awaited autobiography , Aussie Grit . The book covers his journey from Queanbeyan to the pinnacle of Formula 1 and during his book tour he candidly discusses his relationship with former Red Bull teammate Sebastian Vettel and how the media portrayed things differently to how they actually were .
Webber supports the North Melbourne Kangaroos in the Australian Football League .
= = = Charity Challenge = = =
In November 2003 , Webber organised and competed in a 10 @-@ day trek across Tasmania to raise funds for children 's cancer research charities . Starting in Marrawah on the state 's west coast , the trek involved 1 @,@ 000 km of cycling , kayaking and trekking along the southern coast and finished at Coles Bay in the east . Four teams of four competitors each started the trek , with only two teams ( including Webber 's ) completing the entire journey . Along the way , Australian sporting stars Pat Rafter ( tennis ) , Steve Waugh ( cricket ) , Cathy Freeman ( athletics ) , James Tomkins ( rowing ) , Guy Andrews ( iron man ) , and actor Joel Edgerton completed certain parts of the trek . The challenge concluded with a black tie dinner and auction to raise funds . Webber said he was driven to organise the event after the death of his grandfather to cancer , as well as his experiences with friends whose children had battled the disease .
With Webber 's switch from Jaguar to Williams at the end of 2004 , the challenge was postponed until 2006 , when he was able to secure a three @-@ year deal with the Tasmanian Government to hold the event . The 2006 event ( now named the " Mark Webber Pure Tasmania Challenge " ) was held over six days and covered nearly 600 km . Twelve teams competed in the event , and it raised A $ 500 @,@ 000 for children 's charities .
The 2007 Mark Webber Pure Tasmania Challenge was launched at the 2007 Australian Grand Prix in Melbourne when Webber was joined by sports stars and Kylie Minogue , and Hollywood star Anthony Edwards . The trek was another gruelling physical and mental adventure race about Tasmania in aid of charity but albeit with a new format . Teams competed for honours in two unique categories : the Van Diemen Cup – designed exclusively for corporate teams of four people , and the 2theXtreme Cup – a two @-@ person elite team entry . Both categories trekked , kayaked and cycled alongside each other as they covered approximately 450 km through World Heritage wilderness and along the idyllic coast of the Freycinet National Park . It was held from 17 – 23 November , and for the first time , one of Webber 's fellow Formula One drivers , Heikki Kovalainen , joined him in the challenge .
During the 2008 event , Webber broke his leg when his bike collided with a car . He did not suffer any other injuries , but had a pin inserted into his broken bone .
The event was not held in 2009 or 2010 .
In December 2010 , it was announced that the Challenge would return in 2011 . It was subsequently held in 2012 and 2013 as well .
= = Racing record = =
= = = Career summary = = =
* Season still in progress .
= = = Complete FIA GT Championship results = = =
= = = Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results = = =
= = = Complete International Formula 3000 results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) ( Races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Complete Formula One results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) ( Races in italics indicate fastest lap )
‡ Half points awarded as less than 75 % of race distance was completed by the winner . † Did not finish , but was classified as he had completed more than 90 % of the race distance .
= = = Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results = = =
* Season still in progress .
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= Netball =
Netball is a ball sport played by two teams of seven players . Its development , derived from early versions of basketball , began in England in the 1890s . By 1960 , international playing rules had been standardised for the game , and the International Federation of Netball and Women 's Basketball ( later renamed the International Netball Federation ( INF ) ) was formed . As of 2011 , the INF comprises more than 60 national teams organized into five global regions .
Games are played on a rectangular court with raised goal rings at each end . Each team attempts to score goals by passing a ball down the court and shooting it through its goal ring . Players are assigned specific positions , which define their roles within the team and restrict their movement to certain areas of the court . During general play , a player with the ball can hold on to it for only three seconds before shooting for a goal or passing to another player . The winning team is the one that scores the most goals . Netball games are 60 minutes long . Variations have been developed to increase the game 's pace and appeal to a wider audience .
Netball is most popular in Commonwealth nations , specifically in schools , and is predominantly played by women . According to the INF , netball is played by more than 20 million people in more than 80 countries . Major transnational competitions take place , including the Netball Superleague in Great Britain and the ANZ Championship in Australia and New Zealand . Three major competitions take place internationally : the quadrennial World Netball Championships , the Commonwealth Games , and the yearly World Netball Series . In 1995 , netball became an International Olympic Committee recognised sport , but it has not been played at the Olympics .
= = History = =
Netball emerged from early versions of basketball and evolved into its own sport as the number of women participating in sports increased . Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith in the United States . The game was initially played indoors between two teams of nine players , using an association football that was thrown into closed @-@ end peach baskets . Naismith 's game spread quickly across the United States and variations of the rules soon emerged . Physical education instructor Senda Berenson developed modified rules for women in 1892 ; these eventually gave rise to women 's basketball . Around this time separate intercollegiate rules were developed for men and women . The various basketball rules converged into a universal set in the United States .
Martina Bergman @-@ Österberg introduced a version of basketball in 1893 to her female students at the Physical Training College in Hampstead , London . The rules of the game were modified at the college over several years : the game moved outdoors and was played on grass ; the baskets were replaced by rings that had nets ; and in 1897 and 1899 , rules from women 's basketball in the United States were incorporated . Madame Österberg 's new sport acquired the name " net ball " . The first codified rules of netball were published in 1901 by the Ling Association , later the Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom . From England , netball spread to other countries in the British Empire . Variations of the rules and even names for the sport arose in different areas : " women 's ( outdoor ) basketball " arrived in Australia around 1900 and in New Zealand from 1906 , while " netball " was being played in Jamaican schools by 1909 .
From the start , it was considered socially appropriate for women to play netball ; netball 's restricted movement appealed to contemporary notions of women 's participation in sports , and the sport was distinct from potential rival male sports . Netball became a popular women 's sport in countries where it was introduced and spread rapidly through school systems . School leagues and domestic competitions emerged during the first half of the 20th century , and in 1924 the first national governing body was established in New Zealand . International competition was initially hampered by a lack of funds and varying rules in different countries . Australia hosted New Zealand in the first international game of netball in Melbourne on 20 August 1938 ; Australia won 40 – 11 . Efforts began in 1957 to standardise netball rules globally : by 1960 international playing rules had been standardised , and the International Federation of Netball and Women 's Basketball , later the International Netball Federation ( INF ) , was formed to administer the sport worldwide .
Representatives from England , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , and the West Indies were part of a 1960 meeting in Sri Lanka that standardised the rules for the game . The game spread to other African countries in the 1970s . South Africa was prohibited from competing internationally from 1969 to 1994 due to apartheid . In the United States , Netball 's popularity also increased during the 1970s , particularly in the New York area , and the United States of America Netball Association was created in 1992 . The game also became popular in the Pacific Island nations of the Cook Islands , Fiji and Samoa during the 1970s . Netball Singapore was created in 1962 , and the Malaysian Netball Association was created in 1978 .
In Australia , the term women 's basketball was used to refer to both netball and basketball . During the 1950s and 1960s , a movement arose to change the Australian name of the game from women 's basketball to netball in order to avoid confusion between the two sports . The Australian Basketball Union offered to pay the costs involved to alter the name , but the netball organisation rejected the change . In 1970 , the Council of the All Australia Netball Association officially changed the name to " netball " in Australia .
In 1963 , the first international tournament was held in Eastbourne , England . Originally called the World Tournament , it later became known as the World Netball Championships . Following the first tournament , one of the organisers , Miss R. Harris , declared ,
England could learn from the mistakes in the past from the empty stands at Eastbourne . To get the right publicity and the right status desired , the game must emerge from the school playground . Netball should be part of a sports centre where social events could also be held .
The World Netball Championships have been held every four years since , most recently in 2011 . The World Youth Netball Championships started in Canberra in 1988 , and have been held roughly every four years since . In 1995 , the International Olympic Committee designated netball as an Olympic recognised sport . Three years later it debuted at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur . Other international competitions also emerged in the late 20th century , including the Nations Cup and the Asian Netball Championship .
= = = Gender = = =
As of 2006 , the IFNA recognises only women 's netball . Men 's netball teams exist in some areas but attract less attention from sponsors and spectators . Men 's netball started to become popular in Australia during the 1980s , and the first men 's championship was held in 1985 . In 2004 , New Zealand and Fiji sent teams to compete in the Australian Mixed and Men 's National Championships . By 2006 , mixed netball teams in Australia had as many male participants as rugby union . Other countries with men 's national teams include Canada , Fiji , Jamaica , Kenya , Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates . Unlike women 's netball at elite and national levels , men 's and mixed gendered teams are largely self @-@ funded .
An all @-@ transgender netball team from Indonesia competed at the 1994 Gay Games in New York City . The team had been the Indonesian national champions . At the 2000 Gay Games VI in Sydney , netball and volleyball were the two sports with the highest rates of transgender athletes participating . There were eight teams of indigenous players , with seven identifying as transgender . They came from places like Palm Island in northern Queensland , Samoa , Tonga and Papua New Guinea . Teams with transgender players were allowed to participate in several divisions including men 's , mixed and transgender ; they were not allowed to compete against the cisgender women 's teams .
= = Description and rules = =
The objective of a game is to score more goals than the opposition . Goals are scored when a team member positioned in the attacking shooting circle shoots the ball through the goal ring . The goal rings are 380 millimetres ( 15 in ) in diameter and sit atop 3 @.@ 05 @-@ metre ( 10 @.@ 0 ft ) -high goal posts that have no backboards . A 4 @.@ 9 @-@ metre ( 16 ft ) -radius semi @-@ circular " shooting circle " is an area at each end of the court . The goal posts are located within the shooting circle . Each team defends one shooting circle and attacks the other . The netball court is 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) long , 15 @.@ 25 metres ( 50 @.@ 0 ft ) wide , and divided lengthwise into thirds . The ball is usually made of leather or rubber , measures 680 to 710 millimetres ( 27 to 28 in ) in circumference , and weighs 397 to 454 grams ( 14 @.@ 0 to 16 @.@ 0 oz ) . A normal game consists of four 15 @-@ minute quarters and can be played outdoors or in a covered stadium .
Each team is allowed seven players on the court . Each player is assigned a specific position , which limits their movement to a certain area of the court . A " bib " worn by each player contains a two @-@ letter abbreviation indicating this position . Only two positions are permitted in the attacking shooting circle , and can therefore shoot for a goal . Similarly , only two positions are permitted in the defensive shooting circle ; they try to prevent the opposition from shooting goals . Other players are restricted to two thirds of the court , with the exception of the Centre , who may move anywhere on the court except for a shooting circle .
At the beginning of every quarter and after a goal has been scored , play starts with a player in the centre position passing the ball from the centre of the court . These " centre passes " alternate between the teams , regardless of which team scored the last goal . When the umpire blows the whistle to restart play , four players from each team can move into the centre third to receive the pass . The centre pass must be caught or touched in the centre third . The ball is then moved up and down the court through passing and must be touched by a player in each adjacent third of the court . Players can hold the ball for only three seconds at any time . It must be released before the foot they were standing on when they caught it touches the ground again . Contact between players is only permitted if it does not impede an opponent or the general play . When defending a pass or shot players must be at least 90 centimetres ( 35 in ) away from the player with the ball . If illegal contact is made , the player who contacted cannot participate in play until the player taking the penalty has passed or shot the ball . If the ball is held in two hands and either dropped or a shot at goal is missed , the same player cannot be the first to touch it unless it first rebounds off the goal .
= = Variants = =
= = = Indoor netball = = =
Indoor netball is a variation of netball , played exclusively indoors , in which the playing court is surrounded on each side and overhead by a net . The net prevents the ball from leaving the court , permitting faster play by reducing playing stoppages .
Different forms of indoor netball exist . In a seven @-@ per @-@ side version called " action netball " , seven players per team play with rules similar to netball . However , a game is split into 15 @-@ minute halves with a three @-@ minute break in between . This version is played in Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and England .
A six @-@ per @-@ side version of the sport is also played in New Zealand . Two Centres per team can play in the whole court except the shooting circles ; the remaining attacking and defending players are each restricted to one half of the court , including the shooting circles . The attacking and Centre players may shoot from outside the shooting circle for a two @-@ point goal .
A five @-@ per @-@ side game is also common in indoor netball . Players can move throughout the court , with the exception of the shooting circles , which are restricted to certain attacking or defending players .
= = = Fast5 = = =
Fast5 ( originally called Fastnet ) is a variation on the rules of netball designed to make games faster and more television @-@ friendly . The World Netball Series promotes it to raise the sport 's profile and attract more spectators and greater sponsorship . The game is much shorter , with each quarter lasting only six minutes and only a two @-@ minute break between quarters . The coaches can give instructions from the sideline during play , and unlimited substitutions are allowed . Like six @-@ per @-@ side indoor netball , attacking players may shoot two @-@ point goals from outside the shooting circle . Each team can separately nominate one " power play " quarter , in which each goal scored by that team is worth double points and the centre pass is taken by the team that conceded the goal .
= = = For children = = =
Netball has been adapted in several ways to meet children 's needs . The rules for children are similar to those for adults , but various aspects of the game ( such as the length of each quarter , goal height , and ball size ) are modified .
Fun Net is a version of netball developed by Netball Australia for five- to seven @-@ year @-@ olds . It aims to improve basic netball skills using games and activities . The Fun Net program runs for 8 – 16 weeks . There are no winners or losers . The goal posts are 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) high , and a smaller ball is used .
Netball Australia also runs a modified game called Netta aimed at 8- to 11 @-@ year @-@ olds . The goal height and ball size are the same as for adults , but players rotate positions during the game , permitting each player to play each position . Netta was created to develop passing and catching skills . Its rules permit six seconds between catching and passing the ball , instead of the three seconds permitted in the adult game . Most players under 11 play this version at netball clubs .
A version called High Five Netball is promoted by the All England Netball Association . It is aimed at 9- to 11 @-@ year @-@ old girls and includes only five positions . The players swap positions during the game . When a player is not on the court , she is expected to help the game in some other way , such as being the timekeeper or scorekeeper . High Five Netball has four six @-@ minute quarters .
= = Governance = =
The recognised international governing body of netball is the International Federation of Netball Associations ( IFNA ) , based in Manchester , England . Founded in 1960 , the organisation was initially called the International Federation of Netball and Women 's Basketball . The IFNA is responsible for compiling world rankings for national teams , maintaining the rules for netball and organising several major international competitions .
As of July 2012 , the IFNA has 49 full and 24 associate national members in five regions . Each region has an IFNA Regional Federation .
The IFNA is affiliated with the General Association of International Sports Federations , the International World Games Association and the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations . It is also a signatory to the World Anti @-@ Doping Code .
= = International competition = =
Netball is a popular participant sport in countries of the Commonwealth of Nations . Non @-@ Commonwealth entities with full IFNA membership include Switzerland , Taiwan , Thailand , Argentina , Bermuda , the Cayman Islands and the United States , along with former Commonwealth members Zimbabwe , Ireland and Hong Kong . According to the IFNA , over 20 million people play netball in more than 80 countries . International tournaments are held among countries in each of the five IFNA regions , either annually or every four years . School leagues and national club competitions have been organised in England , Australia , New Zealand and Jamaica since the early 20th century . Franchise @-@ based netball leagues did not emerge until the late 1990s . These competitions sought to increase the profile of the sport in their respective countries . Despite widespread local interest , participation was largely amateur .
Netball was one of three new sports included in the 1998 Commonwealth Games and has been a fixture ever since . Twelve teams competed there in 2010 . Australia and New Zealand have won two golds and two silvers each , while England has three bronzes and Jamaica one bronze .
The major international tournament in Africa is organised by the Confederation of Southern African Netball Associations , which invites teams from Botswana , Namibia , Zambia , Malawi , South Africa , Lesotho , Swaziland , Zimbabwe and the Seychelles to take part . The tournament is hosted by a country within the region ; senior and under 21 teams compete . The tournament has served as a qualifier for the World Championships . South Africa launched a new domestic competition in 2011 called Netball Grand Series . It features eight regional teams from South Africa and is aimed at increasing the amount of playing time for players . It runs for 17 weeks and replaces the National Netball League , which was played over only two weeks . According to Proteas captain Elsje Jordaan , it was hoped that the competition would create an opportunity for players to become professional .
The American Federation of Netball Associations ( AFNA ) hosts two tournaments each year : the Caribbean Netball Association ( CNA ) Under 16 Championship and the AFNA Senior Championship . The CNA championship involves two divisions of teams from the Caribbean islands . In 2010 five teams competed in two rounds of round robin matches in the Championship Division , while four teams competed in the Developmental Division . Jamaica , which has lost only once in the tournament , decided not to play the 2011 tournament . The AFNA Senior Championship includes Canada and the USA along with the Caribbean nations . The tournament serves as a qualifier for the World Championship . Jamaica , with its high ranking , does not have to qualify ; this leaves two spots to the other teams in the tournament .
The Asian Netball Championship is held every four years . The seventh Asian games were held in 2009 and featured Singapore , Thailand , Maldives , Taiwan , Malaysia , Sri Lanka , Hong Kong , India and Pakistan . There is also an Asian Youth Netball Championship for girls under 21 years of age , the seventh of which was held in 2010 .
The major netball competition in Europe is the Netball Superleague , which features nine teams from England , Wales and Scotland . The league was created in 2005 . Matches are broadcast on Sky Sports .
Netball has been featured at the Pacific Games , a multi @-@ sport event with participation from 22 countries from around the South Pacific . The event is held every four years and has 12 required sports ; the host country chooses the other four . Netball is not a required sport and has missed selection , particularly when former French or American territories host the games .
The ANZ Championship is a Trans @-@ Tasman competition that has been broadcast on television in both New Zealand and Australia since 2008 . It is contested among ten teams from Australia and New Zealand . It began in April 2008 , succeeding Australia 's Commonwealth Bank Trophy and New Zealand 's National Bank Cup as the pre @-@ eminent netball league in those countries . The competition is held annually between April and July , consisting of 69 matches played over 17 weeks . The ANZ Championship saw netball become a semi @-@ professional sport in both countries , with increased media coverage and player salaries .
= = Major championships = =
There are three major international netball competitions .
Netball 's important competition is the World Netball Championships , held every four years . It was first held in 1963 at the Chelsea College of Physical Education at Eastbourne , England , with 11 nations competing . Since its inception the competition has been dominated primarily by the Australian and New Zealand teams , which hold ten and four titles , respectively . Trinidad and Tobago is the only other team to win a championship title . That title , won in 1979 , was shared with New Zealand and Australia ; all three teams finished with equal points at the end of the round robin , and there were no finals .
The World Series is a competition among the top six national netball teams , as ranked by the INF World Rankings . It is organised by the INF in conjunction with the national governing bodies of the six competing nations , UK Sport , and the host city 's local council . The All England Netball Association covers air travel , accommodation , food and local travel expenses for all teams , while the respective netball governing bodies cover player allowances . It is held over three days , with each team playing each other once during the first two days in a round @-@ robin format . The four highest @-@ scoring teams advance to the semi @-@ finals ; the winners face each other in the Grand Final . The competition features modified fastnet rules and has been likened to Twenty20 cricket and rugby sevens . A new format featuring shorter matches with modified rules was designed to make the game more appealing to spectators and television audiences . The World Netball Series was held annually in England from 2009 to 2011 .
Netball gained Olympic recognition in 1995 after 20 years of lobbying . Although it has never been played at the Summer Olympics , politicians and administrators have been campaigning to have it included in the near future . Its absence from the Olympics has been seen by the netball community as a hindrance in the global growth of the game by limiting access to media attention and funding sources . Some funding sources became available with recognition in 1995 , including the International Olympic Committee , national Olympic committees , national sport organisations , and state and federal governments .
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= Clan Maclachlan =
Clan Maclachlan , also known as Clan Lachlan and Clann Lachlainn , is a Highland Scottish clan that historically centred on the lands of Strathlachlan on Loch Fyne , Argyll on the west coast of Scotland . The clan claims descent from Lachlan Mor , who lived on Loch Fyne in the 13th century , and who has left his name upon the countryside he once controlled : places such as Strathlachlan , Castle Lachlan and Lachlan Bay . Tradition gives Lachlan Mor a descent from an Irish prince of the O 'Neill dynasty , Ánrothán Ua Néill , son of Áed , son of Flaithbertach Ua Néill , King of Ailech and Cenél nEógain , died 1036 . Clan Maclachlan has been associated with other clans , such as Clan Lamont , Clan Ewen of Otter , Clan MacNeil of Barra , and the MacSweens : as all claim descent from Anrothan O 'Neill who left Ireland for Kintyre in the 11th century . From this descent the clan claims a further descent from the legendary Niall Noigíallach , High King of Ireland , who lived from the mid 4th century to the early 5th century .
The clan took part in the Jacobite Risings as loyal supporters of the Stuart kings of Scotland . The seventeenth chief of the clan was killed in the Battle of Culloden in 1746 . Following the Jacobite defeat , a Government warship is said to have damaged the clan seat of old Castle Lachlan .
Today the clan is alive and lives as the Clan Maclachlan Society and the Lachlan Trust . The Lachlan Trust is a registered Scottish charitable organisation which takes donations to preserve the heritage of Clan Maclachlan . The Clan Maclachlan Society consists of eight branches around the world , including Australia , Britain & Ireland , Canada , New Zealand , and the United States of America .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Clan Maclachlan claims descent from Lachlan Mor , who lived on the shores of Loch Fyne in the 13th century . Lachlan belonged to the family who originally emigrated from Ireland to Scotland in the 11th century . The progenitor of this family , Anrothan , son of Aodh O 'Neil , king of the north of Ireland , is said to have married the heiress of the King of Scots and gained lands campaigning there . Moncreiffe wrote that it was more likely Anrothan married a daughter of the local king of Argyll or a sub @-@ king of Cowal and through this marriage , Anrothan 's descendants gained control of the lands of Knapdale and Cowal , and several Scottish clans claim a descent from him including Clan MacNeil of Barra , Clan Lamont , Clan MacEwen of Otter , and the MacSweens who became the Irish Sweeney Clan who left Scotland and returned to Ireland in the 14th century as leaders of Gallowglass .
= = = Early history = = =
In about 1230 Gilchrist Maclachlan was witness to a charter of Kilfinan granted by Laumanus , ancestor of Clan Lamont . The first documentary evidence of the clan 's ownership of lands was recorded in 1292 , when Gilleskel Maclauchlan received a charter of his lands in Ergadia from John , King of Scots .
According to the historian G. W. S. Barrow , Gillespie Maclachlan appears in the Ragman Rolls , when the magnates of Scotland signed their allegiance to Edward I of England , in 1296 , " clerks of this period writing Anglo @-@ French documents often had difficulty with the name Lachlan , and rendered it by some form of the more familiar name Rothland , or Roland . Thus , unnoticed by historians of Clan Lachlan , Gillespie MacLachlan figures on the Ragman Roll as ' Gilascope fiz Rouland , de counte de Perth ' " .
Sometime between 1306 and 1322 Gillespie received , in charter from Robert I of Scotland , the ten pennyland of " Schyrwaghthyne " ( Strathlachlan ) and other lands . He also appears on the list of Scottish magnates who sat at the first Parliament of the king of Scots at St Andrews , in 1309 . Gillespie was one of the sixteen Scottish magnates who signed a letter to Philip IV of France in 1309 . The King of France had asked for Scottish assistance in a Crusade he was forming , with the Scots answering that they were at war with England and had their hands full . His name appears on one of the seal tags with that letter , though the actual seal that had been attached to the tag has since been lost .
In 1314 " Guyllascop Maclouchlan in Ergadia " ( Gillespie Maclachlan of Argyll ) granted forty shillings sterling to the Preaching Friars of Glasgow , the sum of which were to be paid from his pennylands of Killbride near Castle Lachlan . ( " juxta castrum meum quod dicitur Castellachlan " ) . Gillespie was dead by 1322 and was succeeded by Patrick his brother . Patrick married a daughter of James the Steward of Scotland , and had a son , Lachlan , who later succeeded him . In 1410 Iain Maclachlan , lord of Strathlachlan , ( " Johonne Lachlani domino de Straithlaon " ) , witnessed a Lamont charter . In 1456 Lachlan 's son , " Donaldus Maclachlane dominus de Ardlawan " ( " Ardlachlan " , or Castle Lachlan ) , like his ancestor Gillespie , granted the Preaching Friars of Glasgow six shillings and eight pence per year , from the same pennylands of Killbride beside his home Castle Lachlan .
One tradition of the Maclachlan lairds was thought to date from the era of the Crusades . The tradition was that the laird of Strathlachlan ( Maclachlan of Strathlachlan ) and the laird of Strachur ( Campbell of Strachur ) would attend the funerals of each other and " lay his neighbour 's head in the grave " . This tradition was thought to originate from the Crusades because , " it is said the heads of these two families went together to the war , and each solemnly engaged with the other to lay him in his family burying @-@ place if he should fall in battle " .
= = = Late 15th century onwards = = =
In 1487 Iain Maclachlan of Strathlachlan , witnessed a bond by Dougall Stewart of Appin to Colin Campbell , 1st Earl of Argyll . Iain died sometime around 1509 and his son Gillescop ( or alternately Archibald ) married a daughter of Iain Lamont of Inveryne , the chief of Clan Lamont . Iain was succeeded by his son , Lachlan , who later on forcibly ejected Archibald Lamont of Stroiog from his lands . For this , the Maclachlan chief was summoned before the Privy Council , which ruled that even though Lachlan claimed Lamont lands through his maternal grandfather ( the chief of Clan Lamont ) , that a Lamont heir was more preferable to a Maclachlan heir . Lachlan died sometime between 1557 and 1559 , and was succeeded by his second son , Archibald . In 1587 , the chief of the clan , " M 'Lauchlane " , appears on the roll of names of the landlords in the highlands and the isles , on whose land broken men dwelt . Archibald had only daughters and in turn was succeeded by his nephew Lachlan Og ( " Lauchlane oig Macklauchlane his brothers sone " ) .
Not long after assuming the chiefship , Lachlan Og was forced to resign some of his lands to the chief of the Lamonts , because of the murder of Robert Lamont of Silvercrags by Lachlan Maclachlan of Dunnamuch . Lachlan Og led the clan in the Archibald Campbell , 7th Earl of Argyll 's campaign against Sir James Macdonald of Islay and his rebellion in 1615 .
Lachlan Maclachlan of that Ilk was succeeded by his son Archibald , who is reckoned as the fifteenth chief of the clan . In 1680 Archibald had his lands erected into a Barony by Charles II of England called the Barony of Strathlachlan which was centred on Castle Lachlan . To this day the chief of the clan is styled as Baron of Strathlachlan .
= = = Jacobite Risings = = =
The Maclachlans were loyal Jacobites . They were said to have been present at the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689 . In the Jacobite Rising of 1715 Lachlan Maclachlan of that Ilk " signed the Address of Welcome to the Old Chevalier , the rightful King James VIII Stuart , on his landing in Scotland " . Archibald Brown , in The History of Cowal , wrote , " The chief of MacLachlan appeared with the Earl of Mar at Sheriffmoor as Colonel in the Pretender 's army , and for this act it is said Campbell of Ardkinglas followed MacLachlan like a sleuthhound for five years and shot him dead in 1720 " .
Lachlan , the seventeenth chief of Clan Maclachlan played a part in the Jacobite Rising of 1745 , and lost his life leading the clan at the Battle of Culloden . Lord President Duncan Forbes estimated that the Maclachlan force of that time was about 200 men . In 1748 , Rev. John MacLachlan of Kilchoan , in a letter to Rev. Robert Forbes , wrote ,
Following the Jacobite defeat a Government ship sailed up Loch Fyne and shelled Castle Lachlan , forcing the chief 's family to abandon their residence , and in Edinburgh the Maclachlan colours were burned on the orders of the Duke of Cumberland . It had been assumed that the chiefs lands had been forfeited for his support of the Young Pretender and the Jacobite cause , but it was ruled that he had been killed before he could be attainted . The chief of the Campbells , the Archibald Campbell , 3rd Duke of Argyll , who although helped crush the Jacobite forces , aided Donald , son of the deceased Maclachlan chief , and helped saved his lands . On 12 February 1747 Donald Maclachlan of that Ilk received a charter for his lands " at the intercession of the Duke of Argyll " , though it was considerably unpopular decision at the time , and Maclachlan 's estates were " surveyed but afterwards found not to be forfeited " .
= = = The modern clan = = =
In the early 19th century , a new Castle Lachlan was built for the chiefs of the clan , and it remains the seat of the clan to this day . The last of the male line chiefs of Clan Maclachlan was John Maclachlan who died in 1942 . He was succeeded by his daughter , the twenty @-@ fourth chief of the clan , Marjorie Maclachlan of Maclachlan . Under her the Clan Maclachlan Society was formed in 1979 , and on her death in 1996 , she was succeeded by her eldest son Euan John Maclachlan of Maclachlan , Chief of Clan Maclachlan , 25th of Maclachlan and Baron of Strathlachlan , who is a member of the Standing Council of Scottish Chiefs .
Today the clan is alive and lives as the Clan Maclachlan Society and the Lachlan Trust . The Clan Maclachlan Society consists of eight branches around the world , including Australia , Britain & Ireland , Canada , New Zealand , and the United States of America . The Lachlan Trust is a registered Scottish charitable organisation which takes donations to preserve the heritage of Clan Maclachlan . The trust , in part with Historic Scotland and the Heritage Lottery Fund , helped raise £ 100 @,@ 000 for the preservation of Kilmorie Chapel , the traditional burying place of the chiefs . The project was completed in 2006 , as a memorial to the twenty @-@ fourth chief ( the present chief 's mother ) . Further funding from Historic Scotland and the Heritage Lottery Fund has since been approved for the conservation of the old castle and the construction of a new footbridge over the River Lachlan . Work began in the spring of 2013 with the erection of scaffolding around the west corner of the old castle . The plan is to develop the site for the enjoyment of visitors , with improved pathways , a nature trail and information points about the heritage of the area .
= = Castle Lachlan = =
Old Castle Lachlan lies on the eastern shore of Loch Fyne , near Newton . The ruinous castle dates to the 15th century , and lies about 70 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 m ) north to south , 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) east to west , and at its highest point 43 feet ( 13 @.@ 1 m ) high .
In the late 18th century , Donald Maclachlan oversaw the construction of New Castle Lachlan , a mansion which stands about a ten @-@ minute walk away from the ruinous old castle . This new house was first built in the Queen Anne Style , then later at the end of the 19th century it was transformed into the Scottish baronial house that stands today . The building , upon the 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 2 @.@ 3 sq mi ; 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) estate , has been divided in two with the chief residing in one part and the second available for rent .
= = Clan profile = =
= = = Clan chief = = =
The current chief of Clan Maclachlan is Euan John Maclachlan of Maclachlan , Chief of Clan Maclachlan , 25th of Maclachlan and Baron of Strathlachlan . The chief 's seat is new Castle Lachlan .
= = = Origin of the name = = =
Clan Maclachlan claims as its eponymous ancestor Lachlan Mor . The surname Maclachlan is an Anglicised form of the Gaelic Mac Lachlainn which is the patronymic form of the Gaelic personal name Lochlann meaning " stranger " . Lochlann was originally a term to describe Scandinavia , composed of the elements loch ( meaning " lake " or " fjord " ) + lann ( meaning " land " ) .
= = = Clan symbolism = = =
Members of Scottish clans show their allegiance to their clan and chief by wearing crest badges . These are usually worn on a bonnet . Crest badges are usually made up of the chief 's heraldic crest surrounded by a strap and buckle with the chief 's heraldic motto or slogan . The crest badge used by members of Clan Maclachlan contains the Latin motto FORTIS ET FIDUS , which translates to " strong and faithful " . The blazon of the crest within the badge is ( Issuant from a crest coronet of four ( three visible ) strawberry leaves Or ) a castle set upon a rock all Proper . Another clan symbol used to show a clan member 's affiliation is a clan badge or plant badge . Consisting of a particular plant , these badges are sometimes said to be the original means of identification used by Scottish clans . Clan Maclachlan has two clan badges attributed to it . These include : rowan ( or mountain ash ) and lesser periwinkle .
Many clans are also attributed pipe tunes . Clan Maclachlan 's pipe music is Moladh Mairi ( translation from Gaelic : " In Praise of Mary " ) .
= = = Tartans = = =
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= New York State Route 376 =
New York State Route 376 ( NY 376 ) is a state highway located entirely within Dutchess County in the Hudson Valley region of New York in the United States . The route begins at an intersection with NY 52 in East Fishkill and passes north through Hopewell Junction and Red Oaks Mill on its way to the city of Poughkeepsie . It ends at a junction with U.S. Route 44 ( US 44 ) and NY 55 east of the city limits in Arlington , a hamlet in the town of Poughkeepsie . NY 376 was originally designated as part of NY 39 in the mid @-@ 1920s . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the East Fishkill – Poughkeepsie portion of NY 39 was renumbered to New York State Route 202 . NY 202 was renumbered to NY 376 in 1934 to avoid numerical duplication with the new US 202 .
= = Route description = =
NY 376 begins at an intersection with NY 52 in the hamlet of East Fishkill . It proceeds north about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , crossing over Fishkill Creek and continuing into the hamlet of Hopewell Junction , where it overlaps with NY 82 for 450 feet ( 140 m ) . NY 376 leaves NY 82 and continues northwest , crossing railroad tracks and following a sharp 90 ° S @-@ curve with a 5 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) advisory speed . Soon after , the route traverses another curve , but at 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) . After this , the speed limit returns to 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) . NY 376 passes by the Dogwood Knolls Country Club before meeting County Route 29 ( CR 29 ) in the hamlet of Fishkill Plains , at which point NY 376 proceeds west .
Immediately after crossing from the town of East Fishkill into the town of Wappinger , NY 376 turns north at an intersection with CR 93 . It continues north for about 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) through the hamlet of Diddell , where it turns west again towards the hamlet of New Hackensack . Here , the route meets CR 94 and CR 104 . NY 376 turns north at this intersection , running along the eastern perimeter of and providing access to the passenger terminal of Dutchess County Airport . North of the airport , NY 376 runs closely parallel to Wappinger Creek , briefly entering the town limits of La Grange before crossing the Wappinger Creek into the town of Poughkeepsie .
In the Poughkeepsie hamlet of Red Oaks Mill , NY 376 meets the eastern end of NY 113 ( Spackenkill Road ) and the northern end of CR 77 ( Vassar Road ) at the center of the community . NY 376 approaches the intersection at a 45 @-@ degree angle , resulting in a series of sharp traffic movements between the three roads — the sharpest being the 135 @-@ degree turn between NY 376 northbound and Vassar Road southbound . Past the junction , NY 376 continues north on New Hackensack Road , the northward continuation of Vassar Road . After heading north and northwest for 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) , NY 376 turns right onto Raymond Avenue at Vassar College . Its continuation on New Hackensack Road is known as Hooker Avenue and is designated NY 983T , an unsigned reference route , to the Poughkeepsie town / city line about 100 feet ( 30 m ) from its junction with Cedar Avenue ( known as CR 74 south of the city limits ) .
NY 376 follows Raymond Avenue for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the hamlet of Arlington . Here , it meets US 44 and NY 55 , both of which follow a one @-@ way couplet along Haight Street ( eastbound ) and Maple Street ( westbound ) through the city of Poughkeepsie . In between the two streets , NY 376 intersects Main Street ( CR 114 ) . The route ends upon intersecting westbound US 44 and NY 55 , at which point the routing of NY 376 becomes an unnumbered town road named Van Wagner Road .
= = History = =
= = = Route designation = = =
NY 376 was originally designated as part of NY 39 , a route extending from Patterson to Poughkeepsie by way of West Patterson and East Fishkill , in the mid @-@ 1920s . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 39 was reassigned to another highway in western New York while its former routing in the Hudson Valley was broken up into several routes . One of these was NY 202 , a new route that began in East Fishkill and ended in Poughkeepsie . The rest of NY 39 became part of NY 52 from East Fishkill to the western fringe of Patterson , and NY 311 for the rest of the routing . In 1934 , US 202 was designated by AASHO . In order to avoid a numbering conflict , NY 202 was renumbered to NY 376 .
= = = Roundabouts = = =
In 2006 , the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) converted NY 376 's intersections with the main gate of Vassar College and College Avenue into roundabouts . Both of the roundabouts replaced traffic lights . A traffic signal used to control traffic for a pedestrian crosswalk was also removed as part of their construction . Another roundabout was constructed in 2008 at Fulton and Collegeview Avenues . NYSDOT has called the installation of roundabouts a success , stating that it has significantly calmed traffic , decreased congestion and increased traffic flow .
The construction of the roundabouts was controversial from the outset . The first two roundabouts were installed by NYSDOT even though both the town and city of Poughkeepsie declared that they were opposed to the roundabouts . Additionally , the roundabouts have drawn much controversy from local residents because they remove a lane of traffic in each direction , reducing Raymond Avenue ( NY 376 ) from a four @-@ lane road to a divided two @-@ lane boulevard and significantly altering pre @-@ existing traffic patterns . A moderate amount of traffic has diverted onto alternate local routes as a result . In response , NYSDOT installed traffic calming measures on these parallel roads prior to the construction of the Fulton Avenue roundabout .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Dutchess County .
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= Maria Theresa =
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina ( German : Maria Theresia [ maˈʁiːa teˈʁeːzi ̯ a ] ; 13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780 ) was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg . She was the sovereign of Austria , Hungary , Croatia , Bohemia , Transylvania , Mantua , Milan , Lodomeria and Galicia , the Austrian Netherlands and Parma . By marriage , she was Duchess of Lorraine , Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress .
She started her 40 @-@ year reign when her father , Emperor Charles VI , died in October 1740 . Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it . Upon the death of her father , Saxony , Prussia , Bavaria , and France all repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime . Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia , sparking a nine @-@ year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession , and subsequently conquered it . Maria Theresa would later unsuccessfully try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years ' War .
Maria Theresa and her husband , Francis I , Holy Roman Emperor , had sixteen children , including the Queen of France , the Queen of Naples and Sicily , the Duchess of Parma and two Holy Roman Emperors , Joseph II and Leopold II . Of the sixteen , ten survived to adulthood . She had eleven daughters and five sons . Though she was expected to cede power to Francis and Joseph , both of whom were officially her co @-@ rulers in Austria and Bohemia , Maria Theresa was the absolute sovereign who ruled by the counsel of her advisers . She criticised and disapproved of many of Joseph 's actions . Although she is considered to have been intellectually inferior to both Joseph and Leopold , Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects .
Maria Theresa promulgated financial and educational reforms , with the assistance of Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz and Gerard van Swieten , promoted commerce and the development of agriculture , and reorganised Austria 's ramshackle military , all of which strengthened Austria 's international standing . However , she refused to allow religious toleration and contemporaneous travellers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious . As a young monarch who fought two dynastic wars , she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects , but in her later years she would believe that their cause must be hers .
= = Birth and background = =
The second and eldest surviving child of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick @-@ Wolfenbüttel , Archduchess Maria Theresa was born early in the morning of 13 May 1717 , at the Hofburg Palace , Vienna , shortly after the death of her elder brother , Archduke Leopold , and was baptised on that same evening . The dowager empresses , her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate @-@ Neuburg , were her godmothers . Most descriptions of her baptism stress that the infant was carried ahead of her cousins , Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia , the daughters of Charles VI 's elder brother and predecessor , Joseph I , before the eyes of their mother , Wilhelmine Amalia . It was clear that Maria Theresa would outrank them , even though their grandfather , Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I , had his sons sign the Mutual Pact of Succession , which gave precedence to the daughters of the elder brother . Her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him . Thus , the birth of Maria Theresa was a great disappointment to him and the people of Vienna ; Charles never managed to overcome this feeling .
Maria Theresa replaced Maria Josepha as heiress presumptive to the Habsburg realms the moment she was born ; Charles VI had issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had placed his nieces behind his own daughters in the line of succession . Charles sought the other European powers ' approval for disinheriting his nieces . They exacted harsh terms : in the Treaty of Vienna ( 1731 ) , Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction . In total , Great Britain , France , Saxony @-@ Poland , United Provinces , Spain , Venice , States of the Church , Prussia , Russia , Denmark , Savoy @-@ Sardinia , Bavaria and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognised the sanction . France , Spain , Saxony @-@ Poland , Bavaria and Prussia later reneged .
= = Early life = =
Little more than a year after her birth , Maria Theresa was joined by a sister , Maria Anna , and another one , named Maria Amalia , was born in 1724 . The portraits of the imperial family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine and Maria Anna . The Prussian ambassador noted that she had large blue eyes , fair hair with a slight tinge of red , a wide mouth and a notably strong body . Unlike many other members of the House of Habsburg , neither Maria Theresa 's parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other .
Maria Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery . She was barred from horse riding by her father , but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony . The imperial family staged opera productions , often conducted by Charles VI , in which she relished participating . Her education was overseen by Jesuits . Contemporaries thought her Latin to be quite good , but in all else , the Jesuits did not educate her well . Her spelling and punctuation were unconventional and she lacked the formal manner and speech which had characterized her Habsburg predecessors . Maria Theresa developed a close relationship with Countess Marie Karoline von Fuchs @-@ Mollard , who taught her etiquette . She was educated in drawing , painting , music and dancing – the disciplines which would have prepared her for the role of queen consort . Her father allowed her to attend meetings of the council from the age of 14 but never discussed the affairs of state with her . Even though he had spent the last decades of his life securing Maria Theresa 's inheritance , Charles always expected a son and never prepared his daughter for her future role as sovereign .
= = Marriage = =
The question of Maria Theresa 's marriage was raised early in her childhood . She was first engaged to be married to Leopold Clement of Lorraine , who was supposed to visit Vienna and meet the Archduchess in 1723 . However , news reached Vienna that he had died of smallpox .
Leopold Clement 's younger brother , Francis Stephen , was invited to Vienna . Even though Francis Stephen was his favourite candidate for Maria Theresa 's hand , the Emperor considered other possibilities . Religious differences prevented him from arranging his daughter 's marriage to the Calvinist prince Frederick of Prussia . In 1725 , he betrothed her to Charles of Spain and her sister , Maria Anna , to Philip of Spain . However , other European powers compelled him to renounce the pact he had made with the Queen of Spain , Elisabeth Farnese , as the marriage of heirs to the thrones of Spain and Austria would have destroyed the European balance of power . Maria Theresa , who had become close to Francis Stephen , was relieved .
Francis Stephen remained at the imperial court until 1729 , when he ascended the throne of Lorraine , but was not formally promised Maria Theresa 's hand until 31 January 1736 , during the War of the Polish Succession . Louis XV of France demanded that Maria Theresa 's fiancé surrender his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine to accommodate his father @-@ in @-@ law , Stanisław I , who had been deposed as King of Poland . Francis Stephen was to receive the Grand Duchy of Tuscany upon the death of childless Grand Duke Gian Gastone de ' Medici . The couple were married on 12 February 1736 .
The Duchess of Lorraine 's love for her husband was strong and possessive . The letters she sent to him shortly before their marriage expressed her eagerness to see him ; his letters , on the other hand , were stereotyped and formal . She was very jealous of her husband and his infidelity was the greatest problem of their marriage , with Maria Wilhelmina , Princess of Auersperg , as his best @-@ known mistress .
Upon Gian Gastone 's death on 9 July 1737 , Francis Stephen ceded Lorraine and became Grand Duke of Tuscany . In 1738 , Charles VI sent the young couple to make their formal entry into Tuscany . A triumphal arch was erected at the Porta Galla in celebration , where it remains today . Their stay in Florence was brief . Charles VI soon recalled them , as he feared he might die while his heiress was miles away in Tuscany . In the summer of 1738 , Austria suffered defeats during the ongoing Russo @-@ Turkish War . The Turks reversed Austrian gains in Serbia , Wallachia and Bosnia . The Viennese rioted at the cost of the war . Francis Stephen was popularly despised , as he was thought to be a cowardly French spy . The war was concluded the next year with the Treaty of Belgrade .
= = Accession = =
Charles VI died on 20 October 1740 , probably of mushroom poisoning . He had ignored the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy who had urged him to concentrate on filling the treasury and equipping the army rather than on acquiring signatures of fellow monarchs . The Emperor , who spent his entire reign securing the Pragmatic Sanction , left Austria in an impoverished state , bankrupted by the recent Turkish war and the War of the Polish Succession ; the treasury contained only 100 @,@ 000 florins , which were claimed by his widow . The army numbered only 80 @,@ 000 men , most of whom had not been paid in months ; they were nevertheless remarkably loyal and devoted to their new sovereign .
Maria Theresa found herself in a difficult situation . She did not know enough about matters of state and she was unaware of the weakness of her father 's ministers . She decided to rely on her father 's advice to retain his councillors and defer to her husband , whom she considered to be more experienced , on other matters . Both decisions , though natural , later gave cause for regret . Ten years later , Maria Theresa recalled in her Political Testament the circumstances under which she had ascended : " I found myself without money , without credit , without army , without experience and knowledge of my own and finally , also without any counsel because each one of them at first wanted to wait and see how things would develop . "
She dismissed the possibility that other countries might try to seize her territories and immediately started ensuring the imperial dignity for herself ; since a woman could not be elected Holy Roman Empress , Maria Theresa wanted to secure the imperial office for her husband . However , Francis Stephen did not possess enough land or rank within the Holy Roman Empire . In order to make him eligible for the imperial throne and to enable him to vote in the imperial elections as elector of Bohemia ( which she couldn 't because of her sex ) , Maria Theresa made Francis Stephen co @-@ ruler of the Austrian and Bohemian lands on 21 November 1740 . However , it took more than a year for the Diet of Hungary to accept Francis Stephen as co @-@ ruler . Despite her love for him and his position as co @-@ ruler , Maria Theresa never allowed her husband to decide matters of state and often dismissed him from council meetings when they disagreed .
The first display of the new queen 's authority was the formal act of homage of the Lower Austrian Estates to her on 22 November 1740 . It was an elaborate public event which served as a formal recognition and legitimation of her accession . The oath of fealty to Maria Theresa was taken on the same day in Hofburg .
= = War of the Austrian Succession = =
Immediately after her accession , a number of European sovereigns who had recognised Maria Theresa as heiress broke their promises ; Queen Elisabeth of Spain and Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria , married to Maria Theresa 's deprived cousin Maria Amalia and supported by Empress Wilhelmine Amalia , wanted portions of her inheritance . Maria Theresa secured the recognition of King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia , who hadn 't accepted the Pragmatic Sanction during her father 's lifetime , in November 1740 .
In December , King Frederick II of Prussia invaded the Duchy of Silesia and requested that Maria Theresa cede it , threatening to join her enemies if she refused . Maria Theresa decided to fight for the mineral @-@ rich province . Frederick even offered a compromise : he would defend Maria Theresa 's rights if she agreed to cede him at least a part of Silesia . Francis Stephen was inclined to consider such an arrangement , but the Queen and her advisers were not , fearing that any violation of the Pragmatic Sanction would invalidate the entire document . Maria Theresa 's firmness soon assured Francis Stephen that they should fight for Silesia and she was confident that she would retain " the jewel of the House of Austria " . The invasion of Silesia by Frederick was the start of a lifelong enmity ; she referred to him as " that evil man " .
As Austria was short of experienced military commanders , Maria Theresa released Marshall Neipperg , who had been imprisoned by her father for his poor performance in the Turkish War . Neipperg took command of the Austrian troops in March . The Austrians suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741 . France drew up a plan to partition Austria between Prussia , Bavaria , Saxony and Spain . Marshall Belle @-@ Isle joined Frederick at Olmütz . Vienna was in a panic , as none of Maria Theresa 's advisors expected France to betray them . Francis Stephen urged Maria Theresa to reach a rapprochement with Prussia , as did Great Britain . Maria Theresa reluctantly agreed to negotiations .
Contrary to all expectations , a significant amount of support for the young Queen came from Hungary . Her coronation as queen of Hungary took place in St. Martin 's Cathedral , Pressburg on 25 June 1741 after she had spent months honing the equestrian skills necessary for the ceremony and negotiating with the Diet . To appease those who considered her sex to be the most serious obstacle , Maria Theresa assumed masculine titles . Thus , in nomenclature , Maria Theresa was archduke and king ; normally , however , she was styled as queen . No 18th @-@ century commentary saw this crossing of gendered titles as inappropriate or impossible .
By July , attempts at conciliation had completely collapsed . Maria Theresa 's ally , the Elector of Saxony , now became her enemy and George II declared the Electorate of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg to be neutral . The Queen was once again in need of help from Hungary . In order to obtain it , she granted favours to the Hungarian noblemen and flattered them without conceding to all of their demands . She had already won their support when she appeared in Pressburg in September 1741 , hoping to persuade the Diet to call a mass conscription and recognise Francis Stephen as co @-@ ruler . Upon achieving both goals , she showed her gift for theatrical displays by triumphantly holding her son and heir , Joseph , before the Diet , thereby gaining sympathy of the noblemen .
In 1741 , the Austrian authorities informed Maria Theresa that Bohemian populace would prefer Charles Albert to her as sovereign . Maria Theresa , desperate and burdened by pregnancy , wrote plaintively to her sister : " I don 't know if a town will remain to me for my delivery . " She bitterly vowed to spare nothing and no one to defend her kingdom when she wrote to the Bohemian chancellor , Count Philip Kinsky : " My mind is made up . We must put everything at stake to save Bohemia . " On 26 October , the Elector of Bavaria captured Prague and declared himself King of Bohemia . Maria Theresa , then in Hungary , wept on learning of the loss of Bohemia . Charles Albert was unanimously elected Holy Roman Emperor on 24 January 1742 . The Archduchess , who regarded the election as a catastrophe , caught her enemies unprepared by insisting on a winter campaign ; the same day he was elected emperor , Austrian troops under Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller captured Munich , Charles Albert 's capital .
The Treaty of Breslau of June 1742 ended hostilities between Austria and Prussia . The Archduchess soon made the recovery of Bohemia her priority . French troops fled Bohemia in the winter of the same year . On 12 May 1743 , Maria Theresa had herself crowned Queen of Bohemia in St. Vitus Cathedral .
Prussia became anxious at Austrian advances on the Rhine frontier , and Frederick sacked Prague in August 1744 . The French plans fell apart when Charles Albert died in January 1745 . The French overran the Austrian Netherlands in May .
Francis Stephen was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 13 September 1745 . Prussia recognised Francis as emperor , and Maria Theresa once again recognised the loss of Silesia by the Treaty of Breslau in December 1745 . The war dragged on for another three years , with fighting in northern Italy and the Austrian Netherlands . The Treaty of Aix @-@ La @-@ Chapelle , which concluded the eight @-@ year conflict , recognised Prussia 's possession of Silesia and Maria Theresa ceded the Duchy of Parma to Philip of Spain .
= = Seven Years ' War = =
Frederick of Prussia 's invasion of Saxony in August 1756 began the Seven Years ' War . Empress Maria Theresa and Kaunitz wished to exit the war with possession of Silesia . Austria was aligned with France and Russia , Great Britain with Prussia and Portugal . Giving Austria huge subsidies came back to haunt France . It could not bolster defences in New France ; the British easily captured Louisbourg in 1758 , and went on to conquer all of New France .
Maximilian von Browne commanded the Austrian troops . Following the indecisive Battle of Lobositz in 1756 , he was replaced by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine , Maria Theresa 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . Frederick was startled by Lobositz ; he eventually re @-@ grouped for another attack in June 1757 . The Battle of Kolin that followed was a decisive victory for Austria . Frederick lost one third of his troops , and before the battle was over , he had left the scene . However , later that year he won a spectacular victory against the Austrians at Leuthen , which secured Prussian control of Silesia for the rest of the war .
Maria Theresa openly lamented French losses in 1758 . France , having secured the Anglo @-@ Hanoverian neutrality for the rest of the conflict , in September 1757 , lost it in January of the next year . That June she suffered a crushing defeat at Krefeld and French forces withdrew to the Rhine .
In 1759 , peace negotiations at The Hague came to nothing . The series of Franco @-@ Austrian losses were reversed until , in 1762 , the Empress Elizabeth of Russia died . Her successor Peter III greatly admired Frederick , and at once withdrew Russia 's support from the French coalition . Prussia began a drive to expel the Austrians from Saxony , and the French from Hesse @-@ Kassel . Though she was only partially successful as her own forces were exhausted , the conflict had essentially descended into a costly stalemate , with Maria Theresa no longer believing that she could retake Silesia . The peace treaties of Hubertusburg and Paris exacted harsh terms from France , as she was forced to relinquish most of her American colonies . For Austria , though , the result was the status quo ante bellum .
= = Family life = =
Over the course of twenty years , Maria Theresa gave birth to sixteen children , thirteen of whom survived infancy . The first child , Maria Elisabeth ( 1737 – 1740 ) , was born a little less than a year after the wedding . Again , the child 's gender caused great disappointment and so would the births of Maria Anna , the eldest surviving child , and Maria Carolina ( 1740 – 1741 ) . While fighting to preserve her inheritance , Maria Theresa gave birth to a son named after Saint Joseph , to whom she had repeatedly prayed for a male child during the pregnancy . Maria Theresa 's favourite child , Maria Christina , was born on her 25th birthday , four days before the defeat of the Austrian army in Chotusitz . Five more children were born during the war : Maria Elisabeth , Charles , Maria Amalia , Leopold and Maria Carolina ( 1748 – 1748 ) . During this period , there was no rest for Maria Theresa during pregnancies or around the births ; the war and child @-@ bearing were carried on simultaneously . Five children were born during the peace between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years ' War : Maria Johanna , Maria Josepha , Maria Carolina , Ferdinand and Maria Antonia . She delivered her last child , Maximilian Francis , during the Seven Years ' War , aged 39 . Maria Theresa asserted that , had she not been almost always pregnant , she would have gone into battle herself .
Maria Theresa 's mother , Empress Elisabeth Christine , died in 1750 . Four years later , Maria Theresa 's governess , Marie Karoline von Fuchs @-@ Mollard , died . The Empress showed her gratitude to Countess Fuchs by having her buried in the Imperial Crypt along with the members of the imperial family .
Shortly after giving birth to the younger children , Maria Theresa was confronted with the task of marrying off the elder ones . She led the marriage negotiations along with the campaigns of her wars and the duties of state . She treated her children with affection but used them as pawns in dynastic games and sacrificed their happiness for the benefit of the state . A devoted but self @-@ conscious mother , she wrote to all of her children at least once a week and believed herself entitled to exercise authority over her children regardless of their age and rank .
Following her fiftieth birthday in May 1767 , Maria Theresa contracted smallpox from her daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Maria Josepha of Bavaria . She survived , but the new empress did not . Maria Theresa then forced her daughter , Archduchess Maria Josepha , to pray with her in the Imperial Crypt next to the unsealed tomb of Empress Maria Josepha . The Archduchess started showing smallpox rash two days after visiting the crypt and soon died . Maria Carolina was to replace her as the pre @-@ determined bride of King Ferdinand IV of Naples . Maria Theresa blamed herself for her daughter 's death for the rest of her life because , at the time , the concept of an extended incubation period was largely unknown and it was believed that Maria Josepha had caught smallpox from the body of the late empress .
In April 1770 , Maria Theresa 's youngest daughter , Maria Antonia , married Louis , Dauphin of France , by proxy in Vienna . Maria Antonia 's education was neglected , and when the French showed an interest in her , her mother went about educating her as best she could about the court of Versailles and the French . Maria Theresa kept up a fortnightly correspondence with Maria Antonia , now called Marie Antoinette , in which she often reproached her for laziness and frivolity and scolded her for failing to conceive a child .
Maria Theresa was not just critical of Marie Antoinette . She disliked Leopold 's reserve and often blamed him for being cold . She criticised Maria Carolina for her political activities , Ferdinand for his lack of organisation , and Maria Amalia for her poor French and haughtiness . The only child she did not constantly scold was Maria Christina , who enjoyed her mother 's complete confidence , though she failed to please her mother in one aspect – she did not produce any surviving children .
One of Maria Theresa 's greatest wishes was to have as many grandchildren as possible , but she had only about two dozen at the time of her death , of which all the eldest surviving daughters were named after her , with the exception of Caroline of Parma , her eldest granddaughter by Maria Amalia .
= = Religious views and policies = =
Like all members of the House of Habsburg , Maria Theresa was a Roman Catholic , and a devout one as well . She believed that religious unity was necessary for a peaceful public life and explicitly rejected the idea of religious toleration . However , she never allowed the Church to interfere with what she considered to be prerogatives of a monarch and kept Rome at arm 's length . She controlled the selection of archbishops , bishops and abbots .
Her approach to religious piety differed from the approach of her predecessors , as she was influenced by Jansenist ideas . The empress actively supported conversion to Roman Catholicism by securing pensions to the converts . She tolerated Greek Catholics and emphasised their equal status with Roman Catholics .
Besides her devotion to Christianity , she was widely known for her ascetic lifestyle , especially during her 15 @-@ year @-@ long widowhood .
= = = Jesuits = = =
Her relationship with the Jesuits was complex . Members of this order educated her , served as her confessors , and supervised the religious education of her eldest son . The Jesuits were powerful and influential in the early years of Maria Theresa 's reign . However , the queen 's ministers convinced her that the order posed a danger to her monarchical authority . Not without much hesitation and regret , she issued a decree which removed them from all the institutions of the monarchy , and carried it out thoroughly . She forbade the publication of Pope Clement XIII 's bull which was in favour of the Jesuits and promptly confiscated their property when Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order .
= = = Jews and Protestants = = =
Though she eventually gave up trying to convert her non @-@ Catholic subjects to Roman Catholicism , Maria Theresa regarded both the Jews and Protestants as dangerous to the state and actively tried to suppress them . The empress was probably the most anti @-@ Semitic monarch of her time , having inherited the traditional prejudices of her ancestors and acquired new ones . This was a product of deep religious devotion and was not kept secret in her time . In 1777 , she wrote of the Jews : " I know of no greater plague than this race , which on account of its deceit , usury and avarice is driving my subjects into beggary . Therefore as far as possible , the Jews are to be kept away and avoided . "
She imposed extremely harsh taxes on her Jewish subjects , and in December 1744 proposed to her ministers the expulsion of Jews from her hereditary dominions . Her first intention was to deport all Jews by 1 January , but having accepted the advice of her ministers , who were concerned by the number of future deportees , had the deadline slipped to June . She also transferred Protestants from Austria to Transylvania and reduced the number of religious holidays and monastic orders . In 1777 , she abandoned the idea of expelling Moravian Protestants after Joseph , who was opposed to her intentions , threatened to abdicate as emperor and co @-@ ruler . Finally , she was forced to grant them some toleration by allowing them to worship privately . Joseph regarded his mother 's religious policies as " unjust , impious , impossible , harmful and ridiculous " .
In the third decade of her reign , influenced by her Jewish courtier Abraham Mendel Theben , Maria Theresa issued edicts which offered some state protection to her Jewish subjects . She forbade the forcible conversion of Jewish children to Christianity in 1762 , and in 1763 she forbade Catholic clergy from extracting surplice fees from her Jewish subjects . In 1764 , she ordered the release of those Jews who had been jailed for a blood libel in the village of Orkuta . Notwithstanding her strong dislike of Jews , Maria Theresa supported Jewish commercial and industrial activity .
= = Reforms = =
Maria Theresa was as conservative in manners of state as in those of religion , but implemented significant reforms to strengthen Austria 's military and bureaucratic efficiency . She employed Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz , who modernised the empire by creating a standing army of 108 @,@ 000 men , paid for with 14 million gulden extracted from each crown @-@ land . The central government was responsible for the army , although Haugwitz instituted taxation of the nobility , who never before had to pay taxes . Maria Theresa oversaw the unification of the Austrian and Bohemian chancellories in May 1749 .
Maria Theresa doubled the state revenue between 1754 and 1764 , though her attempt to tax clergy and nobility was only partially successful . These financial reforms greatly improved the economy .
In 1760 , Maria Theresa created the council of state , composed of the state chancellor , three members of the high nobility and three knights , which served as a committee of experienced people who advised her . The council of state lacked executive or legislative authority , but nevertheless showed the difference between the form of government employed by Frederick II of Prussia . Unlike the latter , Maria Theresa was not an autocrat who acted as her own minister . Prussia would adopt this form of government only after 1807 .
= = = Medicine = = =
Gerard van Swieten , whom Maria Theresa had recruited following the death of her sister , Archduchess Maria Anna , founded the Vienna General Hospital , revamped Austria 's educational system and served as the Empress 's personal physician . After calling in van Swieten , Maria Theresa asked him to study the problem of infant mortality in Austria . Following his recommendation , she made a decree that autopsies would be mandatory for all hospital deaths in the city of Graz , Austria 's second largest city . This law – still in effect today – combined with the relatively stable population of Graz , resulted in one of the most important and complete autopsy records in the world . Maria Theresa banned the creation of new burial grounds without prior government permission , thus countering wasteful and unhygienic burial customs . Her decision to have her children inoculated after the smallpox epidemic of 1767 was responsible for changing Austrian physicians ' negative view of inoculation . The empress herself inaugurated inoculation in Austria by hosting a dinner for the first sixty @-@ five inoculated children in Schönbrunn Palace , waiting on the children herself .
= = = Civil rights = = =
Among other reforms was the Codex Theresianus , begun in 1752 and finished in 1766 , that defined civil rights . In 1776 , Austria outlawed witch burnings and torture . It was later reintroduced , but the progressive nature of these reforms remains noted . Much unlike Joseph , but with the support of religious authorities , Maria Theresa was opposed to the abolition of torture . Born and raised between Baroque and Rococo eras , she found it hard to fit into the intellectual sphere of the Enlightenment , which is why she only slowly followed humanitarian reforms on the continent .
= = = Church = = =
Main reforms concerning the Roman Catholic Church were initiated and carried out under Maria Theresa , while the reforms under her son concerned their non @-@ Catholic subjects . The ecclesiastical policies of Maria Theresa , like those of her devout predecessors , were based not on anti @-@ religious principles , but on ensuring primacy of State control in Church @-@ State relations .
= = = Education = = =
Aware of the inadequacy of bureaucracy in Austria , and wishing to improve it , Maria Theresa reformed education in 1775 . In a new school system based on the Prussian one , all children of both genders from the ages of six to twelve had to attend school . Education reform was met with hostility from many villages ; Maria Theresa crushed the dissent by ordering the arrest of all those opposed . Although the idea had merit , the reforms were not as successful as they were expected to be since no funding was offered from the state ; in some parts of Austria , half of the population was illiterate well into the 19th century .
The empress permitted non @-@ Catholics to attend university and allowed the introduction of secular subjects ( such as law ) , which influenced the decline of theology as the main foundation of university education .
= = Late reign = =
Emperor Francis died on 18 August 1765 , while he and the court were in Innsbruck celebrating the wedding of his second son , Leopold . Maria Theresa was devastated . Their eldest son , Joseph , became Holy Roman Emperor . Maria Theresa abandoned all ornamentation , had her hair cut short , painted her rooms black and dressed in mourning for the rest of her life . She completely withdrew from court life , public events , and theater . Throughout her widowhood , she spent the whole of August and the eighteenth of each month alone in her chamber , which negatively affected her mental health . She described her state of mind shortly after Francis 's death : " I hardly know myself now , for I have become like an animal with no true life or reasoning power . "
Upon his accession to the imperial throne , Joseph ruled less land than his father had in 1740 . Believing that the emperor must possess enough land to maintain the Empire 's integrity , Maria Theresa , who was used to being assisted in the administration of her vast realms , declared Joseph to be her new co @-@ ruler on 17 September 1765 . From then on , mother and son had frequent ideological disagreements . The 22 million gulden that Joseph inherited from his father was injected into the treasury . Maria Theresa had another loss in February 1766 when Haugwitz died . She gave her son absolute control over the military following the death of Count Leopold Joseph von Daun .
According to Robert A. Kann , Maria Theresa was a monarch of above @-@ average qualifications but intellectually inferior to Joseph and Leopold . He asserts that she nevertheless possessed qualities appreciated in a monarch : warm heart , practical mind , firm determination and sound perception . Most importantly , she was ready to recognise the mental superiority of some of her advisers and to give way to a superior mind while enjoying support of her ministers even if their ideas differed from her own . Joseph , however , was never able to establish rapport with the same advisers , even though their philosophy of government was closer to Joseph 's than to Maria Theresa 's .
The relationship between Maria Theresa and Joseph was not without warmth but was complicated and their personalities clashed . Despite his intellect , Maria Theresa 's force of personality often made Joseph cower . Sometimes , she openly admired his talents and achievements , but criticised him behind his back . She wrote : " We never see each other except at dinner ... His temper gets worse every day ... Please burn this letter ... I just try to avoid public scandal . " In another letter , also addressed to Joseph 's companion , she complained : " He avoids me ... I am the only person in his way and so I am an obstruction and a burden ... Abdication alone can remedy matters . "
After much contemplation , she chose not to abdicate . Joseph himself often threatened to resign as co @-@ regent and emperor , but he , too , was induced not to do so . Her threats of abdication were rarely taken seriously ; Maria Theresa believed that her recovery from smallpox in 1767 was a sign that God wished her to reign until death . It was in Joseph 's interest that she remained sovereign , for he often blamed her for his failures and thus avoided taking on the responsibilities of a monarch .
Joseph and Prince Kaunitz arranged the First Partition of Poland despite Maria Theresa 's protestations . Her sense of justice pushed her to reject the idea of partition , which would hurt the Polish people . The duo argued that it was too late to abort now . Besides , Maria Theresa herself agreed with the partition when she realised that Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia would do it with or without Austrian participation . Maria Theresa claimed and eventually took Galicia and Lodomeria , a province claimed by Hungarian monarchs since the 13th century ; in the words of Frederick , " the more she cried , the more she took " .
= = Death and legacy = =
It is unlikely that Maria Theresa ever completely recovered from the smallpox attack in 1767 , as 18th @-@ century writers asserted . She suffered from shortness of breath , fatigue , cough , distress , necrophobia and insomnia . She later developed edema .
The empress fell ill on 24 November 1780 , ostensibly of a chill . Her physician Dr. Störk thought her condition serious . By 28 November , she asked for the last rites , and the next day , at about nine o 'clock in the evening , she died surrounded by her remaining children . With her , the House of Habsburg died out and was replaced by the House of Habsburg @-@ Lorraine . Joseph , already co @-@ sovereign of the Habsburg dominions , succeeded her . Her longtime rival Frederick of Prussia , on hearing of her death , said that she had honored her throne and her sex , and though he had fought against her in three wars , he never considered her his enemy .
After several diplomatic failures and military defeats in the 1730s , Austria seemed to be declining , or even on the verge of collapse . After her forty years reign , Maria Theresa left a revitalised empire that influenced the rest of Europe throughout the 19th century . She gave the Habsburg dominions an efficient administrative system that allowed it to remain a great power in its own right , without the support of the Holy Roman Empire . Her descendants followed her example and continued reforming the empire . The acquisition of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria gave the empire an even more multinational character that would ultimately lead to its destruction . Her introduction of compulsory schooling , as a means of Germanisation , eventually triggered the revival of Czech culture .
The empress is buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna next to her husband in a coffin she had inscribed during her lifetime .
= = Full title = =
Her title after the death of her husband was :
Maria Theresa , by the Grace of God , Dowager Empress of the Romans , Queen of Hungary , of Bohemia , of Dalmatia , of Croatia , of Slavonia , of Galicia , of Lodomeria , etc . ; Archduchess of Austria ; Duchess of Burgundy , of Styria , of Carinthia and of Carniola ; Grand Princess of Transylvania ; Margravine of Moravia ; Duchess of Brabant , of Limburg , of Luxemburg , of Guelders , of Württemberg , of Upper and Lower Silesia , of Milan , of Mantua , of Parma , of Piacenza , of Guastalla , of Auschwitz and of Zator ; Princess of Swabia ; Princely Countess of Habsburg , of Flanders , of Tyrol , of Hainault , of Kyburg , of Gorizia and of Gradisca ; Margravine of Burgau , of Upper and Lower Lusatia ; Countess of Namur ; Lady of the Wendish Mark and of Mechlin ; Dowager Duchess of Lorraine and Bar , Dowager Grand Duchess of Tuscany .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Popular culture = =
Maria Theresa appears as the leader of Austria in the computer strategy game Civilization V : Gods & Kings .
Maria Theresa appears in Episode 64 of Hetalia : Axis Powers , voiced by Michiko Neya ( Japanese ) and Stephanie Young ( English ) .
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= Fusō @-@ class battleship =
The Fusō @-@ class battleships ( 扶桑型戦艦 , Fusō @-@ gata senkan ) were a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during World War I. Both patrolled briefly off the coast of China before being placed in reserve at the war 's end . In 1922 , Yamashiro became the first battleship in the IJN to successfully launch aircraft .
During the 1930s , both ships underwent a series of modernizations and reconstructions . Fusō underwent her modernization in two phases ( 1930 – 33 , 1937 – 41 ) , while Yamashiro was reconstructed from 1930 to 1935 . The modernization increased their armor , replaced and upgraded their machinery , and rebuilt their superstructures into the distinctive pagoda mast style . Despite the expensive reconstructions , both vessels were considered obsolescent by the eve of World War II , and neither saw significant action in the early years of the war . Fusō served as a troop transport in 1943 , while Yamashiro was relegated to training duty in the Inland Sea . Both underwent upgrades to their anti @-@ aircraft suite in 1944 before transferring to Singapore in August 1944 .
Fusō and Yamashiro were the only two Japanese battleships at the Battle of Surigao Strait , the southernmost action of the Battle of Leyte Gulf , and both were lost in the early hours of 25 October 1944 to torpedoes and naval gunfire . Some eyewitnesses later claimed that Fusō broke in half , and that both halves remained afloat and burning for an hour , but historian Anthony Tully has made the case that she simply sank after forty minutes of flooding . Six battleships and eight cruisers were lying in wait for Yamashiro ; she did not survive the encounter , and Vice @-@ Admiral Shōji Nishimura went down with his ship . Only ten crewmembers from each ship survived .
= = Background = =
The design of the Fusō @-@ class battleships was shaped both by the ongoing international naval arms race and a desire among Japanese naval planners to maintain a fleet of capital ships powerful enough to defeat the United States Navy in an encounter in Japanese territorial waters . The IJN 's fleet of battleships had proven highly successful in 1905 , the last year of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , which culminated in the destruction of the Russian Second and Third Pacific Squadrons at the Battle of Tsushima .
In the aftermath , the Japanese Empire immediately turned its focus to the two remaining rivals for imperial dominance in the Pacific Ocean : Britain and the United States . Satō Tetsutarō , a Japanese Navy admiral and military theorist , speculated that conflict would inevitably arise between Japan and at least one of its two main rivals . To that end , he called for the Japanese Navy to maintain a fleet with at least 70 % as many capital ships as the US Navy . This ratio , Satō theorized , would enable the Imperial Japanese Navy to defeat the US Navy in one major battle in Japanese waters in any eventual conflict . Accordingly , the 1907 Imperial Defense Policy called for the construction of a battle fleet of eight modern battleships , 20 @,@ 000 long tons ( 20 @,@ 321 t ) each , and eight modern armored cruisers , 18 @,@ 000 long tons ( 18 @,@ 289 t ) each . This was the genesis of the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program , the development of a cohesive battle line of sixteen capital ships .
The launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 by the Royal Navy raised the stakes , and complicated Japan 's plans . Displacing 17 @,@ 900 long tons ( 18 @,@ 200 t ) and armed with ten 12 @-@ inch ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) guns , Dreadnought rendered all existing battleships obsolete by comparison . The launch of the battlecruiser HMS Invincible the following year was a further setback for Japan 's quest for parity . When the two new Satsuma @-@ class battleships and two Tsukuba @-@ class armored cruisers , launched by 1911 , were outclassed by their British counterparts , the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program was restarted .
The first battleships built for the renewed Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program were the two dreadnoughts of the Kawachi class , ordered in 1907 and laid down in 1908 . In 1910 , the Navy put forward a request to the Diet ( parliament ) to secure funding for the entirety of the program at once . Because of economic constraints , the proposal was cut first by the Navy Ministry to seven battleships and three battlecruisers , then by the cabinet to four armored cruisers and a single battleship . The Diet amended this by authorizing the construction of four battlecruisers ( the Kongō class ) and one battleship , later named Fusō , in what became the Naval Emergency Expansion bill .
= = Design = =
Fusō was designed to work in conjunction with the four battlecruisers . After coordination with the British on the Kongō class , Japanese designers had access to the latest British design studies in naval architecture and were now able to design their own capital ships . In an effort to outmatch the American New York class , planners called for a ship armed with twelve 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) guns and faster than the 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) of their rivals . Vickers files show that the Japanese had access to the designs for double- and triple @-@ gun turrets , yet opted for six double turrets over four triple turrets .
The final design — designated A @-@ 64 by the IJN — called for a displacement of 29 @,@ 000 long tons ( 29 @,@ 465 t ) with twelve 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) guns in six double turrets ( two forward , two aft , two separated amidships ) with a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . This design was superior to its American counterparts in armament , armor and speed , thus following the doctrine the Japanese had used since the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 of compensating for quantitative inferiority with qualitative superiority .
= = Description = =
The ships had a length of 202 @.@ 7 meters ( 665 ft 0 in ) overall . They had a beam of 28 @.@ 7 meters ( 94 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 7 meters ( 28 ft 7 in ) . They displaced 29 @,@ 326 metric tons ( 28 @,@ 863 long tons ) at standard load . Their crew consisted of 1 @,@ 198 officers and enlisted men in 1915 and 1 @,@ 396 in 1935 . During World War II , the crew probably totalled around 1 @,@ 800 – 1 @,@ 900 men .
During the ships ' modernization during the 1930s , their forward superstructures were enlarged with multiple platforms added to their tripod foremasts . The rear superstructures were rebuilt to accommodate mounts for 127 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and additional fire @-@ control directors . Both ships were also given torpedo bulges to improve their underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor . In addition , their sterns were lengthened by 7 @.@ 62 meters ( 25 @.@ 0 ft ) . These changes increased their overall length to 212 @.@ 75 m ( 698 @.@ 0 ft ) , their beam to 33 @.@ 1 m ( 108 ft 7 in ) and their draft to 9 @.@ 69 meters ( 31 ft 9 in ) . Their displacement increased nearly 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) to 39 @,@ 154 long tons ( 39 @,@ 782 t ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Fusō @-@ class ships had two sets of Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove two propeller shafts . The medium @-@ pressure turbines drove the wing shafts while the high- and low @-@ pressure turbines drove the inner shafts . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 24 Miyahara @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , each of which consumed a mixture of coal and oil . The ships had a stowage capacity of 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel oil , giving them a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Both ships exceeded their designed speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) during their sea trials ; Fusō reached 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) from 46 @,@ 500 shp ( 34 @,@ 700 kW ) and Yamashiro exceeded that with 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) from 47 @,@ 730 shp ( 35 @,@ 590 kW ) .
During their 1930s modernization , the Miyahara boilers on each ship were replaced by six new Kanpon oil @-@ fired boilers , fitted into the former aft boiler room , and the forward funnel was removed . The Brown @-@ Curtis turbines were replaced by four geared Kanpon turbines with a designed output of 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . On her trials , Fusō reached a top speed of 24 @.@ 7 knots ( 45 @.@ 7 km / h ; 28 @.@ 4 mph ) from 76 @,@ 889 shp ( 57 @,@ 336 kW ) . The fuel storage of the ships was increased to a total of 5 @,@ 100 long tons ( 5 @,@ 200 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 11 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 21 @,@ 900 km ; 13 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The twelve 45 @-@ calibre 14 @-@ inch guns of the Fusō class were mounted in six twin @-@ gun turrets , numbered from front to rear , each of which weighed 615 long tons ( 625 t ) . The turrets had an elevation capability of − 5 / + 20 degrees . They were arranged in an uncommon 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 style with superfiring pairs of turrets fore and aft ; the middle turrets were not superfiring , and had a funnel between them . The decision to use six twin turrets rather than four triple turrets greatly affected the entire design of the class because the two extra turrets required a longer ship and increased the amount of armor required to protect the ship . The location of the third and fourth turrets proved particularly problematic to the design of the class because the amidships turrets were not superfiring as in the subsequent Ise @-@ class battleships . This further increased the length of the ships because the barrels of the upper turret did not protrude over the lower turret , requiring more space than a pair of superfiring turrets . Mounted amidships along the centerline of the ship , they had restricted arcs of fire , and their position forced the boiler rooms to be placed in less than ideal locations . Another complication was the need to fit extra insulation and air conditioning in the magazines of the amidships turrets to protect them from the heat generated in the adjacent boiler rooms . Originally both amidship gun turrets faced to the rear , but Fusō 's turret No. 3 was moved to face forward during her reconstruction in order to accommodate additional platforms around her funnel .
The main battery of the Fusō class underwent multiple modernizations throughout the ships ' careers . During the first reconstruction of both vessels , the elevation of the main guns was increased to − 5 / + 43 degrees , giving a maximum firing range of 35 @,@ 450 yards ( 32 @,@ 420 m ) . The recoil mechanism of the guns was also changed from a hydraulic to pneumatic system , which allowed for a faster firing cycle of the main guns .
By World War II , the guns used Type 91 armor @-@ piercing , capped shells . Each of these shells weighed 673 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 485 lb ) and had a muzzle velocity of 775 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 540 ft / s ) . They had a maximum range of 27 @,@ 800 meters ( 30 @,@ 400 yd ) at + 30 degrees of elevation and 35 @,@ 450 meters ( 38 @,@ 770 yd ) at + 43 degrees after modernization . Also available was a 625 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 378 lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) . A special Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use .
As built , the Fusō class was fitted with a secondary armament of sixteen 50 @-@ caliber six @-@ inch guns mounted in single casemates along the sides of the hull at the level of the upper deck . Eight guns were mounted per side , and each had an arc of fire of 130 degrees and a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees . Each gun could fire a 45 @.@ 36 @-@ kilogram ( 100 @.@ 0 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile a maximum distance of 22 @,@ 970 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) at a rate of between four and six shots per minute . During their reconstruction in the 1930s , the maximum elevation of the guns was increased to + 30 degrees , which increased their maximum range by approximately 900 metres ( 980 yd ) .
The ships also mounted five or six 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns . The 76 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) high @-@ angle guns were in single mounts on both sides of the forward superstructure , both sides of the second funnel , and each side of the aft superstructure ( Fusō lacked the starboard side aft gun ) . Each of these guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and could fire a 6 kg ( 13 lb ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 680 m / s ( 2 @,@ 200 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 500 metres ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) . Both ships were equipped with six submerged 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , three on each broadside .
The Fusō class 's secondary armament changed significantly over time . During the modernizations of the 1930s , all of the 76 mm guns were replaced with eight 40 @-@ caliber 127 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) dual @-@ purpose guns . These guns were fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 metres ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 metres ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . During reconstruction , the two foremost 152 mm guns were also removed .
The light AA armament of the Fusō class changed dramatically from 1933 to 1944 . During the first reconstruction , Fusō was fitted with four quadruple 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) machine @-@ guns , while Yamashiro was fitted with eight twin 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) gun mounts . Both weapons were license @-@ built French Hotchkiss designs . The 25 mm guns were mounted on the Fusō class in single , double and triple mounts . This model was the standard Japanese light anti @-@ aircraft gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . The twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . The configuration of the anti @-@ aircraft guns varied significantly ; by the end of their final reconstruction , the Fusō class mounted eight twin mounts . In 1943 , seventeen single and two twin @-@ mounts were added for a total of 37 . In August 1944 , both were fitted with another twenty @-@ three single , six twin and eight triple @-@ mounts , for a total of 95 anti @-@ aircraft guns in their final configuration .
= = = Armor = = =
When the Fusō class was completed , the ships ' armor was " typical for a pre @-@ Jutland battleship " . As built , the armor accounted for a displacement of 8 @,@ 588 long tons ( 8 @,@ 726 t ) , approximately 29 % of the class 's total displacement . Their waterline armor belt was 305 to 229 millimetres ( 12 to 9 in ) thick ; below it was a strake of 102 mm ( 4 in ) armor . The deck armor ranged in thickness from 32 to 51 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 279 @.@ 4 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) on the face , 228 @.@ 6 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) on the sides , and 114 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 51 in ) on the roof . The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armor 305 mm thick , while the casemates of the 152 mm guns were protected by 152 mm armor plates . The sides of the conning tower were 351 millimetres ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Additionally , the vessels contained 737 watertight compartments ( 574 underneath the armor deck , 163 above ) to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage .
During their reconstruction , the armor of the battleships was substantially upgraded . Their deck armor was increased to a maximum thickness of 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) , and a longitudinal bulkhead of 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of high @-@ tensile steel was added to improve the underwater protection . This brought the total armor tonnage up to 12 @,@ 199 long tons ( 12 @,@ 395 t ) , approximately 31 % of the total displacement of the Fusō class . Even after these improvements , the armor was still incapable of withstanding 14 @-@ inch shells .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Yamashiro was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying @-@ off platform on Turret No. 2 in 1922 . She successfully launched Gloster Sparrowhawk and Sopwith Camel fighters from it , becoming the first Japanese ship to launch aircraft . When she was modernized in the 1930s , a catapult and a collapsible crane were fitted on the stern , and both ships were equipped to operate three floatplanes , although no hangar was provided . The initial Nakajima E4N2 biplanes were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938 and then by Mitsubishi F1M biplanes from 1942 on .
= = = Fire control and sensors = = =
When completed in 1915 , the ships had two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft 6 in ) and two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders in the forward superstructure , a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder on the roof of Turret No. 2 , and 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders in Turrets 3 , 4 , and 5 . In late 1917 a fire @-@ control director was installed on a platform on the foremast . The 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders were replaced by 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) instruments in 1923 . During Fusō 's first modernization , four directors for the 12 @.@ 7 cm AA guns were added , one on each side of the fore and aft superstructures , and an eight @-@ meter rangefinder was installed at the top of the pagoda mast . This was replaced by a 10 @-@ meter ( 32 ft 10 in ) rangefinder during 1938 . At the same time , the two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders on the forward superstructure were replaced by directors for the 25 mm AA guns . Additional 25 mm directors were installed on platforms on each side of the funnel .
While the ships were in drydock in July 1943 , Type 21 air search radar was installed on the roof of the 10 @-@ meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast . In August 1944 , two Type 22 surface search radar units were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radar units were fitted . Yamashiro mounted hers on the mainmast , while Fusō was the only Japanese battleship to mount radar on her funnel .
= = Ships = =
Two advanced versions of the class were planned , but the final design differed so markedly from Fusō 's that they became the Ise class . When she was completed in 1915 , Fusō was considered the first modern battleship of the Japanese Navy . She outclassed her American counterparts of the New York class in firepower and speed , and was considered the " most powerfully armed battleship in the world " . Despite extensive modernization in the 1930s , both battleships were considered obsolescent by the commencement of World War II . Following the loss of much of Japan 's aircraft carrier fleet by 1943 , a proposal was floated that would have converted both vessels into hybrid battleship @-@ carriers . Work was scheduled to commence in June 1943 , but the plan was cancelled and the two Ise @-@ class battleships were converted instead .
= = Service = =
Fusō was commissioned on 8 November 1915 and assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet on 13 December . The ship did not take part in any combat during World War I , as there were no longer any forces of the Central Powers in Asia by the time she was completed . She served as the flagship of the 1st Division during 1917 and 1918 , and patrolled off the coast of China during that time . The ship aided survivors of the Great Kanto Earthquake between 9 and 22 September 1923 . In the 1920s , Fusō conducted training off the coast of China and was often placed in reserve . After assignment as a training ship in 1936 and 1937 , she briefly operated in Chinese waters in early 1939 .
Yamashiro was completed on 31 March 1917 and assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet in 1917 – 18 , though she had no combat role in World War I. Like her sister , she patrolled off the coast of China during the war and assisted during the Great Kanto Earthquake . Little detailed information is available about her activities during the 1920s , although she did make a port visit to Port Arthur , China , on 5 April 1925 and also conducted training off the coast of China . Yamashiro became flagship of the Combined Fleet in 1935 . In early 1941 , the ship experimentally launched radio @-@ controlled Kawanishi E7K2 floatplanes .
= = = World War II = = =
In April and May 1941 , Fusō and Yamashiro were attached to the 2nd Division of the 1st Fleet , but the two ships spent most of the war around Japan , mostly at the anchorage at Hashirajima in Hiroshima Bay . When the war started for Japan on 8 December , the division sortied from Hashirajima to the Bonin Islands as distant support for the 1st Air Fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . On 18 April 1942 , they pursued but did not catch the American carrier force that had launched the Doolittle Raid . Commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Shirō Takasu , the division set sail with the Aleutian Support Group on 28 May , at the same time that most of the Imperial Fleet began an attack on Midway Island ( Operation MI ) .
Afterwards , Yamashiro returned to home waters , where she stayed until August 1943 ; the next month , she became a training ship for midshipmen . In July 1943 , Yamashiro was at the Yokosuka drydock , then was briefly assigned as a training ship on 15 September before loading troops on 13 October bound for Truk Naval Base , arriving on the 20th . She sailed for Japan on 31 October . On 8 November , the submarine USS Halibut fired torpedoes at Junyo that missed , but hit Yamashiro with a torpedo that failed to detonate . Returning to Japanese waters , Yamashiro resumed her training duties .
During the US invasion of Saipan in June 1944 , Japanese troop ships attempting to reinforce the defenses were sunk by submarines . Shigenori Kami , chief of operations of the Navy Staff , volunteered to command Yamashiro to carry troops and equipment to Saipan . If the ship actually reached the island , he intended to deliberately beach the ship before it could be sunk and to use its artillery to defend the island . After Ryūnosuke Kusaka , Chief of Staff of the Combined Fleet , also volunteered to go , Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō approved the plan , known as Operation Y @-@ GO , but the operation was cancelled after the decisive defeat in the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19 and 20 June .
Fusō was assigned to the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at Etajima , Hiroshima , for use as a training ship between 15 November 1942 and 15 January 1943 . On 8 June , she rescued 353 survivors from Mutsu when that ship exploded at Hashirajima . After carrying supplies to Truk Naval Base in August , Fusō made for Eniwetok two months later to be in a position to intercept an anticipated attack , returning to Truk on October 26 . She arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island , and was employed there as a training ship , before refitting at Singapore between 13 and 27 April and returning to Lingga . She was transferred to Tawi @-@ Tawi on 11 May , and provided cover for the abortive attempts to reinforce Biak Island at the end of the month . Fusō sailed to Tarakan Island off Borneo to refuel in early July before returning to Japan , escaping an attack by the submarine USS Pomfret . She was refitted in early August at Kure .
Both ships were transferred to Battleship Division 2 of the 2nd Fleet on 10 September . Yamashiro and Fusō alternated in the role of division flagship under Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura . They departed Kure on 23 September for Lingga Island , carrying the Army 's 25th Independent Mixed Regiment , and escaped an attack by the submarine USS Plaice the next day . They arrived on 4 October , then transferred to Brunei to offload their toops and refuel in preparation for Operation Shō @-@ Gō , the attempt to destroy the American fleet conducting the invasion of Luzon .
= = = = Battle of Surigao Strait = = = =
Nishimura 's " Southern Force " left Brunei at 15 : 30 on 22 October 1944 , heading east into the Sulu Sea and then to the northeast into the Mindanao Sea . Intending to join Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita 's force in Leyte Gulf , they passed west of Mindanao Island into Surigao Strait , where they met a large force of battleships , cruisers and destroyers lying in wait . The Battle of Surigao Strait would become the southernmost action in the Battle of Leyte Gulf .
At 09 : 08 on 24 October , Yamashiro , Fusō and the heavy cruiser Mogami spotted a group of 27 planes , including Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers escorted by Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters , that had been launched from the carrier Enterprise . Around 20 sailors on Yamashiro were killed by strafing and rocket attacks . Fusō 's catapult and both floatplanes were destroyed , and another bomb hit the ship near Turret No. 2 and penetrated the decks , killing everyone in No. 1 secondary battery .
Nishimura issued a telegram to Admiral Soemu Toyoda at 20 : 13 : " It is my plan to charge into Leyte Gulf to [ reach ] a point off Dulag at 04 : 00 hours on the 25th . " At 22 : 52 , his force spotted three or four Motor Torpedo Boats and opened fire , damaging PT @-@ 130 and PT @-@ 152 and forcing all of them to retreat before they could launch their torpedoes .
One or two torpedoes , possibly fired by the destroyer Melvin , hit Fusō amidships on the starboard side at 03 : 09 on the 25th ; she listed to starboard , slowed down , and fell out of formation . Some Japanese and American eyewitnesses later claimed that Fusō broke in half , and that both halves remained afloat and burning for an hour , but they specifically mentioned only the size of the fire on the water , and not any details of the ship . Historian John Toland agreed in 1970 that Fusō had broken in two , but according to historian Anthony Tully in 2009 , " Fuso was torpedoed , and as a result of progressive flooding , upended and capsized within forty minutes . " She sank between 03 : 38 and 03 : 50 ; only a few dozen men survived her rapid descent and massive oil fire , and only ten reached shore .
At 03 : 52 , Yamashiro was attacked by a large formation to the north commanded by Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf . First came 6- and 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) shells from a line of eight cruisers , then 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) and 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells from a line of six battleships . The main bombardment lasted 18 minutes , and Yamashiro was the only target for seven minutes . The first rounds hit the forecastle and pagoda mast , and soon the entire battleship appeared to be ablaze . Yamashiro 's two forward turrets targeted her assailants , and the secondary armament targeted the American destroyers plaguing Mogami and the destroyer Asagumo . There was a big explosion at 04 : 04 , possibly from one of the middle turrets . She was hit between 04 : 03 and 04 : 09 near the starboard engine room by a torpedo , and Nishimura wired to Kurita : " We proceed till totally annihilated . I have definitely accomplished my mission as pre @-@ arranged . Please rest assured . " At the same time , Oldendorf issued a cease @-@ fire order to the entire formation after hearing that the destroyer Albert W. Grant was taking friendly fire , and the Japanese ships also ceased fire .
Yamashiro increased speed , but she had been hit by two to four torpedoes , and after two more torpedo hits near the starboard engine room , she was listing 45 degrees to port . Shinoda gave the command to abandon ship , but neither he nor Nishimura made any attempt to leave the conning tower as the ship capsized within five minutes and quickly sank , stern first , vanishing from radar between 04 : 19 and 04 : 21 . Only 10 crewmembers of the estimated 1 @,@ 636 officers and crew on board survived .
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= University of Valle =
The University of Valle ( Spanish : Universidad del Valle ) , also called Univalle , is a public , departmental , coeducational , research university based primarily in the city of Cali , Valle del Cauca , Colombia . It is the largest higher education institution by student population in the southwest of the country , and the third in Colombia , with more than 30 @,@ 000 students . The university was established by ordinance No. 12 of 1945 , by the Departmental Assembly as the Industrial University of Valle del Cauca ( Spanish : Universidad Industrial del Valle del Cauca ) , under the leadership of Tulio Ramírez Rojas and Severo Reyes Gamboa .
The university has two campuses in Cali . The main one , known as University City of Melendez ( Spanish : Ciudad Universitaria Meléndez , CUM ) , is located in the southern neighborhood of Melendez and hosts the faculties of Engineering , Humanities , Integrated Arts , Sciences , and Social Sciences and Economics , as well as the institutes of Education and Pedagogy , and Psychology . Its second one , located in the centric San Fernando neighborhood , hosts the faculties of Administration Sciences and Health . The university also has several satellite campuses across the department in the cities of Buenaventura , Buga , Caicedonia , Cartago , Palmira , Tuluá , Yumbo , and Zarzal , and one campus in the neighboring Cauca department in the city of Santander de Quilichao . The university offers education at technological , undergraduate and postgraduate levels , with 258 academic programs , which includes 65 master and medical specialties , and 8 doctorates . Also , it hosts an excellence research center , six research centers , three research institutes , and 204 research groups .
The university is member of several university organizations including the Association of Colombian Universities ( ASCUN ) , the Iberoamerican Association of Postgraduate Universities ( AUIP ) , and the Iberoamerican University Network Universia . The Valle , National and Antioquia universities form what is known as the Golden Triangle of higher education in Colombia , being among the most selective and competitive universities in the country . It is one of the 15 universities in the country to have received a high quality institutional accreditation by the Ministry of Education , through resolution 2020 of June 3 , 2005 . The accreditation was for eight years , making the university one of only a few to be accredited for such a duration . The University is considered a premier school in the country and usually excels in its Health and Engineering programs .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment and early years = = =
Since the late 19th century the idea of creating a university in Cali had been an ambition of the people of the city and of the Valle del Cauca Department , and was continuously discussed and mentioned in the local newspapers . At the time , the only further education degrees awarded in the department were awarded by the Santa Librada College in Cali and the Academic College of Buga , which focused on the liberal arts . In the 1940s , the necessity for qualified professionals that could supply the demand of the new industrial sector of Valle del Cauca made it clear that an institution focusing on scientific and technological education was of strategic importance to the development of the region . Despite the idea of its creation being met with some skepticism , the University of Valle was established by the ordinance number 12 of June 11 , 1945 , by the Departmental Assembly as the Universidad Industrial del Valle del Cauca . The leaders behind the establishment of the university were Tulio Ramírez Rojas , who would become the first rector of the university , and Severo Reyes Gamboa , the departmental secretary of education at the time .
The university began its work in 1945 in a small house located in downtown Cali , with faculties of Agronomy , Business , and Nursing . In 1946 the Faculty of Chemistry was established , followed by the Faculty of Architecture in 1947 , and in 1948 the Faculty of Electrical Engineering , which changed its name in 1949 to the Faculty of Electromechanical Engineering . At this early stage , the university faced its first financial crisis , a situation that was preceded by the destitution of the rector Ramírez in 1949 by political reasons , and caused by the diminishing support of the local government . The crisis , which almost ended in the university closure in 1950 , would represent one of many chapters of the financial difficulties faced by the university in its history .
After the crisis was overcome , in 1950 the Faculty of Medicine was established , and began its work in 1951 on the campus of the Santa Librada College . Then , in 1954 started the construction of the San Fernando campus for the Faculties of Medicine , Nursing , and Architecture . This same year , by ordinance number 10 of 1954 , the university changed its name to Universidad del Valle , established as part of the university government an Academic Council and an Administrative Council , the latter with the participation of representatives of different sectors of the community .
In 1955 , under the tutelage of rector Mario Carvajal , the university opened the School of Graduate Studies in Medicine , and its publishing house was established under the name of University of Valle Library ( Spanish : Biblioteca de la Universidad del Valle ) . In 1957 , the university began its technical and further education programs with the establishment of the schools of Medical Laboratory Technicians and Engineering Auxiliaries in Topography and Roads . At the end of the 1950s , the university comprised five faculties and three schools , 556 students , 174 professors , and 159 administrative staff . Its budget had risen to $ 5 @.@ 73 million COP and its patrimony to approximately $ 20 million COP .
= = = Academic consolidation and the student movement = = =
In 1962 , the Office of University Planning was established with the objective of developing a general plan for the university , which included the construction of a new campus , and the development of the regional university system by the creation of satellite campuses in the intermediate cities of the department . The new campus , located in the southern part of the city was construed on donated land and financed by a loan requested from the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ( IDB ) , the creation of an revenue stamp , and the request for a part of the land value tax revenues of the adjacent neighborhoods . In 1964 the Schools and Faculties were reorganized into Divisions and Departments , which translated into an increased academic activity . At the time , five divisions were established with the reorganization : Architecture , Economy , Engineering , Health , and Sciences ; and two more were created : Education and Humanities . By 1968 the university begun its internationalization process and an increment of its postgraduate programs , thanks to several donations made by several foreign foundations . By the end of the 1960s , the university had 5302 students , 453 full @-@ time and 174 part @-@ time professors , of which 9 % had a Doctorate , 20 % a Masters , and 21 % a Specialist degree .
At this time , the first serious student revolts started to emerge , motivated by the local and global changes of the decade , like the Vietnam war , the European student movement , the presence of the Peace Corps in Latin @-@ America and specially in Colombia , the rejection of the IDB loan and the presence of the foreign foundations . On February 15 , 1971 , after the unconsulted election of the Dean of the Division of Social Science and Economics , some students took the rectory . This marked the first incursion of the police force to the university campus . For these events , some professors and students were expelled of the university . Nevertheless , the support for the rector dropped , who had to resign . Since mid February to April , the university was closed until the new rector was appointed .
In 1975 the university changed again its organizational structure into Faculties , and new programs were created , for example Social Communication and Journalism , Social Work were established in the Faculty of Humanities . In 1977 , in order to avoid the desertion of several faculty members , it was established the professorship career system based in academic , investigative , and administrative merits . In 1976 , with the creation of the Socio Economical Research Center , the first steps into the creation of the Sociology program in 1978 were taken .
= = = Social projection , research and technological development = = =
In 1983 , the Department of Administration branched out of the Faculty of Engineering and constituted the actual Faculty of Administration Sciences . In 1985 , the Professorial Statute Committee was created to determine the procedures related to the professorial career . The same year , the first agreements for the development of joint research projects were signed with the Ministry of National Education , COLCIENCIAS , the UNESCO , and the OAS , among others . This agreements are the cornerstone for the development in the 1990s of the Doctoral degrees offered by the university . Also , in the 1980s , and thanks to the establishment of a revenue stamp by the Congress of the Republic , the University began the establishment of its satellite campuses . At first , the courses presented in this campuses were only foundation courses , which required to the students its finalization in the main campus to obtain their degrees , until 1995 , when all the satellite campuses allowed the finalization of the program .
In 1994 , the Institute of Education and Pedagogy and the School of Psychology are established . In 1995 , from the fusion of the faculty of Architecture , and the programs of Social Communication , Drama , and Music is established the Faculty of Integrated Arts . This same year , the accreditation process of all the programs was carried out .
The incomes from the revenue stamp created a surplus in the university finances , which were poorly administrated . Excessive amounts of the budget were directed to the establishment of research institutes and centers , creation of new professorial chairs , and the construction of several buildings , the establishment of a technological infrastructure , including Internet access , creating a deficit in the universities accounts . This situation , together with the increasing cost of the retirement plans and the delay in its payments , were the causes of the financial and institutional crisis of 1998 , which ended in the closure of the university in the second semester of 1998 and the suspension of payment to all the academic and administrative staff members .
= = = Institutional accreditation and current standing = = =
In early 1999 , the University restarted its operations after several difficulties . The work of Rectors Emilio Aljure Nasser and Oscar Rojas Rentería , allowed the creation of the Retirement Fund in 2000 with the participation of the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit , the Governor of Valle del Cauca and the University , which has managed since then the retirement plans for all the staff . Also , the debt contracted with the private banking sector was renegotiated and will be paid in full by 2010 , and the wages were paid .
In 2000 a new curricular adjustment was made , with the objective to fulfill all the quality accreditation requirements . In 2001 the coverage was increased by the aperture of the programs each semester and the creation of nocturnal courses . The same year , the research system was implemented and the Publishing House was reopened .
= = Campus = =
= = = Melendez campus = = =
The main campus , also known as University City of Melendez , is located in the southern neighborhood of Melendez in the city of Cali , between the Calle 13 or Pasoancho Avenue and the Calle 16 , and the Carrera 86 and Carrera 100 . It is one of the largest campuses in Colombia , with 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m2 ( 250 acres ) of land donated by the Garces Giraldo Brothers . The architectural project , which won the national architecture prize in 1972 , was the work of several members of the faculty under the coordination of the architect Jamie Cruz . During its construction it was used as Olympic village for the 1971 Pan American Games .
The campus can be roughly divided in two by the Jaime Garces B. Avenue that runs in an east @-@ west direction . The northern part , which is also the largest , is mostly undeveloped . The developed area is enclosed by the Tulio Ramirez Avenue , and it is composed of more than 30 buildings , including the main administration building , the faculties of Science and of Engineering , part of the faculty of Integrated Arts , and the Mario Carvajal Library , which is the main library of the university .
The southern part includes the University Sports Center , which is composed of a main stadium , with an athletic track and seating for 3020 spectators ; 8 soccer courts ; 4 basketball / volleyball courts ; the Alberto León Betancour Arena ; an Olympic size swimming pool ; and 4 tennis courts . It also includes the faculties of Humanities , Social Sciences and Economics , the remaining part of the faculty of Integrated Arts , the institute of Education and Pedagogy , the institute of Psychology , and the main dining hall .
The landscape of the campus , designed by architects Lyda Caldas and Harold Borrero , imitates the savanna environment of the Cauca River valley . The campus contains 4 @,@ 250 trees from 182 species , some of which are endangered in the country .
= = = San Fernando campus = = =
The San Fernando campus , located in the central neighborhood of the same name in Cali was the main location of the university from its construction in 1954 until 1962 . This campus , with an area of 39 @,@ 960 m2 ( 9 @.@ 87 acres ) , shares grounds with the " Evaristo Garcia " University Hospital of Valle ( Spanish : Hospital Universitario del Valle " Evaristo García " ) , and can be roughly divided in two by the Calle 4B which runs in the south @-@ north direction . The western part is surrounded by the Carrera 36 , the Carrera 36B , and the Calle 4 is the largest section contains the Faculty of Administration Sciences , most of the Faculty of Health , and the San Fernando Library . The eastern part , which is adjacent to the hospital , contains the School of Nursing , the San Fernando University Sport Center , and the administrative buildings .
= = = La Carbonera campus = = =
The campus at the city of Palmira is located in La Carbonera sector between the Carrera 31 and the La Carbonera Avenue , in a 50 @,@ 000 m2 ( 12 acres ) terrain donated by the sugar mill company Manuelita S.A .. The project is to be completed in three stages , and was designed by an interdisciplinary team led by the Research Center in Territory , Construction and Space , and the School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics of the University . The construction of the first phase of the first stage started on June 15 , 2007 , and was inaugurated on June 11 , 2009 , correspond to a three @-@ story building with a surface area of 5 @,@ 200 m2 ( 1 @.@ 3 acres ) , with a cost of $ 6 billion COP . The new building counts with a library , five laboratories for chemistry , biology , electronics , physics , and food analysis ; an auditorium for 150 spectators , and 27 class rooms with Internet access . The second and third planned phases for the first stage are the construction of a similar building and an auditorium for 1 @,@ 500 spectators .
= = = Satellite campuses = = =
The university also has other seven satellite campuses in other cities of the Valle del Cauca Department and one in the Cauca Department . These are located in the cities of Buenaventura ( Pacific campus ) , Buga , Caicedonia , Cartago , Santander de Quilichao ( Northern Cauca campus ) , Tulúa , Yumbo , and Zarzal .
= = Organization = =
The university highest government body is the University Council which is formed of eleven members : the governor of Valle del Cauca , the rector , the general secretary , and representatives for the President of the Republic , the Ministry of Education , deans , professors , alumni , students , former rectors , and the productive sector .
Academic affairs are overseen by the Academic Council , which is formed of seventeen members : The rector , the general secretary , the vice @-@ rectors for Academics , Administrative Affairs , Research , and University Welfare ; the deans of the eight faculties ; the directors of the two institutes and the offices of Planning and Regionalisation ; two representatives for the professors , one representative for academic programs , and two representatives for the students .
The rector is the chief executive officer and is elected for a four @-@ year period with the possibility of reelection . The current rector is Iván Enrique Ramos Calderón , who started his term in 2003 and was reelected for a second term in 2007 . The rectory has six dependencies : the Direction of Regionalisation , the offices of Information and Telecommunications , Internal Control , Institutional relationships , Legal Affairs , and Planning and Institutional Development ; and the General Secretary .
The Vice @-@ rector for Academics is responsible for the development and functioning of the academic affairs . The office is currently held by Martha Cecilia Gómez de García . The Vice @-@ rector for Administrative Affairs deals with the administrative and financial process , making sure that they fit with the organization mission statement . The office is currently held by Edgar Varela Barrios . The Vice @-@ rector for Research is in charge of formulation and proposing social and scientific research policies . The office is currently held by Carolina Isaza de Lourido . The Vice @-@ rector for University Welfare is in charge of the welfare of the community regarding health , sports , and recreation . The office is currently held by Luis Fernando Castro .
Each academic division , either faculty or institute , has a directive council . These include the dean or director , the vice @-@ deans or sub @-@ directors of academics and research , the academic and administrative coordinators , the director of each school , department , or area ; and a representative for the professors and for the students . Also , each division has an extension and communication office . The research centers or institutes affiliated to the academic divisions are independent organizations at the same level as the schools , departments , or areas .
= = Academics = =
= = = Student profile = = =
The university has 27 @,@ 725 undergraduate and 2 @,@ 595 graduate students , including 211 doctoral students . Each year about 33 @,@ 000 new students apply for admission , with equal proportions of female and male applicants . On average , only 25 % of the applicants are admitted , of which approximately 40 % are female and 60 % male . The student population comes primarily from the department of Valle del Cauca , representing almost 90 % of the admitted students . The departments of Cauca and Nariño come in second and third in terms of student representation in the school , with approximately 5 % and 2 % respectively .
Nearly 55 % of the admitted students come from public high schools , while 45 % come from private schools . By 2007 , the student population was predominantly middle @-@ lower and lower class with 42 % and 35 % from each background respectively . 42 % of the students are between 19 and 22 years of age , 25 % between 23 and 25 years , and 17 % between 15 and 18 years . Each year about 2 @,@ 300 undergraduate and 600 postgraduate students graduate from the university .
Each year , an average of 1 @,@ 263 University of Valle students take the Examinations for Higher Education Quality ( Spanish : Exámenes de Calidad de la Educación Suprerior , ECAES ) . The test , carried out by the ICFES , evaluates the general and specific competencies of final year students from 27 undergraduate subjects . Every year an average of 53 % of the test takers from the university obtain a score in the top 75th percentile , and 40 achieve a top 10 place in its subject test . The university usually excels in its Health programs , especially Medicine , Dentistry , and Physiotherapy .
= = = University profile = = =
The university has eight faculties and two institutes that between them offer 258 academic programs . 181 of these are undergraduate programs , and 94 are postgraduate , including 8 doctoral degrees by research . Of this , 189 programs are offered in the city of Cali , and 69 in the regional campuses . The duration of the programs are three years for an Associate , five years for a Bachelor , one and a half years for a graduate diploma , two years for a Master , and five years for a Doctorate . As of 2009 , 30 of the undergraduate programs have received a high quality accreditation from the ministry of education . In 2005 , the university received an overall high quality accreditation from the Ministry of National Education , making it one of 15 in the country to have received such an award . The accreditation was for eight years , a period surpassed only by those given to the Antioquia and Andes universities .
By 2008 the faculty consisted of 836 tenured full @-@ time professors , 32 @.@ 9 % female and 67 @.@ 1 % male , and 411 full @-@ time equivalent non @-@ tenured professors . The highest academic degree attained by each member of the faculty broke down as follows :
doctorate : 25 %
masters : 39 %
specialist : 19 %
undergraduate : 16 %
The average age of the faculty was 49 years of age , with 39 @.@ 9 % between the ages of 46 and 55 , and 29 % between 36 and 45 years old .
The university has signed 86 cooperation agreements with educative and governmental institutions around the globe , including 24 agreements with Spanish institutions and 10 with American institutions . The agreements include documentation exchange , double degree programs , joint research projects , and mobility programs for professor , researcher , and student exchange . Some of the high profile agreements are with the German Academic Exchange Service , the Clemson and Tulane Universities , and the EPFL . The university is also member of several associations which include the ASCUN , AUIP , CINDA , IOHE , and the Universia network .
The Farallones Local Area Network allows the access of more than 4 @,@ 200 computers to a 10 Mbit / s dedicated Internet link provided by the High Speed University Network ( Spanish : Red Universitaria de Alta Velocidad , RUAV ) , which provides the member universities with the infrastructure for advanced services such as access to digital libraries , telemedicine , telepresence and Videoconferencing , as well as educational resources including virtual campuses and laboratories . The RUAV is part of the National Academic Network of Advanced Technology ( Spanish : Red Nacional Académica de Tecnología Avanzada , RENATA ) , which is connected to the Internet2 and GÉANT networks through the Latin American Cooperation of Advanced Networks ( Spanish : Cooperación Latino Americana de Redes Avanzadas , CLARA ) .
= = = = Faculties = = = =
The Faculty of Administration Sciences was established on July 26 , 1984 , but its origins can be traced to the administration courses offered for engineering students since 1961 . It offers the undergraduate programs of Bachelor of Business Administration , Accountancy , Commerce , and an Associate degree in Technology of Executive Management . It also offers graduate diplomas in Finances , Strategic Marketing , Quality and Productivity Administration , Public Administration , Public Management and Policies ; and the master 's degrees in Business Administration , Organization Sciences , and Public Policies .
The Faculty of Engineering , established February 14 , 1947 is the largest faculty by student population and number of tenured professors . It offers the degree of Bachelor of Engineering with emphasis in Agricultural , Civil , Chemical , Electronics , Electrical , Food , Industrial , Materials , Mechanical , Sanitation , and Surveying engineering , the degree of Professional in Statistics , and the Associate of Engineering degree in Ecology and Environmental Management , Electronics , Food Processing , Information Systems , and Soil and Water Management and Conservation . It also offers 14 graduate diplomas ; and a Master by research degree in 10 areas of emphasis and one Doctoral by research degree in 5 areas of emphasis .
The Faculty of Health was established in 1969 as the Health Division , from the merge of the Faculty of Medicine , and the Schools of Nursing , Laboratory Technicians , and Physiotherapy Technicians . It has the largest number of postgraduate students in the university , and the second in number of tenured professors . It offers 10 undergraduate programs which includes the degrees of Physician and Surgeon , Nurse , and Dentist , 3 graduate diplomas in medical administration , 22 medical specialties , 4 nursing specialties , 3 dentistry specialties , 5 Master 's degrees , and a Doctorate in medical research with 3 emphasis areas .
The Faculty of Humanities was established in September 1964 as the Humanities Division . It offers the degrees of Bachelor of Arts in Geography , History , Philosophy , and Social work ; and the Bachelor of Education with emphasis in Foreign Languages , Geography , History , Letters , and Philosophy . It also offers 6 graduate diplomas , and 4 Master of Arts degrees by research .
The Faculty of Integrated Arts was established on April 21 , 1995 , by the fusion the former faculty of Architecture and the Departments of Design , Music , Scenic Arts , Social Communication , and Visual Arts and Aesthetics . It offers the undergraduate degree of Bachelor of Arts with emphasis in Graphic and Industrial Design , Dramatic Art , Architecture , Social communication and Journalism , Music , Visual Arts , and the degree of Bachelor of Education with emphasis in Music . It also offers the graduate diplomas of Landscaping and Administration of Construction Enterprises .
The Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences was established in February , 1966 , it offers the degree of Bachelor of Science with emphasis in Biology , Chemistry , Mathematics , and Physics , and the Associate of Science in Chemical Technology . It also offers the graduate diplomas in Chemical Technology , Entomology , and Ethnobiology ; the graduate degrees by research of Master and Doctor of Science with emphasis in Biology , Chemistry , Mathematics , and Physics .
The Faculty of Social Sciences and Economics was established in 1975 , by the fusion of the Departments of Social Sciences and Economics . Its origins can be traced to 1958 , when the Division of Economics was created . It offers the bachelor 's degrees in Economics and Sociology , and the master 's degrees by research in Applied Economics , and Sociology .
= = = = Institutes = = = =
The Institute of Education and Pedagogy was established on February 10 , 2003 , to replace the Faculty of Education , established in 1962 . It offers the undergraduate degree of Bachelor of Education , with emphasis in Basic Education , Math and Physics , Physical Education and Sports , Popular Education ; and the degrees of Professional in Recreation , Professional in Political studies and conflict resolution , and Professional in Sport Sciences . It also offers the graduate degrees by research of Master and Doctor of Education .
The Institute of Psychology was established on February 10 , 2003 . It offers the undergraduate degree of Psychologist and the graduate degrees by research of Master and Doctor of Psychology .
= = = = Libraries = = = =
The university library system is managed by the Library Division , created in 1963 , and counts with three central libraries , six documentation centers , one specialized library , and nine regional libraries . By 2008 , the library collection was composed of 681 @,@ 928 titles , 51 % of which were books or thesis in printed and digital format , and 37 % were printed or microfilm journals and magazines . The Mario Carvajal Library , which was created under the technical advise of the Rockefeller Foundation , is one of the largest university libraries in the country with 18 @,@ 000 m2 ( 4 @.@ 4 acres ) of constructed space .
= = = Rankings = = =
The following is a summary of the University of Valle rankings :
^ Parenthesis number indicates national ranking
^ This ranking is published twice a year . Semesters are separated by " / "
^ This is a national ranking only
The university is consistently ranked among the top five higher education institutions in Colombia .
= = Research = =
The university has a long tradition in research that can be traced to its origins . It is home to an excellence research center , 6 research centers , 3 research institutes , and 276 groups , of which 122 are recognized by COLCIENCIAS . In 2007 276 research projects were carried out , with an investment totaling $ 8 @.@ 84 billion COP provided by fifteen national and international entities .
The Excellence Center for Novel Materials ( Spanish : Centro de Excelencia en Nuevos Materiales , CENM ) is part of a high @-@ priority national effort , supported primarily by COLCIENCIAS and implemented by 19 recognized multidisciplinary research groups in 10 universities across the nation . Additionally , it gets international support from four world @-@ renowned institutions : The Nanotechnology center from Northwestern University , the Thin Film and Nanoscience Group from the University of California at San Diego , the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering from the University of Michigan , and the Center for Advanced Interdisciplinary Research on Materials from the University of Chile . Research work at CENM is organized around 4 Interdisciplinary Research Themes ( IRT ) , which are : Advanced Coatings , Composite Materials , Nano @-@ magnetism , and Solid State Devices , Sensors , and Mesoscopic Systems . The center acquired in 2008 an Atomic force microscope , the first in South America , with a cost of $ 620 million COP .
= = = Academic Publisher = = =
The University of Valle Publishing Program ( Spanish : Programa Editorial de la Universidad del Valle ) , is the publishing arm of the University . While its origins can be traced since 1955 , when it started operation under the name University of Valle Library ( Spanish : Biblioteca de la Universidad del Valle ) , the current publisher was established under Agreement 005 of the University Council on the 29 of April 2002 , and it is regulated by Agreement 006 of 2004 . It is a dependency of the Vice @-@ rectory for Research and its editorial board is comprised by the Vice @-@ rectors for Academics and Research , five tenured Professors , and the manager of the program . The program publishes books and scientific journals , both in print and electronic media with more than 300 titles currently on print .
= = Student life = =
= = = Activism = = =
The university has a student body deeply involved in social activism . Its origins can be traced to the early years of the university . In 1954 the first national student congress took place in Cali , where the main issues that the student movement would tackle were defined : the university 's autonomy , and the freedom and democratization of education . Then , in 1957 , the National Union of University Students was established . The university would become an important member of this organization , whose first significant action would take place in May of the same year that ended the dictatorship of General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla . The events started with a strike by students of the university , followed by students of private universities in Bogotá , and then by workers in the industrial , transportation , financial , and commercial sectors .
The student movement has not been free from the influence of radical groups . This influence intensified in the 1960s , during the government of Carlos Lleras Restrepo , who initiated a repressive and military approach to the university conflicts . Since then , there have been confrontations between radical groups , from inside and outside of the university , and the police , in the campus grounds and its surroundings . On some occasions this resulted in participants being injured or even killed . On April 4 , 2001 , during a confrontation between masked individuals and the Mobile Anti @-@ Disturbance Squadron ( Spanish : Escuadrón Móvil Antidisturbios , ESMAD ) , police patrolmen John Arce was killed by an explosive . This incident was followed by the incursion of the police force into the university , which left equipment , buildings , and vehicles damaged . On September 22 , 2005 , during a protest against the Free Trade Agreement between the United States and Colombia , the chemistry student Jhonny Silva Aranguren was killed , according by some witnesses , by the police force .
While most of the university community is against the actions of the radical movements , this has not prevented the stigmatization of the student body by the general population . This attitude has led to the belief that the guerrilla and subversive groups that operate in Colombia have clandestine operatives inside the university , a belief that has been supported by the discovery of unconventional weaponry inside the university grounds . This has resulted in the targeting of student activists by criminal and paramilitary groups . On October 4 , 2006 , a student of Technology of Prehospital Attention and representative at the Academic Council , Julian Andrés Hurtado , was killed by hitmen . In his honor , the Government of Valle del Cauca and the Institute for the Development of Valle del Cauca ( Spanish : Instituto Financiero para el Desarrollo del Valle del Cauca , INFIVALLE ) established a scholarship program that bears his name . Another situation that reflects the stigmatization of the student body is the unfounded arrests of students during the disturbances , such as those that occurred on April 3 , 2008 , when four students were captured without substantial evidence , and eventually released when it was demonstrated that they were not even near the confrontation site at the time of the disturbances .
= = = Athletics = = =
The university participates in the Southwest division of the ASCUN tournament , along with other 26 institutions from the departments of Cauca , Nariño , and Valle del Cauca , with student , staff , and faculty teams . These games are qualifiers for the national tournament , which has been held every year since 1996 . The university has male and female varsity teams in Basketball , Billiards , Chess , Cycling , Futsal , Judo , Karate , Rugby , Soccer , Swimming , Taekwondo , table and outdoor Tennis , Track and field , Triathlon , Beach and indoor Volleyball , and Weightlifting . The university also participates in smaller invitational tournaments , such as the CUAO , ICESI , Javeriana , and Loyola cups .
= = = Student groups = = =
The university has 53 student groups and organizations , involved in research , academic , ecological , social history , and sports activities . Three of the most notable student groups are the " Carmen López " folk dance group , the " El Perol " storytellers group and the " Coro Magno " choir .
= = Noted people = =
In over 60 years of history , the university has held among its students , faculty , and staff , many notable people , including politicians , scientists , and artists . This includes the current governor of Nariño Antonio Navarro Wolff , and the former governor of Valle del Cauca Gustavo Álvarez Gardeazábal , who not only are alumni of the university , but at one point in time were also faculty members . The former Ministry of the Interior and Justice and ambassador of Colombia in Italy , Sabas Pretelt de la Vega , attended the university as well .
Some scientists affiliated to the university are Sócrates Herrera Valencia , head of the Immunology Research Institute of the university and creator of a synthetic vaccine against malaria ; and Raúl Cuero , a researcher in biotechnology at the Texas A & M University and an employee at NASA .
The faculty of Integrated Arts is also gaining national notability . The film directors Antonio Dorado and Carlos Moreno , both alumni of the university , are part of the new generation of Colombian filmmakers . Dorado , who is also a faculty member , directed the movie The King , which was nominated for the Goya Awards . Moreno directed the movie Dog Eat Dog , which was the first Colombian movie to be shown in the Sundance Film Festival .
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= Hugh Stewart ( classical scholar ) =
Hugh Stewart , CMG , DSO & bar , MC ( 1 September 1884 – 21 September 1934 ) was an academic , military leader and historian whose work had a major impact in both England and New Zealand .
Born in Scotland , Stewart worked in Russia teaching English after completing his education . He then taught classical studies , firstly at the University of Liverpool in England and then at Canterbury College in Christchurch , New Zealand . During the First World War , he volunteered for service abroad with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force . He participated in several engagements at Gallipoli and on the Western Front , and was decorated for bravery and leadership . He ended the war as a lieutenant @-@ colonel and commanding a battalion of the Canterbury Infantry Regiment , having also briefly led the 2nd Infantry Brigade .
After the war , Stewart wrote a history of the New Zealand Division , which was published in 1921 and would be the main reference work for this formation for several decades . He resumed his teaching career at Canterbury College but in 1926 returned to England , as a Professor of Latin at the University of Leeds . In 1929 , he became the principal of University College of Nottingham . He died suddenly in 1934 while in transit to England after a holiday in New Zealand .
= = Early life and teaching career = =
Stewart was born on 1 September 1884 in Premnay , Aberdeenshire , Scotland , to John Stewart , a Presbyterian minister , and Margaret Mackintosh . He was educated at the local public school in Premnay . An excellent student , he earned a scholarship to Fettes College at Edinburgh . In 1903 , he attended the University of Edinburgh and then transferred to Trinity College , Cambridge , from which he received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1907 , majoring in Classical Studies . During his tertiary education he also served in the Territorial Force as a lieutenant in the 6th Battalion , King 's Regiment ( Liverpool ) .
Stewart spent the next two years working in Russia as a tutor , teaching English . He learned the Russian language and wrote a book describing his experiences and the country , Provincial Russia . Returning to England , he took up an appointment as Assistant Lecturer in Classics at the University of Liverpool . In 1912 , he accepted a professorship teaching classics at Canterbury College , in Christchurch , New Zealand . At the college , later to become the University of Canterbury , he acquired a reputation for his energy and wit . In his leisure time , he often went climbing in the Southern Alps .
= = First World War = =
When the First World War broke out in August 1914 , Stewart enlisted in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) . He received a commission as a lieutenant and was posted to the Canterbury Battalion , New Zealand Infantry Brigade , which embarked from Wellington in October 1914 for Suez , Egypt . In Egypt , the brigade was combined with an Australian infantry brigade to form the New Zealand and Australian Division , intended for service in the Gallipoli Campaign .
Stewart served at Gallipoli and received a head wound during the fighting at Quinn 's Post in June 1915 but , despite this , remained in the frontlines . He was promoted to captain in August , and to major two months later . He was recommended for the Military Cross for his action at Quinn 's Post and this was duly gazetted following the withdrawal of the Allies from Gallipoli . He was also awarded the French Croix de guerre for his " distinguished services rendered during the course of the campaign " .
By January 1916 , the manpower of the NZEF had expanded sufficiently that it could field a full infantry division on the Western Front . Accordingly , the New Zealand and Australian Division , which had been evacuated to Egypt from Gallipoli , was disbanded and the New Zealand Division created from the original infantry brigade as well as two new brigades ( the 2nd Infantry Brigade and New Zealand Rifle Brigade ) , which had recently arrived from New Zealand . Promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel on 27 February 1916 , Stewart took command of the newly formed 2nd Battalion , Canterbury Infantry Regiment , which was attached to the 2nd Infantry Brigade . He led the battalion for nearly the duration of its service on the Western Front .
In June 1917 , Stewart was rewarded with the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) in recognition of his leadership of his battalion during the Battle of Flers – Courcelette in September the previous year . He had planned and executed an attack by his battalion on German @-@ held trenches and , once the objective was captured , organised its defence against several counterattacks . He was awarded a bar to his DSO six months later , for his efforts during the Battle of Messines during which he was wounded . His injuries were severe , due to eight separate shrapnel wounds , and he was evacuated to London for treatment . Returning to the field in late 1917 , he was temporary commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade at various times during 1918 while its regular commander was on leave or employed elsewhere . While on leave , on 21 February 1918 , Stewart married Alexandrina Kathleen Johnston at Uttoxeter , in the county of Staffordshire in England .
Just after the cessation of hostilities he was temporarily promoted to colonel , and was appointed Director of Education for the NZEF . He remained at that post through to February 1919 at which time he was discharged from the NZEF , having reverted to his substantive rank of lieutenant colonel . During the course of the war , Stewart had been mentioned in despatches five times . In May 1919 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , and his citation noted his leadership of his battalion and temporary command of 2nd Infantry Brigade as well as his educational work for the NZEF .
= = Postwar life = =
Stewart was commissioned by the New Zealand Government to write a history of the New Zealand Division and its service on the Western Front as part of the Official History of New Zealand 's Effort in the Great War . He began work on the first draft in January 1919 , while still in England . He returned to New Zealand in December that year and resumed his prewar teaching position at Canterbury College , while continuing work on his history . The final result , titled The New Zealand Division 1916 – 1919 : A Popular History Based on Official Records , was published in 1921 and remained the primary reference for New Zealand 's contribution to the campaign on the Western Front for several decades . Prior to its publication , Stewart 's wife died shortly after giving birth to a son .
Although discharged from the NZEF , Stewart was still in the military reserve and commanded a battalion of the Territorial Force ( TF ) . He was later given command of the TF 's 3rd Infantry Brigade . From 1924 to 1926 , he was president of the New Zealand Returned Servicemen 's Association . His leadership of the association ended when he left New Zealand to become Professor of Latin at the University of Leeds .
On 28 July 1927 , Stewart married Margaret Rosamond Poulton at Kinlet , Shropshire , England . The marriage was brief ; she , along with the couple 's baby son , died during childbirth in August 1928 . In 1929 Stewart was appointed principal of University College of Nottingham , later to become the University of Nottingham . In a history of the University of Canterbury , published in 1973 , the authors wrote that Stewart was the " most able leader and administrator ... the College [ of Nottingham ] ever had " . The year after his move to Nottingham , Stewart married Margaret Isabel Massey in London . The couple had two children , a daughter and a son .
Stewart travelled to New Zealand on holiday in August 1934 , and resumed many of his past military acquaintances . While returning to England he died unexpectedly aboard the ship Akaroa and was buried at sea . He was survived by his third wife and his three children .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , Stewart was honoured by the renaming of Lenton Hall of Residence at the University of Nottingham to Hugh Stewart Hall . The university also named a scholarship after him . A tablet in his honour was unveiled on 18 January 1935 at the premises of the Christchurch Returned Soldier 's Association by the former commander of the NZEF , Alexander Godley .
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= Meinhard Michael Moser =
Meinhard Michael Moser ( 13 March 1924 – 30 September 2002 ) was an Austrian mycologist . His life 's work principally concerned the taxonomy , chemistry and toxicity of the gilled mushrooms ( Agaricales ) , especially those of the genus Cortinarius , and the ecology of ectomycorrhiza . His contributions to the Kleine Kryptogamenflora Mitteleuropas series of mycological guidebooks were well @-@ regarded and widely used . In particular , his 1953 Blätter- und Bauchpilze ( Agaricales und Gastromycetes ) , which became known as simply " Moser " , saw several editions in both the original German and in translation .
After showing interest in natural sciences in his youth , he studied at the University of Innsbruck . However , his university career was interrupted by the need to complete military service . He was stationed as a translator in eastern Europe during World War II , before being captured and placed in a prisoner of war camp . He was released in 1948 , subsequently returning to Innsbruck to complete his studies . After completing his doctorate in 1950 , Moser worked in England for six months , researching the symbiotic relationships between plants and fungi . Upon his return to Austria , he took up a position with the Federal Forestry Research Institute , where he remained until 1968 , taking part in influential research on the use of mycorrhizal fungi in reforestation . He began lecturing at the University of Innsbruck in 1956 , and in 1972 he became the inaugural head of the first Institute of Microbiology in Austria . He remained with the Institute until his retirement in 1991 . His studies continued until his death in 2002 . An influential mycologist , he received a number of awards throughout his life , and numerous fungal taxa have been named in his honour .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life , university and military service = = =
Moser was born on 13 March 1924 in Innsbruck , Austria , to parents Margaretha and Josef Moser . His father was a teacher at a technical college in the city , while his mother was the daughter of noted botanist Emil Johann Lambert Heinricher . Moser attended primary school and grammar school in the city , and showed an interest in natural sciences from a young age . His interest was cultivated by Heinricher , and Moser 's earliest paintings of mushrooms date to 1935 when he was 11 years old .
In 1942 , Moser enrolled at the University of Innsbruck , taking classes in botany , zoology , geology , physics and chemistry . At this time , Austria was under the control of Nazi Germany and did not exist as an independent state . Moser became an authorised mushroom controller and instructor , and it was officially requested that he attend mycological seminars around Germany and Austria . At these seminars , he met a number of prominent mycologists , including Ernst Thirring . Thirring showed Moser some of the issues surrounding the large genus Cortinarius , which remained an interest for the rest of his life . In 1943 , aged 19 and after only three terms at Innsbruck , his studies were interrupted so he could perform military service . Having shown earlier promise in languages , he was trained as an interpreter , then sent to the Balkan Peninsula . He continued to show an active interest in mycology , collecting and identifying mushrooms and reading Rolf Singer 's Das System der Agaricales .
In 1945 , when Moser was 21 years old and still carrying out active military service , he was captured in Czechoslovakia by Soviet soldiers and made a prisoner of war . He was imprisoned in a labour camp in Crimea , in the Ukraine . While a prisoner , he was involved in repairing the Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas , Sevastopol . His time at the camp was not easy ; working in construction , he had to work to his physical limits , and was involved in a serious crash that killed several other prisoners . Moser was released in 1948 , and chose to return to his studies at the University of Innsbruck . His first publication came in 1949 ; " Über das Massenauftreten von Formen der Gattung Morchella auf Waldbrandflächen " [ " Mass @-@ fruiting of forms of the genus Morchella on forest @-@ fire areas " ] was published in the journal Sydowia . In 1950 , under the supervision of Arthur Pisek , Moser completed his doctoral thesis , " Zur Wasserökologie der höheren Pilze , mit besonderer Berücksichtigung von Waldbrandflächen " [ " Water relations in higher fungi with special emphasis on forest @-@ fire areas " ] . During his time at university , he became a member of both the Société mycologique de France and the British Mycological Society . Having become friends with prominent German mycologists during the War , he was keen to re @-@ establish academic relationships throughout Europe in the years following the conflict .
= = = England and the Federal Institute for Forestry Research = = =
Due to the quality of his doctoral work , Moser received a grant from the British Council and , in 1951 , he moved to England , where he stayed for six months . There , he performed research in the laboratory of Jack Harley in Oxford , looking into the symbiosis between fungi and forest trees , and spent some time performing taxonomic studies at the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew . After his return to Austria , he was , in 1952 , offered a post at the Federal Institute for Forestry Research at Imst , which he accepted . There , he applied what he had learnt about the symbiosis of fungi and trees to the practical issue of reforestation in the Alps , and developed a method for the use of ectomycorrhizal fungi for the " inoculation " of trees , which later became standard practice around the world . Moser remained with the institute until 1968 .
In his time with the institute , Moser continued his taxonomic studies . In 1953 , he published the first edition of his Die Blätter und Bauchpilze ( Agaricales und Gastromycetes ) , a monograph of the Agaricales and Gastromycetes of central Europe , containing 3150 taxa . The work served as an update on Adalbert Ricken 's Vademecum für Pilzfreunde ( 1918 ) , though reflecting Moser 's taxonomic views , which were highly influenced by Singer . The book was part of a series named Kleine Kryptogamenflora Mitteleuropa , edited by Helmut Gams . The work , which became known simply as " Moser " , was updated and republished numerous times over the following decades , and translated into both Italian and English , with the latter translation being sponsored by Roger Phillips . His monograph on the Agaricales was also published separately from this work . René Pomerleau described a 1967 reprint of the Agaricales monograph , containing descriptions of 2547 species , as " probably the most complete and up @-@ to @-@ date descriptive flora of this group of fungi for central Europe " . Die Blätter und Bauchpilze ( Agaricales und Gastromycetes ) became important for the study of biodiversity in and out of Europe , and was a " much used and appreciated field manual " . The work continued to be used as an authoritative reference for several decades ; in 1981 , it was still being called " the most @-@ used and most authoritative handbook on larger European fleshy fungi " .
= = = University of Innsbruck = = =
In 1956 , while still a researcher at the Federal Institute , Moser began lecturing on microbiology at the University of Innsbruck , with the title of " Privatdozent " . During this time , he continued to publish . His monograph on the genus Phlegmacium , a taxon now considered to be part of Cortinarius , was published in 1960 as part of Die Pilze Mitteleuropas series . Unlike the previous three books in the series , which were all written by German authors , the work addressed mushrooms that were of less interest to amateur mycologists ; for instance , the genus was not considered to contain any significant edible species . The book drew upon Moser 's expertise concerning mycorrhizal relationships . It listed 166 species , including some " exotic " taxa . Some of the listed species were described for the first time in that volume . The illustrations , which came in the form of a number of coloured plates , were mostly Moser 's own work ; Singer described these in a review of the book as " both in original execution and reproduction among the best that have been published " . Discussing the book as a whole , Singer said that the volume , " outstanding for its good print , attractive appearance , and interesting contents , should be present in every mycological library " .
In 1963 , Moser published a second work in the Kleine Kryptogamenflora von Mitteleuropa series , Ascomyceten ( Schlauchpilze ) . This work was a monograph on the Ascomycetes , focussing on the Discomycetes . Though not as well known as his earlier book , it was well received in the mycological community . The mycologist Richard Korf , reviewing the work in an article published in Mycologia , said that " the book belongs on the shelf of every mycological library in Europe " , praising the " [ e ] xcellent , workable keys to the orders , families , genera , and European species " . Korf wrote that , " [ i ] f a single fault can be found , it is surely the lack of documentation provided " . However , a combination of a lack of time and Moser 's comparative lack of expertise in Ascomycetes prevented subsequent editions of the work .
Moser was promoted to Associate University Professor in 1964 . Two years later , the Faculty of Science of the University of Innsbruck recommended that a chair of microbiology should be created at the Botanical Institute in Innsbruck . The Federal Ministry of Education accepted the recommendation . Moser was the only candidate for the position , and was unanimously named by a number of leading European botanists and mycologists for the post in 1967 . Subsequently , in 1968 , Moser was promoted to full professor , and , in 1972 , Moser became the head of the newly established Institute of Microbiology , the first of its kind in Austria . He remained in charge of the Institute until his retirement . He taught on a wide range of subjects , including the taxonomy of fungi , ecology of fungi , mycogeography , bacteria , viruses , chemotaxonomy , molecular genetics , microbial toxicology , immunology and symbiosis . During his career at the university , he oversaw over 60 doctoral theses , in addition to a number of diploma theses . In 1970 , Moser became the president of the Austrian Mycological Society , taking over after the death of the previous post @-@ holder , Kurt Lohwag . Lohwag , in turn , had taken up the position after the death of his predecessor , Thirring , earlier that year . Moser remained the society 's president for 21 years .
Moser published Cortinarius Fr. und nahe verwandte Gattungen in Südamerika in 1975 , which was coauthored by Egon Horak . The work , along with his earlier monograph on " Phlegmacium " , proved to be some of Moser 's most important , serving to encourage others to engage with Cortinarius in a meaningful way . Cortinarius Fr. und nahe verwandte Gattungen in Südamerika was a study of Cortinarius , Dermocybe and Stephanopus , a new genus first described in that work , in South America , and was dedicated to Singer . The work contained descriptions of 276 new species . Alexander H. Smith stressed the significance of the work , saying " Anyone who has not worked in the systematics of Cortinarius cannot fully appreciate the magnitude and importance of this work to the general subject of the distribution and speciation of the higher fungi . "
In 1983 , in recognition of his forthcoming 60th birthday , an article dedicated to Moser was published in Sydowia . The piece , compiled by Franz Schinner , C. Furrer @-@ Siogas and Egon Horak , contained a detailed biography and a full bibliography of the 116 research publications Moser had authored or co @-@ authored between 1949 and 1983 . Moser , writing with Walter Jülich , published the first volume of the book series Farbatlas der Basidiomyzeten in 1985 , presenting specimens of various Basidiomycota taxa . By the time of Moser 's death , 19 volumes had been published ; some subsequently published volumes have listed Moser as an author .
= = = Retirement and death = = =
In 1991 , at the earliest possible date , Moser retired from his teaching position to avoid the administrative burden and to focus on his research into Cortinarius and related genera . After his retirement , he continued to work heavily , typically beginning at 5 am . In 1992 , he researched the presence of Agaricales in the Crimean Mountains , identifying 70 previously undocumented species , including some new to science . In 1995 , in celebration of Moser 's 70th birthday , a supplement of Sydowia was published in his honour .
Moser died on 30 September 2002 . After returning from 7th International Congress in Oslo , Norway , he suffered a series of heart attacks . After being admitted to hospital , his condition rapidly declined before his death . Obituaries were published in a variety of academic journals , including Mycological Progress , Mycological Research , Sydowia , Österreichische Zeitschrift für Pilzkunde , and Berichte des Naturwissenschaftlichen @-@ medizinischen Verein Innsbruck . Horak and colleagues , writing for the journal Mycological Research , described Moser 's death as " an irreplaceable loss to the international community of mycological science " , and , writing in Sydowia , they said that the " mycological world has lost one of its pillars of taxonomy for agarics and boletes . His former students , assistants and collaborators at the Microbiological Institute at the University of Innsbruck , his professional colleagues in the mycological community worldwide and his many friends will deeply regret the loss of a distinguished researcher , teacher , leader and mentor . " In a short obituary of Moser as part of their report on the Eighth International Symposium on Arctic @-@ Alpine Mycology , mycologists Cathy Cripps and Joe Ammirati called him a " gentlemanly scholar " who " led us in his quiet way across the tundra and down many dichotomous paths " .
= = Research = =
Over the course of his career , Moser collected over 25 @,@ 000 mycological specimens . He first described around 420 Cortinarius species and around 80 other species , including both agarics and boletes . He circumscribed three new genera : Singeromyces ( 1966 ) , Stephanopus ( 1975 ) and Anamika ( 2002 ) . Much of his research covered four key areas : the taxonomy of Agaricales — including the classical morphotaxonomy and the chemotaxonomy of the order — the toxicity of the chemical constituents of members of the same order , and the ecology of ectomycorrhiza .
In the early decades of his careers , Moser sought to clarify the taxonomic identity of European fungi by collecting specimens to be described as neotypes in the localities studied by Elias Magnus Fries , but this was no longer necessary after changes to nomenclatural rules that took effect in 1981 . Among the Agaricales , Moser 's interest was primarily in the complex genus Cortinarius . He published book @-@ length works addressing Cortinarius taxa found in Europe and , co @-@ writing with Horak , South America . Moser , working with Joe Ammirati , contributed to research on the genus in North America , and also examined Asian and Australasian taxa . He had a particular interest in Arctic – alpine habitats , and he documented , painted and published on his collections in these and other sites around the world . Moser initially doubted the usefulness of molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Agaricales , but later contributed to research in this area .
Cortinarius mushrooms are often highly colourful . Moser " made the first successful steps " towards studying the pigments in these mushrooms , hoping to find criteria for separating taxa , and some of his PhD students studied these elements in depth . Cooperating with biochemists , he produced important work on the biosynthesis of pigments . Moser was also interested in the toxicity of the Agaricales , and was — with his students — involved with research on the toxin orellanine .
Moser 's work on ectomycorrhiza , though perhaps unknown to many researchers familiar with his taxonomic work , was notable due to its focus on the fungal partners in the relationship . He engaged in a large amount of research on woodland in the transitional zone between subalpine and alpine habitats . His published results included the description of new taxa . In 1960 , Singer referred to Moser as " one of the pioneers of mycorrhiza research , both basic and applied " .
= = Personal life = =
At the end of his life , Moser lived in the village of Vill , near Innsbruck . According to some of his colleagues , " Moser was rather shy , taciturn , formal and constrained in public or in official functions . In a relaxed atmosphere among students , collaborators or friends , he became extrovert and surprised many by his sense of humour and ready wit . " He had a commitment to both mycological research and mycological education , and was fluent in several languages . He was known as an intellectual and a wide @-@ reader , with interests in fine art , classical music , literature , exploration , geography and botany . In addition to reading and walking , he enjoyed stamp collecting and growing plants from seeds he had collected on his research trips . He was a capable cook , often creating mushroom @-@ based dishes for guests , though was on one occasion poisoned during " gastronomic experiments with Phaeolepiota and Agaricus " . He was also known to make chanterelle schnapps , drinking it with his students and sharing his recipe with colleagues .
= = Recognition = =
Throughout his life , Moser received a number of awards , including the Clusius Medal ( Budapest 1978 ) and the Kardinal Innitzer Preis ( Vienna 1985 ) . In 1986 , he was made a member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences . Having already been elected as an honorary member of the Ukrainian Botanical Society , he became a foreign member of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in 1992 , the first mycologist to be elected . He was recognised by a number of mycological societies , including becoming an honorary member of the Mycological Society of America in 1987 , and Centenary Fellow of the British Mycological Society in 1996 . He also received an honorary doctorate from the University of Lyon in 1984 , and in 1990 was awarded honorary citizenship of Borgotaro , Italy .
The genera Moserella ( Pöder & Scheuer , 1994 ) and Chromosera ( Redhead , Ammirati & Norvell , 1995 ) were named in Moser 's honour , as were the species Acariniola moseri ( T. Majewsky & J. Wisn . ) , Conocybe moseri ( Watling ) , Cortinarius moseri ( ( E. Horak ) E. Horak ) , Cortinarius moserianus ( Bohus ) , Cortinarius meinhardii ( Bon ) , Entoloma moserianum ( Noordel . ) , Gerronema moseri ( Singer ) , Gymnopus moseri ( Antonín & Noordel . ) , Hebeloma moseri ( Singer ) , Hydropus moserianus ( Bas ) , Hygrocybe moseri ( Bon ) , Lactarius moseri ( Harmaja ) , Lasiosphaeria moseri ( O. Hilber ) , Leucoagaricus moseri ( Wasser ) , Peziza moseri ( Aviz.-Hersh. & Nemlich ) , Phaeocollybia moseri ( Band.-Muñoz & Guzmán ) , Psathyrella moseri ( Singer ) , Psilocybe moseri ( Guzmán ) , Thaxteriola moseri ( T. Majewsky & J. Wisn . ) , Tricholoma moseri ( Singer ) , Tricholoma moserianum ( Bon ) , Tubaria moseri ( Raithelh . ) , and Wardomyces moseri ( W. Gams ) .
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= International Finance Corporation =
The International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) is an international financial institution that offers investment , advisory , and asset management services to encourage private sector development in developing countries . The IFC is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington , D.C. , United States . It was established in 1956 as the private sector arm of the World Bank Group to advance economic development by investing in strictly for @-@ profit and commercial projects that purport to reduce poverty and promote development . The IFC 's stated aim is to create opportunities for people to escape poverty and achieve better living standards by mobilizing financial resources for private enterprise , promoting accessible and competitive markets , supporting businesses and other private sector entities , and creating jobs and delivering necessary services to those who are poverty @-@ stricken or otherwise vulnerable . Since 2009 , the IFC has focused on a set of development goals that its projects are expected to target . Its goals are to increase sustainable agriculture opportunities , improve health and education , increase access to financing for microfinance and business clients , advance infrastructure , help small businesses grow revenues , and invest in climate health .
The IFC is owned and governed by its member countries , but has its own executive leadership and staff that conduct its normal business operations . It is a corporation whose shareholders are member governments that provide paid @-@ in capital and which have the right to vote on its matters . Originally more financially integrated with the World Bank Group , the IFC was established separately and eventually became authorized to operate as a financially autonomous entity and make independent investment decisions . It offers an array of debt and equity financing services and helps companies face their risk exposures , while refraining from participating in a management capacity . The corporation also offers advice to companies on making decisions , evaluating their impact on the environment and society , and being responsible . It advises governments on building infrastructure and partnerships to further support private sector development .
The corporation is assessed by an independent evaluator each year . In 2011 , its evaluation report recognized that its investments performed well and reduced poverty , but recommended that the corporation define poverty and expected outcomes more explicitly to better @-@ understand its effectiveness and approach poverty reduction more strategically . The corporation 's total investments in 2011 amounted to $ 18 @.@ 66 billion . It committed $ 820 million to advisory services for 642 projects in 2011 , and held $ 24 @.@ 5 billion worth of liquid assets . The IFC is in good financial standing and received the highest ratings from two independent credit rating agencies in 2010 and 2011 .
= = History = =
The World Bank and International Monetary Fund were designed by delegates at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944 and the World Bank , then consisting of only the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development , became operational in 1946 . Robert L. Garner joined the World Bank in 1947 as a senior executive and expressed his view that private business could play an important role in international development . In 1950 , Garner and his colleagues proposed establishing a new institution for the purpose of making private investments in the developing countries served by the Bank . The U.S. government encouraged the idea of an international corporation working in tandem with the World Bank to invest in private enterprises without accepting guarantees from governments , without managing those enterprises , and by collaborating with third party investors . When describing the IFC in 1955 , World Bank President Eugene R. Black said that the IFC would only invest in private firms , rather than make loans to governments , and it would not manage the projects in which it invests . In 1956 the International Finance Corporation became operational under the leadership of Garner . It initially had 12 staff members and $ 100 million ( $ 844 @.@ 9 million in 2012 dollars ) in capital . The corporation made its inaugural investment in 1957 by making a $ 2 million ( $ 16 @.@ 4 million in 2012 dollars ) loan to a Brazil @-@ based affiliate of Siemens & Halske ( now Siemens AG ) . In 2007 , IFC bought 18 % stake in the Indian Financial firm , Angel Broking . In December 2015 IFC supported Greek banks with 150 million euros by buying shares in four of them : Alpha Bank ( 60 million ) , Eurobank ( 50 million ) , Piraeus Bank ( 20 million ) and National Bank of Greece ( 20 million ) .
= = Governance = =
The IFC is governed by its Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country ( most often the country 's finance minister or treasury secretary ) . Each member typically appoints one governor and also one alternate . Although corporate authority rests with the Board of Governors , the governors delegate most of their corporate powers and their authority over daily matters such as lending and business operations to the Board of Directors . The IFC 's Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors who meet regularly and work at the IFC 's headquarters , and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group . The executive directors collectively represent all 184 member countries . When the IFC 's Board of Directors votes on matters brought before it , each executive director 's vote is weighted according to the total share capital of the member countries represented by that director . The IFC 's Executive Vice President and CEO oversees its overall direction and daily operations . As of October 2012 , Jin @-@ Yong Cai serves as the Executive Vice President and CEO of the IFC . President of the World Bank Group Jim Yong Kim appointed Jin @-@ Yong Cai to serve as the new Executive Vice President and CEO of the IFC . Cai is a Chinese citizen who formerly served as a managing director for Goldman Sachs and has over 20 years of financial sector experience .
Although the IFC coordinates its activities in many areas with the other World Bank Group institutions , it generally operates independently as it is a separate entity with legal and financial autonomy , established by its own Articles of Agreement . The corporation operates with a staff of over 3 @,@ 400 employees , of which half are stationed in field offices across its member nations .
= = Services = =
= = = Investment services = = =
The IFC 's investment services consist of loans , equity , trade finance , syndicated loans , structured and securitized finance , client risk management services , treasury services , and liquidity management . In its fiscal year 2010 , the IFC invested $ 12 @.@ 7 billion in 528 projects across 103 countries . Of that total investment commitment , approximately 39 % ( $ 4 @.@ 9 billion ) was invested into 255 projects across 58 member nations of the World Bank 's International Development Association ( IDA ) .
The IFC makes loans to businesses and private projects generally with maturities of seven to twelve years . It determines a suitable repayment schedule and grace period for each loan individually to meet borrowers ' currency and cash flow requirements . The IFC may provide longer @-@ term loans or extend grace periods if a project is deemed to warrant it . Leasing companies and financial intermediaries may also receive loans from the IFC . Though loans have traditionally been denominated in hard currencies , the IFC has endeavored to structure loan products in local currencies . Its disbursement portfolio included loans denominated in 25 local currencies in 2010 , and 45 local currencies in 2011 , funded largely through swap markets . Local financial markets development is one of IFC ’ s strategic focus areas . In line with its AAA rating , it has strict concentration , liquidity , asset @-@ liability and other policies . The IFC committed to approximately $ 5 @.@ 7 billion in new loans in 2010 , and $ 5 billion in 2011 .
Although the IFC 's shareholders initially only allowed it to make loans , the IFC was authorized in 1961 to make equity investments , the first of which was made in 1962 by taking a stake in FEMSA , a former manufacturer of auto parts in Spain that is now part of Bosch Spain . The IFC invests in businesses ' equity either directly or via private equity funds , generally from five up to twenty percent of a company 's total equity . IFC ’ s private equity portfolio currently stands at roughly $ 3 @.@ 0 billion committed to about 180 funds . The portfolio is widely distributed across all regions including Africa , East Asia , South Asia , Eastern Europe , Latin America and the Middle East , and recently has invested in Small Enterprise Assistance Funds ' ( SEAF ) Caucasus Growth Fund , Aureos Capital 's Kula Fund II ( Papua New Guinea , Fiji , Pacific Islands ) and Leopard Capital ’ s Haiti Fund . Other equity investments made by the IFC include preferred equity , convertible loans , and participation loans . The IFC prefers to invest for the long @-@ term , usually for a period of eight to fifteen years , before exiting through the sale of shares on a domestic stock exchange , usually as part of an initial public offering . When the IFC invests in a company , it does not assume an active role in management of the company .
Through its Global Trade Finance Program , the IFC guarantees trade payment obligations of more than 200 approved banks in over 80 countries to mitigate risk for international transactions . The Global Trade Finance Program provides guarantees to cover payment risks for emerging market banks regarding promissory notes , bills of exchange , letters of credit , bid and performance bonds , supplier credit for capital goods imports , and advance payments . The IFC issued $ 3 @.@ 46 billion in more than 2 @,@ 800 guarantees in 2010 , of which over 51 % targeted IDA member nations . In its fiscal year 2011 , the IFC issued $ 4 @.@ 6 billion in more than 3 @,@ 100 guarantees . In 2009 , the IFC launched a separate program for crisis response , known as its Global Trade Liquidity Program , which provides liquidity for international trade among developing countries . Since its establishment in 2009 , the Global Trade Liquidity Program assisted with over $ 15 billion in trade in 2011 .
The IFC operates a Syndicated Loan Program in an effort to mobilize capital for development goals . The program was created in 1957 and as of 2011 has channeled approximately $ 38 billion from over 550 financial institutions toward development projects in over 100 different emerging markets . The IFC syndicated a total of $ 4 @.@ 7 billion in loans in 2011 , twice that of its $ 2 billion worth of syndications in 2010 . Due to banks retrenching from lending across borders in emerging markets , in 2009 the IFC started to syndicate parallel loans to the international financial institutions and other participants .
To service clients without ready access to low @-@ cost financing , the IFC relies on structured or securitized financial products such as partial credit guarantees , portfolio risk transfers , and Islamic finance . The IFC committed $ 797 million in the form of structured and securitized financing in 2010 . For companies that face difficulty in obtaining financing due to a perception of high credit risk , the IFC securitizes assets with predictable cash flows , such as mortgages , credit cards , loans , corporate debt instruments , and revenue streams , in an effort to enhance those companies ' credit .
Financial derivative products are made available to the IFC 's clients strictly for hedging interest rate risk , exchange rate risk , and commodity risk exposure . It serves as an intermediary between emerging market businesses and international derivatives market makers to increase access to risk management instruments .
The IFC fulfills a treasury role by borrowing international capital to fund lending activities . It is usually one of the first institutions to issue bonds or to do swaps in emerging markets denominated in those markets ' local currencies . The IFC 's new international borrowings amounted to $ 8 @.@ 8 billion in 2010 and $ 9 @.@ 8 billion in 2011 . The IFC Treasury actively engages in liquidity management in an effort to maximize returns and assure that funding for its investments is readily available while managing risks to the IFC .
= = = Advisory services = = =
In addition to its investment activities the IFC provides a range of advisory services to support corporate decisionmaking regarding business , environment , social impact , and sustainability . The IFC 's corporate advice targets governance , managerial capacity , scalability , and corporate responsibility . It prioritizes the encouragement of reforms that improve the trade friendliness and ease of doing business in an effort to advise countries on fostering a suitable investment climate . It also offers advice to governments on infrastructure development and public @-@ private partnerships . The IFC attempts to guide businesses toward more sustainable practices particularly with regards to having good governance , supporting women in business , and proactively combating climate change .
= = = Asset Management Company = = =
The IFC established IFC Asset Management Company LLC ( IFC AMC ) in 2009 as a wholly owned subsidiary to manage all capital funds to be invested in emerging markets . The AMC manages capital mobilized by the IFC as well as by third parties such as sovereign or pension funds , and other development financing organizations . Despite being owned by the IFC , the AMC has investment decision autonomy and is charged with a fiduciary responsibility to the four individual funds under its management . It also aims to mobilize additional capital for IFC investments as it can make certain types of investments which the IFC cannot . As of 2011 , the AMC managed the IFC Capitalization Fund ( Equity ) Fund , L.P. , the IFC Capitalization ( Subordinated Debt ) Fund , L.P. , the IFC African , Latin American , and Caribbean Fund , L.P. , and the Africa Capitalization Fund , Ltd . The IFC Capitalization ( Equity ) Fund holds $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in equity , while the IFC Capitalization ( Subordinated Debt ) Fund is valued at $ 1 @.@ 7 billion . The IFC African , Latin American , and Caribbean Fund ( referred to as the IFC ALAC Fund ) was created in 2010 and is worth $ 1 billion . As of March 2012 , the ALAC Fund has invested a total of $ 349 @.@ 1 million into twelve businesses . The Africa Capitalization Fund was set up in 2011 to invest in commercial banks in both Northern and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa and its commitments totaled $ 181 @.@ 8 million in March 2012 . As of 2012 , Gavin E.R. Wilson serves as CEO of the AMC .
= = Financial performance = =
The IFC prepares consolidated financial statements in accordance with United States GAAP which are audited by KPMG . It reported income before grants to IDA members of $ 2 @.@ 18 billion in fiscal year 2011 , up from $ 1 @.@ 95 billion in fiscal 2010 and $ 299 million in fiscal 2009 . The increase in income before grants is ascribed to higher earnings from the IFC 's investments and also from higher service fees . The IFC reported a partial offset from lower liquid asset trading income , higher administrative costs , and higher advisory service expenses . The IFC made $ 600 million in grants to IDA countries in fiscal 2011 , up from $ 200 million in fiscal 2010 and $ 450 million in fiscal 2009 . The IFC reported a net income of $ 1 @.@ 58 billion in fiscal year 2011 . In previous years , the IFC had reported a net loss of $ 151 million in fiscal 2009 and $ 1 @.@ 75 billion in fiscal 2010 . The IFC 's total capital amounted to $ 20 @.@ 3 billion in 2011 , of which $ 2 @.@ 4 billion was paid @-@ in capital from member countries , $ 16 @.@ 4 billion was retained earnings , and $ 1 @.@ 5 billion was accumulated other comprehensive income . The IFC held $ 68 @.@ 49 billion in total assets in 2011 .
The IFC 's return on average assets ( GAAP basis ) decreased from 3 @.@ 1 % in 2010 to 2 @.@ 4 % in 2011 . Its return on average capital ( GAAP basis ) decreased from 10 @.@ 1 % in 2010 to 8 @.@ 2 % in 2011 . The IFC 's cash and liquid investments accounted for 83 % of its estimated net cash requirements for fiscal years 2012 through 2014 . Its external funding liquidity level grew from 190 % in 2010 to 266 % in 2011 . It has a 2 @.@ 6 : 1 debt @-@ to @-@ equity ratio and holds 6 @.@ 6 % in reserves against losses on loans to its disbursement portfolio . The IFC 's deployable strategic capital decreased from 14 % in 2010 to 10 % in 2011 as a share of its total resources available , which grew from $ 16 @.@ 8 billion in 2010 to $ 17 @.@ 9 billion in 2011 .
In 2011 , the IFC reported total funding commitments ( consisting of loans , equity , guarantees , and client risk management ) of $ 12 @.@ 18 billion , slightly lower than its $ 12 @.@ 66 billion in commitments in 2010 . Its core mobilization , which consists of participation and parallel loans , structured finance , its Asset Management Company funds , and other initiatives , grew from $ 5 @.@ 38 billion in 2010 to $ 6 @.@ 47 billion in 2011 . The IFC 's total investment program was reported at a value of $ 18 @.@ 66 billion for fiscal year 2011 . Its advisory services portfolio included 642 projects valued at $ 820 million in 2011 , compared to 736 projects at $ 859 million in 2010 . The IFC held $ 24 @.@ 5 billion in liquid assets in 2011 , up from $ 21 billion in 2010 .
The IFC received credit ratings of AAA from Standard & Poor 's in December 2012 and Aaa from Moody 's Investors Service in November 2012 . S & P rated the IFC as having a strong financial standing with adequate capital and liquidity , cautious management policies , a high level of geographic diversification , and anticipated treatment as a preferred creditor given its membership in the World Bank Group . It noted that the IFC faces a weakness relative to other multilateral institutions of having higher risks due to its mandated emphasis on private sector investing and its income heavily affected by equity markets .
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= ... Baby One More Time ( album ) =
... Baby One More Time is the debut studio album by American recording artist Britney Spears . It was released on January 12 , 1999 , by JIVE Records . In June 1997 , while Spears negotiated with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense , her mother asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song . Rudolph decided to pitch her to record labels , sending them a demo tape with an unused song from Toni Braxton . JIVE was interested and appointed the singer to work with producer Eric Foster White . After hearing the recorded material , JIVE signed Spears to a multi @-@ album deal .
Spears traveled to Sweden to work with producers Max Martin , Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub , among others . Martin showed Spears and her management a track titled " Hit Me Baby One More Time " , which was originally written for American R & B group TLC ; however , they rejected the track . Spears later claimed that she felt excited when she heard it and knew it was going to be a hit record . By June 1998 , the album had been finished .
Critics gave the album mixed reviews , describing the singer as a Madonna next door , considering it silly and premature . The album was successful on the charts , reaching the top five in several countries , while reaching number one in Canada and the United States . It also received several certifications around the world , including a fourteen @-@ times platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of over 14 million units in the country . ... Baby One More Time is Spears ' most successful album , selling over 30 million copies worldwide , making it one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time and the best @-@ selling album by a teenage solo artist .
Five singles came from the album . " ... Baby One More Time " became a worldwide success and one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , at over ten million copies . The album was promoted with appearances on live television , and also by the ... Baby One More Time Tour in 1999 , with a second leg titled Crazy 2k Tour in 2000 . Spears claimed she wasn 't able to explore her vocal ability on the album . This album set Spears ' international pop culture icon image and launched her career . The album earned Spears Grammy nominations for Best New Artist and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " ... Baby One More Time . "
= = Background and development = =
In June 1997 , Spears was in talks with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense . Lynne asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures . Rudolph decided to pitch her to record labels , which required a professional demo . He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton ; she rehearsed for a week and recorded in a studio with a sound engineer . Spears traveled to New York with the demo and met executives from four labels , returning to Kentwood the same day . Three rejected her , arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls , and " there wasn 't going to be another Madonna , another Debbie Gibson or another Tiffany . " Two weeks later , executives from JIVE Records returned calls to Rudolph . Senior vice president of A & R Jeff Fenster stated , " It 's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal . [ ... ] For any artist , the motivation — the ' eye of the tiger ' — is extremely important . And Britney had that . " They appointed her to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month , who reportedly shaped her voice from " lower and less poppy " delivery to " distinctively , unmistakably Britney . " Spears recorded ten songs with White , including " Autumn Goodbye " , " E @-@ Mail My Heart " , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " , " I 'm So Curious " , " I Will Still Love You " , " Luv The Hurt Away " , " Soda Pop " , " Thinkin ' About You " , and " You Got It All " . The singer also recorded a cover of Sonny & Cher 's 1967 single " The Beat Goes On " . White was responsible for the vocal recording and song production , while additional production was done by English electronic music group All Seeing I.
After hearing the material , president Clive Calder ordered a full album . Spears flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998 , with producers Max Martin , Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub , among others . Martin showed Spears and her management a track titled " Hit Me Baby One More Time " , which was originally written for American R & B group TLC ; however , they rejected it . Spears later claimed that she felt excited when she heard it and knew it was going to be a hit . " We at JIVE said , ' This is a fuckin ' smash ' , " revealed the label 's A & R executive , Steven Lunt ; however , other executives were concerned that the line " Hit Me " would condone domestic violence , and later revised it to " ... Baby One More Time " . The singer revealed that she " didn 't do well at all the first day in the studio [ recording the song ] , I was just too nervous . So I went out that night and had some fun . The next day I was completely relaxed and nailed it . You gotta be relaxed singing ' ... Baby One More Time ' . " By June 1998 , the album was done , and Spears embarked on a promotional tour sponsored by L 'Oreal . ... Baby One More Time was released as Spears ' debut album on January 12 , 1999 .
= = Composition = =
Spears originally envisioned " Sheryl Crow music , but younger more adult contemporary " , but felt all right with her label 's producers , since " It made more sense to go pop , because I can dance to it — it 's more me . " The album opens with the first single " ... Baby One More Time " , a teen pop and dance @-@ pop song that begins with a three @-@ note motif in the bass range of the piano . The opening was compared to many other songs , such as " We Will Rock You " ( 1977 ) , " Start Me Up " ( 1981 ) and the theme song of the film Jaws due to the fact the track " makes its presence known in exactly one second " . According to magazine Blender , " ... Baby One More Time " is composed by " wah @-@ wah guitar lines and EKG @-@ machine bass @-@ slaps " . Claudia Mitchell and Jacqueline Reid @-@ Walsh , authors of Girl Culture : Studying girl culture : a readers ' guide ( 2008 ) , observed that the lyrics of the song " gesture toward [ Spears ] longing for the return of an ex @-@ boyfriend . " The next song and third single , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " runs through a moderately slow dance beat , and has a rhythm and blues melody mixed with edgy synthesized instrumentals . The third track and second single " Sometimes " is a ballad , that Spears begins with " You tell me you 're in love with me / That you can 't take your pretty eyes away from me / It 's not that I don 't wanna stay / But every time you come too close I move away " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted the song has " a catchy hook and endearing melody , with a reminiscent euro @-@ dance rhythm . "
After " Sometimes " is ... Baby One More Time 's fourth track , " Soda Pop " , a song that draws influences from bubblegum pop and dancehall , and features background vocals from co @-@ writer Mikey Bassie . Spears ' vocals on the fifth track and fourth single , " Born to Make You Happy " , span more than an octave . Its lyrics allude to a relationship that a woman desires to repair , not quite understanding what went wrong , as she comes to realize that " I don 't know how to live without your love / I was born to make you happy " . The sixth track and final single , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " , is a sentimental slow @-@ tempo teen pop ballad . " I Will Be There " features a guitar riff similar to Natalie Imbruglia 's " Torn " ( 1997 ) , with a " rousing chorus about standing by your man ( or a best friend or a house pet ) " , as noted by Kyle Anderson of MTV . The eleventh track , " E @-@ Mail My Heart " , is a sensitive piano ballad where Spears sings , " E @-@ mail me back / And say our love will stay alive " . The cover of Sonny & Cher 's 1967 single " The Beat Goes On " is influenced by bossa nova and trip hop , and features a similar sound to spy movies themes .
= = Critical reception = =
... Baby One More Time received mixed reviews from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars , and commented that , by the time Spears launched her career , " everything old was new again " , comparing the album to Hangin ' Tough ( 1988 ) by New Kids on the Block . Erlewine further complimented the quality of the singles while praising Max Martin , " who is also the mastermind behind Spears ' debut . " Entertainment Weekly 's Beth Johnson noted the singer " sounds remarkably like the Backstreet Boys ' kid sister " , saying , however , that this was " not surprising , since BSB hit @-@ meister Max Martin wrote the candy @-@ pop @-@ with @-@ a @-@ funky @-@ edge smash debut . " Robert Christgau commented Spears portrayed a " Madonna next door " in the album with songs like " ... Baby One More Time " and " Soda Pop " , while Craig McDennis of The Hamilton Spectator said the album " offers a glib compendium of soul / pop cliches , served with a giddy , uptempo verve that recalls Debbie Gibson on a chocolate high . " Amazon.com 's Rickey Wright gave ... Baby One More Time a mixed review , saying that " a few of the disc 's cuts are pleasantly catchy " , noting , however , " neither does the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Spears 's debut album contain anything else that remotely approaches that instant hit single [ ' ... Baby One More Time ' ] . " Billboard 's Paul Verna considered the album " a top 40 @-@ ready workout filled with hook @-@ laden songs from the same bag as the title cut " .
Kyle Anderson of MTV said he " was surprised in more ways than one " with his first listening of ... Baby One More Time , commenting he " expected there to be a lot of filler ( there sort of is ) , though I didn 't expect it to be as odd ( at least sonically ) as it ended up being . There has never been any mystery to why Spears became such a superstar , but these songs probably would have been huge even if Britney wore burlap sacks in all of her videos . " Barry Walters of Rolling Stone gave the album two stars out of five , and compared the album 's sound to early hits of Debbie Gibson , Mariah Carey , and Samantha Fox . Walters also said that " while several Cherion @-@ crafted kiddie @-@ funk jams serve up beefy hooks , shameless schlock slowies , like ' E @-@ Mail My Heart ' , are pure spam . " A NME reviewer rated ... Baby One More Time 1 out of 10 , saying that " we seem to have reached crisis point : pubescent pop is now so rife that 17 @-@ year @-@ old Britney ' lizard @-@ lounge ' Spears is already halfway through her lucrative showbiz career " . He also found the album premature , commenting , " hopefully , if she starts to live the wretched life that we all eventually do , her voice will show the scars , she 'll stop looking so fucking smug , she 'll find solace in drugs and we 'll be all the more happier for it . Now grow up , girl . Quick ! " Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic felt that , " with the exception of the terrific title track , ... Baby One More Time is a collection of either competent pop songs underwhelmingly executed or underwhelmingly written pop songs competently executed . "
= = Commercial performance = =
... Baby One More Time debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 selling 121 @,@ 000 units , replacing DMX 's Flesh of My Flesh , Blood of My Blood ( 1998 ) . Spears broke several records by doing so . The singer became the first new female artist to have a number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one album on the Billboard 200 at the same time ; the first new artist ( male or female ) to have a single go to the number one spot the same week that the album debuted at number one ; and the first new female artist to have the first single and first album at number one the same week . Spears is also the youngest female in Billboard history to have a simultaneous single and album at number one in the same week . After four weeks since its release , the album had sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan sales data . After dropping to the top five , the album went back to number one in its fourth week , with a total of 804 @,@ 200 units sold . On its fifth week it reached its highest sales week with 229 @,@ 000 copies sold . ... Baby One More Time spent a total of six non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one , and sold more than 1 @.@ 8 million copies in its first two months of release in the country . In its 47th week on the Billboard 200 , the album held strong at number three , and with sales of over of 10 million copies in the United States alone . The album was later certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America , making Spears the youngest artist to receive that award , breaking Alanis Morissette 's record , who was 21 when she released Jagged Little Pill ( 1995 ) . The album was the fourteenth album since 1991 to sell over 10 million copies in the United States , and Spears became the best @-@ selling female artist of 1999 . ... Baby One More Time spent a total of fifty @-@ one weeks in the top ten of the Billboard 200 . The album spent a total of 103 weeks on the chart . ... Baby One More Time landed at number three on BMG Music Club all @-@ time best @-@ sellers list , selling 1 @.@ 6 million units , behind Shania Twain 's Come on Over ( 1997 ) .
The album debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , totaling nine non @-@ consecutive weeks at the top . On December 12 , 1999 , the Canadian Recording Industry Association certified it Diamond , for sales over 1 million units . ... Baby One More Time spent two weeks at number two on the European Top 100 Albums , and sold over four million copies within the continent , being certified quadruple platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . The album reached number two in the United Kingdom , number four in France and was certified triple Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , double Platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique , triple Gold in Germany by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry , and ten @-@ times Platinum ( Diamond ) by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . ... Baby One More Time debuted at number nine in May 1999 on the Australian Albums Chart , reaching at number two nine weeks later , placing behind the Dawson 's Creek soundtrack . The album became the seventh highest @-@ selling of 1999 in the country , and was certified four @-@ times Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association the following year after shipping 280 @,@ 000 copies to retailers . The track debuted at number three in the New Zealand , placing behind Shania Twain 's Come on Over and The Corrs ' . The album was later certified triple Platinum in the country by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand .
= = Singles = =
" ... Baby One More Time " was released as Spears ' debut single on October 23 , 1998 . The song received generally favorable critical reviews , mostly praising its composition . " ... Baby One More Time " attained worldwide success , reaching number one in every European country where it charted . It received numerous certifications around the world , and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , at over ten million copies . An accompanying music video , directed by Nigel Dick , portrays Spears as a student from a Catholic high school , who starts to daydream that she is singing and dancing around the school , while watching her love interest from afar . In 2010 , the music video for " ... Baby One More Time " was voted the third @-@ most influential video in the history of pop music .
" Sometimes " was released as the second single on April 30 , 1999 . " Sometimes " achieved commercial success worldwide , reaching number one in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Netherlands and New Zealand , while peaking inside the top five in four countries . In the United States , " Sometimes " missed the top ten , peaking at number twenty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for the song was directed by Nigel Dick . During rehearsals , on February 11 , 1999 , Spears injured her left knee and needed surgery . After recuperating in Kentwood , Louisiana , the music video was shot on April 9 – 10 , 1999 at Paradise Cove in Malibu , California . It was released on May 6 , 1999 , on MTV 's Total Request Live .
In May 1999 , Max Martin and Spears went to the Battery Studios in New York City , New York , to re @-@ record the vocals of " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , due to the fact that a remixed version called " The Stop ! Remix " was going to be included on the original motion picture soundtrack of the film Drive Me Crazy ( 1999 ) . " The Stop ! Remix " of the song was released as the third single on August 23 , 1999 . The Stop ! Remix had the addition of a stanza where Spears yells " Stop ! " , then all sound cutting out , followed by a transition . It also omits the lines " Lovin ' You Means So Much More , More than anything I ever Loved Before " .
The music video was directed by Nigel Dick , and featured actors Melissa Joan Hart and Adrian Grenier .
" Born to Make You Happy " was released on December 6 , 1999 , as the fourth single , and received mixed reviews from music critics . The song achieved commercial success , peaking inside the top @-@ five in eleven countries . The music video for it was directed by Billie Woodruff and produced by Geneva Films , choreographed by Wade Robson .
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " was released on December 15 , 1999 , as the final single . The song also received mixed reviews , finding the song a classic hit and competent single , despite considering it as an unremarkable song that refers only to kissing . " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " achieved moderate success , peaking at number thirty @-@ seven in Australia , and twenty @-@ three in New Zealand . Through imports , the song reached one hundred seventy @-@ four in the United Kingdom . In the United States , " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " reached number fourteen on Billboard Hot 100 , and seventeen on Pop Songs , and was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 28 , 2000 , for selling over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 physical units of the single . The music video , directed by Gregory Dark , was released on December 17 , 1999 . It was highly criticized due to the fact that Dark had previously directed porn films .
= = Promotion = =
Promotion began in 1998 , when Spears did a small tour in malls and food courts that were located mostly in larger cities around the United States . Each show lasted around 30 minutes , and Spears had two male dancers with her on the stage . The promo tour is also known as the L 'Oreal Mall Tour , after its sponsor . The singer made several promotional appearances including talk shows and live performances around the world . On December 1998 , Spears ' first showed up on MTV 's and the Box 's most @-@ requested video charts . She also appeared on the Ricki Lake Show , the Howie Mandel Show , and was the presenter of the 1999 American Music Awards , prior to the release of the album . The singer also appeared on MTV 's Spring Break and on the 100th episode of Nickelodeon 's All That . However , after hurting her knee , she had rescheduled appearances several shows such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Live With Regis And Kathie Lee . After recovering , Spears embarked on another promotional schedule . The singer appeared on Nickelodeon 's 12th Annual Kids Choice Awards on May 1 , MTV 's FANatic on May 12 , Live With Regis & Kathie Lee on May 3 , and The Rosie O 'Donnell Show on May 25 .
Outside the United States , Spears visited German talk show Wetten , dass .. ? and Top of the Pops on June 25 , 1999 . She also went to the United Kingdom , making appearances on programmes such as This Morning , CD : UK and National Lottery . She visited a music variety show called Hey ! Hey ! Hey ! Music Champ in Japan , and performed at the Festival Bar in Italy . Spears was also featured on an episode of ABC television sitcom , Sabrina , The Teenage Witch , where she played herself . Spears was returning a favor to actress Melissa Joan Hart , who played a cameo role in Spears ' video for " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy , " according to People magazine . The episode aired on September 24 , 1999 . The same month , Spears performed on The Rosie O 'Donnell Show on September 27 , and visited Carson Daly on MTV 's Total Request Live the following day . She had a mini @-@ Disney concert titled " Britney Spears & Joey McIntyre In Concert . " Spears and Joey McIntyre performed live in the taped concert event . Promotion for the album continued in early 2000 , where Spears performed at the American Music Awards of 2000 , and also performed " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " in a medley with " ... Baby One More Time " at the 2000 Grammy Awards .
= = = Touring = = =
On March 5 , 1999 , it was reported that Spears was planning her first headlining tour . She announced that the tour would start in July . On May 12 , Tommy Hilfiger was announced as the main tour sponsor . During the time of the announcement , Spears was being featured in the company 's " AllStars " campaign . On December 17 , during the premiere of the music video of " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " on TRL , Spears called the show to announce March 2000 US tour dates . The extension , entitled Crazy 2K Tour , was considered a prelude to her future world tour . The leg 's main sponsor was Got Milk ? . Media director Peter Gardiner explained , " Britney is magic with teen @-@ age girls , and that 's an absolutely crucial target for milk " . Spears shot an advertising campaign to be shown before her performances began . The secondary sponsor was Polaroid and the corporation released the Polaroid I @-@ Zone as the tour 's official camera . Spears used the I @-@ Zone onstage to take pictures of the audience and further promote the product . The show was divided into segments , separated by interlude , ending with an encore . The setlist consisted of songs from her debut album and several covers . Some changes were made during the 2000 leg , with the covers replaced by songs from her second studio album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again . The tour received positive critical appreciation . During the tour , Spears was accused of lip synching , although she denied these claims . On April 20 , 2000 , the concert at Hilton Hawaiian Village in Honolulu , Hawaii , was taped . It was slightly altered from its Crazy 2K incarnation and featured different costumes . On June 5 , 2000 , it was broadcast on Fox . The special was aired several times during the year . On November 21 , 2000 , JIVE Records released the Live and More ! DVD , which included the Fox special . It was certified triple platinum by the RIAA for shipping 300 @,@ 000 units .
= = Legacy = =
Spears was credited with leading the revival of teen pop . The Daily Yomiuri reported that " critics have hailed her as the most gifted teenage pop idol for many years , but Spears has set her sights a little higher @-@ she is aiming for the level of superstardom that has been achieved by Madonna and Janet Jackson . " Rolling Stone wrote : " Britney Spears carries on the classic archetype of the rock & roll teen queen , the dungaree doll , the angel baby who just has to make a scene . " Rami Yacoub who co @-@ produced Spears 's debut album with lyricist Max Martin commented , " I know from Denniz Pop and Max 's previous productions , when we do songs , there 's kind of a nasal thing . With N ' Sync and the Backstreet Boys , we had to push for that mid @-@ nasal voice . When Britney did that , she got this kind of raspy , sexy voice . " Chuck Taylor of Billboard observed , " Spears has become a consummate performer , with snappy dance moves , a clearly real @-@ albeit young @-@ and funkdified voice ... " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , her third single ... demonstrates Spears ' own development , proving that the 17 @-@ year @-@ old is finding her own vocal personality after so many months of steadfast practice . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic referred to her music as a " blend of infectious , rap @-@ inflected dance @-@ pop and smooth balladry . " Sputnikmusic writer Amanda Murray noted the album " offers a marker for Spears ' progression as an artist , as a celebrity , and as a woman . " In 2010 , the album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
Spears became an international pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career . Rolling Stone magazine wrote : " One of the most controversial and successful female vocalists of the 21st century , " she " spearheaded the rise of post @-@ millennial teen pop ... Spears early on cultivated a mixture of innocence and experience that broke the bank " . She is listed by the Guinness World Records as having the " Best @-@ selling album by a teenage solo artist " . Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch reported , " She 's also marked for being the best @-@ selling teenage artist . Before she turned 20 in 2001 , Spears sold more than 30 million albums worldwide " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer has reported : " Spears is famously one of the ' oldest ' teenagers pop has ever produced , almost middle aged in terms of focus and determination . Many 19 @-@ year @-@ olds haven 't even started working by that age , whereas Britney , a former Mouseketeer , was that most unusual and volatile of American phenomena — a child with a full @-@ time career . While other little girls were putting posters on their walls , Britney was wanting to be the poster on the wall . Whereas other children develop at their own pace , Britney was developing at a pace set by the ferociously competitive American entertainment industry " . ... Baby One More Time is Spears ' most successful album to date , with worldwide sales over 30 million copies , and also the best @-@ selling album by a teenage solo artist .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
In North America the album was issued as an Enhanced CD that allowed access to bonus videos , photos and more when inserted into a computer .
The very first pressings of the album feature a hidden spoken message by Spears after " The Beat Goes On " . In it , Spears thanks fans and promotes the then @-@ upcoming Backstreet Boys album , Millennium with snippets of songs featured on the album .
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies an additional producer
^ c signifies a remixer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for ... Baby One More Time adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Captain John Hart ( Torchwood ) =
Captain John Hart , played by James Marsters , is a fictional character from the BBC science fiction television programme Torchwood . He is introduced in the episode " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " — the first episode of Torchwood 's second series . Whilst the character has not featured subsequently to the second series finale , he went on to appear in a Torchwood Magazine comic strip and Marsters has stated his interest in reprising the role on more than one occasion .
In his first appearance , John Hart is as a rogue Time Agent and former partner of the series ' lead male character Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) both professionally and sexually . Whilst the original function of the Time Agency — stated to have ceased operation by the time Hart appears — is left unspecified , John 's own backstory is briefly given , as well as having had a relationship with Jack he has been in rehab for an addiction to alcohol , drugs , sex and murder . John leaves earth disgraced after his initial self @-@ interested plot is foiled by Harkness ' Torchwood team , though returns in the series finale " Exit Wounds " where he is eventually given a chance to redeem himself .
The role of John Hart in Torchwood was written with the casting of Marsters in mind after he contacted the shows ' producers expressing his interest in appearing in the programme 's parent show , Doctor Who . The character is used to illuminate some of Jack 's own characteristics as a doppelgänger who provides both an exaggerated version of , and a parallel to , aspects of Jack 's persona . Both Marsters and the general media also compared aspects of Hart 's character to Marsters 's role as Spike in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel . Whilst a few reviewers criticised the character in relation to his impact of the show 's tone , a larger number welcomed the character and the energy Marsters brought to the role .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
Captain John Hart appears through the Cardiff space @-@ time Rift using a vortex manipulator and asks Jack Harkness for help in locating three radioactive cluster bombs , apparently scattered across Cardiff . Jack Harkness tells his team that John cannot be trusted but agrees to help him . True to Jack 's word , Captain John is lying and seizes the containers , trying to kill Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) using a paralyzing lip gloss , shooting Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) and pushing Jack off the top of a building , thinking he 's dead . However the containers , which are supposed to contain the location of an valuable diamond hidden by the lover he murdered , instead contain an explosive which latches on the DNA signature of her killer . As insurance against Torchwood leaving him to die , John handcuffs himself to Gwen and swallows the key . After superficially altering his DNA using that of the Torchwood staff , Jack and Owen are able to save John 's life before banishing him . Spurned by his former lover , John leaves by means of his Vortex Manipulator .
In " Fragments " , Captain John returned in holographic form , stating that he is going to destroy Jack 's life , revealing a holographic image of his lost brother Gray . Continuing in " Exit Wounds " , Captain John is revealed to have rescued Jack 's brother Gray from a group of sadistic captors , only to learn too late that Gray had been driven insane through being tortured over the years . Molecularly bonding a bomb to John 's wrist to force him to obey his orders , Gray had John set off multiple bombs throughout Cardiff before taking Jack back in time to 27AD , where Jack is buried alive at the site that would become Cardiff in the future . However , John betrays Gray by leaving a tracking device on Jack in the shape of a ring , thus allowing Jack to be recovered by the Torchwood Institute and frozen in the morgue , escaping at the right moment to stop his brother . Having frozen Gray in cryopreservation , unwilling to witness any more death that day , Jack offers to help pinpoint another Rift event to allow John to leave , but John instead states his desire to travel Earth , commenting that he 'd like to learn what Jack finds so fascinating about the planet .
An image of John Hart is briefly seen in the 2014 Doctor Who episode " Time Heist " , as part of a montage of the galaxy 's most notorious criminals .
= = = Literature = = =
The character has a prominent role in the Torchwood magazine comic strip " Shrouded " set between Torchwood 's third television series , subtitled Children of Earth , and fourth series Miracle Day and written by Gareth David @-@ Lloyd who portrayed Ianto Jones in the first three series of Torchwood . John Hart is seen to have observed Ianto 's funeral from a distance before later settling in Mexico , earning a living by buying and selling alien artefacts washed up from a rift similar to the one in Cardiff . A past version of Ianto is then contacted by a malevolent time @-@ travelling seductress seeking to use the knowledge of his death to alter time for her own gain . As Jack has left Earth and Gwen has a newborn child , John is required to team up with Gwen 's husband Rhys Williams in order to restore the original timeline .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and concept = = =
Head writer Chris Chibnall had originally conceived the idea of a " rogue Time Agent " character during the production of Torchwood series 1 , but the idea never made it to TV screens . After watching episodes of executive producer Russell T Davies ' revival of Torchwood 's parent series Doctor Who , Marsters and his agent got in touch with Davies about appearing in the series . Davies vetoed the idea , but suggested that Marsters be part of Torchwood 's second series instead . After Marsters expressed interest in Torchwood , Chibnall and Davies felt that he would be perfect for the role of the Time Agent character . Chibnall immediately produced the script for " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " , which introduced the character . He sent it off to Marsters " and essentially got agreement straight away " . Masters accepted the role on the basis of a " really good script " and " a really fun character " stating that as an actor he is attracted to " playing people who are evil , don 't care , and have no guilt . " In an interview published to the BBC online news website in July 2007 , Marsters indicated that he was " really " excited about his character , who he revealed would be " naughty " and " a bit of a psychopath . "
= = = Characterisation = = =
The character shares many similarities with Marsters 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel character , Spike , with Marsters commenting " In a lot of ways , this role is very much like Spike was in my first three episodes of Buffy . " The Torchwood writers conceived John as a classical nemesis for Captain Jack , with Chibnall commenting , " In seeing John you see the way Jack could have gone , and probably did , for a little while . " James Marsters further discussed ways in which John is a doppelgänger or foil to Captain Jack : both are pansexual time travellers , with their key difference being that John never reformed . The character exaggerates many of Jack 's qualities , for example displaying zoophilic attraction to non @-@ humanoids such as poodles , in addition to men and women . John and Jack 's intentional similarities extend to their penchant for period war clothing :
He 's got a jacket from fighting in the Napoleonic Wars ; he 's got a snakeskin sword from Korea that I think he had to kill someone for ; his boots are from Italy circa 1640 and he 's got gun holsters from the American West . "
Teasing John 's role in " Exit Wounds " Marsters stated that he 's someone " who 's in way over his head and doesn 't even know it yet " and that " things do change " in regards to his character . Chibnall , Marsters and producer Richard Stokes discuss the role of " Exit Wounds " in developing John 's character and placing him on a redemptive path . Marsters felt the character to be on a " journey " whilst Chibnall deliberately played upon the question of " can you trust him , or can 't you ? " Stokes commented that the character isn 't the " selfish and anarchic " character seen in " Kiss Kiss Bang Bang " and that his " affection and love for Captain Jack are enough to make him try and do the noble thing " . Stephen James Walker , a writer of reference works on Doctor Who and its spin @-@ offs , notes that because of the reluctance of Hart 's collaboration with Gray and his remorse for his actions the episode leaves the audience " a little more favourably disposed " towards the character . In April 2008 Marsters indicated that he expected to return to Torchwood in the near future . He later expressed a desire to be part of Torchwood 's fourth series after it was revealed the show would be largely produced in Los Angeles .
= = Reception = =
Reviewing the episode " Kiss Kiss Bang Bang " for The Daily Telegraph James Walton was sceptical about the fact that " some of the fawning [ over Captain Jack ] even came from the main baddie " and what he felt to be the indication that the character was " thrown into the mix on the principle that one glamorous space @-@ travelling bisexual isn ’ t enough . " Whilst The Daily Mirror 's Jane Simon expected that the physical contact between Marsters and Barrowman would result in " somebody 's sci @-@ fi fantasy " being realised she saw it dashing her " hopes series two might serve less sex , less rubbish aliens and more credible drama " . However , Dan Martin of The Guardian described the character as the " best thing about the opener " and stated that " he stole every scene he was in " . He felt the production team " shamelessly and brilliantly .... transplanted " the character of Spike into the series . Richard Edwards of SFX magazine also gave particular praise to Marsters portrayal and like Martin , stated that he " steals the show " . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy felt Hart 's arrival to be " self @-@ consciously iconic " in providing " swagger , innuendo and a wonderful Star Wars reference " . He felt that overall the characterisation verged " dangerously close to parody at times " but this didn 't detract from Marsters being " a joy to watch , in a similar vein to his role in Buffy . " Charlie Jane Anders commented in regards to the episode that " " Spike " is pretty great in his Adam Ant jacket , with his paralyzing lip gloss and his zany sexual innuendo " . IGN felt John to be a " lot of fun " and a " good character to add to the mix " who showed the team " just how much of a mess they are " .
In regards to " Exit Wounds " Anders felt that the " campy " John " felt like he didn 't quite belong in such a serious episode " . Conversely , Mark Wright of The Stage opined that the character was " rather better second time round " . SFX 's Edwards felt the character to be " not as fun " as in episode one but observed that his " heroic side makes for a more rounded character " and anticipated a return in future . IGN 's Travis Fickett felt Hart to be " a far more interesting adversary " than Jack 's brother Gray and once he had been unmasked as a " red herring " the episode " has some life taken out of it " . Subsequent to his last appearance , the character has continued to be mentioned in relation to Torchwood . In June 2010 — following the announcement of a fourth series to be produced as an American co @-@ production — Dan Martin felt that James Masters would be the " obvious first box to tick " in regards to new cast members for the programme . In March 2012 , John Hart made SFX magazine 's reader voted list of the 100 sexiest male characters in the history of film and television science fiction and fantasy . He ranked # 82 .
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= Flag of South Africa ( 1928 – 1994 ) =
The flag of South Africa between 1928 and 1994 was the flag of the Union of South Africa and its successor state , the Republic of South Africa , as well as the former territory of South @-@ West Africa ( Namibia ) . Based on the Dutch Prince 's Flag , it contained the flag of the United Kingdom , the flag of the Orange Free State and the flag of the South African Republic in the centre . It was nicknamed Oranje , Blanje , Blou ( Afrikaans : ' orange , white , blue ' ) . It was adopted in 1928 by an act of Parliament from the first Afrikaner majority government and was replaced by the current flag of South Africa in 1994 with the commencement of the republic 's transitional constitution and end of apartheid . The flag has been a centre of controversy , with some people viewing it as a symbol of history and Afrikaner heritage while others view it as a symbol of apartheid and of white supremacy .
= = Adoption = =
Before 1928 the only flag that had official status in the Union of South Africa was the United Kingdom 's Union Jack as South Africa was part of the British Empire . The South African Red Ensign was used as an unofficial flag . In 1925 , discussion rose about creating a new flag for South Africa as many descendants of Boers found the Union Jack unacceptable after the Boer War . In 1926 the Balfour Declaration granted South Africa Dominon status and a new flag was to be used to represent them . British settlers wanted the Union Jack in the new flag as part of the British Empire while the Afrikaners did not . A compromise was reached whereby the new flag would consist of the Prince 's Flag as this was the first flag raised on South Africa and a badge of the Union Jack in the centre with the flags of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic . The Union Jack was mirrored in the new flag with the hoist on the right so that it did not take precedence over the others .
In 1927 , the Afrikaner majority Parliament of South Africa passed the Union Nationality & Flag Act , which stated that the Union Jack and the new Flag of the Union of South Africa were to have equal status as the flag of South Africa . The act came into force in 1928 when both flags were raised over the Houses of Parliament , Cape Town and the Union Buildings in Pretoria This dual status was ended in 1957 with the passing of the Flags Amendment Act which declared that the Oranje , Blanje , Blou would be the sole flag of South Africa with the act also declaring that Die Stem van Suid @-@ Afrika would be the country 's sole anthem and dropping God Save the Queen .
When South Africa became a republic in 1961 , the flag remained the same . The Afrikaner voting majority disliked the flag retaining the Union Jack in the centre . Repeated calls were made for it to be removed or for a new flag but no action was taken by the ruling National Party until 1968 . B. J. Vorster convened a commission in that year to create a new flag in time for the 10th anniversary of South Africa 's declaration of independence in 1971 , but no changes were eventually made . The flag was treated with respect by Afrikaners with daily flag salutes in schools . It was also used as part of celebrations of the inauguration of the State President .
= = Opposition = =
Gradually , the " Oranje , Blanje , Blou " became associated with the apartheid regime . Movements like the Black Sash and Umkhonto we Sizwe started protesting against it with their own symbols . Often the flag of South Africa would be removed from public display and replaced with the banned ANC flag . The flag would also be the subject of public burnings during anti @-@ apartheid protests .
After 1989 , F. W. de Klerk was elected president and immediately unbanned the African National Congress ( ANC ) and released their leader Nelson Mandela from prison . De Klerk instigated negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa with Mandela 's ANC . One of the ANC 's demands was that the flag gradually decrease in usage in South African life as well as requesting that a new flag be created as black South Africans associated the current one with apartheid and Afrikaner nationalism .
The negotiations led to the South African apartheid referendum , 1992 where voters approved the ending of apartheid . The referendum decision resulted in the International Rugby Board allowing the South Africa national rugby union team to play test matches again . The ANC agreed to endorse the team on the provision that the flag not be used . During the return test , the Conservative Party handed out numerous flags to the majority white crowd as a symbol of defiance against the ANC . At the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , the South African team performed under a specially designed flag for the National Olympic Committee of South Africa , although white South African spectators at the games waved the then national flag , despite attempts by officials to stop them .
In 1994 the State Herald of South Africa , Fred Brownell , was approached to design a new national flag for South Africa to replace the " Oranje , Blanje , Blou " in time for the first elections after apartheid . He designed the new flag of South Africa with a combination of the " Oranje , Blanje , Blou " and the colours of the ANC flag . The new flag design was approved personally by both de Klerk and Mandela before being unanimously approved by the Transitional Executive Council on 15 March 1994 . De Klerk made the public proclamation of the replacement of the old flag on 20 April , seven days before the 1994 South African general election on 27 April 1994 .
= = Post 1994 = =
Following its official retirement as the flag of South Africa , the Oranje , Blanje , Blou was adopted by some white South Africans as being a symbol of Afrikaner heritage and history . Many South Africans still view it as a symbol of apartheid , and therefore strongly discouraged its use . Despite the negative associations , it was never banned by the Government of South Africa post @-@ 1994 and the right to display it in South Africa is protected under Chapter Two of the Constitution of South Africa as an expression of free speech . In the 21st century , usage of the " Oranje , Blanje , Blou " experienced a revival of display as a symbol by white supremacists worldwide . A particular awareness of this followed the shooting at a Charleston , South Carolina black church in 2015 , as the suspect Dylann Roof had previously been pictured wearing a jacket with the " Oranje , Blanje , Blou " and the flag of Rhodesia on it . This association with apartheid and racism often led to calls for the flags that were used in a historical context , to be removed from display . An example of this is Cooma , Australia , where it is flown to commemorate South African workers in the Snowy Mountains Scheme alongside the Canadian Red Ensign and other flags from 1956 when the scheme was created .
The flag has also been used as a symbol of protest post @-@ 1994 . In 2005 , a statue of King Makhado was vandalised in Louis Trichardt with the colours of the flag as a protest against a proposal to change the name of the town to Makhado . Some South Africans in the 21st century started to fly the flag as a protest against a perceived failure of the ANC to make progress in governing South Africa as a democracy .
At Cape Town 's Castle of Good Hope , the flag was flown from the castle alongside the Union Jack , flag of the Netherlands and the current flag of South Africa to display the powers that ruled South Africa through history . In 1994 it was agreed that they would remain on the castle parapet as historical reference . In 2012 following complaints from the ANC member of parliament Nomfunelo Mabedla , all the flags were removed from the parapet apart from the current flag of South Africa and the removed flags were placed in the castle 's museum .
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= Robert Q. Marston =
Robert Quarles Marston ( February 12 , 1923 – March 14 , 1999 ) was an American physician , research scientist , governmental appointee and university administrator . Marston was a native of Virginia , and , after earning his bachelor 's , medical and research degrees , he became a research scientist and medical professor . He served as the dean of the University of Mississippi School of Medicine , the director of the National Institutes of Health , and the president of the University of Florida .
= = Early life and education = =
He was born in Toano , Virginia , a small unincorporated community near Williamsburg , in 1923 . He graduated from the Virginia Military Institute ( VMI ) in Lexington , Virginia with a bachelor of science degree in 1944 . While attending the Medical College of Virginia ( MCV ) in Richmond , Virginia , he married Ann Carter Garnett in 1946 . Following his graduation from MCV with a doctor of medicine degree ( M.D. ) in 1947 , he received a Rhodes Scholarship to attend the University of Oxford in Oxford , England . While studying at Oxford 's Lincoln College , Marston worked under Nobel Prize @-@ winner Howard Florey , Norman Heatley and other scientists from the research team that developed penicillin as the first antibiotic , and graduated with a degree in research science .
= = Scientist , administrator , educator = =
After completing his internship at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore , Maryland , and a one @-@ year residency at Vanderbilt University Hospital in Nashville , Tennessee , Marston joined the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) as a medical researcher with the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , examining the infectious after @-@ effects of whole @-@ body irradiation , from 1951 to 1953 . He finished his residency at MCV in 1954 .
The Markle Foundation awarded Marston a grant as a " gifted practitioner " in the futherance of his academic medical career . Thereafter , he taught for three years on the MCV faculty , and lectured at the University of Minnesota 's Medical School for a year as an assistant professor of bacteriology and immunology . He rejoined MCV in 1959 , as the assistant student affairs dean and an associate medical professor .
Marston was chosen to be the dean of the University of Mississippi 's School of Medicine and director of the university 's Medical Center in Jackson , Mississippi in the midst of the Civil Rights Movement in 1961 . Marston was hired with the tacit understanding that he would integrate the medical school and medical center to comply with Federal law and maintain the medical school 's accreditation . Under his politically understated guidance , and in the face of continued political opposition from Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett , his administration admitted the first African @-@ American medical students , hired the first black medical professor , integrated the medical center 's patients , and set new precedents for the non @-@ violent racial desegregation of Southern medical schools and teaching hospitals . Later , in 1965 , he was chosen to be the university 's vice chancellor .
He rejoined the NIH in 1966 , first as NIH associate director and the director of the fledgling Regional Medical Programs Division , charged with cancer , heart disease and stroke research . Then , during an April 1968 internal reorganization of NIH , he was selected to be the new administrator of the Health Services and Mental Health Administration . Only five months later , in September , Marston was chosen to be the NIH director .
During his last year as the NIH director , Marston became embroiled in a funding controversy with the Nixon administration , which wanted to place greater funding emphasis on a " war on cancer . " Marston believed that emphasizing one disease at the expense of other medical research was bad policy , and continued to support balanced , comprehensive funding priorities . He eventually resigned from NIH in April 1973 , after nearly five years as director . Afterward , he became a scholar @-@ in @-@ residence at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville , Virginia . The National Academy of Science 's Institute of Medicine named him as its inaugural distinguished fellow .
In 1974 , the Florida Board of Regents chose Marston as the seventh president of the University of Florida located in Gainesville , Florida ; he undertook the presidency during a time of economic recession , state budget cuts and increased demand for private funding of the university . During his ten @-@ year tenure , the university matured into one of the United States ' ten largest single @-@ campus universities and one of the five most inclusive in the scope of its academic programs , with significant growth in its sponsored research activities , and notable advancement of the university 's academic excellence and reputation . Marston 's accomplishments as university president included the organization of a non @-@ profit corporate structure for the management of Shands Hospital , helping establish the State of Florida 's Eminent Scholars Program , dramatically increasing the university 's private financial support , developing plans to recruit National Merit Scholars and National Achievement Scholars , and laying the organizational foundation for the University of Florida 's eventual membership in the Association of American Universities ( AAU ) .
After retiring as the University of Florida president emeritus in 1984 , Marston returned to the Virginia Military Institute as a distinguished scholar , and later served on VMI 's governing Board of Visitors during the controversy over the court @-@ ordered admission of women . In 1985 , he went back to the University of Florida faculty and conducted research and presented papers for the university 's Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences and its College of Medicine , co @-@ edited The Medical Implications of Nuclear War on behalf of the National Academy of Sciences , and served as the chairman of the Safety Advisory Committee for the Clean @-@ Up of Three Mile Island . He also accepted the chairmanship of the Florida Marine Fishery Commission , tasked with the governance of the state 's saltwater fishing industry and guardianship of its resources .
As a well @-@ known leader in several national medical organizations and university associations , Marston was elected leader of the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges , an Association of American Medical Colleges Distinguished Service Member , and a member of the board of governors of the Institute of Medicine . He was also appointed to the corporate boards of the Hospital Corporation of America , Johnson & Johnson , and Wackenhut .
= = Legacy = =
Marston is prominently remembered for his role in desegregating the University of Mississippi medical school , his stewardship of the National Institutes of Health , and his advancement of the academic reputation and standing of the University of Florida . In recognition of his prior work as a medical research scientist and his success in promoting the University of Florida as a major national research university , the Florida Legislature dedicated the university 's new Marston Science Library in his name in 1987 .
Marston died in Gainesville , Florida , on March 14 , 1999 ; he was 76 years old . His daughter , two sons , and six grandchildren survived him . His wife , Ann Carter Garnett Marston , died the previous year ; they were married for fifty @-@ one years .
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= Channel Orange =
Channel Orange ( stylized as channel ORANGE ) is the debut studio album by American recording artist Frank Ocean , released on July 10 , 2012 , by Def Jam Recordings . After releasing his 2011 mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra , Ocean began writing the album with creative partner Malay , who assisted him with its recording at EastWest Studio in Hollywood . Rather than rely on samples as he had with his mixtape , Ocean wanted to approach sound and song structure differently on Channel Orange . He titled the album as a reference to the neurological phenomenon grapheme – color synesthesia and the color he perceived during the summer he first fell in love .
Channel Orange has an unconventional musical style , film @-@ inspired segue tracks , and songs that draw on electro @-@ funk , pop @-@ soul , jazz @-@ funk , and psychedelic music . Ocean 's songwriting touches on themes such as unrequited love , decadence , class , and drugs through the use of surrealistic imagery , conversational devices , and descriptive narratives depicting dark characters . His baritone singing on the album exhibits free @-@ form flow and alternating falsetto and tenor registers .
To prevent it from leaking onto the Internet , Ocean released the album digitally one week earlier than its publicly announced date . He promoted it with five singles , including his highest charting single " Thinkin Bout You " — number 32 on the Hot 100 — and a supporting tour in July 2012 . Channel Orange debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 and sold 131 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It received widespread acclaim from critics and was named the best album of 2012 by numerous publications . As of September 2014 , the album has sold 621 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = Background and writing = =
Frustrated with Def Jam Recordings ' inactivity in his recording career , Ocean released his debut mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra online for free in February 2011 . It showcased Ocean 's original tracks , repurposed songs by other recording acts , and featured musical and lyrical elements unconventional in R & B. Although it lacked conventional promotion , the mixtape attained a following among listeners and received critical acclaim . Ocean and Def Jam subsequently mended their relationship , and although a contracted edition of Nostalgia , Ultra never materialized , the label released two of its songs as singles , including the Billboard charting " Novacane " . They subsequently agreed to release a tentative follow @-@ up album for 2012 .
Ocean started writing songs for Channel Orange in February 2011 with songwriter and producer Malay , his friend and creative partner since their start in the music industry as songwriters . They originally met in Atlanta and worked for the same publishing company , through which they reconnected after Malay moved to Los Angeles . Ocean started hanging out with Malay , introduced him to his Odd Future collective , and connected creatively through their respective songwriting , which led to their partnership for Channel Orange . For the album , Ocean wrote his lyrics to complement Malay 's ideas for the music . Occasionally , they wrote songs together by improvising musical ideas from Malay 's keyboard and guitar playing .
Although Ocean had creative freedom for both projects , he felt more confident as a songwriter for Channel Orange and typed his lyrics on a laptop rather than composing in his head as he had done for Nostalgia , Ultra . Since transitioning from writing for other artists , he had been influenced by his " gloriously painful love life " when writing songs . For his lyrics , Ocean used both his past personal experiences and imagination to compose narratives for songs . He was inspired to write the song " Crack Rock " by stories he heard sitting in on Narcotics Anonymous and Alcoholics Anonymous groups mentored by his grandfather , who also dealt with substance abuse in his youth . In an interview for The Guardian , Ocean expressed uncertainty about his penchant for darker subject matter , but speculated that " those were the colours I had to work with on those days . ... I mean , ' experience ' is an interesting word . I just bear witness . "
In June 2012 , news outlets and music journalists from pre @-@ release listening events for Channel Orange raised questions about certain songs ' lyrics and Ocean 's sexuality . The lyrics addressed a male object of love and deviated from the heterosexual perspective of his past songs . Scrapping his original plan of including it in the album 's liner notes , Ocean published a TextEdit file as an open letter through his Tumblr blog on July 4 . Originally written in December 2011 , it recounted his unrequited feelings for a man when he was 19 years old , citing the experience as his first love . Ocean 's disclosure was received with support from Def Jam and praise from other recording artists and cultural commentators . He also remarked on writing Channel Orange after years of emotional struggle with the experience , stating in the letter , " I wrote to keep myself busy and sane . I wanted to create worlds that were rosier than mine . I tried to channel overwhelming emotions . "
During their writing sessions , Malay noticed Ocean 's use of gender pronouns in his lyrics , but attributed it to Ocean 's poetic license rather than his sexuality . In an interview after Ocean 's open letter , Malay called him " the new hybrid of what an MC used to be in the ' 80s or ' 90s ... the true storyteller " and said of the lyrics , " I don 't think anyone during any given point during the creative process knew what was happening ... when he 's singing maybe from a female perspective or whatever , it 's a story , it 's a world that he created . It 's not necessarily his personal — like something that he ’ s experiencing . Maybe it is and it 's a metaphor the way he did it " . They finished writing Channel Orange in two to three months . Ocean said of the album 's development in an interview for Rap @-@ Up , " It succinctly defines me as an artist for where I am right now and that was the aim . It 's about the stories . If I write 14 stories that I love , then the next step is to get the environment of music around it to best envelop the story and all kinds of sonic goodness . "
= = Recording and production = =
Once the songs were written , Ocean ordered them into what ultimately became the album 's track listing and began recording them in that order . He recorded most of the album at EastWest Studio in Hollywood , near where he was renting a home at the time . The studio complex featured recording equipment from the 1960s . Other recording locations included Henson Recording Studios and the Record Plant in Hollywood , Westlake Recording Studios and Studio for the Talented & Gifted in Los Angeles , Manhattan Sound Recording in New York City , and San Ysidro in Beverly Hills . He originally planned to rent recording equipment and the Beverly Hills mansion alone rather than rent a studio for $ 1 @,@ 600 a day . He had a maid at the mansion and enjoyed amenities such as a pool and a sauna , but ended up recording only three songs there — " Lost " , " Pyramids " , and " Analog 2 " , a collaboration with fellow Odd Future member Tyler , The Creator .
Ocean recorded his vocals alone for several months , striving intensively for high performance standards , before rejoining Malay for the album 's production . Ocean produced most of Channel Orange and was assisted by Malay , who also played guitar , bass , keyboards , and brass instruments . He described his own contributions as " behind the scenes " to Ocean 's " diligent " work ethic . Ocean wanted to experiment sonically and approach song structure differently than he had before . For inspiration , he and Malay listened to older records to either use as musical references or set a mood at the studio , listening to music by Stevie Wonder , Marvin Gaye , Sly and the Family Stone , Pink Floyd , and Jimi Hendrix . They also put up posters of Pink Floyd and Bruce Lee , and projected inaudible old movies in the studio 's background .
Their production also emphasized instrumentation and was a departure for Ocean after Nostalgia , Ultra 's reliance on samples . In the studio , they reworked the musical ideas from their writing sessions , incorporated live production , and ornamented their songs musically . Ocean enlisted Los Angeles @-@ based producer Om 'mas Keith to help him rework the songs . They added live drums to " Crack Rock " , " Monks " , and " Sweet Life " , which was originally produced as a digital track . Originally written by Ocean for singer Bridget Kelly , " Thinkin Bout You " had been recorded as an early take by him and posted on his Tumblr account in July . Ocean and Malay 's final mix of the song for the album added a strings intro . For " Bad Religion " , engineer Jeff Ellis tried to compensate for the few string players they had by arranging seating for a large string section in EastWest 's Studio 1 and using a pair of old stereo ribbon microphones to capture the sound . They sat players in different seats each time they played along with the track in order to mix all of the takes together and give the impression of a larger ensemble .
In the wake of Nostalgia , Ultra , other artists took interest in Ocean and contacted him about working together , leading to collaborations on Channel Orange . He previewed songs at different stages of completion to get feedback from guest artists , some of whom he cited as his " creative heroes " , including record producer Pharrell , who co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced " Sweet Life " with Ocean . Ocean and Malay previewed songs to rock musician John Mayer , which inspired his guitar playing for both " Pyramids " and " White " . For the latter track , they used the instrumental of the song of the same name from Odd Future 's 2012 album The OF Tape Vol . 2 , recorded atmospheric instrumentation by Mayer and other musicians , and tracked it to the original instrumental . Ocean reached out to rappers André 3000 and Big Boi of hip hop duo OutKast to appear on " Pink Matter " . However , André 3000 did not want to reunite with Big Boi as a duo on another artist 's album . The former ended up rapping alone and playing guitar on the song . Ocean told him to tell any kind of story with his verse for " Pink Matter " , of which André 3000 later said , " when I got the track , I just started writing to it and I was just , I 'm just happy to be a part of that whole movement and his whole movement because he has become a whole ' nother kind of icon in today 's age . "
Ocean and Malay mixed Channel Orange at Studio for the Talented & Gifted , and engineer Spike Stent mixed parts of the album at The Mix Suite in Los Angeles . It was mastered by Vlado Meller at Masterdisk in New York City . Malay said that he and Ocean focused on sonic " intricacies " such as interludes and skits on tracks when mixing the album , which he referred to as their " art project " . Ocean said that he admires " the anonymity that directors can have about their films " and explained his use of interludes on the album , saying that " the work is the work . The work is not me ... Even though it 's my voice , I 'm a storyteller . " According to Malay , Kanye West helped Ocean during the album 's final stages by providing " a mentorship situation " and connecting him with his " visual people " . Malay recalled in an interview for Complex how he and Ocean were " somewhat oblivious to how quickly everything happened " as they were finishing the album , as Ocean 's name was " continuing to get bigger and bigger . " To downplay himself from being " the focal point " of the album , Ocean did not want his name on the cover and had Everest , his Bernese Mountain Dog , credited as the executive producer instead .
Ocean titled the album as a reference to grapheme – color synesthesia , a neurological phenomenon in which an individual 's perception of numbers and letters is associated with the experience of colors . He discussed the phenomenon with Pharrell , who had also experienced it and similarly referenced it for the title of his side project N.E.R.D 's 2008 album Seeing Sounds . West also experienced it as a youth and used it as an inspiration when creating his short film Cruel Summer in 2012 . The title also alludes to the first time that Ocean fell in love , as it was summer and he perceived everything to be orange . Ocean 's mother called it " a perfect summertime album " after attending a listening session .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to music journalists , Channel Orange has an unconventional musical style , with influences from psychedelic , pop @-@ soul , jazz @-@ funk , and electro @-@ funk genres . HipHopDX categorized it as an alternative R & B album , while Evan Rytlewski from The A.V. Club called it a neo soul record . Sputnikmusic 's Sobhi Youssef remarked that , although its production " pull [ s ] from a spectrum of popular modern and classic influences " , they are used " within the ' constraints ' of R & B without any singular genre taking over the record . " Songs on the album are characterized by electronic keyboard , muted percussion , fluctuating backing tracks , shifting synthesizers , vamps , vibrant guitar , and hazy electronic effects such as dub reverb . Tiny Mix Tapes wrote that first half 's " spacious " production recalls the " electric soul influence " of Shuggie Otis , while Jody Rosen observed " chord changes straight out of [ Stevie ] Wonder 's Innervisions , airy vamps that nod to [ Marvin ] Gaye 's Here , My Dear , [ and ] snarling guitars that recall Prince 's Purple Rain " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post compared its melodic sensibilities to those of Gaye and Wonder , and its loose song structures to those of D 'Angelo , Maxwell , and Erykah Badu . Time magazine 's Melissa Locker noted melodramatic elements such as " haunting melodies " similar to The @-@ Dream 's 2007 album Love Hate .
Less melodic and hook @-@ oriented than Nostalgia , Ultra , Channel Orange has soft melodies , gentle articulation , spatial arrangements , and mid @-@ tempo drum beats , although the more ruminative songs feature slower tempos . Robert Christgau asserted that , without its predecessor 's reliance on samples , " Ocean resists making a show of himself — resists the dope hook , the smart tempo , the transcendent falsetto itself . " Ocean , a baritone , sings with casually expressive vocals , free @-@ form flow , conversational crooning , and alternating falsetto and tenor registers . Similar to Nostalgia , Ultra , Channel Orange has interludes that feature sounds of organs , waves , tape decks , car doors , channel surfing , white noise , and dialogue . They exhibit an analog sound quality , and some end abruptly . Writers interpreted them to represent the limited attention span of listeners , moments in Ocean 's life , the distortion inside his mind , nostalgic ephemera , or a synesthesia @-@ inspired theme . Jesse Cataldo of Slant Magazine viewed that the segues , along with the other songs ' disparate lengths , give the album the feel of a mixtape .
Channel Orange has themes of unrequited love , sex , and existential longing . Allusions to Ocean 's own experience with unrequited love are featured in several songs , including " Thinkin Bout You " , " Bad Religion " , and " Forrest Gump " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times found the album to be " rife with the sting of unrequited love , both on the receiving and inflicting ends " , with " lovers who tantalize but remain at arm 's length . " Ryan Dombal from Pitchfork Media said Ocean exhibits " a timeless philosophy ... one of hard @-@ won acceptance and the acknowledgement that love and sex and loss will always draw legends to them . " The album also explores decadence , the trappings of class disparity , drug dependency , and the tension between spirituality and secularity , a prevalent theme in soul music . Music journalist Sasha Frere @-@ Jones noted " a combination of decadence and spiritual ache similar to Prince 's " . Greg Kot wrote that Ocean presents " a dialogue between his self @-@ gratifying lust and more selfless conscience " , with Prince @-@ like " psychedelic @-@ gospel inflections " and Marvin Gaye @-@ like overdubbing of Ocean 's vocals , which give the impression of voices in conversation with one another . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard viewed that Ocean examines love in the context of money , drugs , and sex .
Ocean 's songwriting uses descriptive narratives , dense metre , surrealistic imagery , empathic sentiments , deadpan humor , overt metaphors , and conversational devices . John Calvert of The Quietus wrote that his lyrics treat love as " innocent " , and feature " flying @-@ as @-@ love " metaphors and " respectful euphemisms " for sex such as a flight on a " fighter jet " . Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes regarded Channel Orange as a " songwriter 's album " and views that , although " the emotions , mood , and melodies are broad enough to draw listeners in " , Ocean 's lyrics are " apocryphal , allowing for personal interpretations " . Ocean 's narratives generally depict dark , broken characters , and a Southern California setting , with references to its sunny , coastal environment in both the lyrics and melodies . Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times categorized Channel Orange as a concept album about " the twentysomething experience in Los Angeles " , while Greg Kot interpreted the California setting to be " a state of mind in Ocean [ ' s ] world : numb , deceptively luxurious and self @-@ satisfied , where the denizens live disconnected from one another and the world . "
The opening track " Start " is a snippet of ambient sounds , bits of silence , and flickers of noise , including a PlayStation booting up . The low @-@ key torch song " Thinkin Bout You " features soothing synth cycles , sparse keyboards , muffled electronic percussion , and lyrics addressing a lover with white lies in the verses and thoughts of eternal love in the chorus . " Fertilizer " is based on James Fauntleroy II 's 2010 song of the same name , repurposed on the album as an AM radio jingle and interlude about " bullshit " . " Sierra Leone " incorporates chillwave and quiet storm styles , wind chime sounds , lo @-@ fi beats , and polyphony similar to Prince 's 1985 song " Paisley Park " . Its lyrics address sex , conception , early parenthood , and childhood dreams . It recounts the narrator 's lust for a girl as a teenager , and compares their relationship to the vicissitudes of Sierra Leone such as diamonds and civil war . Ocean 's singing exhibits quickly descending chord succession and is overdubbed against his spoken vocals .
" Sweet Life " and " Super Rich Kids " depict decadent , alluring rich people , and are tied together by " Not Just Money " , a spoken interlude with a woman discussing the importance of money on happiness . " Super Rich Kids " references the thumping piano line of Elton John 's 1973 song " Bennie and the Jets " and addresses young , wealthy characters ' ennui and fears of the financial crisis with dry humor . " Pilot Jones " employs magic realism and escapist imagery , and depicts an emotional dependency between drug addicts , who confuse friendship with sexual love in their support of each other . The swooning song contains hazy electronic blips , impressionistic textures , experimental beat patterns , refracted sound effects , and vocal improvisation expressing the narrator 's " high " . " Crack Rock " depicts a crack addict , likens love to the highs and lows of drug use , and broadly addresses corruption , broken homes , gun violence , and government indifference to rising crack @-@ related deaths . It has fleeting multi @-@ tracked harmonies , a non @-@ sequitur chorus , and Ocean 's occasionally fractured breathiness conveying an addict 's voice .
" Pyramids " is cited by writers as the album 's centerpiece . Brice Ezell from PopMatters wrote that it denotes " the vital midpoint of the overarching narrative " , where " the wittier tone of the record 's front half gives way to an emotionally dense second half . " Veering from synth @-@ funk to slow jam styles , the song has a lyrical conceit that uses Ancient Egyptian and Biblical imagery , and contrasts the legendary fall of Cleopatra VII with the circumstances of a latter @-@ day working girl , who dances at a strip club called the Pyramid to support her man 's gaudy aspirations . The new wave @-@ styled " Lost " is about a perplexed addict , who hopes for a better life for him and his drug @-@ cooking girlfriend . " Monks " , a funk rock song , is about finding nirvana and deals with topics such as casual sex and devout religion in a narrative that shifts from an exciting concert to a metaphorical jungle . " Bad Religion " features melodramatic , orchestral music and a series of figures , including strings , handclaps , marching band snare drums , and mournful organ chords . The lyrics follow an emotional confession to a taxi driver by a narrator brooding over a secretive intimate relationship . Music journalist Alexis Petridis asserted that the song " repurpos [ es ] the battle between religion and lust that 's been at the heart of soul music since it ceded from gospel " .
" Pink Matter " is a bluesy lament with themes of sex and betrayal , as its narrator struggles between pleasure and universal meaning . Its lyrics allude to philosophical conundrums , extraterrestrial life , Japanese manga comics , and cotton candy . The playful " Forrest Gump " likens the titular film character to an adolescent crush , with homoerotic , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics , and allusions to scenes in the film . It has a bright , Motown @-@ inspired chorus , a simple rhythmic cadence , gently strummed guitar , wistful vocals , and a perkily whistled coda . The skit " End " depicts an exchange between Ocean and a woman as they make love in the backseat of a car with his 2012 song " Voodoo " playing over the stereo . She says to him , " You 're special . I wish you could see what I see " , repurposing a line from the 2006 film ATL , and Ocean leaves the car in response , walks home through the rain , and sets his keys down with a sigh . The lighthearted , lovelorn " Golden Girl " has up @-@ tempo synths , gradual fades , and Tyler , The Creator rapping in a low @-@ pitched , demonic voice . It is about a girl that provides salvation and peace of mind for the narrator , who likens her to an island .
= = Release and reception = =
To prevent Channel Orange from leaking onto the Internet , Ocean planned to release it digitally one week earlier than its publicly announced date . He was inspired by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West , who prevented their 2011 album Watch the Throne from leaking by announcing several misleading release dates . On June 8 , Ocean announced a July 17 release date and released a trailer for the album directed by Nabil Elderkin . On July 9 , he made his television debut on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and performed " Bad Religion " with backing from the show 's house band The Roots and a strings section . The show announced the album 's actual release date and vendor , Universal Music Group , who made it available on July 10 as a digital download on iTunes . Ocean said at the time , " I haven 't even held one in my hands ... The [ CDs ] are done , but when we sent them in , they were locked down at the manufacturer . They haven 't left . They never went on trucks [ to stores ] because that 's where things leak . "
Channel Orange was sold exclusively through iTunes until July 17 , when it was released to other digital retailers . Although its wide physical release was scheduled for July 17 , Universal encouraged physical retailers to start selling it immediately after they receive shipments of the album . Retail company Target did not approve of its early release to iTunes and chose not to stock the album . Ocean 's manager Christian Clancy responded in a message on Twitter that he found it " interesting " that Target " also donates to non @-@ equal rights organizations " , suggesting their decision was influenced by Ocean 's coming out . Target representatives dismissed Clancy 's claims as " absolutely false " in a subsequent statement to MTV News , saying that the company " supports inclusivity and diversity in every aspect of our business . Our assortment decisions are based on a number of factors , including guest demand . "
Channel Orange debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 and sold 131 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The majority of its first @-@ week sales were digital copies from iTunes , while approximately 3 @,@ 000 of the sales were physical copies . Digital copies sold for $ 2 @.@ 99 at Amazon.com were excluded from Nielsen SoundScan 's sales data , as Billboard 's chart policy disqualified albums sold for less than $ 3 @.@ 49 from charting . The album sold 54 @,@ 000 copies in its second week , excluding discounted copies sold by Amazon.com , which Billboard estimated to be approximately 15 @,@ 000 copies . Channel Orange also debuted at number two on the British albums chart with first @-@ week sales of 13 @,@ 000 copies . It was the first album to chart within the top 20 in the United Kingdom solely on digital sales . In Canada , the album debuted at number three on first @-@ week sales of 6 @,@ 700 copies . Five singles were released from the album — " Thinkin Bout You " on April 17 , " Pyramids " on June 8 , " Sweet Life " on July 6 , " Lost " on December 17 , and " Super Rich Kids " on March 17 , 2013 . " Thinkin Bout You " became Ocean 's highest charting single in the US , peaking at number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Ocean performed the song on the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards on September 6 , 2012 @.@ and the following week , Channel Orange sold almost 14 @,@ 000 more copies . By September 2014 , it had sold 621 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
Channel Orange received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 92 , based on 46 reviews . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman wrote that Ocean 's " descriptive and subtle storytelling is taken to a higher level " than on Nostalgia , Ultra , while Mike Powell of Spin found his tempered singing to be a sign of " exceptional wisdom and repose " . State journalist Fintan Walsh said Ocean captured " the modern youth " with his lyrics just as Brian Wilson had with the 1966 album Pet Sounds while calling Channel Orange " a masterful , dynamic and evocative collection of conversations between his inner @-@ self and the listener . " It was called " an expansive , slow @-@ burning classic that repays patience and close attention " by Killian Fox in The Observer , while musicOMH critic Laurence Green described the music as " a cherry @-@ picking of life 's cacophony repainted into the most enchanting of collages " . Slant Magazine 's Jesse Cataldo hailed it as a " mosaic work ... so textured , complex , and mature that Ocean 's recent coming out feels like a footnote " . Jody Rosen was less impressed in Rolling Stone , preferring the album 's more structured songs while arguing that Ocean sometimes seemed to be " less a songwriter than a purveyor of formless grooves " . Priya Elan of NME wrote that the " inventive and spirited " album 's music was occasionally overindulgent . Robert Christgau from MSN Music , on the other hand , felt Ocean 's musical compositions were more consistent here than on Nostalgia , Ultra but questioned his topical fascinations with the " haut @-@ monde demimonde " .
At the end of 2012 , Channel Orange was named the year 's best album by numerous publications , including the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Chicago Tribune , Billboard , Entertainment Weekly , The Guardian , the Los Angeles Times , The Sydney Morning Herald , Now , Paste , PopMatters , Slant Magazine , Spin , and The Washington Post . It was named " Album of the Year " in HMV 's Poll of Polls , an annual survey of British journalists from national print and online publications . It was also voted the best album of 2012 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics published by The Village Voice . In an essay for the poll , the newspaper 's Eric Sundermann deemed the victory unsurprising as Ocean " dominated most music discussions this past year " and had an equalizing effect on listeners of all music genres . Metacritic cited it as both the " top @-@ ranked " and " best @-@ reviewed major album " of 2012 , as well as " one of the best @-@ reviewed albums of the past decade " . Channel Orange won the Album of the Year award at the 2012 Soul Train Music Awards , and earned Ocean nominations for the 2013 Grammy Awards in the categories of Album of the Year , Best New Artist , and Record of the Year ( for " Thinkin Bout You " ) , winning for Best Urban Contemporary Album . Ocean agreed to perform at the awards show only if they let him play the song he wanted , " Forrest Gump " .
= = Touring = =
Ocean supported the album with a 14 @-@ date North American tour during July 2012 . Announced on June 8 , the tour had sold out by July 9 . On its number of shows , Ocean explained that he wanted to provide quality over quantity and said that " it 's not about let 's do a million things right now . It 's about let 's just do our best to do the best things right now . " Malay joined him as the tour 's musical director and said that it would expand on the production of Ocean 's previous concerts for Nostalgia , Ultra . Their stage setup featured a guitarist , bassist , drummer , two pianos , and a DJ setup behind television monitor props , which showed ever @-@ changing images .
Along with songs from Nostalgia , Ultra and Channel Orange , Ocean performed " Made in America " , his unreleased songs " Summer Remains " and " Voodoo " , and covers of Prince 's " When You Were Mine " ( 1980 ) , Beyoncé 's " I Miss You " ( 2011 ) , and Sade 's " By Your Side " ( 2000 ) . Reviewers of the shows noted Ocean 's low @-@ key stage presence and observed crowd screams and audience members singing @-@ along to songs . After his performance at the 9 : 30 Club in Washington , D.C. , Ocean reflected on the tour and wrote on his Twitter account , " This tourlife takes some getting used to . I get to zone out and be someones hero or deviant fantasy or whatever for a hour [ sic ] and some change every night though . That 's special , and the women still scream in the front row . " Ocean cancelled his tour @-@ closing show at Saint Andrew 's Hall in Detroit on August 1 due to illness .
After the tour , Ocean was slated to perform at several music festivals , including Lollapalooza , where he headlined the second day of the festival . However , during his performance at Øyafestivalen in Norway , Ocean lost his voice and ended his set early . He subsequently withdrew from his European tour dates , including English rock band Coldplay 's Mylo Xyloto Tour , on which he would have been the opening act during the tour 's European leg in August and September . Although he did not specify his reason , Ocean issued a statement to organizers of the Way Out West Festival in Sweden , saying that " Let me start by saying I feel like an asshole right now , but a tough decision had to be made in regard to my schedule over the next months ... Sorry as fuck , I 'll be back if you 'll have me . " He subsequently performed at All Tomorrow 's Parties in New York City on September 21 .
= = Track listing = =
Songwriting credits are adapted from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) .
= = = Track notes = = =
^ [ A ] " Super Rich Kids " contains an interpolation of " Real Love " , written by Mark Morales , Mark C. Rooney , Kirk Robinson , Nat Robinson Jr . , and Roy Hammond .
" Lost " contains dialogue from the 1998 film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas .
" Pink Matter " contains an audio clip from the 1985 film The Last Dragon .
^ [ B ] " End " was written by Christopher Breaux and James Ryan Ho , and " Golden Girl " was written by Breaux , Tyler Okonma , and Pharrell Williams .
" Golden Girl " begins at 3 : 44 of track 17 on CD copies of the album .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= John Breathitt =
John Breathitt ( September 9 , 1786 – February 21 , 1834 ) was the 11th Governor of Kentucky . He was the first Democrat to hold this office and was the second Kentucky governor to die in office . Shortly after his death , Breathitt County , Kentucky was created and named in his honor .
Early in life , Breathitt was appointed a deputy surveyor in Illinois Territory . On his return to Kentucky , he taught at a country school , and through wise investments , amassed enough wealth to sustain him while he studied law with Judge Caleb Wallace . In 1811 , he was elected to the first of several terms in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He was the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor in 1828 . Although his running mate William T. Barry lost the office of governor to Thomas Metcalfe , Breathitt defeated his opponent for lieutenant governor .
During his term as lieutenant governor , Breathitt was one of several proposed candidates to succeed John Rowan in the United States Senate , but the General Assembly deadlocked over the appointment and the seat went unfilled until the Assembly 's next term . In the next gubernatorial election in 1832 , Breathitt was the Democratic nominee for governor . Again , Breathitt won , but James Turner Morehead , the Whig candidate for lieutenant governor , defeated Breathitt 's running mate . Initially , Breathitt enjoyed popularity for his public condemnation of John C. Calhoun 's doctrine of nullification , but he did not fare well in state politics because the Whigs controlled the legislature . He died in office of tuberculosis on February 21 , 1834 .
= = Early life = =
John Breathitt was born near New London , Henry County , Virginia on September 9 , 1786 . He was the eldest of five sons and four daughters born to William and Elizabeth ( Whitsett ) Breathitt . William Breathitt immigrated to Maryland from Scotland , then settled in Virginia . John Breathitt 's brother , George , became a private secretary to President Andrew Jackson . Another brother , James , became Commonwealth 's Attorney for the state of Kentucky .
Breathitt was educated at home and in the public schools of his native state . His family moved to Logan County , Kentucky in 1800 , and he continued his education there . In early adulthood , he was appointed as a deputy surveyor in Illinois Territory . He then returned to Kentucky to teach in a country school . He invested his income in land purchases , and shortly amassed enough wealth to sustain him for a few years . Financially stable , he resolved to read law under Judge Caleb Wallace . He was admitted to the bar of Russellville , Kentucky in 1810 and opened his practice there .
In 1812 , Breathitt married Caroline Whitaker of Logan County . The couple had a son and a daughter . When his first wife died , he married Susan M. Harris of Chesterfield County , Virginia . Breathitt had another daughter by his second wife . Though Breathitt himself died at age 47 , he survived both of his wives .
= = Political career = =
Breathitt was elected to represent Logan County in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1811 , and was re @-@ elected every year until 1815 . In the gubernatorial election of 1828 , the Democrats chose William T. Barry as their candidate for governor . Initially , they offered the nomination for lieutenant governor to Judge John P. Oldham , but Oldham declined , and Breathitt was chosen as his replacement . Barry lost the governorship to National Republican Thomas Metcalfe , but Breathitt defeated Metcalfe 's running mate Joseph R. Underwood by more than 1 @,@ 000 votes .
As lieutenant governor , Breathitt promoted the creation of public schools in the state . On December 31 , 1829 , he was elected president of the Kentucky Educational Society whose stated mission was to " promote improvement and diffusion of popular education by the circulation of information , by enlisting the pulpit and the press , by procuring the delivery of popular addresses on the subject on the 4th day of July , and in different neighborhoods , and by other means that may be found practicable . " In 1833 , he became president of the Kentucky Common School Society .
In 1831 , Breathitt was one of several candidates put before the General Assembly to succeed John Rowan in the United States Senate . He received 66 of 137 votes , 3 votes short of a majority . Other unsuccessful nominees included John J. Crittenden ( 68 votes ) , Richard Mentor Johnson ( 64 votes ) , and Charles A. Wickliffe ( 49 votes ) . After 15 ballots , the Assembly still had not chosen a nominee , and postponed the matter until the next session . At that session , Henry Clay was chosen to fill the seat .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
In 1832 , the Democrats selected Breathitt and Benjamin Taylor as their candidates for governor and lieutenant governor , respectively . They faced a Whig ( formerly National Republican ) ticket of Richard Aylett Buckner and James Turner Morehead . Buckner was hurt by his extremely religious ideals , including opposition to handling mail on Sunday , and failed to garner the support of some of his own party 's newspapers . Breathitt defeated Buckner by a small margin , but Morehead defeated Taylor , Breathitt 's little @-@ known running mate . Breathitt 's election marked the first time a Democrat had ascended to the governorship of Kentucky . The election was marred by fraud , however . In Oldham County , the number of votes tallied represented 162 @.@ 9 % of the eligible voters in the county , and these votes broke two @-@ to @-@ one in favor of Breathitt . Most Kentuckians were more concerned about the upcoming presidential election , hoping Whig and native son Henry Clay would defeat Democrat Andrew Jackson . Because of this , most of the other state offices went to Whig candidates .
Early in his term , Breathitt won favor from both Whigs and Democrats by opposing South Carolina 's actions during the Nullification Crisis . Following Breathitt 's lead , the state legislature passed resolutions condemning the doctrine of nullification on February 2 , 1833 . This action was particularly significant because John C. Calhoun 's justification for nullification was largely based on the 1799 Kentucky Resolutions .
Breathitt did not fare as well in state politics . He ardently supported Jacksonian principles , and wielded his veto against bills critical of President Jackson 's land policy . He supported Jackson 's desire to dissolve the Second Bank of the United States . Instead , he favored opening a number of state banks , but faced with a Whig majority in the legislature , he succeeded only in chartering the Louisville Bank of Kentucky . He also favored completion of the Lexington and Ohio Railroad , and supported a $ 300 @,@ 000 loan from the state Board of Internal Improvements for that purpose . In 1833 , a loan for half the amount was approved , and the railroad was not completed until 1851 . Breathitt was also part of the temperance movement in Kentucky . In an 1832 address , he blamed consumption of alcohol for the high murder rate in the state . When the Kentucky Legislative Temperance Society was formed at a meeting in the state house on January 13 , 1834 , Breathitt was chosen as its president and Lieutenant Governor Morehead served as one of five vice @-@ presidents .
Breathitt died of tuberculosis in the governor 's mansion in Frankfort on February 21 , 1834 . He was the second sitting governor of Kentucky to die in office . Originally buried in the Breathitt family cemetery , he was later re @-@ interred at Maple Grove Cemetery in Russellville . Breathitt County , Kentucky was formed in 1839 and named in his honor . On March 5 , 1872 , the Kentucky General Assembly resolved to erect a monument over Breathitt 's grave in Russellville .
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= Tylopilus alboater =
Tylopilus alboater , commonly known as the black velvet bolete , is a bolete fungus in the Boletaceae family . The species is found in North America east of the Rocky Mountains , and in eastern Asia , including China , Japan , Taiwan , and Thailand . A mycorrhizal species , it grows solitarily , scattered , or in groups on the ground usually under deciduous trees , particularly oak , although it has been recorded from deciduous , coniferous , and mixed forests .
The fruit bodies have a black to grayish @-@ brown cap that measures up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter . The caps of young specimens have a velvety texture and are covered with a whitish to gray powdery coating ; this texture and coating is gradually lost as the mushroom matures , and the cap often develops cracks . The pores on the underside of the cap are small and pinkish . The stem is bluish @-@ purple to black , and measures up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . Both the pore surface and the whitish cap flesh will stain pink to reddish @-@ gray , and eventually turn black after being cut or injured . The mushroom is edible , and generally considered one of the best edible Tylopilus species .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first described in 1822 as Boletus alboater by Lewis David de Schweinitz from specimens he collected in North Carolina . Elias Magnus Fries sanctioned this name in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum . The species was one of several Boletus species that Otto Kuntze transferred to Suillus in his 1898 Revisio Generum Plantarum . American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill transferred it to the genus Tylopilus in 1909 . In 1931 , French mycologist Jean @-@ Edouard Gilbert transferred the species to his newly created genus Porphyrellus , but this name has since been subsumed into Tylopilus .
In 1875 , Charles Horton Peck described Boletus nigrellus from specimens he collected in Sand Lake , New York . Murrill reduced this name to synonymy with T. alboater in 1916 , and noted that Peck 's description was made from young material obtained " before the white tubes had been colored by mature spores " . Several later authorities have treated Peck 's species as a synonym of Tylopilus alboater ; this synonymy , however , is not indicated by either of the taxonomic authorities Index Fungorum or MycoBank .
The specific epithet alboater means " white and black " . It is commonly known as the " black velvet bolete " ; Murrill called it the " blackish bolete " .
= = Description = =
The shape of the cap is initially convex before later becoming broadly convex to eventually flattened in maturity ; the diameter of the cap is typically between 3 and 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The cap surface is dry , with a velvet @-@ like texture , although in age it can become rimose ( developing a network of cracks and small crevices ) . The cap color is initially black to dark grayish @-@ brown ; young specimens can have a whitish bloom ( resembling a dusting of fine powder ) on the surface . Fruit bodies , especially young specimens , tend to be free of maggots and other insect larvae . As the mushroom matures , the bloom disappears and the color fades to become grayish to grayish @-@ brown . The cap flesh is whitish , but after it is cut or injured , it will stain pink to reddish @-@ gray , and eventually turn black .
Spores are produced in basidia that are arranged in a vertically arranged layer of minute tubes on the underside of the cap that create a surface of pores . This surface is whitish when young before turning dull pink or flesh @-@ colored in maturity . When bruised , the pore surface initially stains reddish and slowly turns black . The shape of the pores is angular to irregular , and they are small , with roughly two pores per millimeter . The tubes are 5 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) deep , and usually sunken around the area of attachment to the stem . The stem is 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and is equal in width throughout its length , slightly thicker towards the base , or somewhat thicker in the middle . It is the same color as the cap , or paler . The surface texture of the stem is usually smooth , although some specimens may be slightly reticulated near the top . The spore print can range from pinkish to a deep flesh color .
The spores are oval to ellipsoid in shape , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 7 – 11 by 3 @.@ 5 – 5 μm . The basidia are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 15 – 24 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 μm . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the tube faces ) are irregularly club @-@ shaped , with dimensions of 20 – 36 by 7 – 10 μm , while cheilocystidia ( found on the tube edge ) are club @-@ shaped , rare , occur singly , and measure 18 – 32 by 7 – 9 μm . Although rare , there are also caulocystidia ( occurring on the stem ) that are arranged in groups , and which measure individually 24 – 30 by 6 – 9 μm . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae of T. alboater .
Tylopilus alboater is an edible mushroom with a pleasant odor and a mild taste . It is considered one of the best of the edible Tylopilus — a genus that is usually associated with bitter @-@ tasting , unpalatable species . Frying slices of the mushroom brings out a " delicate , earthy , nutty flavor " ; longer frying times make the cap " pleasantly crisp " . The mushrooms can be used in mushroom dying .
= = = Similar species = = =
Some Tylopilus species have a superficial resemblance to T. alboater and might be confused with it , including T. atronicotianus , T. atratus , and T. griseocarneus . T. atratus produces smaller fruit bodies with caps up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , and its whitish flesh directly stains black without any intermediate reddish phase when injured . It is known from only from western New York state . The " false black velvet bolete " , T. atronicotianus , has a brownish cap that lacks the velvety texture of T. alboater , and has stems that are minutely velvety and almost black near the base . T. griseocarneus , found in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains of North America , is readily distinguished from T. alboater by the strong orange to red discoloration that results when cutting or damaging the flesh of a fresh specimen . Furthermore , T. griseocarneus lacks the whitish bloom present on young caps of T. alboater , and typically has a more prominently reticulated stem . Specimens of T. alboater that are paler than usual can be confused with T. ferrugineus , but the latter has yellow cystidia when mounted in KOH , while the cystidia of the former are brownish @-@ yellow under similar conditions .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Tylopilus alboater is a mycorrhizal species , and its fruit bodies grow on the ground solitarily , scattered , or in groups under deciduous trees , particularly oak . Fruiting occurs in deciduous , coniferous , and mixed forests . Its dark color makes it difficult to notice in the field .
In North America , the mushroom is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains . The distribution ranges from Quebec in Canada , south to the New England states down to Florida , extending west to Missouri , Michigan , and Texas . It is also found in Mexico . In Asia , it has been recorded from China ( Anhui , Fujian , Guangdong , Guangxi , and Sichuan ) , Japan , Taiwan , and Thailand .
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= SMS Kaiser Friedrich III =
SMS Kaiser Friedrich III ( " His Majesty 's Ship Emperor Frederick III " ) was the lead ship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . She was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven in 1895 , and finished in October 1898 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin gun turrets .
After she was commissioned on 7 October 1898 , the ship became the flagship of Prince Henry in the I Squadron of the German Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) . In 1901 , the ship was severely damaged after striking an underwater obstacle in the Baltic , though she was subsequently repaired . The ship took part in extensive fleet maneuvers in 1900 and 1902 . In 1907 , the Heimatflotte was reorganized as the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) . In 1908 , Kaiser Friedrich III was modernized ; her secondary guns were reorganized and her superstructure was cut down to reduce top @-@ heaviness .
Obsolete by the beginning of World War I , Kaiser Friedrich III and her sister ships served in a limited capacity as coastal defense ships in the V Battle Squadron in the early months of the war . By January 1915 , Kaiser Friedrich was withdrawn from service and employed as a prison ship . She was scrapped in 1919 , following the end of the war .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Friedrich III was 125 @.@ 3 m ( 411 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 89 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 1 in ) aft . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines that drove three screw propellers . Steam was provided by four Marine @-@ type and eight cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Kaiser Friedrich III 's powerplant was rated at 13 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 12 @,@ 822 ihp ; 9 @,@ 561 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) .
Kaiser Friedrich III 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns . She also carried twelve machine guns , but these were later removed . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . The ship 's belt armor was 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and the deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating , and the secondary casemates received 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Kaiser Friedrich III 's keel was laid on 5 March 1895 , at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 22 . Kaiser Wilhelm II , the son of the ship 's namesake , hammered the first rivet into the keel . She was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Preussen , to replace the elderly armored frigate Preussen . Kaiser Friedrich III was launched on 1 July 1896 and Wilhelm II was again present , this time to give the launching speech . The ship was commissioned on 7 October 1898 and began sea trials in the Baltic Sea .
After commissioning , Kaiser Friedrich III was assigned to the I Squadron of the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) . Prince Henry — the commander in chief of the I Squadron — raised his flag aboard Kaiser Friedrich III . From 15 August 1900 to 15 September , the Heimatflotte conducted a series of fleet maneuvers in the North and Baltic seas . The four Brandenburg @-@ class battleships were deployed to China to assist in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion , so the fleet was greatly reduced in strength . Kaiser Friedrich III and her sister Kaiser Wilhelm II were the only battleships available for the maneuvers . They were joined by the armored frigates Sachsen and Württemberg and six Siegfried and Odin @-@ class coastal defense ships . Throughout the maneuvers , Kaiser Friedrich III was assigned to the " German " force , which had to combat a hostile " Yellow " squadron .
On 17 November 1900 , Kaiser Friedrich III was steaming to Kiel after conducting exercises with the fleet . Kaiser Wilhelm II attempted to pass Kaiser Friedrich III , so the latter stopped and allowed the former to pass to port . However , the order to resume steaming was given too quickly , so the ship accidentally rammed Kaiser Wilhelm II . Kaiser Friedrich III suffered minor damage to her bow , while her sister was slightly damaged in the compartment that housed the steering engines . Repairs were completed within three days , without the need for either vessel to enter drydock .
= = = Collision , 1901 = = =
While en route from Danzig to Kiel on 2 January 1901 , Kaiser Friedrich III struck an underwater obstacle while in company with Kaiser Wilhelm II . The impact damaged four of the ship 's watertight compartments , which then filled with water and caused the ship to list to port . The shock from the collision damaged the ship 's boilers and started a fire in the coal bunkers . All of the ship 's ammunition magazines , engine rooms , and storage compartments had to be flooded in order to prevent the fire from spreading . Two men were seriously injured while fighting the fire , and a third died of his injuries . Kaiser Wilhelm II took her sister in tow , although after several hours the fire was extinguished and the engines were restarted . Throughout the incident , Prince Henry adamantly refused requests that he depart the ship , stating " I shall be the last to leave the ship . "
The ships reached Kiel , where it was thoroughly examined . The dockyard workers found that eight of the ship 's boilers had been badly damaged , and many bulkheads had been bent from the pressure of the water . The keel was extensively damaged , with large holes torn in several places . All three of the ship 's propellers were damaged as well . Temporary repairs were effected in Kiel , which included sealing the holes with cement and wood . On 23 April the ship was moved to Wilhelmshaven , where she was completely repaired . A subsequent investigation found that the nearby lightship — which was used to navigate the channel at night — was 700 meters ( 2 @,@ 296 ft 7 in ) from its assigned location , and there were several uncharted rocks in the area of the accident .
On 31 August 1902 , the annual summer maneuvers were begun by the fleet . Kaiser Friedrich III was assigned to the " hostile " force , and was first tasked with preventing the " German " squadron from passing through the Great Belt in the Baltic . Kaiser Friedrich III and several other battleships were then tasked with forcing an entry into the mouth of the Elbe River , where the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and Hamburg could be seized . The " hostile " flotilla accomplished these tasks within three days .
In 1903 , the fleet , which was composed of only one squadron of battleships , was reorganized as the " Active Battle Fleet . " Kaiser Friedrich III remained in the I Squadron along with her sister ships and the newest Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships , while the older Brandenburg @-@ class ships were placed in reserve in order to be rebuilt .
= = = Fleet reorganization , 1905 = = =
In October 1905 , the Heimatflotte was again reorganized ; Kaiser Friedrich III was reassigned to the I Division of the II Squadron , alongside her sister @-@ ship Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and the older battleship Wörth . The Heimatflotte in 1905 consisted of another division of three battleships in the II Squadron and two more three @-@ ship divisions in the I Squadron . This was supported by a cruiser division , composed of two armored cruisers and six protected cruisers . The divisions were not organized by ship class , as would be the case in later years . In 1907 , the newest Deutschland @-@ class battleships were coming into service ; along with the Braunschweig @-@ class battleships , these provided enough modern battleships to create two full battle squadrons . As a result , the Heimatflotte was renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) .
In 1908 , Kaiser Friedrich III was taken into drydock for an extensive modernization , which lasted until 1909 . Four of her 15 cm guns were removed , though two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were added . All twelve machine guns were removed , as was the ship 's stern @-@ mounted torpedo tube . Kaiser Friedrich III 's superstructure was also cut down to reduce the ship 's tendency to roll excessively . The ship 's funnels were also lengthened . Kaiser Friedrich III served with the active fleet for a total span of ten years , by which time the ship was moved to the III Squadron . However , in 1910 , the new dreadnought battleships were beginning to come into service . Kaiser Friedrich III was then decommissioned and placed into reserve .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Kaiser Friedrich III and her sisters were brought back to active service and mobilized as the V Battle Squadron . They were assigned to coastal defense in the Baltic , though they served in this capacity for a very short time . In February 1915 , they were again withdrawn from service and placed in reserve . Kaiser Friedrich III was used as a floating prison stationed in Kiel after 1916 . The following year , the ship was moved to Flensburg , where she was used as a barracks ; later that year she was again moved to Swinemünde . Kaiser Friedrich III was stricken from the navy list on 6 December 1919 and subsequently sold to a ship @-@ breaking firm based in Berlin . The ship was ultimately broken up at Kiel @-@ Nordmole in 1920 . Her bow ornament is on display at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
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= HMS Agincourt ( 1865 ) =
HMS Agincourt was a Minotaur @-@ class armoured frigate built for the Royal Navy during the 1860s . She spent most of her career as the flagship of the Channel Fleet 's second @-@ in @-@ command . During the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 , she was one of the ironclads sent to Constantinople to forestall a Russian occupation of the Ottoman capital . Agincourt participated in Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee Fleet Review in 1887 . The ship was placed in reserve two years later and served as a training ship from 1893 to 1909 . That year she was converted into a coal hulk and renamed as C.109. Agincourt served at Sheerness until sold for scrap in 1960 .
= = Design and description = =
The three Minotaur @-@ class armoured frigates were essentially enlarged versions of the ironclad HMS Achilles with heavier armament , armour , and more powerful engines . They retained the broadside ironclad layout of their predecessor , but their sides were fully armoured to protect the 50 guns they were designed to carry . Their plough @-@ shaped ram was also more prominent than that of Achilles .
The ships were 400 feet ( 121 @.@ 9 m ) long between perpendiculars and 407 feet ( 124 @.@ 1 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 58 feet 6 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . The Minotaur @-@ class ships displaced 10 @,@ 627 long tons ( 10 @,@ 798 t ) . Their hull was subdivided by 15 watertight transverse bulkheads and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms .
Agincourt was considered " an excellent sea @-@ boat and a steady gun platform , but unhandy under steam and practically unmanageable under sail " as built . The ship 's steadiness was partially a result of her metacentric height of 3 @.@ 87 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Agincourt had one 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod @-@ steam engine , made by Maudslay , driving a single propeller using steam provided by 10 rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers . It produced a total of 4 @,@ 426 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 300 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials on 12 December 1865 and Agincourt had a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 55 knots ( 25 @.@ 09 km / h ; 15 @.@ 59 mph ) . The ship carried 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) at 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Agincourt had five masts and a sail area of 32 @,@ 377 square feet ( 3 @,@ 008 m2 ) . Agincourt only made 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 9 mph ) under sail mainly because the ship 's propeller could only be disconnected and not hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag . Both funnels were semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail . Admiral George A. Ballard described Agincourt and her sisters as " the dullest performers under canvas of the whole masted fleet of their day , and no ships ever carried so much dress to so little purpose . " In 1893 – 4 , after her withdrawal from active service , Agincourt had two masts removed and was re @-@ rigged as a barque .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Minotaur @-@ class ships was intended to be 40 rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns on the main deck and 10 more on the upper deck on pivot mounts . The gun was a new design from Armstrong , but proved a failure a few years after its introduction . The gun was withdrawn before any were received by any of the Minotaur @-@ class ships . They were armed , instead , with a mix of seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) and nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . All 4 nine @-@ inch and 20 seven @-@ inch guns were mounted on the main deck while 4 seven @-@ inch guns were fitted on the upper deck as chase guns . The ship also received eight brass howitzers for use as saluting guns . The gun ports were 30 inches ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) wide which allowed each gun to fire 30 ° fore and aft of the beam .
The shell of the nine @-@ inch gun weighed 254 pounds ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
Agincourt was rearmed in 1875 with a uniform armament of 17 nine @-@ inch guns , 14 on the main deck , 2 forward chase guns and 1 rear chase gun . The gun ports had to be enlarged to accommodate the larger guns by hand , at a cost of £ 250 each . About 1883 two six inches ( 152 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns replaced 2 nine @-@ inch muzzle @-@ loading guns . Four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 @-@ mm ) guns , eight QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns , eight machine guns and two torpedo tubes were installed in 1891 – 2 .
= = = Armour = = =
The entire side of the Minotaur @-@ class ships was protected by wrought iron armour that tapered from 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) at the ends to 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) amidships , except for a section of the bow between the upper and main decks . The armour extended 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline . A single 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkhead protected the forward chase guns on the upper deck . The armour was backed by 10 inches ( 254 mm ) of teak .
= = Construction and service = =
HMS Agincourt , named after the victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 , was originally ordered on 2 September 1861 as HMS Captain , but her name was changed during construction . She was laid down on 30 October 1861 by Laird 's at its shipyard in Birkenhead . The ship was launched on 27 March 1865 , commissioned in June 1868 for sea trials and completed on 19 December . The lengthy delay in completion was due to frequent changes in design details , and experiments with her armament and with her sailing rig . The ship cost a total of £ 483 @,@ 003 .
Agincourt 's first assignment , together with her half @-@ sister Northumberland , was to tow a floating drydock from England to Madeira where it would be picked up by Warrior and Black Prince and taken to Bermuda . The ships departed the Nore on 23 June 1869 , loaded down with 500 long tons ( 510 t ) of coal stowed in bags on their gun decks , and transferred the floating dock 11 days later after an uneventful voyage . Agincourt was assigned to the Channel Fleet upon her return and she became the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the fleet until she began a refit in 1873 .
= = = 1871 grounding on Pearl Rock = = =
It was during this assignment that she suffered a near @-@ catastrophe when she ran aground on Pearl Rock , near Gibraltar in 1871 and nearly sank . Agincourt was leading the inshore column of ships , contrary to normal practice where the senior flagship lead the inshore column , and gently ran aground sideways when the senior flagship 's navigator failed to compensate for the set of the tide . Warrior , immediately following her , nearly collided with her , but managed to sheer off in time .
Agincourt was stuck fast and had to be lightened ; her guns were removed and much of her coal was tossed overboard before she was towed off by Hercules , commanded by Lord Gilford , four days later . Heavy weather set in the night after Agincourt was freed and it would have wrecked her if she had still been aground . Both the fleet commander and his deputy were relieved of their commands as a result of the incident . The ship was repaired in Devonport and Captain J.O. Hopkins assumed command in September with Commander Charles Penrose @-@ Fitzgerald as his executive officer . Hopkins later commented : " We turned the Agincourt from the noisiest and the worst disciplined ship in the squadron into the quietest and the smartest ; and a few months after we commissioned we went out to the Mediterranean for the Lord Clyde court @-@ martial , and beat the whole Mediterranean fleet in their drills and exercises , which was a great triumph . "
In 1873 , Vice Admiral Sir Geoffrey Hornby , commander of the Channel Fleet , transferred his flag to Agincourt as her sister Minotaur , his former flagship , was taken in hand for a refit that lasted until 1875 . That year Agincourt was paid off in turn for a refit and re @-@ armament that lasted until 1877 . During the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 , the government became concerned that the Russians might advance on the Ottoman capital of Constantinople and ordered Hornby to form a Particular Service Squadron to show the flag at Constantinople and deter any Russian threat . Agincourt served as the flagship for his second @-@ in @-@ command and the squadron sailed up the Dardanelles in a blinding snowstorm in February 1878 . After those tensions faded , the ship returned to the Channel , where she served as second flag until 1889 including during Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee Fleet Review in 1887 . Over her active career , she served as flagship to no less than 15 admirals . That year she was again paid off and was subsequently held in reserve at Portsmouth until 1893 , when she was transferred to Portland for use as a training ship .
Agincourt served twelve years at Portland , as a depot ship for boys . She was renamed Boscawen III in March , 1904 . In 1905 she was moved to Harwich and renamed as Ganges II . After four years at Harwich , Ganges II made her final journey , to Sheerness , in 1909 . After her arrival the old ship was converted into a coal hulk known simply as C.109. After five ignominious decades as what naval historian Oscar Parkes called " a grimy , dilapidated and incredibly shrunken relic " of her former self , she was scrapped beginning on 21 October 1960 .
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= Branch Wars =
" Branch Wars " is the tenth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office — the show 's sixty @-@ third episode overall . Written by Mindy Kaling and directed by Joss Whedon , the episode originally aired in the United States on November 1 , 2007 on NBC . The episode marks the return of season three regular Rashida Jones , who plays Jim 's former girlfriend Karen , now Regional Manager of Dunder Mifflin Utica .
Karen tries to " poach " Stanley from Dunder Mifflin Scranton , and Stanley informs the branch that he is leaving . In revenge , Michael and Dwight trick Jim into traveling to the company 's Utica branch , where the group attempts to play a prank on Karen . Back at the office , Pam , Oscar , and Toby try to hold their club meeting , with disastrous results .
= = Plot = =
Karen Filippelli ( Jones ) attempts to lure Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) away from Scranton by offering him a pay raise . Regional Manager Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , believing that Karen is doing this to get back at Assistant Regional Manager Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) for " dumping " her , decides to retaliate . Michael and salesman Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) trick Jim into joining them on a trip to Utica to prank Karen ’ s branch . After a failed attempt to steal the branch 's industrial copier , the group is discovered by Karen , who chastises them in her office . Privately , she mocks Jim for devising such an elaborate ruse to see her . Jim ’ s attempts to deflect the issue are unsuccessful , letting slip that he and Pam are happily dating . The group returns to Scranton , where Michael bids Stanley farewell . Stanley decides to stay in Scranton , revealing that his threat was a bluff to get a raise .
Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) , and Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) form a " Finer Things Club " , discussing literature , music , and the arts . Their meetings are regularly disrupted by other employees , particularly Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , whose desperate efforts to join prove unsuccessful . Pam invites Jim to join the club but regrets the move when , during the discussion of Angela 's Ashes , Jim merely speaks in an Irish brogue and reveals that he hasn ’ t actually read the book .
= = Production = =
" Branch Wars " was the second Office episode directed by Joss Whedon , the creator of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Firefly . Whedon had previously directed the third season episode " Business School " . The episode was the seventh Office episode written by Mindy Kaling , who also acts for the show as customer service representative Kelly Kapoor . " Branch Wars " marked the return of Karen Filippelli , who was a regular as a member of the Dunder Mifflin Stamford branch , and later Dunder Mifflin Scranton in the third season . Her last previous appearance was the fourth season premiere Fun Run , although she only appeared in one scene . Utica salesman Ben Nugent , although not appearing on screen , is heard via a telephone conference and shares the same name as Kaling 's former real @-@ life boyfriend , Benjamin Nugent .
= = Reception = =
" Branch Wars " received a 5 @.@ 0 / 7 in the Nielsen ratings , meaning that five percent of households were tuned in at any given moment and seven percent of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into the program . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 39 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 5 / 11 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic . Mindy Kaling 's writing in the episode was nominated for " Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series " in the 2008 NAACP Image Awards .
Oscar Dahl , a senior writer for BuddyTV , gave the episode a favorable review and stated that " Tonight 's Office was possibly the funniest of the season . " Christine Fenno of Entertainment Weekly stated that " ... ' Branch Wars ' , penned by Mindy Kaling , didn 't measure up to the brilliance of last week 's episode ( ' Local Ad ' ) but served up plenty of laughs . " Travis Fickett of IGN stated that " This episode feels like it comes in two halves , one that works and one that doesn 't so much " when referring to the trip to Utica , and " The Finer Things Club " , respectively , but later pointed out that " Despite being a somewhat bumpy ride , the episode has a fair number of big laughs . " Fickett particularly enjoyed Jim 's character in the episode , and his actions and reactions to the situation that he became involved in .
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= Russian battleship Peresvet =
Peresvet ( Russian : Пересвет ) was the lead ship of the three Peresvet @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy at the end of the nineteenth century . The ship was transferred to the Pacific Squadron upon completion and based at Port Arthur from 1903 . During the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , she participated in the Battle of Port Arthur and was seriously damaged during the Battle of the Yellow Sea and again in the Siege of Port Arthur . The ship was scuttled before the Russians surrendered , then salvaged by the Japanese and placed into service with the name Sagami ( 相模 ) .
Partially rearmed , Sagami was reclassified by the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) as a coastal defense ship in 1912 . In 1916 , the Japanese sold her to the Russians , their allies since the beginning of World War I. En route to the White Sea in early 1917 , she sank off Port Said , Egypt , after striking mines laid by a German submarine .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Peresvet class was inspired by the British second @-@ class battleships of the Centurion class . The British ships were intended to defeat commerce @-@ raiding armored cruisers like the Russian ships Rossia and Rurik , and the Peresvet class was designed to support their armored cruisers . This role placed a premium on high speed and long range at the expense of heavy armament and armor .
Peresvet was 434 feet 5 inches ( 132 @.@ 4 m ) long overall , and had a beam of 71 feet 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . Designed to displace 12 @,@ 674 long tons ( 12 @,@ 877 t ) , she was almost 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 219 t ) overweight and displaced 13 @,@ 810 long tons ( 14 @,@ 030 t ) . Her crew consisted of 27 officers and 744 enlisted men . The ship was powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 30 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Peresvet , however , reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 44 knots ( 34 @.@ 15 km / h ; 21 @.@ 22 mph ) from 14 @,@ 532 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 837 kW ) during her sea trials in November 1899 . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 060 long tons ( 2 @,@ 090 t ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 6 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main battery consisted of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of eleven Canet 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the bow , underneath the forecastle . Several smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included twenty 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) QF guns , twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She was also armed with five 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , three above water and two submerged . The ship carried 45 mines to be used to protect her anchorage . Peresvet 's waterline armor belt consisted of Harvey armor and was 4 – 9 inches ( 102 – 229 mm ) thick . The Krupp cemented armor of her gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) and her deck ranged from 2 to 3 inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) in thickness .
= = Construction and service = =
Peresvet was named after Alexander Peresvet , a Russian Orthodox monk who fought and died at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 , against a Mongolian army . Her keel was laid down on 21 November 1895 by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg and she launched on 19 May 1898 . She was not completed , however , until July 1901 , at the cost of 10 @,@ 540 @,@ 000 rubles . Peresvet entered service in August , and was sent to Port Arthur in October 1901 . En route , she ran aground on the tip of Langeland Island while passing through the Danish Great Belt on 1 November , but was apparently not seriously damaged . Upon arrival she was assigned to the Pacific Squadron and became the flagship of the squadron 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky .
= = = Battle of Port Arthur = = =
After the Japanese victory in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 , tensions had arisen between Russia and Japan over their ambitions to control both Manchuria and Korea . A further issue was the Russian failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 as promised . Japan had begun negotiations to ease the situation in 1901 , but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems . Japan interpreted these as deliberate prevarications designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs . The final straws were news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea . These led the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was now inevitable . The Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbor at night as tensions with Japan increased , in order to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea .
On the night of 8 / 9 February 1904 , the IJN launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur . Peresvet was not hit by the initial torpedo @-@ boat incursion and sortied the following morning when the Combined Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , attacked . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his ships to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his assault . The Japanese vessels had been spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore , and alerted the Russian defenses . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted inconsequential damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on their opponents with some effect . Peresvet was hit three times with little effect during the battle .
On 22 March , Peresvet joined several other battleships firing indirectly at Japanese ships bombarding Port Arthur 's harbor . While training outside Port Arthur on 26 March , she accidentally collided with the battleship Sevastopol and sustained minor damage . Peresvet participated in the action of 13 April , when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships , he turned back for Port Arthur and Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . The ship sank in less than two minutes following the explosion of one of her magazines , and Makarov was one of the 677 killed . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions . Two days later , Peresvet hit the armored cruiser Nisshin once as the latter ship was bombarding Port Arthur .
Peresvet sailed with the rest of the Pacific Squadron on 23 June in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok . The new squadron commander , Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese fleet shortly before sunset , as he did not wish to engage his numerically superior opponents in a night battle . Peresvet bombarded Japanese positions besieging the port on 28 July . Some of the ship 's guns were removed during the summer to reinforce the defenses of the port . Peresvet lost a total of three 6 @-@ inch , two 75 @-@ millimeter , two 47 @-@ millimeter and four 37 @-@ millimeter guns . She was hit on 9 August by two 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) shells fired by a battery with a narrow view of the harbor , but they caused only slight damage .
= = = Battle of the Yellow Sea = = =
The Japanese bombardment , coupled with a direct order from Tsar Nicholas II , forced Vitgeft to make an attempt to reach Vladivostok . The squadron sortied in an attempt to escape to Vladivostok in the morning of 10 August . At 12 : 25 , it was spotted by Japanese cruisers and intercepted by the Combined Fleet in what became the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Peresvet was fourth in line during the battle , and was not seriously damaged during the early long @-@ range stage of the action . Around 18 : 00 her topmasts were destroyed and two 12 @-@ inch shells from the battleship Asahi penetrated the conning tower of the Russian flagship Tsesarevich , killing Vitgeft and the helmsman , severely wounding the captain , and causing the ship to come to a dead stop after executing a sharp turn . Thinking that this was a maneuver planned by Vitgeft , the Russian battleline started to execute the same turn , causing all of the ships directly behind Tsesarevich , including Peresvet , to maneuver wildly to avoid hitting the stationary flagship .
As the Japanese ships continued to pound the Tsesarevich , the battleship Retvizan , followed shortly afterward by Peresvet , boldly charged Tōgō 's battleline in an attempt to divert the Japanese shellfire . The Japanese battleline immediately shifted fire to the oncoming ships , badly damaging both and forcing them to turn away . Ukhtomsky signaled the other Russian ships to follow him back to Port Arthur , but the signal was hard to discern because the flags had to be hung from the bridge railings without the topmasts and were only gradually recognized . Peresvet received a total of 39 hits of all sizes that killed 13 men and wounded 69 . Her forward 12 @-@ inch turret was knocked out and several hits near the waterline caused flooding ; compartments of the double bottom had to be counterflooded to restore some of her stability . Repairs took until late September .
= = = Siege of Port Arthur = = =
Returning to Port Arthur on 11 August , the Russian squadron found the city still under siege by the Japanese Third Army led by Baron Nogi Maresuke . The new commander , Rear Admiral Robert N. Viren , decided to use the men and guns of the Pacific Squadron to reinforce the defenses of Port Arthur and even more guns were stripped from the squadron 's ships . On 20 – 22 September Japanese troops attacked 203 Hill , which overlooked the harbor ; Peresvet , Retvizan , the battleship Poltava and the gunboat Bobr bombarded the Japanese positions to support the successful defense of the hill . The Japanese began firing blindly into the harbor on 30 September and hit Peresvet with at least six 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) and 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells . She was struck once more the following day . On 2 October she was hit by nine 11 @-@ inch ( 280 mm ) shells that failed to penetrate her deck armor , but did considerable damage to the unprotected portions of the ship . The Japanese troops were able to seize Hill 203 on 5 December . This allowed the Imperial Japanese Army 's siege guns to fire directly at the Russian ships and they hit Peresvet many times . The Russians scuttled her in shallow water on 7 December 1904 without , however , seriously damaging her , possibly in the hope of fooling the Japanese into switching targets .
= = = Japanese career = = =
Peresvet was refloated by Japanese engineers on 29 June 1905 and steamed under her own power to Sasebo Naval Arsenal , where she arrived on 25 August . She was renamed Sagami , after the eponymous ancient province . She was classified as a 1st @-@ class battleship on 25 August and arrived at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 16 September . Her repairs began on 30 September and continued until 20 July 1908 , although she participated in the review of captured ships on 23 October 1905 .
To improve her stability , Sagami 's forward fighting top was removed . The bow six @-@ inch gun was also removed and all of her light guns were replaced by 20 QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns . Two above @-@ water 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes replaced her original torpedo armament and her crew now numbered 791 officers and enlisted men . She was one of the reception ships when the American Great White Fleet visited Japan in late 1908 and was often used as an " enemy " ship during the annual fleet maneuvers . Sagami was reclassified as a 1st @-@ class coastal defense ship on 28 August 1912 .
= = = Return to Russia = = =
In 1916 the Russian government decided to reinforce its naval strength outside the Baltic and Black Seas . As Japan and Russia were allies during World War I , the Japanese government sold Sagami and some other ex @-@ Russian warships back to Russia in March . She arrived in Vladivostok on 3 April , where she re @-@ assumed her former name of Peresvet , and was classified as an armored cruiser two days later . The ship ran aground on 23 May while conducting trials and was refloated by the IJN on 9 July . Peresvet arrived at Maizuru Naval Arsenal for repairs on 30 July and sailed for European Russia on 18 October . She was intended to serve with the White Sea Fleet and paused en route in Port Said for machinery repairs at the beginning of 1917 . On 4 January 1917 , about 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) north of the harbor , the ship struck two mines that had been laid by the submarine SM U @-@ 73 . Holed forward and abreast one of her boiler rooms , Peresvet sank after catching fire . Losses were reported as either 167 or 116 men .
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= Al @-@ Azhar Mosque =
Al @-@ Azhar Mosque ( Arabic : الجامع الأزهر al @-@ Gām3` al @-@ Azhar , " mosque of the most resplendent " ) is a mosque in Islamic Cairo in Egypt . Al @-@ Mu 'izz li @-@ Din Allah of the Fatimid Caliphate commissioned its construction for the newly established capital city in 970 . Its name is usually thought to allude to the Islamic prophet Muhammad 's daughter Fatimah , a revered figure in Islam who was given the title az @-@ Zahrā ′ ( " the shining or resplendent one " ) . It was the first mosque established in Cairo , a city that has since gained the nickname " the City of a Thousand Minarets . "
After its dedication in 972 , and with the hiring by mosque authorities of 35 scholars in 989 , the mosque slowly developed into what is today the second oldest continuously run university in the world after Al Karaouine in Umayyad Fes . Al @-@ Azhar University has long been regarded as the foremost institution in the Islamic world for the study of Sunni theology and sharia , or Islamic law . The university , integrated within the mosque as part of a mosque school since its inception , was nationalized and officially designated an independent university in 1961 , following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 .
Over the course of its over a millennium @-@ long history , the mosque has been alternately neglected and highly regarded . Because it was founded as a Shiite Ismaili institution , Saladin and the Sunni Ayyubid dynasty that he founded shunned al @-@ Azhar , removing its status as a congregational mosque and denying stipends to students and teachers at its school . These moves were reversed under the Mamluk Sultanate , under whose rule numerous expansions and renovations took place . Later rulers of Egypt showed differing degrees of deference to the mosque and provided widely varying levels of financial assistance , both to the school and to the upkeep of the mosque . Today , al @-@ Azhar remains a deeply influential institution in Egyptian society that is highly revered in the Sunni Muslim world and a symbol of Islamic Egypt .
= = Name = =
The city of Cairo was established by Gawhar al @-@ Ṣiqillī , a Fatimid general of Greek extraction from Sicily . He originally named it al @-@ Mansuriyya ( المنصورية ) after the prior seat of the Fatimid caliphate , al @-@ Mansuriya in modern Tunisia . The mosque , first used in 972 , may have initially been named Jāmi ' al @-@ Mansuriyya ( جامع المنصورية , " the mosque of Mansuriyya " ) , as was common practice at the time . It was the Caliph al @-@ Mu ’ izz li @-@ Dīn Allāh who renamed the city al @-@ Qāhira ( القاهرة , " Cairo " , meaning , " the Victorious " ) . The name of the mosque thus became Jāmi ' al @-@ Qāhira ( جامع القاهرة , " the mosque of Cairo " ) , the first transcribed in Arabic sources .
The mosque acquired its current name , al @-@ Azhar , sometime between the caliphate of al @-@ Mu ’ izz and the end of the reign of the second Fatimid caliph in Egypt , al @-@ Aziz Billah . Azhar is the masculine form for zahrā ′ , meaning " splendid " or " most resplendent . " Zahrā ′ is an epithet applied to Muhammad 's daughter Fatimah , wife of caliph Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib . She was claimed as the ancestress of al @-@ Mu ’ izz and the imams of the Fatimid dynasty ; one theory is that her epithet is the source for the name al @-@ Azhar . The theory , however , is not confirmed in any Arabic source and its plausibility has been both supported and denied by later Western sources .
An alternative theory is that the mosque 's name is derived from the names given by the Fatimid caliphs to their palaces . Those near the mosque were collectively named al @-@ Qusur al @-@ Zahira ( االقصور الزاهرة , " the Brilliant Palaces " ) by al @-@ Aziz Billah , and the royal gardens were named after another derivative of the word zahra . The palaces had been completed and named prior to the mosque changing its name from Jāmi ' al @-@ Qāhira to al @-@ Azhar .
The word Jāmi ' is derived from the Arabic root word jamaʻa ( g @-@ m @-@ ʻ ) , meaning " to gather " . The word is used for large congregational mosques . While in classical Arabic the name for al @-@ Azhar remains Jāmi ' al @-@ Azhar , the pronunciation of the word Jāmi ' changes to Gāma ' in Egyptian Arabic .
= = History = =
= = = Fatimid Caliphate = = =
Caliph al @-@ Mu ’ izz li @-@ Din Allāh , the fourth Ismāʿīli Imam , conquered Egypt through his general Gawhar , wresting it from the Sunni Ikhshidid dynasty . By order of the Caliph , Gawhar then oversaw the construction of the royal enclosure of the Fatimid Caliphate and its army , and had al @-@ Azhar built as a base to spread Ismāʿīli Shi 'a Islam . Located near the densely populated Sunni city of Fustat , Cairo became the center of the Ismāʿīli sect of Shi 'a Islam , and seat of the Fatimid empire .
Gawhar ordered the construction of a congregational mosque for the new city and work commenced on April 4 , 970 . The mosque was completed in 972 and the first Friday prayers were held there on June 22 , 972 during Ramadan .
Al @-@ Azhar soon became a center of learning in the Islamic world , and official pronouncements and court sessions were issued from and convened there . Under Fatimid rule , the previously secretive teachings of the Ismāʿīli madh 'hab ( school of law ) were made available to the general public . Al @-@ Nu ‘ man ibn Muhammad was appointed qadi ( judge ) under al @-@ Mu ’ izz and placed in charge of the teaching of the Ismāʿīli madh 'hab . Classes were taught at the palace of the Caliph , as well as at al @-@ Azhar , with separate sessions available to women . During Eid ul @-@ Fitr in 973 , the mosque was rededicated by the caliph as the official congregational mosque in Cairo . Al @-@ Mu ’ izz , and his son — when he in turn became caliph — would preach at least one Friday khutbah ( sermon ) during Ramadan at al @-@ Azhar .
Yaqub ibn Killis , a polymath , jurist and the first official vizier of the Fatimids , made al @-@ Azhar a key center for instruction in Islamic law in 988 . The following year , 45 scholars were hired to give lessons , laying the foundation for what would become the leading university in the Muslim world .
The mosque was expanded during the rule of the caliph al @-@ Aziz ( 975 – 996 ) . According to al @-@ Mufaddal , he ordered the restoration of portions of the mosque and had the ceiling raised by one cubit . The next Fatimid caliph , al @-@ Hakim , would continue to renovate the mosque , providing a new wooden door in 1010 . However , al @-@ Hakim 's reign saw the completion of the al @-@ Hakim Mosque , and al @-@ Azhar lost its status as Cairo 's primary congregational mosque . In May 1009 the al @-@ Hakim Mosque became the sole location for the caliph 's sermons ; prior to this , al @-@ Hakim would rotate where the Friday sermon was held . Following al @-@ Hakim 's reign , al @-@ Azhar was restored by al @-@ Mustanṣir . Additions and renovations were carried during the reign of the remaining Fatimid caliphs .
Initially lacking a library , al @-@ Azhar was endowed by the Fatimid caliph in 1005 with thousands of manuscripts that formed the basis of its collection . Fatimid efforts to establish Ismāʿīli practice among the population were , however largely unsuccessful . Much of its manuscript collection was dispersed in the chaos that ensued with the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate , and Al @-@ Azhar became a Sunni institution shortly thereafter .
= = = Ayyubid dynasty = = =
Saladin , who overthrew the Fatimids in 1171 , was hostile to the Shi ’ ite principles of learning propounded at al @-@ Azhar during the Fatimid Caliphate , and under his Ayyubid dynasty the mosque suffered from neglect . Congregational prayers were banned by Sadr al @-@ Din ibn Dirbass , appointed qadi by Saladin . The reason for this edict may have been Shāfi ‘ ī teachings that proscribe congregational prayers in a community to only one mosque , or mistrust of the former Shi 'a institution by the new Sunni ruler . By this time , the much larger al @-@ Hakim Mosque was completed ; congregational prayers in Cairo were held there .
In addition to stripping al @-@ Azhar of its status as congregational mosque , Saladin also ordered the removal from the mihrab of the mosque a silver band on which the names of the Fatimid caliphs had been inscribed . This and similar silver bands removed from other mosques totaled 5 @,@ 000 dirhems . Saladin did not completely disregard the upkeep of the mosque and according to al @-@ Mufaddal one of the mosque 's minarets was raised during Saladin 's rule .
The teaching center at the mosque also suffered . The once well stocked library at al @-@ Azhar was neglected , and manuscripts of Fatimid teachings that were held at al @-@ Azhar were destroyed . The Ayyubid dynasty promoted the teaching of Sunni theology in subsidized madrasas ( schools ) built throughout Cairo . Student funding was withdrawn , organized classes were no longer held at the mosque , and the professors that had prospered under the Fatimids were forced to find other means to earn their living .
Al @-@ Azhar nevertheless remained the seat of Arabic philology and a place of learning throughout this period . While official classes were discontinued , private lessons were still offered in the mosque . There are reports that a scholar , possibly al @-@ Baghdadi , taught a number of subjects , such as law and medicine , at al @-@ Azhar . Saladin reportedly paid him a salary of 30 dinars , which was increased to 100 dinars by Saladin 's heirs . While the mosque was neglected by Saladin and his heirs , the policies of the Sunni Ayyubid dynasty would have a lasting impact on al @-@ Azhar . Educational institutions were established by Sunni rulers as a way of combating what they regarded as the heretical teachings of Shi 'a Islam . These colleges , ranging in size , focused on teaching Sunni doctrine , had an established and uniform curriculum that included courses outside of purely religious topics , such as rhetorics , math , and science . No such colleges had been established in Egypt by the time of Saladin 's conquest . Saladin and the later rulers of the Ayyubid dynasty would build twenty @-@ six colleges in Egypt , among them the Salihiyya Madrasa .
Al @-@ Azhar eventually adopted Saladin 's educational reforms modeled on the college system he instituted , and its fortunes improved under the Mamluks , who restored student stipends and salaries for the shuyūkh ( teaching staff ) .
= = = Mamluk Sultanate = = =
Congregational prayers were reestablished at al @-@ Azhar during the Mamluk Sultanate by Sultan Baibars in 1266 . While Shāfi ‘ ī teachings , which Saladin and the Ayyubids followed , stipulated that only one mosque should be used as a congregational mosque in a community , the Hanafi madh 'hab , to which the Mamluks adhered , placed no such restriction . Al @-@ Azhar had by now lost its association with the Fatimids and Ismāʿīli doctrines , and with Cairo 's rapid expansion , the need for mosque space allowed Baibars to disregard al @-@ Azhar 's history and restore the mosque to its former prominence . Under Baibars and the Mamluk Sultanate , al @-@ Azhar saw the return of stipends for students and teachers , as well as the onset of work to repair the mosque , which had been neglected for nearly 100 years . According to al @-@ Mufaddal , the emir ' Izz al @-@ Din Aydamur al @-@ Hilli built his house next to the mosque and while doing so repaired the mosque . Al @-@ Maqrizi reports that the emir repaired the walls and roof as well as repaving and providing new floor mats . The first khutbah since the reign of the Fatimid caliph al @-@ Hakim took place on January 16 , 1266 with the sermon delivered on a new pulpit completed five days earlier .
An earthquake in 1302 caused damage to al @-@ Azhar and a number of other mosques throughout Mamluk territory . The responsibility for reconstruction was split among the amirs ( princes ) of the Sultanate and the head of the army , Amir Salar , who was tasked with repairing the damage . These repairs were the first done since the reign of Baibars . Seven years later a dedicated school , the Madrasa al @-@ Aqbaghawiyya , was built along the northwest wall of the mosque . Portions of the wall of the mosque were removed to accommodate the new building . Construction of another school , the Madrasa al @-@ Taybarsiyya began in 1332 – 1333 . This building , which was completed in 1339 @-@ 1340 , would also impact the structure of the mosque as it was built over the site of the mida 'a , the fountain for ablution . Both of the madrasas were built as complementary buildings to al @-@ Azhar , with separate entrances and prayer halls .
Though the mosque had regained its standing in Cairo , repairs and additional work were carried out by those in positions lower than sultan . This changed under the rule of al @-@ Zahir Barquq , the first sultan of the Burji dynasty . The resumption of direct patronage by those in the highest positions of government continued through to the end of Mamluk rule . Improvements and additions were made by the sultans Qaytbay and Qansuh al @-@ Ghuri , each of whom oversaw numerous repairs and erected minarets . It was common practice among the Mamluk sultans to build minarets , perceived as symbols of power and the most effective way of cementing one 's position in the Cairo cityscape . The sultans wished to have a noticeable association with the prestigious al @-@ Azhar .
Although the mosque @-@ school was the leading university in the Islamic world and had regained royal patronage , it did not overtake the madrasas as the favored place of education among Cairo 's elite . Al @-@ Azhar maintained its reputation as an independent place of learning , whereas the madrasas that had first been constructed during Saladin 's rule were fully integrated into the state educational system . Al @-@ Azhar did continue to attract students from other areas in Egypt and the Middle East , far surpassing the numbers attending the madrasas . Al @-@ Azhar 's student body was organized in riwaqs ( fraternities ) along national lines , and the branches of Islamic law were studied . The average degree required six years of study .
By the 14th century , al @-@ Azhar had achieved a preeminent place as the center for studies in law , theology , and Arabic , becoming a cynosure for students all around the Islamic world . However , only one third of the ulema ( Islamic scholars ) of Egypt were reported to have either attended or taught at al @-@ Azhar . One account , by Muhammad ibn Iyas , reports that the Salihiyya Madrasa , and not al @-@ Azhar , was viewed as the " citadel of the ulema " at the end of the Mamluk Sultanate .
= = = Province of the Ottoman Empire = = =
With the Ottoman annexation of 1517 , despite the mayhem their fight to control the city engendered , the Turks showed great deference to the mosque and its college , though direct royal patronage ceased . Sultan Selim I , the first Ottoman ruler of Egypt , attended al @-@ Azhar for the congregational Friday prayer during his last week in Egypt , but did not donate anything to the upkeep of the mosque . Later Ottoman amirs likewise regularly attended Friday prayers at al @-@ Azhar , but rarely provided subsidies for the maintenance of the mosque , though they did on occasion provide stipends for students and teachers . In contrast to the expansions and additions undertaken during the Mamluk Sultanate , only two Ottoman walīs ( governors ) restored al @-@ Azhar in the early Ottoman period .
Despite their defeat by Selim I and the Ottomans in 1517 , the Mamluks remained influential in Egyptian society , becoming beys ( " chieftains " ) , nominally under the control of the Ottoman governors , instead of amirs at the head of an empire . The first governor of Egypt under Selim I was Khai 'r Bey , a Mamluk amir who had defected to the Ottomans during the Battle of Marj Dabiq . Though the Mamluks launched multiple revolts to reinstate their Sultanate , including two in 1523 , the Ottomans refrained from completely destroying the Mamluk hold over the power structure of Egypt . The Mamluks did suffer losses — both economic and military — in the immediate aftermath of the Ottoman victory , and this was reflected in the lack of financial assistance provided to al @-@ Azhar in the first hundred years of Ottoman rule . By the 18th century the Mamluk elite had regained much of its influence and began to sponsor numerous renovations throughout Cairo and at al @-@ Azhar specifically .
Al @-@ Qazdughli , a powerful Mamluk bey , sponsored several additions and renovations in the early 18th century . Under his direction , a riwaq for blind students was added in 1735 . He also sponsored the rebuilding of the Turkish and Syrian riwaqs , both of which had originally been built by Qaytbay .
This marked the beginning of the largest set of renovations to be undertaken since the expansions conducted under the Mamluk Sultanate . Abd al @-@ Rahman Katkhuda was appointed katkhuda ( head of the Janissaries ) in 1749 and embarked on several projects throughout Cairo and at al @-@ Azhar . Under his direction , three new gates were built : the Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn ( the Gate of the Barbers ) , so named because students would have their heads shaved outside of the gate , which eventually became the main entrance to the mosque ; the Bab al @-@ Sa 'ayida ( the Gate of the Sa 'idis ) , named for the Sa 'idi people of Upper Egypt ; and , several years later , the Bab al @-@ Shurba ( the Soup Gate ) , from which food , often rice soup , would be served to the students . A prayer hall was added to the south of the original one , doubling the size of the available prayer space . Katkhuda also refurbished or rebuilt several of the riwaqs that surrounded the mosque . Katkhuda was buried in a mausoleum he himself had built in Al @-@ Azhar ; in 1776 , he became the first person ( and the last ) to be interred within the mosque since Nafissa al @-@ Bakriyya , a female mystic who had died around 1588 .
During the Ottoman period , al @-@ Azhar regained its status as a favored institution of learning in Egypt , overtaking the madrasas that had been originally instituted by Saladin and greatly expanded by the Mamluks . By the end of the 18th century , al @-@ Azhar had become inextricably linked to the ulema of Egypt . The ulema also were able to influence the government in an official capacity , with several sheikhs appointed to advisory councils that reported to the pasha ( honorary governor ) , who in turn was appointed for only one year . This period also saw the introduction of more secular courses taught at al @-@ Azhar , with science and logic joining philosophy in the curriculum . During this period , al @-@ Azhar saw its first non @-@ Maliki rector ; Abdullah al @-@ Shubrawi , a follower of the Shafii madhab , was appointed rector . No follower of the Maliki madhab would serve as rector until 1899 when Salim al @-@ Bishri was appointed to the post .
Al @-@ Azhar also served as a focal point for protests against the Ottoman occupation of Egypt , both from within the ulema and from among the general public . Student protests at al @-@ Azhar were common , and shops in the vicinity of the mosque would often close out of solidarity with the students . The ulema was also on occasion able to defy the government . In one instance , in 1730 – 31 , Ottoman aghas harassed the residents living near al @-@ Azhar while pursuing three fugitives . The gates at al @-@ Azhar were closed in protest and the Ottoman governor , fearing a larger uprising , ordered the aghas to refrain from going near al @-@ Azhar . Another disturbance occurred in 1791 in which the wāli harassed the people near the al @-@ Hussein Mosque , who then went to al @-@ Azhar to demonstrate . The wāli was subsequently dismissed from his post .
= = = French occupation = = =
Napoleon invaded Egypt in July 1798 , arriving in Alexandria on July 2 and moving on to Cairo on July 22 . In a bid to placate both the Egyptian population and the Ottoman Empire , Napoleon gave a speech in Alexandria in which he proclaimed his respect for Islam and the Sultan :
People of Egypt , you will be told that I have come to destroy your religion : do not believe it ! Answer that I have come to restore your rights and punish the usurpers , and that , more than the Mamluks , I respect God , his Prophet and the Koran ... Is it not we who have been through the centuries the friends of the Sultan ?
On July 25 Napoleon set up a diwan made up of nine al @-@ Azhar sheikhs tasked with governing Cairo , the first body of Egyptians to hold official powers since the beginning of the Ottoman occupation . This practice of forming councils among the ulema of a city , first instituted in Alexandria , was put in place throughout French @-@ occupied Egypt . Napoleon also unsuccessfully sought a fatwa from the al @-@ Azhar imams that would deem it permissible under Islamic law to declare allegiance to Napoleon .
Napoleon 's efforts to win over both the Egyptians and the Ottomans proved unsuccessful ; the Ottoman Empire declared war on September 9 , 1798 , and a revolt against French troops was launched from al @-@ Azhar on October 21 , 1798 . Egyptians armed with stones , spears , and knives rioted and looted . The following morning the diwan met with Napoleon in an attempt to bring about a peaceful conclusion to the hostilities . Napoleon , initially incensed , agreed to attempt a peaceful resolution and asked the sheikhs of the diwan to organize talks with the rebels . The rebels , believing the move indicated weakness among the French , refused . Napoleon then ordered that the city be fired upon from the Cairo Citadel , aiming directly at al @-@ Azhar . During the revolt two to three hundred French soldiers were killed , with 3 @,@ 000 Egyptian casualties . Six of the ulema of al @-@ Azhar were killed following summary judgments laid against them , with several more condemned . Any Egyptian caught by French troops was imprisoned or , if caught bearing weapons , beheaded . The French troops intentionally desecrated the mosque , walking in with their shoes on and guns displayed . The troops tied their horses to the mihrab and ransacked the student quarters and libraries , throwing copies of the Quran on the floor . The leaders of the revolt then attempted to negotiate a settlement with Napoleon , but were rebuffed .
Napoleon , who had been well respected in Egypt and had earned himself the nickname Sultan el @-@ Kebir ( the Great Sultan ) among the people of Cairo , lost their admiration and was no longer so addressed . In March 1800 , French General Jean Baptiste Kléber was assassinated by Suleiman al @-@ Halabi , a student at al @-@ Azhar . Following the assassination , Napoleon ordered the closing of the mosque ; the doors remained bolted until Ottoman and British assistance arrived in August 1801 .
The conservative tradition of the mosque , with its lack of attention to science , was shaken by Napoleon 's invasion . A seminal innovation occurred with the introduction of printing presses to Egypt , finally enabling the curriculum to shift from oral lectures and memorization to instruction by text , though the mosque itself only acquired its own printing press in 1930 . Upon the withdrawal of the French , Muhammad Ali Pasha encouraged the establishment of secular learning , and history , math , and modern science were adopted into the curriculum . By 1872 , under the direction of Jamāl al @-@ Dīn al @-@ Afghānī , European philosophy was also added to the study program .
= = = Muhammad Ali Dynasty and British occupation = = =
Following the French withdrawal , Ali , the wāli ( governor ) and self @-@ declared khedive ( viceroy ) of Egypt , sought to consolidate his newfound control of the country . To achieve this goal he took a number of steps to limit , and eventually eliminate , the ability of the al @-@ Azhar ulema to influence the government . He imposed taxes on rizqa lands ( tax @-@ free property owned by mosques ) and madrasas , from which al @-@ Azhar drew a major portion of its income . In June 1809 , he ordered that the deeds to all rizqa lands be forfeited to the state in a move that provoked outrage among the ulema . As a result , Umar Makram , the naqib al @-@ ashraf , a prestigious Islamic post , led a revolt in July 1809 . The revolt failed and Makram , an influential ally of the ulema , was exiled to Damietta .
Ali also sought to limit the influence of the al @-@ Azhar sheikhs by allocating positions within the government to those educated outside of al @-@ Azhar . He sent select students to France to be educated under a Western system and created an educational system based on that model that was parallel to , and thus bypassed , the system of al @-@ Azhar .
Under the rule of Isma 'il Pasha , the grandson of Muhammad Ali , major public works projects were initiated with the aim of transforming Cairo into a European styled city . These projects , at first funded by a boom in the cotton industry , eventually racked up a massive debt which was held by the British , providing an excuse for the British to occupy Egypt in 1882 after having pushed out Isma 'il Pasha in 1879 .
The reign of Isma 'il Pasha also saw the return of royal patronage to al @-@ Azhar . As khedive , Isma 'il restored the Bab al @-@ Sa 'yida ( first built by Katkhuda ) and the Madrasa al @-@ Aqbaghawiyya . Tewfik Pasha , Isma 'il 's son , who became khedive when his father was deposed as a result of British pressure , continued to restore the mosque . Tewfik renovated the prayer hall that was added by Katkhuda , also aligning the southeastern facade of the hall with the street behind it , and remodeling several other areas of the mosque . Abbas II succeeded his father Tewfik as khedive of Egypt and Sudan in 1892 , and continued the renovations started by his grandfather Isma 'il . He restructured the main facade of the mosque and built a new riwaq . Under his rule , the Committee for the Conservation of Monuments of Arab Art ( initially formed under French occupation ) , also restored the original Fatimid sahn . These renovations were both needed and helped modernize al @-@ Azhar and harmonize it with what was becoming a metropolis .
The major set of reforms that began under the rule of Isma 'il Pasha continued under the British occupation . Muhammad Mahdi al- ' Abbasi , sheikh al @-@ Azhar , had instituted a set of reforms in 1872 intended to provide structure to the hiring practices of the university as well as to standardize the examinations taken by students . Further efforts to modernize the educational system were made under Hilmi 's rule during the British occupation . The mosque 's manuscripts were gathered into a centralized library , sanitation for students improved , and a regular system of exams instituted . From 1885 , other colleges in Egypt were placed directly under the administration of the al @-@ Azhar Mosque .
During Sa 'ad Zaghloul 's term as minister of education , before he went on to lead the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 , further efforts were made to modify the educational policy of al @-@ Azhar . While a bastion of conservatism in many regards , the mosque was opposed to Islamic fundamentalism , especially as espoused by the Muslim Brotherhood , founded in 1928 . The school attracted students from throughout the world , including students from Southeast Asia and particularly Indonesia , providing a counterbalance to the influence of the Wahhabis in Saudi Arabia .
Under the reign of King Fuad I , two laws were passed that reorganized the educational structure at al @-@ Azhar . The first of these , in 1930 , split the school into three departments : Arabic language , sharia , and theology , with each department located in buildings outside of the mosque throughout Cairo . Additionally , formal examinations were required to earn a degree in one of these three fields of study . Six years later , a second law was passed that moved the main office for the school to a newly constructed building across the street from the mosque . Additional structures were later added to supplement the three departmental buildings .
The ideas advocated by several influential reformers in the early 1900s , such as Muhammad Abduh and Muhammad al @-@ Ahmadi al @-@ Zawahiri , began to take hold at al @-@ Azhar in 1928 , with the appointment of Mustafa al @-@ Maraghi as rector . A follower of Abduh , the majority of the ulema opposed his appointment . Al @-@ Maraghi and his successors began a series of modernizing reforms of the mosque and its school , expanding programs outside of the traditional subjects . Fuad disliked al @-@ Maraghi , and had him replaced after one year by al @-@ Zawahiri , but al @-@ Maraghi would return to the post of rector in 1935 , serving until his death in 1945 . Under his leadership , al @-@ Azhar 's curriculum was expanded to include non @-@ Arabic languages and modern sciences . Al @-@ Zawahiri , who had also been opposed by the ulema of the early 1900s , continued the efforts to modernize and reform al @-@ Azhar . Following al @-@ Maraghi 's second term as rector , another student of Abduh was appointed rector .
= = = Post 1952 revolution = = =
Following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 , led by the Free Officers Movement of Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser , in which the Egyptian monarchy was overthrown , the university began to be separated from the mosque . A number of properties that surrounded the mosque were acquired and demolished to provide space for a modern campus by 1955 . The mosque itself would no longer serve as a school , and the college was officially designated a university in 1961 . The 1961 law separated the dual roles of the educational institution and the religious institution which made judgments heeded throughout the Muslim world . The law also created secular departments within al @-@ Azhar , such as colleges of medicine , engineering , and economics , furthering the efforts at modernization first seen following the French occupation . The reforms of the curriculum have led to a massive growth in the number of Egyptian students attending al @-@ Azhar run schools , specifically youths attending primary and secondary schools within the al @-@ Azhar system . The number of students reported to attend al @-@ Azhar primary and secondary schools increased from under 90 @,@ 000 in 1970 to 300 @,@ 000 in the early in 1980s , up to nearly one million in the early 1990s , and exceeding 1 @.@ 3 million students in 2001 .
During his tenure as Prime Minister , and later President , Nasser continued the efforts to limit the power of the ulema of al @-@ Azhar and to use its influence to his advantage . In 1952 , the waqfs were nationalized and placed under the authority of the newly created Ministry of Religious Endowments , cutting off the ability of the mosque to control its financial affairs . He abolished the sharia courts , merging religious courts with the state judicial system in 1955 , severely limiting the independence of the ulema . The 1961 reform law , which invalidated an earlier law passed in 1936 that had guaranteed the independence of al @-@ Azhar , gave the President of Egypt the authority to appoint the sheikh al @-@ Azhar , a position first created during Ottoman rule and chosen from and by the ulema since its inception . Al @-@ Azhar , which remained a symbol of the Islamic character of both the nation and the state , continued to influence the population while being unable to exert its will over the state . Al @-@ Azhar became increasingly co @-@ opted into the state bureaucracy after the revolution — independence of its curriculum and its function as a mosque ceased . The authority of the ulema were further weakened by the creation of government agencies responsible for providing interpretations of religious laws . While these reforms dramatically curtailed the independence of the ulema , they also had the effect of reestablishing their influence by integrating them further into the state apparatus . The 1961 reform law also provided the ulema with the resources of the state , though the purse strings were outside of their control . While Nasser sought to subjugate the ulema beneath the state , he did not allow more extreme proposals to limit the influence of al @-@ Azhar . One such proposal was made by Taha Hussein in 1955 . Hussein sought to dismantle the Azharite primary and secondary educational system and transform the university into a faculty of theology which would be included within the modern , secular , collegiate educational system . The ulema opposed this plan , though Nasser 's choice of maintaining al @-@ Azhar 's status was due more to personal political considerations , such as the use of al @-@ Azhar to grant legitimacy to the regime , than on the opposition of the ulema .
Al @-@ Azhar , now fully integrated as an arm of the government , was then used to justify actions of the government . Although the ulema had in the past issued rulings that socialism is irreconcilable with Islam , following the Revolution 's land reforms new rulings were supplied giving Nasser a religious justification for what he termed an " Islamic " socialism . The ulema would also serve as a counterweight to the Muslim Brotherhood , and to Saudi Arabia 's Wahhabi influence . An assassination attempt on Nasser was blamed on the Brotherhood , and the organization was outlawed . Nasser , needing support from the ulema as he initiated mass arrests of Brotherhood members , relaxed some of the restrictions placed on al @-@ Azhar . The ulema of al @-@ Azhar in turn consistently supported him in his attempts to dismantle the Brotherhood , and continued to do so in subsequent regimes . Despite the efforts of Nasser and al @-@ Azhar to discredit the Brotherhood , the organization continued to function . Al @-@ Azhar also provided legitimacy for war with Israel in 1967 , declaring the conflict against Israel a " holy struggle . "
Following Nasser 's death in 1970 , Anwar Sadat became President of Egypt . Sadat wished to restore al @-@ Azhar as a symbol of Egyptian leadership throughout the Arab world , saying that " the Arab world cannot function without Egypt and its Azhar . " Recognizing the growing influence of the Muslim Brotherhood , Sadat relaxed several restrictions on the Brotherhood and the ulema as a whole . However , in an abrupt about @-@ face , in September 1971 a crackdown was launched on journalists and organizations that Sadat felt were undermining or attacking his positions . As part of this effort to silence criticism of his policies , Sadat instituted sanctions against any of the ulema who criticized or contradicted official state policies . The ulema of al @-@ Azhar continued to be used as a tool of the government , sparking criticism among several groups , including Islamist and other more moderate groups . Shukri Mustafa , an influential Islamist figure , accused the ulema of providing religious judgments for the sole purpose of government convenience . When Sadat needed support for making peace with Israel , which the vast majority of the Egyptian population regarded as an enemy , al @-@ Azhar provided a decree stating that the time had come to make peace .
Hosni Mubarak succeeded Sadat as President of Egypt following Sadat 's assassination in 1981 . While al @-@ Azhar would continue to oblige the government in granting a religious legitimacy to its dictates , the mosque and its clergy were given more autonomy under Mubarak 's regime . Under Jad al @-@ Haq , the sheikh of al @-@ Azhar from 1982 until his death in 1994 , al @-@ Azhar asserted its independence from the state , at times criticizing policies of the state for instigating extremist Islamist sects . Al @-@ Haq argued that if the government wished al @-@ Azhar to effectively combat groups such as al @-@ Gama 'a al @-@ Islamiyya then al @-@ Azhar must be permitted greater independence from the state and for it to be allowed to make religious declarations without interference . Under Mubarak , a number of powers of the state were ceded to al @-@ Azhar . During the 1990s , modifications to existing censorship laws gave al @-@ Azhar the ability to censor both print and electronic media . Though the law stipulates that al @-@ Azhar may only become involved following a complaint , in practice its role has been much more pervasive ; for example , television scripts were routinely sent to al @-@ Azhar for approval prior to airing .
Al @-@ Azhar continues to hold a status above other Sunni religious authorities throughout the world , and as Sunnis form a large majority of the total Muslim population al @-@ Azhar exerts considerable influence on the Islamic world as a whole . In addition to being the default authority within Egypt , al @-@ Azhar has been looked to outside of Egypt for religious judgments . Prior to the Gulf War , Saudi Arabia 's King Fahd asked for a fatwa authorizing the stationing of foreign troops within the kingdom , and despite Islam 's two holiest sites being located within Saudi Arabia , he asked the head sheikh of al @-@ Azhar instead of the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia . In 2003 , Nicolas Sarkozy , at the time French Minister of the Interior , requested a judgment from al @-@ Azhar allowing Muslim girls to not wear the hijab in French public schools , despite the existence of the French Council of Islam . The sheikh of al @-@ Azhar provided the ruling , saying that while wearing the hijab is an " Islamic duty " the Muslim women of France are obligated to respect and follow French laws . The ruling drew much criticism within Egypt as compromising Islamic principles to convenience the French government , and in turn the Egyptian government .
= = = Post 2011 revolution = = =
Al @-@ Azhar was not unaffected by the 2011 Egyptian revolution that saw the removal of Hosni Mubarak as president of Egypt . Student government elections in the months following the revolution resulted in an overwhelming victory for the once banned Muslim Brotherhood . Protests demanding that the military junta ruling Egypt restore the mosque 's independence from the state broke out , and the mosque itself commissioned the writing of a draft law that would grant al @-@ Azhar greater independence from the government . Within al @-@ Azhar , debate on its future and rightful role within the state has replaced what had been a mollified single @-@ voice in support of the policies of the Mubarak regime . The various views on al @-@ Azhar 's future role in Egypt come from several parties , including leading Islamist organizations such as the Muslim Brotherhood , liberal voices that wish to see al @-@ Azhar stand as a bulwark against ultra @-@ conservative Islamists ( known as Salafists ) , and those that hope to see al @-@ Azhar become wholly independent from the state and in complete control of its finances , leadership , and further that it be placed in charge of the religious ministries of the state .
= = Architecture = =
The architecture of al @-@ Azhar is closely tied to the history of Cairo . Materials taken from multiple periods of Egyptian history , from the Ancient Egyptians , through Greek and Roman rule , to the Coptic Christian era , were used in the early mosque structure , which drew on other Fatimid structures in Ifriqiya . Later additions from the different rulers of Egypt likewise show influences from both within and outside of Egypt . Sections of the mosque show many of these influences blended together while others show a single inspiration , such as domes from the Ottoman period and minarets built by the Mamluks .
Initially built as a prayer hall with five aisles and a modest central courtyard , the mosque has since been expanded multiple times with additional installations completely surrounding the original structure . Many of Egypt 's rulers have shaped the art and architecture of al @-@ Azhar , from the minarets added by the Mamluks and the gates added during Ottoman rule to more recent renovations such as the installation of a new mihrab . None of the original minarets or domes have survived , with some of the current minarets having been rebuilt several times .
= = = Structural evolution under Fatimids = = =
Completely surrounded by dependencies added as the mosque was used over time , the original structure was 280 feet ( 85 m ) in length and 227 feet ( 69 m ) wide , and comprised three arcades situated around a courtyard . To the southeast of the courtyard , the original prayer hall was built as a hypostyle hall , five aisles deep . Measuring 260 feet ( 79 m ) by 75 feet ( 23 m ) , the qibla wall was slightly off the correct angle . The marble columns supporting the four arcades that made up the prayer hall were reused from sites extant at different times in Egyptian history , from Pharaonic times through Roman rule to Coptic dominance . The different heights of the columns were made level by using bases of varying thickness . The stucco exterior shows influences from Abbasid , Coptic and Byzantine architecture .
Ultimately a total of three domes were built , a common trait among early north African mosques , although none of them have survived Al @-@ Azhar 's many renovations . The historian al @-@ Maqrizi recorded that in the original dome al @-@ Siqilli inscribed the following :
In the name of Allah , the Merciful , the Compassionate ; according to the command for its building from the servant of Allah , His governor abu Tamim Ma 'ad , the Imam al @-@ Mu ‘ izz li @-@ Dīn Allāh , Amir al @-@ Mu 'minin , for whom and his illustrious forefathers and his sons may there be the blessings of Allah : By the hand of his servant Jawhar , the Secretary , the Ṣiqillī in the year 360 .
Gawhar included the honorific Amir al @-@ Mu 'minin , Commander of the Faithful , as the Caliphs title and also included his nickname " the Secretary " which he had earned serving as a secretary prior to becoming a general .
The original mihrab , uncovered in 1933 , has a semi @-@ dome above it with a marble column on either side . Intricate stucco decorations were a prominent feature of the mosque , with the mihrab and the walls ornately decorated . The mihrab had two sets of verses from the Quran inscribed in the conch , which is still intact . The first set of verses are the three that open al @-@ Mu ’ minoon :
Successful indeed are the believers – who are humble in their prayers – and who avoid vain talk
The next inscription is made up of verses 162 and 163 of al @-@ An 'am :
Say : Surely my prayer and my sacrifice and my life and my death are ( all ) for Allah , the Lord of the worlds – No associate has He ; and this am I commanded , and I am the first of those who submit .
These inscriptions are the only surviving piece of decoration that has been definitively traced to the Fatimids .
The marble paved central courtyard was added between 1009 and 1010 . The arcades that surround the courtyard have keel shaped arches with stucco inscriptions . The arches were built during the reign of al @-@ Hafiz li @-@ Din Allah . The stucco ornaments also date to his rule and were redone in 1891 . Two types of ornaments are used . The first appears above the center of the arch and consists of a sunken roundel and twenty @-@ four lobes . A circular band of vegetal motifs was added in 1893 . The second ornament used , which alternates with the first appearing in between each arch , consists of shallow niches below a fluted hood . The hood rests on engaged columns which are surrounded by band of Qu 'ranic writing in Kufic script . The Qu 'ranic script was added after the rule of al @-@ Hafiz but during the Fatimid period . The walls are topped by a star shaped band with tiered triangular crenellations . The southeastern arcade of the courtyard contains the main entrance to the prayer hall . A Persian framing gate , in which the central arch of the arcade is further in with a higher rectangular pattern above it , opens into the prayer hall .
A new wooden door was installed during the reign of al @-@ Hakim in 1009 . In 1125 , al @-@ Amir installed a new wooden mihrab . An additional dome was constructed during the reign of al @-@ Hafiz li @-@ Din Allah . He additionally ordered the creation of a fourth arcade around the courtyard and had a porch built on the western end of the sahn .
= = = Mamluk additions = = =
The Fatimid dynasty was succeeded by the rule of Saladin and his Ayyubid dynasty . Initially appointed vizier by the last Fatimid Caliph Al- ' Āḍid ( who incorrectly thought he could be easily manipulated ) , Saladin consolidated power in Egypt , allying that country with the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad . Distrusting al @-@ Azhar for its Shi 'a history , the mosque lost prestige during his rule . However , the succeeding Mamluk dynasty made restorations and additions to the mosque , overseeing a rapid expansion of its educational programs . Among the restorations was a modification of the mihrab , with the installation of a polychrome marble facing .
A dome and minaret cover the Madrasa al @-@ Aqbaghawiyya , which contains the tomb of Amir Aqbugha , which was built in 1339 . Intended by its founder , Aqbugha ' Abd al @-@ Wahid , to be a stand @-@ alone mosque and school , the madrasa has since become integrated with the rest of the mosque . The entrance , qibla wall , and glass mosaic in the mihrab are all original with the dome dating to the Ottoman period .
Built in 1440 , the Madrasa Gawhariyya contains the tomb of Gawhar al @-@ Qanaqba 'i , a Sudanese eunuch who became treasurer to the sultan . The floor of the madrasa is marble , the walls lined with cupboards , decoratively inlaid with ebony , ivory , and nacre . The tomb chamber is covered by small arabesque dome .
= = = = Madrasa al @-@ Taybarsiyya = = = =
The Madrasa al @-@ Taybarsiyya , which contains the tomb of Amir Taybars , was built in 1309 . Originally intended to function as a complementary mosque to al @-@ Azhar it has since been integrated with the rest of the mosque . The Maliki and Shāfi ‘ ī madh 'hab were studied in this madrasa , though it now is used to hold manuscripts from the library . The only surviving piece from the original is the qibla wall and its polychrome mihrab . Al @-@ Maqrizi reported that the madrasa was used only for studying the Shāfi ‘ ī while the historian Ibn Duqmaq reported that one of the liwans in the madrasa was reserved for Shāfi ‘ ī teachings while the other was for Maliki teachings .
The madrasa was completely rebuilt by Abd al @-@ Rahman Katkhuda , leaving only the southeastern wall and its mihrab untouched . The mihrab was described by K. A. C. Creswell as being " one of the finest in Cairo " . The niche of the mihrab is 1 @.@ 13 meters ( 3 @.@ 7 ft ) wide and 76 centimeters ( 30 in ) deep . On each side of the niche stands a 2 @.@ 78 meters ( 9 @.@ 1 ft ) high porphyry column . Above the columns are impost blocks decorated with colored geometrical designs . The semi @-@ dome at the top of the mihrab is set within an outer arch . Surrounding this arch is a molding that forms a rectangular outer frame . This is the first mihrab in Egypt to have this type of frame .
= = = = Minaret of Qaytbay = = = =
Built in 1483 with two octagonal and one cylindrical shafts , the Minaret of Qaytbay also has three balconies , supported by muqarnas , a form of stalactite vaulting which provide a smooth transition from a flat surface to a curved one ( first recorded to have been used in Egypt in 1085 ) , that adorn the minaret . The first shaft is octagonal is decorated with keel @-@ arched panels on each side , with a cluster of three columns separating each panel . Above this shaft is the second octagonal shaft which is separated from the first by a balcony and decorated with plaiting . A second balcony separates this shaft with the final cylindrical shaft , decorated with four arches . Above this is the third balcony , crowned by the finial top of the minaret .
The minaret is believed to have been built in the area of an earlier , Fatimid @-@ era brick minaret that had itself been rebuilt several times . Contemporary accounts suggest that the Fatimid minaret had defects in its construction and needed to be rebuilt several times , including once under the direction of Sadr al @-@ Din al @-@ Adhra 'i al @-@ Dimashqi al @-@ Hanafi , the qadi al @-@ qudat ( Chief Justice of the Highest Court ) during the rule of Sultan Baibars . Recorded to have been rebuilt again under Barquq in 1397 , the minaret began to lean at a dangerous angle and was rebuilt in 1414 by Taj al @-@ Din al @-@ Shawbaki , the walī and muhtasib of Cairo , and again in 1432 . The Qaytbay minaret was built in its place as part of a reconstruction of the entrance to the mosque .
= = = = Bab al @-@ Gindi = = = =
Directly across the courtyard from the entrance from the Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn is the Bab al @-@ Gindi ( Gate of Qaytbay ) . Built in 1495 , this gate leads to the court of the prayer hall .
= = = = Ghuri minaret = = = =
The double finial minaret was built in 1509 by Qansah al @-@ Ghuri . Sitting on a square base , the first shaft is octagonal , and four sides have a decorative keel arch , separated from the adjacent sides with two columns . The second shaft , separated from the first by a fretted balconies supported by muqarnas , is also octagonal and decorated with blue faience . A balcony separates the third level from the second shaft . The third level is made up of two rectangular shafts with horseshoe arches on each side of both shafts . Atop each of these two shafts rests a finial , with a balcony separating the finials from the shafts .
= = = Ottoman renovations and additions = = =
Several additions and restorations were made during Ottoman reign in Egypt , many of which were completed under the direction of Abd al @-@ Rahman Katkhuda who nearly doubled the size of the mosque . Three gates were added by Katkhuda , the Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn , which became the main entrance to the mosque , the Bab al @-@ Shurba , and the Bab al @-@ Sa 'ayida . Several riwaqs were added , including one for the blind students of al @-@ Azhar , as well as refurbished during the Ottoman period . Katkhuda also added an additional prayer hall south of the original Fatimid hall , with an additional mihrab , doubling the total prayer area .
= = = = Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn = = = =
The Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn ( باب المزينين was built in 1753 . Credited to Katkhuda the gate has two doors , each surrounded by recessed arches . Two molded semi @-@ circular arches with tumpanums decorated with trefoils stand above the doors . Above the arches is a frieze with panels of cypress trees , a common trait of Ottoman work .
A free @-@ standing minaret , built by Katkhuda , originally stood outside the gate . The minaret was demolished prior to the opening of al @-@ Azhar street by Tewfik Pasha during modernization efforts which took place throughout Cairo .
= = = Current layout and structure = = =
The present main entrance to the mosque is the Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn , which opens into the white marble @-@ paved courtyard at the opposite end of the main prayer hall . To the northeast of the Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn , the courtyard is flanked by the façade of the Madrasa al @-@ Aqbaghawiyya ; the southwestern end of the courtyard leads to the Madrasa al @-@ Taybarsiyya . Directly across the courtyard from the entrance to the Bab al @-@ Muzayinīn is the Bab al @-@ Gindi ( Gate of Qaytbay ) , built in 1495 , above which stands the minaret of Qaytbay . Through this gate lies the courtyard of the prayer hall .
The mihrab has recently been changed to a plain marble facing with gold patterns .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century , probably in Wessex , during the reign of Alfred the Great . Multiple copies were made of that one original and then distributed to monasteries across England , where they were independently updated . In one case , the Chronicle was still being actively updated in 1154 .
Nine manuscripts survive in whole or in part , though not all are of equal historical value and none of them is the original version . The oldest seems to have been started towards the end of Alfred 's reign , while the most recent was written at Peterborough Abbey after a fire at that monastery in 1116 . Almost all of the material in the Chronicle is in the form of annals , by year ; the earliest are dated at 60 BC ( the annals ' date for Caesar 's invasions of Britain ) , and historical material follows up to the year in which the chronicle was written , at which point contemporary records begin . These manuscripts collectively are known as the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle .
The Chronicle is not unbiased : there are occasions when comparison with other medieval sources makes it clear that the scribes who wrote it omitted events or told one @-@ sided versions of stories ; there are also places where the different versions contradict each other . Taken as a whole , however , the Chronicle is the single most important historical source for the period in England between the departure of the Romans and the decades following the Norman conquest . Much of the information given in the Chronicle is not recorded elsewhere . In addition , the manuscripts are important sources for the history of the English language ; in particular , the later Peterborough text is one of the earliest examples of Middle English in existence .
Seven of the nine surviving manuscripts and fragments now reside in the British Library . The remaining two are in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and the Parker Library of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge .
= = Composition = =
All of the surviving manuscripts are copies , so it is not known for certain where or when the first version of the Chronicle was composed . It is generally agreed that the original version was written in the late 9th century by a scribe in Wessex . After the original Chronicle was compiled , copies were made and distributed to various monasteries . Additional copies were made , for further distribution or to replace lost manuscripts , and some copies were updated independently of each other . Some of these later copies are those that have survived .
The earliest extant manuscript , the Winchester Chronicle , was written by a single scribe up to the year 891 . The scribe wrote the year number , DCCCXCII , in the margin of the next line ; subsequent material was written by other scribes . This appears to place the composition of the chronicle at no later than 892 ; further evidence is provided by Bishop Asser 's use of a version of the Chronicle in his work Life of King Alfred , known to have been composed in 893 . It is known that the Winchester manuscript is at least two removes from the original Chronicle ; as a result , there is no proof that the Chronicle was compiled at Winchester . It is also difficult to fix the date of composition , but it is generally thought that the chronicles were composed during the reign of Alfred the Great ( 871 – 99 ) , as Alfred deliberately tried to revive learning and culture during his reign , and encouraged the use of English as a written language . The Chronicle , as well as the distribution of copies to other centres of learning , may be a consequence of the changes Alfred introduced .
= = Surviving manuscripts = =
Of the nine surviving manuscripts , seven are written entirely in Old English ( also known as Anglo @-@ Saxon ) . One , known as the Bilingual Canterbury Epitome , is in Old English with a translation of each annal into Latin . Another , the Peterborough Chronicle , is in Old English except for the last entry , which is in early Middle English . The oldest ( Corp. Chris . MS 173 ) is known as the Winchester Chronicle or the Parker Chronicle ( after Matthew Parker , an Archbishop of Canterbury , who once owned it ) . Six of the manuscripts were printed in an 1861 edition for the Rolls Series by Benjamin Thorpe with the text laid out in columns labelled A to F. Following this convention , the three additional manuscripts are often called [ G ] , [ H ] and [ I ] . The surviving manuscripts are listed below .
= = Relationships between the manuscripts = =
The manuscripts are all thought to derive from a common original , but the connections between the texts are more complex than simple inheritance via copying . The diagram at right gives an overview of the relationships between the manuscripts . The following is a summary of the relationships that are known .
[ A2 ] was a copy of [ A ] , made in Winchester , probably between 1001 and 1013 .
[ B ] was used in the compilation of [ C ] at Abingdon , in the mid @-@ 11th century . However , the scribe for [ C ] also had access to another version , which has not survived .
[ D ] includes material from Bede 's Ecclesiastical History and from a set of 8th @-@ century Northumbrian annals and is thought to have been copied from a northern version that has not survived .
[ E ] has material that appears to derive from the same sources as [ D ] but does not include some additions that appear only in [ D ] , such as the Mercian Register . This manuscript was composed at the monastery in Peterborough , some time after a fire there in 1116 that probably destroyed their copy of the Chronicle ; [ E ] appears to have been created thereafter as a copy of a Kentish version , probably from Canterbury .
[ F ] appears to include material from the same Canterbury version that was used to create [ E ] .
Asser 's Life of King Alfred , which was written in 893 , includes a translation of the Chronicle 's entries from 849 to 887 . Only [ A ] , of surviving manuscripts , could have been in existence by 893 , but there are places where Asser departs from the text in [ A ] , so it is possible that Asser used a version that has not survived .
Æthelweard wrote a translation of the Chronicle into Latin in the late 10th century ; the version he used probably came from the same branch in the tree of relationships that [ A ] comes from .
Asser 's text agrees with [ A ] and with Æthelweard 's text in some places against the combined testimony of [ B ] , [ C ] , [ D ] and [ E ] , implying that there is a common ancestor for the latter four manuscripts .
At Abingdon , some time between 1120 and 1140 , an unknown author wrote a Latin chronicle known as the Annals of St Neots . This work includes material from a copy of the Chronicle , but it is very difficult to tell which version because the annalist was selective about his use of the material . It may have been a northern recension , or a Latin derivative of that recension .
All the manuscripts described above share a chronological error between the years 756 and 845 , but it is apparent that the composer of the Annals of St Neots was using a copy that did not have this error and which must have preceded them . Æthelweard 's copy did have the chronological error but it had not lost a whole sentence from annal 885 ; all the surviving manuscripts have lost this sentence . Hence the error and the missing sentence must have been introduced in separate copying steps , implying that none of the surviving manuscripts are closer than two removes from the original version .
= = History of the manuscripts = =
= = = The Winchester Chronicle = = =
[ A ] : The Winchester ( or Parker ) Chronicle is the oldest manuscript of the Chronicle that survives . It was begun at Old Minster , Winchester , towards the end of Alfred 's reign . The manuscript begins with a genealogy of Alfred , and the first chronicle entry is for the year 60 BC . The section containing the Chronicle takes up folios 1 – 32 . Unlike the other manuscripts , [ A ] is of early enough composition to show entries dating back to the late 9th century in the hands of different scribes as the entries were made . The first scribe 's hand is dateable to the late 9th or very early 10th century ; his entries cease in late 891 , and the following entries were made at intervals throughout the 10th century by several scribes . The eighth scribe wrote the annals for the years 925 – 955 , and was clearly at Winchester when he wrote them since he adds some material related to events there ; he also uses ceaster , or " city " , to mean Winchester . The manuscript becomes independent of the other recensions after the entry for 975 . The book , which also had a copy of the Laws of Alfred and Ine bound in after the entry for 924 , was transferred to Canterbury some time in the early 11th century , as evidenced by a list of books that Archbishop Parker gave to Corpus Christi . While at Canterbury , some interpolations were made ; this required some erasures in the manuscript . The additional entries appear to have been taken from a version of the manuscript from which [ E ] descends . The last entry in the vernacular is for 1070 . After this comes the Latin Acta Lanfranci , which covers church events from 1070 – 1093 . This is followed by a list of popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury to whom they sent the pallium . The manuscript was acquired by Matthew Parker , Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1559 – 1575 ) and master of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge , following the dissolution of the monasteries , and bequeathed to the college on his death . It now forms part of the Parker Library .
= = = The Abingdon Chronicle I = = =
[ B ] The Abingdon Chronicle I was written by a single scribe in the second half of the 10th century . The Chronicle takes up folios 1 – 34 . It begins with an entry for 60 BC and ends with the entry for 977 . A manuscript that is now separate ( British Library MS. Cotton Tiberius Aiii , f . 178 ) was originally the introduction to this chronicle ; it contains a genealogy , as does [ A ] , but extends it to the late 10th century . [ B ] was at Abingdon in the mid @-@ 11th century , because it was used in the composition of [ C ] . Shortly after this it went to Canterbury , where interpolations and corrections were made . As with [ A ] , it ends with a list of popes and the archbishops of Canterbury to whom they sent the pallium .
= = = The Abingdon Chronicle II = = =
[ C ] includes additional material from local annals at Abingdon , where it was composed . The section containing the Chronicle ( folios 115 – 64 ) is preceded by King Alfred 's Old English translation of Orosius 's world history , followed by a menologium and some gnomic verses of the laws of the natural world and of humanity . Then follows a copy of the chronicle , beginning with 60 BC ; the first scribe copied up to the entry for 490 , and a second scribe took over up to the entry for 1048 . [ B ] and [ C ] are identical between 491 and 652 , but differences thereafter make it clear that the second scribe was also using another copy of the Chronicle . This scribe also inserted , after the annal for 915 , the Mercian Register , which covers the years 902 – 924 , and which focuses on Æthelflæd . The manuscript continues to 1066 and stops in the middle of the description of the Battle of Stamford Bridge . In the 12th century a few lines were added to complete the account .
= = = The Worcester Chronicle = = =
[ D ] The Worcester Chronicle appears to have been written in the middle of the 11th century . After 1033 it includes some records from Worcester , so it is generally thought to have been composed there . Five different scribes can be identified for the entries up to 1054 , after which it appears to have been worked on at intervals . The text includes material from Bede 's Ecclesiastical History and from a set of 8th @-@ century Northumbrian annals . It is thought that some of the entries may have been composed by Archbishop Wulfstan . [ D ] contains more information than other manuscripts on northern and Scottish affairs , and it has been speculated that it was a copy intended for the Anglicised Scottish court . From 972 to 1016 , the sees of York and Worcester were both held by the same person — Oswald from 972 , Ealdwulf from 992 , and Wulfstan from 1003 , and this may explain why a northern recension was to be found at Worcester . By the 16th century , parts of the manuscript were lost ; eighteen pages were inserted containing substitute entries from other sources , including [ A ] , [ B ] , [ C ] and [ E ] . These pages were written by John Joscelyn , who was secretary to Matthew Parker .
= = = The Peterborough Chronicle = = =
[ E ] The Peterborough Chronicle : In 1116 , a fire at the monastery at Peterborough destroyed most of the buildings . The copy of the Chronicle kept there may have been lost at that time or later , but in either case shortly thereafter a fresh copy was made , apparently copied from a Kentish version — most likely to have been from Canterbury . The manuscript was written at one time and by a single scribe , down to the annal for 1121 . The scribe added material relating to Peterborough Abbey which is not in other versions . The Canterbury original which he copied was similar , but not identical , to [ D ] : the Mercian Register does not appear , and a poem about the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 , which appears in most of the other surviving copies of the Chronicle , is not recorded . The same scribe then continued the annals through to 1131 ; these entries were made at intervals , and thus are presumably contemporary records . Finally , a second scribe , in 1154 , wrote an account of the years 1132 – 1154 ; but his dating is known to be unreliable . This last entry is in Middle English , rather than Old English . [ E ] was once owned by William Laud , Archbishop of Canterbury 1633 – 1654 , so is also known as the Laud Chronicle . The manuscript contains occasional glosses in Latin , and is referred to ( as " the Saxon storye of Peterborowe church " ) in an antiquarian book from 1566 . According to Joscelyn , Nowell had a transcript of the manuscript . Previous owners include William Camden and William L 'Isle ; the latter probably passed the manuscript on to Laud .
= = = The Canterbury Bilingual Epitome = = =
[ F ] The Canterbury Bilingual Epitome : At about 1100 , a copy of the Chronicle was written at Christ Church , Canterbury , probably by one of the scribes who made notes in [ A ] . This version is written in both Old English and Latin ; each entry in Old English was followed by the Latin version . The version the scribe copied ( on folios 30 – 70 ) is similar to the version used by the scribe in Peterborough who wrote [ E ] , though it seems to have been abridged . It includes the same introductory material as [ D ] and , along with [ E ] , is one of the two chronicles that does not include the " Battle of Brunanburh " poem . The manuscript has many annotations and interlineations , some made by the original scribe and some by later scribes , including Robert Talbot .
= = = Copy of the Winchester Chronicle = = =
[ A2 ] / [ G ] Copy of the Winchester Chronicle : [ A2 ] was copied from [ A ] at Winchester in the eleventh century and follows a 10th @-@ century copy of an Old English translation of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History . The last annal copied was 1001 , so the copy was made no earlier than that ; an episcopal list appended to [ A2 ] suggests that the copy was made by 1013 . This manuscript was almost completely destroyed in the 1731 fire at Ashburnham House , where the Cotton Library was housed . Of the original 34 leaves , seven remain , ff . 39 – 47 in the manuscript . However , a transcript had been made by Laurence Nowell , a 16th @-@ century antiquary , which was used by Abraham Wheelocke in an edition of the Chronicle printed in 1643 . Because of this , it is also sometimes known as [ W ] , after Wheelocke . The appellations [ A ] , [ A2 ] and [ G ] derive from Plummer , Smith and Thorpe , respectively .
= = = Cottonian Fragment = = =
The Cottonian Fragment [ H ] consists of a single leaf , containing annals for 1113 and 1114 . In the entry for 1113 it includes the phrase " he came to Winchester " ; hence it is thought likely that the manuscript was written at Winchester . There is not enough of this manuscript for reliable relationships to other manuscripts to be established . Ker notes that the entries may have been written contemporarily .
= = = Easter Table Chronicle = = =
[ I ] Easter Table Chronicle : A list of Chronicle entries accompanies a table of years , found on folios 133 @-@ 37 in a badly burned manuscript containing miscellaneous notes on charms , the calculation of dates for church services , and annals pertaining to Christ Church , Canterbury . Most of the Chronicle 's entries pertain to Christ Church , Canterbury . Until 1109 ( the death of Anselm of Canterbury ) they are in English ; all but one of the following entries are in Latin . Part of [ I ] was written by a scribe soon after 1073 , in the same hand and ink as the rest of the Caligula MS. After 1085 , the annals are in various contemporary hands . The original annalist 's entry for the Norman conquest is limited to " Her forðferde eadward kyng " ; a later hand added the coming of William the Conqueror , " 7 her com willelm . " At one point this manuscript was at St Augustine 's Abbey , Canterbury .
= = = Lost manuscripts = = =
Two manuscripts are recorded in an old catalogue of the library of Durham ; they are described as cronica duo Anglica . In addition , Parker included a manuscript called Hist . Angliae Saxonica in his gifts but the manuscript that included this , now Cambridge University Library MS. Hh.1.10 , has lost 52 of its leaves , including all of this copy of the chronicle .
= = Use by Latin and Anglo @-@ Norman historians = =
The three main Anglo @-@ Norman historians , John of Worcester , William of Malmesbury and Henry of Huntingdon , each had a copy of the Chronicle , which they adapted for their own purposes . Symeon of Durham also had a copy of the Chronicle . Some later medieval historians also used the Chronicle , and others took their material from those who had used it , and so the Chronicle became " central to the mainstream of English historical tradition " .
Henry of Huntingdon used a copy of the Chronicle that was very similar to [ E ] . There is no evidence in his work of any of the entries in [ E ] after 1121 , so although his manuscript may actually have been [ E ] , it may also have been a copy — either one taken of [ E ] prior to the entries he makes no use of , or a manuscript from which [ E ] was copied , with the copying taking place prior to the date of the last annal he uses . Henry also made use of the [ C ] manuscript .
The Waverley Annals made use of a manuscript that was similar to [ E ] , though it appears that it did not contain the entries focused on Peterborough . The manuscript of the chronicle translated by Geoffrey Gaimar cannot be identified accurately , though according to historian Dorothy Whitelock it was " a rather better text than ' E ' or ' F ' " . Gaimar implies that there was a copy at Winchester in his day ( the middle of the 12th century ) ; Whitelock suggests that there is evidence that a manuscript that has not survived to the present day was at Winchester in the mid @-@ tenth century . If it survived to Gaimar 's time that would explain why [ A ] was not kept up to date , and why [ A ] could be given to the monastery at Canterbury .
John of Worcester 's Chronicon ex chronicis appears to have had a manuscript that was either [ A ] or similar to it ; he makes use of annals that do not appear in other versions , such as entries concerning Edward the Elder 's campaigns and information about Winchester towards the end of the chronicle . His account is often similar to that of [ D ] , though there is less attention paid to Margaret of Scotland , an identifying characteristic of [ D ] . He had the Mercian register , which appears only in [ C ] and [ D ] ; and he includes material from annals 979 – 982 which only appears in [ C ] . It is possible he had a manuscript that was an ancestor of [ D ] . He also had sources which have not been identified , and some of his statements have no earlier surviving source .
A manuscript similar to [ E ] was available to William of Malmesbury , though it is unlikely to have been [ E ] as that manuscript is known to have still been in Peterborough after the time William was working , and he does not make use of any of the entries in [ E ] that are specifically related to Peterborough . It is likely he had either the original from which [ E ] was copied , or a copy of that original . He mentions that the chronicles do not give any information on the murder of Alfred Aetheling , but since this is covered in both [ C ] and [ D ] it is apparent he had no access to those manuscripts . On occasion he appears to show some knowledge of [ D ] , but it is possible that his information was taken from John of Worcester 's account . He also omits any reference to a battle fought by Cenwealh in 652 ; this battle is mentioned in [ A ] , [ B ] and [ C ] , but not in [ E ] . He does mention a battle fought by Cenwealh at Wirtgernesburg , which is not in any of the extant manuscripts , so it is possible he had a copy now lost .
= = Importance = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle is the single most important source for the history of England in Anglo @-@ Saxon times . Without the Chronicle and Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ( the Ecclesiastical History of the English People ) , it would be impossible to write the history of the English from the Romans to the Norman conquest ; Nicholas Howe called them " the two great Anglo @-@ Saxon works of history " . It is clear that records and annals of some kind began to be kept in England at the time of the earliest spread of Christianity , but no such records survive in their original form . Instead they were incorporated in later works , and it is thought likely that the Chronicle contains many of these . The history it tells is not only that witnessed by its compilers , but also that recorded by earlier annalists , whose work is in many cases preserved nowhere else .
Its importance is not limited to the historical information it provides , however . It is just as important a source for the early development of English . The Peterborough Chronicle changes from the standard Old English literary language to early Middle English after 1131 , providing some of the earliest Middle English text known . Howe notes , in " Rome : Capitol of Anglo @-@ Saxon England " , that many of the entries indicate that Rome was considered a spiritual home for the Anglo @-@ Saxons , Rome and Roman history being of paramount importance in many of the entries ; he cites the one for AD 1 , for instance , which lists the reign of Octavian Augustus before it mentions the birth of Christ .
The Chronicle is not without literary interest . Inserted at various points since the 10th century are Old English poems in celebration of royal figures and their achievements : " The Battle of Brunanburh " ( 937 ) , on King Æthelstan 's victory over the combined forces of Vikings , Scots and the Strathclyde Britons , and five shorter poems , " Capture of the Five Boroughs " ( 942 ) , " The Coronation of King Edgar " ( 973 ) , " The Death of King Edgar " ( 975 ) , " The Death of Prince Alfred " ( 1036 ) , and " The Death of King Edward the Confessor " ( 1065 ) .
= = History of editions and availability = =
An important early printed edition of the Chronicle appeared in 1692 , by Edmund Gibson , an English jurist and divine who became Bishop of Lincoln in that year . Titled Chronicum Saxonicum , it printed Latin and Old English versions of the text in parallel columns and became the standard edition until the 19th century . It was superseded in 1861 by Benjamin Thorpe 's Rolls edition , which printed six versions in columns , labelled A to F , thus giving the manuscripts the letters which are now used to refer to them .
John Earle wrote Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel ( 1865 ) . Charles Plummer edited this book , producing a Revised Text with notes , appendices , and glossary in two volumes in 1892 and 1899 . This edition of the A and E texts , with material from other versions , was widely used ; it was reprinted in 1952 .
= = = Editions of the individual manuscripts = = =
Beginning in the 1980s , a new set of scholarly editions have been printed under the series title " The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle : A Collaborative Edition " . Some volumes are still projected , such as a volume focusing on the northern recension , but existing volumes such as Janet Bately 's edition of [ A ] are now standard references . A recent translation of the Chronicle is Michael Swanton 's The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which presents translations of [ A ] and [ E ] on opposite pages , with interspersed material from the other manuscripts where they differ .
A facsimile edition of [ A ] , The Parker Chronicle and Laws , appeared in 1941 from the Oxford University Press , edited by Robin Flower and Hugh Smith . A recent scholarly edition of the [ B ] text is The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle : A Collaborative Edition , 4 , MS B by S. Taylor ( Cambridge , 1983 ) . The [ C ] manuscript was edited by H.A. Rositzke ; The C @-@ Text of the Old English Chronicles , in Beitrage z. engl . Phil . , XXXIV , Bochum @-@ Langendreer , 1940 ; and the [ D ] manuscript in An Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle from British Museum Cotton MS. , Tiberius B. iv , edited by E. Classen and F.E. Harmer , Manchester , 1926 . Rositzke also published a translation of the [ E ] text in The Peterborough Chronicle ( New York , 1951 ) . The [ F ] text was printed in F.P. Magoun , Jr . , Annales Domitiani Latini : an Edition in " Mediaeval Studies of the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies " , IX , 1947 , pp. 235 – 295 . The first edition of [ G ] was Abraham Whelock 's 1644 Venerabilis Bedae Historia Ecclesiastica , printed in Cambridge ; there is also an edition by Angelica Lutz , Die Version G der angelsächsischen Chronik : Rekonstruktion und Edition ( Munich , 1981 ) .
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= Presque Isle State Park =
Presque Isle State Park / ˌprɛsk.ˈaɪl / is a 3 @,@ 112 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 259 ha ) Pennsylvania state park on an arching , sandy peninsula that juts into Lake Erie , 4 miles ( 6 km ) west of the city of Erie , in Millcreek Township , Erie County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . The peninsula sweeps northeastward , surrounding Presque Isle Bay along the park 's southern coast . It has 13 miles ( 21 km ) of roads , 21 miles ( 34 km ) of recreational trails , 13 beaches for swimming , and a marina . Popular activities at the park include swimming , boating , hiking , biking , and birdwatching .
The recorded history of Presque Isle begins with the Erielhonan , a Native American tribe who gave their name to Lake Erie , and includes French , British , and American forts , as well as serving as a base for Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry 's fleet in the War of 1812 . With the growing importance of shipping on Lake Erie in the 19th century , Presque Isle became home to several lighthouses and what became a United States Coast Guard station . In 1921 it became a state park , and as of 2007 it hosts over 4 million visitors per year , the most of any Pennsylvania state park .
The Presque Isle peninsula formed on a moraine from the end of the Wisconsin glaciation and is constantly being reshaped by waves and wind . This leads to seven ecological zones within the park , which provide a classic example of ecological succession . A National Natural Landmark since 1967 , the park has been named one of the best places in the United States for watching birds , particularly in the Gull Point Natural Area . The Tom Ridge Environmental Center at the entrance to the park allows visitors to learn more about the park and its ecology . Presque Isle State Park has been chosen by the Pennsylvania Bureau of Parks for its list of " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants = = =
Presque Isle was formed at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation about 11 @,@ 000 years ago . The earliest known inhabitants of the southern Lake Erie coast were the Erielhonan , also known as the " Eriez " , an Iroquoian speaking tribe of Native Americans . Erielhonan meant the " Cat " or " Raccoon " people , and the name " Erie " , a corruption of Erielhonan , became the name of the lake and county in which Presque Isle Park is found and of the city nearest the park .
An Erielhonan legend taught that the Great Spirit led them to Presque Isle because of the wealth of game , the abundance of clean fresh water , and the cool breezes " coming from the land of snow and ice " ( i.e. Canada ) . Another legend explains how the Erielhonan ventured into Lake Erie in search of the land where the sun set , but the spirit of the lake blew a fierce storm to keep them from finding it . To protect the Erielhonan from the storm , their god laid his outstretched arm into the lake , giving them safety during the storm . The god 's arm remained in the lake , protecting the tribe 's future generations .
The Erielhonan are believed to have lived and farmed on the peninsula . They fought several wars , the last starting in 1653 with the Five Nations of the Iroquois . Despite initial victories over the Senecas , in 1654 the Erielhonan their largest village , Rique ( at the modern city of Erie ) , was destroyed by 1 @,@ 800 Iroquois warriors . By 1656 the Erielhonan were destroyed as a people , although the Iroquois adopted survivors who were absorbed primarily into the Senecas .
= = = Forts , settlers , and War of 1812 = = =
The French first named the peninsula in the 1720s ; presque @-@ isle means peninsula ( lit . " almost an island " ) in French . They built Fort Presque Isle at the modern city of Erie in the summer of 1753 , naming it for the peninsula that protected the fort . The French also built two " military outposts " on Presque Isle itself : one at the entrance to the peninsula and one at the eastern point . During the French and Indian War , the French abandoned their outposts and burned their fort in 1759 . The British constructed a new fort of the same name that year , which later fell to Native American forces on June 19 , 1763 , during Pontiac 's Rebellion .
Presque Isle passed from British to American control after the American Revolutionary War , and the Iroquois sold their rights to the land containing the peninsula to the United States at the second Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1784 . Pennsylvania did not acquire an undisputed title to the land until it purchased the Erie Triangle from the Federal government on April 3 , 1792 . In 1795 General Anthony Wayne built a new , American " Fort Presque Isle " , and on April 18 of that year the town of " Presqu ' Ile " , since renamed Erie , was laid out near it . Wayne died at the fort on December 15 , 1796 , and was originally buried there .
Erie County was formed from Allegheny County on March 12 , 1800 . Millcreek Township , which initially contained both the Presque Isle peninsula and village of Erie , was one of the original townships . Erie was named the county seat in 1803 , incorporated as a borough in 1805 , and became a city in 1851 .
During the War of 1812 , Presque Isle played a part in the victory over the British in the Battle of Lake Erie . Oliver Hazard Perry , commander of the American fleet , made strategic use of the bay to as a place to construct six of the nine ships in his fleet . Using this location protected the men by creating an obstacle , forcing potential attackers to circumnavigate the peninsula to reach them .
The " Little Bay " near the tip of the peninsula where the ships sheltered , next to the current Perry 's Monument , was later named " Misery Bay " because of the hardships during the winter of 1813 – 1814 , after the men returned there from battle . Many men suffered from smallpox and were kept in quarantine near the bay . A great many infected men died and were buried in what is now called Graveyard Pond .
After the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10 , 1813 , Perry 's two largest ships were badly damaged , and the US Brig Lawrence was intentionally sunk in Misery Bay . The Lawrence was raised in 1875 but was burned while on display at the 1876 Centennial Exposition . The US Brig Niagara was initially repaired , then sunk for preservation in 1820 and raised in 1913 , and parts of it were eventually used in the current Niagara , based across Presque Isle Bay in Erie .
= = = Lighthouses and Coast Guard = = =
The Presque Isle peninsula forms Presque Isle Bay , which serves as a natural harbor for Erie . During the 19th century , as Lake Erie navigation grew more important , shipping aids were built on Presque Isle . As of 2007 , two main lighthouses can be found in the park . The Erie Harbor North Pier Light began as a wooden tower , erected in 1830 . In 1858 , a stronger steel structure was brought from France and installed at Erie to replace the wooden beacon , which had been damaged by a schooner . This light still stands at the far eastern side of the park , near the inlet between the lake and the bay .
The Presque Isle Light was constructed in 1872 on the north side of Presque Isle and was lit on July 12 , 1873 . This light is 74 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 23 m ) , with a red brick house that was used as a lighthouse keeper residence , and later a park residence . Today the lighthouse is maintained by the United States Coast Guard and flashes a white light to warn ships of the sandy peninsula that juts into Lake Erie . The light station is open to public tours from Memorial Day through Labor Day on weekends , weather permitting ( see presqueislelighthouse.org ) . A third , smaller lighthouse was built in 1906 by the Erie Waterworks on the Presque Isle Bay side of the peninsula . Today it stands in the ferry landing for the Presque Isle Water Taxi service , south of the former waterworks along the state park 's multi @-@ purpose trail on the southeast side of Presque Isle .
United States Life @-@ Saving Service District 9 opened a life @-@ saving station at Presque Isle in 1876 . William Clark was the keeper from 1877 until he drowned in 1891 . He was succeeded by Andrew Jansen , who was the keeper until 1914 . When the Life @-@ Saving Service and the Revenue Cutter Service merged in 1915 to become the United States Coast Guard , LSS Presque Isle , also called the Erie life @-@ saving station , became Coast Guard Station # 236 . The station , still in operation , is assigned to the Ninth District of the United States Coast Guard .
= = = Modern era and state park = = =
In 1908 , Erie started building a waterworks on Presque Isle to provide fresh water for the city . Water from Lake Erie was pumped into two reservoirs on the peninsula , where particulates in the water were allowed to settle , removing them from the lake water . After treatment , the water flowed into the waterlines of the city . In 1917 a pumphouse powered by a steam boiler and engine was built : this pumped the water from one basin into the other , then across Presque Isle Bay to Erie . This system of supplying drinking water for Erie operated until 1949 . The pumphouse is now used for zebra mussel control and as a concession stand for bicycle and quadracycle @-@ rentals within the state park .
As Pennsylvania 's only surf beach , the Presque Isle beaches were already a popular attraction when the state legislature authorized the creation of the " Pennsylvania State Park at Erie " in May 1921 . Oversight was given to the new " State Park and Harbor Commission of Erie " , including local representation , instead of to the state Department of Forests and Waters . Presque Isle quickly became the most popular state park in Pennsylvania . Presque Isle was an early example of locating state parks near cities , a trend that would become prevalent statewide only in the 1960s .
The first paved road was built in the park in 1924 , and today 13 miles ( 21 km ) of roads run through the park . Pennsylvania Route 832 is the main road into the park , and is subsequently known as Peninsula Drive . Presque Isle has been referred to as " Peninsula State Park " . The Perry Monument in the park was constructed in 1926 near Misery Bay and the burials in Graveyard Pond .
By 1937 official state publications were referring to the park as " Presque Isle State Park " , and that same year it led the state park system with 1 @.@ 4 million visitors . In the 1950s the peninsula was enlarged to accommodate new roads and parking , using 3 million square yards ( 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m2 ) of sand dredged from the interior of the peninsula . The resulting basin became the current marina . Other new facilities included three modern bath houses built in 1957 . That same year Gull Point ( at the eastern end of the peninsula ) was named a nature preserve by the state .
Presque Isle was named a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service in 1967 . A recommendation was made to abolish the independent board as early as 1930 , although this did not come about until January 19 , 1971 , with the creation of the state Department of Environmental Resources ( which later became the DCNR ) . From 1989 to 1992 , over 50 breakwaters were built along the western and northern shore of the peninsula to help control erosion . In 1997 the park 's Important Bird Area ( IBA ) was one of the first 73 IBAs established in Pennsylvania . As part of the State Parks 2000 strategic plan of the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) , Gull Point was named a " State Park Natural Area for rare and migratory shorebirds to rest , feed and possibly nest " .
The Tom Ridge Environmental Center at the entrance to the park opened in May 2006 . As of 2007 , the Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Parks , which administers all 120 Pennsylvania state parks , had chosen Presque Isle for its " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " list , citing its status as Pennsylvania 's only surf beach , its status as a National Natural Landmark , and its " geological and biological diversity and its historic significance " . Scenes for the film The Road were shot at Presque Isle in April 2008 , with Beach 10 used as a seashore .
A weak tornado touched down in the state park on June 27 , 2010 . Rated an EF0 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale , it downed power lines and trees near the Stull Interpretive Center , and also damaged a nearby observation platform . Presque Isle was closed on June 28 to facilitate clean @-@ up of the debris and reopened the next morning .
During Hurricane Sandy in October 2012 , parts and remnants of the storm reached Presque Isle . The park was closed in preparation of the storm and waves for 14 – 18 feet were called for , along with high winds . The storm was expected to be severe , but luckily was not . Only 8 foot waves were recorded and not as high of winds either . The park made it out with only minor flooding , a few downed trees , and the loss of power at the park marina .
= = Geology and climate = =
Presque Isle is a recurved , sand spit that formed during the last glacial period , or ice age , when the Laurentide Ice Sheet advanced into the basin now occupied by Lake Erie , and , when it retreated to the north between 12 @,@ 370 BC and 12 @,@ 790 BC , left behind a moraine consisting of clay , sand , and gravel that initially formed the Presque Isle peninsula . The deposits are constantly being re @-@ worked by wave action and are gradually migrating to the northeast due to longshore drift .
The French term presqu 'île , the origin of the park 's name , means " peninsula " , or , literally , " almost an island " . Despite the name , Presque Isle has been an island for brief periods of time after it has been cut off from the mainland several times since 1819 — the longest stretch was from 1832 to 1864 . In the 1950s to combat erosion , the state and federal governments built sets of concrete seawalls and perpendicular groins . In 1992 , a series of 58 breakwaters were also constructed to have capture sand and significantly slowed its movement eastward . Even with the substantial engineering projects , sand has to be relocated from tombolos that form behind the breakwaters , and new sand has to be brought in annually to replenish the beaches .
Presque Isle protects the natural Presque Isle Bay , which creates a deep and wide harbor for the city of Erie . The bay is often filled with pleasure craft as well as cargo ships from all over the world that use the Great Lakes shipping port . Erie became an international port after the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in 1959 .
Owing to the parks location relative to Erie , its climate is similar to that of the city . Erie and the peninsula are located in a snow belt that stretches from Cleveland to Syracuse and Watertown ; accordingly , its winters are typically cold , with heavy lake @-@ effect snow , but also with occasional stretches of mild weather that cause accumulated snow to melt . The Erie region lies in the humid continental zone ( Köppen Dfa ) . Presque Isle 's lakeside location helps to temper summer heat , with an average of only 3 @.@ 8 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + highs annually , and the highest temperature ever recorded was 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on June 25 , 1988 ; there is an average of 2 @.@ 5 days with lows of 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) or colder annually , and the lowest temperature ever recorded was − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) on January 19 , 1994 and February 16 , 2015 . Ice dunes typically form along the beaches in the winter from snowfall and frozen spray , and normally reach a height over 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . The dunes protect the beaches from erosion during winter storms , and continue growing until the surface of Lake Erie freezes in the winter .
= = Flora , fauna , and habitat = =
= = = Ecological zones and succession = = =
According to the DCNR , because it has so " many unique habitats , Presque Isle contains a greater number of the state 's endangered , threatened and rare species than any other area of comparable size in Pennsylvania . " The DCNR recognizes seven different ecological zones within Presque Isle State Park , each with a different plant and animal community . These zones are : Lake Erie ; the beaches and shoreline ; sandy plain and ponds ; sand dunes and ridges ; marshes and old ponds ; heath and sub @-@ climax forest ; and the climax forest . Lake Erie , which surrounds the park , is the first zone and is home to 80 species of fish and at least six species of crustaceans .
The remaining ecological zones , with their progression from shoreline to climax forest , are a classic illustration of the concept of ecological succession . Much of this progression is due to the changing nature of Presque Isle and its shifting shoreline and dunes . The shoreline , the second zone , is formed by wave action and is in equilibrium between erosion and deposition , with the initial plants stabilizing the sand of the new shoreline . The newly formed sandy plain and the ponds formed in it are the third zone . The ponds start as trapped pockets of lake water and can erode away or be filled by wind @-@ blown sand or drifting dunes . The new ponds provide habitat for plants and animals : for example , the state park is home to 89 species of Odonata ( dragonflies and damselflies ) and Lepidoptera , including 35 different butterflies , as well as 84 different sorts of spiders .
Sand dunes and ridges are the fourth zone , formed when beach sand transported by wind and waves becomes trapped by vegetation . Dunes grow and are stabilized by grasses , followed by other types of vegetation . This provides habitat for amphibians , birds , mammals , and reptiles . Old dunes can become more permanent ridges , which shelter ponds . These dunes , ridges , and ponds are often remnants of previous shorelines ; at the Presque Isle State Park " Long Pond " just east of the marina , dunes and ridges mark the eastern shoreline from 1862 . The fifth ecological zone consists of old ponds and marshes . Ponds protected by dunes and ridges are more stable ; these old ponds support more plant and animal life , and as they fill with vegetation , they become marshes . Old ponds and marshes have high biodiversity . Nearly 400 species of terrestrial vertebrates live on Presque Isle , including 318 different birds , 48 kinds of mammals , 13 types of amphibians , and 19 reptile species .
The sixth and seventh ecological zones are characterized by their shrubs and trees , and Presque Isle State Park is home to 633 plant species ( 195 monocotyledons , 410 dicotyledons , 5 gymnosperms , 5 horsetails , 13 ferns , and 5 mosses ) . The sixth zone , thicket and sub @-@ climax forest , forms when shrubs grow on dying marshes , followed by small trees . The trees shade and thin out the thickets of shrubs , leading to a sub @-@ climax forest . The seventh and final stage is climax forest , where many large trees form a canopy . If left undisturbed , this ecological succession is believed to take between 500 and 600 years , although visitors to parts of Presque Isle State Park can walk through all of these zones in 5 miles ( 8 km ) .
The Pennsylvania Audubon Society has listed the park as Pennsylvania Important Bird Area ( IBA ) # 1 , and it considered one of the best birdwatching sites on Pennsylvania . The diversity of habitats on the peninsula makes it an ideal home for over 320 species of birds . ( For comparison , the United States has about 925 bird species . ) Forty @-@ five of the bird species found in the park are listed as " endangered " or " threatened " , including the piping plover , cerulean warbler , rusty blackbird and saltmarsh sharp @-@ tailed sparrow . Waterfowl and wading birds live at Presque Isle year round . Four species of gull and three species of tern can be seen at Gull Point during the summer months . The majority of collection during the annual Christmas Bird Count , which has been held in Erie County since 1956 , is garnered from observations made by volunteers within the park . Many different species of plants and animals can also be found at Presque Isle State Park due to the wide variety of ecological zones .
= = = Gull Point Natural Area = = =
Human beings have played a role in the ecology of Presque Isle since at least the Erielhonan . The natural drift of sand is hindered or stopped by breakwaters , permanent structures , and roads . Roads also do not absorb rainwater , causing erosion , and break up natural habitats . Excavations such as those to make the waterworks basins or the marina have destroyed habitats , but yearly artificial replenishment with sand helps to create new ones . One area within the park is closed to all public use from April to November to minimize the impact of humans : it is the easternmost part of the park , Gull Point .
Gull Point at Presque Isle State Park has been set aside as a Pennsylvania " State Park Natural Area " . These areas provide locations for scientific observation of natural systems ; they protect examples of natural interest and beauty as well as examples of unique and typical animal and plant habitats .
Gull Point covers 319 acres ( 129 ha ) , of which 67 acres ( 27 ha ) form the Natural Area and are closed to park visitors during the height of the bird migrations . The natural area is a safe haven and resting spot for migrating and nesting birds . Many of the species of birds that rest at Gull Point are not seen anywhere else in Pennsylvania . Presque Isle lies on the Atlantic Flyway , a major migratory path , and some of these birds migrate from as far north as the Arctic Circle to South America . They pass through in November on their long flights south and return in April on their flights north .
Erosion and deposition of sand , which has formed Gull Point , continues to change it . From May 1991 to October 2006 , Gull Point lost a total of 4 @.@ 6 acres ( 1 @.@ 9 ha ) , and if this trend continues , it may become an island . After the breakwaters were constructed in 1992 , less sand was added to replenish the beaches . Federal funding of sand replenishment has been cut off since 2005 , leading to further reduction in sand added to the peninsula . Without new sand , erosion has reduced the northern beaches of Gull Point , even while regions to the east and south have continued to grow at a slower rate , for a net yearly loss of 0 @.@ 4 acres ( 0 @.@ 2 ha ) .
= = Tom Ridge Environmental Center = =
The Tom Ridge Environmental Center ( TREC ) is the gateway to and administrative center for Presque Isle State Park , as well as housing interactive educational exhibits , a " Discovery Center " , classrooms , and research laboratories . The Center , which officially opened on May 26 , 2006 , is on 12 acres ( 5 ha ) just off Route 832 on a bluff overlooking Lake Erie . TREC is named for former Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge , " who grew up in Erie , worked at the park as a young man and provided funding for the center and numerous Presque Isle projects during his administration . "
Construction on the center began in 2002 , although the idea for such a center at Presque Isle was some 50 years old . The Presque Isle State Park headquarters began operating from TREC in 2005 , and it is also home to offices for the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection 's Great Lakes and Coastal Zone Management programs , the DCNR Recreation and Conservation program , as well as Presque Isle Audubon , Lake @-@ Erie Allegheny Earth Force , Pennsylvania Sea Grant , Presque Isle Partnership , and the Purple Martin Conservation Association . The Regional Science Consortium , " a collaborative , non @-@ profit organization that focuses on and coordinates educational and research projects for Lake Erie and the upper Ohio River Basin " , was organized in 2002 and is based at TREC . Its 32 member organizations include schools , school districts , colleges , universities , museums , state agencies , conservation groups , and private corporations from Pennsylvania , Ohio , and Ontario .
Facilities at the 65 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 000 m2 ) Tom Ridge Environmental Center include eight research laboratories ( including several large aquariums ) for the RSC , several classrooms , a " Discovery Center " for younger students to explore science hands @-@ on , interpretive exhibits highlighting local and regional flora and fauna , as well as the human history and culture of the area . The center also offers a large @-@ format movie theater , a smaller theater , gift shop , cafeteria , and a 75 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) tall observation tower that overlooks Lake Erie . The center was constructed as a " green " building and has received a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) rating from the United States Green Building Council . Besides supporting environmental research and education , the center is meant to " increase off @-@ season use " of the state park .
= = Recreation = =
In addition to the facilities at TREC , Presque Isle State Park provides opportunities for daytime recreational activity along the Lake Erie and Presque Isle Bay coastlines , as well as on its inland trails and lagoons . Boating , canoeing , fishing , and water skiing are common summer sports , while hiking , biking , inline skating , and bird watching are some of the inland activities . Ice fishing , ice boating , ice skating , and cross @-@ country skiing occupy winter visitors . Two of the beaches feature volleyball courts ; Beach 6 has 6 courts and Beach 11 has one . No admission fee is charged for the park or TREC .
Boats of nearly any variety are permitted on Lake Erie at Presque Isle State Park . Boats with internal combustion engines are prohibited in the interior lagoons , except for Grave Yard Pond , where a concession rents motor and pontoon boats , canoes , and kayaks for recreational use . The park also has a 500 @-@ slip marina , open to boats up to 42 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 13 m ) , and five boat launches . Boat tours provide views of the park , lake , bay , and Erie skyline . All boats must have a current registration from any state . Water conditions on Lake Erie can change with little notice , and boaters are asked to use caution .
Water skiing and scuba diving are permitted at Presque Isle State Park in designated waters of Lake Erie . Water skiing must take place in Presque Isle Bay or out on Lake Erie and is prohibited within 500 feet ( 150 m ) of the shore . Scuba divers must be certified and are required to register at the park office to obtain information on the waters that are open to diving .
Presque Isle State Park has two distinct fishing zones . Lake Erie is home to perch , trout , walleye , bass , and steelhead . Presque Isle Bay is the home of muskellunge , northern pike , crappie , smelt , as well as other fish that swim in from the lake . Trout fishing is also allowed in the two waterworks basins , which are stocked by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . Hunting is prohibited at Presque Isle State Park with the exception of controlled duck and goose hunting seasons in designated blinds .
Presque Isle State Park , which has 13 beaches , is home to the only surf swimming in Pennsylvania . Beaches are open from Memorial Day to Labor Day with swimming permitted when lifeguards are on duty from 10 : 00 EDT to 20 : 00 EDT . Extensive picnic facilities are available at most of the swimming areas .
= = Nearby state parks = =
The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Presque Isle State Park :
Erie Bluffs State Park ( Erie County )
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= Arp2 / 3 complex =
Arp2 / 3 complex is a seven @-@ subunit protein complex that plays a major role in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton . It is a major component of the actin cytoskeleton and is found in most actin cytoskeleton @-@ containing eukaryotic cells . Two of its subunits , the Actin @-@ Related Proteins ARP2 and ARP3 closely resemble the structure of monomeric actin and serve as nucleation sites for new actin filaments . The complex binds to the sides of existing ( " mother " ) filaments and initiates growth of a new ( " daughter " ) filament at a distinctive 70 degree angle from the mother . Branched actin networks are created as a result of this nucleation of new filaments . The regulation of rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton is important for processes like cell locomotion , phagocytosis , and intracellular motility of lipid vesicles .
The Arp2 / 3 complex was named after it was identified by affinity chromatography from Acanthamoeba castellanii , though it had been previously isolated in 1989 in a search for proteins that bind to actin filaments in Drosophila melanogaster embryos . It is found in most eukaryotic organisms , but absent from a number of Chromalveolates and plants .
= = Mechanisms of actin polymerization by Arp2 / 3 = =
Many actin @-@ related molecules create a free barbed end for polymerization by uncapping or severing pre @-@ existing filaments and using these as actin nucleation cores . However , the Arp2 / 3 complex stimulates actin polymerization by creating a new nucleation core . Actin nucleation is an initial step in the formation of an actin filament . The nucleation core activity of Arp2 / 3 is activated by members of the Wiskott @-@ Aldrich syndrome family protein ( WASP , N @-@ WASP , WAVE , and WASH proteins ) . The V domain of a WASP protein interacts with actin monomers while the CA region associates with the Arp2 / 3 complex to create a nucleation core . However , de novo nucleation followed by polymerization is not sufficient to form integrated actin networks , since these newly synthesized polymers would not be associated with pre @-@ existing filaments . Thus , the Arp2 / 3 complex binds to pre @-@ existing filaments so that the new filaments can grow on the old ones and form a functional actin cytoskeleton . Capping proteins limit actin polymerization to the region activated by the Arp2 / 3 complex , and the elongated filament ends are recapped to prevent depolymerization and thus conserve the actin filament .
The Arp2 / 3 complex simultaneously controls nucleation of actin polymerization and branching of filaments . Moreover , autocatalysis is observed during Arp2 / 3 @-@ mediated actin polymerization . In this process , the newly formed filaments activate other Arp2 / 3 complexes , facilitating the formation of branched filaments .
The mechanism of actin filament initiation by Arp2 / 3 has been disputed . The question is where the complex binds the filament and nucleates a " daughter " filament . Historically two models have been proposed . Recent results , and the balance of opinion in the field , favour the side branching model , in which the Arp2 / 3 complex binds to the side of a pre @-@ existing ( " mother " ) filament at a point different from the nucleation site . Although the field lacks a high @-@ resolution crystal structure , data from electron microscopy , together with biochemical data on the filament nucleation and capping mechanisms of the Arp2 / 3 complex , favour side branching . In the alternative barbed end branching model , Arp2 / 3 only associates at the barbed end of growing filaments , allowing for the elongation of the original filament and the formation of a branched filament . This model , which is based on kinetic analysis and optical microscopy , is decreasingly favoured by the field .
= = Cellular uses of Arp2 / 3 = =
The Arp2 / 3 complex appears to be important in a variety of specialized cell functions that involve the actin cytoskeleton . The complex is found in cellular regions characterized by dynamic actin filament activity : in macropinocytic cups , in the leading edge of motile cells ( lamellipodia ) , and in motile actin patches in yeast . In mammals and the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum it is required for phagocytosis . The complex has also been shown to be involved in the establishment of cell polarity and the migration of fibroblast monolayers in a wound @-@ healing model . In mammalian oocytes , the Arp2 / 3 complex is involved in oocyte asymmetric division and polar body emission , which result from the failure of spindle migration ( a unique feature of oocyte division ) and cytokinesis . Moreover , enteropathogenic organisms like Listeria monocytogenes and Shigella use the Arp2 / 3 complex for actin @-@ polymerization- dependent rocketing movements . The Arp2 / 3 complex also regulates the intracellular motility of endosomes , lysosomes , pinocytic vesicles , and mitochondria . Moreover , recent studies show that the Arp2 / 3 complex is essential for proper polar cell expansion in plants . Arp2 / 3 mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana result in abnormal filament organization , which in turn affects the expansion of trichomes , pavement cells , hypocotyl cells , and root hair cells .
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= Bridge near Limyra =
The Bridge near Limyra ( in Turkish : Kırkgöz Kemeri , " Bridge of the Forty Arches " ) is a late Roman bridge in Lycia , in modern south @-@ west Turkey , and one of the oldest segmented arch bridges in the world . Located near the ancient city of Limyra , it is the largest civil engineering structure of antiquity in the region , spanning the Alakır Çayı river over a length of 360 m ( 1 @,@ 181 @.@ 1 ft ) on 26 segmental arches . These arches , with a span @-@ to @-@ rise ratio of 5 @.@ 3 : 1 , give the bridge an unusually flat profile , and were unsurpassed as an architectural achievement until the late Middle Ages . Today , the structure is largely buried by river sediments and surrounded by greenhouses . Despite its unique features , the bridge remains relatively unknown , and only in the 1970s did researchers from the Istanbul branch of the German Archaeological Institute carry out field examinations on the site .
= = Field examinations = =
No information on the bridge survives from ancient sources . The first descriptions appear in European travellers ' accounts from the 19th century . The British archaeologist Charles Fellows was the first to explore the region of Lycia , and visited the bridge in May 1840 . Fellows , as well as T.A.B. Spratt and Edward Forbes , who visited the site two years later , describe it as having 25 arches . In 1882 , an Austrian expedition , including Otto Benndorf , interpreted the structure as part of an ancient road that connected Limyra with the city of Attaleia ( modern Antalya ) to the east . However , this mission failed to produce any plans or sketches of the site .
The first , and as of 2008 only scientific examination of the bridge was undertaken by the German archaeologists Wolfgang W. Wurster and Joachim Ganzert in two successive days in September 1973 , and completed through further visits in subsequent years . Their findings were published in 1978 in the Archäologischer Anzeiger journal of the German Archaeological Institute , with the express intent of bringing the imperiled state of the hitherto almost intact bridge into the spotlight :
Recently , citrus fruit plantations were created in this fertile bottomland ; greenhouses for early vegetables are now being built east of the bridge . The bridge is greatly endangered through the beginning of intensive cultivation in the vicinity . The locals strip the still intact bridge surface for stones ; bulldozers employed to build irrigation canals rip the structure apart and crush the stone pavement with their caterpillar tracks .
In 1993 , the civil engineer Colin O 'Connor summarized their report in his English @-@ language monograph on Roman bridges , and also emphasized the exceptional character of this bridge . No further scientific examinations of the Limyra Bridge are known .
= = Location and situation = =
The bridge crosses the Alakır Çayı stream , whose ancient name is unknown , 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) east of the ruins of Limyra ( distance measured from the city 's theatre ) and 3 @.@ 8 km ( 2 @.@ 4 mi ) north of the modern coastline , close to the modern road from Turunçova to Kumluca . The local topography is dominated by the foothills of the Toçak Dağı mountains , which blend here with the alluvial bottomlands of the Bay of Finike . In this transitional area , the bridge was built immediately above the point where the narrow river valley opens into the wide estuary plain , and where the crossing of the river during the rain period would be obstructed by high water . While the eastern end of the bridge levels off at the gravel plain , the western end abuts directly to the rising rock wall of the mountain , presumably for protection against floods . The resulting sharp bend in the course of the road could also be exploited in case of need to block the road . A modern dam , Alakır Barajı , was constructed upstream for irrigation purposes and flood protection .
Lycia did not , in contrast to other Roman provinces , possess a very developed road system . While the north – south traffic was conducted primarily through the few river valleys , the east – west routes led , unlike today , mostly on and along the mountain ridges . This particular road , leading from Limyra over the Alakır Çayı and into the neighbouring region of Pamphylia and Attaleia , must have been of special importance , since the two regions were united in a single province , Lycia et Pamphylia , until the 4th century . In comparison to the main arterial roads of the Roman Empire however , the roads of Lycia were , with 3 – 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) width , rather modest and confined to pedestrian and pack animal traffic . This is further corroborated by the fact that no wagon ruts are evident on the paving of the Limyra bridge , nor any traces of a parapet or breastwork .
= = Construction = =
With a length of 360 m ( 1 @,@ 181 @.@ 1 ft ) , the Limyra Bridge qualifies as the largest surviving engineering achievement of antiquity in Lycia . The bridge stands on 26 uniform segmental arches consisting of a double , radially laid course of bricks . At the eastern end , the original 27th arch has been replaced by two smaller , semicircular arches of later construction . The latter are built with a single course of bricks . Traces of the original , flat beginning of the collapsed arch are still visible on the piers .
At the time of Wurster 's and Ganzert 's visit to the site , the entire bridge was buried by river sediments up to the springing line of the vaults . No efforts to dig them up were undertaken by Wurster and Ganzert . Only two of the 28 arches were exposed enough so that direct measurements of the clear span and the pier width could be undertaken . It was , however , possible to calculate the dimensions of the remaining bays from their exposed sections .
= = = Architecture = = =
= = = = Arches and piers = = = =
The spans of the arches ranged from 11 @.@ 60 m ( 38 @.@ 1 ft ) to 14 @.@ 97 m ( 49 @.@ 1 ft ) ( arches 2 and 26 respectively ) . Based on the size of the spans , one can distinguish four groups , with the following median values :
11 @.@ 60 – 12 @.@ 30 m ( 38 @.@ 1 – 40 @.@ 4 ft ) for four arches ( Nos. 2 , 3 , 7 , 21 )
12 @.@ 75 m ( 41 @.@ 8 ft ) for fourteen arches ( Nos. 5 , 9 – 15 , 17 – 19 , 22 – 24 )
13 @.@ 10 m ( 43 @.@ 0 ft ) for four arches ( Nos. 1 , 4 , 6 , 8 )
13 @.@ 60 m ( 44 @.@ 6 ft ) for three arches ( Nos. 16 , 20 , 25 )
The reason for this grouping is unclear ; they certainly cannot be attributed to an attempt to match the lay of the river bed . The differences however could point to the repeated use of differently @-@ sized falsework structures in the construction of the barrel vaults ( see animation below ) .
Only in a single case , between arches 26 and 27 , were Wurster and Ganzert able to determine the breadth of a pier : 2 @.@ 10 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) . Subtracting this value from the common arch span of 12 @.@ 75 m ( 41 @.@ 8 ft ) , a clear span of 10 @.@ 65 m ( 34 @.@ 9 ft ) remains . Since all arches have a rise of ca . 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , the Limyra Bridge has an unusually large span @-@ to @-@ rise ratio of 5 @.@ 3 to 1 . Such flattened arches were very rare at the time for stone bridges , and were not matched and surpassed until the reappearance of segmental arch bridges in 14th century Italy . For the largest arch in the Limyra Bridge , the ratio is even greater , spanning a width 6 @.@ 4 times its height . The two later arches , in contrast , are , with a ratio of 2 @.@ 7 : 1 , quite ordinary semi @-@ circular arches .
= = = = Height = = = =
The total height of the bridge could not be determined because most of the structure is silted up . However , the distance between the arches ' abutments and the pavement surface could be determined at only 3 @.@ 25 m ( 10 @.@ 7 ft ) .
The surface level is almost horizontal : the roadway lies at a height of 20 @.@ 05 – 20 @.@ 55 m ( 65 @.@ 8 – 67 @.@ 4 ft ) above sea level between arches 1 to 20 , and falls slightly in its eastern section , between arches 21 and 26 to a level of 19 @.@ 94 to 19 @.@ 66 m ( 65 @.@ 4 to 64 @.@ 5 ft ) . Since there is no indication of a later sinking of the structure , this nearly uniform height indicates careful levelling and the existence of solid pier foundations . In contrast , the lengthwise axis of the bridge displays often significant deviations from arch to arch .
= = = = Statics = = = =
Remarkably , the support line of the structure 's dead load is almost identical with the curve of the vault arch . The statical analysis of the bridge proves the structure 's great load capacity :
In modern classification , the bridge would be able to support loads of a Class 30 bridge ( per DIN 1072 ) ; this would mean , that it could support a 30 @-@ tonne vehicle on one arch and additionally on the remaining surface of the arch a load of 500 kp / m ² . The bridge was thus very safe for ancient traffic .
= = = Materials = = =
The Limyra bridge was built in a composite manner of brick , stonemasonry , and rubble .
= = = = Arches = = = =
The bricks of the segmental arches are made of yellow @-@ red clay , mixed with fine brick fragments . The bricks are rectangular plates , measuring ca . 40 cm × 50 cm ( 15 @.@ 7 in × 19 @.@ 7 in ) and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . They are placed with the shorter side upright facing outwards , so that the total thickness of the arches measures ca . 80 cm . The bricks are bound with grout of lime mortar mixed with brick shards and fine gravel , forming 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) -thick joints . The two later semi @-@ circular arches were built with smaller bricks , although surviving bricks from the original arch were re @-@ used at places . The abutment stones are dressed limestone ashlar blocks , and form a sloping surface to support the arches .
The double @-@ layer technique facilitated a more effective use of the falsework , since they could be removed and used elsewhere as soon as the lower course was finished :
The construction of the two layers of the double brick @-@ arches in two separate phases had two advantages . In the first phase , the falsework only had to carry the weight of the lower course , so that it could itself be of lighter construction . In the second phase , the weight of the upper layer could be already borne by the lower vault ; the falsework was thus already available for use in a different arch .
= = = = Superstructure = = = =
As far as can be determined , between arches 2 to 21 , the outer facing of the superstructure consists of four layers of brick , followed by layers of rough stonemasonry bound with mortar . In contrast , between arches 22 and 26 , as well as in both ramps on either end , the facing consists of ashlar blocks . The two repaired arches 27a and 27b are differentiated from the earlier work through the use of smaller unworked stones and the incorporation of irregularly placed brick tiles . In arch 26 , the lower side of the arch still features a projecting bearing used for the placement of the falsework .
The interior of the superstructure consists of a combination of unworked masonry blocks and large river boulders , bound with lime mortar .
= = = = Pavement = = = =
The bridge surface is located only 30 – 40 cm ( 11 @.@ 8 – 15 @.@ 7 in ) over the arches ' apex , is 3 @.@ 55 – 3 @.@ 70 m ( 11 @.@ 6 – 12 @.@ 1 ft ) wide , increasing towards either end at 4 @.@ 30 m ( 14 @.@ 1 ft ) and projects ca . 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) over the superstructure on either side . It is paved with large and irregular limestone cobblestones , although smaller pebbles have been used in the repairs at the two semicircular arches .
= = Dating = =
The exact chronological placement of the Limyra bridge is difficult due to its unique place within Roman engineering tradition and the lack of comparable structures . Wurster and Ganzert used following characteristics as a starting point :
multiple arches of same width , and horizontal deck level with only small @-@ gradient ramps on either end
very flat segmental arches built with double , radially layered brick courses
the use of mortar in the stonework
exterior facing primarily rough masonry with interspersed bricks , partly dressed ashlar blocks
exceptionally large paving stones .
In contrast to these , most Roman stone bridges were faced with ashlar and rested on voussoir arches , a method which is dominant in other vaulted structures in Lycia too . Compared to the massive and tall semicircular @-@ arched bridges that are typical of Roman architecture , the Limyra bridge , with its flat segmented arches , offers a markedly lower and more elongated appearance , so that Wurster and Ganzert offer a " provisional " late dating , approximately during the reign of emperor Justinian I in the 6th century , during which the use of mixed brick and stone is attested in other structures of the region .
On the other hand , this mixed technique is already present in the 3rd @-@ century AD aqueduct of Aspendos , and the Romans certainly knew how to build segmented @-@ arched bridges , as attested by surviving examples , three of which are listed by Wurster and Ganzert themselves . An earlier construction date in the 2nd or 3rd centuries AD cannot therefore be excluded . The case for an earlier construction date has been strengthened in recent years with the discovery of further seven Roman segmented arch bridges . The remnants of the nearby Kemer Bridge over the river Xanthos , which dates to the 3rd century and has some architectural similarities with the Limyra bridge , could further reinforce that case .
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= Hard ( Rihanna song ) =
" Hard " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . The song was written by Terius Nash , Christopher Stewart , Rihanna , and Jeezy , with vocals performed by the latter two . Nash and Stewart produced it under their stage names , The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart . " Hard " was sent to radio by Def Jam Recordings on November 10 , 2009 , as the second United States single from Rated R. It is a hip hop song and features military horns , hissing synthesizers , sharp beats and piano chords . Upon its release , it received critical acclaim , with critics praising Rihanna 's vocal performance and Jeezy 's collaboration .
The song became Rihanna 's thirteenth top ten hit on the US Billboard Hot 100 , matching Beyoncé as the female artist with the most US top ten songs since 2000 . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . An accompanying music video , directed by Melina Matsoukas , was filmed in Los Angeles in December 2009 . In the video , Rihanna commands an army while clothed in stylized military costumes . Critics praised the video and noted a difference from her previous clips . After the video premiere , the song charted in Canada , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . Rihanna performed " Hard " at Jay @-@ Z 's concert at UCLA Pauley Pavilion and at the 2009 American Music Awards . The song was also included on the set lists of the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) and the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
In an interview with MTV News , producer Mikkel S. Eriksen of Stargate initially confirmed " Wait Your Turn " as the second single from Rated R ; however , " Hard " was ultimately chosen instead . Hard ( The Remixes ) was made available for digital download on January 19 , 2010 in the United States . In an interview with MTV , Rihanna explained that while she was in Paris , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and The @-@ Dream played a few songs for her , which included " Hard " . Rihanna decided to record the song because it was different from her normal creative output . Stewart , in an interview with Rap @-@ Up , spoke about the song before its title or any details were released , describing the song as " edgy " and a " club banger " . When asked if the song was bigger than Rihanna 's commercially successful song " Umbrella " , he said , " No , it 's different . It 's a superstar taking a step in a totally different direction . " " Hard " is the first song for which Jeezy was credited thus , instead of under his enduring stage name " Young Jeezy " .
" Hard " incorporates musical elements of hip hop and is four minutes and ten seconds long . It features militant horns , hissing synths , sharp beats and piano notes . It is written in the key of B minor and set in common time with a pop and R & B groove and a tempo of 91 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song ranges from the low note of G3 to the high note of B4 . As noted by Ailbhe Malone of NME , Rihanna adopts Jay @-@ Z 's vocal style in the lyric , " Brilliant , resilient , fan mail from 27 million . " " Hard " is a song about emulating power and strength , and how Rihanna assumes a role of being the best at what she does . Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media wrote that the song is " a strutting statement of power " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Hard " received acclaim from music critics . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that Rihanna lashes out on the song , with " help from an even harder @-@ edged MC , Young Jeezy . " Monica Herrerra of Billboard magazine wrote : " Rihanna effectively assumes the hip @-@ hop posture and even recruits the ultimate street cred booster in rapper Young Jeezy , who provides the thrust needed to send a song with a somewhat inert chorus home " . Herrerra continued , " Though ' Hard ' doesn 't find Rihanna in her typical comfort zone , the atypical is precisely what she has aimed for with her new material — and it works " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called " Hard " and " Rude Boy " the highlights of Rated R , and wrote , " both of which exploit Rihanna 's most appealing vocal style , a sulky , icy , monotone " . Petridis also noted that the song " undercuts the standard braggathon of Hard — ' fan mail from 27 million ' " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly commented on Rihanna 's vocal style and the persona she adopts in the song . Greenblatt wrote , " Rihanna dons hip @-@ hop swagger like borrowed armor , leaning heavily on her Caribbean accent and unleashing a string of baddest @-@ bitch boasts via dancehall @-@ riddim 'd bangers like ' Hard , ' ' G4L , ' and ' Wait Your Turn ' " . Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media wrote , " the bulletproof guise is good for the record 's high point on ' Hard ' , a strutting statement of power bolstered by a roiling undertow of a beat from ' Umbrella ' producer Tricky Stewart . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Hard " peaked at No. 8 on January 30 , 2010 . It became Rihanna 's thirteenth US top ten Hot 100 single , and Rihanna equaled Beyoncé as the female artist with the most US top ten hit singles since 2000 . The song reached No. 1 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart on March 6 , 2010 , reached No. 9 on the US Pop Songs , and No. 14 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Hard " was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales of over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
Although the single was not released internationally , it charted in several countries after the release of the music video . In Canada , it peaked for one week at No. 9 on February 6 , 2010 . In New Zealand , it debuted at No. 40 on January 11 , 2010 and peaked at No. 15 in its fifth week , and it stayed in the top twenty for a further two weeks . " Hard " debuted and peaked at No. 26 on the Swedish Singles Charton January 22 , 2010 . It dropped off the chart for a week , but re @-@ entered at No. 55 . In the United Kingdom , " Hard " debuted at No. 46 on the UK R & B Chart on January 16 , 2010 , peaking at No. 17 on January 23 , 2010 . The same day , the song debuted at No. 55 on the UK Singles Chart , and peaked at No. 42 the following week . " Hard " spent another six weeks on the chart , descending to No. 100 on February 24 , 2010 and leaving the chart on March 3 , 2010 . It re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 64 on August 28 , 2010 , and fell to No. 89 the following week . In total , it spent ten non @-@ consecutive weeks on the UK singles chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Hard " was directed by Melina Matsoukas and released in December 2009 . It was the first Rihanna video directed by Matsoukas , who would go on to direct videos for " Rude Boy " and " Rockstar 101 " . Before the premiere of the video , Rihanna told Kyle Anderson of MTV News : " It 's couture @-@ military . Everything is surrounded by the whole idea of something military . We have tanks , we have troops , we 've got helicopters , we 've got explosions . [ ... ] Tight gear , lots of cute outfits , lots of bullets . Crazy . "
The video 's first scene is set in a desert at night . Rihanna , wearing a garrison cap , sunglasses , and a stylized white top , stands in front of an army . This scene is intercut with scenes of Rihanna in a bunker ; she wears an army hard hat , pink lace up boots , and a skin @-@ colored top with small black rectangles covering her breasts . Half way through the first verse , the scene changes to a daytime desert scene in which Rihanna wears a low cut , short black dress with spiked shoulder pads , and walks through the location as small explosions occur around her .
As the first chorus begins , earlier scenes from the video are intercut with each other ; Rihanna is shown commanding her troops , firing a machine gun , and dancing in the bunker . As the second verse begins , Rihanna is seen with slicked @-@ back hair wearing a metal bikini top , rolling in mud and surrounded by troops on a stone structure before a mountainous backdrop . She is shown gambling with ( and winning against ) soldiers in another bunker .
As the second chorus starts , Rihanna , wearing a bullet bra and a helmet similar in appearance to the ears of Mickey Mouse , stands on a pink army tank . During Jeezy 's rap verse , Jeezy is seen in the middle of a crosshair , and explosions occur around Rihanna . During the bridge and final chorus of the song , scenes of Rihanna from throughout the video are intercut with each other . In this sequence , Rihanna wears a high @-@ waisted black bikini and waves a large black flag with a white " R " in the middle of it .
= = = Reception = = =
Peter Gaston of Spin wrote that the video for " Hard " resembles " Janet Jackson 's ' Rhythm Nation ' meets Christina Aguilera 's ' Dirrty ' phase — Rihanna vamps in dimly lit outposts , dodges explosions in the desert , and , quite enticingly , takes a break from boot camp to smother herself with mud . Morale @-@ boosting , indeed ! " James Dinh of MTV News showed the video , on a small player , to fans in Times Square in New York City to ask their opinions . Most said she looked " sexy " in the video , and agreed that it was different from previous videos and shows where she came from and where she is going in her personal life . Bill Lamb of About.com wrote , " I must confess that I do fail to understand the point of Rihanna humping the gun turret of a pink tank dressed in Mickey Mouse ears . It seems pains were taken to make the setting look like Afghanistan or Iraq with the other actors looking as close to real military personnel as possible . " Lamb criticized the video 's lack of sensitivity and respect for using an army and weapons of destruction to glamorize war , saying , " Does Def Jam , Rihanna 's label , need to be reminded that this comes on the heels of sadly sending off an additional 30 @,@ 000 troops from our country to real war ? In my mind this is one of the most tasteless , offensive moves by a major pop artist in recent memory . "
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna performed " Hard " live for the first time on November 8 , 2009 at Jay @-@ Z 's concert at UCLA Pauley Pavilion . To promote Rated R in the UK , Rihanna performed the song with Jeezy at the launch of the Nokia X6 smartphone at Brixton Academy in London . Other songs on the set list were " Russian Roulette " and " Wait Your Turn " from Rated R , and " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Take a Bow " , " Disturbia " , and " Umbrella " ( with Jay @-@ Z ) .
Rihanna performed " Hard " live at the 2009 American Music Awards on November 22 , 2009 , at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles , California , as part of a medley with " Wait Your Turn " . Gil Kaufman of MTV wrote that Rihanna was wearing a " skintight white catsuit bisected by cut @-@ out lines that revealed horizontal lines of skin across her body , spiked shoulder pads , white studded cuffs and a barbed @-@ wire bracelet snaking up her right forearm " . The performance started with a science fiction themed video clip , which featured robots performing a surgical operation on Rihanna . After finishing " Wait Your Turn , " Rihanna began singing " Hard " ; red lasers were shone across the stage and audience , and red tracer beams shone from Rihanna 's spiked shoulder pads . On December 5 , 2010 , Rihanna made her Saturday Night Live debut performance , singing " Russian Roulette " and " Hard " , with Jeezy accompanying her performance of the latter . Rihanna also sang " Hard " on BET 's 106 & Park on December 10 , 2009 , and on NBC 's " New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly 2010 " .
To promote the single 's release in the US , Rihanna appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on February 1 , 2010 , where she sang " Hard " and " Don 't Stop the Music " . The following day , Rihanna recorded some video performances of her songs for AOL Music Sessions , which were made available to watch on AOL 's website on February 23 , 2010 . The set included Rihanna 's singles " Russian Roulette " , " Hard " , " Take a Bow " , and a stripped down version of " Disturbia " . On February 4 , 2010 , she performed " Hard " at the Super Bowl Fan Jam on VH1 , sharing billing with Timbaland and Justin Bieber .
On March 27 , 2010 , Rihanna performed the song as part of a medley with " Rude Boy " and " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 2010 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards at UCLA 's Pauley Pavilion in Westwood , California . The performance featured a large camouflage tank and two robots , similar to those used for Rihanna 's performance at the ECHO Awards , where she performed " Rude Boy . " Rihanna performed " Hard " at Radio 1 's Big Weekend 2010 on May 23 , 2010 in Bangor , Wales , where she also performed " Madhouse " , " Disturbia " , " Rude Boy " , " Te Amo " , " Russian Roulette " , " Don 't Stop the Music , " SOS " , and " Umbrella " . Rihanna wore a reggae @-@ inspired leather playsuit with red , green and yellow stripes . " Hard " was included on the set list of Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth and Loud tours . Rihanna performed " Hard " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the twelfth song on the set list . The performance featured a giant sphinx on the stage .
= = Format and track listing = =
The Remixes – Digital EP
" Hard " ( Jump Smokers Radio Edit ) – 3 : 10
" Hard " ( Chew Fu Granite Fix Radio Edit ) – 3 : 43
" Hard " ( Jody den Broeder Radio Edit ) – 3 : 30
" Hard " ( Jump Smokers Extended ) – 3 : 36
" Hard " ( Chew Fu Granite Fix Extended ) – 5 : 27
" Hard " ( Jody den Broeder Club Remix ) – 6 : 43
" Hard " ( Jody den Broeder Dub ) – 6 : 45
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R.
Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Robyn " Rihanna " Fenty and Jay Jenkins – Songwriting
Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash – Production
Ross Parkin – Assistant recorder
Makeba Riddick – Vocal production
Marcos Tovar , Brian " B @-@ LUV " Thomas , Andrew Wuepper , Chris " TEK " O 'Ryan and Pat Thrall for Rihanna . – Engineer
Cédric Culnaërt , Sébastien Salis , Luis Navarro , Tyler Van Dalen , Jason Sherwood and Steven Dennis – Assistant Engineer
Jaycen Joshua at Penua Project at Larrabee Studios , Universal City , California , United States – Mixing
Giancarlo Lino – Assistant mixer
Monte Neuble – Additional keys
Studios Devout , Paris , France ; The Boom Boom Room , Burbank , California , United States ; Legacy Recording Studios , New York City , New York , United States and Triangle Sound Studios , Atlanta , Georgia , United States . – Recording
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Mork Goes Erk =
" Mork Goes Erk " is the seventeenth episode of the first season of Mork & Mindy . The episode first premiered on ABC on February 8 , 1979 . " Mork Goes Erk " was later released on VHS on January 1 , 1998 as part of a two @-@ episode special which also included " Mork 's First Christmas , " and on DVD on September 7 , 2004 as part of the " Mork & Mindy - The Complete First Season " DVD boxed set .
In the episode , David Letterman portrayed a self @-@ help group leader by the name of " Ellsworth " offering ERK or Ellsworth Revitalization Konditioning . Mork ( Robin Williams ) and Mindy ( Pam Dawber ) attend one of Ellsworth 's trainings at the suggestion of their friend Susan ( Morgan Fairchild ) , where they endure Ellsworth 's authoritarian brand of group therapy . Mork points out hypocrisy in Ellsworth 's teachings , and exposes him as a fraud . The episode has been called a parody of the Erhard Seminars Training or " est " course . The episode received mostly positive reviews , and was highlighted as one of the season 's best episodes , along with " Mork 's First Christmas " and " Mork 's Mixed Emotions " . David Letterman 's performance as " Ellsworth " also received good reviews .
= = Plot = =
At the beginning of the episode , Mork , Mindy and Bickley ( Tom Poston ) are all sitting around feeling depressed . Mindy has just learned that Mork 's supervisor Orson has arranged for Mork to be transferred to another planet , and Bickley is suffering from writer 's block . Their friend Susan comes by to visit , and suggests that they all go and attend a seminar on Ellsworth 's Revitalization Konditioning . As the guests arrive at the seminar , Ellsworth nervously asks Susan if all of the attendants ' checks are in order . He then lays out the rules for the duration of the training , which includes no leaving and no consumption of alcohol . When Bickley hears this , he promptly gets up to leave the seminar .
The attendants of the seminar are then given Ellsworth 's harsh version of reality , which has been compared to the tenets of Erhard Seminars Training . Ellsworth preaches a belief in self @-@ adoration , which he says will get rid of emotional highs and lows . Ellsworth centers this goal around the notion of " finding our own space . " He utilizes an authoritarian style of control within the group , as a therapeutic method to solve problems . The other attendees at the seminar are shown to be passive consumers looking for any way to fix their personal issues . However , Mork , with his trademark causing of difficulty , begins to question the foundation of the rules of the course , as well as the nature of the philosophical material that Ellsworth has put forth , by pointing out hypocrisy among Ellsworth 's own contradictory statements . In the end , Mork wins out over the Ellsworth philosophy by instead calling to mind universal humanistic moral values . Ellsworth dismisses Mork 's victory over his methodology , exclaiming : " I 've got my Rolls @-@ Royce ! " Mork wins a moral victory @-@ and Ellworth , it turns out , has had his Rolls @-@ Royce stolen .
= = Cultural references = =
In a 1982 article in the journal Theory & Society , Lewis & Clark College sociology professor Robert Goldman compared and contrasted Letterman 's " Ellsworth " character and his training program to that of Werner Erhard 's course Erhard Seminars Training . Goldman noted that the episode spent time : " lampooning Werner Erhard and est @-@ like commercial pop psychologies . " However , Goldman went on to note that the inherent problem with " Ellsworth Revitalization Konditioning " was not the training - but Ellsworth himself .
Ellsworth is seen as a parody of consumerism : " As the self @-@ help entrepreneur , Ellsworth is portrayed as a walking collection of lifestyle @-@ status points and sign @-@ values ... Conspicuous consumption and commodity fetishism define his personality . " Goldman explained that the Mork and Mindy episode succeeded in distinguishing between criticism of the Ellsworth training , and criticism of Ellsworth , citing Ellsworth 's character traits of : " tyranny , selfishness , open greed , and flaunting of the accoutrements of his vulgar money @-@ making . "
= = Reception = =
TV Guide 's 2005 book TV Guide : The Ultimate Resource to Television Programs on DVD highlighted " Mork Goes Erk " as one of three " Classic Episodes " of the first season , including " Mork 's First Christmas " , and " Mork 's Mixed Emotions " . Matthew Tobey of Allmovie wrote that the episode was most notable because of David Letterman 's appearance before he became more well known . Donald Liebenson of Amazon.com also cited David Letterman 's performance as : " an abusive EST @-@ like guru " as one of the more memorable parts of the Season One DVD boxed set , but thought that the highlight of the season was the episode " Mork 's Mixed Emotions . " The Dallas Morning News also praised Letterman 's performance as a " shady motivational speaker , " commenting that the episode was a way for Letterman to hone his " smarminess " before his later work on Late Show with David Letterman . Jonathan Boudreaux of tvdvdreviews.com described Letterman as " a flakey EST @-@ like guru , " and called the episode itself " disjointed . "
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= Fever ( Kylie Minogue album ) =
Fever is the eighth studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue , released on 1 October 2001 in Australia and the United Kingdom by Parlophone . The album was later released in the United States on 26 February 2002 and was Minogue 's first album release in the region since her second studio album Enjoy Yourself ( 1989 ) . Minogue worked with writers and producers such as Cathy Dennis , Rob Davis , Richard Stannard , Julian Gallagher , TommyD , Tom Nichols , Pascal Gabriel and others to create the disco and Europop @-@ influenced dance @-@ pop album . Other musical influences of the album range from synthpop to club music .
Four singles were released from the album . Its lead single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was released in September 2001 and became a massive commercial success , peaking atop the charts of 40 countries and selling more than five million copies worldwide . The song , which is often recognised as Minogue 's signature song , is her highest selling single as of today and one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . Follow @-@ up singles " In Your Eyes " and " Love at First Sight " also performed well on charts internationally . The last single " Come into My World " won Minogue a Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in 2004 , and stands as her only Grammy Award @-@ winning song to date . All four singles charted within the top 10 in Australia and the United Kingdom , with " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " peaking at number one in both countries . In order to promote the album , Minogue embarked on the KylieFever2002 tour .
Upon its release , Fever received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised its production and commercial nature . Likewise , the album was a commercial success , peaking at number one on the charts of countries like Australia , Austria , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the album peaked at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , becoming Minogue 's biggest hit in the country . The album was certified seven @-@ times platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , five @-@ times platinum in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Fever won the Brit Award for " Best International Album " at the 2002 awards show ceremony . In Australia , Fever was the thirteenth best selling album of the decade . Fever has sold over six million copies worldwide and is Minogue 's highest selling album .
= = Background and production = =
In 1998 , Minogue was dropped from her label Deconstruction following the poor commercial performance of her sixth studio album Impossible Princess . She instead signed on to Parlophone and released her seventh studio album Light Years . The disco and Europop inspired album was a critical and commercial success , and was later certified four times @-@ platinum in Minogue 's native country Australia for shipment of 280 @,@ 000 units , and platinum in the United Kingdom for shipment of 300 @,@ 000 units . " Spinning Around " was released as the lead single off the album and was a commercial success , attaining a platinum certification in Australia for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 units , and a silver certification in the United Kingdom for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 units . She promoted the album by embarking on the On a Night Like This tour .
Soon after , Minogue began work on her eighth studio album Fever . On the album , she collaborated with producers and writers such as British singer @-@ songwriter Cathy Dennis , who co @-@ wrote two songs out of the three she co @-@ produced , Rob Davis , who co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote three songs , and Richard Stannard and Julian Gallagher , who co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote three songs . In the vein of Light Years , Fever is a disco and dance @-@ pop album that contains elements of adult contemporary and club music . The recording of the album took place at studios such as the Biffco Studios in Dublin , Hutch Studios in Chicago , Olympic Studios in London and Stella Studios .
= = Musical styles and lyrical content = =
Fever is primarily a dance @-@ pop album , with prominent elements of 1970s @-@ influenced disco and Europop . Jacqueline Hodges from BBC Music wrote that the album is not " pure pop " , and is rather characterized by a more adventurous dance @-@ oriented sound . NME critic Alex Needham identified a " filter disco effect " , described as " the one that sounds like you 've gone under water and then ecstatically come up for air , " working on various songs on the album . Needham saw Fever as an " update " from the " frothy disco " of Light Years . Songs like the opening track " More More More " and closing track " Burning Up " are examples of the disco @-@ influenced production of the album . The former is an uptempo song with a " funky " bassline , while the latter was described as a " slow burn " disco song . Teen pop elements appear on songs like " Love at First Sight " , which begins with an electric piano intro , and the " aggressive " " Give It to Me " . The lead single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " is a " robotic " midtempo dance and nu @-@ disco song . Many critics felt that various songs on the album , particularly " Come into My World " , are similar to " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " . The title track and " Dancefloor " draw influences from synthpop and club music , respectively . " In Your Eyes " contains hints of techno and disco music . Minor influences of ambient music surface on the " atmospheric " " Fragile " . Minogue 's vocal delivery ranges from " sensuous " ( in " More More More " ) to " sweet " ( in " Your Love " ) . The latter track contains instrumentation from an acoustic guitar . Jason Thompson from PopMatters commented that Minogue " knows how to express herself through irresistible melodies and seductive emoting " , such as on the title track , which makes use of " suggestive panting " . Unlike Minogue 's previous studio efforts , Fever does not contain any ballads .
The lyrical content of Fever chiefly focuses on themes of love and enjoyment . Thompson described the album to be " all about dancing , fucking , and having a good time " . In the song " Love at First Sight " , Minogue describes how she fell in love with her partner at " first sight " and how it led to good things happening for her . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was termed a " mystery " as the singer never mentions who the her object of desire in the song is . Lynskey Dorian from The Guardian suggested that Minogue refers to either " a partner , an evasive one @-@ night stand or someone who doesn 't know she exists " as her obsession . The production of " Give It to Me " contrasts with its lyrics : Minogue urges her partner to " slow down , " but the beat " goes in the opposite direction and tells your body to push it a little more on the dance floor . " The lyrics of " Fragile " are simple and aim directly at the " [ listener 's ] heart " . " Come into My World " is a " plea for love " as Minogue invites her partner into her life . On the other hand , " Dancefloor " focuses on issues like dealing with an end of a relationship , with Minogue celebrating a break @-@ up by " lose [ ing ] it in the music " .
= = Release and artwork = =
Fever was released by Parlophone on 1 October 2001 , in Australia , the United Kingdom , and other European countries . In the United States , the album was released by Capitol Records on 26 February 2002 , and was Minogue 's first album to be released in the country since her second studio album Enjoy Yourself ( 1989 ) . Thus , Minogue was reintroduced to the US after nearly 13 years of inactivity in the region . A special edition of the album , containing a previously unreleased track entitled " Whenever You Feel Like It " , was released on 19 November 2002 .
Minogue 's close friend and stylist William Baker , collaborated with graphic designer Tony Hung to create the artwork 's concept of electro @-@ minimalism . On the cover , which was photographed by Vincent Peters , Minogue is seen " bound by a microphone cord , literally tied to her craft " and dressed in white leotard designed by Fee Doran , under the label of Mrs Jones , and shoes made by Manolo Blahnik . In her 2012 fashion retrospective book Kylie / Fashion , Minogue commented on the album 's theme , saying : " The whole campaign was so strong , sure , ice cool . Willie 's [ William 's ] styling was incredible and [ Peters ' ] photography made for a second amazing album cover with him . " A new cover was issued for the US version of the album and features a close @-@ up of Minogue biting on a bracelet . The US version cover also served as the cover for second single of the album , " In Your Eyes " .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was released as the lead single from the album on 17 September 2001 . The song was well received by music critics , many of whom complimented its vibe and danceability . Commercially , the single was a massive success and peaked at number one on the charts of every European country ( except Finland ) and Australia . The song was released in the United States and managed to peak at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Minogue 's best selling single in the region since " The Locomotion " . It was certified triple @-@ platinum in Australia for shipment of 210 @,@ 000 units , platinum in the United Kingdom for shipment of 600 @,@ 000 units , and gold in the United States for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 units . An accompanying music video for the single was directed by Dawn Shadforth and features Minogue and a number of backup dancers dancing in various futuristic backdrops .
" In Your Eyes " was released as the second single of the album on 18 February 2002 . It received generally positive reviews from music critics and was praised for its house influences . It became the second consecutive single from the album to peak atop the Australian Singles Chart . The song was also commercially successful internationally and peaked in the top ten of charts in countries like Italy , Finland , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom . It was certified gold in Australia for sales of 35 @,@ 000 units , and silver in the United Kingdom for sales of 200 @,@ 000 units . An accompanying music video for the song was again directed by Shadforth , and features Minogue performing a dance routine and striking various poses in a colourful neon @-@ lighted room .
" Love at First Sight " was released as the third single from the album on 10 June 2002 . It received positive reviews from music critics , with many of whom favouring its production . The song was a commercial success and peaked in the top ten of charts in countries like Australia , Denmark , Italy , New Zealand and United Kingdom . The song was remixed by Ruff and Jam and this version was released in the United States , where it managed to chart at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold in Australia for sales of 35 @,@ 000 units and in New Zealand for sales of 7 @,@ 500 units . An accompanying music video for the single was directed by Johan Renck and features Minogue dancing in a futuristic environment sporting cargo pants and teal eyeshadow .
" Come into My World " was released as the fourth and final single off the album on 11 November 2002 . It generated a favourable response from music critics , who enjoyed its lyrical content . Commercially , the single performed fairly well and peaked in the top 10 in Australia , Belgium ( French @-@ speaking Wallonia region ) , and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the song peaked at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It received a gold certification in Australia for sales of 35 @,@ 000 units . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Michel Gondry and features Minogue strolling around a busy street in Paris , France ; every time she completes a full circle , a duplicate of her appears through one of the stores , and by the end of the video there are four Minogues present together .
= = = Tour = = =
Minogue launched the KylieFever2002 concert tour to promote the album . The tour was split in seven acts and " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " , " Come into My World " , " Fever " , " In Your Eyes " , " Love at First Sight " and " Burning Up " were the songs from the album to be included on the setlist . For the performances , Minogue wore " skimpy " and skin @-@ tight outfits , and was often seen wearing a glittering silver bikini and skirt coupled with silver boots . The outfits were designed by Italian luxury industry fashion house Dolce and Gabbana , and Minogue went through a total of eight costume changes during the tour . The performances that took place at the Manchester Evening News Arena , England , were filmed for inclusion in the live DVD for the concert tour entitled KylieFever2002 : Live in Manchester , which was released on 18 November 2002 . The DVD was certified platinum in Canada for sales of 10 @,@ 000 units , gold in Germany for sales of 25 @,@ 000 units , and double @-@ platinum in the United Kingdom for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Critical reception = =
Fever received generally favourable reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Fever received an average score of 68 based on 15 reviews , indicating " generally favourable reviews " . Jason Thompson from PopMatters gave the album an extremely positive review and praised the conception and production of the album , calling it a " perfect album of gorgeous dance music " and claiming that " there probably won 't be a better album like it all year long " . Chris True from AllMusic also gave it an acclaimed review and enjoyed the simple disco and dancepop music of the album , saying that there is " not one weak track , not one misplaced syrupy ballad to ruin the groove " . Alex Needham from NME positively reviewed the album and noted that while the album lacks depth , it is " as effervescent as a foot spa " and that through the album , Minogue " shows the upstarts how it 's done " . Dominique Leone from Pitchfork Media gave it a favourable review and praised its simple and " comfortable " composition , terming it a " mature sound from a mature artist , and one that may very well re @-@ establish Minogue for the VH1 generation " .
Alexis Petridis from The Guardian praised the commercial nature of the album and called it " a mature pop album only in that it 's aimed at the boozy girl 's night out rather than the school disco " . Jacqueline Hodges favoured the album 's consistency and complimented its commercial prospect , predicting that the album is " going to sell bucket loads " . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly labelled the album " the best guilty @-@ pleasure retro @-@ dance smash since Eiffel 65 's " Blue " " , but felt that Minogue " milks the formula ( of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " ) dry on the album " . Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH enjoyed the fun nature of the album and said that " if you want something to drive to , dance to , play at a house party or cheer your workmates up with , Fever is for you " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave the album a negative review , criticizing Minogue 's " painfully precise " vocals and the album 's monotony .
= = Commercial performance = =
In Minogue 's native country Australia , Fever entered and peaked at number one on the Australian Albums Chart on the week of 21 October 2001 , and spent a total of five weeks at the position . In this region , Fever was certified seven @-@ times platinum for shipments of 490 @,@ 000 units by the Australian Recording Industry Association . The success of the album in Australia was such that it was listed in the top @-@ ten highest selling albums of the country in both 2001 and 2002 , appearing at numbers five and four , respectively . It also became the best selling dance album in the country in both 2001 and 2002 . In the United Kingdom , Fever entered and peaked at number one on the UK Albums Chart on the week of 13 October 2001 , spending a total of two weeks on the position . The album spent a total of 70 weeks inside the top 40 of the chart . In this region , the album was certified five @-@ times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 units .
The album achieved similar success in other regions . In Austria , the album entered and peaked at number one on the Austrian Albums Chart and spent a total of 29 weeks on the chart . In this territory , it was certified platinum for sales of 15 @,@ 000 units by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . In Denmark , the album entered and peaked at number four on the Danish Albums Chart and spent one week at this position . In this region , it was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . In France , the album entered the French Albums Chart at number 51 and peaked at number 21 , spending a total of three weeks at this position . In this region , the album was certified platinum for sales of 100 @,@ 000 units by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique . In Germany , the album peaked at number one on the German Albums Chart for two weeks . In this region , it was certified platinum by the Federal Association of Music Industry for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 units . In Ireland , the album entered the Irish Albums Chart at number two and peaked at number one , spending a total of one week on this position . In New Zealand , the album entered and peaked at number three on the New Zealand Albums Chart , spending a total of one week at this position . In this region , the album was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for shipments of 30 @,@ 000 units . In Switzerland , the album entered the Swiss Albums Chart at number 12 and peaked at number three , spending a total of one week at the position . In this territory , the album was certified double @-@ platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for sales of 40 @,@ 000 units .
In the United States , the album sold 115 @,@ 000 copies in its first @-@ week and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart , becoming Minogue 's highest charting album in the region till date . In this region , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units . In Canada , the album peaked at number 10 on the Canadian Albums Chart and spent a total of two weeks on the chart . In this region , the album was certified double @-@ platinum for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 units by Music Canada . Fever has reportedly sold over six million copies worldwide .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Following its release , Fever reportedly sold over six million copies worldwide , becoming Minogue 's highest selling album , as of today . The album 's lead single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " peaked atop charts in 40 countries and sold more than five million copies worldwide , becoming Minogue 's highest selling single to date and one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . The song is notable for being Minogue 's biggest and strongest commercial breakthrough in the United States , a region in which Minogue previously had managed to achieve little success . It is also considered to be Minogue 's signature song . Due to the single 's commercial impact , the album enjoyed similar success in the United States and earned Minogue her only platinum album certification in the region . According to the IFPI , Fever was the thirtieth best @-@ selling album globally in the year 2002 .
Fever is considered to be a prominent example of Minogue 's constant " reinventions " . The image she adopted during this period was described by Baker as " slick , minimalist and postmodern " , and it was seen as a step forward from the " camp @-@ infused " tone of Light Years . Larissa Dubecki from The Age used the term " nu @-@ disco diva " to describe Minogue during this period . Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club opined that Minogue 's public image and her persona in her music videos " presented herself as a mechanical muse whose every gesture snapped and locked into place with the sound of a vacuum seal " . He further remarked that the singer 's " hygienic coo summoned a cool sort of cyborg soul , and her videos showed her gliding through sleek futurescapes , tonguing the sweet @-@ and @-@ sour tang of a techno kiss " . Adrien Begrand from PopMatters felt that the simplicity of the album made it a " classy piece of work " and commented that Minogue 's experience and choice of collaborators resulted in " the thirtysomething Minogue upstaging soulless , brainless music by younger American pop tarts like Britney [ Spears ] and Christina [ Aguilera ] " . Robbie Daw from Idolator pointed out that Britney Spear 's recording of her 2004 hit " Toxic " , Madonna 's comeback album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) , Paris Hilton 's musical debut Paris ( 2006 ) , and radio stations ' shift towards playing " more groove @-@ oriented sounds " all followed the release of Fever , although he admitted that " we have no way of knowing whether Kylie Minogue 's eighth studio album was directly responsible for these pop happenings " . Chris True from AllMusic , in his biography of Minogue , commented that the release of the album and lead single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " cemented her position as an international music icon , saying " Her place in pop music history would be consolidated in 2001 , and she would be reintroduced to America after more than a decade as well " .
Fever also brought Minogue a number of accolades and award nominations . At the 2002 ARIA Music Awards ceremony , the album won the awards for " Best Pop Release " and " Highest Selling Album " , and garnered a nomination in the category of " Album of the Year " . At the same ceremony , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " won the awards for " Single of the Year " and " Highest Selling Single " , and Minogue won the " Outstanding Achievement Award " . At the 2002 Brit Awards ceremony , Fever won the award for " Best International Album " , while Minogue was nominated for " Best International Female Solo Artist " and " Best Pop Act " , winning the former . At the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards ceremony , the album was nominated for " Best Album " ; Minogue was nominated for " Best Female Act " , " Best Dance Act " , and " Best Pop Act " , winning the latter two . During this period , Minogue earned her first Grammy Award nomination when " Love at First Sight " was nominated in the category of " Best Dance Recording " at the 2003 award ceremony , although it lost to British electronic band Dirty Vegas 's song " Days Go By " . She eventually won a Grammy Award when " Come into My World " was nominated in the same category at the 2004 award ceremony . It marked the first time an Australian music artist had won an award in a major category at the American award show since Australian rock band Men at Work won the award for " Best New Artist " in 1982 . The song is Minogue 's only Grammy award winning song to this date .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Msambweni =
Msambweni ( meaning " land of Sable Antelope " in Swahili ) is a small fishing town and constituency in Kwale County of southeastern Kenya , formerly in Kwale District of Coast Province . By road , Msambweni is 55 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 34 @.@ 4 mi ) south of Mombasa and 46 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 28 @.@ 9 mi ) northeast of Lunga Lunga on the Tanzanian border . As of 2009 , the town had a population of 11 @,@ 985 people .
Fishing is the primary source of income , although coconut palm , buxa coloring , cashew nuts and fruits are produced for trade . Because of its reef and extensive beaches , the snorkeling industry is gaining in popularity in Msambweni , and holiday cottages and hotels have sprung up in the area , such as the Msambweni Beach House . The town is noted for its leprosarium and contains the Msambweni District Hospital . The Koromojo Dam is immediately north of the town .
= = Geography = =
By road , Msambweni is 55 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 34 @.@ 4 mi ) south of Mombasa , 46 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 29 @.@ 1 mi ) southeast of Kwale , and 46 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 28 @.@ 9 mi ) northeast of Lunga Lunga on the Tanzanian border . It lies along the A14 road ( Ukunda @-@ Ramisi Road ) between the villages of Ukunda and Shimoni .
Msambweni forms a constituency that starts from the Mwachema River at the border of Tiwi and Diani Beach to the north , and down to Vanga at the border of Kenya and Tanzania to the south .
The area 's scenery is characterized by its beaches , rocky outcrops and low cliff tops and is relatively unspoiled . At one end of the beach is a " rocky headland of fossilized coral , which is a jumble of cracks , caves and chimneys that make an ideal roost for bats " and there are baobab trees in the vicinity . There is a reef channel at Msambweni and aquifer which is about 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) south of the Tiwi aquifer . The reef , which stretches from Msambweni to Malindi in the north , is the world 's largest continuous fringing reef . At the northern end of Msambweni Bay is Chale Island , a headland rather than an island , which is known as a sacred kaya ( worshipping place ) . Many of the locals are superstitious and believe in witchcraft and spirits ( jinis ) .
Bedrock in the area was likely formed by Mazeras Sandstones . Msambweni has an average rainfall of 55 @.@ 18 inches a year .
= = Politics = =
Msambweni Central forms a constituency with an elected Member of Parliament . As of 2001 the Msambweni Constituency had an area of 3 @,@ 267 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 261 sq mi ) with a population of 211 @,@ 011 people . By 2009 it had a population of 288 @,@ 393 people . Kassim Mwamzandi was MP from 1988 @-@ 1997 . As of 2010 , Robert Challo was MP for Msambweni Central and Minister for Agriculture .
= = Economy = =
Msambweni grew from a small village into a bustling little town . Fishing is important to the local community of Msambweni and is the primary source of income . The area is mainly Muslim and inhabited by Digo peoples . The Kwake District Development Plan 2002 @-@ 2008 attempted to improve fish landing sites and beach access for fisherman on the coast of Msambweni . Coconut palm is grown , as are cashew nuts , fruits and buxa coloring . Maize , cassava , cowpeas and rice are grown for domestic consumption . There are numerous stalls along the main road in the town selling fruit and vegetables . Silica sand is mined at Msambweni and transported to Nairobi to make bottle glass . Beekeeping and seaweed farming are also local occupation and its commercialization in the area has been supported by ACT ! Kenya with financial assistance from the European Union .
A result of its reef , the tourist industry is taking off in Msambweni attracting snorkelers . Holiday cottages and hotels have sprung up . Club Green Oasis caters mainly to German tourists . Although supplied with electricity , in the 1990s the government expressed concerns about access to an ample clean water supply in the division .
= = Landmarks = =
Msambweni is noted for its leprosarium , and contains the Msambweni District Hospital , which is reportedly one of the best hospitals on the coast , and Kari Medical Clinic , Vingujini Primary School , and Msambweni Secondary School . The Msambweni Campus of Kenya Medical Training College ( KMTC ) , formerly the Matuga Medical Training College in Matuga , is located next to the hospital . It was established in 1977 and shifted location to Msambweni in August 2006 . It trains pupils in the Environmental Health Sciences , and since 2005 they have offered a three @-@ year pre @-@ service diploma course .
On a 40 feet ( 12 m ) clifftop is the Msambweni Beach House , set in 28 acres with a 700 feet ( 210 m ) stretch of private beach . Although predominantly Muslim , the town has an interdenominational church . Immediately to the north of Msambweni is the Koromojo Dam. and between Msambweni and Kwale is the Shimba Hills National Reserve . There is a marine reserve at Shimoni beyond Funzi Island to the south .
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= USS Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 59 ) =
USS Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 59 ) , known as " Big Mamie " to her crewmembers during World War II , was a battleship of the second South Dakota class . She was the seventh ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the sixth state , and one of two ships of her class ( along with her sister Alabama ) to be donated for use as a museum ship . Massachusetts has the distinction of having fired the US Navy 's first and last 16 @-@ in ( 406 mm ) shells of the war .
During World War II Massachusetts was initially assigned to duty in the Atlantic Fleet during which she successfully crippled the Vichy French battleship Jean Bart in a gun duel during Operation Torch . Transferred to the Pacific fleet in 1943 , Massachusetts participated in the Solomon Islands campaign and the Philippines Campaign , and in the latter campaign took part in the Battle of Leyte Gulf . In 1945 she was one of several ships assigned to shell targets on Honshū , the largest of the Japanese Home Islands . Following the end of World War II , Massachusetts was involved in routine operations off the US coast and eventually reassigned to the Atlantic fleet . Decommissioned in 1947 , she was laid up in the reserve fleet at Norfolk , Virginia until stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in 1962 .
In an effort to spare the battleship from scrapping , citizens of Massachusetts pooled resources to raise money for her transfer to the Massachusetts Memorial Committee , and in 1965 the Navy formally donated the battleship to the committee . Massachusetts was towed to Battleship Cove , Fall River , Massachusetts , and formally opened as a museum ship on 14 August 1965 .
= = Construction = =
Massachusetts was one of four fast battleships of the South Dakota class to be authorized for construction by the United States Congress in 1938 . Her keel was laid down on 20 July 1939 at the Fore River Shipyard of Quincy , Massachusetts . She was launched on 23 September 1941 sponsored by Mrs. Charles Francis Adams , wife of a former Secretary of the Navy . She was commissioned on 12 May 1942 at Boston , Massachusetts , Captain Francis E. M. Whiting in command .
Massachusetts 's main battery consisted of nine 16 in ( 410 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 6 guns in three triple turrets ( two superfiring turrets forward , the third turret mounted aft of the main superstructure ) that were capable of firing 2 @,@ 700 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) Mark 8 shells . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 " / 38 caliber guns , which could hit targets up to 9 miles ( 14 km ) away . For defense against air strikes , Massachusetts was fitted with an anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) battery of 0 @.@ 50 cal machine guns and 1 @.@ 1 " / 75 caliber guns . With a wholesale shift to air power at the dawn of World War II came the imperative to gain and maintain air superiority in order to protect the growing fleet of Allied aircraft carriers . By the end of the war Massachusetts sported an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and quadruple Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns .
= = Atlantic operations = =
After a shakedown cruise , Massachusetts set sail from the United States on 24 October 1942 . Four days later she joined a task force forming to support the invasion of North Africa , where she served as the flagship for Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt during Operation Torch .
Early in the morning on 8 November the Naval Battle of Casablanca began . Lying off the city , Massachusetts , the heavy cruisers Tuscaloosa and Wichita and four destroyers , came under fire from four 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) and four 138 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns in a shore battery at El Hank . The American ships responded by shelling Jean Bart , an incomplete French battleship forced to sail from Saint @-@ Nazaire in May 1940 to escape advancing Axis forces . When engaged , Jean Bart had only one of her two quadruple turrets installed , the other having its guns lost to torpedo attack while in shipment from France .
Massachusetts began firing at 07 : 04 at a range of 22 @,@ 000 m ( 72 @,@ 000 ft ) ; she continued until 08 : 33 with a seven @-@ minute halt from 07 : 40 to 07 : 47 . A total of nine full broadsides and thirty @-@ eight volleys varying between three and six guns were fired , five rounds hit Jean Bart. One , at 08 : 06 , disabled her operational turret , others struck docks and merchant ships , sinking two .
With the help of the heavy cruiser Tuscaloosa , Massachusetts next targeted French destroyers in the fray , sinking Fougueux and Boulonnais as well as the light cruiser Primauguet . Along with shore batteries , she shelled an ammunition dump . Massachusetts was hit twice by the battery at El Hank , but sustained only superficial damage . By the end of the engagement she had fired 786 of the 800 rounds of 16 inch ammunition she carried , or 98 % of her complement .
After a cease @-@ fire , she headed for the United States on 12 November and prepared for deployment to the Pacific .
= = Pacific war = =
Massachusetts arrived at Nouméa , New Caledonia on 4 March 1943 . For the next few months , she operated in the South Pacific , protecting convoy lanes and supporting operations in the Solomon Islands . From 19 – 21 November , she sailed with an aircraft carrier group striking Makin , Tarawa , and Abemama in the Gilbert Islands . On 8 December , Massachusetts along with five other fast battleships ( USS Indiana ( BB @-@ 58 ) , USS North Carolina ( BB @-@ 55 ) , USS South Dakota ( BB @-@ 57 ) , USS Washington ( BB @-@ 56 ) , and USS Alabama ( BB @-@ 60 ) ) , bombarded Nauru Island , an enemy phosphate @-@ producing center , causing severe damage to shore installations there .
The Navy now drove steadily across the Pacific . On 30 January 1944 , Massachusetts bombarded Kwajalein , and she covered the landings there on 1 February . With a carrier group she struck against the Japanese stronghold at Truk on 17 February . That raid not only inflicted heavy damage on Japanese aircraft and naval forces , but also proved to be a stunning blow to enemy morale . On 21 – 22 February , Massachusetts helped fight off a heavy air attack on her task group while it made raids on Saipan , Tinian , and Guam . She took part in the attack on the Caroline Islands in late March and participated in the landing of US troops at Hollandia on 22 April . Upon retiring from Hollandia , Massachusetts and the other ships of Task Force 38 ( TF 38 ) staged another attack on Truk .
Massachusetts shelled Ponape Island on 1 May , her last mission before sailing to Puget Sound to overhaul and reline her gun barrels , now well @-@ worn . On 1 August , she left Pearl Harbor to resume operations in the Pacific war zone . She departed the Marshall Islands on 6 October , sailing to support the landings in Leyte Gulf . In an effort to block Japanese air attacks in the Leyte conflict , she participated in a fleet strike against Okinawa on 10 October . From 12 – 14 October she screened Allied forces while they struck Formosa . While part of Task Group 38 @.@ 3 ( TG 38 @.@ 3 ) she took part in the Battle for Leyte Gulf from 22 – 27 October , during which planes from her group sank four Japanese carriers off Cape Engaño . After having stopped briefly at Ulithi , Massachusetts returned to the Philippines as part of TF 38 which struck Manila on 14 December .
On 18 December 1944 Massachusetts and the other ships of TF 38 unexpectedly found themselves in a fight for their lives when Typhoon Cobra overtook the force . At the time of the typhoon Massachusetts was sailing with the Third Fleet 's Task Group 38 @.@ 1 and reported one injured sailor and two planes lost as a result of the typhoon .
From 30 December – 23 January 1945 , she sailed as part of TF 38 , which struck Formosa and supported the landing at Lingayen . During that time she turned into the South China Sea , where TF 38 destroyed shipping from Saigon to Hong Kong ; the operation concluded with air strikes on Formosa and Okinawa .
From 10 February – 3 March , with the 5th Fleet , Massachusetts guarded carriers during raids on Honshū . Her group also struck Iwo Jima by air for the invasion of that island . On 17 March , the carriers launched strikes against Kyūshū while Massachusetts fired in repelling enemy attacks , splashing several planes . Seven days later , she bombarded Okinawa . She spent most of April fighting off air attacks , while engaged in the operations at Okinawa , returning to the area in June , when she passed through the eye of a typhoon with 100 knots ( 190 km / h ; 120 mph ) winds on 5 June . She bombarded Minami Daito Jima in the Ryukyu Islands on 10 June .
Massachusetts sailed on 1 July from Leyte Gulf to join the Third Fleet 's final offensive against Japan . After protecting carriers that launched strikes against Tokyo , she formed part of a force that , on 14 July , shelled Kamaishi , Honshū , Japan 's second largest iron and steel center . Two weeks later , she bombarded the industrial complex at Hamamatsu before she returned to blast Kamaishi on 9 August . It was here that Massachusetts fired what was probably the last 16 in ( 410 mm ) shell fired in combat in World War II .
= = Post @-@ war – Museum ship = =
After the war , Massachusetts sailed for Puget Sound and overhaul 1 September . She left there 28 January 1946 for operations off the California coast , until leaving San Francisco , California , for Hampton Roads , arriving 22 April . She was decommissioned on 27 March 1947 to enter the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Norfolk , Virginia , and was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1962 . After being stricken , approximately 5 @,@ 000 tons of equipment were stripped from Massachusetts for use on other naval vessels , including both of the explosively driven catapults used to launch float planes .
" Big Mamie " , as she was affectionately known , was saved from the scrap pile when veterans and citizens of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts , with the assistance of Massachusetts schoolchildren who raised $ 50 @,@ 000 for her preservation , and was transferred to the non @-@ profit Massachusetts Memorial Committee on 8 June 1965 . She was enshrined at Battleship Cove in Fall River , Massachusetts , on 14 August 1965 , as the Bay State 's memorial to those who gave their lives in World War II .
In the 1980s , when the Reagan administration , as part of its " 600 @-@ ship Navy " plan , recommissioned all four of the Iowa @-@ class battleships , the U.S. Navy recovered large amounts of specialized equipment and spare parts that were still in storage aboard Massachusetts . Despite being used as a parts cache to get the Iowa @-@ class battleships back in service , Massachusetts was added to the National Register of Historic Places and was designated a National Historic Landmark 14 January 1986 .
In November 1998 , Massachusetts was closed to the public in advance of her planned departure for Boston , where she was scheduled to undergo an overhaul . She departed on her 300 @-@ mile ( 480 km ) trip to the capital at 06 : 30 4 November 1998 with a tug boat moving her under the Braga , Mt . Hope and Newport Bridges , then up the coast to Boston . She arrived 7 November and entered Boston 's Drydock Number 3 , where an inspection determined the battleship was in need of additional steel plating along her hull at the water line to protect against sea water corrosion . In addition , the survey also located leaking rivets and identified a need to remove two of the battleship 's propellers for repair purposes . For the next four months Massachusetts underwent repairs to correct these problems , including the addition of nearly 225 @,@ 000 pounds ( 102 @,@ 000 kg ) of steel to her hull and the addition of a compound known as Red Hand Epoxy to encase and protect the hull against further deterioration . In March 1999 Massachusetts emerged from her dry docking period and returned under tow to Battleship Cove , arriving at her berth at 15 : 30 13 March 1999 to a crowd of citizens , dignitaries , veterans , and civic officials .
Massachusetts is listed in good condition and she remains mostly unaltered , adhering to her World War II era configuration . Former crewmembers have held reunions each year since the ship was decommissioned , with the 65th annual reunion taking place in June 2010 .
USS Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 59 ) is one of eight remaining US battleships that have been donated for use as museum ships ; the other battleships are USS Alabama ( BB @-@ 60 ) , USS Iowa ( BB @-@ 61 ) , USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) , USS New Jersey ( BB @-@ 62 ) , USS North Carolina ( BB @-@ 55 ) , USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) , and USS Wisconsin ( BB @-@ 64 ) .
The tour program on board the Massachusetts has evolved over the years . In the late 1960s and early 1970s there were guided tours . About the mid @-@ 1970s visitors were given a radio receiver so they could listen to a pre @-@ recorded presentation in different areas of the ship . Today , interpretation is provided by signage and videotaped interviews with former crewmembers about their experiences working in different areas of the ship .
Some areas of the ship are dedicated to specific purposes such as the PT boat exhibit and the Massachusetts War Memorial which lists the name of every service member from Massachusetts who died during the Second World War . The officer 's wardroom is now in use as a snack bar and is open to visitors .
Over the 50 years the ship has been open to the public , more areas of the ship have been made accessible to the public thanks to the efforts of volunteers , many of whom were Navy veterans of the Second World War . The ship also has overnight facilities for youth groups .
= = Awards and honors = =
American Campaign Medal
European @-@ African @-@ Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with one battle star
Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with ten battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal with " ASIA " clasp
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation
Philippine Liberation Medal
Massachusetts received 11 battle stars for World War II service as a result of her participation in operations in North Africa , the Gilbert , Carolina , and Marshall Islands campaigns , as well as operations during the battles for Leyte , Luzon , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa . No US Navy sailors or Marines were killed in action aboard the battleship during the war .
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= 4 @-@ D ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" 4 @-@ D " is the fourth episode of the ninth season and the 186th episode overall of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on December 9 , 2001 on the Fox network . It was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Tony Wharmby . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 1 and was viewed by 5 @.@ 38 million households . It received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , a vicious murderer named Erwin Lukesh , capable of jumping between parallel universes , shoots Doggett using Reyes ' gun . Brad Follmer opens an investigation to figure out the truth . They eventually deduce that Lukesh is the real murderer .
Maeda wrote the episode after being inspired by the situation of a real @-@ life French journalist , Jean @-@ Dominique Bauby , who had been paralyzed and could only communicate by blinking his left eyelid . The character of Lukesh was in part inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho and was created by Maeda in the hopes that he would go on to be a memorable villain . Effects expert Mat Beck created the unique visual sequence that showed Doggett and Lukesh traveling between the different universes . To create the effect of a parallel universe , every scene in the episode 's teaser was flipped so that the mirror image was shown .
= = Plot = =
Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) monitors Erwin Lukesh , a suspected serial killer who cuts out his victims ' tongues . While pursuing him , Reyes goes into an apartment building and is attacked by Lukesh with a razor . John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , observes the pursuit electronically and hears a scream . He rushes to help Reyes and finds her dying , her throat cut . Doggett chases Lukesh into an alleyway , where the killer seemingly vanishes . Lukesh then appears behind Doggett and fires at him with Reyes ' gun .
The setting then changes ; Doggett arrives at Reyes ' new apartment with a housewarming gift . Neither seems to be aware of the previous events . Reyes then receives a phone call from Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , who informs her that Doggett has been shot and is being taken to the hospital . Reyes tells Skinner that Doggett is in her apartment , but then finds that he has vanished . When she arrives at the hospital , Reyes learns that Doggett was shot with her gun . Reyes is questioned by the FBI , insisting that Doggett was with her at the time of the shooting . Meanwhile , Lukesh watches the interrogation and identifies Reyes as the shooter .
Doggett regains consciousness , but is breathing with the help of a respirator . Meanwhile , Lukesh goes to his apartment where he lives with his disabled mother . As he prepares to fix her lunch , he goes to his freezer and pulls out a bag containing a human tongue . Reyes performs a background check on Lukesh , and becomes convinced that he is in fact responsible for the shooting . Reyes goes to Doggett , and through a computer setup that enables him to tap out words , Doggett tells her that Lukesh shot him but that Doggett also saw her with her throat cut .
Lukesh then returns to the alleyway where Doggett was shot and vanishes . Based on the contradictory evidence , Reyes concludes that Lukesh can travel between parallel universes in order to kill . She also concludes that the unharmed Doggett disappeared because two versions of the same person cannot exist in the same universe . Skinner questions Lukesh , who becomes agitated when his mother is mentioned . Noting this , Skinner decides to hint that his mother will be questioned , which leads Lukesh to become more uncomfortable . Lukesh returns home to find his mother has found the gun with which he shot Doggett . After she threatens to talk to the FBI , Lukesh kills her .
Doggett tells Reyes that , in order to resolve the situation , she must turn off his respirator and allow him to die , but she refuses . Suspecting that Lukesh plans to kill Reyes next , Skinner convinces Reyes to go back to her apartment while he , Scully , and Follmer monitor her . She returns and is attacked by Lukesh . The team rush to her aid and Follmer shoots Lukesh in the head , killing him . Reyes then returns to the hospital , closing her eyes as she shuts off Doggett 's respirator . As she opens her eyes , the scene changes back to her apartment at the moment Doggett had disappeared earlier . Reyes , stunned and fighting back tears , embraces Doggett as he , evidently unaware of any of the previous events , asks her what is wrong .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Steven Maeda , the writer , had previously written eighth season episodes " Redrum " and " Vienen " . Due to their success , Maeda was asked to pen a ninth season stand alone episode . His efforts were hampered by the fact that , due to the departure of David Duchovny , the general circumstances of The X @-@ Files had become more difficult . The plot for " 4 @-@ D " was inspired by the situation of a real @-@ life French journalist , Jean @-@ Dominique Bauby . Bauby had been paralyzed and could only communicate by blinking his left eyelid . Maeda wanted to employ a similar type of aliment in his script , and originally thought of drawing up a guest character for this purpose . However , he eventually felt that the plot would be more successful with a regular character , and decided to use Doggett . Maeda employed the theory of parallel universes in order to explain the circumstances of the episode . The character of Lukesh was in part inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's 1960 film Psycho . Maeda later noted that he wished to create a villain that would be as memorable as other antagonists in The X @-@ Files , such as Eugene Victor Tooms and The Flukeman .
" 4 @-@ D " expounded upon the budding relationship between Doggett and Reyes . Most of the two 's romantic interactions were limited to " flirtatious undercurrents " because , according to Annabeth Gish , series creator Chris Carter " was never big on the flamboyant big performances . " Robert Patrick later claimed that he came up with the scene wherein Reyes shaves a wounded Doggett . He noted , " I 'd read The Diving Bell and the Butterfly , and I believe there 's a part of that in the book where the character gets shaved , and I thought , ' Wow , that 's really an intimate kind of moment . ' "
= = = Effects and cultural references = = =
Effects expert Mat Beck was instructed to create a visual sequence that showed Doggett and Lukesh traveling between the different universes . Various effects were tested , including characters disappearing into black holes as well as phasing through the air in a more " exaggerated " and " watery " way . Beck ultimately decided to use a combination of both effects . Separate shots of a morphing scene were taken : one of the actors , and one of the background . Beck then used software to morph the two together to make it appear as if they had vanished . Later , artistic touches were added in post @-@ production editing to give a more futuristic effect .
To create the effect of a parallel universe , every scene in the episode 's teaser was flipped so that the mirror image was shown . In order to render words correctly , letters had to be re @-@ written backwards so that they yielded the correct spelling . Monica Reyes ' Georgetown apartment address is 67 Bennett Avenue . This is a reference to Rod Serling 's address in Binghamton , New York . Furthermore , her apartment number 6 , is a reference to Patrick McGoohan 's number in the 1967 television series , The Prisoner .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" 4 @-@ D " first aired in the United States on December 9 , 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 5 @.@ 38 million households . " 4 @-@ D " was the 62nd most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending December 9 . The episode was later broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One in November 25 , 2002 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" 4 @-@ D " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two noted that , while the episode 's premise " doesn 't seem as well thought through " as Maeda 's past efforts , " 4 @-@ D " is " worth it " . Shearman and Pearson concluded that the episode " earns its stripes by at last restoring to the series a pulse . " Furthermore , they praised Gish 's performance , noting that she " finally [ is ] given a showcase that makes Reyes so much more than a New Age fanatic " . Christina Urban , in an editorial review of the ninth season in Barnes & Noble , praised the episode . Urban said it is " by far the best of the season " . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a " B " . Morgan slightly criticized the episode 's resolution , writing that it " explained nothing . I mean , how do these other universes work ? "
In a season review , Michelle Kung from Entertainment Weekly wrote that " 4 @-@ D " was one of the few ninth season episodes " worthy " of praise , but that it was overshadowed by the show 's " ludicrous conspiracy plots " . Other reviews were more critical mixed . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " C " and called it a " mediocre to bad hour of television " , but one that could have been better had more effort been applied to it . Handlen was particularly critical of the editing , structure , and sense of urgency . He wrote that " ' 4 @-@ D ' shows what happens when this creative team has a legitimately cool concept : it wastes the opportunity . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , felt that the interactions between Robert Patrick and Annabeth Gish were the " highlights " of the episode , but he was critical of the ending for wrapping things up " far too conveniently . "
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= Ohio State Route 368 =
State Route 368 ( SR 368 ) is a short north – south state highway in western Ohio , a U.S. state . SR 368 travels from its southern terminus at SR 366 approximately 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) east of Russells Point to its northern terminus on Seminole Island in the eastern half of Indian Lake , at an intersection where it meets Logan County Road 272 ( CR 272 ) and CR 286 . Having made its debut in the late 1930s , SR 368 is a two @-@ lane spur route that serves both Indian Lake State Park and communities of cottages that are on two eastern Indian Lake islands : Shawnee and Seminole .
= = Route description = =
SR 368 is located exclusively in northwestern Logan County . About 3 @,@ 100 vehicles travel on SR 368 on average each day .
The route begins at a T @-@ intersection ( formerly a Y @-@ intersection ) with SR 366 in McArthur Township about 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) east of Russells Point . From there , it heads due north , abutted by a subdivision of cottages on the west side and open fields on the east side . After entering into the property of Indian Lake State Park , SR 368 bends to the northwest , passing amidst a blend of fields and trees as it crosses into Washington Township . The highway next passes an access road to a state park boat launch for Indian Lake .
As it turns to the north , SR 368 traverses into a heavily wooded area . Along this stretch , SR 368 passes into Stokes Township . It curves to the northeast as it departs the forest and enters into a neighborhood of cottages along a very narrow strip of land as it travels further out onto Indian Lake . After it travels through an S @-@ curve , SR 368 continues to the northeast , then bends to the northwest , crosses over an inlet and enters Shawnee Island . Turning to the west @-@ northwest , SR 368 passes amidst numerous houses and cottages on Shawnee Island . The highway then passes onto Seminole Island , on which the highway comes to an end as it arrives at an intersection where it meets CR 272 , which heads north from the intersection , and CR 286 , which departs to the southwest .
= = History = =
SR 368 made its debut in 1934 . It was originally routed along the exact alignment that it utilizes today . The only difference was that at the time , the route SR 368 met at its southern terminus was known as SR 32 , which a few years later would become US 33 .
In 1961 , US 33 was moved to a new alignment further south . Consequently , the SR 366 designation was applied to the former alignment of the U.S. highway . However , at the same time , SR 368 was extended east , running concurrent with SR 366 east to SR 117 north of Huntsville , where both routes arrived at a shared terminus . This remained the case until 1979 , when SR 368 was restored back to its original alignment , leaving SR 366 as the solo route between SR 368 and SR 117 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Logan County .
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= 1991 – 92 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1991 – 92 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an average cyclone season in which most storms remained over open waters . At the time , the season lasted from November 15 , 1991 to April 30 , 1992 , although this season began early when three tropical depressions formed before the official start . The second , designated Tropical Depression A2 by the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion , passed north of Madagascar on October 16 before weakening . The first named storm was Severe Tropical Storm Alexandra , which developed on December 18 from the monsoon trough ; many other storms during the year originated in this manner . Tropical Storm Bryna was the only tropical storm of the season to make landfall , having struck northeastern Madagascar on January 2 . The basin was most active in February , when five named storms developed , including Tropical Depression Elizabetha which struck western Madagascar . In early March , Cyclone Harriet entered the basin from the Australian region and was renamed Heather . It intensified to peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , making Heather the strongest storm of the season . In April , another cyclone – Jane – crossed from the Australian region and was renamed Irna , which reentered the Australian region on April 19 to end tropical activity within the basin .
= = Season summary = =
In general , sea surface temperatures were warmest near the equator in the northeast portion of the basin , and in the Mozambique Channel between Mozambique and Madagascar . During the season , the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 80 ° E , south of the equator . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force , also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean .
During the season , there was an El Niño event that caused tropical cyclogenesis in the southern hemisphere to shift more to the east . In addition , the monsoon trough , which helped spawn most of the storms in the season , was weaker than normal in the Indian Ocean . The number of tropical depressions forming was above average , although there were fewer days than normal with tropical cyclone activity .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Alexandra = = =
On December 17 , the JTWC began monitoring a tropical depression about 700 km ( 440 mi ) west of Diego Garcia in association with the intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 09S . The next day , the MFR also began classifying the system . The nascent depression moved generally to the southeast , and later more to the south @-@ southeast , ahead of an approaching upper @-@ level trough . On December 20 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alexandra , and that day developed an ill @-@ defined eye , as well as good inflow . The JTWC upgraded Alexandra to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane – with 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) on December 21 , but MFR only estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Although the MFR estimated the storm subsequently weakened , the JTWC assessed that Alexandra continued to intensity to a peak 1 ‑ minute intensity of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) on December 22 . Around that time , the cyclone had slowed and turned to the east . Increased shear caused gradual weakening , and the strengthening of the subtropical ridge turned Alexandra to the southwest . The JTWC discontinued advisories on December 26 , and Alexandra dissipated three days later well to the east @-@ northeast of Mauritius , or about 1 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 000 mi ) south of where it first formed .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Bryna = = =
The MFR began monitoring a tropical depression on December 25 about 900 km ( 550 mi ) east @-@ northeast of the northern tip of Madagascar . Initially moving eastward without any strengthening , the depression turned back to the west toward Madagascar on December 28 due to a ridge . Two days later , the JTWC also began tracking the system , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 10S . With warmer water temperatures but persistent wind shear , the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Bryna on December 31 . At 1800 UTC that day , the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . On January 1 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , before assessing that Bryna began weakening . The storm made landfall in the Sava Region of eastern Madagascar early on January 2 and subsequently crossed the northern portion of the country . Although the JTWC discontinued advisories while Bryna was inland , the MFR continued tracking it , and the circulation emerged into the Mozambique Channel on January 3 , moving around a ridge . Bryna curved to the south , brushing Melaky before moving farther offshore . The MFR estimated a secondary peak intensity of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) on January 7 , based on ship reports , although the structure was more subtropical in nature . Around that time , BrBrynayna was turning to the southeast , and the next day made a final landfall in southwestern Madagascar . After crossing the southern portion of the country , Bryna moved over open waters , eventually turning back to the southwest before dissipating on January 10 .
While moving over Madagascar , Bryna dropped heavy rainfall , causing some damage and two deaths in Mahajanga .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Celesta = = =
After a period of inactivity lasting about a month , a tropical depression formed from the monsoon trough about 900 km ( 560 mi ) northeast of Mauritius on February 8 . The system moved generally to the south and southeast , passing just east of Rodrigues on February 10 . Later that day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Celesta . On February 11 , both the JTWC and the MFR estimated peak winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Celesta turned to the south and looped to the northwest , crossing over its track on February 12 . The storm dissipated on February 14 , having succumbed to wind shear . Despite Celesta passing near Rodriduges , winds on the island did not exceed 19 km / h ( 11 mph ) .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Davilia = = =
Two days after Celesta dissipated , another tropical depression formed in the same region on February 16 from a broad low pressure area involving Celesta 's remnants . It moved northeastward and later turned to the southeast due to a trough . The new depression vacillated in intensity but remained weak . On February 22 , the JTWC also began issuing warnings on the depression , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 19S . On the next day , the MFR upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Davilia , estimating peak winds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Continuing to the southeast , Davilia failed to intensify further due to persistent wind shear , and it dissipated on February 25 .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Elizabetha = = =
Late on February 22 , a tropical depression formed within a broad area of convection south of the Comoros in the Mozambique Channel . With warm water temperatures , it gradually intensified while moving east @-@ southeastward , and MFR upgraded it to Tropical Storm Elizabetha on February 24 . After reaching winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , the storm weakened back to tropical depression status and turned sharply southward , making landfall just west of Mahajanga in western Madagascar . Elizabetha weakened further over land and dissipated on February 26 , producing wind gusts of 87 km / h ( 54 mph ) at Mahajanga . The JTWC did not issue any advisories in the storm .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Farida = = =
A tropical depression developed in the northeast portion of the basin on February 23 within the monsoon trough , classified as Tropical Cyclone 22S by the JTWC . For much of its duration , the storm moved southwestward due to weak steering currents . It intensified into Tropical Storm Farida on February 25 . Two days later , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , and the next day the MFR upgraded Farida to tropical cyclone status . The cyclone intensified further , reaching peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) according to MFR , and peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) according to JTWC . While near peak intensity , the cyclone had developed well @-@ defined outflow , and around that time was interacting with Tropical Storm Gerda to its northwest . Due to increasing wind shear , Farida gradually weakened , first below tropical cyclone intensity on March 1 , and to tropical depression intensity the next day . Late in its duration , the system turned to the northwest before dissipating on March 4 .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Gerda = = =
A tropical depression formed northwest of Reunion on February 24 , which moved generally eastward . The next day , the depression passed north of Reunion and Mauritius and south of St. Brandon , before turning to the northeast . The system was located near another tropical depression to the northeast , and both vortexes were tracked for several days . On February 26 , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone 24 , although the agency estimated the system was located farther to the north , closer to where the other tropical depression was . The JTWC assessed tropical storm intensity on February 27 , noting the system was moving generally southeastward , although the MFR tracked the depression as executing a loop before turning to the southeast . On February 29 , the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , upgrading it to Tropical Storm Gerda . At the same time , the JTWC had downgraded Gerda to a tropical depression . The system turned to the southwest , executing another large loop before resuming its southwest trajectory on March 1 . That day , Gerda weakened to a tropical depression , before executing a third loop to the northeast and later to the southeast , passing between Mauritius and Rodrigues . On March 4 , Gerda dissipated , having produced gusts to 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) on Rodrigues .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Harriet @-@ Heather = = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical low about 550 km ( 340 mi ) east of the Cocos Islands on February 24 . Located in the Australian basin , it quickly intensified to tropical storm status and was named " Harriet " by the BoM , and Tropical Cyclone 20S by the JTWC . After passing just south of North Keeling Island , Harriet turned more to the southwest , and strengthened into a Category 5 on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale on March 1 . By that time , the MFR had begun issuing advisories , and later that day renamed Harriet as Heather after the cyclone crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . When Heather reached the basin , the JTWC was estimating peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , and shortly thereafter the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) .
On March 4 , an approaching trough turned the cyclone to the south and southeast , producing stronger wind shear that induced weakening . By that time , the JTWC estimated Heather had weakened to a 1 ‑ minute intensity of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . The cyclone reintensified slightly while accelerating to the southeast , and MFR estimated Heather re @-@ attained its peak of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on March 5 . Soon after , the storm began weakening again , and on March 7 Heather exited into the Australian region below tropical cyclone status . The cyclone continued to the southeast , becoming extratropical on March 8 and dissipating the next day in the Great Australian Bight .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Jane @-@ Irna = = =
The final storm of the season formed in the Australian basin , and like Harriet @-@ Heather also originated out of the monsoon trough . On April 7 , a tropical low developed northeast of the Cocos Islands , and gradually intensified while moving southward , becoming Tropical Cyclone Jane the next day . The JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 29S . A ridge to the south turned the storm to the west on April 11 . The cyclone intensified further , developing an eye , and crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on April 13 . At that time , the MFR renamed Jane as Tropical Cyclone Irna . Late on April 13 , the agency estimated peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The next day , the JTWC estimated Irna reached peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) . Subsequently , an approaching trough turned the cyclone to the south and increased wind shear , which caused weakening . The eye dissipated , and Irna soon weakened below tropical cyclone status . On February 17 , Irna weakened into a tropical depression . The next day , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and on April 19 , Irna crossed back into the Australian region , dissipating on April 20 .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the named storms , there were several other storms during the season that were warned on . On September 10 , 1991 , the JTWC began monitoring a tropical depression in the northeastern portion of the basin . The system moved southeastward , and according to the agency intensified into a 85 km / h ( 50 mph 1 ‑ minute sustained ) tropical storm on September 12 . By the next day , the storm dissipated after turning back to the north .
About a month after the previous storm dissipated , the JTWC classified another tropical depression on October 11 about 960 km ( 600 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Seychelles . The system tracked west @-@ southwestward , and the MFR also began issuing warnings on it as Tropical Depression A2 on October 14 . Two days later , the JTWC briefly upgraded the depression to a tropical storm , although MFR only estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) . By that time , the storm had turned to the west , passing north of the northern tip of Madagascar . After turning to the west @-@ northwest , the depression dissipated on October 22 . While the depression was active , the MFR also briefly tracked another tropical depression to its northeast , which formed on October 16 about 540 km ( 345 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . Classified as Tropical Depression A3 by MFR , the depression tracked to the west @-@ southwest , turned to the southeast , and resumed its westward trajectory for several days before dissipating on October 22 .
On November 20 , the JTWC began tracking Tropical Cyclone 04S a short distance southeast of Diego Garcia . The next day , MFR also initiated advisories on it , classifying the system as Tropical Depression A4 . After moving southwestward initially , the storm curved south @-@ southeastward and intensified . The JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 85 mph ( 50 mph ) , and the MFR estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , indicating that it could have been named . While near peak intensity , the storm was affected by wind shear that displaced the circulation center along the north edge of the convection . The storm turned to the west , passing just south of St. Brandon before dissipating on November 29 .
While storms Farida and Gerda were both active , Tropical Depression H1 formed east of Madagascar on February 26 , and throughout its duration moved in a circular direction around Gerda . The depression moved to the east but slowly executed a clockwise loop around St. Brandon . It never intensified beyond winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , and dissipated on March 1 . On March 7 , the MFR identified a subtropical cyclone in the Mozambique Channel , but did not issue warnings on it .
= = Season effects = =
This table lists all the cyclones that developed in the Indian Ocean , during the 1993 – 94 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . It includes their intensity , duration , name , landfalls , deaths , and damages .
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= Urse d 'Abetot =
Urse d 'Abetot ( sometimes Urse of Abetot , Urse de Abetot , Urse d 'Abitot or Urse of Abitôt ) ( c . 1040 – 1108 ) was a Norman as well as a medieval Sheriff of Worcestershire and royal official under Kings William I , William II and Henry I. He was a native of Normandy and came to England shortly after the Norman Conquest of England , and was appointed sheriff in about 1069 . Little is known of his family in Normandy , who were not prominent . Although Urse 's lord in Normandy was present at the Battle of Hastings , there is no evidence that Urse took part in the invasion of England in 1066 .
Urse built a castle in the town of Worcester , which encroached on the cathedral cemetery there , earning him a curse from the Archbishop of York . Urse helped to put down a rebellion against King William I in 1075 , and quarrelled with the Church in his county over the jurisdiction of the sheriffs . He continued in the service of William 's sons after the king 's death , and was appointed constable under William II and marshal under Henry . Urse was known for his acquisitiveness , and during William II 's reign was considered second only to Ranulf Flambard , another royal official , in his rapacity . Urse 's son succeeded him as sheriff but was subsequently exiled , thus forfeiting the office . Through his daughter , Urse is an ancestor of the Beauchamp family , who eventually became Earls of Warwick .
= = Background = =
= = = Norman Conquest of England = = =
On 5 January 1066 Edward the Confessor , King of England , died . Edward 's lack of children meant there was no clear legitimate successor , leading eventually to a succession dispute . Some medieval writers state that shortly before Edward 's death he named his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Harold Godwinson , Earl of Wessex , as his heir . Others claim that Edward had promised the throne to his cousin , William , Duke of Normandy , a powerful autonomous ruler in northern France . Harold , the most powerful English noble , took the initiative and was crowned king on 6 January . William , lacking Harold 's proximity to the centres of English royal government , gathered troops and prepared an invasion fleet . He invaded England in October , and subsequently defeated and killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 . William was crowned on Christmas Day at Westminster , becoming William I.
Between his coronation and 1071 , William consolidated his hold over England , defeating a number of rebellions that arose particularly in the north and west of the country . Immediately after Hastings , only those English noblemen who fought in the battle lost their lands , which were distributed to Normans and others from the continent who had supported William 's invasion . The rebellions of the years 1068 to 1071 led to fresh confiscations of English land , again distributed to William 's continental followers . By 1086 , when William ordered the compilation of Domesday Book to record landholders in England , most of the native English nobility had been replaced by Norman and other continental nobles .
= = Family and early life = =
Urse came from an undistinguished family , and made his way on military reputation . He was probably born in about 1040 , but the exact date is unknown . He was from St Jean d 'Abbetot in Normandy , where his family had lands , and where he himself was a tenant of the lords of Tancarville . Other tenants of the Tancarville lords included Robert d 'Abetot and his wife Lesza , who held lands close to St Jean d 'Abbetot in the early 12th century ; despite the name , it is not certain that Robert d 'Abetot was related to Urse . Urse had a brother usually called Robert Despenser , sometimes known as Robert fitz Thurstin , who also became a royal official . The historian Emma Mason suggested that Urse may have been a nickname rather than a forename , perhaps given on account of his tenacious temperament . Urse 's usual last name derives from his ancestral village in Normandy . His brother 's usual last name of Despenser derives from his office , that of dispenser , in the royal household .
Ralph , the Lord of Tancarville during the reign of King William I of England and Urse 's overlord in Normandy , fought at the Battle of Hastings , but there is no evidence that Urse himself was present . He is probably the same person as the " Urse d 'Abetot " who was a witness to a charter of William before the invasion of England . The historian Lewis Loyd refers to Urse as " in origin a man of no importance who made his way as a soldier of fortune " .
= = Service to William I = =
= = = Sheriff of Worcester = = =
Urse arrived in England after Hastings , but it is unknown if his brother Robert arrived with him or separately . Urse was appointed Sheriff of Worcestershire some time after the Norman Conquest of England , probably in about 1069 , part of the wholesale replacement of English royal officials with Norman and other immigrants that took place in the early part of William 's reign . As sheriff , Urse was responsible for collecting taxes and forwarding them to the treasury , and was empowered to raise armies if rebellion or invasion threatened . The sheriff presided over the shire court , and was accountable for the shire 's annual payments to the king . During the reigns of William the Conqueror and his sons , the office of sheriff was a powerful one , as it did not share power with any other official in the shire , unless there was an earl in overall control . Because of their control of the courts for the hundreds – which were subdivisions of the shire – sheriffs had opportunities for patronage and also had a large say in who became members of the hundred and shire court juries . The death of Edwin , Earl of Mercia , who held power in Worcestershire until his death in 1071 during a rebellion against William , allowed Urse to accumulate more authority in Worcestershire , as Edwin was the last Earl of Mercia .
Urse also oversaw the construction of a new castle at the town of Worcester , although nothing now remains of the castle . Worcester Castle was in place by 1069 , its outer bailey built on land that had previously been the cemetery for the monks of the Worcester cathedral chapter . The motte of the castle overlooked the river , just south of the cathedral . Although Urse had control of the castle after it was built , by 1088 he had lost it to the bishops of Worcester .
In 1075 , three earls rebelled , for reasons unknown , and sought aid from the King of Denmark , Sweyn II Estridsson , who had a distant claim to the English throne . Among the rebels was Roger de Breteuil , the Earl of Hereford , whose lands neighboured those of Urse . Along with Bishop Wulfstan of Worcester , Abbot Æthelwig of Evesham , and Walter de Lacy , Urse prevented de Breteuil from crossing the River Severn . Urse 's actions kept the rebels from seizing control of the Severn Valley and joining up with the other English rebels , Waltheof , the Earl of Northumbria , and Ralph de Gael , the Earl of Norfolk . Urse and the magnates fighting alongside him , in addition to their obvious desire to suppress rebellion , had an interest in defeating de Breteuil , as he was the most powerful lord in the area . De Breteuil was caught , tried , and imprisoned for life , increasing the power of his rivals .
Urse , along with his contemporaries , benefited from the increasing power wielded by the sheriffs . Although royal officials , including the sheriffs , had been appropriating ecclesiastical lands since the late 10th century , in the immediate years after the Norman Conquest churchmen complained about the increased amount of land seized by the sheriffs . Urse received his share of complaints , but he was part of a wider trend during the early years of William I 's reign . The appropriation of land led to an increase in the recording of rights and possessions not only by clergy but also by laymen , culminating in the recording of all possessions and the rights held by the king over them in the Domesday Survey of 1086 . This behaviour was not limited to the sheriffs , as other nobles were also accused in contemporary chronicles of appropriating land from churches and from native Englishmen .
= = = Disputes with Wulfstan and Ealdred = = =
During the reign of William I , Urse became involved in a dispute with Bishop Wulfstan over the rights of the sheriff in the lands of the diocese . By the time of Domesday Book in 1086 , Urse 's powers as sheriff had been excluded from the Oswaldslaw , the area of Worcestershire controlled by the bishops of Worcester . Domesday Book records that the Oswaldslaw was regarded as an immunity , exempt from judicial actions by royal officials . Urse complained that this immunity reduced his income , but this did not affect the outcome of his dispute with Wulfstan , who prevailed . Although Wulfstan claimed that the immunity dated from before the Conquest , it actually owed its existence to the ability of the bishop to fill the shire court with his supporters , and thus influence the findings of the court .
Urse was also involved in a dispute between Wulfstan and Evesham Abbey over lands in Worcestershire as , after the Conquest , Urse acquired the lands of Azur , a kinsman of an earlier Bishop of Worcester , Beorhtheah . Azur had originally leased the lands from the diocese , but after Urse confiscated the lands , the sheriff did not return the lands to the bishop , and instead kept them for himself . The Worcester monk Hemming recorded the loss of the lands to Urse in Hemming 's Cartulary , a cartulary written about 1095 recording lands and charters belonging to the diocese of Worcester . Hemmings ' Cartulary mentions not just Azur 's lands , but others at Acton Beauchamp , Clopton , and Redmarley as taken from the diocese of Worcester by Urse . After Abbot Æthelwig 's death , Urse also acquired lands that Æthelwig had seized through less than legal means , when William I 's half @-@ brother Odo of Bayeux , the Bishop of Bayeux , presided at the lawsuit brought to determine the ownership of the lands . Odo gave a number of the disputed estates to Urse during the course of the lawsuit .
The 12th @-@ century chronicler William of Malmesbury records a story , in which shortly after Urse was appointed sheriff , he encroached on the cemetery of the cathedral chapter of Worcester Cathedral . Ealdred , the Archbishop of York , pronounced a rhyming curse on Urse , declaring " Thou are called Urse . May you have God 's curse . " Ealdred had been Bishop of Worcester before becoming archbishop , and still retained an interest in the diocese . Gerald of Wales , a late 12th- and early 13th @-@ century writer , wrote that Wulfstan uttered the curse after Urse had attempted to have Wulfstan deposed as bishop . Gerald goes on to relate that Wulfstan stated he would only relinquish his episcopal staff to the king who had granted it , William I 's predecessor , Edward the Confessor . Gerard then reports that Wulfstan proceeded to work a miracle at Edward 's tomb , a miracle so impressive that King William confirmed Wulfstan in his episcopate . Although Urse did not succeed in removing Wulfstan , and although there are certainly embellishments added in Gerald 's story , it is clear that Urse and Wulfstan were the main powers in Worcestershire , and were thus great rivals .
The Archbishop 's curse had no discernible effect , either on Urse 's career or the castle . Other chroniclers record that Urse stole monastic lands , including some from Evesham Abbey . Urse gained a reputation for greed and avarice , especially with regard to church lands . Great Malvern Priory , however , claimed him as a founder in a 14th @-@ century document .
= = = Domesday lands = = =
In 1086 , the Domesday Survey documents that while the majority of Urse 's lands were in Worcestershire , he also held land in Warwickshire , Herefordshire , and Gloucestershire . His lands in Warwickshire were held directly from the king , as a tenant @-@ in @-@ chief , while others were held as an under @-@ tenant of others who had their lands directly from the king . Urse 's lands in Herefordshire likewise were held as a mixture of tenant @-@ in @-@ chief and sub @-@ tenant , as was also the case in Gloucester . Of the lands that Urse held in Worcestershire , he held them both directly from the king and from the Bishop of Worcester . Domesday also records that the revenue that Urse was responsible for as sheriff was £ 128 and 4 shillings from Worcestershire . This was just the amount due for the royal estates in Worcester , as Urse was also responsible for payments of £ 23 and 5 shillings for the royal lands in the Borough of Worcester , £ 17 as profits on the shire and hundred courts with an additional £ 16 or a hunting hawk , specifically a " Norway hawk " ; also due from the courts . Urse also had to pay the queen £ 5 plus £ 1 additional for a " sumpter horse " . All of these payments were guaranteed by Urse , who had to make up any shortfall .
Domesday makes it obvious that Urse was the most powerful layman in Worcester , and the only person who could contest his power in the county was the Bishop of Worcester . The power struggle continued into the 12th century , as Urse 's descendants still contested the bishops . Only one other layman is recorded as having a castle in Worcestershire in Domesday , and he held much less land than Urse .
= = Service to William II and Henry I = =
After the death of King William I of England , Urse continued to serve William 's sons and successors , Kings William II Rufus and Henry I. While William I granted the duchy of Normandy to his eldest son , Robert Curthose , England went to his second surviving son , William Rufus . Henry ( later Henry I ) , the youngest son , was given a sum of money . In 1088 , shortly after William Rufus became king , Urse was present at the trial of William de St @-@ Calais , Bishop of Durham , and is mentioned in De Iniusta Vexacione Willelmi Episcopi Primi , a contemporary account of the trial . During William I 's reign , Urse had served the king mainly as a regional official , but during William II 's reign Urse began to take a broader role in the kingdom as a whole . Urse became a constable in the king 's household for both William II and Henry I , and under William II , he ascended to the office of marshal .
Urse was an assistant to William II 's main minister , Ranulf Flambard , and frequently served as a royal judge . The historian Emma Mason argues that Urse , along with Flambard , Robert Fitzhamon , Roger Bigod , Haimo the dapifer , or seneschal , and Eudo , another dapifer , were the first recognizable barons of the Exchequer . During his absence from England , the king addressed a number of writs to Urse , along with Haimo , Eudo , and Robert Bloet , ordering them to enforce William 's decisions in England . The historian Francis West , who studied the office of the justiciarship , asserts that Haimo , Eudo , and Urse , along with Flambard , could be considered the first English justiciars .
Urse 's estates grew under William II , partly as a result of the inheritance of some of the lands of his brother , Robert Despenser , who died about 1097 . Later , Urse consolidated his holdings by exchanging some of Robert 's lands in Lincolnshire with Robert de Lacy for lands closer to his base in Worcestershire . Urse d 'Abetot gained and passed to his heirs an estate that later became the Barony of Salwarpe , Worcestershire .
William II died in a hunting accident on 2 August 1100 . His younger brother Henry immediately rode to Winchester and had himself crowned king before his elder brother , Robert Curthose , could claim the throne . Although Urse did not attest the charter Henry issued after he seized the throne , Urse was at court shortly afterwards . When Robert Curthose invaded England in 1101 in an attempt to take the English throne , Urse supported Henry . Urse was present at the court held at Winchester on 2 August 1101 , when a peace treaty was ratified between the brothers . During Henry 's reign , the king regranted Urse 's lands to him , with some of them now granted as a tenant @-@ in @-@ chief when previously Urse had held those lands as an under @-@ tenant , and not directly from the king . Urse 's lands at Salwarpe were previously held by Roger of Montgomery , but were granted to Urse as a direct tenant of the king when Roger 's son , Robert of Belesme , was outlawed in 1102 . Urse continued to attest many of Henry 's charters until 1108 , although he did not use the title of " constable " in those charters .
Sometime between May and July 1108 , Henry addressed a writ to Urse and the Bishop of Worcester from Reading . The royal document commanded the sheriff not summon the shire and hundred courts to locations different than customary nor that he summon them on dates other than those normal for such courts . From this , the historian Judith Green speculates that Urse had been summoning these courts at unusual times and then fining those who did not attend . The king specifically commanded that this procedure stop and then went on to detail the various courts which would hear what types of cases and the type of procedure that could be used in what type of case .
= = Death and legacy = =
Urse died some time in 1108 . Little is known of his wife , Alice , whose death is unrecorded . Urse was succeeded as sheriff by his son Roger d 'Abetot , who was exiled in about 1110 and forfeited the office of sheriff . Roger 's successor , Osbert d 'Abetot , was probably Urse 's brother . Urse also had a daughter , probably named Emmeline , who married Walter de Beauchamp . Walter succeeded to Urse 's lands after Roger 's exile . A charter for Saint @-@ Georges de Boscherville Abbey may indicate that Urse had a second son , named Robert . Urse may also have had another daughter , who married Robert Marmion , as some of Urse 's estates went to Marmion 's family and others to the Beauchamps .
Urse earned a reputation for extortion and financial exactions . During the reign of William II , he was considered second only to the king 's minister Ranulf Flambard in his rapacity . The first mention of his exactions is in Hemming 's Cartulary . Further details were given by the medieval chroniclers William of Malmesbury and Gerald of Wales , both of whom relate Ealdred 's curse . His exactions were also mentioned in Domesday Book , where an entry in the survey for Gloucestershire noted that his oppression prevented the inhabitants of Sodbury so much that they were unable to pay their customary rents . He intimidated the monks of the Worcester cathedral chapter into granting him a lease of two of their estates , Greenhill and Eastbury . Urse was one of a new breed of royal official , one who was not opposed to royal power but rather welcomed it , as it helped his own position .
Through his daughter , he is an ancestor of the Beauchamp family of Elmley in Worcestershire , a scion of which , William de Beauchamp , became Earl of Warwick . It is likely that the Beauchamp family 's symbol , a bear , derives from their relationship to Urse .
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= Korn ( album ) =
Korn ( printed as KoЯn ) is the eponymous debut studio album by the American nu metal band Korn . It was released on October 11 , 1994 , through Immortal / Epic Records . Before recording the album , the band was approached by Immortal / Epic Records after a performance at Huntington Beach , California . The band signed to their label because they didn 't want to " sign away all of their creative freedom . " The band would record at Indigo Ranch Studios in Malibu , California with producer Ross Robinson , who also produced their 1993 demo Neidermayer 's Mind . The recording took place from May to June 1994 . After the recordings , Korn toured with Biohazard and House of Pain .
The album 's themes include child abuse , drug abuse and bullying . The album cover depicts a young girl being approached by a large man who is holding what appears to be a horseshoe or , more presumably , blades ; furthermore , the girl 's shadow gives the appearance that her body is being hanged due to the position of the band 's logo . Photography was done by Stephen Stickler , and the design was directed by Jay Papke and Dante Ariola . The first single " Blind " charted at number 15 on the Canadian Alternative 30 , the album peaked at number ten in New Zealand as well as number seventy @-@ two on the Billboard 200 . The debut album has sold over 4 million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan as of January 4 , 2013 . The album has now sold over 10 million copies worldwide , and is considered to have started the nu metal genre .
= = Background = =
Before Korn developed a name , they had moved into a small house together in Huntington Beach , California , south of Los Angeles , where they began working on songs . Soon after moving , they rented Underground Chicken Sounds , a recording studio , from Jeff Creath , who had previously allowed lead singer Jonathan Davis to live in his garage . While they were recording at the studio , they attracted a crowd of people when performing the prelude to " Clown " . The band 's bass guitarist , Reginald " Fieldy " Arvizu , said that the crowd gathered because the band 's style sounded so " different " .
Korn began playing gigs in the summer of 1993 . While performing at Huntington Beach , the band was spotted by Immortal / Epic A & R Paul Pontius . He approached the band offering to record an album through their company . Although the group had offers from several other labels , Korn went with Immortal / Epic because they did not want to " sign away all of their creative freedom . "
= = Recording and production = =
While Korn was looking for a place to record their debut album , they asked producer Ross Robinson to produce their album . After accepting the offer , Robinson suggested they record at Indigo Ranch , Malibu , California . The band would record the majority of the album there , while additional recording took place at Bakersfield 's Fat Tracks . Korn recorded most of the album with all members playing simultaneously , as opposed to recording instruments separately . The " distinctive " sound and quality of music was given off by their instruments , rather than the production . The bagpipes on " Shoots and Ladders " are often thought to have been recorded on a mountain @-@ top . However , they were actually recorded with a microphone set up at the back door of the studio while Jonathan Davis walked past outside playing . As he walked further from the microphone , this led to the sound naturally fading quieter . Korn finished recording their self @-@ titled album by the end of June 1994 .
Since Robinson produced the album , his career was launched by its success , as it " taught Robinson how to produce . " In an interview with the heavy metal magazine Metal Hammer , Davis touted Robinson 's behavior , saying : " Ross is a very pure and clean @-@ spirited person , and you feel it when you 're with him . He 's the kind of person that can draw that out of you . I felt very safe with Ross . " The album was released on October 11 , 1994 through Immortal and Epic Records . During the recording of Korn , there were four outtakes : " Christmas Song " , " Sean Olson " , " Layla " , and " This Broken Soul " . " Sean Olson " was put in the single " Shoots and Ladders " .
= = Marketing and promotion = =
Stephen Stickler acted as the band 's photographer , and Jay Papke and Dante Ariola directed the album 's cover art and booklet . The cover depicts a little girl in a purple dress with a matching bow in her blonde hair , bringing her swing to a stop to squint in the sun at the man standing before her . The man is only seen as a dark shadow on the ground , and is holding what appears to be a horse shoe or , more presumably , blades . The band 's logo , a childlike drawing of the band 's name created by lead singer Jonathan Davis , is seen on the sandy ground by Dark Shadow ; the way it 's positioned next to the girls ' shadow makes it appear the latter is being hanged .
After Korn finished recording the album , they began touring with Biohazard and House of Pain at free gigs . Korn personally passed out flyers at their performances . Their record company gave them enough money for their own tour bus . Korn 's first gig was in Atlanta , Georgia . About half way through the tour , the tour bus that their record company gave them stopped working , forcing the band to find a new one . This first tour proved very unsuccessful in promoting the album . Aside from them touring , Korn released four singles . " Blind " was the lead single , released in 1994 , followed by " Need To " , " Shoots and Ladders " , and " Clown " .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
Korn begins with " Blind " , starting with the dueling riffs of James Shaffer and Brian Welch . Lead vocalist Jonathan Davis ' first line is " Are you ready ? ! " , which is now one of the band 's trademarks . Davis told Metal Hammer that on the album 's second track , " Ball Tongue " , he " didn 't sing a goddamn word in that song . I couldn 't describe what I wanted to do , so that 's how it came out . It 's a really heavy sound . " " Shoots and Ladders " is about Davis ' disgust with the society . The song explores the concept of nursery rhymes . Davis relates : " ' Shoots and Ladders ' uncovers the hidden messages in nursery rhymes , the first songs many of us ever hear . ' Shoots and Ladders ' , to set the record straight , calls out nursery rhymes for what they really are . I choose each rhyme for a different reason — ' Baa Baa Black Sheep ' has racist overtones . ' London Bridge ' talks of all the people of London dying ( from the Black Plague , as does ' Ring Around the Roses ' ) . Then there 's ' Little Red Riding Hood ' — one story tells of the wolf raping Red Riding Hood and killing her . "
" Clown " ' s concept deals with an incident that happened in San Diego , California . A skinhead that told Davis to " go back to Bakersfield " attempted to hit Davis but he dodged and the band 's road manager , Jeff , knocked the skinhead out . " Helmet in the Bush " was about Davis ' drug abuse , and the fear that gripped him at the height of his drug problem . He pleaded for a divine intervention to deliver him from his nightmare , as if he cannot help himself . Davis explained : " I 'd wake up in the morning and do a line to get out of bed . Speed in the morning , I 'd have it all lined up for breakfast so when I 'd lay down and go to sleep , I 'd wake up and just snort and it 's like ' Yeah , okay , I 'm up . ' It was bad . It 's like , you do one line and stay up all night , but then you have shit to do the next day so you have to do another line to be able keep staying up to get that shit done . Eventually you start spinning @-@ out from sleep deprivation . You get hallucinations and shit like that . "
" Faget " ' s lyrical themes are about lead vocalist Jonathan Davis ' time in high school where he was relentlessly bullied primarily by jocks for wearing eyeliner , listening to new wave and enjoying arts . He constantly was called names like " fag " or " faggot " . Jonathan Davis talked about the song in an interview saying ,
" There 's a big rumor about me being a homosexual . Does it really matter ? I have lots of gay friends . It shouldn 't matter . I was in the New Romantic scene [ in high school ] with Duran Duran [ as his favorite band ] , wearing makeup . I got called a fag by the jocks . Couldn 't walk through the halls without hearing that or being picked on . "
" Daddy " , the album 's longest track saw , Jonathan Davis " descending very real tears . " Davis said that the song 's concept deals with his childhood , saying " People think ' Daddy ' was written because my father abused me , but that 's not what the song 's about . When I was a kid , I was being abused by someone else . I don 't really like to talk about that song . " Some 14 minutes into " Daddy " — well after the song has ended — a tape that Ross Robinson found in an abandoned house begins to play . The tape depicts an argument between a man and his wife over a Dodge Dart carburettor .
= = Reception and success = =
On January 29 , 1996 , Korn went Gold in the United States ( US ) , and on February 10 , 1996 , the album charted at number seventy @-@ two . The album spent 30 weeks on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand charts , entering on June 23 , 1996 and peaking at number ten . The album left the chart on May 18 , 1997 . It went Platinum in the US on January 8 , 1997 , and entered the ARIA Charts on March 28 , 1999 at number forty @-@ nine . It maintained a position on the chart for five weeks , and peaked at number forty @-@ six . It peaked at number five on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart on April 24 , 1999 . On July 17 , 1999 , it entered the MegaCharts at its peak position of fifty @-@ six . After three weeks , Korn left the chart . On November 10 , 1999 , it was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The album peaked at number one @-@ hundred @-@ eighty @-@ one on the UK Albums Chart on February 10 , 2001 . It has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association .
Korn was well received by music critics . Arnopp stated that the group " positively encouraged America 's formerly introverted , apathetic misfits to thrust a livid middle finger in the face of high – school jocks who would traditionally bundle them into a locker and brand them ' faggots ' for sporting hair longer than any Army buzz @-@ cut . " The Calgary Herald gave the album a negative review , noting that Davis ' vocals derivative of Pantera 's Philip Anselmo and Pearl Jam 's Eddie Vedder . Musically , the review concluded that the Korn borrowed too much from Sonic Youth and Soundgarden .
In their original 1994 review , the Los Angeles Times wrote " Kindred to such bands as Tool , Rollins Band and Rage Against the Machine , Korn and its singer @-@ lyricist , Jonathan Davis , make their core ethic fairly explicit in songs like " Predictable , " " Lies " and " Fake " : the world is a torment @-@ filled morass that leaves us seething with deep , internalized fears ; virtue lies in confronting those painful truths unflinchingly and screaming them to the world . "
In July 2014 , Guitar World ranked Korn at number 27 in their " Superunknown : 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994 " list .
= = Legacy = =
Korn 's debut album is said to have established nu metal . As said by Joel McIver , Korn " was almost solely responsible for the tidal wave of change that subsequently swept the metal scene . " Bands like Coal Chamber and Limp Bizkit were inspired by the album 's " churning rage , emphasising similar grooves and song structures , " and " the sound 's hip @-@ hop elements . " Slipknot , Machine Head , and Sepultura were also inspired by the album . The album launched the career of record producer Ross Robinson , who later produced albums such as Roots by Sepultura , Three Dollar Bill , Yall by Limp Bizkit , and the Slipknot albums Slipknot and Iowa . In 2014 , Rolling Stone described the album as " the most important metal record of the last 20 years " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Credits = =
Jonathan Davis – vocals , bagpipes ,
James " Munky " Shaffer – guitar
Fieldy – bass
Brian " Head " Welch – guitar , vocals , backing vocals on Ball Tongue
David Silveria – drums
Judith Kiener – vocals on the lullaby at the end of " Daddy "
Richard Kaplan – engineer
Chuck Johnson – engineer , mixing
Ross Robinson – producer , engineer , mixing
Eddy Schreyer – mastering
Stephen Stickler – photography
Jay Papke / Dante Ariola – art direction and design
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= Butlins Skegness =
Butlins Skegness ( officially Butlins Resort Skegness ) , formerly Butlin 's Skegness or Funcoast World ; is a holiday camp located in Ingoldmells near Skegness in Lincolnshire , England . Sir William Butlin conceived of its creation based on his experiences at a Canadian summer camp in his youth and by observation of the actions of other holiday accommodation providers , both in seaside resort lodging houses and in earlier smaller holiday camps .
Construction of the camp began in 1935 and it was opened in 1936 , when it quickly proved to be a success with a need for expansion . The camp included dining and recreation facilities , such as dance halls and sports fields . During World War II , the camp was subject to a short military occupation when it served as a Naval training base , reverting to being a holiday camp in 1946 . Over the past 75 years the camp has seen continuous use and development , in the mid @-@ 1980s and again in the late 1990s being subject to substantial investment and redevelopment .
In the late 1990s the site was re @-@ branded as a holiday resort , and remains open today as one of three remaining Butlins resorts .
= = Holiday camp conception = =
In 1914 , Billy Butlin was living in Toronto with his mother and stepfather , when he left school and went to work for Eatons department store . According to Butlin , one of the best aspects of working for the company was that he was able to visit their summer camp which gave him his first taste of a real holiday — indeed a taste of what was to become a very big part of his life .
The onset of World War I led to his leaving Eatons and enlisting in the Canadian Expeditionary Force serving in Europe , but seeing little if any action . After the war , Butlin made his way back to England where he used some of his last £ 5 ( 2011 : £ 189 @.@ 00 ) to purchase a stall in his uncle Marshall Hill 's travelling fair .
As a showman , Butlin quickly became successful , one stall becoming several , and several becoming his own travelling fair . Butlin soon had fixed fairground sites as well as his travelling fair – the first was at Olympia in London outside Bertram Mills ' Circus . In 1925 he opened a set of fairground stalls in Barry Island , Wales where he observed the way landladies in seaside resorts would ( sometimes literally ) push families out of the lodgings between meals , and began to nurture the idea of a holiday camp similar to the one he had attended whilst an employee at Eatons .
In 1927 Butlin leased a piece of land from the Earl of Scarbrough by the seaside town of Skegness , where he set up an amusement park with hoopla stalls , a tower slide , a haunted house ride and , in 1928 , a miniature railway and Dodgem cars — these were the first bumper cars in Britain , as Butlin had an exclusive license to import them .
= = Butlin 's camp = =
During the early 1930s Butlin joined the board of Harry Warner 's holiday camp company and in 1935 he observed the construction of Warner 's holiday camp in Seaton , Devon . Butlin learned from the experience of Warner , and employed the workers who had constructed the Seaton camp to come to Lincolnshire to build his new camp at Skegness .
Construction began in September 1935 with the local paper reporting the first sod being turned on the 4th of that month . Butlin designed the camp himself and said of the camp , " my plans were for 1 @,@ 000 people in 600 chalets with electricity , running water , 250 bathrooms , dining and recreational halls . A theatre , a gymnasium , a rhododendron bordered swimming pool with cascades at both ends and a boating lake . " However Butlin hired the architect Harold Ridley Hooper , to draw up the formal plans for the camp buildings . In the camp 's landscaped grounds , there were to be tennis courts , bowling and putting greens and cricket pitches . The total cost of the project was £ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2011 : £ 5 @.@ 7 million ) and despite having suffered a financial shortfall during construction , the camp opened on schedule in 1936 . One of the original 1936 chalet accommodation units is still present and is now a grade II listed building , recognising its historical significance .
He opened his camp on 11 April 1936 ( Easter Even ) . It was officially opened by Amy Johnson from Hull , who had been the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia . An advertisement costing £ 500 ( 2011 : £ 28 thousand ) was placed in the Daily Express , announcing the opening of the camp and inviting the public to book for a week 's holiday . The advertisement offered holidays with three meals a day and free entertainment with a week 's full board , at a cost of between 35 shillings ( £ 1 @.@ 75 ) and £ 3 ( 2011 : £ 167 @.@ 00 ) , according to the time of year . The advert proved successful , and over the first summer season the capacity of the camp had to be increased from 500 to 2 @,@ 000 , to cope with the demand .
When the camp opened , Butlin realised that his guests were not engaging with activities in the way he had envisioned , as most kept to themselves , and others looked bored . He asked Norman Bradford ( who was engaged as an engineer constructing the camp ) to take on the duty of entertaining the guests which he did with a series of ice breakers and jokes . By the end of the night the camp was buzzing and the Butlin 's atmosphere was born . From that point on , entertainment was at the very heart of Butlin 's and Bradford became the first of the Butlin 's Redcoats . That night Butlin decided that for his camp to work he would require an army of people to carry out the same job as Bradford , and the role of Redcoat was formed .
In 1938 Butlin won the contract to supply amusements to the Empire Exhibition in Glasgow . After the exhibition was complete , Butlin returned with some of the infrastructure . His Clacton camp and Sheerness amusement park each received miniature railways , while Skegness received a building in the shape of the " Butlin theatre " which was later renamed the " Gaiety " .
Butlin continued to increase the capacity of the camp until 3 September 1939 when the Second World War was declared . The next morning , the campers were sent home and the site was taken over by the Royal Navy for use as a training establishment .
= = Wartime use = =
Once the Navy took over , the camp became known as HMS Royal Arthur and was used to train sailors for the war effort . In order to operate as a military base , many of the bright external colours were painted over , the dance hall became an armoury , and the rose beds were dug up , to become sites for air raid shelters .
While the outside was repainted , much of the interior décor went unchanged . Speaking of his time there George Melly reported that Royal Arthur had " a certain architectural frivolity inappropriate to a Royal Navy Shore Establishment . " Melly went on to mention how the main reception still had a sky scene with clouds painted on the ceiling and a large artificial ( though realistic ) tree in the centre of it . He also noted that their meals were served from an approximation of an Elizabethan inn named " Ye Olde Pigge and Whistle " .
During the war , the German airforce bombed Royal Arthur 52 times , including one incident on 21 August 1940 when an attack led to damage or demolition of 900 small buildings . By the end of the conflict however , the camp 's condition was good enough that it took only 6 weeks for Butlin to repair the wartime damage and reopen the camp to the public on 11 May 1946 . After reopening , some signs of military occupation remained with one observer noting that the blankets supplied to campers retained the insignia of HMS Royal Arthur .
= = Later history = =
In 1947 , Butlin had experimented with opening an airfield attached to his camp at Pwllheli . Patrons could fly in , to be collected by a Redcoat and transported to the camp . Flight Magazine reported that " flying visitors were unanimous in their praise of what they saw and experienced " , noting that the experience contrasted to the poor reputations the camps were given in the media of the period . Welcoming the experiment as a success , Butlin announced his intention to open airfields at his other camps . The following year he opened his next airfield at Skegness and announced that visitors could fly to the camp on a service run by BEA from 26 June . The airfield also allowed Butlin 's to offer services such as pleasure trips and sightseeing trips , as well as allowing private charters .
In 1948 Butlin 's also opened the Ingoldmells Hotel , which was situated outside the camp on the main road . In 1949 , the hotel became the first in Skegness to have a television for the use of guests . Situated in the hotel 's palm court function room , the TV was manufactured by R.G.D. but could be subject to interference from the hotel 's refrigerator .
Butlin 's had a long history of combining amusements with transport , starting with their first miniature railway at the Empire Exhibition in 1938 . Skegness was to receive its own miniature railway in 1962 . A chairlift system was installed at the same time . In 1965 , the camp became home to the UK 's first commercial monorail system . According to Peter Scott , who has researched the history of Butlin 's transport systems , Butlin apparently got the idea for the system from Disneyland . Construction began in 1964 with the cars being manufactured locally ; the total cost of the system was £ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2011 : £ 794 thousand ) . In 1974 a fire broke out in the kitchens of the Beachcomber Chinese restaurant leading to the complete destruction of the Princes building . In the Ballroom upstairs , a " Miss Personality Competition " was taking place when smoke was first spotted . The Redcoat in Charge of this event and the compère acted quickly , and were able to evacuate the building with no loss of life . To compensate for the loss of the entertainment venue , the fenceline was moved to encompass the Ingoldmells Hotel , which then became another venue .
In 1987 , the resort benefited from a £ 14 million ( 2011 : £ 32 @.@ 3 million ) investment and improvement scheme , following which the resort was known as Funcoast World . Around this time , many of the structures were subject to change with the demolition of many chalets and some central buildings including the Windsor dining hall and Empire theatre . The 1980s saw the removal of the miniature railway and chairlift system , but also saw the construction of a new indoor swimming pool named the Funsplash and an outdoor fun pool .
As with its Bognor Regis and Minehead counterparts , the Skegness resort underwent further improvement work in 1998 with the construction of the Skyline Pavilion . This tented structure is described by tourism writer Bruce Prideaux as a " Baby Millennium Dome " even though it pre @-@ dated the dome . The Pavilion contains entertainment facilities such as stages , bars , restaurants , shops and amusements . The improvement programme also included the construction of 1 @,@ 045 brand new accommodation units , making it the largest timber @-@ frame construction project in Europe that year . At the same time , the company dropped its use of the possessive apostrophe , changing from Butlin 's to Butlins ; after the refurbishment the resort was renamed as Butlins Resort Skegness , as it remains to date .
= = Butlins Resort Skegness = =
Today the resort caters for over 400 @,@ 000 visitors per year with 350 @,@ 000 being resident and 70 @,@ 000 visiting for the day . Along with the nearby Fantasy Island amusement park , the resort is the largest employer in the Skegness area , and currently employs 1 @,@ 200 staff each year , 40 of which make up the Redcoat team . According to the national police profile of the local residents , a large proportion of the Butlins workforce is now Eastern European in origin .
Over the years many of the attractions have been removed , including the monorail at the end of 2002 . However the resort still retains several swimming pools and a funfair . Today it provides a range of activities such as rock climbing , fencing , and archery . It also provides a wide range of entertainment , aided by the formation of strategic partnerships with popular brands , including The X Factor , Britain 's Got Talent , Thomas & Friends , Brainiac : Science Abuse , Guinness World Records , Bob the Builder , Pingu and Angelina Ballerina .
= = Pop Culture & Other Influences = =
In 1962 the Camp played its part in the formation of the rock band the Beatles , when Paul McCartney and John Lennon visited to meet Ringo Starr who was playing drums with Rory Storm and the Hurricanes at the time , to offer Starr the drummers position with The Beatles , who had just secured a recording contract . Storm 's group had a summer booking at the camp , following on from the previous year . It was in 1960 whilst playing Butlin 's Pwllheli camp that Richard Starkey developed his stage name Ringo Starr . The first song McCartney himself ever sang in public was " Long Tall Sally " , at a Butlin 's talent competition .
For several years between 1956 and 1959 , the comedian and TV presenter Dave Allen worked as a Redcoat at the camp . For Allen it was his first experience of fame ( within the community of campers ) and he found that he could not escape it , saying , " You can 't get away once they know you — unless you lock yourself in your chalet . If you put on a moustache and dark glasses they 'd think you were doing a stunt . "
Other acts who have performed at the camp during the careers include Laurel and Hardy , T 'Pau , and Suzi Quatro .
In his 2010 book How to Land an A330 Airbus ( And Other Vital Skills for the Modern Man ) , James May included a section entitled " How to Escape from Butlins " - specifically , Butlins Skegness in the event of hostile forces using it as an internment camp . He reasoned that it had already proved easily convertible to a naval base and that Britain was unprepared for sudden invasions as a result of overseas deployments . He suggests a tunnel in the style of The Great Escape , only with help from a microboring machine to aid the process , from a chalet to the static caravan park .
= = = Websites = = =
= = = News and Journals = = =
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= Electoral district of Perth =
The Electoral district of Perth is a Legislative Assembly electorate in the state of Western Australia . Perth is named for the capital city of Western Australia whose central business district falls within its borders . It is one of the oldest electorates in Western Australia , with its first member having been elected in the inaugural 1890 elections of the Legislative Assembly .
It has historically been a mostly safe seat for the Labor Party , but was won by Liberal Eleni Evangel at the 2013 election .
= = Geography = =
Perth is bounded by the Swan River to the south and southeast , Mitchell Freeway and Thomas Street to the west , Green Street to the north , and Walcott Street to the northeast . Its boundaries include the suburbs of East Perth , Highgate , Leederville , Mount Hawthorn , Northbridge , North Perth , Perth and West Perth along with part of Mount Lawley southwest of Walcott Street . Major features inside the electorate include Perth 's central business district , Kings Park , the East Perth redevelopment precinct and Hyde Park .
Historically , the boundaries included a much smaller area . In 1911 , it only covered the central business district and Northbridge , and in 1929 , a section between Newcastle and Bulwer Streets was added . When it was recreated from parts of the abolished West Perth and East Perth districts at the 1961 redistribution , the Perth electorate included all of West Perth and part of Kings Park , but its northern boundary only extended to Vincent Street , Hyde Park and the East Perth railway station . The 1972 redistribution added part of West Leederville east of Kimberley Street , and extended the northern boundary to include southern Leederville and parts of North Perth and Mount Lawley . By 1982 , it extended to Walcott Street , and the 1994 redistribution saw it extend well into the former seat of Mount Lawley .
The 2007 redistribution , which came into effect at the 2008 election , removed Menora and parts of Mount Lawley northeast of Walcott Street , while including all of West Perth as well as Kings Park , which had previously been part of Nedlands .
= = Demographics = =
As redistributions alter an electorate 's area and demographic profile , the 2006 Census conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics on the boundaries prior to the redistribution is the main source of information on the electorate 's current profile . At the 2006 census , the median age of the electorate 's residents was 35 years , compared to 36 across metropolitan Perth — only 12 @.@ 1 % of the electorate 's population ( compared with 19 @.@ 5 % ) were below 15 , but the 25 – 54 age group was significantly greater . Only 53 @.@ 7 % of its residents were born in Australia , compared to 61 @.@ 5 % in Perth , and much less of the remainder were from northwestern Europe ( 10 @.@ 78 % as against 13 @.@ 93 % ) . At home , significantly more electorate residents spoke Italian , Cantonese , Mandarin and Greek at home , and whilst the top three religions ( Catholicism , no religion and Anglicanism ) differed little from other parts of Perth , Buddhism and Eastern Orthodox adherents outnumbered those of the Uniting Church . Only 36 % were married compared to 49 % across Perth , whilst only 47 @.@ 7 % of homes ( compared to 67 @.@ 2 % ) were fully owned or being purchased . The median income in the electorate was $ 606 compared with $ 513 , and 49 @.@ 5 % of the electorate 's workers were professionals or managers compared with 31 @.@ 8 % .
In the 2007 redistribution , Menora , with a median income of $ 397 and a median age of 48 , with 42 @.@ 5 % being 55 years or over , was removed , whilst West Perth , with a slightly larger population and a median income of $ 698 and a median age of 34 , and a higher percentage of professionals and managers than the electorate 's average , was added .
The Australian Bureau of Statistics do not collect data on sexuality , but the electorate is home to a significant portion of Perth 's gay community . Perth 's main gay venues , Connections Nightclub and the Court Hotel , as well as events such as the Pride Parade and Fairday , are located in the electorate .
= = History = =
The electoral district of Perth was created as one of the initial 30 single @-@ member districts , and one of only six in the Perth – Fremantle area . Its first member , who was elected on 10 December 1890 , was Dr Edward Scott , a doctor by training who had been elected as Mayor of Perth the previous year . He resigned in December 1891 , and was replaced at the resulting by @-@ election on 12 January 1892 by Thomas Molloy . Molloy became embroiled in a controversy regarding provision of state aid to private schools , which he and fellow Catholic MLAs Timothy Quinlan and Alfred Canning supported . The Catholic Vicar General , Father Anselm Bourke , established the Education Defence League with their assistance . However , the issue became a major one in the 1894 election amongst the voting public , and all three MLAs lost their seats , Molloy losing to George Randell , a prominent Congregationalist who had led the cause against state aid . Randell became the Opposition Leader to Premier John Forrest , but stepped down from that role a year later in July 1895 , and did not contest the 1897 election , which was won by a supporter of Forrest .
In the 1901 election , after which the Oppositionists under George Leake were able to form a minority government , Frank Wilson , formerly the member for Canning , won the seat . After five months , the Leake government failed , and the governor eventually invited Alf Morgans of the Ministerial Party to form a government and appoint a six @-@ member Ministry . Morgans appointed Wilson minister of mines and commissioner of railways on 21 November 1901 . Until 1947 , members of parliament who were appointed as ministers were required to resign their seat and recontest it at a ministerial by @-@ election , which was normally a fairly non @-@ eventful matter . However , Leake and his allies contested the six by @-@ elections with such organised campaigning that three of the six ministers , including Wilson , were defeated .
In 1911 , the seat was won for the first time for the Australian Labor Party by Walter Dwyer , a lawyer who helped to draft the Industrial Arbitration Act 1912 during the first Scaddan administration ; however , he was defeated by James Connolly of the new Liberal Party in 1914 . Connolly became a minister without portfolio in the new Wilson government in 1916 , but resigned in June 1917 when appointed to the role of Agent General for Western Australia . Robert Pilkington of the Nationalist Party won the subsequent by @-@ election on 21 July 1917 and election two months later , before leaving for England in 1921 . Harry Mann , a former detective who , amongst other things , oversaw gaming and racing , was elected in his place .
A controversy erupted in 1933 upon the establishment of a Lotteries Commission , to which Mann , along with John Scaddan and Legislative Council member Alec Clydesdale , were appointed . Several profitable newspaper competitions , including that of The Sunday Times , were prohibited due to being thinly disguised forms of gambling . In response , a Citizens ' Reform League was formed to defend the crosswords , and at the elections later that year , both Mann and Scaddan lost their seats — with Perth being won by former Labor Senator Ted Needham , who was to hold the seat until its abolition at the 1950 election , and North Perth for the following three years until his retirement . One sideline to Needham 's campaigns was watchmaker and jeweller William Murray , who had placed a public notice in The West Australian on 28 October 1930 stating that Parliament " has become an out @-@ of @-@ date instrument for achieving the will of Anglo @-@ Saxon peoples " and seeking names and addresses of anyone wishing to work towards overthrowing it — and then ran for election as a Nationalist in 1936 and 1943 .
The seat was re @-@ established at the 1962 election with different boundaries — the neighbouring seats of West Perth , East Perth and North Perth having all been abolished in the 1961 redistribution — and was won by Labor 's Stanley Heal , the previous member for West Perth . He was defeated at the 1965 election by Peter Durack of the Liberal Country League , who was in turn defeated by Terry Burke in 1968 . Burke , the brother of Brian Burke who went on to serve as Premier from 1983 until 1988 , went on to hold the seat for 19 years until 1987 . He faced some high @-@ profile Liberal opponents , including future Legislative Councillor Bob Pike in 1971 , historian and author Hal G.P. Colebatch in 1977 and Olympic swimmer Peter Evans in 1986 .
Burke resigned in 1987 , and Labor 's Dr Ian Alexander , a City of Perth councillor and town planner from the party 's left faction , won the subsequent by @-@ election on 9 May 1987 . He spent much of his parliamentary time on Aboriginal issues , sustainability and the environment and the Northern Suburbs Transit System project . On 4 March 1991 , Ian Alexander resigned from the Labor party citing " frequent breaches of the party 's basic principles and platforms " , and sat as an independent until the 1993 election . Dr Alexander did not stand for election in 1993 , and Labor 's Diana Warnock , a former radio talk @-@ show host , won the seat with 50 @.@ 29 % of the two @-@ party @-@ preferred vote against the Liberals ' Hal G.P. Colebatch .
On 21 October 1999 , Warnock announced her departure at the next election for personal reasons , and threw her support behind former Town of Vincent mayor John Hyde , a member of the Centre faction of the Labor Party who had the support of the Left faction and some Centre members of Parliament . However , the key Centre unions had backed former ministerial adviser Adele Farina for the post , and Labor 's affirmative action policy for candidates in winnable seats meant that failing to pick a female candidate would risk sitting male MPs . A week later , the Centre faction openly split , with a breakaway group endorsing Hyde . On 5 November , Farina withdrew from the contest , leaving Hyde to be preselected unopposed ahead of the 2001 election . He maintained the seat for Labor at the election , becoming the first openly gay man to sit in the Western Australian parliament .
On 9 March 2013 , Liberal candidate and City of Perth councillor Eleni Evangel defeated John Hyde and Labor in an upset victory with a significant swing , becoming the first Liberal member for Perth since the 1960s .
= = Members for Perth = =
= = Results = =
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= West Ham United F.C. =
West Ham United Football Club is a professional football club based in Stratford , East London , England , that competes in the Premier League , England 's top tier of football . They played home games at the Boleyn Ground from 1904 until the end of the 2015 – 16 season when they moved to London Stadium at Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park .
The club was founded in 1895 as Thames Ironworks and reformed in 1900 as West Ham United . The club has traditionally played in a claret and blue home strip with white shorts . West Ham competed in the Southern League and Western League before joining the Football League in 1919 ; they were promoted to the top flight in 1923 , when they also played in the first FA Cup Final at Wembley . In 1940 , the club won the inaugural Football League War Cup .
West Ham have been winners of the FA Cup three times , in 1964 , 1975 , and 1980 , and have also been runners @-@ up twice , in 1923 , and 2006 . The club have reached two major European finals , winning the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1965 and finishing runners up in the same competition in 1976 . West Ham also won the Intertoto Cup in 1999 . They are one of eight clubs never to have fallen below the second tier of English football , spending 58 of 90 league seasons in the top flight . The club 's highest league position to date came in 1985 – 86 when they achieved third place in the then First Division .
Three West Ham players were members of the 1966 World Cup final @-@ winning England team : captain Bobby Moore and goalscorers Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The earliest generally accepted incarnation of West Ham United was founded in 1895 as the Thames Ironworks team by foreman and local league referee Dave Taylor and owner Arnold Hills and was announced in the Thames Ironworks Gazette of June 1895 .
The team played on a strictly amateur basis for 1895 at least , with a team featuring a number of works employees including Thomas Freeman ( ships fireman ) , Walter Parks ( clerk ) , Tom Mundy , Walter Tranter and James Lindsay ( all boilermakers ) , William Chapman , George Sage , and William Chamberlain and apprentice riveter Charlie Dove .
The club , Thames Ironworks were the first ever winners of the West Ham Charity Cup in 1895 contested by clubs in the West Ham locality , then won the London League in 1897 . They turned professional in 1898 upon entering the Southern League Second Division , and were promoted to the First Division at the first attempt . The following year they came second from bottom , but had established themselves as a fully fledged competitive team . They comfortably fended off the challenge of local rivals Fulham in a relegation play @-@ off , 5 – 1 in late April 1900 and retained their First Division status .
The team initially played in full dark blue kits , as inspired by Mr. Hills , who had been an Oxford University " Blue , " but changed the following season by adopting the sky blue shirts and white shorts combination worn through 1897 to 1899 . In 1899 , they acquired their now @-@ traditional home kit combination of claret shirts and sky blue sleeves in a wager involving Aston Villa players , who were League Champions at the time .
Following growing disputes over the running and financing of the club , in June 1900 Thames Ironworks F.C. was disbanded , then almost immediately relaunched on 5 July 1900 as West Ham United F.C. with Syd King as their manager and future manager Charlie Paynter as his assistant . Because of the original " works team " roots and links ( still represented upon the club badge ) , they are still known as " the Irons " or " the Hammers " amongst fans and the media .
= = = Birth of West Ham United = = =
West Ham Utd joined the Western League for the 1901 season while also continuing to play in the Southern Division 1 . In 1907 , West Ham were crowned the Western League Division 1B Champions , and then defeated 1A champions Fulham 1 – 0 to become the Western League Overall Champions . The reborn club continued to play their games at the Memorial Grounds in Plaistow ( funded by Arnold Hills ) but moved to a pitch in the Upton Park area in the guise of the Boleyn Ground stadium in 1904 . West Ham 's first game in their new home was against fierce rivals Millwall ( themselves an Ironworks team , albeit for a rival company ) drawing a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 and with West Ham running out 3 – 0 winners , and as the Daily Mirror wrote on 2 September 1904 , " Favoured by the weather turning fine after heavy rains of the morning , West Ham United began their season most auspiciously yesterday evening ; when they beat Millwall by 3 goals to 0 on their new enclosure at Upton Park . "
In 1919 , still under King 's leadership , West Ham gained entrance to the Football League Second Division , their first game being a 1 – 1 draw with Lincoln City , and were promoted to Division One in 1923 , also making it to the first ever FA Cup Final to be held at the old Wembley stadium . Their opponents were Bolton Wanderers . This was also known as the White Horse Final , so named because an estimated 200 @,@ 000 people came to see the match ; spilling out on to the pitch , which had to be cleared prior to kick @-@ off , by " Billie , " a giant white horse ( actually grey ) being ridden by PC George Scorey . The Cup Final match itself ended 2 – 0 to Bolton . The team enjoyed mixed success in Division 1 but retained their status for ten years and reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final in 1933 .
In 1932 , the club was relegated to Division Two and long term custodian Syd King was sacked after serving the club in the role of manager for 32 years , and as a player from 1899 to 1903 . Following relegation , King had mental health problems . He appeared drunk at a board meeting and soon after committed suicide . He was replaced with his assistant manager Charlie Paynter , who himself had been with West Ham in a number of roles since 1897 and who went on to serve the team in this role until 1950 for a total of 480 games . The club spent most of the next 30 years in this division , first under Paynter and then later under the leadership of former player Ted Fenton . Fenton succeeded in getting the club once again promoted to the top level of English football in 1958 , and , with the considerable input of player Malcolm Allison , helped develop both the initial batch of future West Ham stars and West Ham 's approach to the game .
= = = Glory years = = =
Ron Greenwood was appointed as Fenton 's successor in 1961 and soon led the club to two major trophies , winning the FA Cup in 1964 . The team was led by the young Bobby Moore . They also won the European Cup Winners ' Cup . During the 1966 FIFA World Cup , key members of the tournament winners England were West Ham players , including the captain , Bobby Moore ; Martin Peters ( who scored in the final ) ; and Geoff Hurst , who scored the first , and only , hat @-@ trick in a men 's World Cup final . All three players had come through the youth team at West Ham .
There is a " Champions " statue in Barking Road , opposite The Boleyn Tavern , commemorating West Ham 's " three sons " who helped win the 1966 World Cup : Bobby Moore , Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters . Also included on the statue is Everton 's Ray Wilson .
They also won the FA Cup in 1975 by defeating Fulham 2 – 0 . The Fulham team had former England captains Alan Mullery and West Ham legend Bobby Moore .
After a difficult start to the 1974 – 75 season , Greenwood moved himself " upstairs " to become general manager and , without informing the board , appointed his assistant John Lyall as team manager . The result was instant success – the team scored 20 goals in their first four games combined and won the FA Cup , becoming the last team to win the FA Cup with an all @-@ English side when they beat Fulham 2 – 0 in the 1975 final . Lyall then guided West Ham to another European Cup Winners ' Cup final in 1976 , though the team lost the match 4 – 2 to Belgian side Anderlecht . Greenwood 's tenure as general manager lasted less than three years , as he was appointed to manage England in the wake of Don Revie 's resignation in 1977 .
= = = Ups and downs = = =
In 1978 , West Ham were again relegated to Division Two , but Lyall was retained as manager and led the team to an FA Cup Final win against Arsenal in 1980 , their last major honour . They reached the final by defeating Everton in the semi @-@ final . The Hammers won 1 – 0 , with a goal scored from a header by Trevor Brooking in the 13th minute . This is notable as no team outside the top division has won the trophy since . West Ham were promoted to Division One in 1981 , and finished in the top ten of the first division for the next three seasons before achieving their highest @-@ ever league finish of third in 1985 – 86 ; a group of players which came to be known as The Boys of 86 . However , they suffered relegation again in 1989 , which resulted in Lyall 's sacking . He was awarded an ex gratia payment of £ 100 @,@ 000 but left the club in what Lyall described as " upsetting " circumstances , meriting only 73 words in a terse acknowledgement of his service in the club programme . Lyall left West Ham after 34 years service .
After Lyall , Lou Macari briefly led the team , though he resigned after less than a single season in order to clear his name of allegations of illegal betting while manager of Swindon Town . He was replaced by former player Billy Bonds . In Bonds ' first full season , 1990 – 91 , West Ham again secured promotion to Division One . Now back in the top flight , Bonds saw West Ham through one of their most controversial seasons . With the club planning to introduce a bond scheme , there was crowd unrest . West Ham finished last and were relegated back to Division Two after only one season . However , they rebounded strongly in 1992 – 93 . With Trevor Morley and Clive Allen scoring 40 goals , they guaranteed themselves second place on the last day of the season with a 2 – 0 home win against Cambridge United , and with it promotion to the Premier League .
With the team in the Premier League , there was a need to rebuild the team . Oxford United player Joey Beauchamp was recruited for a fee of £ 1 @.@ 2 million . Shortly after arriving at the club , however , he became unhappy , citing homesickness from his native Oxford as the reason . Bonds in particular found this attitude hard to understand compared to his own committed , never @-@ say @-@ die approach ; providing for Bonds ' further evidence of the decay in the modern game and modern player . Fifty @-@ eight days later , Beauchamp was signed by Swindon Town for a club @-@ record combined fee of £ 800 @,@ 000 , which included defender Adrian Whitbread going in the opposite direction . Whitbread was valued at £ 750 @,@ 000 in the deal .
Assistant manager Harry Redknapp was also now taking a bigger role in the transfer of players , with the club 's approval . With rumours of his old club Bournemouth being prepared to offer him a position , the West Ham board and their managing director , Peter Storrie , made a controversial move . The board were anxious not to lose Redknapp 's services and offered Bonds a place away from the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of the club — on the West Ham board . This would have allowed them to appoint Redknapp as manager . Bonds refused the post offered and walked away from the club . His accusations of deceit and manipulation by the board and by Redknapp have continued to cause ill @-@ feeling . Peter Storrie claimed they that they had handled the situation correctly , saying , " If Harry had gone to Bournemouth , there was a good chance Bill would have resigned anyway , so we were in a no @-@ win situation . We 're sad that Bill is going , and it 's a big blow but it 's time to move on and we have appointed a great manager . " Redknapp became manager on 10 August 1994 .
Redknapp 's time at West Ham was notable for the turnover of players during his tenure and for the level of attractive football and success which had not been seen since the managership of John Lyall . Over 134 players passed through the club while he was manager , producing a net transfer fee deficit of £ 16 million even after the £ 18 million sale of Rio Ferdinand to Leeds United . Some were notably successful , such as the signings of Stuart Pearce , Trevor Sinclair , Paolo Di Canio , John Hartson , Eyal Berkovic and Ian Wright . Meanwhile , some were expensive , international players who failed at West Ham , such as Florin Raducioiu ; Davor Šuker , who earned as much in wages as the revenue gained from one entire stand and yet made only eight appearances ; Christian Bassila , who cost £ 720 @,@ 000 and played only 86 minutes of football ; Titi Camara ; Gary Charles , whose wages amounted to £ 4 @.@ 4 million but made only three starts for the club ; Rigobert Song ; Paulo Futre ; and Marco Boogers , a player often quoted as one of the biggest failures in the Premier League . His first season in charge saw West Ham fighting the threat of relegation until the last few weeks , while his third season would also see another relegation battle . Always willing to enter the transfer market , Redknapp bought in the winter transfer window John Hartson and Paul Kitson who added the impetus needed at the season 's end .
In 1999 , West Ham finished fifth , their highest position in the top flight since 1986 . They also won the Intertoto Cup beating French club Metz to qualify for the 1999 – 2000 UEFA Cup . Things began to falter for Redknapp with the sale for £ 18 million to Leeds United of Rio Ferdinand in November 2000 . Redknapp used the transfer money poorly with purchases such as Ragnvald Soma , who cost £ 800 @,@ 000 and played only seven league games , Camera and Song . Redknapp felt he needed more funds with which to deal in the transfer market . Chairman Brown lost patience with Redknapp due to his demands for further transfer funds . In June 2001 , called to a meeting with Brown expecting to discuss contracts , he was fired . His assistant Frank Lampard left too , making the sale of his son Frank Lampard , Jr . , inevitable ; in the summer of 2001 , he joined Chelsea for £ 11 million .
With several names , such as former player Alan Curbishley , now linked with the job , Chairman Brown recruited from within the club , appointing reserve team coach Glenn Roeder as manager on 9 May 2001 . He had already failed in management with Gillingham , where he lost 22 of the 35 games he managed , and Watford . His first big signings were the return of Don Hutchison for £ 5 million and Czech centre back Tomáš Řepka . Finishing 7th in his first season Roeder , in his office at Upton Park , suffered a blocked blood vessel in his brain . Now needing medical help and recuperation , former stalwart Trevor Brooking stood in as caretaker manager . Despite not losing another game , the Hammers were relegated on the last day of the season at Birmingham City with a record for a relegated club of 42 points . Ten seasons of top tier football were over . Many top players including Joe Cole , Di Canio and Kanoute all left the club .
The next season , now in the second tier , Roeder resumed his stint as manager . Results were still poor , however , and after an away defeat to Rotherham United , he was sacked on 24 August 2003 . Brooking again took over as caretaker . He lost only one game , a 2 – 0 away defeat to Gillingham and is known as " the best manager West Ham never had . " Former Crystal Palace player and manager of Reading Alan Pardew was lined up to be the next bench boss . Reading and their chairman , John Madejski , however , were reluctant to let him leave . After serving a period of notice and gardening leave , and with West Ham paying Reading £ 380 @,@ 000 in compensation , he was appointed manager on 18 October 2003 , their tenth manager . Pardew set out to rebuild the side bringing in Nigel Reo @-@ Coker , Marlon Harewood and Brian Deane . In his first season in charge , they made the playoff final only to lose to Crystal Palace . His signings of Bobby Zamora , Matthew Etherington and veterans Chris Powell and Teddy Sheringham saw West Ham finishing sixth and subsequently beat Preston North End 1 – 0 thanks to a Zamora goal in the 2005 playoff final , securing a return to the Premier League . After ensuring promotion , Pardew said , " It 's a team effort . We defended well and we 're back where we belong . "
= = = Post @-@ 2005 seasons = = =
On their return to the top division , West Ham finished in ninth place , The highlight of the 2005 – 06 season , however , was reaching the FA Cup final and taking favourites Liverpool to a penalty shootout after a 3 – 3 draw . West Ham lost the shootout , but nonetheless gained entry to the following season 's UEFA Cup as Liverpool had already qualified for the Champions League . In August 2006 , West Ham completed a major coup on the last day of the transfer window after completing the signings of Carlos Tevez and Javier Mascherano . The club was eventually bought by an Icelandic consortium , led by Eggert Magnússon , in November 2006 . Manager Alan Pardew was sacked after poor form during the season and was replaced by former Charlton Athletic manager Alan Curbishley .
The signings of Mascherano and Tevez were investigated by the Premier League , who were concerned that details of the transfers had been omitted from official records . The club was found guilty and fined 5 @.@ 5 million pounds in April 2007 . However , West Ham avoided a points deduction which ultimately became critical in their avoidance of relegation at the end of the 2006 – 07 season . Following on from this event , Wigan Athletic chairman Dave Whelan , supported by other sides facing possible relegation , including Fulham and Sheffield United , threatened legal action . West Ham escaped relegation by winning seven of their last nine games , including a 1 – 0 win over Arsenal , and on the last day of the season defeated newly crowned League Champions Manchester United 1 – 0 with a goal by Tevez to finish 15th .
In the 2007 – 08 season , West Ham remained reasonably consistently in the top half of the league table , with Fredrik Ljungberg in the team , despite a slew of injuries ; new signing Craig Bellamy missed most of the campaign , while Kieron Dyer was out from August 2007 . The last game of the season , at the Boleyn Ground , saw West Ham draw 2 – 2 against Aston Villa , ensuring a tenth @-@ place finish three points ahead of rivals Tottenham Hotspur . It was a five @-@ place improvement on the previous season , and most importantly West Ham were never under any realistic threat of relegation .
After a row with the board over the sale of defenders Anton Ferdinand and George McCartney to Sunderland , manager Alan Curbishley resigned on 3 September 2008 . His successor was former Chelsea striker Gianfranco Zola , who took over on 11 September 2008 to become the club 's first non @-@ British manager . In the 2008 – 09 season , West Ham finished ninth , a single place improvement .
In the 2009 – 10 season , West Ham started strongly with a 2 – 0 win over newly promoted Wolverhampton Wanderers with goals from Mark Noble and newly appointed captain Matthew Upson . A League Cup match against old rivals Millwall brought about violent riots outside the ground as well as pitch invasions and crowd trouble inside Upton Park . In August 2009 , the financial concerns of Icelandic owners parent companies left the current owners unable to provide any funds until a new owner was found . The club 's shirt sponsor SBOBET provided the club with help purchase a much needed striker , the Italian Alessandro Diamanti .
West Ham had a poor season which involved a prolonged battle against relegation . They finally secured their survival with two games remaining by defeating Wigan 3 – 2 . The club managed to take 35 points from 38 games , seven fewer than the total they had when relegated seven years prior . On 11 May 2010 , two days after the end of the 2009 – 10 season , West Ham announced the termination of Zola 's contract with immediate effect . On 3 June 2010 , Avram Grant signed a four @-@ year deal to become the next manager of West Ham subject to a work permit . West Ham 's form continued to be poor with the team seldom outside the relegation zone , placing Grant 's future as manager under serious doubt . A 4 – 0 Football League Cup quarter @-@ final win over Manchester United was an otherwise bright spot in a disappointing season . West Ham 's form in the Premier League did not affect their form in the two domestic cups . The Hammers reached the semi @-@ final of the League Cup before being eliminated by eventual winners Birmingham City as well as the quarter final of the FA cup before a 2 – 1 defeat at Stoke City .
On 15 May 2011 , West Ham 's relegation to the Championship was confirmed after a comeback from Wigan at the DW Stadium . With West Ham leading 0 – 2 at half @-@ time through two Demba Ba goals , Wigan battled back to win 3 – 2 thanks to an added @-@ time strike from Charles N 'Zogbia . Following the loss , West Ham announced the sacking of manager Avram Grant just one season into his tenure . On 1 June 2011 , Sam Allardyce was appointed as manager as Grant 's replacement .
The club finished third in the 2011 – 12 Football League Championship with 86 points and took part in the play @-@ offs . They beat Cardiff City in the play off semi @-@ final 5 – 0 on aggregate to reach the final against Blackpool at Wembley on 19 May 2012 . Carlton Cole opened the scoring , and although Blackpool equalised early in the second half , Ricardo Vaz Tê scored the winner for West Ham in the 87th minute .
West Ham , on their return to the Premier League , signed former players James Colllins and George McCartney on permanent deals , as well as record signing Matt Jarvis and Andy Carroll on loan . They won their first game of the season , on 18 August 2012 , 1 – 0 against Aston Villa thanks to a Kevin Nolan goal . The highlight of the first half of the season was a 3 – 1 home win against reigning European champions Chelsea on 1 December 2012 which saw them in eighth position and 12th at the end of the year . On 22 March 2013 , West Ham secured a 99 @-@ year lease deal on the Olympic Stadium , with it planned to be used as their home ground from the 2016 – 17 season . Tenth place was secured at the end of the season with nine home wins and only three away from home . Only 11 away goals were scored , the lowest of the entire league . In June 2013 , West Ham again broke their record transfer fee with the signing of Andy Carroll on a six @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 15 million .
In 2013 – 14 , West Ham finished 13th in the Premier League . They also reached the semi @-@ finals of the League Cup before losing 9 – 0 on aggregate to eventual cup @-@ winners Manchester City . A feature of the season were the criticisms of manager Sam Allardyce by supporters relating to his perceived negative playing tactics . West Ham finished 12th in the 2014 – 15 Premier League , one place higher than the previous season . Minutes after the last game of the season , on 24 May 2015 , the club announced that Allardyce 's contract would not be renewed and that they were seeking a new manager . By winning the Premier League Fair Play table for 2014 – 15 , West Ham qualified for the 2015 – 16 UEFA Europa League , entering at the first qualifying round . On 9 June 2015 , former West Ham player Slaven Bilić was appointed as manager on a three @-@ year contract . In Bilić 's fourth game in charge , the team won at Anfield for the first time in 52 years , beating Liverpool 0 – 3 , with goals from Manuel Lanzini , Mark Noble and Diafra Sakho . In Bilić 's first season as manager , West Ham finished 7th in the Premier League . The team broke several records for the club in the Premier League era , including the highest number of points with 62 , the highest number of goals in a season with 65 , the least number of games lost in a season with eight and the lowest number of away defeats with five . Following Manchester United 's win in the 2016 FA Cup Final , West Ham took their Europa League place and qualified for the third qualifying round of the 2016 @-@ 17 UEFA Europa League .
= = Crest and colours = =
= = = Crest = = =
The original club crest was a crossed pair of rivet hammers ; tools commonly used in the iron and shipbuilding industry . A castle was later ( circa 1903 – 04 ) added to the crest and represents a prominent local building , Green Street House , which was known as " Boleyn Castle " through an association with Anne Boleyn . The manor was reportedly one of the sites at which Henry VIII courted his second queen , though in truth there is no factual evidence other than the tradition of rumour .
The castle may have also been added as a result of the contribution made to the club by players of Old Castle Swifts , or even the adoption ( in 1904 ) of Boleyn Castle FC as their reserve side when they took over their grounds on the site .
The crest was redesigned and updated by London design agency Springett Associates in the late 1990s , featuring a wider yellow castle with fewer cruciform " windows " along with the peaked roofs being removed ; the tops of the towers had previously made the castle appear more akin to Disneyland 's Sleeping Beauty 's Castle than a functioning fortress . The designer also altered other details to give a more substantial feel to the iconography .
When the club redesigned the facade of the stadium ( construction finished 2001 – 02 ) the " castle " from the later badge was incorporated into the structure at the main entrance to the ground . A pair of towers were prominent features of the ground 's appearance , both bearing the club 's modern insignia ( which was also located in the foyer and other strategic locations ) .
A new badge was approved by supporters in July 2014 and was introduced following the end of the 2015 – 16 season , when the club moved into the Olympic Stadium . It removes the Boleyn Castle due to the club moving away , leaving just the crossed hammers , which the club says is inspired by the crest during the career of Bobby Moore . The word " London " will be introduced below to " establish the club firmly on the international stage , " and the more minimalist approach is to give a " strong statement that is instantly West Ham United . " The shape of the crest is that of the hull of HMS Warrior , the first ironclad warship in the Royal Navy , which was built by Thames Ironworks .
= = = Colours = = =
The original colours of the team were dark blue , due to Thames Ironworks chairman Arnold Hills being a former student of Oxford University . However , the team used a variety of kits including the claret and sky blue house colours of Thames Ironworks , as well as sky blue or white kit .
The Irons permanently adopted claret and blue for home colours in the summer of 1899 . Thames Ironworks right @-@ half Charlie Dove received the Aston Villa kit from his father William Dove , who was a professional sprinter of national repute , as well as being involved with the coaching at Thames Ironworks . Bill Dove had been at a fair in Birmingham , close to Villa Park , the home ground of Aston Villa and was challenged to a race against four Villa players , who wagered money that one of them would win .
Bill Dove defeated them and , when they were unable to pay the bet , one of the Villa players who was responsible for washing the team 's kit offered a complete team 's " football kits " to Dove in payment . The Aston Villa player subsequently reported to his club that the kit was " missing . " This , however , is often disputed . The predecessors of Thames Ironworks , Old Castle Swifts FC , played in pale blue shirts , white shorts and claret socks as early as 1892 , around the same time Aston Villa played in said same colours .
Thames Ironworks , and later West Ham United , retained the claret yoke / blue sleeves design , but also continued to use their previously favoured colours for their away kits .
= = = = Shirt sponsors and kit suppliers = = = =
Since January 2015 West Ham 's shirts have been sponsored by Betway . Previous sponsors have included AVCO Trust ( 1983 – 89 ) , BAC Windows ( 1989 – 93 ) , Dagenham Motors ( 1993 – 97 ) , Dr. Martens ( 1998 – 2003 ) , JobServe ( 2003 – 07 ) , XL.com ( 2007 – 08 ) , SBOBET ( 2008 – 13 ) , and Alpari FX ( 2013 – 15 ) . The deal with XL ended early due to the XL Leisure Group being placed in administration in September 2008 . During this period , players had their squad numbers ironed over the existing sponsorship logo , before a deal with SBOBET was finalised . The deal with Alpari also ended early , because of the sponsor entering liquidation .
The current kit manufacturers , Umbro , have made West Ham 's kit from 2007 – 10 , and from 2015 to the present . Previous manufacturers have been Admiral ( 1976 – 80 ) , Adidas ( 1980 – 87 , 2013 – 15 ) , Scoreline ( 1987 – 89 ) , Bukta ( 1989 – 93 ) , Pony ( 1993 – 99 ) , Fila ( 1999 – 2003 ) , Reebok ( 2003 – 07 ) , and Macron ( 2010 – 13 ) .
= = Supporters , hooliganism and rivalries = =
= = = Supporters = = =
The team 's supporters are famous for their rendition of the chorus of their team 's anthem , " I 'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " introduced to the club by former manager Charlie Paynter in the late 1920s . A Pears soap commercial featuring the curly haired child in the Millais ' " Bubbles " was well known at the time . The child resembled a player , Billy J. " Bubbles " Murray , from local schoolboy team , Park School , where the headmaster was Cornelius Beal . Beal was known locally for his music and rhyme and wrote special words to the tune of " I 'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " whenever any player was having a good game .
Beal was a friend of Paynter , while Murray was a West Ham trialist and played football at schoolboy level with a number of West Ham players such as Jim Barrett . Through this contrivance of association the club 's fans took it upon themselves to begin singing the popular music hall tune before home games , sometimes reinforced by the presence of a house band requested to play the refrain by Charlie Paynter .
There is a slight change to the lyrics sung by the Upton Park faithful . The second line 's " nearly reach the sky " is changed to " they reach the sky " , " Then like my dreams " is also changed to " And like my dreams " . In addition the fans begin a chant of " United , United ! " to cap it off .
The 1975 FA Cup version – which contains the original lyrics , and features vocals from the team 's then @-@ current players – is always played before home games , with the home crowd joining in and carrying the song on after the music stops at the verse line " Fortune 's always hiding " . Bubbles was published as a waltz whereas during the game the crowd sing it in common time .
Like other teams , the team also have a history of adopting or adapting popular songs of the day to fit particular events , themes , players or personas . These have included serious renditions of theatre and movie classics such as " The Bells are Ringing , " along with more pun @-@ laden or humorous efforts , such as chanting former player Paolo Di Canio 's name to the canzone " La donna è mobile " by Giuseppe Verdi , or D.I. Canio to the tune of Ottawan 's " D.I.S.C.O. , " or the chant of " Who Let The Potts Out ? " to the tune of Baha Men 's " Who Let the Dogs Out ? " when Steve Potts could be seen warming up to come on as substitute late on in his career , or " That 's Zamora " to the tune of Dean Martin 's 1953 " That 's Amore " in honour of former striker Bobby Zamora . Other former players to be serenaded include Christian Dailly with vastly @-@ altered lyrics to Frankie Valli 's " Can 't Take My Eyes Off You , " Joe Cole with Spandau Ballet 's " Gold " song title sung as " Cole " and Ludek Miklosko . A song for West Ham favourite Bobby Moore , " Viva Bobby Moore , " is also sung based on The Business 's " Oi ! " rendition of the song , based on The Equals ' 1969 release " Viva Bobby Joe . " In 2016 , supporters adapted the lyrics of Billy Ray Cyrus ' Achy Breaky Heart in honour of Dimitri Payet
Fans gained national attention after giving a torrid time to David Beckham in his first away match of 1998 – 99 the season after the England midfielder was sent off for a petulant foul on Diego Simeone . Coinciding with the game , there were claims ( and an image taken ) that fans , organised by a hardcore , had hung an effigy of the player outside a local pub . Although it was later revealed that the pub was in South @-@ East London , the heartland of West Ham 's greatest rivals Millwall . The West Ham fans did boo Beckham 's every touch of the ball during the game , however .
They have also displayed a particular zeal when it comes to abusing former players particularly those who are perceived to have abandoned the club , or performed some disservice . Famously Paul Ince , Frank Lampard , Jermain Defoe , and Nigel Reo @-@ Coker have borne the brunt of verbal assaults and a guaranteed hostile reception at Upton Park . However , players such as Joe Cole , Michael Carrick , Rio Ferdinand , Bobby Zamora and Carlos Tevez receive applause and even standing ovations in honour of their contributions during their time at the club . Joe Cole subsequently rejoined West Ham from Liverpool midway through the 2012 – 13 season .
= = = Hooliganism = = =
The origins of West Ham 's links with organised football @-@ related violence starts in the 1960s with the establishment of The Mile End Mob ( named after an area of the East End of London ) . During the 1970s and 1980s ( the main era for organised football @-@ related violence ) , West Ham gained further notoriety for the levels of hooliganism in their fan base and antagonistic behaviour towards both their own and rival fans , and the police . During the ' 70s in particular , rival groups of West Ham fans from neighbouring areas often did battle with each other at games , most often groups from the neighbouring districts of Barking and Dagenham .
The Inter City Firm were one of the first " casuals , " so called because they avoided police supervision by not wearing football @-@ related clothing and travelled to away matches on regular InterCity trains , rather than on the cheap and more tightly policed " football special " charter trains . The group were an infamous West Ham @-@ aligned gang . As the firm 's moniker " inter city " suggests violent activities were not confined to local derbies – the hooligans were content to cause trouble at any game , though nearby teams often bore the brunt .
The 2005 independent film Green Street starring Elijah Wood and Charlie Hunnam focuses on a firm of West Ham hooligans .
= = = Rivalries = = =
West Ham have strong rivalries with several other clubs . Most of these are with other London clubs , especially with Tottenham Hotspur in an East versus North London derby and with Chelsea in an East versus West London rivalry . The rivalry between West Ham and Tottenham has been fuelled by players such as Michael Carrick , Martin Peters , Paul Allen , Jermain Defoe and Scott Parker leaving the Hammers to join Tottenham . The rivalry deepened with the appointment of former Hammers manager Harry Redknapp as Tottenham 's manager . Since the 2006 – 07 Premier League season , West Ham have developed a strong rivalry with Yorkshire club Sheffield United due to the dubious circumstances surrounding the transfer of Carlos Tevez , who helped West Ham avoid relegation at Sheffield United 's expense .
The oldest and fiercest rivalry is with Millwall . The two sides are local rivals , having both formed originally around local companies , with players living in the same localities . The early history of both clubs are intertwined , with West Ham proving to be the more successful in a number of meetings between the two teams at the time , resulting in West Ham being promoted at the expense of Millwall . Millwall later declined to join the fledgling Football League while West Ham went on to the top division and an FA Cup final . Later in the 1920s , the rivalry was intensified during strike action which Isle of Dogs @-@ based companies ( i.e. Millwall fans ) refused to support , breeding ill will between the two camps , the bitterness of this betrayal enduring for years . In 1972 , a Millwall supporter died at New Cross station after falling out of a train during a fight with West Ham fans .
The rivalry between West Ham and Millwall has involved considerable violence and is one of the most notorious within the world of football hooliganism . The teams were drawn against each other in the second round of the 2009 – 10 League Cup and met on 25 August 2009 at Upton Park . This was the first time in four years that the two clubs had played each other , and the first ever in the League Cup . Clashes between fans occurred outside the ground , resulting in violence erupting up to half a mile away from the stadium , with serious injuries , include the stabbing of a Millwall supporter , damage to property and several arrests reported by police . There were also several pitch invasions by West Ham supporters which brought a temporary halt to the game . In January 2010 West Ham were fined £ 115 @,@ 000 after being found guilty of violent , threatening , obscene and provocative behaviour and of failing to prevent their fans entering the field of play . Millwall were cleared of all charges .
= = Nicknames = =
The team and supporters are known as The Hammers , in part because of the club 's origins as Thames Ironworks . They are also known as The Irons and The Cockney Boys . Other nicknames are The Academy of Football , or just The Academy .
= = Stadium = =
Until 2016 , West Ham were based at the Boleyn Ground , commonly known as Upton Park , in Newham , East London . The capacity of the Boleyn Ground was 35 @,@ 016 , and had been West Ham 's ground since 1904 . Prior to this , in their previous incarnation of Thames Ironworks , they played at Hermit Road in Canning Town and briefly at Browning Road in East Ham , before moving to the Memorial Grounds in Plaistow in 1897 . They retained the stadium during their transition to becoming West Ham United and were there for a further four seasons before moving to the Boleyn Ground in 1904 .
Former chairman Eggert Magnússon made clear his ambition for West Ham to move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics , a desire reiterated by current chairmen Gold and Sullivan when they assumed control of the club stating that they felt it was a logical move for the Government as it was in the borough of Newham .
In February 2010 , however , the British Olympic Minister stated that West Ham would not get the stadium , and it would instead be used for track and field . On 17 May 2010 , West Ham and Newham London Borough Council submitted a formal plan to the Olympic Park Legacy Company for the use of the Olympic Stadium following the 2012 Olympic Games . The proposal was for a stadium with a capacity of 60 @,@ 000 which would retain a competition athletics track . The proposal was welcomed by the chairman of UK athletics , Ed Warner , who said , " I think it will feel great as a football stadium and I speak as a football fan as well the chairman of UK Athletics . I think you 'd find West Ham would cover the track in the winter season so it wouldn 't look like you had a track between you and the pitch . "
On 30 September 2010 , the club formally submitted its bid for the Olympic Stadium with a presentation at 10 Downing Street , and on 8 October 2010 the world 's largest live entertainment company , Live Nation , endorsed the club 's Olympic Stadium plans . Three days after Live Nation 's endorsement , UK Athletics confirmed its formal support for West Ham United and Newham Council in their joint bid to take over the Olympic Stadium in legacy mode . In November 2010 , West Ham United commenced a search for potential developers for " informal discussions " about what would happen to the ground if it were to win its bid to take over the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Games . According to the club , the site could be vacated and open to redevelopment by the summer of 2014 . On 11 February 2011 , the Olympic Park Legacy Committee selected West Ham United as the preferred club to move into the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Games .
The decision in favour of West Ham 's bid was unanimous , although controversial as local rivals Tottenham Hotspur had also been bidding for the venue . However , hopes of moving to the stadium were since placed under doubt following a legal challenge by Tottenham Hotspur and Leyton Orient . With Leyton Orient fearful that having West Ham playing less than a mile away from their Brisbane Road ground could steal support from the club and put them out of business . However both clubs appeal for a judicial review were rejected on 23 June 2011 . On 3 March 2011 West Ham United 's proposed move to the Olympic Stadium was formally approved by the British government and Mayor of London Boris Johnson .
On 8 June 2011 , it was confirmed that the Westfield Shopping Centre had been in detailed talks with West Ham for naming rights of the new Olympic stadium which could be called the Westfield Stadium . West Ham announced plans to move from the Boleyn Ground from the 2014 – 15 season . In August 2011 , an independent investigation initiated by the Olympic Park Legacy Company upheld the decision to award West Ham the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Games . However , on 29 June 2011 Tottenham Hotspur announced they were returning to the High Court again to fight the decision to award West Ham the stadium , in an oral hearing , to try and overturn the original high court appeal being rejected . On 25 August 2011 Tottenham Hotspur and Leyton Orient were in fact granted a judicial review , by the High Court , into the Olympic Stadium bidding process . On the 11 October 2011 the deal to award West Ham the Olympic Stadium collapsed over concerns of legal pressure , and the government deciding the stadium will stay in public ownership . Six days later Tottenham Hotspur and Leyton Orient announced they had ended their legal challenge after the deal collapsed .
Once the original deal collapsed a new process to select a tenant was begun . West Ham immediately announced plans to become tenants of the stadium . By March 2012 , West Ham was one of the four bidders for the Stadium . With a decision due by the Olympic Park Legacy Company in May 2012 , Boris Johnson delayed the final selection of future tenants until completion of the 2012 Olympics stating that it was " overwhelmingly likely " that the tenants would be West Ham United .
It was announced on 22 March 2013 that the team signed a 99 @-@ year lease for the Olympic Stadium after the government agreed to put in an extra £ 25 million towards the costs of converting the site . It is seen as a massive step forward for the club . They plan to move into the Stadium before the start of the 2016 – 17 season . Supporters of rival clubs had pressed for an inquiry into the granting of West Ham 's tenancy , arguing that West Ham were being given an unfair advantage by the arrangement . In September 2015 , however , the government rejected holding such an inquiry .
= = The Academy of Football = =
The club promotes the popular idea of West Ham being " The Academy of Football , " with the moniker adorning the ground 's new stadium façade . The comment predominantly refers to the club 's youth development system which was established by manager Ted Fenton during the 1950s , that has seen a number of international players emerge through the ranks . Most notably the club contributed three players to the World Cup winning England side of 1966 including club icon Bobby Moore , as well as Martin Peters and Geoff Hurst who between them scored all of England 's goals in the eventual 4 – 2 victory . Other academy players that have gone on to play for England have included Trevor Brooking , Alvin Martin , Tony Cottee and Paul Ince .
Since the late 1990s , Rio Ferdinand , Frank Lampard , Joe Cole , Michael Carrick and Glen Johnson began their careers at West Ham and all went on to play for much bigger clubs . Most recently , the likes of first teamers Mark Noble and James Tomkins , as well as Welsh international Jack Collison , have emerged through the Academy . Frustratingly for fans and managers alike , the club has struggled to retain many of these players due to ( predominantly ) financial reasons . West Ham , during the 2007 – 08 season , had an average of 6 @.@ 61 English players in the starting line up , higher than any other Premier League club , which cemented their status as one of the few Premier League clubs left that were recognised to be bringing through young English talent and were recognised as having " homegrown players . " Between 2000 and 2011 , the club produced eight England players , as many as Manchester United and one fewer than Arsenal . Much of the success of The Academy has been attributed to Tony Carr , who has been West Ham youth coach since 1973 .
= = Players = =
As of 11 July 2016 .
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Development squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Academy = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
6 Bobby Moore , Defender ( 1958 – 74 ) – posthumous honour
38 Dylan Tombides , Striker ( 2010 – 14 ) – posthumous honour
= = = Club captains = = =
= = = West Ham dream team = = =
In the 2003 book The Official West Ham United Dream Team , 500 fans were quizzed for who would be in their all time Hammers Eleven . The voting was restricted to players from the modern era .
= = = Hammer of the Year = = =
The following is a list of the " Hammer of the Year award " won by West Ham United players . Trevor Brooking was the first player for West Ham United to have been honoured with the title of Hammer of the Year three times in a row in 1976 , 1977 and 1978 . Scott Parker repeated this feat between 2009 – 2011 . Brooking has won the award the most times , on five occasions : 1972 , 1976 , 1977 , 1978 and 1984 . Bobby Moore , Billy Bonds and Julian Dicks have each won it four times .
Bobby Moore has been runner @-@ up four times , while Billy Bonds and Tony Cottee have both been runners @-@ up three times .
Billy Bonds and Trevor Brooking 's wins are notable in the amount of time between first and last Hammer of the Year award . Bonds has 16 years separating his wins whilst Brooking has 12 .
= = = Lifetime Achievement Award = = =
In 2013 , West Ham United introduced a new annual award , the West Ham United Lifetime Achievement Award .
The first award was presented to club @-@ record appearance maker Billy Bonds , who picked up the award on the pitch at Upton Park before kick @-@ off against Cardiff City on the opening day of the 2013 – 14 season .
The 2014 award was presented to Sir Trevor Brooking , a record five @-@ time winner of the Hammer of the Year award . Brooking received the award before the 2014 – 15 season curtain @-@ raiser against Tottenham Hotspur on 16 August 2014 . Brooking had already had the Centenary Stand at the Boleyn ground named after him in 2009 .
The 2015 award was awarded to Martin Peters .
On 3 May 2016 , it was announced via the club 's official website that the fourth recipient of the award would be Sir Geoff Hurst , the club 's second all @-@ time leading goalscorer , and scorer of a hat @-@ trick in the 1966 World Cup Final . Hurst would be honoured at the club 's 2015 / 16 Player Awards Ceremony .
= = Current staff = =
As of 10 July 2015 .
Staff and directors
Coaching staff
= = Managers = =
West Ham have had only fifteen permanent managers in their history and an additional three caretaker managers . The current manager is Slaven Bilić who was appointed on 9 June 2015 .
= = Ownership and chairmen = =
In January 2010 , David Sullivan and David Gold acquired a 50 % share in West Ham given them overall operational and commercial control . At the end of May 2010 , David Gold and David Sullivan purchased a further 10 % stake in the club at a cost of £ 8 million . Taking their controlling stake to 60 % , they announced that they could open up shares for fans to purchase . On 9 August 2010 , Gold and Sullivan increased their shares up to 30 @.@ 6 % each with " minority investors , " ( which included former owner Terry Brown , purchasing a further 3 @.@ 8 % of the club at a cost of around £ 3 – 4 million ) leaving Icelandic Straumur Investment Bank owning 35 % of the club .
On 2 July 2013 , Sullivan acquired a further 25 % of shares after restructuring the debt of the club , leaving Straumur Bank with just 10 % . In order to clear club debts before a move to the Olympic Stadium in 2016 , in December 2014 , Sullivan announced the availability for sale of 20 % of the club . The clearing of club debts , given in July 2013 as £ 70 million , was given as a pre @-@ condition to a move to the Olympic Stadium .
= = European record = =
= = Honours = =
= = Statistics and records = =
= = = Attendance = = =
Highest league attendance : 42 @,@ 322 v Tottenham Hotspur Division One , 17 October 1970
Lowest league attendance : 4 @,@ 373 v Doncaster Rovers , Division Two , 24 February 1955
= = = Transfers = = =
Biggest Transfer fee paid : £ 15 million to Liverpool for Andy Carroll , June 2013 .
Biggest Transfer fee received : £ 18 million from Leeds United for Rio Ferdinand , November 2000
= = = Record results and performances = = =
= = = Victories = = =
League :
Premier League :
Home : 6 – 0 v Barnsley 10 January 1998
Away : 5 – 0 v Derby County 10 November 2007
Division One :
Home : 8 – 0 v Sunderland 19 October 1968
Away : 6 – 1 v Manchester City 8 September 1962
Division Two :
Home : 8 – 0 v Rotherham United 8 March 1958
Away : 6 – 0 v Leicester City 15 February 1923
FA Cup :
Home : 8 – 1 v Chesterfield ( Rd 1 ) 10 January 1914
Away : 5 – 0 v Chatham Town ( 5th qualifying rd ) 28 November 1903
League Cup :
Home : 10 – 0 v Bury ( Rd 2 leg 2 ) ( 12 – 1 aggregate scoreline ) 25 October 1983
Away : 5 – 1 v Cardiff City ( SF leg 2 ) ( 10 – 3 aggregate scoreline ) 2 February 1966
Away : 5 – 1 v Walsall ( Rd 2 ) 13 September 1967
European Cup Winners Cup :
Home : 5 – 1 v Castilla CF ( Rd 1 leg 2 ) ( 6 – 4 aggregate scoreline ) 1 October 1980
Away : 2 – 1 v Lausanne ( QF leg 2 ) ( 6 – 4 aggregate scoreline ) 16 March 1965
UEFA Cup :
Home : 3 – 0 v Osijek ( Rd 1 leg 1 ) 16 September 1999
Home : 3 – 0 v Lusitanos ( Qual Rd 1 leg 1 ) 2 July 2015
Away : 3 – 1 v Osijek ( Rd 1 leg 2 ) 30 September 1999
= = = Defeats = = =
League :
Premier League :
Away : 0 – 6 v Everton 8 May 1999
Division One :
Home : 2 – 8 v Blackburn Rovers 26 December 1963
Away : 0 – 7 v Sheffield Wednesday 28 November 1959
Division Two :
Away : 0 – 7 v Barnsley 1 September 1919
FA Cup :
Away : 0 – 6 v Manchester United ( Rd 4 ) 26 January 2003
League Cup :
Away : 0 – 6 v Oldham Athletic ( SF leg 1 ) 14 February 1990
Away : 0 – 6 v Manchester City ( SF leg 1 ) 8 January 2014
European Cup Winners Cup :
Home : 1 – 4 v Dinamo Tbilisi ( QF leg 1 ) ( 2 – 4 aggregate scoreline ) 4 March 1981
Away : 2 – 4 v FC Den Haag ( QF leg 1 ) ( 5 – 5 aggregate scoreline , West Ham won on away rule ) 3 March 1976
Neutral : 2 – 4 v Anderlecht ( Final ) 5 May 1976
UEFA Cup :
Home : 0 – 1 v Palermo ( Rd 1 leg 1 ) 14 September 2006
Away : 0 – 3 v Palermo ( Rd 1 leg 2 ) 28 September 2006
= = = Club league highs and lows = = =
See also West Ham United F.C. by season
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= SM UB @-@ 50 =
SM UB @-@ 50 was a German Type UB III submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The U @-@ boat was ordered on 20 May 1916 . She was commissioned into the Pola Flotilla of the German Imperial Navy on 12 July 1917 as SM UB @-@ 50 .
The submarine conducted seven patrols and sank 38 ships during the war for a total loss of 97 @,@ 284 gross register tons ( GRT ) . She operated as part of the Pola Flotilla based in Cattaro . UB @-@ 50 surrendered on 16 January 1919 with the remainder of the Pola Flotilla following an order by Admiral Reinhard Scheer to return to port . During her passage through the Straits of Gibraltar , she managed to sink the battleship HMS Britannia . UB @-@ 50 was later broken up at Swansea .
= = Construction = =
UB @-@ 50 was ordered by the German Imperial Navy on 20 May 1916 . She was built by Blohm & Voss , Hamburg and following just under a year of construction , launched at Hamburg on 6 January 1917 . UB @-@ 50 was commissioned later that same year under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kptlt . ) Franz Becker . Like all Type UB III submarines , UB @-@ 50 carried 10 torpedoes and was armed with an 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun . UB @-@ 50 could carry a crew of up to 34 men and had a cruising range of 9 @,@ 040 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 740 km ; 10 @,@ 400 mi ) . UB @-@ 50 had a displacement of 516 t ( 508 long tons ) while surfaced and 651 t ( 641 long tons ) when submerged . Her engines enabled her to travel at 13 @.@ 6 knots ( 25 @.@ 2 km / h ; 15 @.@ 7 mph ) when surfaced and 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) when submerged .
= = Service history = =
= = = First patrol = = =
Soon after she left Pola , UB @-@ 50 encountered the William H. Crawford , a 1 @,@ 593 GRT American sailing ship . It sank after an attack from the U @-@ boat stopped her . Four days later , UB @-@ 50 sighted the 800 GRT British barge R.B.40. UB 50 launched a torpedo which instead hit the British tug towing the ship , the 121 GRT H.s.3. The tug sank , but the barge was not sunk . The following day , UB @-@ 50 found two Portuguese sailboats Correiro De Sines and Comizianes Da Graca at 30 GRT and 32 GRT respectively . They were sunk 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Cape Sines . A day later , she found the Portuguese 233 GRT ship Sado , which she sank about 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ; 18 mi ) south of her prey the day before . Four days later , UB @-@ 50 finally encountered and sank a merchant , this being the 3 @,@ 611 GRT British Polar Prince , carrying coal for Malta . Two days later , she sank the Fabian , a 2 @,@ 246 GRT British steamer going to Liverpool , killing three . Later that day , she sank the Gioffredo Mameli , a 4 @,@ 124 GRT ton Italian steamer carrying ore . The 2 @,@ 464 GRT coal carrying Greek steamer Alkyon was attacked two days later by UB @-@ 50 , sinking close off Oran . The UB 50 followed up with the sinking of the 1 @,@ 670 GRT Norwegian steamer John Knudsen , killing one . Four days later , the 296 GRT Italian sailboat Ciro was scuttled after being hit by UB @-@ 50 , the last ship she would sink before returning to base .
= = = Second patrol = = =
SM UB @-@ 50 began her second patrol with the sinking of the Marc Fraissinet , a 3 @,@ 060 GRT French steamer carrying wood , munitions , and hay to Bizerte . It sank 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) north of Tabarca after being torpedoed by UB @-@ 50 . Later that day UB 50 encountered the Senegal , an 845 GRT Italian steamer , sinking her off the coast of Algeria with no casualties . Three days after that , the Margram Abbey , a 4 @,@ 367 GRT British steamer carrying coal , was found and torpedoed by UB @-@ 50 . It was beached off of the coast of Algeria , but the torpedo damage , which killed two , had wrecked the ship . UB 50 attacked the Antaeus , a 3 @,@ 061 GRT British steamer , three days later off of Cape Bon . There were no casualties , but the captain was taken prisoner . On the following day , UB 50 torpedoed the Amberton , a 4 @,@ 556 GRT British steamer , but she was only damaged . Four days later , the submarine found her last target of her second patrol , the 2 @,@ 774 GRT American steamer Rizal , which sank 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) from Cape Cavallo .
= = = Third patrol = = =
UB @-@ 50 started out her third patrol by finding and sinking the 9 GRT Italian sailboat S. Giuseppe B. off the coast of Africa . She sank the 8 @,@ 293 GRT British steamer City of Lucknow two days later 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) northeast of the Cani Rocks . On Christmas Day , 1917 , UB @-@ 50 sank the Sant ’ Antonio , an 843 GRT Italian sailing vessel , by gunfire near Bizerte . On New Year 's Day , 1918 , the Egyptian Transport , a 4 @,@ 648 GRT British steamer , was damaged during an attack by UB @-@ 50 , which killed five men . It was later beached but refloated . Two days later , the Allanton , a 4 @,@ 253 GRT British steamer carrying coal , was sunk by UB @-@ 50 , which also sunk the Steelville , a 3 @,@ 649 GRT British steamer also carrying coal later that day . Four days later , UB @-@ 50 torpedoed the Arab , a 4 @,@ 191 GRT British steamer coal off the coast of Cape Serrat , killing 21 .
= = = Fourth patrol = = =
UB @-@ 50 's fourth patrol was very successful . In less than a month , she sank six vessels . The first victim was the 2 @,@ 457 GRT French steamer Saint Jean Ii , which went down 22 March 1918 off of Cap Bon . That same day , UB @-@ 50 managed to damage the British steamer Shadwell off of Bizerta . Four days later UB @-@ 50 sank the 11 @,@ 495 GRT Italian steamer Volturno off of Bone ( Annaba ) , Algeria . On 6 April , UB @-@ 50 sank the French vessel Madeleine Iii and on 11 April , she sank the Italian sailing ship Carmela G and the British vessel Highland Prince .
= = = Fifth patrol = = =
UB @-@ 50 began her fifth war patrol by damaging the 3 @,@ 296 GRT British steamer Elswick Grange carrying coal off of the coast of Oran , killing one . Two days later , she ran across the 3 @,@ 152 GRT British steamer Mavisbrook carrying coal . She was torpedoed south east of Cabo de Gata , killing 18 . On that same day , she came upon the 168 GRT Danish three @-@ masted iron @-@ hulled schooner Kirstine Jesen , sinking after being fired upon from UB @-@ 50 's deck gun with no deaths . Two days later , the New Sweden , a 5 @,@ 319 GRT Swedish steamer , was hit by UB @-@ 50 and sank . Two days later , UB @-@ 50 found the 180 GRT Spanish steamer Maria Pia , which sank with no casualties . Three days after that , the 117 GRT French sailboat Animal Lafont and 257 GRT Italian sailboat Santa Teresa were torpedoed by the U @-@ boat with no casualties .
= = = Sixth patrol = = =
Shortly before her sixth patrol , Oberleutnant zur See Heinrich Kukat took over command from Kptlt . Becker . On her sixth patrol , UB @-@ 50 encountered the Imber , a 2 @,@ 514 GRT British steamer and torpedoed her south of Cape St. Maria di Leuca , though she survived . Three days later , UB @-@ 50 sank the War Swallow , a 5 @,@ 216 GRT British merchant ship carrying coal from the River Tyne to Port Said . Another three days passed before UB @-@ 50 found her next target , the Italian steamer Adria 1 , a ship carrying cotton from Palermo to Tunis . It sank , but no lives were lost . Two days later , the 5 @,@ 257 GRT British steamer Upada was torpedoed by UB @-@ 50 killing three , but was only damaged . UB @-@ 50 sank the Messidor , a 3 @,@ 883 GRT British coal steamer two days later , sinking the ship and killing one . The following day , she torpedoed the Rutherglen , a 4 @,@ 214 GRT British steam merchant carrying coal . That was followed by an attack on the Magellan , a 3 @,@ 642 GRT British steamer on the following day . She sank with one man . The last ship sunk on the patrol was the Antonio S. , a 153 GRT Italian sailboat sunk off of the coast of Tunisia .
= = = Seventh patrol = = =
On 9 November 1918 , two days before the Armistice with Germany , UB @-@ 50 sank the British battleship HMS Britannia . The Britannia was on a voyage to Gibraltar when she was torpedoed off Cape Trafalgar . After the initial explosion , the ship began listing ten degrees to port . A few minutes later , another explosion started a fire in a 9 @.@ 2 in ( 230 mm ) magazine , which resulted in a cordite explosion in the magazine . The Britannia stayed at 10 @-@ degrees for 2 ½ hours before sinking . Its 16 @,@ 350 gross register tons made it the largest ship the U @-@ boat ever sank , and the only one UB @-@ 50 would sink during her last patrol .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Alexios Strategopoulos =
Alexios Komnenos Strategopoulos ( Greek : Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Στρατηγόπουλος ) was a Byzantine general during the reign of Michael VIII Palaiologos , rising to the rank of megas domestikos and Caesar . Of noble descent , he appears in the sources already at an advanced age in the early 1250s , leading armies for the Empire of Nicaea against Epirus . After falling out of favour and being imprisoned by Theodore II Laskaris , Strategopoulos sided with the aristocrats around Michael Palaiologos , and supported him in his rise to the throne after Theodore II 's death in 1258 . He participated in the Pelagonia campaign in 1259 , going on to capture Epirus , but his successes were undone in the next year and he was captured by the Epirotes . Released after a few months , he led the unexpected reconquest of Constantinople from the Latin Empire in July 1261 , restoring the Byzantine Empire . He was captured again by the Epirotes in the next year and spent several years in captivity in Italy , before being released . He retired from public affairs and died in the early 1270s .
= = Origin and family = =
Nothing is known of the early years of Alexios Strategopoulos ' life , nor of his exact descent , except that he belonged to the nobility : other Strategopouloi are mentioned in the 11th and 12th centuries , and a John Strategopoulos became megas logothetes ( chief minister ) of the Empire of Nicaea ca . 1216 , although his relation with Alexios is unknown . Strategopoulos was apparently related to the illustrious Komnenos line , as a seal dated to ca . 1255 has been found bearing the inscription " Alexios Strategopoulos from the Komnenos family " .
The date of his birth is likewise unknown , but as he is called an " old man " in 1258 , it must have been around the turn of the 13th century . Of his own family , it is known that he had one son , Constantine , who according to George Pachymeres was married to a daughter of the sebastokrator Isaac Doukas Vatatzes , brother of the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes .
= = Early career = =
Alexios Strategopoulos first appears in the chronicles in 1252 – 53 , during the reign of John III Doukas Vatatzes , when he led a detachment of the army sent to plunder the areas of the Despotate of Epirus around Lake Ostrovo . In 1254 , he was based at Serres , and in the next year , he participated , along with megas primmikerios Constantine Tornikes , in a campaign against the fortress of Tzepaina in the western Rhodope Mountains . The campaign failed with heavy losses , due , according to George Akropolites , to bad generalship on behalf of both Strategopoulos and Tornikes . They failed to reconnoitre properly the Bulgarian forces opposing them , and instead their army broke and fled leaving behind their equipment and horses " to the Bulgarian shepherds and swineherds " . This failure enraged the Emperor Theodore II Laskaris , who removed both from their offices . In addition , probably because of his close connection to the aristocratic faction around Michael Palaiologos , his son Constantine was blinded for lèse @-@ majesté , and Alexios himself was imprisoned some time later .
Strategopoulos was probably released from prison immediately after the death of Theodore II Laskaris in August 1258 . Along with the other heads of the aristocratic families , he was a prominent supporter of Michael Palaiologos ' successful coup against George Mouzalon in a bid to assume the regency of the under @-@ age John IV Laskaris . In the same year he accompanied the army that was sent , under Michael 's brother , the megas domestikos John Palaiologos , to confront the Epirote designs on Macedonia . When Michael Palaiologos was proclaimed emperor in early 1259 , John Palaiologos was promoted to sebastokrator , and Strategopoulos succeeded him as megas domestikos . In 1259 he participated in the campaign that led to the decisive victory over an Epirote – Sicilian – Achaean alliance at the Battle of Pelagonia , where , along with Nikephoros Rimpsas , he took captive the 400 @-@ strong detachment of German knights sent by Manfred , King of Sicily , to aid the Epirotes .
After the Nicaean victory , John Palaiologos invaded Thessaly , while Alexios Strategopoulos and John Raoul Petraliphas were tasked with reducing Epirus proper . Strategopoulos and Petraliphas crossed the Pindus , bypassed Ioannina , which they left under siege , and captured the Epirote capital , Arta , forcing the Despot Michael II to flee to the island of Cephalonia . At Arta they found and released many Nicaean prisoners , including the historian George Akropolites . For this success , he was raised to the rank of Caesar . In the next year , however , the Nicaean successes were largely undone : Despot Michael with his sons and an Italian mercenary army landed at Arta , and the Epirote population rallied to his cause . The Epirote army clashed with Alexios ' forces at the Trikorfon pass near Nafpaktos ; the Nicaean army was routed , and Alexios himself captured .
= = Recapture of Constantinople = =
Despite these reverses , in early 1261 , Emperor Michael VIII set his sights on capturing the great prize : Constantinople , the capital of the Byzantine Empire , which had been the seat of the Latin Empire since its capture by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 . To this end , Michael concluded an alliance with Genoa in March , and in July 1261 , as the one @-@ year truce concluded after the previous failed Nicaean attack was nearing its end , Strategopoulos , recently released from Epirote custody , was sent with a small advance force of 800 soldiers ( most of them Cumans ) to keep a watch on the Bulgarians and spy out the defences of the Latins .
When the Nicaean force reached the village of Selymbria , some 30 miles ( 48 km ) west of Constantinople , however , they learned from some independent local farmers ( thelematarioi ) that the entire Latin garrison , and the Venetian fleet , were absent conducting a raid against the Nicaean island of Daphnousia . Strategopoulos was initially hesitant to take advantage of the situation , since his small force might be destroyed if the Latin army returned too soon , and because he would exceed the emperor 's orders , but eventually decided not to lose such a golden opportunity to retake the city .
On the night of July 24 / 25 , 1261 , Strategopoulos and his men approached the city walls and hid at a monastery near the Gate of the Spring . Strategopoulos sent a detachment of his men , who , led by some of the thelematarioi , made their way to the city through a secret passage . They attacked the walls from the inside , surprised the guards and opened the gate , allowing the Nicaean force entry into the city . The Latins were taken completely unaware , and after a short struggle , the Nicaeans gained control of the land walls . As news of this spread across the city , the Latin inhabitants , from Emperor Baldwin II downwards , hurriedly rushed to the harbours of the Golden Horn , hoping to escape by ship . At the same time , Strategopoulos ' men set fire to the Venetian buildings and warehouses along the coast to prevent them from landing there . Thanks to the timely arrival of the returning Venetian fleet , many of the Latins managed to evacuate to the Latin @-@ held parts of Greece , but the city was lost for good . The recapture of Constantinople signalled the restoration of the Byzantine Empire , and on August 15 , the day of the Dormition of the Theotokos , Emperor Michael entered the city in triumph and was crowned at the Hagia Sophia . The rights of John IV Laskaris were brushed aside , and the young man was blinded and imprisoned .
Alexios was honoured by Michael with a triumphal procession through the city , and by allowing his name to be commemorated in the church services for a year alongside the Emperor and the Patriarch .
= = Later life and death = =
After this feat that earned him fame and glory , in 1262 Alexios was appointed again to lead an army against Epirus . Here , however , he was defeated and captured by Nikephoros Doukas , who sent him to Manfred in Italy . He was ransomed in 1265 in exchange for Constance II of Hohenstaufen , widow of John Vatatzes . He is last mentioned in a document from December 1270 in which he made a donation to the Makrinitissa Monastery near Volos , and died sometime between 1271 and 1275 , probably at Constantinople .
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= Xgrid =
Xgrid is a proprietary program and distributed computing protocol developed by the Advanced Computation Group subdivision of Apple Inc that allows networked computers to contribute to a single task .
It provides network administrators a method of creating a computing cluster , which allows them to exploit previously unused computational power for calculations that can be divided easily into smaller operations , such as Mandelbrot maps . The setup of an Xgrid cluster can be achieved at next to no cost , as Xgrid client is pre @-@ installed on all computers running Mac OS X 10 @.@ 4 to Mac OS X 10 @.@ 7 . The Xgrid client was not included in Mac OS X 10 @.@ 8 . The Xgrid controller , the job scheduler of the Xgrid operation , is also included within Mac OS X Server and as a free download from Apple . Apple has kept the command @-@ line job control mechanism minimalist while providing an API to develop more sophisticated tools built around it .
The program employs its own communication protocol layered on top of a schema to communicate to other nodes . This communication protocol interfaces with the BEEP infrastructure , a network application protocol framework . Computers discovered by the Xgrid system , that is computers with Mac OS X 's Xgrid service enabled , are automatically added to the list of available computers to use for processing tasks .
When the initiating computer sends the complete instructions , or job , for processing to the controller , the controller splits the task up into these small instruction packets , known as tasks . The design of the Xgrid system consists of these small packets being transferred to all the Xgrid @-@ enabled computers on the network . These computers , or nodes , execute the instructions provided by the controller and then return the results . The controller assembles the individual task results into the whole job results and returns them to the initiating computer .
Apple modeled the design of Xgrid on the Zilla program , distributed with NeXT 's OPENSTEP operating system application programming interface ( API ) , which Apple owned the rights to . The company also opted to provide the client version of Mac OS X with only command @-@ line functions and little flexibility , while giving the Mac OS X Server version of Xgrid a GUI control panel and a full set of features .
= = History = =
Xgrid 's original concept can be traced back to Zilla.app , found in the OPENSTEP operating system , created by NeXT in the late 1980s . Zilla was the first distributed computing program released on an end @-@ user operating system and which used the idle screen @-@ saver motif , a design feature since found in widely used projects such as Seti @ Home and Distributed.net. Zilla won the national ComputerWorld Smithsonian Award ( Science Category ) in 1991 for ease of use and good design . Apple acquired Zilla , along with the rest of NeXT , in 1997 and later used Zilla as inspiration for Xgrid . The first beta version of Xgrid was released in January 2004 .
Several organizations have adopted Xgrid in large international computing networks . One example of an Xgrid cluster is MacResearch 's OpenMacGrid , where scientists can request access to large amounts of processing power to run tasks related to their research . Another was the now defunct Xgrid @ Stanford project , which used a range of computers on the Stanford University campus and around the world to perform biochemical research .
In a pre @-@ release promotional piece , MacWorld cited Xgrid among the Unix features in " 10 Things to Know about TIGER " , calling it " handy if you work with huge amounts of experimental data or render complex animations " . After Xgrid 's introduction in 2004 , InfoWorld noted that it was a " ' preview ' grade technology " which would directly benefit from the Xserve G5 's launch later that year . InfoWorld commentator Ephraim Schwartz also predicted that Xgrid was an opening move in Apple 's entry into the enterprise computing market .
Apple discontinued Xgrid with OS X v10.8 ( Mountain Lion ) , along with dependent services such as Podcast Producer .
= = Protocol = =
The Xgrid protocol uses the BEEP network framework to communicate with nodes on the network . The system 's infrastructure includes three types of computers which communicate over the protocol . One is the client , which communicates the calculation . Next is the controller , which starts and segregates the calculation . Finally , the agents process their own allocated part of the calculation .
A computer can act as one or all three of these components at the same time . The Xgrid protocol provides the basic infrastructure for computers to communicate , but is not involved in the processing of the specified calculation . Xgrid is targeted towards time consuming computations that can be easily segregated into smaller tasks , sometimes called embarrassingly parallel tasks . This includes Monte Carlo calculations , 3D rendering and Mandelbrot maps .
Within the Xgrid protocol , three types of messages can be passed to other computers on the same cluster : requests , notifications and replies . Requests must be responded to by the recipient with a reply , notifications do not require a reply , and replies are responses to sent messages . They are identified by their name , type ( request / notification / reply ) and contents . Each message is encapsulated in a BEEP message ( BEEP MSG ) and is acknowledged on receipt by an empty reply ( RPY ) . Xgrid does not leverage BEEPs message / reply infrastructure . Any received message which requires a response merely generates an independent BEEP message containing the reply . The Xgrid messages are encoded as dictionaries of key / value pairs which are converted to XML before being sent across the BEEP network .
= = Architecture = =
The architecture of the Xgrid system is designed around a job based system ; the controller sends agents jobs , and the agents return the responses . The actual computation that the controller executes in an Xgrid system is known as a job . The job contains all the files required to complete the task successfully , such as the input parameters , data files , directories , executables and / or shell scripts , the files included in an Xgrid job must be able to be executed either simultaneously or asynchronously , or any benefits of running such a job on an Xgrid is lost . Once the job completes , the controller can be set to notify the client of the task 's completion or failure , for example by email . The client can leave the network while the tasks are running . It can also monitor the job status on demand by querying the controller , although it cannot track the ongoing progress of individual tasks .
The controller is central to the correct function of an Xgrid , as this node is responsible for the distribution , supervision and coordination of tasks on agents . The program running on the controller can assign and reassign tasks to handle individual agent failures on demand . The number of tasks assigned to an agent depend on two factors : the number of agents on an Xgrid and the number of processors in each node . The number of agents on an Xgrid determines how the controller will assign tasks . The tasks may be assigned simultaneously for a large number of agents , or queued for a small number of agents . When a node with more than one processor is detected on an Xgrid , the controller may assign one task per processor ; this only occurs if the number of agents on the network is lower than the number of tasks the controller has to complete .
Xgrid is layered upon the Blocks Extensible Exchange Protocol ( BEEP ) , an IETF standard comparable to HTTP , but with a focus on two @-@ way multiplexed communication , such as that found in peer @-@ to @-@ peer networks . BEEP , in turn , uses XML to define profiles for communicating between multiple agents over a single network or internet connection .
= = Interface = =
While it is possible to access Xgrid from the command line , the Xgrid graphical user interface , a program bundled with Mac OS X Server and , as of March 2009 , available online , is a much more efficient way of administering an Xgrid system . Originally , the Xgrid agent was included in all Mac OS X version 10 @.@ 4 installations but the GUI was reserved for users of Mac OS X Server . This decision limited the efforts of the computer community to embrace the platform . Eventually , Apple released the Mac OS X Server Administration Tools to the public , which included the Xgrid administration application bundled with Mac OS X Server .
Despite the lack of a graphical controller interface in the standard ( non @-@ server ) Mac OS X distribution , it is possible to set up an Xgrid controller via the command line tools xgridctl and xgrid . Once the Xgrid controller daemon is running , administration of the grid with Apple 's Xgrid Admin tool is possible . Some applications , such as VisualHub , provided Xgrid controller capability through their user interfaces .
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= History of the Roman Constitution =
The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome in 753 BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD . The constitution of the Roman Kingdom vested the sovereign power in the King of Rome . The king did have two rudimentary checks on his authority , which took the form of a board of elders ( the Roman Senate ) and a popular assembly ( the Curiate Assembly ) . The arrangement was similar to the constitutional arrangements found in contemporary Greek city @-@ states ( such as Athens or Sparta ) . These Greek constitutional principles probably came to Rome through the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia in southern Italy . The Roman Kingdom was overthrown in 510 BC , according to legend , and in its place the Roman Republic was founded .
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases . The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 510 BC , and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic , and thus created the Roman Empire , in 27 BC . Throughout the history of the republic , the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy ( the " Patricians " ) and the ordinary citizens ( the " Plebeians " ) . Approximately two centuries after the founding of the republic , the Plebeians attained , in theory at least , equality with the Patricians . In practice , however , the plight of the average Plebeian remained unchanged . This set the stage for the civil wars of the 1st century BC , and Rome 's transformation into a formal empire .
The general who won the last civil war of the Roman Republic , Gaius Octavian , became the master of the state . In the years after 30 BC , Octavian set out to reform the Roman constitution , and to found the Principate . The ultimate consequence of these reforms was the abolition of the republic , and the founding of the Roman Empire . Octavian was given the honorific Augustus ( " venerable " ) by the Roman Senate , and became known to history by this name , and as the first Roman Emperor . Octavian 's reforms did not , at the time , seem drastic , since they did nothing more than reorganize the constitution . The reorganization was revolutionary , however , because the ultimate result was that Octavian ended up with control over the entire constitution , which itself set the stage for outright monarchy . When Diocletian became Roman Emperor in 284 , the Principate was abolished , and a new system , the Dominate , was established . This system survived until the ultimate fall of the Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Empire in 1453 .
= = Under the Kingdom = =
The period of the kingdom can be divided into two epochs based on the legends , handed down to us principally in the first book of Livy 's Ab Urbe condita ( " From the City Having Been Founded " , or simply " History of Rome " ) . While the specific legends were probably not true , they were likely based on historical fact . It is likely that , before the founding of the republic , Rome actually had been ruled by a succession of kings . The first legendary epoch saw the reigns of the first four legendary kings . During this time , the political foundations of the city were laid , the city grew increasingly organized , the religious institutions were established , and the senate and the assemblies evolved into formal institutions . The early Romans were divided into three ethnic groups . The families that belonged to one of these ethnic groups were the original Patrician families . In an attempt to add a level of organization to the city , these Patrician families were divided into units called curia . The vehicle through which the early Romans expressed their democratic impulses was known as a " committee " ( comitia or " assembly " ) . The two principle assemblies that formed were known as the Curiate Assembly and the Calculate Assembly . The two assemblies were designed to mirror the ethnic divisions of the city , and as such , the assemblies were organized by curia . The vehicle through which the early Romans expressed their aristocratic impulses was a council of town elders , which became the Roman senate . The elders of this council were known as patres ( " fathers " ) , and thus are known to history as the first Roman senators . The demos ( " people " ) and the elders eventually recognized the need for a single political leader , and thus elected such a leader , the rex ( Roman King ) . The demos elected the rex , and the elders advised the rex .
The second epoch saw the reigns of the last three legendary kings . The second epoch was more consequential than was the first , which was in part due to the significant degree of territorial expansion which occurred during this period . Regardless of how true these legends were , it is likely that , as the legends suggest , a series of conquests did occur during the late monarchy . As a result of these conquests , it became necessary to determine what was to be done with the conquered people . Often , individuals whose towns had been conquered remained in those towns , while other such individuals came to Rome . To acquire legal and economic standing , these newcomers adopted a condition of dependency toward either a Patrician family , or toward the king . Eventually , the individuals who were dependents of the king were released from their state of dependency , and became the first Plebeians . As Rome grew , it needed more soldiers to continue its conquests . When the Plebeians were released from their dependency , they were released from their Curia . When this occurred , while they were no longer required to serve in the army , they also lost their political and economic standing . To bring these new Plebeians back into the army , the Patricians were forced to make concessions . While it is not known exactly what concessions were made , the fact that they were not granted any political power set the stage for what history knows as the Conflict of the Orders .
The reign of the first four kings was distinct from that of the last three kings . The first kings were elected . Between the reigns of the final three kings , however , the monarchy became hereditary , and as such , the senate became subordinated to the king . This breach in the senate 's sovereignty , rather than an intolerable tyranny , was probably what led the Patricians in the senate to overthrow the last king . The king may have sought the support of the Plebeians ; however , the Plebeians were no doubt exhausted from their continued military service , and from their forced labor in the construction of public works . They were probably also embittered by their lack of political power , and therefore did not come to the aide of either the king or the senate .
= = Under the Republic = =
After the monarchy had been overthrown , and the Roman Republic had been founded , the people of Rome began electing two Consuls each year . In the year 494 BC , the Plebeians ( commoners ) seceded to the Aventine Hill , and demanded of the Patricians ( the aristocrats ) the right to elect their own officials . The Patricians duly capitulated , and the Plebeians ended their secession . The Plebeians called these new officials Plebeian Tribunes , and gave these Tribunes two assistants , called Plebeian Aediles .
In 449 BC , the Senate promulgated the Twelve Tables as the centerpiece of the Roman Constitution . In 443 BC , the office of Censor was created , and in 367 BC , Plebeians were allowed to stand for the Consulship . The opening of the Consulship to the Plebeian class implicitly opened both the Censorship as well as the Dictatorship to Plebeians . In 366 BC , in an effort by the Patricians to reassert their influence over the magisterial offices , two new offices were created . While these two offices , the Praetorship and the Curule Aedileship , were at first open only to Patricians , within a generation , they were open to Plebeians as well .
Beginning around the year 350 BC , the senators and the Plebeian Tribunes began to grow closer . The Senate began giving Tribunes more power , and , unsurprisingly , the Tribunes began to feel indebted to the senate . As the Tribunes and the senators grew closer , Plebeian senators began to routinely secure the office of Tribune for members of their own families . Also around the year 350 BC , the Plebeian Council ( popular assembly ) enacted a significant law ( the " Ovinian Law " ) which transferred , from the Consuls to the Censors , the power to appoint new senators . This law also required the Censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate , which probably resulted in a significant increase in the number of Plebeian senators . This , along with the closeness between the Plebeian Tribunes and the Senate , helped to facilitate the creation of a new Plebeian aristocracy . This new Plebeian aristocracy soon merged with the old Patrician aristocracy , creating a combined " Patricio @-@ Plebeian " aristocracy . The old aristocracy existed through the force of law , because only Patricians had been allowed to stand for high office . Now , however , the new aristocracy existed due to the organization of society , and as such , this order could only be overthrown through a revolution .
In 287 BC , the Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill . To end the secession , a law ( the " Hortensian Law " ) was passed , which ended the requirement that the Patrician senators consent before a bill could be brought before the Plebeian Council for a vote . The ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians . The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell , not onto the shoulders of democracy , but onto the shoulders of the new Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy . By the middle of the second century BC , the economic situation for the average Plebeian had declined significantly . Farmers became bankrupted , and soon masses of unemployed Plebeians began flooding into Rome , and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies , where their economic status usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most . A new culture of dependency was emerging , which would look to any populist leader for relief .
In 88 BC , an aristocratic senator named Lucius Cornelius Sulla was elected Consul , and soon left for a war in the east . When a Tribune revoked Sulla 's command of the war , Sulla brought his army back to Italy , marched on Rome , secured the city , and left for the east again . In 83 BC he returned to Rome , and captured the city a second time . In 82 BC , he made himself Dictator , and then used his status as Dictator to pass a series of constitutional reforms that were intended to strengthen the senate . In 80 BC he resigned his Dictatorship , and by 78 BC he was dead . While he thought that he had firmly established aristocratic rule , his own career had illustrated the fatal weakness in the constitution : that it was the army , and not the senate , which dictated the fortunes of the state . In 70 BC , the generals Pompey Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus were both elected Consul , and quickly dismantled Sulla 's constitution . In 62 BC Pompey returned to Rome from battle in the east , and soon entered into an agreement with Julius Caesar . Caesar and Pompey , along with Crassus , established a private agreement , known as the First Triumvirate . Under the agreement , Pompey 's arrangements were to be ratified , Crassus was to be promised a future Consulship , and Caesar was to be promised the Consulship in 59 BC , and then the governorship of Gaul ( modern France ) immediately afterwards . In 54 BC , violence began sweeping the city , and in 53 BC Crassus was killed . In January 49 BC , the senate passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year , he would be considered an enemy of the republic . In response , Caesar quickly crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army , and marched towards Rome . Caesar 's rapid advance forced Pompey , the Consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece , and allowed Caesar to enter the city unopposed .
By 48 BC , after having defeated the last of his major enemies , Julius Caesar wanted to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed . He assumed these powers by increasing his own authority , and by decreasing the authority of Rome 's other political institutions . Caesar held the office of Roman Dictator , and alternated between the Consulship ( the chief @-@ magistracy ) and the Proconsulship ( in effect , a military governorship ) . In 48 BC , Caesar was given the powers of a Plebeian Tribune , which made his person sacrosanct , gave him the power to veto the Senate , and allowed him to dominate the legislative process . After Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC , Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar 's adopted son and great @-@ nephew , Gaius Octavian . Along with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate , and held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution . While the conspirators who had assassinated Caesar were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC , the peace that resulted was only temporary . Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle in 31 BC . Antony was defeated , and in 30 BC he committed suicide . In 29 BC , Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the state . The reign of Octavian , whom history remembers as Augustus , the first Roman Emperor , marked the dividing line between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire . By the time this process was complete , Rome had completed its transition from a city @-@ state with a network of dependencies , to the capital of an empire .
= = Under the Empire = =
When Octavian returned to Rome two years after defeating Mark Antony , no one remained to oppose him . Decades of war had taken a terrible toll on the People of Rome . The political situation was unstable , and there was a constant threat of renewed warfare . Octavian 's arrival alone caused a wave of optimism to ripple throughout Italy . As soon as he arrived , he began addressing the problems that were plaguing Rome . Octavian 's popularity soon reached new heights , which ultimately gave him the support he needed to implement his reforms . When Octavian deposed Mark Antony in 32 BC , he resigned his position as triumvir , but was probably vested with powers similar to those that he had given up .
Octavian wanted to solidify his status as master of the state , but avoid the fate of his adopted father . On January 13 of 27 BC , Octavian transferred control of the state back to the Senate and the People of Rome , but neither the Senate nor the People of Rome were willing to accept what was , in effect , Octavian 's resignation . Octavian was allowed to remain Roman Consul ( the chief @-@ executive under the old Republic ) , and was also allowed to retain his tribunician powers ( similar to those of the Plebeian Tribunes , or chief representatives of the people ) . This arrangement , in effect , functioned as a popular ratification of his position within the state . The Senate then granted Octavian a unique grade of Proconsular command power ( imperium ) which gave him the authority over all of Rome 's military governors , and thus , over the entire Roman army . Octavian was also granted the title of " Augustus " ( " venerable " ) and of Princeps ( " first citizen " ) . In 23 BC , Augustus ( as Octavian now called himself ) gave up his Consulship , and expanded both his Proconsular imperium and his tribunician powers . After these final reforms had been instituted , Augustus never again altered his constitution . Augustus ' final goal was to ensure an orderly succession . In 6 BC Augustus granted tribunician powers to his stepson Tiberius , and quickly recognized Tiberius as his heir . In 13 AD a law was passed which made Tiberius ' legal powers equivalent to , and independent from , those of Augustus . Within a year , Augustus was dead .
When Augustus died in 14 AD , the Principate legally ended . Tiberius knew that if he secured the support of the army , the rest of the government would soon follow . Therefore , Tiberius assumed command of the Praetorian Guard , and used his Proconsular imperium to force the armies to swear allegiance to him . As soon as this occurred , the Senate and the magistrates acquiesced . Under Tiberius , the power to elect magistrates was transferred from the assemblies to the Senate . When Tiberius died , Caligula was proclaimed Emperor by the Senate . In 41 Caligula was assassinated , and for two days following his assassination , the Senate debated the merits of restoring the Republic . Due to the demands of the army , however , Claudius was declared emperor , but he was ultimately killed , and Nero was declared Emperor .
In the decades after the death of Augustus , the Roman Empire was , in a sense , a union of inchoate principalities , which could have disintegrated at any time . In 68 AD , Ser . Sulpicius Galba , the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis , was proclaimed Emperor by his troops . In Rome , the emperor Nero quickly lost his supporters and committed suicide . The governor of Lower Germany , A. Vitellius , was soon proclaimed Emperor by his troops , and in Rome , the Praetorian Guard proclaimed M. Salvius Otho Emperor . In 69 , Galba was assassinated and Otho took an army to Germany to defeat Vitellius , but instead was himself defeated . He committed suicide , and Vitellius was proclaimed Emperor , but was quickly defeated and the executed by Vespasian , who was then declared Emperor . Under the Emperor Vespasian , the Roman constitution began a slide toward outright monarchy . Vespasian died in 79 , and was succeeded by his son , Titus , who presided over a further weakening of the senate . He was succeeded by his brother , Domitian , in 81 . Domitian 's reign marked a significant turning point on the road to monarchy , as he made himself Censor for life , and unlike his father , used these powers to further subjugate the Senate . Domitian , ultimately , was a tyrant with the character which always makes tyranny repulsive , and this derived in part from his own paranoia , which itself was a consequence of the fact that he had no son , and thus no obvious heir . In September 96 , Domitian was assassinated .
During the period that began with the accession of the Emperor Nerva and ended with the death of the Emperor Commodus , the Empire continued to weaken . It was becoming difficult to recruit enough soldiers for the army , inflation was becoming an issue , and on at least one occasion , the Empire almost went bankrupt . The most significant constitutional development during this era was the steady drift towards monarchy . M. Cocceius Nerva succeeded Domitian , and although his reign was too short for any major constitutional reforms , he did reverse some of his predecessor 's abuses . He was succeeded by Trajan in 98 , who then went further than even Nerva had in restoring the image of a free republic , by , for example , allowing the senate to regain some independent legislative abilities . Hadrian succeeded Trajan as Emperor . By far , his most important constitutional alteration was his creation of a bureaucratic apparatus , which included a fixed gradation of clearly defined offices , and a corresponding order of promotion . Hadrian was succeed by Antonius Pius , who made no real changes to the constitution . Antonius Pius was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius in 161 . The most significant constitutional development that occurred during the reign of Marcus Aurelius was the revival of the republican principle of collegiality , as he made his brother , L. Aelius , his co @-@ emperor . In 169 , Aelius died , and in 176 , Marcus Aurelius made his son , L. Aurelius Commodus , his new co @-@ emperor . In 180 , Marcus Aurelius died , and Commodus became Emperor . Commodus ' tyranny revived the worst memories of the later Julian emperors , as he was more explicit than any of his predecessors in taking powers that he did not legally have , and in disregarding the constitution . He was killed in 192 .
No further constitutional reforms were enacted during the Principate . The only development of any significance was the continuing slide towards monarchy , as the constitutional distinctions that had been set up by Augustus lost whatever meaning that they still had . Starting in 235 , with the reign of the barbarian Emperor Maximinus Thrax , the Empire was put through a period of severe military , civil , and economic stress . The crisis arguably reached it height during the reign of Gallienus , from 260 to 268 . The crisis ended with the accession of Diocletian in 284 , and the abolishment of the Principate .
= = Decline and fall = =
When Diocletian became Roman Emperor in 284 , the military situation had recently stabilized , which allowed him to enact badly needed constitutional reforms . Diocletian resurrected the " collegial " system that Marcus Aurelius had first used , and divided the empire into east and west . Each half was to be ruled by one of two co @-@ emperors , called the Augusti . He then resurrected the precedent set by Hadrian , and ensured that each emperor named his successor early in his reign . Diocletian called that successor a Caesar . Diocletian then created a bureaucratic apparatus that was similar to the system that Hadrian had created , wherein each office had a defined set of responsibilities , a set rank , and a set path of promotion . In this administrative system , Diocletian followed the example that had been set by Domitian , and divided the Empire into small administrative units . He also assigned to the four tetrarchs ( the two Augusti and the two Caesares ) honorary titles and insignia that had been used by Domitian . One important consequence of these reforms was the fact that the image of a free republic had finally given way , and the centuries @-@ old reality of monarchy now became obvious .
When Diocletian resigned , chaos ensued , but after the chaos had subsided , most of his reforms remained in effect . While the Emperor Constantine the Great did enact some revisions to this constitution , the most significant change over the centuries was in the abolition of the Caesares . Ultimately this constitution survived , in one form or another , until the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 . Diocletian 's division of the Empire into west and east set the stage for ages to come , and was a significant factor behind the ultimate division of the Christian church into western Roman Catholic and eastern Greek Orthodox , while his division of the Empire into prefectures and dioceses is used by the Catholic Church to this day .
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= Viking metal =
Viking metal is a style of heavy metal music with origins in black metal and Nordic folk music , characterized by a lyrical and thematic focus on Norse mythology , Norse paganism , and the Viking Age . Viking metal is quite diverse as a musical style , to the point where some scholars consider it more of a term than a genre , but it is typically manifested as black metal with influences from Nordic folk music . Some common traits include a slow @-@ paced and heavy riffing style , anthemic choruses , use of both clean and harsh vocals , a frequent reliance on folk instrumentation , and often the use of keyboards for atmospheric effect . Viking metal developed in the 1980s through the mid @-@ 1990s as a rejection of Satanism and the occult , instead embracing the Vikings and paganism as the leaders of opposition to Christianity . It is similar , in lyrics , sound , and thematic imagery , to pagan metal , but pagan metal has a broader mythological focus and utilizes folk instrumentation more extensively . Most Viking metal bands originate from the Nordic countries , and nearly all bands claim that their members descend , directly or indirectly , from Vikings . Many scholars view Viking metal and the related black , pagan , and folk metal genres as part of broader neopaganist and neo @-@ völkisch movements as well as part of a global movement of renewed interest in , and celebration of , local and regional ethnicities .
Though artists such as Led Zeppelin , Yngwie Malmsteen , Heavy Load , and Manowar have previously dealt with Viking themes , Bathory , from Sweden , is generally credited with pioneering the style with its albums Blood Fire Death ( 1988 ) and Hammerheart ( 1990 ) , which launched a renewed interest in the Viking Age among heavy metal musicians . Enslaved , from Norway , followed up on this burgeoning Viking trend with Hordanes Land ( 1993 ) and Vikingligr Veldi ( 1994 ) . Burzum , Emperor , Einherjer , and Helheim , among others , helped further develop the genre in the early through mid @-@ 1990s . Through the work of artists such as the German project Falkenbach , Viking metal soon spread from the Nordic countries to other nations with Viking history or an even broader Germanic heritage , and has since influenced musicians across the globe . The death metal bands Unleashed and Amon Amarth , which emerged during the early 1990s , also adopted Viking themes , broadening the style from its primarily black metal origin .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Sonic traits = = =
AllMusic identifies Viking metal as a nickname for the 1990s Norwegian black metal scene , which the site describes as " noisy , chaotic , and often augmented by sorrowful keyboard melodies . " Journalist Johannes Jonsson described the style as " slow black metal with influences from Nordic folk music . " Lecturer Ross Hagen identifies Viking metal as a subgenre of black metal , albeit one that abandoned black metal 's Satanic imagery . Cosmo Lee of Stylus , described Viking metal as running the gamut from " folk to black to death metal " . Deena Weinstein mentions that Viking metal bands typically rely extensively on keyboards , which are often played at a " swift , galloping pace . " Also according to Weinstein , Viking metal bands often add " local cultural flourishes " such as traditional instruments and ethnic melodies . Aaron Patrick Mulvany considers it a category of folk metal , but with considerably less usage of " non @-@ standard instruments " . Steven P. Ashby and John Schofield also note the similarity to folk metal , but likewise also note that Viking metal uses folk instruments less commonly than folk metal . For vocals , Viking metal incorporates both singing and the typical black metal death growls .
Scholar Imke von Helden acknowledges that " There are difficulties in defining [ Viking metal ] , because the definition — apart from certain elements like anthem @-@ like choruses — is not based entirely on musical features and overlaps with other metal genres . The music derives from the also Scandinavian @-@ coined genres of black and death metal . " Some bands , such as Unleashed and Amon Amarth , play death metal , but incorporate Viking themes and thus are labeled under the genre . Scholar Heather O 'Donoghue also notes how Viking metal is defined more by its thematic material than musical qualities . She writes that " Viking metal draws on Norse themes not in a strictly musical sense — the work of groups such as Bathory is not by any means a mock @-@ up of medieval music . Rather , it is in the band names , album titles , artwork of album covers and , especially , in the song lyrics that Viking themes are so evident . " Irina @-@ Maria Manea in " Primal Roots : Ancestry and Race in Extreme Music Discourses " considers Viking metal , and the closely related style pagan metal , more of a term or " etiquette " than a musical style . She elaborates that " Viking and Pagan Metal are more likely lyrical subgenres distinguished primarily by their content and less by sound characteristics , which is why categorizations may come out as controversial . " Ashby and Schofield also consider Viking metal more of a cross @-@ genre term than a descriptor of a certain sound . They write that " The term ' Viking metal ' is one of many that falls within a complex web of genres and subgenres , the precise form of which is constantly shifting , as trends and fads emerge and fade . " They note further on that from its origins in black metal , Viking metal " has diversified ( at least in aural terms ) , and now covers a range of styles that run the gamut between black metal and what one might justifiably term classic rock . "
In the essay " Scandinavian Heavy Metal as an Intertextual Play with Norse Mythology " , scholar Anna G. Piotrowska analyzed the music of the Viking metal bands Bathory and Týr . Starting with the album Blood Fire Death , one of the first definitive Viking metal releases , the band Bathory incorporated a diverse range of sonic elements . While still retaining the noise and chaos of previous recordings , the band took a more sorrowful and melodic approach , working in ballads based on Germanic and Norse folklore. shanty @-@ like melodies and folk music elements such as bourdon sounds , Jew 's harps , and fifes were introduced . Bathory also added in natural found sounds , such as ocean waves , thunder , and wild animal sounds , in a style similar to that of musique concrète . Instruments were sometimes used to create onomatopoeic effects such as drum sounds imitating thunder or a sledgehammer . Bathory 's song structure typically of this era featured multi @-@ sectional formal structures , and usually followed a pattern of three instrumental sections - introduction , bridge , and finale - and two vocal sections - stanza and refrain .
The Faroese band Týr , though consisting of a typical rock band lineup with electric instruments , makes extensive use of traditional Faroese music in its song composition . Faroese ballads typically involve unusual time signatures , most commonly 74 or the alternative rhythms 128 or 98 . In an attempt to replicate these uneven signatures , Týr often places the accent on the weak beat of the bar . In songs based on old Faroese ballads , Týr will usually play in harmonic or melodic minor scale or else in mixolydian mode .
= = = Thematic and lyrical focus = = =
Thematically , Viking metal draws extensively on elements of black metal , but uses pagan and Norse lyrics and imagery instead of those of an anti @-@ Christian or Satanic nature . Viking metal combines the symbolism common in black and death metal , especially the exultation of violence and virility through weapons and battlefields , with a common interest in ancestral roots , especially a pre @-@ Christian heritage , expressed through Viking mythology and imagery of northern landscapes . However , some bands such as Sorhin keep the Satanic elements of black metal but sonically are influenced from more recent folk tunes . Visual media such as album art , band photos , website design , and merchandise all highlight the dark and violent outlook of Viking metal lyrics and themes . Authors Simon Trafford and Aleks Pluskowski note that the album sleeves on works by Viking metal artists are frequently decorated with Viking Age archeological finds : Thor 's hammers are especially common , but other artifacts such as Oseberg posts and even the Sutton Hoo helmet have appeared . Some bands incorporate far more ancient , pre @-@ medieval imagery , such as the Finnish band Moonsorrow 's use of prehistoric rock carvings and megaliths . Other Finnish bands , such as Ensiferum , Turisas , and Korpiklaani , focus on Sami traditions and shamanism , further stretching the definition of Viking metal .
While many bands rely on Viking @-@ related visuals or other ancestral images to aid their musical character , others do not . For instance , the members of Týr , from the Faroe Islands , do not wear Viking costumes on stage , and thus , apart from its lyrical content and heavily folk @-@ influenced music , the band is otherwise virtually indistinguishable from other heavy metal bands .
In his thesis paper " ' Reawakening Pride Once Lost ' : Indigeneity and European Folk Metal " , Aaron Patrick Mulvany says that while much of the thematic history of heavy metal uses parodies of the occult in an incongruous fashion , Viking metal bands use " a very specific mythology which controls not only textual choices , but also the imagery used on albums and frequently the kind of music composed . " Deena Weinstein comments that despite a whole pantheon of Norse gods to choose from , Viking metal bands typically focus on Odin , the god of war , and Thor , " whose hammer , ' the hammer of the gods ' , defended the Pagans against the Christians . " Alcohol , particularly mead , is also a common lyrical focus. von Helden identifies two main trajectories that Viking metal bands take toward their subject matter . The first trajectory is one of romanticism and escapist ideas , where bands cultivate an image of strength and barbarism and quote passages from various poems and sagas . The second trajectory emphasizes historical accuracy , typically relying on Norse mythology as the sole focus of lyricism and identity . Trafford and Pluskowski find that many Viking metal bands identify first with local roots — for instance , Moonsorrow with Finland or Einherjer with Norway — and perhaps a northern European identity second .
While many songs are composed in English , Viking metal bands often write lyrics in various other languages , usually of the North Germanic family : Norwegian , Old Norse , Swedish , Danish and , less commonly , Icelandic , Faroese , and the non @-@ Germanic Finnish language . Other European languages , such as German , Old High German , Latin , Dutch , or Sami languages are sometimes used . In 2013 , The Wall Street Journal published an article which examined how heavy metal fans around the world learn languages such as Norwegian or Finnish in order to understand the lyrics of their favorite bands . It reported that " A band of young metal heads — spanning Romania to Singapore — have taken up a Northern European language in order to better appreciate or even mimic their favorite metal bands . "
= = = = Paganism and opposition to Christianity = = = =
According to Trafford and Pluskowski , the imagery in Viking metal draws not only from material culture left from Viking Age , but also " encompasses the broad semiotic system favored by many black and death metal bands , not least of all the exultation of violence and hyper @-@ masculinity expressed through weapons and battlefields . " However , in Viking metal this semiotic system is melded with an interest in ancestral roots , specifically a pre @-@ Christian heritage , " expressed visually through Viking mythology and the aesthetics of northern landscapes . " Trafford and Pluskowski further explain that extreme and obsessive loathing of Christianity had long remained the norm of black and death metal bands , but in the 1990s Bathory and many other bands began turning away from Satanism as the primary opposition to Christianity , instead placing their faith in the Vikings and Odin . Many artists claim affiliation to Ásatrú , treating Christianity as a foreign influence that was forcibly imposed , and therefore as a wrong to be righted . Trafford and Pluskowski state that some members of the scene were motivated to act , citing the church burnings by black metal musician Varg Vikernes as an example . They admit that while most bands or individuals did not go that far , an undercurrent of racism , nationalism , and anti @-@ Semitism continues to permeate parts of the black metal scene . On the other hand , Trafford and Pluskowski note that many Viking metal artists , including bands such as Enslaved and Einherjer , simply express interest in Vikings and Norse mythology and entirely reject the Satanic inclination of black metal , writing almost exclusively on Norse themes , without any racist or anti @-@ Semitic undertones . Hoad considers Viking metal both pre @-@ Christian and post @-@ apocalyptic — it looks to a pre @-@ Christian past and imagines a post @-@ Christian future . While opposition to Christianity drove the formation of Viking metal , some bands that play , or have played , Viking metal , such as Slechtvalk , Drottnar , and Holy Blood , subscribe to Christian beliefs .
Writing for Thrash Hits.com , David Keevill argues that the explicitly anti @-@ Christian attitude of most Viking metal artists is an anachronistic view of the Viking Age . Keevill explains that " while bands have used [ Viking mythology ] as the basis for their musical existence ... the historical reality of the Viking Age ( late 8th century to the 11th century ) is a chequered backdrop of a multitude of belief systems and disparate political mechanisms . " As an historical example , he cites the raid on Lindisfarne in 793 , an event considered the beginning of the Viking Age and celebrated by the band Enslaved in its song " 793 ( Slaget Om Lindisfarne ) " . He contends that this attack was merely an opportunistic raid , not a concerted attack on the growing power of Christianity . Likewise , he clarifies that the terms " heathen " and " pagan " historically did not necessarily mean " anti @-@ Christian , " but that the persons in question did not fit under a denominational label . Furthermore , Norse religion and Christianity intermingled and influenced each other throughout the era , and Christianity was often imposed through monarchical regimes such as Harald Klak and Harald Bluetooth or conversion movements such as those initiated by Ansgar . Keevill concludes his article by stating , " It 's not that bands like Amon Amarth shouldn 't flout their Norse heritage , the bellicose nature of the ancestors or the kind of practices that would have taken place in far flung tribal societies , it 's just that ruling out the presence of an overbearing Christian influence on the Viking Age is incredibly close @-@ minded . "
= = = = Relationship to pagan metal = = = =
Weinstein considers Viking metal the progenitor of the pagan metal genre , citing Bathory 's Hammerheart as the first pagan metal recording . She writes how " it is fitting that pagan metal began with Viking metal , given that the Vikings were Europe 's last Pagans , converted slowly and with reluctance to Christianity . " von Helden also notes similarities between Viking metal and pagan metal , but also highlights some key differences . " [ Pagan metal ] deals mainly with Pagan religions and lies in a broader context where not only Old Norse mythology is dealt with , but also Celtic myths and history , fairy tales and other elements of folklore . Traditional instruments like the violin or flute are used more often in pagan than in Viking metal music . " Irina @-@ Maria Manea explains that " the idea of incorporating and then revering exclusively national or regional myths , stories , and tales first gained ground in the work of artists such as Adorned Brood , Falkenbach , Black Messiah , Enslaved or Einherjer , but the musical phenomenon is far from being merely European , but a global trend artistically expressing its affinity for an ethnically colored spectrum . " Ashby and Schofield likewise consider Viking , pagan , and folk metal part of an " interesting trend within cultural heritage towards not only a wider acceptance as heritage of the ordinary and the everyday alongside the nationally significant and the iconic , but a willingness and impetus to explore heritage 's outer reaches , the marginal areas in which definitions of cultural heritage and heritage communities start to fragment and become increasingly contested . "
= = = = Masculinity = = = =
Catherine Hoad in " ' Hold the Heathen Hammer High ' : Viking Metal from the Local to the Global " points out that the Viking image in popular understanding is that of hyper @-@ masculinity , and thus Viking metal is inherently patriarchal . Hoad does acknowledge that some bands include female members , such as Kivimetsän Druidi , Storm , and Irminsul , and that female fans comprise a substantial part of Viking metal 's audience . However , she stresses that women " do remain largely subordinate within the Viking metal scene , " and are rarely present in the production of Viking metal music . She considers Viking metal a form of " nation @-@ building , " and while women may participate in the nation building process , it is still controlled by men . Irina @-@ Manea likewise notes that within Viking metal , " themes in the spectrum of war and masculinity are almost a rule . "
Gry Mørk explains that in songs such as Burzum 's " Musstad " link manliness with Norse tradition and gender ideals , and that the Viking male thus represents traditional masculinity . Most of the Norse references in black metal are heroic , masculine , and militaristic in theme - Mjölner , Odin , the iron cross , and berserkers and einherjar . Conversely , Jesus , though a male figure , is seen in songs such as " Jesu død " by Burzum as cold , dark , and life @-@ extinguishing . Christianity is viewed as stigmatizing and suppressing the natural " dark " sides of men , and so , from the perspective of black metal , true masculinity is achieved through exploring the dark sides of man 's nature - warfare and killing . Mørk highlights the thesis of cultural historian Nina Witoszec that within Norway , images of nature are often symbolic with cultural affiliation to Norway . Witoszec traces the roots of this ideal to Tacitus 's German @-@ heathen identity narrative which romanticized the Germanic people as superior through their connection with nature , and whose brutality and belligerence opposed the apathetic and decadent Roman elite . Mørk concludes that Norse imagery therefore is used within black metal to build a view of natural and authentic masculinity to counter the oppressive force of the Judeo @-@ Christian tradition .
= = = Influence from sea shanties and popular media = = =
Aaron Patrick Mulvany stated that " Viking metal ... is much less concerned with traditional aural materials like instruments and melodies . Instead , Viking bands limit themselves mainly to the use of Norse mythology as a textual source , which they often augment with stylized shanty @-@ like melodies that are meant to evoke apropos images " . Mulvany elaborated to say that
Although the majority of Viking metal bands ... limit themselves primarily to textual borrowings , many others can be additionally classified as musically evocative of the Vikings . Unlike folk metal bands drawing from other mythologies , bands using Norse mythology as text have no musical @-@ historical examples to augment their illusion . This has led to the creation of an ahistorical ' Viking music ' that is used in tandem with the metal style to conjure up appropriate images .
According to Mulvany , Viking metal draws heavily on sea shanties and media images of pirates and Vikings , an influence evident in two basic forms of the genre . The first type " is largely stepwise in motion with many repeated note figures " , is frequently in minor key , and is primarily sung in unison . The second type uses an " arching ascent @-@ descent structure " and is less dependent on lyrics , making it " more evocative of rolling waves on the open sea " . Mulvany explains that the heavy sea shanty influence results from media stereotyping in which certain aural associations are equated with " images of sailors , sea @-@ borne marauders , and Vikings " , and that " though rooted in traditional sea shanties , these aural images have been perpetuated through the media of pirate movies and television shows , and they have been extended — by association — to Vikings " . Ashby and Schofield agree with Mulvany that musically , Viking metal bands generally are unconnected with a real Viking past , but instead connote a broader sense of the maritime . They stipulate that " Presumably this conflation of maritime contexts is a knowing one , but one nonetheless felt to be somehow evocative . "
Keith Fay of the folk metal band Cruachan has also noted the influence of sea shanties on Viking metal , though rather disparagingly . In an interview with Terrorizer , he stated that " There is no real defined ' Viking music ' , so all these Nordic bands use ' sea shanty ' type tunes to match their music . A lot of these bands , especially the bigger ones , are called folk metal but they don 't really understand what real folk music is ; though I know this is not true for all of them . "
= = History = =
= = = Precursors : 1970s to mid @-@ 1980s = = =
The use of Viking themes and imagery in hard rock and heavy metal music predates the advent of Viking metal . For instance , the lyrics to Led Zeppelin 's " Immigrant Song " ( 1970 ) and " No Quarter " ( 1973 ) feature allusions to Viking voyages , violence , and exploration . The Swedish band Heavy Load often wrote Viking @-@ themed songs , such as the 1978 song " Son of the Northern Light " , and Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic writes that the 1983 song " Stronger than Evil " establishes a case for Heavy Load as the first Viking metal group . Swedish neoclassical metal guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen sometimes featured themes of hyper @-@ masculinity , heroic warriors , and Vikings ; for example , on his 1985 album Marching Out . The German band Grave Digger and American band Manowar , both of which formed in 1980 , drew upon Norse myth as envisioned in Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen . Manowar in particular adopted Viking imagery much more heavily than other bands . Trafford and Pluskowski write that Manowar , " champions of the furry loincloth " , " were widely ridiculed even within heavy metal , but won a sizeable — and fanatical — following . " However , Trafford and Pluskowski stipulate that while Manowar adopted Viking imagery , it did not embrace it . They explain that " in any case , the Manowar version of the Vikings owes as much to Conan the Barbarian as it does to history , saga , or Edda : What matters to Manowar is untamed masculinity , and the Vikings are for them merely the archetypal barbarian males . " Unlike the later Viking metal bands , Manowar did not bother with the historicity of popular Viking image , and did not in any way identify with the Vikings , religiously or racially .
= = = Viking metal : Late @-@ 1980s to present = = =
= = = = Bathory = = = =
The roots of Viking metal proper are generally cited to be later in the Scandinavian metal scene , particularly the death and black metal scenes of the late 1980s . Inspired by the Viking themes used by Manowar , some bands identified with the Vikings with far more totality than Manowar . At the forefront of this movement stood the Swedish band Bathory . Its first album Bathory was released in 1984 and is " regarded by many as the first black metal record " . The band 's fourth album Blood Fire Death , released in 1988 , includes two early examples of Viking metal – the songs " A Fine Day to Die " and " Blood Fire Death " . Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic describes this as " possibly the first true example " of Viking metal . The cover to Blood Fire Death even features Asgårdsreien , a painting by Norwegian artist Peter Nicolai Arbo which depicts Norse god Odin on a Wild Hunt . Bathory followed up on this Viking theme in 1990 with the release of Hammerheart , a concept album fully devoted to Vikings . Like its predecessor , this album also features a Viking @-@ themed painting , this time The Funeral of a Viking by Sir Frank Dicksee . Following up this release were 1991 's Twilight of the Gods , titled after Wagner 's opera of the same name , and Blood on Ice , recorded in 1988 – 1989 but released in 1996 . Rivadavia cites Hammerheart as a landmark album that " formally introduced " to the metal world the " archetypical Viking metal album " . Through this album , writes Rividavia , Quorthon , the band 's founder , " became a standard @-@ bearer for an entire generation of disenfranchised Norse @-@ descended teens " , and the album 's " well @-@ thought @-@ out words and overall scope and vision engendered a deep @-@ seated anti @-@ Christian sentiment within the region 's extreme metal scene " that culminated in the violence and hate crimes committed by members of the Norwegian black metal community in the early 1990s . Quorthon later explained , in the liner notes to Blood on Ice , that his shift to Viking themes was an intentional move away from Satanism :
I came to the personal conclusion that this whole Satanic bit was a fake : a hoax created by another hoax — the Christian church , the very institution they were attempting to attack using Satanic lyrics in the first place . Since I am an avid fan of history , the natural step would be to find something in history that could replace a thing like the dark side of life . And what could be more simple and natural than to pick up on the Viking era ? Being Swedish and all , having a personal relation to , and linked by blood to , that era at the same time as it was an internationally infamous moment in history , I sensed that here I might just have something . Especially well suited was it since it was an era that reached its peak just before the Christian circus came around northern Europe and Sweden in the tenth century , establishing itself as the dictatorial way of life and death . And so that Satan and hell type of soup was changed for proud and strong nordsmen , shiny blades of broadswords , dragon ships and party- ' til @-@ you @-@ puke type of living up there in the great halls
The characteristics of Bathory 's Viking metal music featured Wagnerian " lengthy epics , ostentatious arrangements , chorused vocals , and ambient keyboards " . Mulvany notes that the 90s releases by Bathory marked the beginnings of a Viking @-@ themed trend initially slow , even confusing , in formation . For example , in 1994 , the Austrian black metal band Abigor , on its album Nachthymnen , incorporated themes of Vikings and Germanic paganism , but stated about the first track on the album that " this vision should not be seen as a part of the upcoming Viking trend . " According to Mulvany , " The Viking trend presaged by Abigor was actually taking place around them , and it remains more ' true ' to how black metal is often defined than the folk influenced metal that followed . Its folk elements are predominantly textual or musically evocative rather than musically @-@ historically accurate . "
= = = = Enslaved = = = =
Enslaved , from Norway , formed in 1991 , which Mulvany cites as " probably the first truly ' Viking ' metal band " . In the German edition of Metal Hammer , Robert Müller cites the 1993 EP by the band , Hordanes Land , as the first true Viking metal release . Its debut album , Vikingligr Veldi , arrived in 1994 , with " many melodies being borrowed from ethnic Scandinavian folk music to lend additional authenticity to the vicious , fast @-@ paced black metal " . Inspired by Bathory , Enslaved set out to " create Viking metal devoted to retelling Norway 's legends and traditions of old — not attacking Christianity by means of its own creation : Satan . " Its second album Frost , also released in 1994 , served as " an important release for the extreme music subgenre of Viking metal " . Eld , released in 1997 , was described in an AllMusic review as featuring all the hallmarks of Enslaved : " Viking themes , razor sharp guitars , blastbeat drums , and an ear for orchestration resulting in complex structures , bountiful harmonies and time changes . " The reviewer also noted that " Among the countless bands who were inspired by Bathory 's seminal Viking metal , arguably none were as true to its gospel as Norway 's Enslaved , whose utmost commitment even extended to donning vintage Norse armor and outfits on @-@ stage " .
= = = = Burzum = = = =
Ideologically , the one @-@ man project Burzum by Varg Vikernes helped inspire the Viking metal scene through Vikernes ' strong racist , nationalistic , and anti @-@ Judeo @-@ Christian beliefs and longing to return to paganism . Trafford and Pluskowski opine that Vikerne 's beliefs , which had culminated in the burning of several churches , including the twelfth @-@ century Fantoft Stave Church in Bergen , revealed the confused nature of ideas about Vikings in the Norwegian black metal scene . They note that " His tastes seem originally not for the unmediated medieval itself as for J. R. R. Tolkien : he adopted the name ' Count Grishnackh , ' based upon an orc in The Lord of the Rings , and named his band Burzum after a Tolkenian word for ' darkness . ' " They postulate that only in retrospect did Vikernes " cloak his actions in an Oðinic garb and claim the motivation of an attempt to restore Norse paganism for his church burning . " While in prison , Vikernes released the book Vargsmål , which Trafford and Pluskowski call an echoing of the Hávamál , though with " an eye on Mein Kampf . " They further opine that " proving both that it is not just the early medieval past to which he looks for inspiration , and that he will use any historical weapon at his disposal to offend Norwegian liberal opinion , it is notable that he has recently added the name Quisling to his own , and is even attempting to claim some sort of kinship to the wartime collaborator . " Vikernes himself has connected the church burnings to an idea of resurgent Viking paganism . He stated that the first burning , that of Fantoft Church on June 6 , 1992 , was thought by many to be related to Satanism , since the burning occurred on the sixth day of the week , on day six of the sixth month and was thus a reference to the number of the beast . But Vikernes contends that the date June 6 was really picked because the first recorded Viking raid , that upon Lindesfarne , occurred , according to Vikernes , on June 6 , 793 .
= = = = Other pioneers = = = =
Besides Bathory , Enslaved , and Burzum , several other artists are credited as pioneers of the style . The original bassist for Emperor , Håvard Ellefsen , also known as Mortiis , was according to AllMusic , " an indispensable force in the genesis of Norway 's epic Viking metal sound . " Despite Ellefsen 's short tenure in the band , it was his musical interests that catalyzed the band to mix chaotic black metal with synthesizer melodies based on Norwegian folk music .
Helheim was another major pioneer in the early scene . The webzine Laut.de states that Helheim emerged on the scene before other bands such as Einherjer and Thyrfing , when even Enslaved was in its infancy . According to the site , not only was Helheim one of the first bands to meld black metal with Viking themed @-@ music , but one of the first to include stylistically unconventional instruments such as horns and violins . Robert Müller considers the song " Galder " , the final track from Helheim 's 1995 debut album Jormundgand , the death blow to Viking metal emerging as a concrete genre , since the ambitious track even went beyond compatibility with heavy metal .
Other highly influential Viking metal bands are Borknagar , Darkwoods My Betrothed , Einherjer , Ensiferum , Moonsorrow , Thyrfing , and Windir . Trafford and Pluskowski call Einherjer , Moonsorrow , Thyrfing , and Windir , the " most influential " Viking metal bands and write that , apart from Enslaved , the album covers of Einherjer give that band the most " Viking " feel of all , due to the prevalence of Viking artifacts . They elaborate that Einherjer 's artwork spans the full chronology of Viking art : 8th and 9th century Oseberg to 11th and 12th century Urnes . Writing for AllMusic , Craig Harris stated that Darkwoods My Betrothed " combine songs about ancestors and Norse gods with electrifying , to power @-@ driven , arrangements , creating a new style of music , that they call , ' Viking metal . ' "
= = = = Amon Amarth and Unleashed = = = =
Amon Amarth and Unleashed sonically play death metal but incorporate Viking lyrical themes and thus are considered to have broadened the scope of Viking metal . Florian Heesch in " Metal for Nordic Men : Amon Amarth 's Representations of Vikings " writes that " While receptions of Norse myths where mostly important in black metal , especially the Norwegian black metal of the early 1990s , and the younger pagan metal , bands as the Swedish Unleashed made the topic fit into death metal before Amon Amarth appeared . " Michael Moynihan and Didrik Søderlind in Lords of Chaos consider Unleashed as setting a precedent for many of the coming black metal bands , as , similar to Bathory 's rejection of common black metal imagery , the band rejected the common death metal themes of gore and , like Bathory , instead focused on pre @-@ Christian Swedish heathenism , particularly the Viking Age and old Norse religion . Both Amon Amarth and Unleashed , however , resist the Viking metal label . Johan Hegg of Amon Amarth stated that " It 's weird to label a band after the lyrical content because , in that case , Iron Maiden is a Viking metal band , Black Sabbath is a Viking metal band , Led Zeppelin is a Viking metal band . " Johnny Hedlund of Unleashed maintains that the band has always played and always will play death metal , commenting that " The Viking lyrics you will find on about three to five songs on every Unleashed album from 1991 and on . I don 't think that fact alone re @-@ defines our style in some way . "
= = = Spread outside the Nordic countries = = =
According to Trafford and Pluskowski , practically all Viking metal bands claim Viking ancestry , and after its inception in Scandinavia , Viking metal spread to areas historically settled by Vikings , including England , Russia , and Normandy . Viking metal bands have even formed in the United States and Canada , with their members claiming Viking descent either directly from Scandinavia or through England . Some members of the Viking metal scene believe that it is impossible for someone to be a Viking unless they themselves are of northern European descent . However , the scene also spread to other parts of Northern Europe in areas united by a common Germanic heritage , such as Austria , Germany , and the Netherlands . Trafford and Pluskowski cite the Austrian band Valhalla , which makes extensive use of Viking iconography , including horned helmets . Another Austrian example is Amestigon , which on the cover of its promotional album Remembering Ancient Origins depicts a wood carved scene of Sigurd killing Regin , a panel held in Hylestad stave church .
One of the first non @-@ Nordic Viking metal bands was the German project Falkenbach . Formed in 1989 and primarily the work of front @-@ man Vratyas Vakyas , Falkenbach performs a mixture of black metal and folk music , with lyrics drawing from Western and Northern European mythologies , religions , and folk traditions . The Dutch bands Heidevolk , Slechtvalk , and Fenris have also been labeled as Viking metal , though Heidevolk 's former vocalist Joris Boghtdrincker claims that Heidevolk has never tried to " play the Viking card or the Pan @-@ Germanic card , " instead choosing to write about local Dutch history .
Hoad finds the issue of national and racial identity central to Viking metal . For instance , she writes that when Trafford and Pluskowski claim that Manowar could not claim religious or racial identity with the Vikings when the band had a lead singer with the " ' less than wholly Scandinavian name of Joey di Maio ' , [ Trafford and Pluskowski ] are approaching a more complex and racially @-@ charged issue than their offhandedness would suggest . " Hoad states that Viking imagery may be readily appropriated , the definition of a " true " Viking is quite rigid , a rigidity with which non @-@ Nordic , and especially non @-@ White , musicians must contend with . As an example , she cites the Brazilian band Viking Throne , which claims legitimacy through European ancestry and historical references to explorations of South America by Nordic countries . The front @-@ man , Count Nidhogg , extols that " Some people understand perfectly that it doesn 't matter where you live , what 's really important is your heritage and ancestry . Even living in a South American country as Brazil we all have European blood . " Hoad argues that Viking Throne illustrates the cultural importance of claiming Viking ancestry , a culture that operates on largely geographic lines . In contrast to Viking Throne , she cites the band Slechtvalk , which is well known for its brand of Christian Viking metal , but yet goes largely without comment from the scene regarding its authenticity . Hoad speculates that the European ethnicity of the band is enough to compensate for its otherwise counter @-@ intuitive music .
= = = = Influence on pagan metal = = = =
Weinstein comments that " Viking metal has travelled further than any Viking ship . Self @-@ defined pagan metal bands who describe their music as Viking metal can be found in the United States , Brazil and Uruguay , among other places . " She cites the sensationalism of the early Norwegian black metal scene for some of this popularity , but considers the genre 's greatest influence to be " the inspiration it has given to others to explore their own roots . " This impact was particularly strong in the Baltic states , where Viking metal influenced the development of a distinct pagan metal scene known as " Baltic war metal . " Weinstein considers the Lithuanian band Obtest the prime example of this style . Formed as a black metal band in 1993 with Lithuanian lyrics , the band 's 1997 album Tūkstantmetis birthed the war metal scene . Weinstein highlights a comment by scholar Michael F. Strmiska that despite the claim that Scandinavia was home to the last pagans in Europe , " A point of particular pride is the knowledge that Lithuania was the last country in all of Europe to officially abandon its native Pagan traditions and convert to Christianity in 1387 . " Another Baltic band influenced by Viking metal is the Latvian project Skyforger , which composes its lyrics in the Latvian language . A final example by Weinstein of the influence of Viking metal on pagan metal is the National Socialist black metal band Graveland from Poland , which on its second album , Thousand Swords , released in 1995 , featured a variety of folk styles mixed in with the band 's black metal sound , and introduced lyrics about Polish history and Slavic gods . Trafford and Pluskowski note as a contrast to Viking metal the emergence of Celtic metal in Ireland , France , and even Germany , a style which they state sounds essentially like Viking metal , apart from the addition of harps , but with lyrics celebrating Celtic gods and myths .
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= Ruby Buckton =
Ruby Buckton is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Rebecca Breeds . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 20 June 2008 . Ruby was created by executive producer Cameron Welsh . When she was first introduced she appeared to hide her problems and pretends to be strong . She was characterised as a free spirited and independent girl . Her storylines have consistently followed themes such as romance , unrequited love and rejection . In what has been described as a " shock storyline " Ruby discovered her sister Charlie Buckton was in fact her mother . This had subsequent effects in her character development . She became out of place and confused about her life . It destroyed her trust in Charlie and their relationship never recovered . Ruby went on a journey of self @-@ discovery and used men to redefine herself . Her relationship with Xavier Austin was characterised through their mutual friendship , which ended through lack of passion . She controversially fell in love with her music teacher Liam Murphy , the pair shared an emotional and creative connection through music . Yet , her advances were unrequited and it created problems with her state of mind and began binge drinking . Breeds felt the storyline differed to her romance with Xavier , as it showed Ruby " headstrong and unconfined " . Breeds felt they were ill @-@ suited to one another .
Ruby later develops feelings for Romeo Smith and attempts to ruin his relationship with Indigo Walker . Off @-@ screen Breeds is dating Luke Mitchell who plays Romeo , they had both previously stated they did not want their characters to get together in case it created problems for them in real life . Ruby and Romeo sleep together and after she is rejected , Ruby becomes wayward , self @-@ harms and sleeps with Casey Braxton on the rebound . The storyline also created more tension with Charlie who found it difficult to offer Ruby any parental advice . In other minor storylines , Ruby has come to terms with having diabetes and discovered a talent for singing . Breeds is a classically trained singer and she had to change her voice to suit Ruby 's amateur vocals . Ruby has received critical analysis through her storylines . Some have branded her a " boyfriend @-@ stealer " , " self @-@ absorbed " and a " randy school girl " . Her storylines with Liam were partially favoured to others . Breeds has been nominated for the " Most Popular New Female Talent " and " Most Popular Actress " Logie Awards for her portrayal of Ruby .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
The serial 's official website describes Ruby as being carefree , though she puts on a front to hide her emotions . Ruby arrives grieving for the loss of her mother ; unlike her sister , Ruby takes an " internal approach and bottled it up inside " , creating a facade and appearing to be strong . They also brand her as independent and she does not care what others think about her and is inclined to keep to herself . Speaking of her aspirations in life , they add : " Her goal in life is simply to be happy and to be content in enjoying life ’ s simpler things and the people in it . "
Describing her character , portraying actress Rebecca Breeds stated : " Ruby has gone through a lot and had to gain a level of independence I really admire . She is free @-@ spirited and sure of whom she is . I love playing Ruby ; she is cheeky and easy @-@ going , but very passionate about her family . " Breeds also described Ruby 's hatred to being underestimated : " When people think something is beyond her , or she 's too young , she gets twice as determined . "
Ruby is often " prepared to be confrontational and abrasive " . She is often not careful in situations and is unaware of the consequences and what is coming up in the future . Breeds said she is " idealistic and has high expectations " of herself and is a " very passionate " person , but is flawed by her " outspoken and brash " nature . Breeds said that she can sympathise that she is irrational and silly because she is young .
= = = Relationships = = =
Ruby has a relationship with Xavier Austin ( David Jones @-@ Roberts ) , who initially messes her around . Ruby decides to try and win Xavier back even after her initial heartbreak , of this Breeds states : " She pushes boundaries where I wouldn 't and she has a lot of fun . She thinks she is so mature , but she 's really young and innocent . " Breeds explains her attraction to Xavier as " a challenge - she had to work for him and there is something mysterious and naughty about him but deep down she knows he is loyal and decent . " Their relationship ultimately ends after they grow apart . Breeds said that Ruby and Xavier 's relationship was a more " beautiful friendship and really good support " dynamic , rather than a romantic scenario . She also said it was " lacking passion , which everyone deserves . It 's there but it 's not there enough . "
Ruby later starts to have feelings for Romeo Smith ( Luke Mitchell ) . Of the storyline Breeds states : " It 's going to be the easiest thing I 've ever had to do . There 's no acting involved at all . But he 's got a girlfriend so Ruby has to find a way to justify going after someone who has a girlfriend . So that 's kind of hard . But he 's the hero . She believes he 's the love of her life . I guess with that in mind you wouldn 't let anything get in the way of that . Who knows , he might be . " However Breeds previously revealed she did not want the pair to romance each other , due to her real life relationship with Mitchell . Mitchell himself had also revealed he did not want the pair to start a romance . In comparison to her willingness to take him from Indigo , Breeds said Ruby would not have done the same whilst Romeo was with her best friend Annie Campbell ( Charlotte Best ) .
Mitchell revealed that Romeo 's relationship with Indigo Walker ( Samara Weaving ) would drift apart in the event of the " love triangle " storyline . Executive producer Cameron Welsh promised viewers that the storyline would play a big part of the serial in 2011 . He also stated : " Fans will definitely take sides on this one . Luke Mitchell , Rebecca Breeds and Samara Weaving are having a great time with this storyline , and we 'll see a new side to all of them as they face the consequences of their actions . " Breeds later explained Ruby 's reasoning and the hidden issue which makes her believe she loves him so quickly stating : " Ruby has a lot of insecurity because Ruby never really had a father figure . There 's a lot of looking to belong and looking for love because she 's had a displaced family life , and she feels like Romeo is her family . Romeo has some issues of his own . He is struggling with his relationship with Indi . The pair find themselves in a similar place of understanding . " After Romeo sleeps with Ruby , Mitchell said Romeo immediately regrets it . Ruby then decides to reveals the truth to Indigo . This ruins their friendship and Weaving said : " I think that friendship is pretty much over now ! " .
Ruby has a brief fling with Casey Braxton ( Lincoln Younes ) after her romance with Romeo ends . When Ruby realises that Romeo is back with his girlfriend , she sleeps with Casey . He then takes " great pleasure " in revealing the details about Ruby 's relationship with Romeo .
= = = Maternal issues = = =
In another storyline her sister Charlie Buckton ( Esther Anderson ) reveals she is in fact her mother . The reveal episode centered around Ruby interrogating Charlie about the identity of her secret child , with Charlie breaking down whilst she admits the truth . Whilst filming the episodic block , both Breeds and Anderson found the storyline challenging ; furthermore they felt a responsibility to get the narrative flow and emotions perfect . Breeds said she had to let it affect her own emotions in order to affect the viewing public . Although she was nervous , Breeds was pleased with the end result .
The revelation ruins their relationship . The actresses shared insight : " Ruby just wants to get some security back , everything she thought her life was is totally up in the air " ; whilst Charlie was " trying desperately to bridge this gap " The events impact Ruby 's self @-@ identity , leaving her feeling confused and her backstory succumb the distortion Charlie causes . Ruby starts to ask herself questions such as " Where do I stand now with everything ? " and " How do I reconcile this ? " . Breeds said it was a " big exploration " and " a journey " for Ruby , with Anderson agreeing . Anderson felt there was a beautiful element to the storyline and opined " Although it is tragic , you feel sorry for Charlie and you can sort of understand where it has all come from . " She said that ultimately everyone feels sorry for Ruby , meaning neither are wrong . Furthermore , she said " You are just rooting for them , you just want them to get back to how they were and it is a bit of a journey . "
Charlie later struggles to deal with Ruby 's relationship with Casey . Discussing Charlie 's motives , Anderson stated : " Ruby 's at that age where she is quite impressionable , and Charlie doesn 't want to see her getting hurt . She 's only very recently been in a relationship with Romeo , and Charlie is concerned about her moving from one guy to the next too quickly . " Casey 's brother Darryl Braxton ( Steve Peacocke ) tries to advise Ruby through her troubles . Although she was not prepared to listen , Darryl gave her a new understanding , a development that is said to " surprise " Ruby . Questioned about Ruby 's situation Anderson opined : " He offers the first bit of good advice that she 's heard in relation to parenting so , as much as she doesn 't want to admit it , he does get through . "
= = = School girl crushes = = =
Ruby has fallen in love with two of her teachers during her tenure . The first being Miles Copeland ( Josh Quong Tart ) . Breeds said it was a " genuine teenage infatuation " and Ruby was " drawn to his maturity " rather than his physical appearance . Quong Tart said Miles was " taken back " by the kiss him and the subsequent investigation he faces from the school board .
Ruby later becomes good friends with her music teacher Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) . They work closely together and Ruby develops feelings for him . The storyline creates many hurdles for the characters and highlights " controversial negotiation " in its themes . This sees Ruby experience a " different kind of love " than she felt for Xavier . At this point Breeds said : " She 's matured a bit and is exploring different parts of herself and love . " Through Liam she was " realising something she 's passionate about , and being encouraged in her creativity with her music . " It is the intoxication of the situation that has been misappropriated to Liam . Breeds opined they shared " really strong chemistry emotionally and creatively . " She said Ruby is ignorant to the fact he is her teacher by virtue of the fact she is feeling " headstrong and doesn 't confine herself to boxes . " Ruby was initially in denial of her feelings , she realised it was " controversial " – Yet , ultimately she decided to be true to her feelings .
Breeds acknowledged that from a musical stand point someone who inspires you creatively and acts as your muse , is a special bond . She attributed it to Liam 's feelings for Ruby . Ruby and Liam continue to act a support unit for one another . As the scholarship develops they talk to each other about " mature things that surpass a student @-@ teacher relationship . " Liam later develops feelings for Bianca Scott ( Lisa Gormley ) and Ruby is seeing Liam slip from her grasp . Breeds said " She sees them flirting and she has a moment where she realises that she 's so in love with this guy and it 's kind of now or never . She needs to take action . " True to Ruby 's persona she does not preconceive her actions and Ruby feels she has to " set the record straight and to give it a really good crack . " For Ruby it is a spontaneous , impromptu moment ; " She 's just totally spilling out with feelings for him . "
However Liam is forced to maintain his responsibility . Breeds attributes this to the fact he has a " professional career to think about it . He 's not a teenager , so he 's in a different place . I think it 's very confusing for him . Liam issued a firm warning that he would terminate their professional relationship if her feelings became uncontrollable . Breeds subsequently stated she did not think Liam was right for Ruby . She said the ideal scenario for the pair would be " in a different lifetime and if they were closer in age . It would have been beautiful if there weren 't logistics standing in the way . " Ruby then cannot handle rejection and turns to alcohol for comfort and to " numb her feelings " .
Aside from the romantic theme in her storyline Ruby has been shown as an aspiring singer . Breeds is classically trained in real life and said she doesn 't mind singing on camera . Discussing this she stated : " When you 're playing a character you can hide behind them . I know it 's still my voice , [ ... ] I was more confident singing from Ruby 's point of view . Even though there was a storyline where she was terrified about singing in a school play , I wasn 't nervous at all . I had to try really hard to make myself feel nervous . " She revealed she had to play down her voice and make it " a bit cleaner " and a " bit more inexperienced " . This was due to the fact it was meant to be that she had never sung before – " I have to pull her back a bit . " She added the storyline was realistic because there are no set guidelines for discovering vocal talent .
= = = Departure = = =
In June 2012 , TV Week 's Miller reported that Breeds had filmed her final scenes and left Home and Away . Breeds told Miller that she could not discuss her departure because of her contract with the series . She added that " Ruby is still very much alive , I 'm not free of Ruby just yet " . Two months later , the Daily Star 's Susan Hill announced that Ruby decides to leave Summer Bay after she makes " an emotional visit " to her mother 's grave . She then realises that she needs to move on from recent events and the only way she can do that is to leave the Bay . A spokesperson told Hill " Ruby knows that to save her life she must leave for a fresh start . It 's going to be emotional as she has so many good memories but the bad ones are all she can think of . " However , Ruby leaves Summer Bay after she confesses to tampering with the brakes of a car , which resulted in Dexter Walker ( Charles Cottier ) being seriously injured . Ruby regrets what she has done and hands herself in to the police after saying goodbye to Darryl Braxton ( Steve Peacocke ) . Breeds thanked her fans on Twitter , saying " Thank you . Such beautiful feedback . So sad that it 's all over , but kind of relieved to let poor Ruby go and heal ... And my Eyes .. Love you . "
= = Storylines = =
Ruby arrives in Summer Bay following the death of her mother Elsie Buckton . She and her boyfriend Pat Jenkins ( Lachlan Jeffrey ) spend a few weeks together until she realises it is not going to work out , he leaves her . Her friends Jai Fernandez ( Jordan Rodrigues ) and Annie , who are in a relationship , make her feel lonely so she convinces herself she loves Miles . When her father Ross Buckton is diagnosed with Alzheimer 's , she finds it hard to cope . She contacts - via the internet - classmate Matthew Lyons ( Ross Pirelli ) , a wayward teenager , and reveals he is experiencing the same with his grandmother . When she finds out it is Matthew , she thinks he has lied and photographs him undressed and displays them . She then realises he was telling the truth , he would not forgive her and decides to exact revenge .
She later takes a romantic interest in Xavier and they have a brief fling until he has to leave because of drug couriering . He later returns and she opts to resume their relationship , but his ex @-@ girlfriend Freya Duric ( Sophie Hensser ) ruins things . She makes him sell illegal drugs again and Xavier is torn between her and Ruby . He later decides to settle down with Ruby much to her delight after Ruby exposes Freya and pays her to leave . When Xavier 's brother Brendan ( Kain O 'Keeffe ) arrives , he pushes Ruby away because he has learning difficulties , he feels they will act strangely . Ruby later bonds with Brendan ; Xavier is pleased and they resume their relationship .
Ruby initially finds it hard to cope with her sister Charlie 's relationship with Joey Collins ( Kate Bell ) , but grows to accept it . Ruby decides to sleep with Xavier , they are caught by Ross who sends Ruby away for a while . Ruby learns Charlie had a secret child when she was young , she tries to track her down and is shocked when her Aunt Michelle tells her that Charlie knows who it is . Charlie reveals the truth , that Ruby is actually her daughter and that she became pregnant when Grant Bledcoe raped her . Charlie 's parents agreed to bring Ruby up as their own . Ruby tracks Grant down and accuses him of ruining everyone 's lives . Grant tells Ruby she has convinced herself it was not consented , Charlie then kidnaps Grant to get the truth . Grant later turns up dead on the beach and Charlie and Ruby are in the frame for his murder , until Ross later admits he did it .
Ruby starts to have feelings for Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) , Xavier is jealous and they drift apart . She tries to dump him but he is knocked unconscious and forgets what she told him . After a while he remembers and their relationship ends . While seeing Geoff , Ruby starts to feel unwell and is diagnosed with diabetes . She later organises a rally to stop a number of refugees being deported , but the event is fire bombed by racists . After this event Geoff blames Ruby and leaves her and Summer Bay . She briefly reunites with Xavier but Mink Carpenter ( Matylda Buczko ) ruins it . Ruby later enlists Liam to become her music tutor . They form a strong friendship but Ruby starts to have feeling for him . Nicole Franklin ( Tessa James ) tells Liam , he agrees to keep tutoring her and tells her where they stand . Although Liam tells her they will not be together , she lets her feelings develop into love for Liam and tries to kiss him . He tells her again that it is wrong and decides to put some space between them . Ruby kisses Casey , but she later reveals she really wants to be with Romeo . She has sex with Romeo , but is devastated when he rejects her . She tells Charlie that she wants to hurt Romeo like he hurt her and tells Indigo about their one @-@ night stand . Ruby then begins a relationship with Casey . She is devastated when Charlie dies , after being shot . Ruby blames Darryl Braxton ( Steve Peacocke ) for her mother 's death and she pushes Casey away and their relationship ends .
Ruby begins entering surf competitions with Romeo and when his marriage breaks down , he tells her that he has feelings for her . They begin dating later move in together . Ruby suspects Romeo is going to break up with her and she tells him she is pregnant . Leah Patterson @-@ Baker ( Ada Nicodemou ) learns Ruby is lying and urges her to tell Romeo the truth . Ruby does and Romeo leaves her . Ruby later notices Romeo trying to get back with Indi and she decides to tamper with the brakes on Indi 's car in order to get rid of her . However , Indi 's brother , Dexter ( Charles Cottier ) , drives the car and crashes , leaving him with serious injuries . Ruby feels guilty for what she has done and decides to hand herself into the police .
= = Reception = =
Breeds received a Logie Award nomination for " Most Popular New Female Talent " at the 51st Logie Awards for her portrayal of Ruby . She was later nominated for the " Most Popular Actress " Logie in 2010 , with Breeds stating : " To know that people like Ruby makes me think I 'm doing a good job . " At the 2012 Inside Soap Awards , Breeds was nominated for " Best Daytime Star " . Holy Soap recall Ruby 's most memorable moment as being : " Trying to cope with her Dad 's illness , Ruby started talking to someone on Skype , only to find out it was Matthew playing a trick . She got revenge by convincing him to go skinny @-@ dipping and nicking his clothes . " Carolyn Stewart writing for TV Week felt it was unrealistic for Ruby and Nicole to be best friends after she has " actively pursued two of Nicole 's ex @-@ boyfriends . " She criticised Bianca 's role in Ruby and Liam 's storyline , quipping " Bianca @-@ The @-@ Butt @-@ In @-@ Ski " offered " her two cents worth " – subsequently calling her efforts unhelpful to Ruby . She also discussed Ruby 's sudden descent into drink and wearing make up ; " Obviously heavy make @-@ up is a clue that a character is about to go off the rails … and , boy did she ! " She said the moral of the storyline was to never fall in love with a teacher and that the situation had resulted in her as the " drowned @-@ rat Ruby with eye @-@ liner pouring down her face " . Stewart later said " The way Ruby stares at Liam ... oh , I 'm just so embarrassed for the poor little petal ! Hilarious ! " She also criticised Nicole 's bad advice . She later praised the storyline stating it was getting " juicy " . Catrin Griffiths writing for the Daily Express said the serial came back in style after its summer break in the UK , owing to storylines such as Ruby 's binge drinking .
The Daily Record also said ever since the Buckton family arrived they " created drama " , noting it was Ruby and Charlie especially . All About Soap questioned whether " poor Ruby " would ever find a " good bloke " to pair up with . They also said it should not have been to hard for Ruby with all the " surfer types " . Holy Soap later said " If there 's one thing that Ruby seems to have inherited from Charlie , it 's her sometimes questionable taste in men . " When Ruby impressed everyone with her singing voice , the Daily Record said " there is actually a rather pleasant storyline involving Ruby " . They described the week Ruby slept with Romeo as an eventful one for her and opined she was on " cloud nine " . Debbie Schipp writing for Adelaide 's Sunday Mail brands Ruby " a low @-@ down boyfriend @-@ stealer " for her affair with Romeo . Caroline Fitton writing for Daily Mail observed Ruby as being " self @-@ absorbed " . TV Week said the " impulsive teen " waited until Romeo dropped his guard and " moved in for the kill " , but had her " head in the clouds " . They correctly predicted it would end " messy " . They also showed Ruby little sympathy when she told Indigo about her affair and lost her friends . They said : " The salient lesson here is : don 't cop off with your best mate 's boyfriend , so you 're just gonna have to ride this one out , Rubes . " Peter Dyke writing for the Daily Star said Ruby is a " randy schoolgirl " and said that her romance with Casey was merely a " passionate rebound romp " . Whilst Erin Miller of TV Week said : " Phew , it 's hard to keep up with Ruby 's romantic escapades lately ! " In April 2011 , TV Week said Ruby had become " increasingly trouble @-@ prone " and concluded that " belle in blue Charlie is at her wits ' end about what to do with her wayward daughter " .
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= Battle of Pakchon =
The Battle of Pakchon ( 5 November 1950 ) , also known as the Battle of Bochuan ( Chinese : 博川战斗 ; pinyin : Bó Chuān Zhàn Dòu ) , took place ten days after the start of the Chinese First Phase Offensive , following the entry of the People 's Volunteer Army into the Korean War . The offensive reversed the United Nations ( UN ) advance towards the Yalu River which had occurred after their intervention in the wake of the North Korean invasion of South Korea at the start of the war . The battle was fought between British and Australian forces from the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade with American armour and artillery in support , and the Chinese 117th Division , around the village of Pakchon on the Taeryong River . After capturing Chongju on 30 October the British and Australians had been ordered to pull back to Pakchon in an attempt to consolidate the western flank of the US Eighth Army . Meanwhile , immediately following their success at Unsan against the Americans , the Chinese 117th Division of the 39th Army had attacked southward , intending to cut off the UN forces as they withdrew in the face of the unexpected Chinese assault . To halt the Chinese advance , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was ordered to defend the lower crossings of the Taeryong and Chongchon rivers as part of a rearguard , in conjunction with the US 24th Infantry Division further upstream on the right .
During the night of 4 / 5 November , the Chinese and North Koreans mounted a full @-@ scale assault on the US 24th Infantry Division , pushing back an American infantry regiment nearly 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . The Chinese force subsequently turned west , advancing between the Taeryong and Chongchon rivers and threatening the rear of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade by cutting the Pakchon – Sinanju road . The following day they attacked an American artillery battery which was guarding a vital concrete bridge near Kujin . The British and Australians then successfully counter @-@ attacked the Chinese forces occupying a number of nearby ridgelines during the day but were in turn counter @-@ attacked before being pushed off the high ground during the night . In their first battle with the Chinese , the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) captured a well defended hill with only limited offensive support , and held it in the face of heavy counter @-@ attacks before confused command decisions resulted in a disorganised night withdrawal while still in contact . The withdrawal threatened to open the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade 's left flank and the Australians were ordered to immediately reposition on the ridge , yet ultimately it was too late to regain the feature in darkness . However , following heavy fighting the pressure on the Australians unexpectedly ceased after midnight , and parties of Chinese were observed beginning to withdraw . By early morning the Chinese attack had been checked and 3 RAR had redeployed to new positions in the paddy fields around the railway crossing north of Maenjung @-@ dong .
The fighting was costly for both sides . Although the Australians halted the advancing Chinese 117th Division and inflicted numerous casualties on them , they also suffered heavy losses . In the aftermath the inexperienced Australian battalion commander — Lieutenant Colonel Floyd Walsh — was relieved of his position by the British brigade commander , having taken over just six days earlier following the death of the previous commanding officer at Chongju . Nonetheless , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade succeeded in preventing a Chinese break @-@ through at Pakchon , keeping open vital withdrawal routes across the river and securing the UN left flank . Suffering significant casualties , the Chinese offensive was halted the next day due to logistic difficulties . The Chinese and North Koreans were temporarily forced to withdraw north , while the UN successfully reinforced its positions , holding on the Chongchon Line . Yet by late November the US Eighth Army was again forced to withdraw after the Chinese began their Second Phase Offensive , starting a long retreat south . The UN forces were expelled from North Korea , and withdrew to the 38th Parallel where they sought to re @-@ establish defensive positions .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
The Korean War began early in the morning of 25 June 1950 , following the surprise invasion of the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) by its northern neighbour , the communist Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( DPRK ) . Numerically superior and better @-@ equipped , the Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) crossed the 38th Parallel and rapidly advanced south , easily overcoming the South Koreans . In response , the United Nations ( UN ) decided to intervene on behalf of South Korea , inviting member states to send forces to restore the situation . As a consequence , American ground forces were hastily deployed in an attempt to prevent the South Koreans from collapsing ; however , they too were under @-@ strength and poorly equipped , and by early August had been forced back by the North Koreans to an enclave around Pusan , known as the Pusan Perimeter . Key US allies — Britain , Canada and Australia — also committed forces , although these were initially limited to naval contingents and were largely viewed as token efforts in the US . Under diplomatic pressure the British agreed to deploy an infantry brigade in July , and would later dispatch a second brigade as the crisis worsened . The Canadians also agreed to provide an infantry brigade , although the first battalion would not arrive until December 1950 . A total of 21 UN member states eventually contributed forces .
Australia was one of the first nations to commit units to the fighting , playing a small but sometimes significant part in the United Nations Command , which was initially led by General Douglas MacArthur . Forces deployed in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) formed the basis of the Australian response , with P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter @-@ bombers from No. 77 Squadron RAAF flying their first missions on 2 July , while the frigate HMAS Shoalhaven and the destroyer HMAS Bataan were also committed to naval operations . During this time the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) , which had been preparing to return to Australia prior to the outbreak of the war , remained in Japan , however on 26 July the Australian government announced that it would also commit the under @-@ strength and poorly equipped infantry battalion to the fighting , following a period of preparation . Training and re @-@ equipment began immediately , while hundreds of reinforcements were hastily recruited in Australia as part of K Force ; they soon began arriving to fill out the battalion . The battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Floyd Walsh , was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green . An officer with extensive operational experience fighting the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War , Green took over from Walsh due to the latter 's perceived inexperience .
On 23 September 1950 , 3 RAR embarked for Korea , concentrating at Pusan on 28 September . There it joined the British 27th Infantry Brigade , a garrison formation hurriedly committed from Hong Kong by the British government as the situation deteriorated around the Pusan Perimeter in late August to bolster the US Eighth Army under Lieutenant General Walton Walker . Commanded by Brigadier Basil Coad , the brigade was renamed the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and consisted of the 1st Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highland Regiment ( 1 ASHR ) , the 1st Battalion , Middlesex Regiment ( 1 MR ) and 3 RAR . Under @-@ strength , the two British battalions had each mustered just 600 men of all ranks , while the brigade was also short on transport and heavy equipment , and had no integral artillery support , for which it would rely entirely on the Americans until the 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery arrived in January 1951 . As such , with a strength of nearly 1 @,@ 000 men , the addition of 3 RAR gave the brigade increased tactical weight as well as expediently allowing the Australians to work within a familiar organisational environment , rather than being attached to a US formation .
By the time 3 RAR arrived in the theatre , the North Koreans had been broken and were in rapid retreat , with MacArthur 's forces conducting a successful amphibious assault at Inchon and breaking out along the Naktong perimeter on the southern tip of the Korean peninsula . A steady advance began , driving the North Koreans northwards towards the 38th Parallel . The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was attached to the US 1st Cavalry Division , under the command of Major General Hobart R. Gay . On 16 October the brigade took over as the vanguard of the UN advance up the west coast . Although the North Koreans had suffered heavily in the preceding weeks , they continued to resist strongly . The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade moved 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) from Kumchon , with the Argylls capturing Sariwon on 17 October , killing 215 North Koreans and taking many prisoners for the loss of one man killed and three wounded . The British and Australians then passed to the command of the US 24th Infantry Division on 21 October , under the overall command of Major General John H. Church , while the US 1st Cavalry Division remained in Pyongyang to complete its capture . The brigade was ordered to seize Chongju .
The advance continued north with little respite , and on 22 October the Australians fought their first major action at Yongju , killing 150 North Koreans and capturing 239 of the brigade 's 800 prisoners , for the loss of seven men wounded . Intending to defeat the North Koreans and bring the war to a close , the UN forces pushed towards the Yalu River , on the Chinese border . The brigade crossed the Chongchon River , moving towards Pakchon . On 24 October , MacArthur had removed all restrictions on the movement of his forces south of the Yalu River and prepared for the final phase of the advance , defying a directive of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff and risking Chinese intervention in support of North Korea . On 25 October 3 RAR crossed the Taeryong River . The North Koreans attacked the forward Australian companies at Kujin early the following morning , resulting in Australian losses of eight killed and 22 wounded . However , the North Koreans suffered heavy casualties including over 100 killed and 350 captured , and the Australians succeeded in defending the bridgehead after the North Koreans withdrew . Intelligence indicated that the British and Australians were facing the North Korean 17th Tank Brigade , which was preparing a last line of defence at Chongju , 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) away . With the war considered all but over the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade continued to pursue the North Koreans towards Chongju ; however , the advance increasingly encountered strong resistance as they approached the Manchurian border .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
3 RAR took over as lead battalion of the brigade on 29 October , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from Chongju . That morning a spotter aircraft reported a large North Korean formation consisting of a battalion @-@ sized force of 500 – 600 infantry supported by several tanks and at least two self @-@ propelled guns , positioned on a thickly wooded ridgeline around Chongju . The Battle of Chongju ensued as the Australians dislodged the strong North Korean armoured force and then defended their positions against North Korean counter @-@ attacks during the evening . The following day the Australians advanced to the high ground overlooking Chongju , killing and capturing a number of North Koreans in skirmishes . That afternoon the town itself was cleared by the remaining elements of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade without opposition . The fighting around Chongju was the heaviest undertaken by the Australians since entering the war . North Korean casualties included 162 killed and 10 captured , while Australian losses were nine killed and 30 wounded , including Green , who was wounded in the stomach by artillery fire after the battle , succumbing to his wounds and dying two days later on 1 November .
Following the capture of Chongju the US 21st Infantry Regiment had set off rapidly along the road to Sonchon to the west . Encountering only one strong North Korean position which they quickly turned , by noon on 1 November the lead battalion had reached Chonggodong , just 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the Yalu River where the Americans clashed with another North Korean armoured force . To the north meanwhile , the US 5th and 9th Infantry Regiments of the US 24th Infantry Division secured Taechon and Kusong , before advancing to within 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) of the Manchurian border . However , during the last weeks of October the Chinese had moved 18 divisions of the People 's Volunteer Army across the Yalu River under the overall command of Marshal Peng Dehuai in order to reinforce the remnants of the KPA . Undetected by US and South Korean intelligence , the 13th Army Group crossed the border on 16 October and penetrated up to 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) into North Korea , and were reinforced in early November by 12 divisions from the 9th Army Group ; in total 30 divisions composed of 380 @,@ 000 men . The Chinese ambushed MacArthur 's forces which were now widely dispersed , decimating ROK II Corps at Onjong and encircling and overrunning the US 8th Cavalry Regiment at Unsan . With the US 24th Infantry Division ordered back to the Chongchon River as a result , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade also began moving south as part of the UN general withdrawal in the face of the Chinese First Phase Offensive .
Ultimately Chongju was the furthest north that the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was to penetrate , and on 1 November , while still in divisional reserve , the brigade was ordered to pull back to Pakchon in an attempt to consolidate the western flank . Immediately following their success at Unsan , the Chinese 117th Division of the 39th Army — under the overall command of Zhang Jiecheng — attacked southward , intending to cut off the retreating UN forces and in so doing eliminate the remnants of the ROK 1st Infantry Division and US 1st Cavalry Division by cutting the road junction at Pakchon . Meanwhile , the Chinese 38th and 40th Armies approached along the Chongchon River from the east . 3 RAR remained at Chongju , however , due to a lack of transport , while the remainder of the brigade moved south ; now the most forward element on the US Eighth Army 's left flank , the battalion soon became isolated without communications or armour and artillery support . Finally , on 2 November , US Army trucks became available , and the battalion completed its move south without incident , harbouring in the bed of the Taeryong River that evening . Meanwhile , it was announced that Green would be temporarily replaced by Walsh , who he had himself replaced in Japan several months before . Walsh , by then an observer at US Eighth Army headquarters , was urgently posted back to 3 RAR to resume command , despite his lack of operational experience as an infantry commander . Taking over amid difficult circumstances following Green 's death , and with little time to become acquainted with the battalion , Walsh 's inexperience soon told as the local situation deteriorated .
Walker elected to stand north of the Chongchon and Taeryong rivers in response to the Chinese offensive , and the following day Coad received new orders to hold the left forward section of the bridgehead over the Chongchon . To halt the Chinese advance , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was ordered to defend the lower crossings of the Taeryong and Chongchon rivers as part of a rearguard , in conjunction with the US 24th Infantry Division further upstream on the right . The brigade concentrated in the Pakchon area . The Middlesex occupied the town and the high ground to the north and east , while 3 RAR and the Argylls held positions covering the western approaches to the Taeryong , with the latter designated as the brigade reserve . Yet the information available to the British and Australians suggested that the Chinese would likely attack from an easterly direction , and the dispositions adopted by Coad were later criticised for failing to take this into account . 3 RAR took up a defensive position 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) west of the village , where it remained for the next two days . Meanwhile , B and C Companies of the Argylls formed a bridgehead over the Taeryong around the far @-@ side of the partially destroyed bridge near Kujin , while A Company occupied positions astride the road to the south . To the right , the US 24th Infantry Division covered the crossing over the Chongchon at Anju , while the South Korean II ROK Corps held positions further east . Forced to defend on a wide frontage , the UN positions were weakened by a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) gap between the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and the nearest American formation — 2nd Battalion , US 19th Regimental Combat Team ( 2 / 19 RCT ) — on the brigade 's eastern flank .
= = Battle = =
= = = Opening moves , 4 / 5 November 1950 = = =
During the night of 4 / 5 November 1950 , the Chinese and North Koreans mounted a full @-@ scale assault on US 24th Infantry Division . Before dawn , US 19 RCT had become heavily engaged , and was pushed back nearly 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . The Chinese force turned west to advance between the Taeryong and Chongchon rivers , threatening the rear of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade by cutting the Pakchon – Sinanju road . The previous afternoon a patrol from the Middlesex had clashed with a large Chinese patrol 9 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) to the north @-@ east and suffered a number of casualties , yet the main Chinese attack did not come until early the next morning . Meanwhile , large numbers of refugees continued to move south , causing the British and Australians further concern given the possibility that they might be used by the Chinese to cover the infiltration of their positions . At 08 : 00 on 5 November a group of around 200 Chinese attacked C Battery , US 61st Field Artillery Battalion , which was attached to the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade . The American guns had been supporting the brigade from a position beside the road about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Pakchon , and were protecting the vital concrete bridge 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) south of the Argyll 's battalion headquarters at Kujin .
The Chinese established a number of road blocks in the area before proceeding to assault the American gun line and the nearby bridge . The attack cut the road to Anju which was the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade 's single means of resupply or withdrawal , and exposed the only available crossing over the Chongchon River . Coad considered that unless the Chinese could be cleared from the gun position and the hills secured , the brigade was in danger of being surrounded and cut off and the crossing at Anju lost , while US 19 RCT would also be threatened . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Neilson , the Argylls were despatched to restore the situation . B and C Companies would be drawn back from the west bank of the Taenyong to reinforce A Company , and then attack south one after the other supported by American tanks . At the same time A Company — under Major Alexander Wilson — was ordered to immediately attack north to clear the road . Hasty control measures were put in place to avoid the possibility of the two forces accidentally engaging one another , while air support was requested at 08 : 40 . After commandeering two American trucks , Wilson 's men stepped off with four US M4 Sherman tanks in support .
Meanwhile , to the north , under the command of Captain Howard M. Moore , C Battery , US 61st Field Artillery formed its six 105 mm M2A1 howitzers into a semi @-@ circle and created a perimeter around them , strongly defending their positions with automatic weapons from behind their gun shields . Assaulting from the east , the Chinese attempted to infiltrate the gun @-@ line using a number of creek beds and paddy bunds for concealment . One of the American howitzers was depressed and brought into action , firing over open sights at point @-@ blank range , bouncing shells off the frozen paddy fields which then exploded among the assaulting troops . A second howitzer was turned around 45 minutes later , augmenting the fire of the first . The Americans expended 1 @,@ 400 rounds at a range of between 45 to 270 metres ( 49 to 295 yd ) ; however , the weight of fire was insufficient to halt the assaulting force . Supporting fire from a nearby battery was directed by a spotter aircraft overhead , and this temporarily stemmed the Chinese onslaught . Running low on small arms ammunition and having lost one howitzer destroyed as well as two men killed and seventeen wounded , the Americans faced the prospect of being overrun . The gunners killed a member of a Chinese demolition team just 18 metres ( 20 yd ) from the bridge . Finally , after crossing the Taeryong in single file under fire , B and C Companies of the Argylls began to systematically clear the road supported by machine @-@ gun fire from the Middlesex , while A Company also continued to advance . At 09 : 00 the lead tanks and infantry of the relief force arrived , closely followed by the remainder of A Company . The Argylls rapidly cleared the gun position and the Chinese withdrew north along the railway to a nearby hill while the American tanks continued to engage them . Over 70 Chinese dead were found in the vicinity of the gun @-@ line , however , from their new position the Chinese continued to dominate the road .
In order to open the road the Argylls moved to clear the Chinese off the high ground located 500 to 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 550 to 1 @,@ 090 yd ) east of the road . The hill , about 45 metres ( 49 yd ) high , offered clear fields of fire to the west over the paddy fields to the Taeryong River and dominated the Pakchon – Sinanju road running beside the river . Supported by four Sherman tanks , machine @-@ guns and mortars , A Company captured the hill at 10 : 00 . Wilson occupied the summit with a reinforced platoon , before withdrawing the remainder of the company to the road , where the 3 @-@ inch mortar and Vickers medium machine @-@ gun sections were established . Meanwhile , B Company — under the command of Major Alastair Gordon @-@ Ingram — attacked the second Chinese road block , again supported by a number of American tanks . Back in action , the guns from C Battery also fired in support of the British infantry , and after a vigorous engagement in which Gordon @-@ Ingram was wounded the Chinese were compelled to withdraw , leaving many of their dead on the road . A number were later found to have been carrying demolition charges , presumably for use against the bridge at Anju . With the survivors of the battle seen moving into the hills , Neilson then ordered B and C Companies to establish positions on the eastern flank in order to protect the road . Although the Chinese had been cleared from the gun @-@ line and the hills around Pakchon , further attacks to the south continued to threaten the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade 's position , which remained perilous . The fighting continued , and at 11 : 00 the Chinese mounted a heavy counter @-@ attack on the A Company outpost , wounding six men . The Argylls were then forced to withdraw from the high ground under the cover of sustained fire from two Vickers medium machine @-@ guns sited on the road , and became pinned down on the reverse slope .
Throughout the morning a US LT @-@ 6G Mosquito light observation aircraft had continued to monitor growing concentrations of Chinese in hills to the rear of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade , with reports indicating their strength at approximately one division . Determining that the Chinese would move to cut the road during the night and believing it dangerous to remain any further forward than required , Coad requested approval for a limited withdrawal . He decided to pull his forward units back across the Taeryong River , before moving south towards the Chongchon River , near Anju . The brigade counter @-@ attacked the Chinese forces occupying the nearby ridgelines in order to clear the route south . The plan envisioned the Argylls holding the road open , while 3 RAR recaptured the high ground previously held by A Company , 1 ASHR . The Middlesex would then pass through to clear and occupy the hills east of Maengjung @-@ dong , while the Argylls — as the brigade rearguard — would follow to occupy the right of the new defensive position . The brigade would then adopt a tight defensive perimeter on the hills overlooking the north bank , so as to maintain the bridgehead over the river . Meanwhile , still in position west of Pakchon , the Australians prepared to cross the Taeryong River to regain the lost position , 7 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) to their south . 3 RAR faced a difficult approach after moving beyond the river , with the battalion 's route paralleling the disputed ridge which overlooked it 800 metres ( 870 yd ) to the east .
= = = 3 RAR assaults the ridgeline , 5 November 1950 = = =
The Australians crossed the Taeryong at 11 : 30 and began preparations to assault Chinese positions on the ridgeline 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) east of the road to Pakchon and 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of Maenjung @-@ dong . In support were four P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter @-@ bombers from No. 77 Squadron RAAF which attacked the Chinese with rockets and machine @-@ gun fire , one of only a few occasions during the war when Australian aircraft operated in support of 3 RAR . There were three main crests on the ridge running south @-@ east , the first being nearest the road , the second just to its rear , and the third further back still , with the Chinese occupying the first two . Although the Argylls had occupied the ridgeline briefly during the morning , they had been pushed off by the Chinese . Mortar fire fell on 3 RAR while it was forming up ; however , using the road as a start line the battalion attack began at 14 : 00 , with A Company on the left flank and B Company on the right , each with two platoons forward and one back in reserve , each in extended line with bayonets fixed . A Company was commanded by Captain Bill Chitts , while B Company was led by Captain D 'arcy Laughlin , after Major George Thirlwell had broken his leg in a vehicle accident two days before . The Mortar Platoon was sited with Battalion Headquarters alongside the road , with two sections of Vickers medium machine @-@ guns and two 17 pounder anti @-@ tank guns from the Anti @-@ Tank Platoon . The Assault Pioneer Platoon provided local defence , while the mortars laid down a continuous barrage in an attempt to counter the Chinese mortar fire in conjunction with the machine @-@ guns and tanks which began to engage the hilltop .
Beginning their advance , the Australians began to suffer casualties ; yet they were initially unable to confirm the location of the Chinese . However , as they commenced their ascent they were met by heavy small arms fire from the higher ground to the south and east . After a long approach across 500 metres ( 550 yd ) of open paddy field , A Company relieved the beleaguered Argylls . The Chinese then forced the two Australian companies to fight hard in order to gain the 50 @-@ metre ( 55 yd ) crest . Lacking artillery support , the Australians instead relied on the battalion 's integral support weapons , with 3 @-@ inch mortars and medium machine @-@ guns in support , as well as four Sherman tanks which provided fire support from a stand @-@ off position near the road . With A and B Companies heavily engaged , Walsh moved D Company — under the command of Major Walter Brown — to attack the hill to the south to reinforce the right flank . A Company succeeded in establishing itself on the first crest , forcing the Chinese from the position , while supporting fire from their Bren light machine @-@ guns and Vickers medium machine @-@ guns allowed B Company to move up on their right and capture the second crest . Finally at 16 : 00 , after two hours of heavy fighting , the Australians had achieved their objectives against a determined defence . A and B Company prepared for a counter @-@ attack by the Chinese . Meanwhile , C Company — under Captain Archer Denness — had remained in reserve on the road with Battalion Headquarters and Support Company .
Although orders for the attack had been hurried and lacking in detail , and the strength of the defenders unknown , the assaulting force had prevailed , securing the ridge with only limited offensive support . During the fighting one of the B Company platoon commanders , Lieutenant Eric Larsen , who had only the week before led the crossing at Kujin , was killed . One of the section commanders , Corporal Jeff Jones , immediately took command of the 5 Platoon assault , moving from section to section across the steep slope to direct their fire , even while under heavy Chinese mortar and machine @-@ gun fire . He was awarded the US Silver Star for his actions . The successful assault opened the road south , enabling the Middlesex battalion , brigade headquarters and a number of supporting units to withdraw down the road through the Australians , followed by the Argylls . 3 RAR remained behind as a rearguard while the British battalions took up new positions , covering the Chongchon River crossing at Anju . Chinese mortars and machine @-@ gun fire continued to fall on 3 RAR , and at 17 : 00 a round destroyed the A Company headquarters , killing two men and wounding four others , including Chitts who was evacuated by stretcher .
Coad ordered 3 RAR to consolidate its positions and to secure the railway bridge ; however , with all his companies committed there were no troops available for the latter task and Walsh chose to ignore the order . Meanwhile , the Middlesex occupied a hill north @-@ east of Maenjung @-@ dong , which was found to be clear except for one minor feature occupied by the Chinese , while the Argylls moved south with a platoon of tanks and positioned themselves on a small group of hills , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) east of Maenjung @-@ dong . From here the brigade was able to dominate the Pakchon – Maenjung @-@ dong – Anju road . Meanwhile , as the light began to fade the administrative elements of the formation and the US 61st Field Artillery Battalion were moved south of the Chongchon River amid a bitter wind . The British and Australians stood @-@ to from dusk until nightfall , and after posting sentries the remainder of the brigade began their night routine .
= = = Walsh withdraws from the high ground , 5 / 6 November 1950 = = =
An hour after last light on 5 November the Chinese attacked C Company 3 RAR — the forward Australian company occupying positions astride the Pakchon road 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Maenjung @-@ dong — with mortars and machine @-@ guns . Meanwhile , machine @-@ gun fire also fell on Support Company and Battalion Headquarters , 400 metres ( 440 yd ) to the south . Walsh decided to relocate his headquarters 900 metres ( 980 yd ) further to the rear . The Chinese infantry launched a strong attack against C Company assaulting them across the paddy fields in darkness , while simultaneously also falling upon A and B Companies holding the hills they had captured during the afternoon . In the face of the heavy Chinese counter @-@ attack Walsh feared the loss of his entire force , and at 20 : 00 he ordered a general withdrawal , pulling them back off the ridgeline in order to concentrate the battalion on the road , without informing Coad . Ordered in the dark and with one company still under attack , a disorganised night withdrawal occurred . The decision proved to be a serious tactical error , for as was to be demonstrated often in the months that followed , the Chinese were skilled at moving across the hills to outflank road @-@ bound UN forces who often failed to hold the ridges on either side of the roads only to be confronted by strong concentrations in front and behind them as a result . The withdrawal threatened to open the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade 's left flank ; recognising the danger this posed , Coad ordered Walsh to immediately reposition his companies on the ridge . Ultimately this proved unachievable .
A Company — now under Lieutenant Lawrence Clark following Chitts ' wounding that afternoon — had only just succeeded in breaking contact from the Chinese , suffering a number killed and wounded during a confused withdrawal . Meanwhile , B Company had also been forced to fight its way down the hill . Both companies were now well clear of their former positions and would have had a hard time fighting their way back . Ultimately it was too late for the Australians to regain the feature in darkness , and the weight of the Chinese attack continued to mount . Only D Company on the southern right flank — which had been left unmolested — was able to regain its previous position on Hill 63 . Meanwhile , the positions previously occupied by A and B Companies were occupied by the Chinese in superior numbers , and the remainder of 3 RAR concentrated at the railway crossing instead . At 22 : 00 Coad arranged to shell and mortar the relinquished ridge , while a standing patrol from the Middlesex was posted on the south @-@ western side of the Maenjung @-@ dong pass in anticipation of a renewed Chinese attack . However , following heavy fighting the pressure on the Australians unexpectedly ceased after midnight , and parties of Chinese were observed beginning to withdraw .
By 02 : 00 the Chinese attack had been checked and 3 RAR had redeployed to new positions in the paddy fields around the railway crossing north of Maenjung @-@ dong . However , amid the confusion the exact dispositions of the companies remained unclear for the remainder of the night . Australian losses were 12 killed and 64 wounded , the same number as those suffered during their entire advance into North Korea . A number of officers of the battalion were later critical of the decision to withdraw while still engaged , believing that it had been both dangerous and unnecessary , while the lack of detailed planning , reconnaissance and orders were also seen as a factor in the disorganisation that ensued . While A Company had immediately withdrawn as ordered and had suffered a number of casualties in doing so , both B and D Companies , which were commanded by experienced veterans of the 2nd Australian Imperial Force , had delayed doing so until more favourable circumstances prevailed and fared better as a consequence . Yet the following morning a patrol from D Company cleared the abandoned A and B Company positions unopposed . The area was found littered with Chinese dead and equipment . Among the casualties were both Chinese and North Koreans , and it became clear that the Australians had been attacked by a mixed force , estimated at around 1 @,@ 500 men . Many of those killed were also found to have been carrying demolition charges .
Despite the events of the previous night the Australians still held the road , while D Company continued to occupy the former Chinese strongpoint on Hill 63 , even if it was isolated from the rest of the battalion . Yet B and C Companies were now precariously positioned in the paddy field to the east and west of the road respectively , and come daylight were exposed to the Chinese positions on the high ground . The same day Coad visited 3 RAR ; dissatisfied with the battalion 's dispositions and having now lost confidence in its commander , he relieved Walsh of his position , appointing the second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Bruce Ferguson , in his place . Walsh returned to his posting at US Eighth Army headquarters . Ferguson came forward to take command of the battalion . Ordering 3 RAR to dig @-@ in , he despatched a number of clearing patrols , while C Company advanced unopposed to a hill overlooking the road 2 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) north @-@ east of D Company . Reaching the top the Australians observed the Chinese withdrawing northwards up the valley . Further east , the Chinese attacked US 19 RCT ; however , by the afternoon of 6 November it became apparent that the Chinese withdrawal around Pakchon was part of a general disengagement .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
After the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade 's initial success , they had in turn been counter @-@ attacked by the Chinese before being pushed off the high ground during the night . During the action the brigade lost 12 killed and 70 wounded , the majority of them among the Australians . Chinese losses were not known with many of their dead removed from the battlefield , but according to Commander Wu Xinquan of the Chinese 39th Army , an infantry company from the Chinese 350th Regiment of the 117th Division was badly mauled by the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade during the engagement . Australian forces later estimated that the Chinese had suffered 200 killed and another 200 wounded . In their first battle with the Chinese , 3 RAR had successfully captured a well defended hill with only limited offensive support , and had held it the face of heavy counter @-@ attacks before confused command decisions resulted in the battalion conducting a disorganised night withdrawal while still in contact . The fighting was costly for both sides and although the Australians had halted the advancing Chinese 117th Division and inflicted numerous casualties on them , they had also lost heavily . Nonetheless , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade had succeeding in preventing a Chinese break @-@ through at Pakchon , keeping open vital withdrawal routes across the river and securing the UN left flank . Suffering significant casualties , the Chinese offensive was finally halted the next day due to logistic difficulties . The Royal Australian Regiment and Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders were later granted the battle honour " Pakchon " . The Chinese and North Koreans were temporarily forced to withdraw north , while Walker successfully reinforced the UN positions , holding on the Chongchon Line . The Chinese had failed to exploit their initial success , and instead now seemed to adopt a deliberately cautious strategy .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
On 7 November , the 24th US Infantry Division and 27th British Commonwealth Brigade followed up the Chinese withdrawal with a limited probing advance . That morning Australian clearing patrols killed seven Chinese soldiers , before 3 RAR prepared to advance with the remainder of the brigade . C Company occupied Hill 74 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) to the north @-@ east without opposition , only to discover a North Korean company on the reverse slope . The Australians engaged the North Koreans with machine @-@ gun fire , inflicting heavy losses on the defenders and capturing five before forcing them to withdraw towards Tang @-@ dong harried by artillery and airstrikes . The remainder of the battalion deployed on the right , while the Argylls occupied two hills further north . The brigade 's advance had forestalled a planned North Korean attack on the night of 7 / 8 November , while large numbers of Chinese dead from the previous fighting were also discovered . On 9 November the advance wheeled to the north @-@ west around Pakchon , with 3 RAR moving forward another 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the east , encountering little resistance and taking a number of prisoners in the process . From 11 November the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade advanced slowly north . On 16 November 3 RAR occupied Hill 117 , on a bend in the Taeryong River 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Pakchon . Over the following weeks they remained in the Pakchon area , conducting extensive patrolling up to company @-@ size , and clashing with small groups of Chinese and North Koreans . As winter approached the weather became bitterly cold amid snow and strong winds . Unprepared for the extreme conditions the Australians increasingly suffered health problems , particularly among the older members of the battalion . Lacking the training and equipment for operations in ice and snow , maintenance also proved burdensome before additional US cold weather clothing and equipment was issued .
Ferguson ultimately proved to be an able commander . Thirty @-@ seven years old and a New Zealander by birth , he had been commissioned into the Australian 2 / 2nd Battalion with Green during the Second World War . Serving as an intelligence officer on the headquarters of the 16th Brigade during the Libyan campaign in 1941 , Ferguson had been awarded the Military Cross for his actions during fighting on the Kokoda Track in New Guinea in 1942 . Later , he had served as a liaison officer with the 6th Division , before finishing the war as a staff officer posted to the 7th Division headquarters on Morotai island , taking part in the amphibious landing at Balikpapan in 1945 . Ferguson volunteered to serve in the BCOF in Japan after the war and was posted to the 67th Battalion as a company commander , arriving in Kure in February 1946 . After leaving the battalion in 1948 to serve on the headquarters of BCOF for six months , he returned as battalion second @-@ in @-@ command . In 1949 the battalion had been renamed the 3rd Battalion , Australian Regiment , and was later granted the ' Royal ' prefix . He remained with the battalion after that time . The change of command was confirmed by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief BCOF , Lieutenant General Sir Horace Robertson , and Ferguson was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 10 November . He developed a good working relationship with Coad , who held him in high regard , and went on to command 3 RAR during its most demanding period in Korea .
The United Nations resumed the offensive on 24 November , shortly before the Chinese began their own Second Phase Offensive . The Chinese 13th Army Group launched a series of surprise attacks on the night of 25 November , pushing the US Eighth Army back to the Chongchon River . The Chinese inflicted heavy losses on the South Koreans and decimated the US 2nd Infantry Division on the right flank , as the US Eighth Army began a long retreat south . At the same time , the Chinese 9th Army Group ambushed the US X Corps near the Chosin Reservoir as the freezing winter weather set in . Although the US Eighth Army succeeded in avoiding encirclement , the US X Corps had to be evacuated by sea from Hungnam during December 1950 , despite inflicting heavy casualties on the Chinese . MacArthur 's forces were expelled from North Korea and withdrew to the 38th Parallel , where they sought to once again establish defensive positions . In reserve at the start of the renewed Chinese offensive , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was spared the initial brunt . Yet the offensive soon forced the UN forces into a disorganised withdrawal . 3 RAR withdrew 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) in nine days , arriving at Uijeongbu , 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) north @-@ east of Seoul , on 11 December 1950 . There the British and Australians occupied defensive positions in an attempt to secure the northern approaches to the South Korean capital during the Battle of Uijeongbu .
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= Rex Ryan =
Rex Ashley Ryan ( born December 13 , 1962 ) is an American football coach who is the head coach of the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League ( NFL ) . After serving as an assistant coach for 22 years , Ryan attained his first head coaching job in the NFL with the New York Jets in 2009 . He is the son of former head coach Buddy Ryan and is the fraternal twin brother of Rob Ryan .
From a young age , Ryan aspired to follow in his father 's footsteps and become a professional football coach . After spending the majority of his youth in Canada , Ryan returned to the United States as a teenager where he attended college at Southwestern Oklahoma State University . Upon graduating Ryan spent the next 22 years serving as an assistant coach on different teams at both the college and professional level . At the behest of their head coach Brian Billick , Ryan joined the Baltimore Ravens in 1999 and spent nine years there . In 2005 he became the defensive coordinator , and in 2008 the assistant head coach .
Hours after the Ravens lost to the Steelers in the 2008 playoffs , Ryan accepted a contract offer from the Jets for their vacant head coaching position . During his tenure , Ryan became well known throughout the league for his outspoken manner , boisterous attitude and success with the Jets , which included back @-@ to @-@ back AFC Championship Game appearances in the 2009 and 2010 seasons . Ryan was fired by the Jets at the conclusion of the 2014 season , and he accepted a contract offer to coach the Bills two weeks later .
Ryan 's teams are highly regarded for their defensive capabilities , which often feature " relentlessness [ and ] unpredictable mayhem founded on [ Ryan 's ] premise that ' whatever you do best , we 're going to take away from you ' " , according to New York Times writer Nicholas Dawidoff .
= = Early life = =
Rex Ryan and his fraternal twin , Rob , were born in Ardmore , Oklahoma , on December 13 , 1962 , to Doris and Buddy Ryan . When the boys were aged two , their parents amicably divorced . Following the divorce , their mother attended the University of Chicago to earn her doctorate . Rex , Rob and their older brother Jim moved with her to Toronto , Ontario , Canada , where she secured an administrative position at the University of Toronto . During the course of his upbringing , Rex wanted to follow in the footsteps of his father , a defensive pioneer in the NFL known for developing the 46 defense , and by age six Rex and Rob knew they wanted to pursue coaching careers .
In Canada , there was little emphasis on football , much to the disappointment of Rex . By the time Rex was a teenager , Doris realized he and his brothers were too much to handle for a single mother trying to advance her career . She decided it was in the best interest of the brothers to send them to live with their father , who was the defensive line coach for the Minnesota Vikings at the time . The reasons behind this were to keep them out of trouble and to help them expand their knowledge of the game of football where it was more prevalent .
In 1978 , when Buddy was hired by the Chicago Bears as their defensive coordinator , Rex , Rob and Jim followed their father to Illinois where the family settled in Prairie View . The brothers attended Stevenson High School in Lincolnshire .
Rex went on to attend Southwestern Oklahoma State University in Weatherford , Oklahoma , alongside Rob , and played for the football team as a defensive end . He graduated from Southwestern Oklahoma in 1986 , and in 2011 was inducted into the university 's Hall of Fame .
= = Collegiate coaching = =
Upon graduating from Southwestern in 1986 , with the help of his father , Ryan secured a job as a graduate assistant on the Division I @-@ AA ( now Division I FCS ) Eastern Kentucky Colonels football team . At Eastern Kentucky , he had a multitude of responsibilities which ranged from making copies of game plans to picking players up at the airport . The Colonels won the Ohio Valley Conference title in the two years Ryan served as an assistant . At the age of 26 , Ryan became the assistant head coach and defensive coordinator at Division II New Mexico Highlands for a year , during which the team led the league in defensive turnovers . After his stint with New Mexico Highlands , Ryan joined Division I Morehead State as the defensive coordinator , where he remained for four years . During his tenure , the defense was ranked among the highest in the nation .
After working for his father for two years with the NFL 's Arizona Cardinals , Ryan returned to college coaching as the defensive coordinator for the Cincinnati Bearcats . The Bearcats won the first Humanitarian Bowl over Utah State in Ryan 's final year , marking the team 's first bowl appearance in fifty years . Ryan was the Oklahoma Sooners ' defensive coordinator for a year in which the defense was ranked sixth in the nation . However , head coach John Blake failed to achieve a winning record for a third straight year and subsequently , the entire staff was fired . Ryan served as defensive coordinator at Kansas State for a month in 1999 under head coach Bill Snyder .
= = National Football League = =
= = = Assistant coach = = =
When his father was hired as the head coach of the Arizona Cardinals in 1994 , he offered Rex his first job in the NFL as a defensive assistant , working with the team 's linebackers and defensive linemen . After nine straight losing seasons prior to Buddy 's arrival , the Cardinals produced an 8 – 8 record in Buddy 's first year as head coach . However , in his second season , the team went 4 – 12 and subsequently , the entire staff was fired despite the positive performance of the defense .
Ryan went on to coach at three different colleges following his tenure with the Cardinals , though by the time he joined Kansas State in 1999 , he was hopeful of a return to the NFL . Ryan received a call from newly named head coach Brian Billick of the Baltimore Ravens , who wanted to interview him for the defensive line coaching position . Having visited a class Ryan was teaching earlier in his career , Billick had been so impressed by Ryan 's passion for the game of football that he decided to hire Ryan if he ever attained a head coaching position . When offered the position , Ryan accepted .
In his first year , the defense was ranked second overall in the NFL and second in rushing yards allowed . By his second year , in 2000 , the Ravens ' defense set NFL records for fewest points allowed and fewest rushing yards allowed . The defense allowed a combined 23 points in four playoff games en route to a Super Bowl XXXV victory , Ryan 's only Super Bowl ring . The defense consistently performed well in the following years . As a result , Ryan was promoted to defensive coordinator in 2005 following the departure of Mike Nolan , who became the head coach of the San Francisco 49ers . In 2006 , Ryan received Assistant Coach of the Year awards from Pro Football Weekly and the Pro Football Writers Association .
Upon the conclusion of the Ravens ' 5 – 11 performance in 2007 , the entire staff was dismissed on New Year 's Eve . Ryan was one of the candidates interviewed by the Ravens for their head coaching vacancy ; however , the Ravens chose to name John Harbaugh as the team 's new head coach . Ryan also interviewed with Miami and Atlanta about filling their head coaching vacancies , but the offers went to Tony Sparano and Mike Smith respectively .
Ryan was disappointed by his failure to obtain a head coaching job , but he agreed to return to Baltimore under the direction of Harbaugh , who retained Ryan as defensive coordinator and promoted him to assistant head coach . In 2008 , Ryan 's final year with the team , the defense was ranked second overall in the NFL . The Ravens lost by nine points in the AFC Championship Game against the Pittsburgh Steelers . Ryan 's nine @-@ year tenure with the team , during which the defense never ranked lower than sixth overall in the NFL , concluded an hour later when he accepted the head coaching position with the New York Jets .
= = = New York Jets = = =
Following a late season collapse in which the Jets missed the playoffs after losing four of their final five games , the team fired head coach Eric Mangini on December 29 , 2008 . The team interviewed a host of candidates , including Ryan , Jeff Jagodzinski , Russ Grimm , Bill Callahan , and Brian Schottenheimer ; however , the contract , which was valued at approximately $ 11 @.@ 5 million over the course of four years , was ultimately offered to Ryan .
Accepting the offer on January 19 , 2009 , Ryan immediately began to carry out a plan of action he outlined for the franchise 's future . He planned to remove the players from distractions on and off the field and allow them get to know one another to build team chemistry . Thus , training camp was moved to the campus of SUNY Cortland , where the team would be relatively secluded from the media and any other distractions . Ryan and general manager Mike Tannenbaum were also determined to draft a quarterback who could lead and be the face of the franchise . As a result , the team traded up to select Mark Sanchez with the fifth overall pick in the 2009 NFL Draft .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
The Jets opened their season against the Houston Texans . Ryan began his head coaching career with a 24 – 7 victory over the Texans in which the Jets ' defense shut out their opponents ' offense . Houston 's lone score came on a fumble return for a touchdown . The following week , the defense did not allow a touchdown against the New England Patriots in a 16 – 9 victory at home , marking the Jets ' first home victory over New England since 2000 . Ryan and the Jets went on to defeat the Tennessee Titans in week three , marking the first time the Jets opened the season at 3 – 0 since 2004 . The victory also allowed Ryan to become the Jets ' first rookie head coach to win his first three games since Al Groh did so in 2000 . New York went on to lose six of their next seven games save for a shutout victory over the Oakland Raiders , 38 – 0 .
The team eventually recovered and won five of their final six games despite Ryan mistakenly stating the Jets had been eliminated from playoff contention following a loss to the Atlanta Falcons . The Jets defeated a previously unbeaten Indianapolis Colts — a game not without controversy following Jim Caldwell 's decision to pull Indianapolis ' starters with the Colts leading . The Colts , who had already clinched a playoff berth , had little to play for aside from a perfect record . In the final game of the season , the Jets defeated the Cincinnati Bengals 37 – 0 at Giants Stadium , the final sporting event to be held at the venue , as the defense held Cincinnati to 72 total rushing yards , and 0 total yards passing . The victory secured New York 's playoff berth as a wild card team . Under Ryan , the Jets finished the regular season ranked first overall in the NFL in rushing yards and total defense . New York defeated Cincinnati again the following week , this time at Paul Brown Stadium , in the AFC Wild Card playoff round . On January 17 , 2010 , Ryan coached the Jets in an upset over the San Diego Chargers , 17 – 14 , on their way to the AFC Championship Game . The Jets subsequently lost to the Colts 30 – 17 after leading in the first half of the game . Ryan became embroiled in controversy a few days later when he made an obscene gesture towards heckling Dolphins fans who spat on him during a Strikeforce mixed martial arts event at BankAtlantic Center in Sunrise , Florida . Ryan apologized for his action , stating that it was " stupid and inappropriate . " Ryan was fined $ 50 @,@ 000 by the Jets .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
As Ryan headed into his second year as the team 's head coach , the club announced he had been given a two @-@ year contract extension . Ryan continued to exude confidence in the team , writing on ESPN 's training camp tour bus " Soon To Be Champs " in August , referencing that the Jets would make it to the Super Bowl and become the eventual champions . Ryan had been asked to sign the Jets ' logo on the back of the bus but included the message with his signature . The prediction was met with some criticism while others praised his brashness , something that was felt to be lacking in the NFL at the time . When the team appeared on the television series Hard Knocks that same month , Ryan was criticized , particularly by former head coach Tony Dungy , for his use of foul language . Dungy and Ryan later met in person to reconcile their differences . Ryan 's championship claims were nearly proven correct as the Jets opened the season with the best record in the NFL at 9 – 2 . This set the stage for a Monday night matchup with their division rival , the Patriots , who were also 9 – 2 . The Patriots , behind the strong performance of quarterback Tom Brady , defeated the Jets 45 – 3 . However , the Jets finished the season with an 11 – 5 record and qualified as a wild card team in the playoffs . The Jets were one win short of tying the franchise record in wins set by the 1998 team led by Bill Parcells .
In the wild card round , the sixth @-@ seeded Jets beat the AFC South champion and third @-@ seeded Colts 17 – 16 on January 8 , 2011 , at the Colts ' home field to qualify for the Divisional Playoffs . The following week , on January 16 , they defeated the AFC East champion and first @-@ seeded Patriots 28 – 21 , ending New England 's eight @-@ game winning streak . The victory made the Jets the first team to win back @-@ to @-@ back road playoff games in consecutive seasons , and qualified them to advance to the AFC Championship Game for the second consecutive season , where they lost on the road to the AFC North champion Pittsburgh Steelers 24 – 19 .
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
The Jets opened their 2011 campaign with a 2 – 3 record , leading to discontent within their clubhouse . The team had begun to stray from its philosophy of consistently running the ball and began to pass more often , but the offense struggled with this adjustment . Receivers Plaxico Burress , Santonio Holmes and Derrick Mason reportedly approached coach Ryan to question offensive coordinator Brian Schottenheimer 's system . Ryan , meanwhile , had begun to isolate himself from the rest of the team as he became less " hands @-@ on " and opted to have his assistants coach the players at their respective positions . Ryan attracted further attention to the team during a Thursday Night Football game against the New England Patriots when he responded to a heckling fan with an obscene remark and was fined $ 75 @,@ 000 by the league . Despite struggling to an 8 – 7 record , the Jets still had the ability to attain a playoff berth if they won their regular season finale against the Miami Dolphins in combination with the outcome of three other games played that day .
However , the discontent within the locker room and the team 's overall struggles culminated with Holmes criticizing and arguing with teammates in the huddle against Miami . Holmes was benched in the fourth quarter while the Jets subsequently lost 19 – 17 , ending their postseason pursuit . After the Jets finished the season with a disappointing 8 – 8 record , Ryan admitted to having lost the pulse of the team . Then free agent running back LaDainian Tomlinson remarked that Ryan 's Super Bowl predictions had an adverse effect on the locker room by placing undue pressure on the players . Ryan conceded this point and announced that he would refrain from making such statements publicly in the future .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
Through 11 weeks in 2012 , the Jets struggled to a 4 – 7 record . The presence of Tim Tebow created a controversy as the media and fans called for Ryan to bench the inconsistent Mark Sanchez in favor of Tebow . Ryan was criticized for his decision to keep Tebow activated during the Jets ' Thanksgiving Day contest against the New England Patriots despite Tebow playing with two broken ribs , leading to questions about his job security . With Tebow inactive for the Jets ' following contest against the Arizona Cardinals , Ryan made the decision to bench Sanchez , who threw three interceptions , in favor of Greg McElroy . McElroy threw a touchdown pass to Jeff Cumberland to score the team 's only points in a 7 – 6 victory over Arizona .
Ryan renamed Sanchez the starting quarterback the following Wednesday after seeking out multiple opinions within the organization . In a must win game against the Tennessee Titans to remain in playoff contention , Sanchez struggled ; he completed 13 of his 28 passes for 131 yards while throwing four interceptions and fumbling the ball in Titans territory in the closing minutes of the Jets ' 14 – 10 defeat . A day later , Ryan announced McElroy would start . Sanchez started the final game of the season after McElroy suffered a concussion in his lone start . Sanchez 's struggles continued as the Jets fell to the Buffalo Bills and ended their year with a 6 – 10 record , their first losing season under Rex Ryan . On December 31 , 2012 , the Jets fired general manager Mike Tannenbaum , but announced that Ryan would return for the 2013 season .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
For the 2013 campaign , Ryan overhauled his coaching staff , promoting Dennis Thurman to defensive coordinator while adding several new coaches including offensive coordinator Marty Mornhinweg . Newly hired general manager John Idzik emphasized there would be competition at all positions including quarterback . The Jets drafted Geno Smith in the second round of the 2013 NFL Draft to compete with Sanchez . Ryan was widely criticized for his decision to insert Sanchez late in a preseason game against the New York Giants after Sanchez suffered a season @-@ ending shoulder injury which led to Smith being named the starter .
Through their first nine games of the year , the Jets went 5 – 4 and earned Ryan some early Coach of the Year consideration . The team proceeded to lose their next three contests as the rookie Smith committed eight turnovers while failing to score during that stretch . This prompted speculation by analysts as to whether or not Ryan would be fired . The Jets broke their losing streak with a 37 – 27 win over the Raiders that kept them in playoff contention . The following week , the Jets played the Carolina Panthers and trailed by three points heading into the fourth quarter . In the span of five minutes , the Panthers scored twice and the Jets were unable to complete a comeback attempt , losing 20 – 30 . The loss eliminated the Jets from playoff contention .
New York played the Cleveland Browns a week later . In a meeting before the game , Ryan told his players that he expected to be fired at the end of the year . The Jets defeated Cleveland 24 – 13 and despite the uncertainty , the players and coaches were in high spirits . Several players including Antonio Cromartie , Calvin Pace and Willie Colon went on to publicly express their support for Ryan to return as coach . In the season finale , the Jets defeated the Miami Dolphins 20 – 7 , eliminating them from playoff contention . In the locker room after the game , owner Woody Johnson and Idzik announced Ryan would return for the 2014 season much to the delight of the players . Ryan was praised for keeping his team competitive after being eliminated from playoff contention and keeping their spirits high throughout the year despite their inconsistency .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
The Jets opened the 2014 season with a 19 – 14 win over the Oakland Raiders but proceeded to lose their next eight games . Geno Smith , who started the year at quarterback , was replaced by veteran Michael Vick midway through the season . Vick helped to snap the losing streak in a week nine win over the Pittsburgh Steelers . Despite the victory , Ryan was seen cursing at an unidentified person and was subsequently fined $ 100 @,@ 000 by the league . The team continued to struggle with Smith eventually being reinserted into the lineup . The Jets went on to win two of their last three games to finish with a 4 – 12 record , their worst finish under Ryan . Despite players again expressing their desire for Ryan to remain the coach , he was dismissed on December 29 , 2014 .
= = = Buffalo Bills = = =
Ryan was hired as head coach of the Buffalo Bills on January 12 , 2015 , agreeing to a five @-@ year , $ 27 @.@ 5 million contract .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
The Bills opened the 2015 season with a 27 @-@ 14 win over the Indianapolis Colts . Frustrated by the Bills leading the NFL in penalties heading into their Week 5 game against the Tennessee Titans , Ryan gave the entire team wristbands with the message " Yes sir " . These were the only words he wanted his players to use with officials if they were flagged . After being flagged 17 times in Week 4 loss against the New York Giants , the Bills were penalized only seven times in their 14 @-@ 13 victory over the Titans . The Bills entered their bye week with a 3 @-@ 4 record after losing in London to the Jacksonville Jaguars .
Ryan gave the whole team the week off during the bye , and he himself found a secluded beach to " get away and focus " . The Bills came out of their bye week and defeated the Miami Dolphins 33 @-@ 17 , improving their season record to 4 @-@ 4 . Ryan is now 2 @-@ 5 all time following a bye week . Ryan returned to MetLife Stadium week 10 during a much anticipated Thursday Night Football game against the Jets . The Bills won the game 22 @-@ 17 , and improved to 5 @-@ 4 on the season . Ryan faced questions before and after the game about his decision to name IK Enemkpali , who had been released by the Jets in preseason after breaking quarterback Geno Smith 's jaw in an altercation , as Buffalo 's captain for the game .
The Bills were unable to make the playoffs in their first season with Ryan as coach , as they were eliminated in Week 15 with a 35 @-@ 25 loss to the Washington Redskins on December 20 , extending their drought to 16 seasons , the NFL 's longest active drought . They finished the season with an 8 @-@ 8 record .
= = = = 2016 season = = = =
On January 10 , 2016 it was announced that Ryan had hired his twin brother Rob to the Bills coaching staff . Rob will serve as an assistant head coach and will also work with the defense . Three days later Ryan hired former NFL standout Ed Reed to be an assistant defensive backs coach .
= = Coaching philosophy = =
Ryan stresses that coaches are essentially supposed to be open and communicative with the players and management , who in turn will reciprocate the same attitude . By connecting with his associates , Ryan states , it 's " valuable when it comes to figuring out how to motivate somebody ( ... ) because I want that guy to fight for me , just like I want to fight for him . " Fullback Tony Richardson , in an interview , stated Ryan " loves his football team , loves his players " and does as much as he possibly can to ensure their success . Despite his boisterous and brash comments that have caused increased media coverage of the team , Ryan has taken the attention and has managed to " [ put ] it on himself " so the players can focus on their tasks . Ryan has also stressed that the teaching process is an important one , particularly when it comes to providing a player information and building chemistry . However , there has to be flexibility as the process must also be insightful and positive . Coaches , Ryan states , are responsible for providing players with information that is vitally important otherwise " if you emphasize everything , you 've emphasized nothing . "
= = = Coaching strategy = = =
With extensive knowledge regarding the intricacies of the defense , Ryan has been criticized for not devoting similar time and effort into coaching the offense . Ryan refuted this , stating his goal is to implement a proficient running game , citing a desire to " get after " the opponent through running the ball . Ryan has also stated that passing the ball is important but should not be used incessantly as there should be a balance between both aspects of the offense . In 2009 and 2010 , the Jets were ranked first and fourth overall in the league in rushing which coincided with their two playoff appearances . In 2011 , the Jets attempted to convert to a more pass @-@ oriented offense , which have become more widely used in the NFL , however , the team struggled with this adjustment and reverted to their former run @-@ oriented offense by the middle of the season . His defensive strategy , in contrast , tends to be more elaborate taking into consideration his experience in the field . There are six different defensive formations utilized in football , but the two commonly used formations are the 3 – 4 formation , with three defensive lineman and four linebackers , and the 4 – 3 formation , with four defensive lineman and three linebackers . The Jets utilized the former of the two popular formations ; however , Ryan tended to employ all six formations in varying forms . Furthermore , he often calls audibles that have the defense line up in one formation and switch to another so as to cloak their intentions and confuse and pressure the opponent .
As a testament to this philosophy , Ryan is often willing to defer the coin toss to the opponent so his team can begin the game playing on defense in order to " set the tone " and generate turnovers . This concept has been criticized by ESPN 's John Clayton , who has found the method to be ineffective league @-@ wide . Mark Kriegel , an analyst for the NFL Network , found that between 2005 and 2012 , during his tenure with both the Ravens and Jets , Ryan 's defenses have never been ranked lower than sixth overall in the NFL and have allowed an average of 281 yards per game from scrimmage , second to Dick LeBeau 's 277 @.@ 4 yards per game . LeBeau is generally regarded as one of the best defensive coordinators in the history of the NFL .
= = Personal life = =
Ryan and his wife , Michelle , met at Southwestern Oklahoma State . When Rex accepted his position as a graduate assistant at Eastern Kentucky , he proposed to Michelle by phone ; she accepted and they were married in 1987 . Together , they have two sons , Payton and Seth , who is a walk @-@ on freshman wide receiver for Clemson . Ryan earned a Bachelor of Science and a Master 's degree in physical education from Eastern Kentucky University . He resided in Summit , New Jersey , during his tenure with the Jets .
= = = Health = = =
Ryan publicly announced in 2009 that he had been battling dyslexia for his entire life . During his early years , Ryan struggled to read and write in school ; however , he was not formally diagnosed until testing confirmed he had the disorder in 2007 . Ryan utilizes color @-@ coded playbooks and game plans when coaching on the sidelines to aid his comprehension .
Ryan underwent lap @-@ band surgery at NYU Medical Center in March 2010 in an effort to battle his obesity . Ryan also had a hernia repaired during the procedure . He was able to return to his home that same day to recover . Following a three @-@ week period he had lost 40 pounds and as of July 2012 , Ryan had lost 106 pounds .
= = = Car crash = = =
Ryan was involved in a three @-@ car crash in eastern Pennsylvania on January 14 , 2013 . A witness said Ryan ran his Ford Mustang through a red light and collided with another driver which caused the unidentified driver to hit a third car . Ryan was issued a warning , but no citation .
= = = Media = = =
Ryan released Play Like You Mean It , an autobiography and a conversational about football strategy . The book , which was published by Doubleday in the spring of 2011 , was co @-@ written by Don Yaeger , a former Sports Illustrated editor who has co @-@ authored the autobiographies of former NFL players Walter Payton and Warren Moon .
Ryan made a cameo appearance in the Adam Sandler film That 's My Boy , which was released on June 15 , 2012 . Ironically , his character was a fan of the Jets ' rival , the Patriots .
= = = Internet video = = =
In 2010 , a video purportedly of Michelle Ryan 's feet surfaced on the internet . The video shows a man rubbing and smelling what is presumed to be the feet of Ryan 's wife . A spokesperson for the Jets commented by saying " Coach Ryan considers this a personal matter and will have no comment . " Multiple reports linked Ryan to a user profile named " ihaveprettyfeet " on a site for alternative sexual lifestyles . In September 2015 , a photo of Ryan surfaced of him sitting at his desk with a framed photo of a person 's feet behind him .
= = = Sports allegiances = = =
Ryan is an avid hockey fan , and has developed a notoriety of being a bandwagon jumper in recent years . Ryan has admitted he was a fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs , as a result of growing up in the city , but upon taking the Jets head coaching job , he was often seen cheering for all three of the New York metropolitan area franchises . During the New Jersey Devils run to the 2012 Stanley Cup Finals , Ryan was seen sporting the team 's attire , and two years later was seen donning the attire of the New York Rangers , during their run to the Stanley Cup Final . Outside of the playoff runs , Ryan performed a ceremonial puck drop at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum on October 9 , 2010 , wearing a vintage New York Islanders jersey .
Ryan was known for a notorious incident at a Carolina Hurricanes game , as he attended the matchup with the Florida Panthers sporting a throwback Philadelphia Flyers jersey on . Upon being recognized by the fans at the arena , the team 's cheerleaders approached him with a Hurricanes alternate jersey sported by the team . The incident was noted as he was seen taking off the jersey and baring his chest for the crowd to see .
Upon taking the Buffalo Bills head coaching job , Ryan changed his allegiance to the Buffalo Sabres , and is often seen at the team 's home games and sporting the team 's attire .
= = = Political views = = =
On April 18 , 2016 Ryan introduced Republican presidential candidate front @-@ runner Donald Trump at one of his rallies held at the First Niagara Center in Buffalo , NY . Ryan told The Associated Press he was supporting Chris Christie for the nomination , but he dropped out of the race and has since endorsed Trump .
= = Head coaching record = =
Source :
= = = Coaching tree = = =
NFL head coaches under whom Rex Ryan has served :
Assistant coaches under Rex Ryan who have become NFL head coaches :
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= CMLL World Trios Championship =
The CMLL World Trios Championship ( Spanish : " Campeonato Mundial de Trios " ) is a professional wrestling championship promoted by Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) in Mexico . The title has existed since 1993 and is contested for by teams of three wrestlers . As it is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won or lost competitively but instead by the decision of the bookers of a wrestling promotion . The title is awarded to the chosen team after they " win " a match to maintain the illusion that professional wrestling is a competitive sport .
The first champions were Los Infernales ( " The Infernal Ones " ; MS @-@ 1 , Pirata Morgan and El Satánico ) who won a tournament on November 22 , 1991 . Since then a total of 25 different trios have held the championship . The current champions are Sky Team ( Místico , Valiente and Volador Jr . ) who have been champions since February 13 , 2015 . The championship has been vacated on four different occasions , each time leading to CMLL holding a tournament to determine new champions . Only two teams have held the title on more than one occasion , Los Infernales and the trio of Héctor Garza , Hijo del Fantasma and La Máscara .
= = History = =
In 1985 , the Mexican lucha libre , or professional wrestling , promotion Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( " Mexican Wrestling Enterprise " ; EMLL ) was given control of the newly created Mexican National Trios Championship . Over the next six years , that title became the focal point of the very popular trios division , serving as the highest honor EMLL could bestow on a trio . In 1991 , EMLL changed their name to Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( " World Wrestling Council " ) and began to establish a series of CMLL branded world championships , relegating the Mexican National championships to a secondary rank . In 1991 , CMLL decided to create a CMLL @-@ branded world championship for the trios division . They held a 16 @-@ team tournament to crown the first champions , a tournament that saw " Los Infernales " ( " The Infernal Ones " ; MS @-@ 1 , Pirata Morgan and El Satánico ) defeat " Los Brazos " ( " The Arms " ; El Brazo , Brazo de Oro and Brazo de Plata ) to become the first Trios Champions . Over the next couple of years , the championship would be held by such teams as " Los Intocables " ( Jaque Mate , Masakre and Pierroth Jr . ) and " La Ola Blanca " ( " The White Wave " ; Gran Markus Jr . , El Hijo del Gladiador and Dr. Wagner Jr . ) . In 1993 , the then @-@ reigning Mexican National Trios Champions left CMLL and the Mexico City Boxing and wrestling commission allowed the champions to take the Mexican National Trios Championship with them . From 1993 through 2001 , when the Mexican National Trios Championship returned to CMLL , the CMLL World Trios Championship was the only championship for the division .
In 1997 then @-@ reigning champion Héctor Garza , who held the title along with Dos Caras and La Fiera , left CMLL , forcing the title to be vacated . Subsequently , the team of Rey Bucanero , Emilio Charles Jr. and El Satánico won the titles in a tournament final over Apolo Dantés , Black Warrior , and Dr. Wagner Jr . In October 1998 , the championship was vacated again when Mr. Niebla was injured , forcing his teammates Atlantis and Lizmark to give up the championship . The Lagunero team of Black Warrior , Blue Panther and Dr. Wagner Jr. defeated " Los Guapos " ( " The Hansome Ones " ; Bestia Salvaje , Scorpio Jr. and Zumbido ) in the tournament finals , but vacated the titles when the team split up in February 2002 . Blue Panther and Dr. Wagner Jr. replaced Black Warrior with Fuerza Guerrera and defeated BlacK Warrior 's new team of Mr. Niebla , Antifaz del Norte and Black Warrior himself . In 2006 , the titles were vacated once again after not being defended for almost 20 months as the champions had not worked together for several months . Los Guerreros de Atlantida ( " The Warriors from Atlantis " ; Atlantis , Tarzan Boy and Último Guerrero ) won the titles on September 29 , 2006 , and defended them regularly . In February 2007 Los Perros del Mal ( " The Bad Dogs " ; Perro Aguayo Jr . , Mr. Águila and Héctor Garza ) won the titles and held them for 15 months before splitting up and vacating the titles . The team of El Hijo del Fantasma , Héctor Garza and La Máscara won the tournament , defeating Blue Panther , Dos Caras Jr. and Místico in the finals . In 2015 CMLL 's Guadalajara branch brought back the Occidente ( " Western " ) Trios Championship , specifically for their shows held in Jalisco , Guadalajara . This title is considered tertiary to both the world and national titles .
= = Reigns = =
Sky Team ( Místico , Valiente and Volador Jr . ) are the current champions , having defeated Los Guerreros Laguneros ( Euforia , Niebla Roja and Último Guerrero ) to win the title on February 13 , 2015 . They are the 27th overall championship team and this is their first reign as a team . Místico and Valiente have previously held the championship with Máscara Dorada . 25 different teams have held the title , combining for 27 individual title reigns . Only two teams have held the title more than once , the first champions Los Infernales and the team of Héctor Garza , Hijo del Fantasma and La Máscara . The team of Héctor Garza , Tarzan Boy and El Terrible have the longest run of any team with 666 days , while Héctor Garza holds the record for the longest combined reigns , with 1 @,@ 256 days for five reigns in total . Héctor Garza 's five individual reigns is the most reigns for any wrestler . All title matches take place under two out of three falls rules .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1991 = = =
CMLL held a 16 @-@ trios team tournament from October 25 , 1991 to November 22 , 1991 to determine the first ever CMLL World Trios Championship . This was the third CMLL branded world championship that CMLL created following the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship in May and the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship in September . In the finals , Los Infernales ( El Satánico , MS @-@ 1 and Pirata Morgan ) defeated Los Brazos ( El Brazo , Brazo de Oro and Brazo de Plata ) to win the championship .
Tournament brackets
= = = 1997 = = =
In early 1997 Héctor Garza , who was one @-@ third of the CMLL World Trios Championship team with Dos Caras and La Fiera , left CMLL to join rival promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) CMLL vacated the championship and decided a one @-@ night eight @-@ team tournament to crown the next trios champions . The tournament took place on Friday March 21 , 1997 on the undercard of the 1997 Homenaje a Salvador Lutteroth ( " Homage to Salvador Lutteroth " ) show . In the finals , Emilio Charles Jr . , Rey Bucanero and El Satánico defeated Apolo Dantés , Black Warrior , and Dr. Wagner Jr .
Tournament brackets
= = = 1998 = = =
In October 1998 , Mr. Niebla suffered an injury , which forced CMLL to vacate the CMLL World Trios Championship as it was not clear when Mr. Niebla would be able to return to the ring . They held a three @-@ show , eight @-@ team tournament from December 4 to December 12 . Former champions Atlantis and Lizmark teamed up with Emilio Charles Jr. for the tournament , while Mr. Niebla actually returned to action in time to be in the tournament as well , teaming up with Rayo de Jalisco Jr. and Shocker . In the finals the trio of Dr. Wagner Jr . , Blue Panther and Black Warrior defeated Los Guapos ( Scorpio Jr . , Bestia Salvaje and Zumbido ) to lay claim to the championship .
Tournament brackets
= = = 2008 = = =
In the summer of 2008 then @-@ CMLL World Trios Champions Los Perros del Mal kicked Héctor Garza out of the group ; at the time Garza held the championship alongside Perros members Perro Aguayo Jr. and Mr. Águila , forcing the championship to be vacated . CMLL held an eight @-@ team tournament for the vacant championship , starting on May 30 , with the finals on June 13 , 2008 , during CMLL 's 2008 Infierno en el Ring event .
Tournament brackets
= = = 2013 = = =
In May 2013 long @-@ time CMLL World Trios Champions El Bufete del Amor ( Marco Corleone , Máximo and Rush ) were forced to vacate the championship due to Corleone suffering a serious knee injury . CMLL held an eight @-@ team , two @-@ night tournament to determine the next champions . The tournament started on June 9 , 2013 and the finals took place on June 16 .
Tournament brackets
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= First Motion Picture Unit =
The First Motion Picture Unit ( FMPU ) , later 18th Army Air Forces Base Unit , was the primary film production unit of the US Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) during World War II and was the first military unit made up entirely of professionals from the film industry . It produced more than 400 propaganda and training films , which were notable for being informative as well as entertaining . Films for which the unit is known include Resisting Enemy Interrogation , Memphis Belle : A Story of a Flying Fortress and The Last Bomb — all of which were released in theatres . Veteran actors such as Clark Gable , William Holden , Clayton Moore , and future President Ronald Reagan and directors such as John Sturges served with the FMPU . The unit also produced training films and trained combat cameramen . FMPU personnel served with distinction during World War II .
First Motion Picture Unit is also the eponymous title of a 1943 self @-@ produced documentary about the unit narrated by radio and television announcer Ken Carpenter .
= = Background = =
When the United States entered World War II in December 1941 , the USAAF was a part of the army , and motion picture production was the responsibility of the Army Signal Corps . USAAF Commanding General " Hap " Arnold believed that the formation of an independent film entity would help lead to the air service gaining its independence . At a meeting in March 1942 , General Arnold commissioned Warner Bros. head Jack L. Warner , producer Hal Wallis and scriptwriter Owen Crump to create the unit . Warner was made lieutenant colonel and Crump a captain but Wallis , who was then in production with Casablanca , did not accept the offer . Of immediate concern was a critical shortage of pilots and recruits . Arnold told Warner he needed 100 @,@ 000 pilots , and contracted with Warner Bros. to produce and release a recruitment film , which would come to be known as Winning Your Wings .
Winning Your Wings was directed by Owen Crump , and featured James Stewart as a dashing pilot . Stewart 's virile , masculine portrayal changed the public perception of military aviators . The film , which was completed in only two weeks , was a great success and according to General Arnold was pivotal in recruiting 100 @,@ 000 pilots . Warner Bros. would produce several films prior to the activation of the FMPU , most notably Men of the Sky , Beyond the Line of Duty and The Rear Gunner .
= = Formation = =
The success of Winning Your Wings created a demand for training and recruitment films which proved difficult for Warner Bros. to fulfill . Jack Warner began the process of developing the organizational structure for an independent motion picture unit . The dual mission of the unit was to produce training and morale films , and to train combat cameramen . The ranks were to be filled with film industry professionals , the first time in history such a unit would be raised .
On 1 July 1942 , the FMPU became an active unit of the USAAF . Key personnel that formed the initial roster included Lt. Col. Warner as commanding officer , Capt. Crump , Capt. Knox Manning , 2nd Lt. Edwin Gilbert , 2nd Lt. Ronald Reagan and Cpl. Oren W. Haglund . At first the unit operated out of offices at Warner Bros. in Burbank , California , and then moved to Vitagraph Studios in Hollywood . Vitagraph , however , had not been maintained and proved to be inadequate for movie production on a scale required by the FMPU . By sheer happenstance Crump came upon the Hal Roach Studios in Culver City . According to writer Mark Betancourt , the facility was perfect :
The studio had everything the motion picture unit needed : six warehouse @-@ size sound stages , prop rooms , editing bays , costume and makeup departments , even an outdoor set made to look like a city street ... The lot comprised 14 acres and dozens of buildings ...
In October the unit moved into Hal Roach Studios , which the men nicknamed " Fort Roach . " Warner returned to running his company , and Lt. Col. Paul Mantz took over as commanding officer .
= = Life at Fort Roach = =
Personnel assigned to the FMPU included some of the most well known film professionals of the day , as well as filmmakers who would have great success after the war . Actors such as Clark Gable , William Holden and Alan Ladd , and directors including Richard Bare and John Sturges served with the unit . Future president Ronald Reagan , who transferred from the cavalry reserve , was a captain in the unit . He was the personnel officer and was responsible for maintaining personnel files and orienting new recruits to the operational aspects of Fort Roach . Later he was appointed adjutant . Like the other notable actors Reagan appeared in the films produced by the unit , but to avoid distracting the audience they were eventually relegated to narrating the films .
The FMPU was unique in comparison to other military units in the methods employed to obtain recruits . Many members were well into middle age and unsuitable for combat duty . Few of the men in the FMPU were ever sent to a war zone . Due to its special mission , the unit was able to bypass the normal recruiting channels and was empowered to draft directly . Basic Training was not as rigorous as that experienced by most servicemen . According to former unit member Howard Landres , Basic Training was mandatory , " but it wasn ’ t the basic @-@ basic . "
Military decorum at Fort Roach was less formal than in most units . Saluting was optional , and unit members called each other by their first names . Hal Roach Studios did not have barracks , so commuting from home was commonplace . Men from out of the area were billeted at nearby Page Military Academy .
= = Film production = =
The first film project undertaken was a flight training aid titled , Learn and Live . Set in " Pilot 's Heaven " , the feature @-@ length film stars Guy Kibbee as Saint Peter . In order to demonstrate correct aviation techniques , twelve common flying mistakes are addressed . The film was highly regarded and led to a series of films including Learn and Live in the Desert , Ditch and Live and Learn and Live in the Jungle .
Resisting Enemy Interrogation was lauded by the military and according to documentarian Gregory Orr is considered to be the " best educational film " produced during the war . It tells the story of two captured flyers in dramatic and suspenseful fashion . They are interrogated at a German chateau . The layout of the chateau , the interrogation strategy and the overall experience of the film was extremely realistic . Airmen captured after viewing the film reported that they were able to successfully resist German efforts to extract information . The feature @-@ length film was of the highest quality and in recognition the documentary was nominated for an Academy Award in 1944 .
Animation was an essential and integral component of films produced at Fort Roach . Animation provided FMPU filmmakers with scenarios not possible with live action photography due to technical or secrecy constraints . In an introductory training film , pilots learn how to fly airplanes with the help of colorful cartoon characters named Thrust , Gravity and Drag , representative of the forces which act on airframes . Another character , Mr. Chameleon was created to teach the fine points of military camouflage . " Trigger Joe " ' s appearance in Position Firing was an immediate hit amongst gunners . Animators used humor to illustrate common pitfalls when loading and firing and techniques to maximize their efficiency and accuracy . Gunnery personnel clamored for more : " We want more films like Position Firing that make the theory simple and clear and yet keep us interested . And Trigger Joe ! He 's great ! " Joe became the central character in an entire series of films developed to further gunnery training . The animation department was staffed with a stellar assortment of animators , including department head Rudolf Ising , one of the creators of Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies , and one of Disney 's Nine Old Men , Frank Thomas .
= = = Bombing of Japan = = =
One of the most important assignments of the unit was to develop navigational and topographic materials to support the bombing campaign against Japan . This top secret series of films , code @-@ named " Special Film Project 152 " was , according to Gregory Orr , " perhaps the most important and challenging effort to come from the First Motion Picture Unit . " The unit was given forty days to produce the films which would be used by B @-@ 29 Superfortress crews .
In 1944 the United States readied its forces in the Pacific Theatre for the final assault on the Japanese mainland . The 20th Air Force , tasked with carrying out the bombing campaign , lacked necessary information regarding flight routes and targeting data . Orr explains what the unit was expected to deliver :
every landmark , check point , initial point and bomb release point ... every radar center , every Japanese naval vessel in a harbor , every railroad , building and forest and rice paddies ... The objects had to appear not only as seen on a clear day by the naked eye , but also as viewed by a radar screen through an overcast .
After conducting extensive research on the topography of Japan , an 80 @-@ by @-@ 60 @-@ foot ( 24 m × 18 m ) scale model ( 1 foot : 1 mile ) of target areas was fabricated complete with mountains , buildings , railroads and the rice paddies . It also depicted clouds and fog . The films were produced using a specially mounted overhead camera . The camera was motorized and could be moved to simulate an airplane 's flight over the model . According to the New York Sun , " the camera recorded what the crew of a B @-@ 29 would see from 30 @,@ 000 feet . " Using the films , pilots of the 20th Air Force easily found their targets and were amazed at the level of detail and the accuracy that the unit was able to produce . General Arnold said the following of the units accomplishment : " there never has been anything quite so good as this for briefing men on dangerous missions . "
= = = Bomb damage in Europe = = =
After Nazi Germany surrendered in May 1945 , General Arnold ordered Crump to document the extent of the damage caused by aerial bombardment . This project was code @-@ named " Special Film Project 186 . " Crump and his crew , using color film , surveyed bomb damage inflicted on the major European cities . In addition , Crump recorded the debriefings of Nazi civilian and military personnel in Allied custody such as Herman Goering , as well as the capture of the Ohrdruf and Buchenwald concentration camps by American soldiers . Upon viewing the film of the camps for the first time , Malvin Wald recollected , " Even though it was a summer day , Reagan came out shivering — we all did . We ’ d never seen anything like that . "
Crump and his crew shot hundreds of hours of film — most of which has never been seen . The Army Air Forces declined to fund the production and editing of the footage at an estimated cost of $ 1 million . The documentary The Story of Special Film Project 186 points out that the effort was " the biggest color film project of World War II — and the biggest unseen film of all time . "
= = Combat cameraman training = =
A primary function of the FMPU was the training of combat cameramen . The units were based at nearby Page Military Academy . There were approximately 16 combat units , each made up of seven officers and between 20 and 30 enlisted men . They were trained to use a variety of photographic equipment and cameras and also received combat and weapons training . The cameramen were sent to every army air force base to document all aspects of the base 's operations as well as aerial battle tactics and enemy airplane performance . Every cameraman was trained to load film into their camera under adverse conditions , and if need be , to develop it on location . Most of the aerial motion picture photography shot during World War II was filmed by Fort Roach alumni .
Unlike regular personnel at the FMPU , combat cameramen suffered a number of casualties . Alumni of the program were " highly praised and much decorated . " Lt. James Bray , a cameraman trained at Fort Roach was assigned to the Ninth Air Force in Cairo , Egypt . While photographing a combat mission he shot down two Luftwaffe Messerschmitts when the gunner was wounded . For his heroism he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . He then returned to Fort Roach as an instructor .
= = Effect = =
Although most FMPU personnel were never assigned to combat duty , they made a significant contribution to the war effort . Air & Space / Smithsonian reported that the air superiority enjoyed by the USAAF in Europe was partly due to the training films delivered by the FMPU . Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel , commander in chief of Germany 's armed forces , noted the decisive role played by film production units :
We had everything calculated perfectly except the speed with which the Allies were able to train their people for war . Our major miscalculation was in underestimating their quick and complete mastery of film education .
The unit 's efforts did not go unnoticed by the American military . The Inspector General 's office of the Department of Intelligence in an investigative report wrote :
This investigating officer cannot conclude his discussion without saying something for those sincere and patriotic officers and men who have contributed so much to the excellent work of the First Motion Picture Unit . The vast majority of its personnel have succeeded in producing training and orientation films , most of which are superior by every standard of motion picture art , training and effectiveness . Men of the First Motion Picture Unit probably represent a higher civilian income bracket than would be found in any other military organization . They are proud of their work and have a right to be so . This can also be said of the Combat Camera Units .
Noting the sheer volume of footage shot under the auspices of the unit , historian John Langellier said :
Every time you flip on the History Channel or the Discovery Channel , and you see World War II from an American perspective , you 're watching the work of one of these gentlemen . That 's their legacy .
= = Filmography = =
This is a list of selected USAAF films produced by Warner Bros. prior to the formation of the FMPU :
The growing demand for training films overwhelmed Warner Bros. and the USAAF established an inhouse film production unit . The FMPU released over 400 films between 1942 and 1945 , many of which have been lost or destroyed . This list is representative of that output :
Notes
* director * * narrator
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= Sunsets ( song ) =
" Sunsets " is a song released as the third single from Australian rock band Powderfinger 's fifth studio album , Vulture Street . The single was released on 4 January 2004 in Australia and New Zealand .
" Sunsets " earned a mixed response from reviewers . Some reviewers praised its appeal and aggression , whilst others appreciated the power ballad elements within it . Others , however , described the song negatively as " lumbering " . " Sunsets " charted moderately , reaching No. 11 on the Australian singles chart .
= = Recording and production = =
Vulture Street was recorded and developed over a seven @-@ week period in Sydney , Australia . It was during this time that " Sunsets " was written and produced . Nick DiDia produced the album , as he had done on previous Powderfinger albums including Odyssey Number Five . " Sunsets " was mixed in Atlanta , Georgia , by Brendan OBrien , who had previously worked with DiDia . Fanning described the album during production stages as " a much more dry , direct rock " , but also noted that " just because I rock , doesn 't mean I 'm made of stone " . In that sense , " Sunsets " ( and numerous other songs on Vulture Street ) were seen as emotive , combined with the rock elements Fanning described .
In an interview with Undercover magazine , Powderfinger guitarist Darren Middleton described " Sunsets " as one of ( songwriter and lead vocalist ) Bernard Fanning 's older songs . He said it was similar to the acoustic songs on Odyssey Number Five , the band 's previous album . Middleton also said the band worked hard to make " Sunsets " heavy , so that it shared the feel of other songs on the album . In an interview with Rove host Rove McManus , Fanning described Vulture Street as the band wanting to " make a change " and " go back to why [ they ] started playing " . He cited rock and roll from the 1970s as a major influence on the album , especially the work of Led Zeppelin and AC / DC .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Sunsets " was created by the animation studio Liquid Animation . It begins with the following dialogue in yellow :
The visual theme for the video is the Chinese legend of Houyi . The video goes on to introduce King Di @-@ Jun , his ten sons ( who are also the Celestial Suns ) , Queen Xi and Warrior Yi . The video shows one of the King 's ten sons being strapped to the back of the jade dragon , but breaks free and the sons made life on Earth unbearable , so the King send the warrior who was introduced earlier to kill them . He succeeds in finding them , and kills all but one .
An acoustic video for " Sunsets " is also featured on bonus DVDs for Vulture Street , and Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , as well as the Sunsets DVD single and These Days : Live in Concert " low key " DVD . The video features Bernard Fanning and Darren Middleton playing the song in a rehearsal room .
= = Response = =
" Sunsets " was received with varying levels of enthusiasm from reviewers . MusicOMH reviewer Simon Evans described " Sunsets " and " Stumblin ' " as some of the more " lumbering " moments on Vulture Street , but still said they contained " a certain earthy appeal " . In his review of Vulture Street , Sputnikmusic contributor James Bishop agreed , calling " Sunsets " the " most successful single from the album " , and praising its emotional impact .
Meanwhile , Allmusic 's Vulture Street reviewer , Jason MacNeil , described " Sunsets " as " adorable " , and drew comparisons to The Verve 's " Lucky Man " . Sydney Morning Herald 's Bernard Zuel agreed , praising " Sunsets " as " the new definition of power ballad " , and saying the song contained " open @-@ hearted feeling and well @-@ constructed progression " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Awards = = =
= = Track listing = =
" Sunsets "
" Sunsets " ( acoustic )
" Rita " ( Audio Airlock Demos )
" Not the Only One " ( Studio outtake )
= = Personnel = =
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= Iván Rodríguez =
Iván Rodríguez Torres ( born November 27 , 1971 ) , nicknamed " Pudge " or " I @-@ Rod " is a retired Major League Baseball catcher . In his career , he played for the Texas Rangers ( on two different tours , comprising the majority of his career ) , Florida Marlins , Detroit Tigers , New York Yankees , Houston Astros and Washington Nationals .
Rodríguez was awarded the AL MVP award in 1999 . He is widely regarded as one of the best defensive catchers of all time .
Rodríguez won the World Series with the Marlins in 2003 , and also played in the 2006 World Series while with the Tigers . On June 17 , 2009 , Rodríguez set an MLB record by catching his 2,227th game , passing Carlton Fisk . During his career , he had the best caught stealing percentage of any major league catcher , at 45 @.@ 68 % .
= = Early years = =
Rodríguez was born and raised in Vega Baja . His father , Juan , worked for a U.S.-based construction company , and his mother , Eva Torres , was an elementary school teacher . Iván 's first job involved delivering flyers in the shopping malls in Puerto Rico .
He learned baseball at an early age , his biggest rival being Juan González , who he often played against in his youth . As a Little League player , he moved from pitcher to catcher because his father , who was also his coach , thought he was throwing too hard and scaring opposing players with his pitches . Rodríguez attended Lino Padron Rivera High School , where he was discovered by scout Luis Rosa . Rosa reported that " He showed leadership at 16 that I 'd seen in few kids . He knew where he was going . " Rodríguez signed a contract with the Texas Rangers in July 1988 , at the age of 16 , and began his professional baseball career .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Rodríguez made his professional debut in 1989 at the age of 17 as catcher for the Gastonia Rangers of the South Atlantic League . In his first game , he had three hits in three at @-@ bats ( 3 @-@ for @-@ 3 ) against Spartanburg . Playing in the Florida State League in 1990 , Rodríguez was selected the best catcher in the league and named to the All @-@ Star team . He placed 15th in the league in batting at .287 , and led his team in runs batted in , with 55 . He also played in the Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League ( LBPPR ) over the offseason .
At the beginning of the 1991 season , Rodriguez played 50 games with the Tulsa Drillers , a AA team , where he batted .274 in 175 at @-@ bats . He was considered the number one prospect of the Texas League . Before the middle of the season , he was called up to the Texas Rangers , thus bypassing AAA .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
Making his debut with the Texas Rangers on June 20 , 1991 , he became the youngest player to catch in a major league game that season at 19 years of age . He immediately established himself as an excellent hitter who was also proficient in throwing out would @-@ be base @-@ stealers . No other catcher in the past 35 years has been as successful at this aspect of the game , with Rodríguez throwing out 48 % of attempted basestealers through May 2006 . He started many of the Rangers games at the end of the season , including 81 of the last 102 . Rodríguez became the youngest player in the history of the Texas Rangers to hit a home run , on August 30 , 1991 , facing the Kansas City Royals and right @-@ hander Storm Davis . He was named to the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Rookie All @-@ Star team by both Topps and Baseball America and finished in fourth place in the AL Rookie of the Year voting . He also placed first in throwing out runners , catching 48 @.@ 6 percent of runners attempting to steal .
In 1992 , Rodríguez started 112 games behind the plate and was the youngest player in the major leagues for the second year in a row . Playing in the Puerto Rico Winter League , he had a .262 batting average playing in 17 games for Mayagüez . In the 1993 season , Rodríguez batted .273 , had 66 runs batted in and hit 10 home runs , ranking fourth , fifth , and fifth on his team respectively . He had a stretch of eight straight hits over two games facing the Kansas City Royals on July 26 and July 28 . He played the final month of the regular season in the Puerto Rican Winter league , where he had a .425 batting average and 14 runs batted in for Mayagüez . Rodríguez was named to the Puerto Rican Winter League all @-@ star team and was also the league Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .
In 1994 , Rodríguez led the American League in batting average among catchers , at .298 . He placed high on his team in many statistics , placing second in batting average ( .298 ) , tied for third in doubles ( 19 ) , and fourth in hits , total bases , runs , home runs , walks , games , and at bats . He also caught Kenny Rogers ' perfect game on 1994 @-@ 07 @-@ 28 . Rodríguez played in the Puerto Rican Winter League over the winter , but he suffered a severe knee injury which kept him from playing for the rest of the season .
Playing for the Rangers during the 1995 season , Rodríguez led his team in batting , total bases , and doubles , at .303 , 221 , and 32 respectively . He was named the Texas Rangers ' player of the year . Rodríguez also had his first multi @-@ home run game while playing the Boston Red Sox on July 13 , hitting both off All @-@ Star pitcher Roger Clemens . He also played for Caguas in the Puerto Rican Winter League during the offseason .
In 1996 , Rodríguez set an MLB record for most doubles by a catcher , amassing 44 over the course of the season . This broke the previous mark of 42 , set by Mickey Cochrane in 1930 . He also set the major league record for at @-@ bats by a catcher in a single season , with 639 , which surpassed Johnny Bench 's record of 621 in 1970 . He led the Texas Rangers in doubles , at bats , hits , and runs scored . He was selected to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Star team that played a series in Japan against the Japanese all @-@ stars after the season was over . He again played in the Puerto Rican Winter League this season . In the 1997 season , Rodríguez also placed first among catchers in many categories in Major League Baseball . These categories were hits , runs , runs batted in , and doubles . He placed second in home runs among catchers , below only Sandy Alomar , Jr. of the Cleveland Indians , who had 20 home runs . He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated on the week of August 4 . This marked the fourth time a player from the Texas Rangers had been on the cover of Sports Illustrated . Rodríguez played in the Puerto Rican Winter League yet again , where he had a .285 batting average , 4 home runs , and 18runs batted in over the course of 32 games playing for Caguas .
In the 1998 season , Rodríguez led the Texas Rangers in batting average at .325 , which placed eighth in the American League . He also had 75 multi @-@ hit games and 186 hits , finishing seventh and ninth in MLB respectively . He finished second on the Rangers in hits , total bases , triples , and slugging percentage . Rodríguez was third on the team in doubles , home runs , and stolen bases , and fourth in runs batted in . He had his 1000th hit in a game facing the Cleveland Indians on May 10 of that season . Rodríguez also became the first catcher in the history of Major League Baseball to have two or more seasons with 40 or more doubles . He was selected to the American League All @-@ Star Team again , and he was also named to all @-@ star teams by the Associated Press , The Sporting News , and Baseball America .
In 1999 , Rodríguez was selected as the American League MVP . He set a new American League record for home runs in a single season among catchers with 35 . Rodríguez was also the first catcher to have more than 30 home runs , 100 runs batted in , and 100 runs scored in the history of Major League Baseball . In addition , he holds the distinction of being the first catcher in the history of the league to amass more than 20 home runs and 20 stolen bases . From May 8 , 1999 to June 1 , 1999 , Rodríguez had a career high 20 game hitting streak . He had 25 stolen bases , which was fifth most among catchers in the history of the league . He led the league in times grounded into a double play , with 31 . Rodríguez was only the ninth catcher in the history of Major League Baseball to win the Most Valuable Player award , and he was the first to win it since Thurman Munson in 1976 . He was named on all of the ballots , getting seven first place votes and six second place votes . Rodríguez was the sixth Puerto Rican to win the award , and the fourth player from the Texas Rangers to win it . He also won the Silver Slugger Award for the sixth time in a row and was selected Most Valuable Player by Baseball Digest . He was again named to all @-@ star teams by the Associated Press , The Sporting News , and Baseball America . While he was hitting home runs , he wasn 't taking many walks . He is one of only six players active in 2009 who have had at least 30 home runs in a season in which they had more homers than walks ( 34 HR , 24 BB in 1999 ) . The others are Alfonso Soriano ( 39 – 23 in 2002 , 36 – 33 in 2005 , 33 – 31 in 2007 ) , Garret Anderson ( 35 – 24 in 2000 ) , Ryan Braun ( 34 – 29 in 2007 ) , Joe Crede ( 30 – 28 in 2006 ) , and José Guillén ( 31 – 24 in 2003 ) .
In 2000 , Rodríguez suffered a season @-@ ending injury in a game against the Anaheim Angels . While trying to make a throw to second base , his thumb made contact with the swing of Mo Vaughn 's bat . He fractured his right thumb and underwent surgery the next day . This injury caused him to miss the rest of the season . Rodríguez appeared in just 91 games , which was the fewest that he appeared in since his first season in the league , 1991 . His nine home runs in April matched a team record that was shared ( through 2008 ) with Alex Rodriguez ( 2002 ) , Carl Everett ( 2003 ) , and Ian Kinsler ( 2007 ) . Even though he was injured , he was still named to the second @-@ team of Baseball America 's Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Team .
Rodríguez returned to full action in 2001 and had another all @-@ star season . He was selected to his ninth straight MLB All @-@ Star Game , which tied the all @-@ time record set by Johnny Bench . He also tied Bench 's record of ten straight Rawlings Gold Glove Awards in a row . He batted .308 , making 2001 his seventh straight season with a batting average of over .300 . He had 25 home runs , 136 hits , and 65 runs batted in .
Rodríguez 's final year with the Texas Rangers came in 2002 . His .314 batting average was seventh best among American League players . This was his eighth season in a row with batting average of .300 or above . He also had 32 doubles , 2 triples , and 60 runs batted in while playing in 108 games for the Rangers . Rodríguez was placed on the disabled list on April 23 after suffering a herniated disk on April 15 . The injury did not require surgery , and he rehabilitated while playing for Class @-@ A Charlotte . He later returned to the Rangers and played there for the remainder of the season . After the 2002 season his contract with Texas ran out and he became a free agent .
= = = Florida Marlins = = =
Before the 2003 season Rodríguez signed with the Florida Marlins . By then a major @-@ league veteran of over a decade , he helped lead the young team to victory in the World Series . During the 2003 regular season , he set many Marlins single season records for a catcher , such as batting average , at .297 , and runs batted in , at 85 . On March 31 , Rodríguez became the tenth Marlins player ever to hit a home run in the team 's first game of the season . On April 8 , he set a Marlins single game record by drawing five walks in a game against the New York Mets . He had a nine @-@ game hitting streak from June 24 to July 2 , during which he batted .500 with seven doubles , two triples , and four home runs . From June 24 to July 1 , he drove in a run in eight consecutive games , another single season record for the Florida Marlins . In the post @-@ season , he was named National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player for the first time in his career . He also closed out the National League Division Series by holding onto the ball during a dramatic game @-@ ending collision at the plate with J. T. Snow in Game Four . He chose not to return to the Marlins following the 2003 season .
= = = Detroit Tigers = = =
Before the 2004 season Rodríguez signed a 4 @-@ year , $ 40 million contract with the Detroit Tigers . In 2004 , he was selected to the MLB All @-@ Star Game for the 11th time in his career and for his 10th time as a starting player , joining Johnny Bench and Mike Piazza as the only Major League Baseball catchers to start an All @-@ Star game 10 times or more in their career . During the month of June , he batted .500 and was named the American League Player of the Month . He also won his 11th consecutive Rawlings Gold Glove Award , making him the first player on the Detroit Tigers to win the award since Gary Pettis won it in 1989 . He won his seventh career Silver Slugger Award , tied with Víctor Martínez of the Cleveland Indians . He was fourth in the American League in batting average and fourth among all Major League Baseball catchers . On October 1 , he recorded his 1,000th career RBI in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays .
Prior to the 2005 season , Jose Canseco , in his controversial book Juiced , claimed to have personally injected Rodríguez with anabolic steroids during their time as teammates on the Texas Rangers . Rodríguez denied the allegations and said he was " in shock " over Canseco claims . Asked by a reporter four years later whether his name is on the list of 104 players who tested positive for steroids during baseball 's 2003 survey testing , Rodríguez responded , " Only God knows . "
Despite the off @-@ season controversy , the 2005 season turned out to be another All @-@ Star year for Rodríguez . He was selected to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game for the twelfth time in his career , and he participated in the Century 21 Home Run Derby on the day before the All @-@ Star game , finishing second to Bobby Abreu of the Philadelphia Phillies in his home stadium of Comerica Park . By the end of the season , he batted .276 with 14 home runs and 50 runs batted in . On October 26 , 2005 , Major League Baseball named him the catcher on their Latino Legends Team .
In 2006 , Rodríguez returned to throwing out runners attempting to steal a base at a very high percentage , as he did in his earlier career ; he was first in the league in this category , throwing out 45 @.@ 7 percent of all runners attempting to steal a base . On May 9 , 2006 , Rodríguez played first base for the Tigers . That game , a 7 – 6 loss to the Baltimore Orioles , was the first time that he played a position other than catcher in his 1 @,@ 914 Major League games . On August 15 , 2006 , he also made his first Major League appearance at second base after regular second baseman Plácido Polanco was injured in a game in Boston . Rodríguez was honored with a Fielding Bible Award as the best fielding catcher in MLB in 2006 . Rodríguez would help the Tigers upset the Yankees in the 2006 ALDS and the A 's in the 2006 ALCS to help Detroit win the pennant .
On April 16 , 2007 , he batted in 6 runs on the way to a 12 – 5 victory over the Kansas City Royals . On June 12 he caught Justin Verlander 's first no @-@ hitter , the second no @-@ hitter he caught in his career . In 2007 , Rodríguez walked in only 1 @.@ 8 percent of his plate appearances , the lowest percentage in the major leagues . On October 9 , the Tigers announced that they were picking up the fifth @-@ year , 13 @-@ million @-@ dollar option on Rodríguez 's contract , keeping him on the Tigers team through at least the 2008 season . The team could have bought out the option for three million dollars and allowed him to become a free agent .
In spring training in 2008 he led the major leagues with eight home runs . On April 10 against Boston , he got his 2,500th hit .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
On July 30 , 2008 , Rodríguez was traded to the New York Yankees for relief pitcher Kyle Farnsworth after starting Yankee catcher Jorge Posada had season @-@ ending surgery . While Rodríguez wanted to leave Detroit due to Tigers manager Jim Leyland 's decision to use rotating catchers , he wound up sharing catching duties with back @-@ up Yankee catcher José Molina , starting only 26 of the remaining 55 games of the 2008 season . With his customary number 7 having been retired by the Yankees for Mickey Mantle , Rodríguez changed his jersey number to 12 . He finished the year with a .278 batting average with his time on the Yankees being his worst part of the season .
= = = Return to Puerto Rican League = = =
In preparation for the 2009 World Baseball Classic , Rodríguez returned to the Puerto Rico Baseball League ( formerly LBPPR ) during the offseason , following ten years of absence . Playing for the Criollos de Caguas , he gathered a batting average of .370 with three runs batted in and one home run in six games during the regular season . Upon leaving the team on vacation , Rodríguez noted that his intention was to return to action if the Criollos advanced to the playoffs . He returned to action in a " sudden death " game for the final postseason space , but the team lost and was eliminated . On January 8 , 2008 , the Leones de Ponce reclaimed Rodríguez in the last turn of a special post @-@ season draft , where players from eliminated teams were selected to reinforce those that qualified . In the first week of December 2009 , Rodríguez re @-@ joined the Criollos de Caguas in the PRBL .
= = = Houston Astros = = =
On March 20 , 2009 , Rodríguez signed a one @-@ year deal worth $ 1 @.@ 5 million with the Houston Astros . Rodríguez was given the opportunity to make an additional $ 1 @.@ 5 million in performance bonuses . In a situation similar to his tenure with the Yankees , his customary number 7 had been retired by the Astros in honor of Craig Biggio , so Rodríguez initially wore jersey number 12 , then later changed to number 77 mid @-@ season .
On May 17 , 2009 , Rodríguez hit his 300th career home run off of Chicago Cubs pitcher Rich Harden at Wrigley Field . On June 17 , 2009 , Rodríguez passed Carlton Fisk for the most games caught in a career ; the game was against his former team ( the Rangers ) at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington .
= = = Second stint with Rangers = = =
On August 18 , 2009 , Rodríguez was traded to the Texas Rangers for minor league reliever Matt Nevarez and two PTBNL . Teammate David Murphy switched his uniform number to # 14 so Rodríguez could wear the # 7 he previously wore with the Rangers . In his first game with the Rangers , Rodríguez went 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 with an RBI double and two singles . He hit his first home run with the Rangers since 2002 on August 29 , a solo shot against Minnesota Twins reliever José Mijares .
He finished the 2009 season ranked first in major league history with 13 @,@ 910 putouts as a catcher , ahead of Brad Ausmus ( 12 @,@ 671 ) .
= = = Washington Nationals = = =
Following the 2009 season , Rodríguez filed for free agency , declining the Rangers ' offer of salary arbitration . On December 11 , 2009 , Rodríguez signed a 2 @-@ year , $ 6 million contract with the Washington Nationals .
Rodríguez hit his first home run as a member of the Nationals on May 6 against Tim Hudson of the Atlanta Braves . Facing the New York Mets at Citi Field four days later , he went 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 and drove in the eventual game @-@ winning RBI . On May 24 , Rodríguez was hitting .325 , but was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a back sprain .
On June 8 , 2010 , Rodríguez returned from the DL in time to catch for Stephen Strasburg 's Major League debut . In this debut , Strasburg struck out 14 batters and walked none over seven complete innings . This game has already been dubbed as one of the greatest major league pitching debuts of all time . In a postgame interview , Pudge reacted that " [ e ] verybody [ was ] impressed with what this kid did . "
Rodríguez platooned at the catching duties for the Nationals with Wilson Ramos .
= = World Baseball Classic = =
Rodríguez represented Puerto Rico in the 2006 World Baseball Classic . Rodríguez was one of several Major League Baseball players that committed to represent their birthplaces before the organization of the tournament . He also played for Puerto Rico in the 2009 World Baseball Classic and was named to the classic 's All @-@ Tournament Team .
= = Retirement = =
Rodríguez announced his retirement on April 18 , 2012 . He signed a one @-@ day contract with the Rangers on April 23 , retiring as a member of the team . Rodriguez also threw out the ceremonial first pitch during the Rangers home game against the New York Yankees . Instead of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch from the mound , he went to his usual position behind the plate and threw from behind home plate to second base to Michael Young . Rodriguez was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame on February 27 , 2014 . He also joined FOX Sports Southwest in 2014 as an analyst for pre and postgame television coverage .
In 2017 Rodríguez will become eligible for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame . Richard Justice of MLB.com has argued that he is " unquestionably " a Hall of Fame @-@ caliber player , writing on mlb.com in 2012 that he batted better than .290 with more than 2 @,@ 500 hits , 550 doubles , 300 home runs and 1 @,@ 300 RBI , an accomplishment equaled only by four all @-@ time greats : Hank Aaron , George Brett , Babe Ruth and Barry Bonds . ( This statement was incorrect , as Stan Musial also met and far surpassed all of those numbers . Incidentally , in 2013 , the year following Justice 's publication of this article , Todd Helton had met all five of these criteria as well , and among active players , Albert Pujols joined this club in 2015 upon hitting his 550th double . ) However , Justice acknowledges that like Bonds , Rodríguez may have difficulty winning election to the Hall of Fame due to suspicion that he used steroids during his career .
= = Personal life = =
Rodríguez has three children : Iván Derrek ( b . 06 @-@ 05 @-@ 1992 ) , who was picked in the 6th round of the 2011 MLB draft by the Minnesota Twins , Amanda Christine ( b . 06 @-@ 21 @-@ 1995 ) and Ivanna Sofia ( b . 01 @-@ 12 @-@ 2000 ) . The family divided their time between Colleyville , Texas , Miami , Florida and Puerto Rico . In 1993 , Rodríguez and his wife founded the Ivan " Pudge " Rodríguez Foundation , whose purpose is to help families in Puerto Rico , Dallas and Fort Worth , Texas . Rodríguez has also stated that the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation is one of his charities of choice . Their fifteen @-@ year marriage ended in 2006 . Rodríguez remarried in 2007 . Rodríguez 's appreciation of recording artist Yanni was pointed out during the 2003 World Series and the 2004 All @-@ Star Game by Fox Sports .
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= Fulvous whistling duck =
The fulvous whistling duck or fulvous tree duck ( Dendrocygna bicolor ) is a whistling duck that breeds across the world 's tropical regions in much of Mexico and South America , the West Indies , the southern US , sub @-@ Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent . It has mainly reddish brown plumage , long legs and a long grey bill , and shows a distinctive white band across its black tail in flight . Like other members of its ancient lineage , it has a whistling call which is given in flight or on the ground . The preferred habitat is shallow lakes , paddy fields or other wetlands with plentiful vegetation .
The nest , built from plant material and unlined , is placed among dense vegetation or in a tree hole . The typical clutch is around ten whitish eggs . The breeding adults , which pair for life , take turns to incubate , and the eggs hatch in 24 – 29 days . The downy grey ducklings leave the nest within a day or so of hatching , but the parents continue to protect them until they fledge around nine weeks later .
The fulvous whistling duck feeds in wetlands by day or night on seeds and other parts of plants . It is sometimes regarded as a pest of rice cultivation , and is also shot for food in parts of its range . Despite hunting , poisoning by pesticides and natural predation by mammals , birds and reptiles , the large numbers and huge range of this duck mean that it is classified as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The whistling ducks , Dendrocygna , are a distinctive group of eight bird species within the duck , goose and swan family Anatidae , which are characterised by a hump @-@ backed , long @-@ necked appearance and the whistled flight calls that give them their English name . They were an early split from the main duck lineage , and were predominant in the Late Miocene before the subsequent extensive radiation of more modern forms in the Pliocene and later . The fulvous whistling duck forms a superspecies with the wandering whistling duck . It has no recognised subspecies , although the birds in northern Mexico and the southern US have in the past been assigned to D. b. helva , described as having paler and brighter underparts and a lighter crown than D. b. bicolor .
The duck was first described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789 and given the name Anas fulva but the name was " preoccupied , " or already used , by Friedrich Christian Meuschen in 1787 for another species . This led to the next available name proposed by French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816 from a Paraguayan specimen as Anas bicolor The whistling ducks were moved to their current genus , Dendrocygna , by British ornithologist William John Swainson in recognition of their differences from other ducks . The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek dendron , " tree " , and Latin cygnus , " swan " , and bicolor is Latin for " two @-@ coloured " . " Fulvous " means reddish @-@ yellow , and is derived from the Latin equivalent fulvus . Old and regional names include large whistling teal , brown tree duck , Mexican duck , squealer and Spanish cavalier .
= = Description = =
The fulvous whistling duck is 45 – 53 cm ( 18 – 21 in ) long ; the male weighs 748 – 1 @,@ 050 g ( 26 @.@ 4 – 37 @.@ 0 oz ) , and the female averages marginally lighter at 712 – 1 @,@ 000 g ( 25 @.@ 1 – 35 @.@ 3 oz ) . It is a long @-@ legged duck , mainly golden @-@ brown with a darker back and an obvious blackish line down the back of its neck . It has whitish stripes on its flanks , a long grey bill and grey legs . In flight , the wings are brown above and black below , with no white markings , and a white crescent on the rump contrasts with the black tail . All plumages are fairly similar , but the female is slightly smaller and duller @-@ plumaged than the male . The juvenile has paler underparts , and appears generally duller , especially on the flanks . There is a complete wing moult after breeding , and birds then seek the cover of dense wetland vegetation while they are flightless . Body feathers may be moulted throughout the year , although each feather is replaced only once annually .
These are noisy birds with a clear whistling kee @-@ wee @-@ ooo call given on the ground or in flight . Quarrelling birds also have a harsh repeated kee . In flight , the beating wings produce a dull sound . The calls of males and females show differences in structure and an acoustic analysis on 59 captive birds demonstrated 100 % accuracy in sexing when compared with molecular methods .
Adult birds in Asia can be confused with the similar lesser whistling duck , although that species is smaller , has a blackish crown and lacks an obvious dark stripe down the back of the neck . Juvenile fulvous whistling ducks are very like young lesser whistling ducks , but the crown colour is still a distinction . Juvenile comb ducks are bulkier than whistling ducks and have a dark cap to the head . In South America and Africa , juvenile white @-@ faced whistling ducks are separable from fulvous by their dark crowns , barred flanks and chestnut breasts .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The fulvous whistling duck has a very large range extending across four continents . It breeds in lowland South America from northern Argentina to Colombia and then up to the southern US and the West Indies . It is found in a broad belt across sub @-@ Saharan Africa and down the east of the continent to South Africa and Madagascar . The Indian subcontinent is the Asian stronghold .
It undertakes seasonal movements in response to the availability of water and food . African birds move southwards in the southern summer to breed and return north in the winter , and Asian populations are highly nomadic due to the variability of rainfall . This species has strong colonising tendencies , having expanded its range in Mexico , the US and the West Indies in recent decades . Wandering birds can turn up far beyond the normal range , sometimes staying to nest , as in Morocco , Peru and Hawaii .
The fulvous whistling duck is found in lowland marshes and swamps in open , flat country , and it avoids wooded areas . It is particularly attracted to wetlands with plenty of emergent vegetation , including rice fields . It is not normally a mountain species , breeding in Venezuela , for example , only up 300 m ( 980 ft ) , but the single Peruvian breeding record was at 4 @,@ 080 m ( 13 @,@ 390 ft ) .
= = Behaviour = =
This species is usually found in small groups , although substantial flocks can form at favoured sites . It walks well , without waddling , and although it normally feeds by upending , it can dive if necessary . It does not often perch in trees , unlike other whistling ducks . It flies at low altitude with slow wingbeats and trailing feet , in loose flocks rather than tight formation . It feeds during the day and at night in fairly large flocks , often with other whistling duck species , but rests or sleeps in smaller groups in the middle of the day . They are noisy and display their aggression towards other individuals by throwing back their heads . Before taking off in alarm , they often shake their head sideways .
A number of arthropod parasites have been recorded on this duck , including chewing mites of the families Philopteridae and Menoponidae , feather mites and skin mites . Internal helminth parasites include roundworms , tapeworms and flukes . In a survey in Florida , all 30 ducks tested carried at least two helminth species , although none had blood parasites . Only one duck had no mites or lice .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding coincides with the availability of water . In South America and South Africa , the main nesting period is December – February , in Nigeria it is July – December , and in North America mid @-@ May – August . In India , the breeding season is from June to October but peaking in July and August . Fulvous whistling ducks show lifelong monogamy , although the courtship display is limited to some mutual head @-@ dipping before mating and a short dance after copulation in which the birds raise their bodies side @-@ by @-@ side while treading water .
Pairs may breed alone or in loose groups . In South Africa , nests may be within 50 m ( 160 ft ) of each other , and breeding densities of up to 13 @.@ 7 nests per square kilometre ( 35 @.@ 5 per square mile ) have been found in Louisiana . The nest , 19 – 26 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 2 in ) across , is made from plant leaves and stems and has little or no soft lining . It is usually built in dense vegetation and close to water , but sometimes in tree holes . In India , the use of tree holes , and even the old nests of raptors or crows , is much more common than elsewhere . Eggs are laid at roughly 24- to 36 @-@ hour intervals , starting before the nest is complete , resulting in some losses from the clutch . They are whitish and on average measure 53 @.@ 4 mm × 40 @.@ 7 mm ( 2 @.@ 10 in × 1 @.@ 60 in ) and weigh 50 @.@ 4 g ( 1 @.@ 78 oz ) . The clutch is usually around ten eggs , but other females sometimes lay into the nest , so 20 or more may be found on occasion . Eggs may also be added to the nests of other species , like ruddy duck .
Both sexes incubate , changing over once a day , with the male often taking the greater share of this duty . The eggs hatch in about 24 – 29 days , The downy ducklings are grey , with paler upperparts , and a white band on the neck , and weigh 22 – 38 g ( 0 @.@ 78 – 1 @.@ 34 oz ) within a day of hatching . Like all ducklings , they are precocial and leave the nest after a day or so , but the parents protect them until they fledge around nine weeks later . Eggs and duckling may be preyed on by mammals , birds and reptiles , although one parent may try to distract a potential predator with a broken @-@ wing display while the other adult leads the ducklings away . Birds are sexually mature after one year , and the maximum known age is 6 @.@ 5 years .
In South Africa , a few records of hybridization with the white @-@ faced whistling duck have been noted in the wild , although in most parts of southern Africa , the two species breed at different times , bicolor during the dry season ( April to September ) and viduata during the rains ( October to March ) . Hybridization in captivity is more frequent but limited to other species in the genus Dendrocygna .
= = Feeding = =
The fulvous whistling duck feeds in wetlands by day or night , often in mixed flocks with relatives such as white @-@ faced or black @-@ bellied whistling ducks . Its food is generally plant material , including seeds , bulbs , grasses and stems , but females may include animal items such as aquatic worms , molluscs and insects as they prepare for egg @-@ laying , which may then comprise up to 4 % of their diet . Ducklings may also eat a few insects . Foraging is by picking plant items while walking or swimming , by upending , or occasionally by diving to a depth of up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Favoured plants include water snowflake , aquatic ragweeds , bourgou millet , shama grass , Cape blue water lily , waxy @-@ leaf nightshade , beakrush , flatsedge and polygonums . Rice is normally a small part of the diet , and a survey in Cuban rice fields found that the plants taken were mainly weeds growing with the crop . However , in a study in Louisiana , 25 % of the diet of incubating females consisted of the cereal .
= = Status = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) estimates the population of the fulvous whistling duck to be from 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 5 million individuals . This may be an underestimate since regional assessments suggest 1 million birds in the Americas , 1 @.@ 1 million in Africa and at least 20 @,@ 000 in South Asia . Although the population appear to be declining , the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger the vulnerability criteria . The large numbers and huge breeding range mean that this duck is classified by the IUCN as being of Least Concern . It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies .
The fulvous whistling duck has expanded its range in the West Indies , and into the southern US . A series of invasions from South America and reaching the eastern US commenced around 1948 , fueled by rice cultivation , and breeding was recorded in Cuba in 1964 , and Florida in 1965 . Some Florida birds still winter in Cuba . In Africa , it bred on the Cape Peninsula between 1940 and the 1960s . A survey of eighteen species which had colonised the area in recent decades found that most were wetland species that had used irrigated farmland as " stepping stones " across the arid country separating the peninsula from the breeding main range . However , the status of the two whistling duck species featured in the research is dubious since they are popular ornamental species , so their origin is unclear .
Outside North America it is subject to hunting for food or because of its liking for rice , and persecution means that it is now rare in Madagascar . Pesticides used on rice fields may also have an adverse impact , causing liver and breast muscle damage even at sub @-@ lethal levels .
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= By Your Side ( The Black Crowes album ) =
By Your Side is the fifth studio album by American rock band The Black Crowes . It was released in early 1999 on Columbia Records , following the band 's move from American Recordings , after second guitarist Marc Ford and bassist Johnny Colt had left the band in 1997 . Audley Freed and Sven Pipien were hired as the new guitarist and bassist , respectively , although Rich Robinson played all the guitar parts on the album . By Your Side was recorded in New York City during the second quarter of 1998 and produced by Kevin Shirley . It comprised songs written in the studio , revised songs from pre @-@ production and re @-@ recorded songs from the abandoned 1997 album Band .
The Black Crowes promoted By Your Side by performing on numerous television programs in North America and Europe . The album debuted at its peak position of number 26 on the Billboard 200 and generally received positive reviews . While some critics depreciated By Your Side for its similarity to albums by Rod Stewart and The Rolling Stones , most reviewers lauded The Black Crowes ' return to the straightforward approach of their debut album , Shake Your Money Maker ( 1990 ) . Chris Robinson 's singing and Rich 's guitar playing also won praise from critics , though reviews of the lyrics were mixed .
Beginning in February 1999 , the band toured North American theaters for two months in support of the album . Setlists from the tour , known as the " Souled Out Tour " , typically included more than half the album 's songs . The concerts were followed by a short co @-@ headlining tour of US amphitheaters with Lenny Kravitz . The band spent the remainder of the summer opening for Aerosmith 's European tour .
= = Background = =
Personnel changes and label interference frustrated The Black Crowes ' attempts to follow up their 1996 album Three Snakes and One Charm . During May and June 1997 , they recorded an album called Band , but it was rejected by their label , American Recordings . Lead singer Chris Robinson said American " couldn 't go with the vibe " and wanted something more " safe " . In August , guitarist Marc Ford was fired due to a heroin habit that impaired his performances . Guitarist Rich Robinson said , " We would be onstage playing ' Remedy ' , and he would be playing a completely different song .... We told him to clean up or get out . We assumed , since he loved music and the band , that he would clean up . " Bassist Johnny Colt had been losing interest in the band since the recording of Three Snakes and One Charm ; his contributions to that album were minimal , as Rich played bass in his stead on all but one track . Colt quit in October to become a yoga instructor .
Sven Pipien was hired in December to replace Colt . Pipien had previously played with Mary My Hope and had been a housemate of Chris . Audley Freed was hired as the second guitarist before a 1998 tour in support of the band 's Sho ' Nuff box set . Recording sessions for By Your Side were well underway at this point , and continued after the tour , but Freed did not contribute to the album . Chris said of the new members , " It 's great . These guys want to be here — and we feed off of that . And that will become obvious when you see us on the road . "
American Recordings was partially absorbed by Columbia Records in early 1998 . Though the arrangement preserved the American label , The Black Crowes transferred to Columbia after privately expressing their desire to disassociate themselves from American Recordings founder Rick Rubin . Despite working under a larger label , the band felt they had more freedom and support under Columbia ; Chris remarked , " At American , I never knew what a record company did . We never had an A & R guy . Now we have a product manager .... It 's like ... I didn 't know what the music business was . "
= = Writing and production = =
Pre @-@ production for By Your Side began in December 1997 with songs that later underwent substantial revision or were dropped altogether . Early versions of " HorseHead " and " It Must Be Over " were recorded at this point , and a reworked riff from " Every Little Bit " and some lyrics from " Tickle Tickle " were later incorporated into " Heavy " . Some of the songs ultimately dropped , such as " Baby " and " Bled to Death " , were later rewritten by Rich for his debut solo album , Paper ( 2004 ) . More songs were introduced in January 1998 , including " Red Wine Stains " , which eventually became " Go Faster " , and an early version of " Virtue and Vice " . Some unused sections from this batch were borrowed for Paper , as well , including the main riffs of what became " Tomorrow Is Here " and " Thrown It All Away " .
Producer Kevin Shirley was brought in on the advice of Aerosmith guitarist Joe Perry . As Rich explained , " We really wanted to work with someone who can come in and say , ' That 's not good . ' ... If Kevin says something I disagree with , he 'll be the first one to say , ' Hey , it 's your song , ' but it 's healthy for me and Chris to have him come in and be as excited about our songs as we are and say , ' Okay , that 's cool , but what if we tried this ? ' " At his first meeting with the band , Shirley described the songs played for him as having " the same old jammy , shuffle feel of the last two records . I stopped them then and I said to them ... ' You 've got to feel like you 're teenagers again . You need a song like that . ' " Shirley 's prompting led the band to write " Kickin ' My Heart Around " on the spot , before he had signed on to produce . Rich agreed that Shirley shifted the focus to making " a rock record " that was " focused and concise " .
The band hired Shirley and agreed to his recording conditions , which meant recording in New York City at Avatar Studios , taking weekends off and recording from 1 : 00 – 8 : 00 pm . Chris said of the rigid schedule , " We loved it .... We had lives other than just being in the studio 24 hours a day , seven days a week . Got a different vantage point on the whole thing . " Shirley 's laid @-@ back style also won praise from the band . " Kevin is the first guy that I 've worked with that just went with it — especially my singing . A lot of this album is just my scratch vocals . It 's very loose , and Kevin let it go .... He 'd say , if we didn 't get it in two or three takes , ' We 'll come back tomorrow ' " , said Chris . Of the album 's lyrical bent , Chris said , " ... there is a lot of love on it , and I 've never written love songs . I do think having a muse in my life like the woman I 'm with now helped .... I think there 's also a lot of humor on this album , which is something we haven 't touched on before , except maybe on Shake Your Money Maker , which was a lighter time and a lighter mood . " There was also a conscious effort to " simplify the language " , which was inspired by Chris 's listening to music by Otis Redding , George Jones and Muddy Waters . " I realized how direct and honest those records were – and I wanted that here " , said Chris .
For the first time on a Black Crowes album , Rich was the only guitarist involved in the recording . He said recording that way was not a challenge because he recorded most of the guitar parts on Three Snakes and One Charm , as well . Rich also noted that having only one guitarist gives the band " a different dynamic " because it affords Pipien and keyboardist Eddie Harsch " a lot of space " . Chris praised his brother 's performance , saying , " It sounds like there 's two guitarists , two distinct personalities . "
Fifteen songs were recorded in the second quarter of 1998 during the main recording session with Kevin Shirley . Some were updated versions of songs from pre @-@ production ; a few were totally new ; others combined newly written music with parts from older , shelved songs . The main riff of a Three Snakes and One Charm leftover called " Pastoral " , for example , was used for the B @-@ side " You Don 't Have to Go " , while its chorus riff was borrowed for " Then She Said My Name " . Four of the songs were holdovers from the Band sessions : " Only a Fool " and " If It Ever Stops Raining " were included on the album ( the latter with new chorus lyrics as " By Your Side " ) , while " Peace Anyway " and " Smile " were released as B @-@ sides . One cover song , Bob Dylan 's " When the Night Comes Falling from the Sky " , was recorded during the session and later released as a B @-@ side .
While touring in support of Sho ' Nuff , Chris and Rich finished writing " Diamond Ring " and " Go Tell the Congregation " . The two songs were recorded after the tour during a planned session for putting finishing touches on By Your Side , though the decision delayed the album 's release from November 17 to January 12 . Rich said , " It 's cool that Columbia Records is backing us on an artistic level and they 're being open to all the hassles that come with moving an album into the new year . I know we 're driving them insane with these last @-@ minute changes , but we know it 's all for the right reasons . " After finishing the album , Chris noted that it " has the same sort of energy " as Shake Your Money Maker , " ... but there is much more to it . There are a lot of subtleties in these songs . These are rock ' n ' roll songs with subversive pop hooks . "
= = Promotion and release = =
The Black Crowes began promoting By Your Side in September 1998 when they performed at the Hard Rock Cafe in New York City for an episode of the VH1 show Hard Rock Live ; the episode aired on December 12 . The first noticeable instance of promotion was Columbia 's release of " Kickin ' My Heart Around " as the album 's first single on November 2 , 1998 . The track spent ten weeks at its peak position of number 3 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart starting on November 28 ; it also charted in Canada and the UK . The band 's next promotional event was a performance and interview for a live album premiere radio broadcast on January 6 . On January 11 , the Crowes performed " Kickin ' My Heart Around " on the Late Show with David Letterman .
By Your Side was released on January 12 , 1999 . The album 's cover art is a blue @-@ tinted nighttime photograph of the band , all dressed in white and standing in front of a lake . The band name is rendered in tiny white lights above their heads , and other small white lights are scattered at their feet . In keeping with the tiny lights theme , the back of the booklet shows a satellite image of the United States at night , in which densely populated areas can be discerned by light pollution , and the booklet contains drawings of constellations . The album 's disc artwork is designed after a centaur with a crow 's head in place of the man 's head .
On the day the album was released , the band appeared at a Tower Records store in Manhattan to sign autographs and give away 1 @,@ 000 tickets to that night 's private show at Irving Plaza . By Your Side debuted at its peak position of number 26 on the Billboard 200 on January 30 . The album has sold 271 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of January 2002 . The next two weeks were filled with radio and television appearances in Canada , Belgium , France , Sweden , and Italy . The Black Crowes returned to the US to perform during pre @-@ game festivities at Joe Robbie Stadium before Super Bowl XXXIII on January 31 . While on tour in support of the album in February , the band performed the second single , " Only a Fool " , on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . The single was released in mid @-@ February and peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . The accompanying promotional video was directed by " Weird Al " Yankovic . After an early April stop at an Atlanta radio station where the band played a half @-@ hour acoustic set , The Black Crowes made a third late night television appearance at the end of that month , playing the album 's third single , " Go Faster " , on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . " Go Faster " peaked at number 24 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in July . Also in late April , Chris Robinson promoted By Your Side in an interview on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart .
= = Critical reception = =
By Your Side was generally well received by critics . Regarding the songwriting , most reviewers praised The Black Crowes for returning to the straightforwardness of Shake Your Money Maker ( 1990 ) following the more adventuresome Amorica ( 1994 ) and Three Snakes and One Charm . Gemma Tarlach of The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel welcomed the album " because it represents a great band 's return to what it does best " , calling it " 45 minutes of good , dirty fun " . Wall of Sound 's Russell Hall found that the band 's emergence from " the jam @-@ band haze that 's infected " their recent work resulted in a " laser @-@ sharp focus " . Mark Falkner of The Florida Times @-@ Union said that beyond the band 's mastery of their influences ' musical styles , what prevents them " from being just another tribute act is that they have ( also ) mastered the power , the passion and the fun that made the mix work " . Some critics , also noting the change in approach , derided the band for returning to mine the same influences perceived in their debut album . Jim Farber of the Daily News thus described By Your Side as " a copy @-@ of @-@ a @-@ copy @-@ of @-@ a @-@ copy " and marked " Go Faster " a sped @-@ up version of Humble Pie 's " Hot ' n ' Nasty " . The Times ' Nigel Williamson called " HorseHead " " Zeppelinesque " and labeled " By Your Side " " a kicking boogie half way between [ the Faces ' ] ' Cindy Incidentally ' and [ The Rolling Stones ' ] ' Tumbling Dice ' " . Steve Dougherty of People summed up by commenting , " Purists will wonder why to buy this album when [ The Rolling Stones ' ] 1972 Exile on Main Street or [ Rod ] Stewart 's 1970 Gasoline Alley exist on CD . "
On some tracks , the influence of soul music was perceived . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post wrote that " Only a Fool " " conjures ' 60s @-@ era Stax @-@ Volt passions while Robinson 's jubilant vocals evoke Redding 's rough @-@ edged insistence " and compared " Diamond Ring " to Al Green 's work . The Dirty Dozen Brass Band 's playing on " Welcome to the Goodtimes " was called " infectious " by Wayne Bledsoe of The Knoxville News @-@ Sentinel .
The musical performances and sound of the album were frequently hailed by critics . Lorraine Ali of Rolling Stone identified Rich Robinson 's guitar playing as " brilliant in spots , letting it rip with Southern @-@ rock abandon or lazy , drawling slide guitar " . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the band 's retention of the sonic detail from Amorica , and Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun appreciated the " soulful " backing vocals throughout . Echoing those sentiments was CMJ , which noted the " lazy slide @-@ guitar textures , harmonica moans and choirs of soulful singers " , but also stated " Chris Robinson 's gritty , cocksure vocals blaze the trail . " Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club called Robinson 's vocal performance on " HorseHead " " an inflection @-@ for @-@ inflection imitation of ... Billy Squier " ; elsewhere on the album Robinson 's voice was compared to that of Rod Stewart . Stewart himself called the album " brilliant " and said it " absolutely knocked [ him ] out " . Robinson 's lyrics were alternately praised and panned . The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan called " Go Faster " an amalgam of the band 's interests , " including drugs ... nubile wenchhood ... scrapes ... and touring " . The Washington Post 's Harrington , however , called Robinson " convincing when he sings [ in ' Virtue and Vice ' ] , ' I feel so alive today and that 's all I want to say / I hope it stays this way , ' adding , ' If not , I 'll be okay ' " .
= = Concert tours = =
The Black Crowes played a few shows in the eastern US in early January before the release of By Your Side , then spent the rest of the month promoting the album via television appearances in the US , Canada and Europe . A brief warm @-@ up show in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on February 10 preceded a two @-@ month tour of North American theaters , called the Souled Out Tour , with Moke as the opening band . Every song from By Your Side was played at some point on this tour – " Go Faster " , " Kickin ' My Heart Around " , " By Your Side " and " Virtue and Vice " were performed at most shows , but " Diamond Ring " was played only twice . A 1963 Fender Esquire guitar belonging to Rich was stolen from the backstage area at DeVos Performance Hall in Grand Rapids , Michigan , on February 16 . The band 's management waited six weeks before issuing a press release asking for its return , hoping the guitar would turn up in a local pawnshop . No update on the guitar was ever provided . After taking two weeks off , the band spent six weeks playing outdoor amphitheaters in the US on a co @-@ headlining tour with Lenny Kravitz ; opening acts were Everlast and Cree Summer .
Beginning in June , The Black Crowes toured Europe for six weeks , opening for Aerosmith in concert halls and at festivals . " Go Faster " and " Kickin ' My Heart Around " remained staples of the band 's 60- to 75 @-@ minute sets . Harsch required emergency surgery for a twisted intestine on June 24 and missed the band 's next eight shows . ( The crew continued to set up Harsch 's keyboards and placed a human @-@ sized inflatable green alien in his spot . ) One of the shows Harsch missed was a charity concert in London at which The Black Crowes played a 45 @-@ minute set of Led Zeppelin songs and blues covers with Jimmy Page . The band 's last show in support of By Your Side was a one @-@ off festival date in Niigata , Japan , on July 30 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Chris Robinson and Rich Robinson .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Død Kalm =
" Død Kalm " is the nineteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 10 , 1995 . The story was written by Howard Gordon , the teleplay was written by Gordon and Alex Gansa , and the episode was directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Død Kalm " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 7 , being watched by 10 @.@ 2 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully are called in when a boatload of survivors from a U.S. Navy destroyer escort are found . What particularly catches Agent Mulder 's attention is that all of these sailors appear to have aged many decades in the course of a few days . Mulder and Scully travel to Norway where they find a civilian fisherman who is willing to take them to the ship 's last known position .
" Død Kalm " was written to make use of the show 's access to a navy destroyer that had previously featured in " Colony " and " End Game . " The episode was originally intended as a way to give the production crew a rest after several demanding episodes had been shot , but the episode became one of the more difficult to film during the second season .
= = Plot = =
In the Norwegian Sea , chaos erupts on board the USS Ardent , an American destroyer escort . Due to mysterious yet unspecified events , half of the Ardent 's crew board lifeboats and abandon ship against the captain 's orders . Eighteen hours later , they are spotted by a Canadian fishing vessel ; however , in that short span of time , the young crew members have undergone rapid aging .
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) visit the ship 's sole surviving crew member , Lt. Harper , who has been quarantined at the Bethesda Naval Hospital . Scully finds that Harper , despite being in his twenties , has aged to the point of being unrecognizable . Mulder explains that the Ardent vanished at the 65th parallel , a location with a history of ship disappearances . Mulder believes that a " wrinkle in time " exists there , and that the Ardent was the subject of government experimentation related to the Philadelphia Experiment from World War II .
In Norway , Mulder and Scully get Henry Trondheim ( John Savage ) , a naval trawler captain , to take them to the Ardent 's last known location . After crashing into the bow of the Ardent , Mulder , Scully , and Trondheim find signs of advanced corrosion , even though the Ardent is only a few years old . Below decks , the party finds the mummified remains of several crew members . They also find the wizened commanding officer of the Ardent , Captain Barclay , who claims that " time got lost " after his ship encountered a " glowing light " in the ocean . Trondheim 's boat is stolen and his first mate is murdered .
Trondheim is later attacked by a Norwegian pirate whaler named Olafsson , who has not aged despite being on the ship for the past two days . Mulder , Scully , and Trondheim eventually begin to age unnaturally . Scully develops a theory that the Ardent is sailing near a metallic object beneath the ocean , and that it has caused free radicals to rapidly oxidize their bodies and age them . When Mulder notices that the ship 's sewage pipe is the only one not corroded through , the agents realize that something from the ocean contaminated the Ardent 's potable water and led to the aging ; Olafsson 's men remained unaffected due to their consumption of recycled water from the sewage system . Desperate to survive , Trondheim kills Olafsson after he reveals the secret , and sets out to keep the water for himself .
Scully learns from blood tests that the contaminated water causes rapid cellular damage and dramatically increases sodium chloride in the body . She tries to ration the drinkable water amongst the three , but discovers Trondheim attempting to hoard what little that remains . Trondheim locks Scully out of the sewage hold , forcing her to use minuscule supplies to keep Mulder alive . The corrosion eventually eats through the ship 's hull , flooding the hold and drowning Trondheim , who cannot unseal the hatch . The agents both lose consciousness shortly before Navy rescuers arrive at their former ship . Scully comes to at the hospital , where she is told that her written observations on the case helped naval doctors reverse their aging and save Mulder from near @-@ certain death . Scully says that she wants to return to the Ardent for more research , but the doctor tells her that the ship sank shortly after their rescue due to the flooding .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Series creator Chris Carter asked Howard Gordon to write " Død Kalm " because the X @-@ Files had been given access to a Canadian navy destroyer for the previous episodes " Colony " and " End Game . " The episode was originally intended as a way to give the production crew a rest after several " demanding " episodes had been shot . Before the script had been finished , Carter mentioned that he believed the episode would be a " great rest for everyone . "
In the book The Unofficial X @-@ Files Companion , N.E. Genge notes that aspects of the episode bear striking resemblances to the Philadelphia Experiment , the alleged naval military experiment . Indeed , the episode contains several mentions and allusions to the experiment .
= = = Filming = = =
HMCS Mackenzie , a decommissioned Canadian Forces destroyer , was used for interior and exterior shots as USS Ardent . The ship had previously been used to shoot interior scenes for the climax of the episode " End Game " . The ship was repainted in order to more closely resemble an abandoned ship , a technique Graeme Murray referred to as " paint @-@ aged . " Originally docked at New Westminster Quay , the ship was relocated to the more remote location of Barry Point to avoid night lights when filming exterior shots of the ship . The move cost the show approximately $ 10 @,@ 000 . Mackenzie , once the lead ship of its class , was stripped and scuttled shortly after filming ended and now serves as an artificial reef off the Georgia Strait .
In order to ease filming , the producers sought out a set that could portray both a bar and a hospital , a task initially dubbed " impossible . " However , Jericho Sailing Club in Vancouver later stood in for both the Norwegian bar and the hospital to which Mulder and Scully are taken . The cast and crew of " Død Kalm " reportedly found the dual @-@ set " amazing . " The location of the set was only a short distance away from where David Duchovny was living . The producers subsequently decided to try to find possible locations closer to where the main stars were living in order to ease future filming .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Død Kalm " premiered on the Fox network on March 10 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 16 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned into the episode . It was viewed by 10 @.@ 2 million households .
" Død Kalm " received mostly mixed to moderately positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly gave " Død Kalm " a B , noting that , " Despite clumsy makeup , isolation pays off again , and Mulder and Scully get to try a little tenderness . " Todd VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club , despite noting his original dislike for the episode , awarded it a B rating and wrote , " This episode works , almost in spite of itself . There are so many nice little moments here [ ... ] it 's a script that pauses from the constant horror the show had been serving up for several episodes in a row to just tell an unsettling , ultimately moving tale of two friends who look into the abyss and somehow don 't fall . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that , while the episode 's premise " brims over with atmosphere " , the ending of " Død Kalm " was extremely lacking . Shearman and Pearson argued " that if the writers can only devise a plot which paints them into a corner so awkward there 's no realistic way they can get out , then they shouldn 't write the story at all . " The two also criticized the episode 's make up . They noted that " Scully looks like a credible old lady , Mulder rather more like a man wearing several layers of latex . "
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= Reginald Tate =
Reginald Tate ( 13 December 1896 – 23 August 1955 ) was an English actor , veteran of many roles on stage , in films and on television . He is remembered best as the first actor to play the television science @-@ fiction character Professor Bernard Quatermass , in the 1953 BBC Television serial The Quatermass Experiment .
= = Early life = =
Reginald Tate was born in Garforth , near Leeds in the West Riding of Yorkshire , and went to school in York . During World War I he served with the Northamptonshire Regiment and later with the Royal Flying Corps . He left the armed forces after the end of the war and studied acting at Leeds College of Music and Drama . He made his first professional acting appearance at Leeds Art Theatre in 1922 , and for the next four years was a resident performer both there and at the city 's Little Theatre .
In 1926 , he moved to London , with his first major role being in a production of Romeo and Juliet at the Strand Theatre . He had particular success with the lead role of Stanhope in R. C. Sherriff 's play Journey 's End , playing the part in a 1929 tour of Australia and New Zealand and again for a 1934 revival production at the Criterion Theatre in London .
= = Film and television career = =
He made his film debut in 1934 in Whispering Tongues , and later in the decade also began to appear in the newer medium of television . On 11 November 1937 , Tate appeared as Stanhope again in a production of Journey 's End made by the BBC 's fledgling television service , one of its earliest major drama productions . His performance was praised by the television critic of The Times newspaper , who wrote that : " his performance [ was ] brilliantly full of fiery disillusionment . It successfully dominated the stage — no easy matter when Osborne is played as well as Mr. Basil Gill played him . "
At the beginning of the Second World War he joined the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve . He was given the rank of pilot officer , and by the time his service came to an end in 1944 he had been promoted to squadron leader . He also continued to act during the war , and performed small roles in the well @-@ known films The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp ( 1943 ) and The Way Ahead ( 1944 ) . He also had a top supporting role as the intelligence officer , Major Richards , in another classic British war movie , The Next of Kin ( 1942 ) .
After the end of the war he continued to perform for theatre and increasingly for television . He met the Austrian television director Rudolph Cartier when Cartier cast him in his BBC production of It Is Midnight , Dr Schweitzer in February 1953 . Cartier was impressed with Tate 's performance , and later that year offered him the lead role in The Quatermass Experiment , a science @-@ fiction serial he was directing , written by BBC staff scriptwriter Nigel Kneale . Tate was the second choice for the part of Professor Bernard Quatermass ; Cartier had previously offered it to his co @-@ star It Is Midnight , Dr Schweitzer , André Morell , who declined the role . Morell would later play Quatermass for the third instalment of the series , Quatermass and the Pit . Tate however was a success in the part , and in a 1986 interview Nigel Kneale named him as his favourite of all the actors to have played the character . The serial itself was also a success , with the British Film Institute later describing it as " one of the most influential series of the 1950s . " Tate took an increased interest in television , and later in 1953 enrolled on the BBC 's staff training course to become a television producer . He also began to spend much of his spare time teaching acting classes at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) , feeling that he had experience which might be useful to younger actors .
= = Death = =
When the BBC commissioned a second Quatermass serial in 1955 , Tate was eager to participate and play the Professor again . Production was due to begin in September , and on 7 August 1955 he produced his first television play , Night Was Our Friend . Only sixteen days after this , late at night on 23 August , he collapsed outside his home in London . He had suffered a heart attack , and despite being rushed to hospital in Putney he died soon afterwards .
= = Selected filmography = =
Whispering Tongues ( 1935 )
The Riverside Murder ( 1935 )
The Phantom Light ( 1935 )
The Man Behind the Mask ( 1936 )
For Valour ( 1937 )
Poison Pen ( 1939 )
Too Dangerous to Live ( 1939 )
The Next of Kin ( 1942 )
Madonna of the Seven Moons ( 1945 )
The Man from Morocco ( 1945 )
Uncle Silas ( 1947 )
Escape Route ( 1952 )
Secret People ( 1952 )
Malta Story ( 1953 )
King 's Rhapsody ( 1955 )
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= HMS Good Hope ( 1901 ) =
HMS Good Hope was one of four Drake @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy around 1900 ; she was originally named Africa , but was renamed before she was launched . She became flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet in 1906 , and was the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron in 1908 . She was reduced to reserve in 1913 , but was recommissioned in mid @-@ 1914 .
When war was declared in August 1914 , Good Hope was ordered to reinforce the 4th Cruiser Squadron and became the flagship of Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock . Cradock moved the available ships of his squadron later that month to the coast of South America to search for German commerce raiders . He was then ordered further south to the Strait of Magellan to block any attempt of the German East Asia Squadron to penetrate into the South Atlantic . He found the German squadron on 1 November off the coast of Chile . The German squadron outnumbered Cradock 's force and were individually more powerful ; they sank Cradock 's two armoured cruisers in the Battle of Coronel . Good Hope was lost with all hands .
= = Design and description = =
Good Hope was designed to displace 14 @,@ 150 long tons ( 14 @,@ 380 t ) . The ship had an overall length of 553 feet 6 inches ( 168 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 71 feet 4 inches ( 21 @.@ 7 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 30 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 43 Belleville boilers . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 500 t ) of coal and her complement consisted of 900 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of two breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mk X guns in single gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 380 @-@ pound ( 170 kg ) shells to a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) . Her secondary armament of sixteen BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns was arranged in casemates amidships . Eight of these were mounted on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . They had a maximum range of approximately 12 @,@ 200 yards ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 @.@ 4 kg ) shells . A dozen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats . Two additional 12 @-@ pounder 8 cwt guns could be dismounted for service ashore . Good Hope also carried three 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and two submerged 17 @.@ 72 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes .
The ship 's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 6 inches ( 152 mm ) and was closed off by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 6 inches thick while the casemate armour was 5 inches thick . The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from 1 – 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 – 64 mm ) and the conning tower was protected by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of armour .
= = Service = =
Good Hope , named after the British colony on the Cape of Good Hope , was laid down on 11 September 1899 with the name of Africa by Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering at their Govan shipyard . She was renamed Good Hope on 2 October and launched on 21 February 1901 . She arrived in Portsmouth to be completed and armed in late December 1901 . In 1906 she became the flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , Atlantic Fleet and was the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron when she visited South Africa two years later . Good Hope was placed in reserve in 1913 .
Upon recommissioning in mid @-@ 1914 , she was briefly assigned to the 6th Cruiser Squadron in August before being assigned to the 4th Cruiser Squadron to reinforce Cradock 's forces . He transferred his flag to her because she was faster than his previous flagship . Cradock 's command was transferred to the coast of South America later that month at his own suggestion to better hunt for the German ships preying upon British merchant ships . His ships were generally unsuccessful in this and he moved his squadron further south in late September to search for the East Asia Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee , in the vicinity of Cape Horn and the Strait of Magellan in accordance to his orders from the Admiralty .
At the end of September , Cradock made his first fruitless search of the Tierra del Fuego area and later detached three of his ships to search up the Chilean coast , reaching Valparaiso on 15 October , while Good Hope returned to Port Stanley , in the Falkland Islands , to recoal and to reestablish communications with the Admiralty . He received word on 7 October that Spee 's ships were definitely bound for the Cape Horn region and waited for the elderly predreadnought battleship Canopus to reinforce his squadron . She was in poor mechanical condition when she arrived at Port Stanley and required time to make repairs . Good Hope sailed on 22 October without her , going around Cape Horn , while Canopus and three colliers departed the following day , taking the shorter route through the Strait of Magellan .
= = = Battle of Coronel = = =
Good Hope rendezvoused with the rest of the squadron at Vallenar Roads in the remote Chonos Archipelago of Chile on 27 October to recoal . They departed two days later , just as Canopus arrived , Cradock ordering the battleship to follow as soon as possible . He sent the light cruiser Glasgow to scout ahead and to enter Coronel , Chile to pick up any messages from the Admiralty and acquire intelligence regarding German activities . The cruiser began to pick up German radio signals from the light cruiser SMS Leipzig on the afternoon of 29 October , and delayed entering Coronel for two days with Cradock 's permission to avoid being trapped by the fast German ships . A German supply ship was already there and radioed Spee that Glasgow had entered the harbour around twilight . The cruiser departed on the morning of 1 November , but Spee had already made plans to catch her when informed of her presence the previous evening .
Glasgow departed Coronel at 09 : 15 after having picked up the squadron 's mail and rendezvoused with the rest of the squadron four hours later . Cradock ordered his ships to form line abreast with an interval of 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) between ships to maximise visibility at 13 : 50 , and steered north at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At 16 : 17 Leipzig spotted Glasgow , the easternmost British ship , to its west and she spotted Leipzig 's funnel smoke three minutes later . At 17 : 10 Cradock ordered his ships to head for Glasgow , the closest ship to the Germans . Once gathered together , he formed them into line astern , with Good Hope in the lead , steering southeasterly at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 18 : 18 . As the sixteen 21 @-@ centimetre ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns aboard the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were only matched by the two 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns on his flagship , he needed to close the range to bring his more numerous 6 @-@ inch guns to bear . The Force 7 winds and high seas , however , prevented the use of half of those guns as they were too close to the water . He also wanted to use the setting sun to his advantage so that its light would blind the German gunners . Spee was well aware of the British advantages and refused to allow Cradock to close the range . His ships were faster than the British , slowed by the 16 @-@ knot maximum speed of the armed merchant cruiser Otranto , and he opened up the range to 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) until conditions changed to suit him . The sun set at 18 : 50 , which silhouetted the British ships against the light sky while the German ships became indistinguishable from the shoreline behind them .
Spee immediately turned to close and signalled his ships to open fire at 19 : 04 when the range closed to 12 @,@ 300 yards ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) . Spee 's flagship , Scharnhorst , engaged Good Hope while Gneisenau fired at Monmouth . Cradock 's flagship was hit on the Scharnhorst 's third salvo , when shells knocked out her forward 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turret and set her forecastle on fire . Cradock , knowing his only chance was to close the range , continued to do so despite the battering that Spee 's ships inflicted . By 19 : 23 the range was almost half of that when the battle began and the British ships bore onwards . Spee tried to open the range , fearing a torpedo attack , but the British were only 5 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 000 m ) away at 19 : 35 . Seven minutes later , Good Hope charged directly at the German ships , although they dodged out of her way . Spee ordered his armoured cruisers to concentrate their fire on the British flagship and she soon drifted to a halt with her topsides all aflame . At 19 : 50 her forward magazine exploded , severing the bow from the rest of the ship , and she later sank in the darkness . Spee estimated that his flagship had made 35 hits on Good Hope , suffering only two hits in return that did no significant damage and failed even to wound one crewman . Good Hope was sunk with all hands , a total of 919 officers and enlisted men . Four of the midshipmen aboard the ship were the first casualties of the newly formed Royal Canadian Navy .
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= Belitung shipwreck =
The Belitung shipwreck ( also called the Tang shipwreck or Batu Hitam shipwreck ) is the wreck of an Arabian dhow which sailed a route from Africa to China around 830 AD . The ship completed the outward journey , but sank on the return journey , approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) off the coast of Belitung Island , Indonesia . It is unclear why the ship was so far from its expected route back from China . Belitung is to the south @-@ east of the Singapore Strait by 380 miles ( 610 km ) , and this secondary route is more normal for ships travelling from the Java Sea , which is south of Belitung Island .
The wreck has given archaeologists two major discoveries : the biggest single collection of Tang dynasty artefacts found in one location , the so @-@ called " Tang Treasure " ; and the Arabian dhow , which gives a new insight into the trade routes between China and the Middle East during that period . The treasure has been kept as one collection and , during the excavation , the efforts to preserve the integrity of the site and its cargo have resulted in detailed archaeological evidence . This evidence has given new insight into the construction methods used in shipbuilding , and the items and style of artefacts has revealed previously unknown facts about the trade between the two areas .
= = Discovery and route = =
= = = Discovery = = =
The wreck was discovered by fishermen in 1998 in the Gelasa Strait in 51 feet ( 16 m ) of water . The site location was purchased from local fishermen and a license to engage in excavation was awarded to a local Indonesian company . The dig was subsequently financed and excavated by Tilman Walterfang and his team at Seabed Explorations , under a license of co @-@ operation with the original salvage company , and after a request from the Indonesian Government ; security was provided by the Indonesian Navy . The excavations spanned two expeditions , one which commenced in August 1998 and the second in 1999 . Seabed Explorations provided vessels and financed government naval operations to safeguard the wreck site before and during the monsoon season .
= = = Route = = =
It is unclear why the ship was so far from its expected route ( shown in red on the map to the right ) , as most ships leaving China for Arabia would have sailed through the South China Sea . They would then turn north @-@ west after passing southern Vietnam , continuing through the Singapore Strait into the Straits of Malacca between Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra . Belitung is some distance from this route , and it is unclear how the vessel came to be in this area . Belitung is to the south @-@ east of the Singapore Strait by 380 miles ( 610 km ) , and this secondary route is more normal for ships travelling from the Java Sea , which is south of Belitung Island , to the Strait of Malacca 380 miles ( 610 km ) north of the Island .
= = Ship and construction = =
The shipwrecked dhow was approximately 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 58 feet ( 18 m ) long and is remarkable for two reasons ; it is the first ancient Arabian ship to be found and excavated , and its planks were sewn together using a thin rope made of coconut fibres rather than using the more traditional methods of pegs or nails used in Arabia in later centuries .
The wreck timbers were found under a sediment that preserved the remains of the wooden vessel , without which the wreck would have been lost due to marine worms . Wrecks of this age are rare finds and this particular one was in such a good condition that much of the hull was preserved . This has given us an insight into how ships of this period were constructed — something which has not been seen before as no Arabian ship of this type had previously been found , nor any with their cargo intact .
Pieces of the original timbers were preserved enough to allow scientists to analyse them and determine some of the types of wood used . It is possible that the ship was constructed in western Asia and bought by Arabian merchants to be used for the Oman to China route ; the cargo contains many Arabian @-@ inspired artefacts .
= = = Construction techniques = = =
The ship was constructed around a 50 @.@ 2 feet ( 15 @.@ 3 m ) long keel of 14 – 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) thickness , which is believed to have survived intact . The front of the ship had a 61 ° angle of rake at the bow where the stem post was joined to the keel with mortise and tenon joints and secured with 16 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) diameter rope . The hull planks were stitched onto the frames and keel through holes spaced at 5 – 6 @-@ centimetre ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) intervals . The boat had a keelson for added strength , which rested on the half @-@ frames .
Michael Flecker , the chief excavating archaeologist at the site , compared the wrecked ship to three types of the same period and concluded that the wreck most resembled " lashed @-@ lug " ships of south @-@ east Asia — first used in the 5th century . He said that fully stitched boats were found from the African coast , Oman , in the Red Sea , on the Indian coast , and as far as the Maldives . He notes that Roman references by Procopius in the 6th century tell of boats with planks stitched together in a similar fashion used in " Indian Seas " . Though Arabian ships of this type have not been found before , they are mentioned in text including the late @-@ Tang Ling biao lu yi ( " Strange Things Noted in the South " ) . According to John Guy , curator of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , the book " describes the ships of foreign merchants as being stitched together with the fiber of coir @-@ palms and having their seams caulked rather than using iron nails to secure their planks " .
= = = Wood types = = =
Samples of wood from the shipwreck were sent for analysis at the Forest and Forest Products division of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) in Australia . The analysis was conducted by Jugo Ilic of CSIRO , a wood identification specialist . Many of the samples were too badly deteriorated to be positively identified , as the lack of cellulose remaining in the wood cells prevented successful analysis .
There are many types of wood that have been positively identified : teak ( Tectona grandis ) was used for the through @-@ beams and is resilient to the teredo worm ( the Teredinidae family ) , the ceiling was made from a Cupressus genus which was possibly Cupressus torulosa , the stem @-@ post is made of rosewood from the Leguminosae family ( now called the Fabaceae ) and either the Dalbergia or Pterocarpus genus . The wooden box found in the stern area of the shipwreck was made from an Artocarpus genus of the family Moraceae , more commonly known as the Mulberry family .
The species used for the hull planks was not positively identified but is thought to be Amoora of the Meliaceae family . The timber for the frames was similarly not definitively determined , although one frame was probably of Amoora or of the Afzelia genus of the Fabaceae family . Afzelia is interesting in that the three main species A. africana , A. bipindensis and A. pachyloba are mostly found in a small part of Africa , stretching from the mid @-@ western coast in a thin band towards the east coast and stopping short of it by a couple of hundred miles .
The ship could originally have been said to be of Arabian or Indian origin , as there is little to differentiate between ships of the area during that period , in regard to construction techniques — though its frame uses a species of tree that is only found in a small part of Africa . After analysing the hull form , timber species , and construction methods , Ilic concluded that the wreck was of Indian or Arabian origin . India was considered the more probable place of construction but Arabian construction was not ruled out , as the timber used was commonly imported to the Middle East for use in shipbuilding . Flecker concluded that the wreck was an Arabian ship in his 2010 chapter from the Sackler exhibition catalogue , arguing that " from an analysis of construction methods and materials and hull form , the author has determined that the Belitung wreck is an Arab vessel . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Present @-@ day knowledge of the original materials and methods used in construction of this particular Arab dhow stems largely from the shipwreck itself . The Jewel of Muscat reconstruction , a replica made as an exact copy of the wreck , has shown that the ship resembles a baitl qarib , a type of ship still found in Oman today . Amongst the hull of the shipwreck were large lumps of concretion containing artefacts from the ship 's cargo dated to the Tang dynasty of China around 800 AD , and from where the wreck gets its other names , the " Tang shipwreck " or " Tang treasure ship " .
The ship 's timbers and artefacts were shown to the public for the first time in 2011 . The world debut exhibition of the collection of artefacts , as well as timbers from the ship , took place in the ArtScience Museum , adjacent to Singapore 's Marina Bay Sands . The significance of the discovery of the shipwreck led to the decision to construct the Jewel of Muscat as an exact reconstruction of the shipwrecked dhow .
= = Cargo and " Tang treasure " = =
The wreck held three main types of " wares " in the form of bowls : Changsha ware , the majority of the 60 @,@ 000 items , were originally packed in either straw cylinders or " Dusun " storage jars ; White @-@ ware , manufactured in the Ding kilns and including the earliest known intact underglaze blue and white dishes ; and Yue ware from Zhejiang Province . One Changsha bowl was inscribed with a date : " 16th day of the seventh month of the second year of the Baoli reign " , or 826 AD . This was later confirmed by radiocarbon dating of star anise found amongst the wreck . The cargo had a surprising variety of influences and markets , including Buddhist lotus symbols , motifs from Central Asia and Persia , Koranic inscriptions , and green @-@ splashed bowls popular in Iran .
Included in the cargo were items of varying purposes , from spice jars and ewers to inkwells , funeral urns and gilt @-@ silver boxes . The cargo was described by John Guy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York as " the richest and largest consignment of early ninth @-@ century southern Chinese gold and ceramics ever discovered in a single hoard . " The cargo also included spices and resin , and metal ingots used as ballast . There were also special items found which include a gold cup — the largest Tang dynasty gold cup ever found — and a large silver flask decorated with a pair of ducks . The gold cup has pictures of people in various actions on its sides , such as musicians and a Persian dancer . It also has images of two men on its thumb plate with features that appear to be non @-@ Chinese , as they are depicted with curly hair .
= = = Current disposition = = =
Tilman Walterfang 's company formed a contract of cooperation with the original Indonesian salvage company and as a result the cargo was not sold off piece by piece to collectors . Although there were instances of some looting from the site , particularly between the two excavation periods , Walterfang kept the cargo intact as one complete collection so that it could be studied in its original context ; something which has given an " unparalleled insight into China 's industrial capacity and global trade " according to Julian Raby , director of the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery . It was housed in a private conservation facility for six years , where the artefacts were painstakingly conserved ( including desalination ) , studied , and carefully restored by Walterfang 's company , Seabed Explorations Ltd. of New Zealand . The work was carried out with the assistance of German conservator Andreas Rettel , who trained at the Römisch @-@ Germanisches Zentralmuseum in Mainz . The artefacts were authenticated by Professor Geng Baochang , a senior research fellow at the Palace Museum in Beijing . Baochang is the deputy director of Beijing 's Forbidden City and one of China 's foremost experts on antique ceramics .
The cargo was purchased for around 32 million USD by a private company , the Sentosa Leisure Group ( now the Sentosa Development Corporation ) , and the Singaporean government in 2005 , and loaned to the Singapore Tourism Board .
The debut exhibit of the treasure ran from 19 February 2011 to 31 July 2011 at the ArtScience Museum in Singapore . The display was put on with the collaboration of the Smithsonian Institution , The Freer Gallery of Art , the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery , the Singapore Tourism Board , and the National Heritage Board of Singapore . The exhibition was then scheduled to travel the world for approximately five years , to venues which include museums of major importance throughout Asia , Australia , Europe , the Middle East , and the United States . But later on September 2011 , it was announced by the Singapore Tourism Board that the artifacts will go on permanent display at the Maritime Experiential Museum & Aquarium .
= = Controversy = =
The Sackler Gallery , part of the Smithsonian Institution , was due to host the US premiere exhibition of the Belitung cargo in early 2012 — a date set to coincide with the Smithsonian museum 's 25th anniversary celebration . On 28 June 2011 it was reported that the museum was postponing the show . The Sackler Gallery has received condemnation of the exhibition due to the time @-@ frame and nature of the original excavation of the artefacts ; with arguments put forwards about whether the display should be allowed . According to The New York Times , " a group of archaeologists and anthropologists from the National Academy of Sciences — including Robert McCormick Adams , a former leader of the Smithsonian " wrote to the head of the Smithsonian Institution , G. Wayne Clough , on 5 April 2011 claiming that " proceeding with the exhibition would ' severely damage the stature and reputation ' of the institution . " Proponents of the arguments against display say that the excavation was for commercial gain and conducted so quickly as to have caused a loss of information pertaining to the crew and cargo . The New York Times article goes on to say that further comments were made by " the Society for American Archaeology , the Council of American Maritime Museums and the International Committee for Underwater Cultural Heritage , as well as groups within the Smithsonian , including the members of the anthropology department and the Senate of Scientists at its National Museum of Natural History " all asking that the Smithsonian reconsider the exhibition . There are also claims that exhibiting the artefacts would be against international agreements on underwater excavations . Kimberly L. Faulk , a marine archaeologist and vice chairwoman of the non @-@ governmental Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology said that , " by proceeding with the exhibition the Smithsonian — which is a research institution as well as a network of museums — would be violating its own set of professional ethics and promoting the looting of archaeological sites . "
Proponents of the arguments to display the works claim that the excavation was indeed legal as the work was carried out in accordance with Indonesian law , at the request of the Indonesian government , and in accordance with international laws at the time . James P. Delgado , director of maritime heritage at the United States Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , said that " allowing any of the finds from an excavation to be sold betrays the most basic aspects of research " with the New York Times going on to report that , " he [ Delgado ] wished the Belitung shipwreck had been academically excavated . But unlike some of his colleagues , he said that instead of canceling the exhibition , the Smithsonian could use it to educate the public about the consequences of the commercialization of underwater heritage . "
Walterfang has stated that " the overall situation would without doubt be described as ' less than ideal ' " and that " the Indonesian government , fearful of looting , ordered Seabed Explorations to begin an immediate round @-@ the @-@ clock recovery operation . "
Some academics have expressed more definitive support for Tilman Walterfang ’ s excavation and treatment of the Belitung vessel and cargo .
Lu Caixa , a researcher at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore , states in the newsletter of the International Institute for Asian Studies , Leiden , Netherland , that “ the excavation of the Belitung has been acknowledged as an admirable example of what can be achieved under difficult conditions in Southeast Asia . ” She points out that unlike some other commercial operators , Walterfang ’ s company ensured that “ the ship structure itself was properly recorded , the cargo was kept together rather than dispersed , and the finds were well conserved , studied , catalogued , and published . " Caixa ends by highlighting the efficacy of the public @-@ private arrangement : “ It is difficult to imagine how this particular project could have been financed or organized without commercial involvement . ”
Prof. Victor H. Mair , Professor of Chinese Language and Literature in the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at the University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia , United States defends the Smithsonian exhibition , claiming that the “ educational and historical value of the collection is simply enormous , and those who have called for the cancellation of the exhibition are , in effect and in fact , denying access to the wealth of information embodied in the Belitung shipwreck , both to the lay public and to qualified researchers . "
Dr. Sean Kingsley , Director of Wreck Watch International reminds that " Wrecks like these should be ‘ feel good ’ factors at times when the world has very serious and painful natural , economic and civil disasters to contend with " and " it hardly needs stating that no European and American museum collection is whiter than white . "
In an interview with the Science Journal G. Wayne Clough , the 12th secretary of the Smithsonian Institution assuaged the animosities between critics and proponents of the exhibition : “ So I don 't think there 's anything negative here . I think the Smithsonian tried to do it right . When we heard the concerns , we asked the community to come together and talk about it , and we listened , and some people in that audience had their minds changed , as a matter of fact , but not everybody . So , I think it 's time in a situation like this to pause , and for the profession itself to say , " Okay , there 's a problem , what are you going to do about it ? And , you remember , the United States never signed the UNESCO treaty . ”
= = = Conventions by international organisations = = =
The Underwater Archaeology Resolutions that were adopted on 10 September 1993 by the International Congress of Maritime Museums ( ICMM ) state that :
ICMM member museums should follow the Council of American Maritime Museums ( CAMM ) policy and ' ... not knowingly acquire or exhibit artifacts which have been stolen , illegally exported from their country of origin , illegally salvaged , or removed from commercially exploited archaeological or historic sites ' in recent times ( ie. since the 1990 full Congress of ICMM ) . "
They also say that , " ICMM members should recognize that artefacts from underwater sites are integral parts of archaeological assemblages , which should remain intact for research and display " and that , " a commercially exploited heritage site is one in which the primary motive for investigation is private financial gain . " The United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) ratified a set of rules for preserving and excavating underwater sites at the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage during 15 October — 5 November 2001 . Though the rules set out at the meeting do include preserving artefacts in situ as the preferable option they go on to say :
The commercial exploitation of underwater cultural heritage for trade or speculation or its irretrievable dispersal is fundamentally incompatible with the protection and proper management of underwater cultural heritage . Underwater cultural heritage shall not be traded , sold , bought or bartered as commercial goods . This Rule cannot be interpreted as preventing : ( a ) the provision of professional archaeological services or necessary services incidental thereto whose nature and purpose are in full conformity with this Convention and are subject to the authorization of the competent authorities ;
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= Lucas Bros. Moving Co . =
Lucas Bros. Moving Co. is an American animated television series created by Kenny and Keith Lucas . It originally premiered on Fox on November 23 , 2013 , as part of Animation Domination High @-@ Def , but was renewed for two additional seasons on FXX .
The series features the twins as work @-@ shy animated counterparts of themselves , running a moving company out of their van . The series is roughly based on the creators ' experiences as cable television installers .
= = Plot = =
The series revolves around identical twins Kenny and Keith Lucas ( voiced by Kenny and Keith Lucas , respectively ) , who run a moving company called " Lucas Bros Moving Co " in Greenpoint , Brooklyn , out of their van after receiving it from their dead uncle . The two are shown to frequently consume marijuana , emitting a calm demeanor throughout the various escapades caused at their job . Scrawny and indolent , their customers are often apprehensive towards their weaknesses , but the brothers like to remind themselves " that 's why God made two of them . "
= = Production = =
Lucas Bros. Moving Co. is an animated television series created by twins Kenny and Keith Lucas of " The Lucas Brothers " , a Brooklyn @-@ based comedy duo . The series , featuring the voices of the twins as their animated counterparts , originally had them working as installers for a cable company , a job which the Lucas brothers occupied in real life . This idea was scrapped according to Keith , who felt the premise too close to that of the The Cleveland Show , another animated series aired by Fox . Kenny insisted that " moving was just more Brooklyn " , a sentiment which Keith echoed , thinking that " it would be funny if we were movers because we 've never moved a thing in our lives and we 're so fucking weak and we hate physical labor " . Keith complemented the nature of the premise , finding it to be flexible with any character or setting .
Commenting on the writing process , Keith called it " awesome " , citing crew members Nick Weidenfeld , Dave Jeser , and Matt Silverstein as giving them guidance . Kenny urged to " trust the process and not get ahead of yourself " , while Keith recommended being patient with breaking scenes down part by part ; he also called it similar to their stand @-@ up routines , although the structure of the show made for more comfort .
Commenting on their inspirations , the brothers recognized themselves as animation fans , with Keith mentioning Clone High as one of their favorite series , along with King of the Hill and The Life & Times of Tim . Summing Lucas Bros. as an equation , the two called it " Bill & Ted plus Workaholics plus The Wire ( minus the bleakness ) . " In the United States , the series is rated TV @-@ 14 . Some jokes have been rejected by the network for content , with the brothers naming a parody of Clay Davis 's character from The Wire 's elongated pronunciation of the word " shit " as an example of this .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The series premiered on November 23 , 2013 , on Fox , preceding the premiere of Golan the Insatiable ; both series were broadcast as part of the network 's late @-@ night animation block , Animation Domination High @-@ Def . The duo stated around the time of the premiere that the series was picked up for six additional episodes . Fox announced in April 2014 that the Animation Domination High @-@ Def block would cease broadcast on June 28 , 2014 , though its programs will continue on digital platforms . In June 2014 , the brothers announced a second and third season , following their film debut in 22 Jump Street . These seasons , bringing the total amount of episodes to 18 , will air on FXX , starting on October 26 , 2014 with a sneak peek of the second season premiere .
Rotten Tomatoes identified the first season as having one " fresh " review by Mike Hale of The New York Times . In his review , Hale found the differences between the protagonists and the creators more significant than their similarities . He acknowledged the duo as having " an industriousness completely alien to their fictional counterparts , " while calling the protagonists ' disinclined nature as perhaps either a " sly " joke about " the travails of young black men trying to earn an honest buck " or the characters ' consumption of marijuana . Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media cited the latter point as a probable source of concern among parents having their children watch the series . While she regarded the emptiness of the protagonists ' adventures as " surprisingly amusing " in a similar vein to Seinfeld , Ashby ultimately called it " mindless entertainment " , stating " there are no subtle themes nor any clever satire to be had here . "
Writing for Media Life Magazine , Tom Conroy felt the stoner comedy played to the series ' strengths — a rarity , he felt , among comedians relying on such humor while under the influence themselves . While he dubbed the twins ' humor " as lazy and aimless " as their animated counterparts at times , he concluded that " its genial vibe makes it a pleasant way to burn off a quarter hour . " Reviewing both the series and Golan the Insatiable , Erik Adams of The A.V. Club felt the " horizons " of Lucas Bros. were broader than that of Golan , given that its " slacker vibe so readily goes with the surreal flow . " Adams stated the show resembled Adventure Time if the aforementioned series ' creative staff were allowed to joke about marijuana , but concluded that the series ' humor invoked no more than " a moony grin " .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Sesame Street research =
In 1969 , the children 's television show Sesame Street premiered on the Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) in the United States . Unlike earlier children 's programming , the show 's producers used research and over 1 @,@ 000 studies and experiments to create the show and test its impact on its young viewers ' learning . By the end of the program 's first season , the organization founded to oversee Sesame Street production , Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , had developed what came to be called " the CTW model " : a system of planning , production , and evaluation that combined the expertise of researchers and early childhood educators with that of the program 's writers , producers , and directors .
CTW conducted research in two ways : in @-@ house formative research that informed and improved production , and independent summative evaluations conducted by the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) during the show 's first two seasons to measure the program 's educational effectiveness . CTW researchers invented tools to measure young viewers ' attention to the program . Based on these findings , the researchers compiled a body of data and the producers changed the show accordingly . The formative research on Sesame Street was the first time children 's television viewing was studied scientifically .
Summative research conducted over the years , including two landmark evaluations in 1970 and 1971 , demonstrated that viewing the program had positive effects on young viewers ' learning , school readiness , and social skills . Subsequent studies have replicated these findings , such as the effect of the show in countries outside of the US , several longitudinal studies , the effects of war and natural disasters on young children , and studies about how the show affected viewers ' cognition . As CTW researcher Gerald S. Lesser stated in 1974 , early tests conducted on the show ( both formative and summative ) " suggested that Sesame Street was making strides towards teaching what it had set out to teach " .
= = Background and development = =
According to author Louise A. Gikow , Sesame Street 's use of research to create individual episodes and to test its effect on its young viewers set it apart from other children 's programming . Co @-@ creator Joan Ganz Cooney called the idea of combining research with television production " positively heretical " because it had never been done before . Before Sesame Street , most children 's television shows were locally produced , with hosts who , according to researchers Edward L. Palmer and Shalom M. Fisch , " represented the scope and vision of a single individual " and were often condescending to their audience . Scriptwriters of these shows had no training in education or child development .
The Carnegie Corporation , one of Sesame Street 's first financial backers , hired Cooney , a producer of educational talk shows and documentaries with little experience in education , during the summer of 1967 to visit experts in childhood development , education , and media across the US and Canada . She researched their ideas about the viewing habits of young children , and wrote a report on her findings entitled " Television for Preschool Education " , which described out how television could be used as an aid in the education of preschoolers , especially those living in inner cities . Cooney 's study became the basis for Sesame Street ; full funding was procured for its development and production and the creation of the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , the organization responsible for producing the new show . According to Gikow , the show 's financial backers , which consisted of the US federal government , the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and the Ford Foundation , insisted on " testing at critical stages to evaluate its ultimate success " .
During the summer of 1968 , Gerald S. Lesser , CTW 's first advisory @-@ board chairman , conducted five three @-@ day curriculum @-@ planning seminars in Boston and New York City to select a curriculum for the new program . Seminar participants were television producers and child development experts . It was the first time a children 's television show used a curriculum , which Palmer , who was responsible for conducting the show 's formative research , and Fisch described as " detailed or stated in terms of measurable outcomes " . The program 's creative staff was concerned that this goal would limit creativity , but one of the seminar results was to encourage the show 's producers to use child @-@ development concepts in the creative process . Some Muppet characters were created during the seminars to fill specific curriculum needs . For example , Oscar the Grouch was designed to teach children about their positive and negative emotions , and Big Bird was created to provide children with opportunities to correct his " bumbling " mistakes . Lesser reported that Jim Henson had a " particular gift for creating scenes that might teach " .
The show 's research staff and producers conducted regularly @-@ scheduled internal reviews and seminars to ensure that their curriculum goals were being met and to guide future production . As of 2001 , ten seminars had been conducted specifically to address the literacy needs of preschool children . Curriculum seminars prior to Sesame Street 's 33rd season in 2002 resulted in a change from the show 's magazine @-@ like format to a more narrative format . There have been over 1 @,@ 000 studies as of 2001 which examine the show 's impact on children 's learning and attention . Most of these studies were conducted by the CTW and remain unpublished . The most important studies that found negative effects of Sesame Street were conducted by educator Herbert A. Sprigle and psychologist Thomas D. Cook during its first two seasons . Both studies found that the show increased the educational gap between poor and middle @-@ class children . Morrow reported that these studies had little impact on the public discussion about Sesame Street . Another criticism was made by journalist Kay Hymowitz in 1995 , who reported that most of the positive research conducted on the show has been done by the CTW , and then sent to a sympathetic press . She charged that the studies conducted by the CTW " hint at advocacy masquerading as social science " .
= = The " CTW model " = =
Shortly after beginning Sesame Street , its creators developed the " CTW model " : a system of planning , production , and evaluation which only emerged after the show 's first season . The CTW model involved the interaction between television producers and educators , the development of a curriculum for three- to five @-@ year @-@ old children , formative research to shape the program , and independent summative research into what viewers learned . According to Cooney , " Without research , there would be no Sesame Street . "
Cooney credited Palmer and his colleague at Harvard , Gerald S. Lesser , whom CTW hired to write the program 's educational objectives , for bridging the gap between producers and researchers . Cooney observed of the CTW model : " From the beginning , we — the planners of the project — designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers , researchers , and television producers collaborating as equal partners " . She described the collaboration as an " arranged marriage " .
The show 's staff worked to create a non @-@ adversarial relationship between producers and researchers ; each side contributed , as Fisch stated , " its own unique perspective and expertise " . Early in the planning process , production staff recognized that it was valuable to have access to researchers who could analyze children 's reactions and help them improve production , and the show 's writers and producers brought their instincts for and experience in children 's television . Though initially skeptical about both the collaboration and the curriculum , the writers eventually came to see both as integral parts of the creative process .
When educational experts and producers in other countries approached CTW for assistance in producing their own versions of Sesame Street , which became known as " co @-@ productions " , a variant of the CTW model was used . The need for preschool education in each country was assessed through research and interviews with television producers , researchers , and educational experts , similar to the process followed in the US . The producers then convened a series of meetings with the experts , held in the individual countries , to create and develop a curriculum , the program 's educational goals , its set , and its characters . They held meetings , at the CTW offices in New York City and in the respective country , to train the co @-@ production team in the CTW model . Each co @-@ production conducted formative studies before production and if possible , summative studies to test the efficacy of its curriculum .
= = Formative research = =
= = = Methods = = =
Palmer and his team used concepts from the field of formative research , which consisted of in @-@ house , laboratory @-@ oriented research , to guide production and to determine whether the show held children 's attention . Palmer , described by Cooney as " a founder of CTW and founder of its research function " , was one of the few late @-@ 1960s academics studying children 's television and its effects on learning . He was responsible for designing and executing CTW 's formative research , and for working with ETS , which handled the Workshop 's summative research . Palmer 's work was so crucial to Sesame Street that author Malcolm Gladwell asserted , " Without Ed Palmer , the show would have never lasted through the first season " .
CTW 's researchers were strongly influenced by behaviorism , a popular movement in psychology during the late 1960s ; therefore , many methods and tools used were primarily behavioral . Palmer developed " the distractor " , which he used to test if the material shown on Sesame Street captured young viewers ' attention . Two children at a time were brought into the laboratory and shown an episode on a television monitor and a slide show next to it . The slides would change every seven seconds ; researchers recorded when the children 's attention was diverted from the episode . They were able to assess almost every second of Sesame Street this way ; if an episode captured children 's interest 80 – 90 percent of the time , producers would air it . However , if it only worked 50 percent of the time they would change ( or remove ) content .
In research during later seasons of Sesame Street , verbal measurements , in the form of letter @-@ recognition tests , were introduced . These reinforced earlier results , providing more insight into children 's knowledge , reactions , and responses than behavioral measures alone . The distractor method was modified by Workshop researchers Lewis Bernstein and Valeria Lovelace into an " eyes @-@ on @-@ screen " method , which collected simultaneous data from larger groups of children . Their method also tested for more " natural " distractions , such as those provided by other children in group @-@ viewing situations ; up to 15 children were tested at a time . Lovelace developed additional testing methods , described by Fisch as " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art research design " . One innovation included the " engagement measure " , which recorded children 's active responses to an episode , such as laughing or dancing to music .
= = = Results = = =
Palmer reported that by the fourth season of the show , the episodes rarely tested below 85 percent . At least one segment , " The Man from Alphabet " , despite its expense , was eliminated because it tested poorly with children . The distractor provided new insight into the way children watch television , and was part of CTW 's research on its programs ' effectiveness for decades . It created a body of objective data , and marked the first time that children 's television viewing was studied scientifically .
CTW 's early studies with the distractor found that children learned more when they watched the program carefully , or when they participated by singing or talking along . In re @-@ tests four weeks later , it found that children retained most of what they learned . After the first three weeks , or 15 episodes , viewers and non @-@ viewers were compared ; few differences in learning were found . When both groups were tested after six weeks more differences began to appear , with viewers scoring higher than non @-@ viewers . A two @-@ season CTW study published in 1995 found a " significant increase " in difficulty in remembering the letter and number of the day . Based on the multiple @-@ intelligence theory , producers began to cluster Sesame Street 's short films , animations , and inserts around a single topic rather than sprinkling several topics throughout a single episode .
= = Summative research = =
= = = ETS studies = = =
CTW solicited the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) to conduct its summative research . CTW and ETS hired and trained coordinators , testers , and observers from local communities to conduct these studies . The most relevant tests of the show 's effectiveness were comparisons between children who watched it regularly and those who did not . After the first season , however , Sesame Street was so widely watched that it was difficult to make this distinction ; ETS began to have problems finding subjects for their non @-@ viewing groups , which weakened the experimental design . It solved this problem by selecting control @-@ group households from areas that did not broadcast the show . Instead of using groups of viewers and non @-@ viewers , later large @-@ scale studies used statistical designs and methods for estimating cause @-@ effect relationships .
ETS , whose prestige enhanced the credibility of its findings , conducted two landmark summative evaluations in 1970 and 1971 , demonstrating that Sesame Street had a significant educational impact on its viewers . These studies illustrated the early educational effects of Sesame Street , and have been cited in other studies of the effects of television on young children . ETS reported that the children who watched the show most learned the most , and achieved better results in letter @-@ recognition skills . Three @-@ year @-@ olds who watched regularly scored higher than five @-@ year @-@ olds who did not ; children from low @-@ income households who were regular viewers scored higher than children from higher @-@ income households who watched the show less frequently . Similar results occurred in children from non @-@ English @-@ speaking homes . Although adult supervision was not required for children to learn using the material presented , children who watched and discussed the program with their parents gained more skills than those who did not . Children viewing the show in an informal home setting learned as much as children who watched it at school under a teacher 's supervision . Regular viewers adjusted better to the school environment than non @-@ viewers . They also had a more positive attitude toward school and better peer relations than non @-@ viewers .
Despite CTW 's concern that the show would widen the gap between well @-@ to @-@ do children and their less wealthy peers , there was no evidence that this occurred ; gains made by disadvantaged children were as great as those by advantaged children . The show 's positive general effects , as cited by ETS , occurred across all childhood demographics ( gender , age , geographic location and socioeconomic status ) . Studies conducted by ETS seemed to suggest that the program had " a significant impact on children 's social behavior " , although the evidence was not as strong as it was for cognitive effects ; fewer studies exist of social behavior .
= = = Later studies = = =
CTW enlisted Palmer , in conjunction with Harvard University , in 1979 to conduct a study in Jamaica regarding the effects of Sesame Street on children with no exposure to other children 's television programs , in order to correct for the effects of multimedia exposure on children in the US . Palmer discovered that Jamaican children 's interest dropped during segments with the Muppets , possibly due to language and cultural differences ; musical segments were the most effective . The children 's learning increased after exposure to the show , especially letter and number recognition .
In 1995 a longitudinal study was conducted at the University of Kansas , the first large @-@ scale evaluation of Sesame Street 's cognitive effects in over twenty years . Its findings supported those of previous studies : early viewing of educational children 's television appeared to contribute to children 's school readiness . Children from disadvantaged backgrounds learned as much as advantaged children per hour of viewing , but they did not watch enough to gain the program 's maximum benefit . In comparing the effects of watching Sesame Street with other programs , commercial entertainment and cartoons had a negative effect ; watching Sesame Street daily did not increase children 's viewing of other categories of television , nor make them less likely to participate in other educational activities .
Other studies have been conducted about the cognitive effects of Sesame Street . In 1990 , a two @-@ year longitudinal study found that viewing the show was a " significant predictor " of improved vocabulary regardless of family size , parent education , child gender or parental attitudes towards television . Another study conducted in 1990 looked at the effect of Sesame Street home videos and discovered gains in vocabulary , letter , and printed- and spoken @-@ word identification . The videos encouraged discussion with adults , which may have helped reinforce educational messages and content .
In 1994 , research was conducted for " The Recontact Study " , funded by the Markle Foundation , which examined the effects of Sesame Street on adolescents who had watched the show as young children . The subjects had participated in previous studies as preschoolers . When the study 's research subjects were statistically equated for parents ' level of education , birth order , residence and gender , it found that adolescents who had watched Sesame Street as preschoolers were positively influenced by it . Compared with children who had not watched it regularly , they had higher grades in English , math , and science ; read for pleasure more often ; perceived themselves as more competent , and expressed lower levels of aggression . The effects were stronger in adolescent boys than in adolescent girls .
In early 2001 , the Workshop conducted a summative study about the effects of war , natural disasters , and other events on young children . It demonstrated that little was being done to address the fears and concerns of victims of traumatic events . As a result , the Workshop developed a series of materials it believed would help children ( and their families ) cope with events such as the September 11 terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina .
Sesame Street has been used to test the attention span of infants and toddlers . In 2004 , children from three months to two years were shown Sesame Street clips and a group of computer @-@ generated black and white patterns . Their attention spans , as determined by the duration of time they looked at the stimuli , significantly increased at six to twenty @-@ four months , but only for the Sesame Street material . A study conducted in 2006 found that infants ' attention span increased more when they were presented with video clips than with still images of the same stimuli , supporting the idea that movement helps young infants gain more information from the world around them . The evidence showed that attention span depended both on age and the on the type of stimuli children viewed . The time they looked at stimuli decreased for all types of stimuli from fourteen to twenty @-@ six weeks , but the time they looked at it increased depending on the stimuli . When older infants ( age fourteen weeks to twelve months ) looked at Sesame Street materials and human faces , their attention increased compared to other types of stimuli .
In 2010 , researchers at the University of Michigan studied the effect of combining video clips of Sesame Street and related print materials , online activities , and teacher training and mentoring on learning . They demonstrated that all the subjects they tested at Head Start programs in Detroit scored the same as a middle @-@ class control group in tests later given to both groups .
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= Pisco sour =
A pisco sour is a cocktail typical of South American cuisine . The drink 's name comes from pisco , which is its base liquor , and the cocktail term sour , in reference to sour citrus juice and sweetener components . The Peruvian pisco sour uses Peruvian pisco as the base liquor and adds Key lime ( or lemon ) juice , syrup , ice , egg white , and Angostura bitters . The Chilean version is similar , but uses Chilean pisco and pica lime , and excludes the bitters and egg white . Other variants of the cocktail include those created with fruits like pineapple or plants such as coca leaves .
The cocktail originated in Lima , Peru , and was invented by Victor Vaughen Morris , an American bartender , in the early 1920s . Morris left the United States in 1903 to work in Cerro de Pasco , a city in central Peru . In 1916 , he opened Morris ' Bar in Lima , and his saloon quickly became a popular spot for the Peruvian upper class and English @-@ speaking foreigners . The pisco sour underwent several changes until Mario Bruiget , a Peruvian bartender working at Morris ' Bar , created the modern Peruvian recipe of the cocktail in the latter part of the 1920s by adding Angostura bitters and egg whites to the mix .
In Chile , folklorist Oreste Plath attributed the invention of the drink to Elliot Stubb , an English steward of a ship named Sunshine , who allegedly mixed Key lime juice , syrup , and ice cubes to create the cocktail in a bar , in 1872 , in the port city of Iquique , which at that time was part of Peru . Regardless , the original source cited by Plath attributed to Stubb the invention of the whiskey sour — not the pisco sour . The oldest known mentions of the pisco sour are from a 1921 magazine attributing Morris as the inventor and a 1924 advertisement for Morris ' Bar published in a newspaper from the port of Valparaíso , Chile .
Chile and Peru both claim the pisco sour as their national drink , and each asserts ownership of the cocktail 's base liquor — pisco ; consequently , the pisco sour has become a significant and oft @-@ debated topic of Latin American popular culture . The two kinds of pisco and the two variations in the style of preparing the pisco sour are distinct in both production and taste . Peru celebrates a yearly public holiday in honor of the cocktail during the first Saturday of February .
= = Name = =
The term sour refers to mixed drinks containing a base liquor ( bourbon or some other whiskey ) , lemon or lime juice , and a sweetener . Pisco refers to the base liquor used in the cocktail . The word as applied to the alcoholic beverage comes from the Peruvian port of Pisco . In the book Latin America and the Caribbean , historian Olwyn Blouet and political geographer Brian Blouet describe the development of vineyards in early Colonial Peru and how in the second half of the sixteenth century a market for the liquor formed owing to the demand from growing mining settlements in the Andes . Subsequent demand for a stronger drink caused Pisco and the nearby city of Ica to establish distilleries " to make wine into brandy " , and the product received the name of the port from where it was distilled and exported .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The first grapevines were brought to Peru shortly after its conquest by Spain in the 16th century . Spanish chroniclers from the time note the first winemaking in South America took place in the hacienda Marcahuasi of Cuzco . The largest and most prominent vineyards of the 16th and 17th century Americas were established in the Ica valley of south @-@ central Peru . In the 1540s , Bartolomé de Terrazas and Francisco de Carabantes planted vineyards in Peru . Carabantes also established vineyards in Ica , from where Spaniards from Andalucia and Extremadura introduced grapevines into Chile .
Already in the 16th century , Spanish settlers in Chile and Peru began producing aguardiente distilled from fermented grapes . Since at least 1764 , Peruvian aguardiente was called " pisco " after its port of shipping ; the usage of the name " pisco " for aguardiente then spread to Chile . The right to produce and market pisco , still made in Peru and Chile , is the subject of ongoing disputes between the two countries .
According to historian Luciano Revoredo , the preparation of pisco with lemon dates as far back as the 18th century . He bases his claim on a source found in the Mercurio Peruano which details the prohibition of aguardiente in Lima 's Plaza de toros de Acho , the oldest bullring in the Americas . At this time , the drink was named Punche ( Punch ) , and was sold by slaves . Revoredo further argues this drink served as the predecessor of the Californian Pisco punch , invented by Duncan Nicol in the Bank Exchange Bar of San Francisco , California . A recipe for a pisco @-@ based punch , including egg whites , was found by researcher Nico Vera in the 1903 Peruvian cookbook Manual de Cocina a la Criolla ; consequently , culinary expert Duggan McDonnell considers that " [ i ] t is entirely possible that the ' Cocktail ' that came to be the pisco sour [ ... ] had been prepared for a reasonable time in Lima before being included in a cookbook . "
= = = Origin = = =
The pisco sour originated in Lima , Peru . It was created by bartender Victor Vaughen Morris , an American who had moved to Peru in 1904 to work in a railway company in Cerro de Pasco . Morris relocated to Lima in 1915 and , a year later , opened a saloon — Morris ' Bar — which became popular with both the Peruvian upper class and English @-@ speaking foreigners . Chilean historian Gonzalo Vial Correa also attributes the pisco sour 's invention to Gringo Morris from the Peruvian Morris Bar , but with the minor difference of naming him William Morris . Morris often experimented with new drinks , and developed the pisco sour as a variety of the whiskey Sour .
Some discrepancy exists on the exact date when Morris created the popular cocktail . Mixologist Dale DeGroff asserts the drink was invented in 1915 , but other sources argue this happened in the 1920s . The Chilean web newspaper El Mercurio Online specifically contends historians attribute the year of the drink 's invention as 1922 , adding that " one night Morris surprised his friends with a new drink he called pisco sour , a formula which mixes the Peruvian pisco with the American sour " ( in Spanish : " Una noche Morris sorprendió a sus amigos con una nueva bebida a la que llamó pisco sour , una fórmula que funde lo peruano del pisco con el ' sour ' estadounidense . " ) .
The pisco sour 's initial recipe was that of a simple cocktail . According to Peruvian researcher Guillermo Toro @-@ Lira , " it is assumed that it was a crude mix of pisco with lime juice and sugar , as was the whiskey sour of those days . " As the cocktail 's recipe continued to evolve , the bar 's registry shows that customers commented on the continuously improving taste of the drink . The modern Peruvian version of the recipe was developed by Mario Bruiget , a Peruvian from Chincha Alta who worked under the apprenticeship of Morris starting on July 16 , 1924 . Bruiget 's recipe added the Angostura bitters and egg whites to the mix . Journalist Erica Duecy writes that Bruiget 's innovation added " a silky texture and frothy head " to the cocktail .
Morris used advertisements to promote his bar and invention . The oldest known mention of the pisco sour appears in the September 1920 edition of the Peruvian magazine Hogar . Another old advertisement appears in the April 22 , 1921 , edition of the Peruvian magazine Mundial . In the magazine , not only is the pisco sour described as a white @-@ colored beverage , but its invention is attributed to " Mister Morris . " Later , in 1924 , with the aid of Morris ' friend Nelson Rounsevell , the bar advertised its locale and invention in Valparaíso , Chile . The advertisement featured in the Valparaíso newspaper South Pacific Mail , owned by Rounsevell . By 1927 , Morris ' Bar had attained widespread notability for its cocktails , particularly the pisco sour . Brad Thomas Parsons writes that " the registry at the Morris Bar was filled with high praise from visitors who raved about the signature drink . "
Over time , competition from nearby bars and Victor Morris ' deteriorating health led to the decline and fall of his enterprise . During this time , due to his worsening constitution , Morris delegated most of the bartending to his employees . Adding to the problem , nearby competitors , such as the Hotel Bolívar and the Hotel Lima Country Club , housed bars which took clientele away from Morris ' Bar . Moreover , Toro @-@ Lira discovered that Morris accused four of his former bartenders of intellectual property theft after they left to work in one of these competing establishments . In 1929 , Morris declared voluntary bankruptcy and closed his saloon . A few months later , on June 11 , Victor Vaughen Morris died of cirrhosis .
= = = Spread = = =
Historian Luis Alberto Sánchez writes that , after Morris closed his bar , some of his bartenders left to work in other locales . Bruiget began working as a bartender for the nearby Grand Hotel Maury , where he continued to serve his pisco sour recipe . His success with the drink led local Limean oral tradition to associate the Hotel Maury as the original home of the pisco sour . As other former apprentices of Morris found other work , they also spread the pisco sour recipe . During the 1930s the drink made its way into California , reaching bars as far north as the city of San Francisco . By at least the late 1960s the cocktail also found its way to New York .
Beatriz Jiménez , a journalist from the Spanish newspaper El Mundo , indicates that back in Peru , the luxury hotels of Lima adopted the pisco sour as their own in the 1940s . During the 1940s and 1950s an oil bonanza attracted foreign attention to Peru . Among the visitors to Lima were renowned Hollywood actors who were fascinated by the pisco sour . Jiménez recollected oral traditions claiming an inebriated Ava Gardner had to be carried away by John Wayne after drinking too many pisco sours . Ernest Hemingway and Orson Welles are said to have been big fans of what they described as " that Peruvian drink . "
In 1984 , Bolivian journalist Ted Córdova Claure writes that the Hotel Bolívar stood as a monument to the decadence of Peruvian oligarchy ( in Spanish : " Este hotel es un monumento a la decadencia de la oligarquía peruana . " ) . He noted the locale as being the traditional home of the pisco sour and recommended it as one of the best hotels in Lima . Nowadays , the Hotel Bolivar continues to offer the cocktail in its " El Bolivarcito " bar , while the Country Club Lima Hotel offers the drink in its " English Bar " saloon .
= = = Nationality dispute = = =
Victor Vaughen Morris is considered by most historians to be the inventor of the cocktail . Despite this , there exists an ongoing dispute between Chile and Peru over the origin of the pisco sour . In Chile , a local story developed in the 1980s attributing the invention of the pisco sour to Elliot Stubb , an English steward from a sailing ship named " Sunshine . " Chilean folklorist and historian Oreste Plath contributed to the legend 's propagation by writing that , according to the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio de Iquique , in 1872 , after obtaining leave to disembark , Stubb opened a bar in the then @-@ Peruvian port of Iquique and invented the pisco sour while experimenting with drinks .
Nevertheless , researcher Toro @-@ Lira argues that the story was refuted after it was discovered El Comercio de Iquique was actually referring to the invention of the whiskey sour . This claim is further certified by the University of Cuyo , Argentina , which in 1962 published the story of Elliot Stubb and his alleged invention of the whiskey sour in Iquique . An excerpt from the newspaper 's story has Elliot Stubb stating , " From now on ... this shall be my drink of battle , my favorite drink , and it shall be named Whisky Sour " ( in Spanish : " En adelante dijo Elliot — éste será mi trago de batalla , — mi trago favorito — , y se llamará Whisky Sour . " ) .
= = Preparation and variants = =
The pisco sour has three different methods of preparation . The Peruvian pisco sour cocktail is made by mixing Peruvian pisco with Key lime juice , simple syrup , egg white , Angostura bitters ( for garnish ) , and ice cubes . The Chilean pisco sour cocktail is made by mixing Chilean Pisco with Pica lime juice , powdered sugar , and ice cubes . Daniel Joelson , a food writer and critic , contends that the major difference between both pisco sour versions " is that Peruvians generally include egg whites , while Chileans do not . " The version from the International Bartenders Association , which lists the pisco sour among its " New Era Drinks , " is similar to the Peruvian version , but with the difference that it uses lemon juice , instead of lime juice , and does not distinguish between the two different types of pisco .
Considerable variations exist in the pisco used in the cocktails . According to food and wine expert Mark Spivak , the difference is in the way both beverages are produced ; whereas " Chilean pisco is mass @-@ produced " , the Peruvian version " is made in small batches . " Cocktail historian Andrew Bohrer focuses his comparison on taste , claiming that " [ i ] n Peru , pisco is made in a pot still , distilled to proof , and un @-@ aged ; it is very similar to grappa . In Chile , pisco is made in a column still and aged in wood ; it is similar to a very light cognac . " Chilean oenologist Patricio Tapia adds that while Chilean pisco producers usually mix vine stocks , Peruvian producers have specific pisco types that use the aromatic qualities of vines such as Yellow Muscat and Italia . Tapia concludes this is why Peruvian pisco bottles denote their vintage year and the Chilean versions do not .
Variations of the pisco sour exist in Peru , Bolivia , and Chile . There are adaptations of the cocktail in Peru using fruits such as maracuya , aguaymanto , and apples , or traditional ingredients such as the coca leaf . In Chile , variants include the Ají Sour ( with a spicy green chili ) , Mango Sour ( with mango juice ) , and Sour de Campo ( with ginger and honey ) . In Bolivia , the Yunqueño variant ( from its Yungas region ) replaces the lime with orange juice .
Cocktails similar to the pisco sour include the Chilean Piscola and the Peruvian Algarrobina Cocktail . Piscola is made by mixing pisco with cola . The Algarrobina Cocktail is made from pisco , condensed milk , and sap from the Peruvian algarroba tree . Another similar cocktail , from the United States , is the Californian pisco punch , originally made with Peruvian pisco , pineapples , and lemon .
= = Popularity = =
Duggan McDonnell describes the pisco sour as " Latin America 's most elegant cocktail , frothy , balanced , bright yet rich , " adding that " Barkeeps throughout Northern California will attest that they have shaken many a Pisco sour . It is the egg white cocktail of choice and an absolutely beloved one by most . " Australian journalist Kate Schneider writes that the pisco sour " has become so famous that there is an International Pisco Sour Day celebration on the first Saturday in February every year , as well as a Facebook page with more than 600 @,@ 000 likes . " According to Chilean entrepreneur Rolando Hinrichs Oyarce , owner of a restaurant @-@ bar in Spain , " The pisco sour is highly international , just like Cebiche , and so they are not too unknown " ( Spanish : " El pisco sour es bastante internacional , al igual que el cebiche , por lo tanto no son tan desconocidos " ) . In 2003 , Peru created the " Día Nacional del Pisco Sour " ( National Pisco Sour Day ) , an official government holiday celebrated on the first Saturday of February .
During the 2008 APEC Economic Leaders ' Meeting , Peru promoted its pisco sour with widespread acceptance . The cocktail was reportedly the preferred drink of the attendees , mostly leaders , businessmen , and delegates . American celebrity chef Anthony Bourdain also drew attention to the cocktail when , in an episode of his Travel Channel program No Reservations , he drank a pisco sour in Valparaíso , Chile , and said " that 's good , but ... next time , I 'll have a beer . " The broadcaster Radio Programas del Perú reported that Jorge López Sotomayor , the episode 's Chilean producer and Bourdain 's travel partner in Chile , said Bourdain found the pisco sour he drank in Valparaíso as boring and worthless ( in Spanish : " A mí me dijo que el pisco sour lo encontró aburrido y que no valía la pena . " ) . Lopez added that Bourdain had recently arrived from Peru , where he drank several pisco sours which he thought tasted better than the Chilean version .
In Mexico , singer @-@ songwriter Aleks Syntek controversially posted on Twitter that the pisco sour is Chilean . After receiving critical responses to his statement , Syntek apologized and mentioned he was only joking . Mexican television host and comedian Adal Ramones also joked about pisco sour , in reference to the 2009 Chile – Peru espionage scandal , on November 17 , 2009 . Ramones , a fan of Peruvian Pisco , when asked about the espionage , asked what Chileans were spying on in Peru , suggesting it might be how to make a pisco sour ( in Spanish : " ¿ Qué quieren espiar los chilenos ? ¿ Cómo hacer pisco sour ? " ) .
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= Boston Society for Medical Improvement =
The Boston Society for Medical Improvement was an elite medical society based in Boston , Massachusetts . It was established in 1828 for the purposes of " the cultivation of confidence and good feeling between members of the profession ; the eliciting and imparting of information upon the different branches of medical science ; and the establishment of a Museum and Library of Pathological Anatomy " and continued to hold regular meetings until at least 1917 .
= = Founding and organization = =
The Society was established February 19 , 1828 by John P. Spooner . By @-@ laws were established at a founding meeting of eleven members , and the first regular meeting was held on March 10 . Within a year the Society had grown to 25 members .
Meetings were held on the second and fourth Mondays of each month , originally in Spooner 's home . Usually a member 's reading of a paper was followed by discussion of recent cases of either special interest or on which the attending physician wished the opinion of his colleagues . There were frequent presentations of remarkable tissues and organs obtained during post @-@ mortems , or unusual specimens found in nature , those of particular interest being added to the " Cabinet " of the Society .
The Society 's original officers were a committee of four and a secretary , who made up the " Prudential Committee " , as well as a librarian and a cabinet keeper . These offices were filled once a year by vote at the first meeting in January . Members were admitted twice a year , in April and October , with only practicing physicians from Boston being eligible .
= = History = =
During its first year the Society 's Anatomical Cabinet was established , and several members collaborated to combine the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery and the Boston Medical Intelligencer into the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal ( now the New England Journal of Medicine ) . The Society 's expenses in the first year were $ 7 @.@ 50 .
In 1830 , after resolving to publish their transactions and to have a standing committee , the Society moved to a room on Washington Street , rented for an annual fee of $ 25 . In 1833 The Medical Magazine published a piece praising the Society and encouraging the formation of similar organizations .
The Society limited its membership to Boston 's medical elite . In 1835 a number ineligible physicians ( mostly younger , less established members of the profession ) formed a competing organization , the Boston Society for Medical Observation . By 1838 , when the Society was incorporated , membership had grown to 35 , with approximately 25 attending any given meeting . Around 1840 the Society relocated once again , to Tremont Row . Until 1840 the Society often held anniversary celebrations ( frequently including the presentation of an original poem by member Oliver Wendell Holmes ) but after that date they became increasingly rare .
Sometime during the summer of 1842 J.B.S. Jackson " asked the opinion of the Society as to the contagion of puerperal fever and the probability of physicians communicating it from one patient to another " following the death of a physician who had treated an infected woman , and the subsequent infection of the patients he had treated in the interim . This piqued the interest of Holmes , who , after a period of research , presented his essay , " The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever " , to the Society on February 13 , 1843 ; it was later published at the Society 's request in the April issue of the New England Quarterly Journal of Medicine and Surgery .
On November 10 , 1849 , Henry Jacob Bigelow presented Phineas Gage to the Society , between the cases of a stalagmite " remarkable for its singular resemblance to a petrified penis " and a child cured of a swollen ankle by a Dr. Strong .
By 1853 , the number of members had grown to 60 . The Society 's medical collections were donated to the Warren Anatomical Museum around 1870 , while its library was absorbed into the Boston Medical Library in 1875 . Membership had grown again by 1876 , reaching 79 regular members . In 1878 the Society moved to a building on Boylston Street , the former home of Samuel Gridley Howe , after it was purchased by the Boston Medical Library Association .
By 1880 , however , the Society , total membership 99 , had begun to go into a period of slight decline . The office of President was instituted as part of an attempt to stem this decline ; the first president was James H. White . On November 19 , 1890 , the Society held a special meeting in honor of Henry J. Bigelow , who had recently died .
The Boston Society for Medical Observation was merged into the Society for Medical Improvement in 1894 . In 1901 , James Gregory Mumford published The Story of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement in the March issue of the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal .
In 1905 the members of the Society tendered a proposal to the Boston Medical Library to disband : the proposal was rejected , however , both by the library and by vote at the next meeting . By this time the Society had reduced its meetings to an annual occurrence , and it was generally viewed as " undesirable " to have them more often , due to the fact that the Medical Library and the Suffolk District Medical Society had begun to hold joint sessions . The last record of the Society comes from 1917 .
= = Collection = =
The Society had an expansive Anatomical Cabinet , begun in 1828 , the year of its founding . It included a number of specimens from the War of 1812 , which had been acquired by the Society from Dr. S. D. Townsend and Charles H. Stedman of the Chelsea Naval Hospital . It also included a number of Chinese paintings of medical cases donated by Robert William Hooper . By 1840 , the cabinet was estimated to contain around 600 specimens . Beginning in 1831 the Cabinet was curated by J.B.S. Jackson ( also curator of the Warren Anatomical Museum from 1847 on ) . The two were merged around 1870 , and Jackson continued his work until his death in 1879 .
The curator was tasked with keeping a catalog and a case history of each specimen in the cabinet . Jackson published two descriptions of the collection in 1847 : A Descriptive Catalogue of the Anatomical Museum of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement , and later that year A Descriptive Catalogue of the Monstrosities in the Cabinet of the Boston Society of Medical Improvement , which focused solely on the anatomical oddities from the cabinet . Both books were abridged versions of the complete catalog . In the first volume , the specimens of the cabinet were divided into fifteen sections : healthy bones , diseased bones , soft parts about the bones , heart and blood vessels , organs of sense , vocal and respiratory organs , alimentary canal , organs accessory to the alimentary canal , urinary organs , female organs of generation , male organs of generation , utero @-@ gestation , monstrosities , and parasites .
= = Locations = =
When it was first formed , the Society held its meetings at the houses of its members . It then set up a regular establishment over a chemist 's shop on Washington Street . Some years later , it relocated again to Tremont Row , over another chemist 's shop , before moving to Temple Place . When its library was moved to the Boston Medical Library on Boylston Street , the Society relocated there . By 1901 it had moved to Fenway .
= = Notable members = =
Henry Jacob Bigelow
Jacob Bigelow
Henry Ingersoll Bowditch
Thomas Dwight
John Dix Fisher
Augustus Addison Gould
Richard Hodges
Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr.
Charles Thomas Jackson
J.B.S. Jackson
Nathaniel B. Shurtleff
Nathan Ryno Smith
David Humphreys Storer
Jeffries Wyman
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= The Old Man and the Lisa =
" The Old Man and the Lisa " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 20 , 1997 . In the episode , Mr. Burns becomes bankrupt and asks Lisa to help him become rich again . She helps him on the condition that he will lose his evil manners , and the two start making money recycling cans . After a while Mr. Burns has made enough money to start his own recycling plant . However , his true colors are revealed when Mr. Burns shows that , inside the plant , he makes a multi @-@ purpose edible compound made of squished sea life . He then sells the plant for US $ 120 million and offers Lisa 10 % of his profits , but she declines .
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland and written by John Swartzwelder . The writing staff had thought about an episode in which Mr. Burns would lose his money and would have to interact with the outside world . In DVD commentary the writers explained that while Mr. Burns tried to change he " couldn 't help being himself " . Professional wrestler Bret Hart made a cameo as himself , animated in his pink wrestling outfit . " The Old Man and the Lisa " contains cultural references to the television series That Girl and the film Invasion of the Body Snatchers . It was positively received by critics and won the Environmental Media Award for " TV Episodic Comedy " .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns speaks with the Springfield Elementary School " Junior Achievers Club " and after a conversation with Lisa , he realizes that he does not have nearly as much money as he thought he did . He decides to invest in the stock market to earn his money back . However , in doing so , he makes more questionable investments and becomes bankrupt . The bank forecloses on the plant and puts Lenny in charge , and sells Mr. Burns ' house to pro wrestler Bret Hart .
Mr. Burns moves in with Smithers and , wanting to be of use , decides to do Smithers ' grocery shopping . However , he is unfamiliar with grocery stores and becomes confused by the ketchup and catsup , causing the grocer to send Burns to the Springfield Retirement Castle . While at the home , Mr. Burns meets Lisa again , and begs her to help re @-@ build his empire . She eventually agrees on the condition that he drop his evil ways , and the two begin earning money through recycling .
Whilst at first he is confused at the practice Mr. Burns enthusiastically begins grabbing every can he can find , causing Lisa to believe that he has changed . Eventually , Burns earns so much money that he is able to open his own recycling plant . Burns gives Lisa its opening tour , showing her that it is environmentally sound and made of recycled materials . At first , Lisa is impressed , but then Burns shows her " the best part " . He has taken a cue from a demonstration Lisa had given him earlier , and attached millions of six @-@ pack holders together into a net which he uses to catch tons of sea life , in order to make " Li 'l Lisa 's Patented Animal Slurry " , a multi @-@ purpose edible compound . Lisa is horrified , proclaiming Burns not only still evil , but even more evil when he tries to be good , and begins running through the streets , helplessly trying to get the seemingly indoctrinated citizens to stop the recycling program she herself started .
Mr. Burns later visits Lisa and tells her that he sold the recycling plant for US $ 120 million to a fish stick company , and that he has decided to give her , being his advisor , a 10 % share of the profits . Lisa refuses the money and rips up the cheque . This causes Homer to have four simultaneous heart attacks . While in the hospital , Lisa apologizes to Homer for not accepting the money . He tells her that he understands what she did , but says that the $ 12 @,@ 000 would have been a big financial help . Lisa replies that 10 % of $ 120 million is actually $ 12 million . The hospital 's public address system announces a code blue , signifying that Homer has entered cardiac arrest .
= = Production = =
The episode was based on a story idea pitched by David X. Cohen , although it was written by John Swartzwelder , who had written many of the Simpsons episodes that have environmental themes . This habit led to him being called the " conscience of the staff " despite being a " self declared anti @-@ environmentalist . " It was because of this that he was given such episodes , because the staff felt that he would give them just the right amount of sarcasm . In the original script for the episode , he described the recycling center as " a couple of hippies surrounded by garbage " . Two alternate original titles for the episode were Cohen 's " Lisa and Burns " and Swartzwelder 's " Burns Goes Broke " .
The writers had wanted an episode where Burns becomes bankrupt and shows what Burns would be like as a person in the real world . The idea with the recycling plant was that Burns did not have any sort of evil plan , he just could not help being himself . Burns really was trying to change and this was reflected in the end when he tried to give Lisa her share of the profits , with Lisa refusing . Burns was drawn without his trademark scowl for this episode . The staff joked about this being a suitable series finale , due to the episode ending with Homer suffering from another heart attack after Lisa tells Homer what 10 % of Burns ' $ 120 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 check really is .
Professional wrestler Bret Hart guest starred in the episode as himself , and he was very insistent that he be shown wearing his pink wrestling outfit . He explained that " It 's so cool to be part of a show that makes people laugh really , really hard . " The media , aware that the animated Hart would want to purchase Mr. Burns ' home , mistakenly anticipated that " Bret offers to wrestle him [ Mr. Burns ] for the place . " Later , Hart moved on to do voice work on the animated television series Jacob Two @-@ Two . The press noted that at that time Hart was " no stranger to cartoon @-@ land , " having been " immortalized " by " The Old Man and the Lisa " .
= = Cultural references = =
Burns 's walk through the supermarket was based on a false rumor that George H. W. Bush visited a store and was confused by the scanner and , in the original draft for the episode , Burns met Bush while there . When bidding farewell to the hippie Mr. Burns says " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " a reference to Pink Floyd 's song of the same name . The hippie responds by saying that Burns needs to stop living in the past . The voice of the hippie is based on Dennis Hopper 's character in Apocalypse Now . " Achy Breaky Heart " , a song by Billy Ray Cyrus , is played at the old folks ' home . The scene where Mr. Burns chases Lisa through town is a spoof of the opening to the TV series That Girl . The scene where Lisa runs through the streets proclaiming recycling as evil spoofs the finales of Soylent Green and the original The Invasion of the Body Snatchers .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Old Man and the Lisa " finished 38th in ratings for the week of April 14 – 20 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 3 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was tied along with King of the Hill as the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ files and Melrose Place .
" The Old Man and the Lisa " received the 1997 Environmental Media Award in the " TV Episodic Comedy " category . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it " An odd episode with a not @-@ too @-@ unexpected outcome . The best bits are undoubtedly Burns learning his way around a supermarket and Lisa 's realisation of what Burns has been up to . "
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= Luo Yixiu =
Luo Yixiu ( simplified Chinese : 罗一秀 ; traditional Chinese : 羅一秀 ; October 20 , 1889 – February 11 , 1910 ) , a Han Chinese woman , was the first wife of the later Chinese communist revolutionary and political leader Mao Zedong , to whom she was married from 1908 until her death . Coming from the area around Shaoshan , Hunan , in south central China – the same region as Mao – her family were impoverished local landowners .
Most of what is known about their marriage comes from an account Mao gave to American reporter Edgar Snow in 1936 , which Snow included in his book Red Star Over China . According to Mao , he and Luo Yixiu were the subject of an arranged marriage organised by their respective fathers , Mao Yichang and Luo Helou . Luo was eighteen and Mao just fourteen years old at the time of their betrothal . Although Mao took part in the wedding ceremony , he later stated that he was unhappy with the marriage , never consummating it and refusing to live with his wife . Socially disgraced , she lived with Mao 's parents for two years until she died of dysentery , while he moved out of the village to continue his studies elsewhere , eventually becoming a founding member of the Communist Party of China . Various biographers have suggested that Mao 's experience of this marriage affected his later views , leading him to become a critic of arranged marriage and a vocal feminist . He would marry three more times throughout his life , to Yang Kaihui , He Zizhen and Jiang Qing , the last of whom was better known as Madame Mao .
= = Early life = =
Born on October 20 , 1889 , Luo Yixiu was the eldest daughter of Luo Helou ( 罗合楼 ; 1871 – 1943 ) , a shenshi ( 绅士 ) – or rural intellectual who earned his living as a farmer – and his wife ( 1869 – 1912 ) , whose surname was Mao and who was a distant great @-@ aunt of Mao Zedong . Although historian Lee Feigon stated that the Luo family was locally important , Mao biographers Alexander V. Pantsov and Steven I. Levine claimed that they had fallen into poverty . Luo Helou and his wife had five sons and five daughters , but seven of these children died , leaving them only three daughters . The couple 's lack of adult sons diminished their social status , for in Chinese society at the time , only sons could continue the family lineage .
= = The marriage = =
= = = Preparation = = =
Mao Zedong had been born and raised at his father 's farm in Shaoshanchong , a small rural village named for the nearby Shaoshan mountain . His disciplinarian father , Mao Yichang , had decided to deal with Zedong 's rebellious attitude in a manner typical of the time , by forcing him into an arranged marriage that would compel him to take family matters seriously . Yichang also desired a helper for his own wife , Wen Qimei , whose health had deteriorated through years of heavy agricultural labour . He selected Luo Yixiu in either late 1907 or 1908 . Her kinship to the Maos may have helped in this selection , as Luo Yixiu 's mother 's four brothers , surnamed Mao , lived only two li ( 1 km ) from Mao Yichang 's home in Shaoshanchong . Following traditional procedures , a matchmaker would have been sent to the Luo family house , and the Luo family would have been socially expected to accept the marriage proposal immediately . Luo Helou was happy to see his eldest daughter married . The two families exchanged gifts and signed the marriage contract , after which the marriage was considered inviolable .
Zedong first met Yixiu on the day that the contract was signed . Years later , his granddaughter Kong Dongmei stated that Mao was unhappy with his father 's choice , and that he instead was in love with his cousin , Wang Shigu . However , marriage to Wang had been ruled out by a local diviner because their horoscopes were incompatible . Although displeased by the arrangement , Mao agreed to marry Luo . At the time he was fourteen , and later erroneously informed Edgar Snow that Luo was aged twenty , a claim independently accepted by Mao biographers Ross Terrill and Philip Short , but later challenged by biographers Jung Chang and Jon Halliday , and Alexander V. Pantsov and Steven I. Levine , who established that she was eighteen .
= = = The wedding = = =
The wedding took place in 1908 . According to a number of Mao 's biographers , the ceremony would have likely followed traditional rural Hunanese custom . Thus , it probably would have begun with a feast in the groom 's home on the day before the ceremony , to which friends and relatives were invited . The next day , the bride would have been dressed in red , with a red veil over her face , and carried by red palanquin to the groom 's family home . There , her veil would have been removed , and she would have been expected to express unhappiness and dissatisfaction with the groom by publicly insulting him . According to tradition , a display of fireworks would probably have taken place , before both bride and groom would have kowtowed to each guest , to the groom 's ancestral altar , to the spirits , and to one another , concluding the ceremony .
If traditional practices were adhered to , feasting would have continued for two days , while guests would have given gifts , mainly of money , to the newlyweds . The wedding ceremony would have culminated with the guests entering the bridal chamber , where they would have made various sexual references and innuendos , led by a figure with his face painted black . In Chinese rural tradition , the bride was expected to show the bloodstains on the bed sheets from her wedding night to prove that her hymen had been broken during sexual intercourse , and that she had therefore been a virgin .
= = = Married life = = =
According to what he told Snow , Mao refused to live with his wife and claimed that they had never consummated their marriage . Soon after the wedding , he ran away from home to live with an unemployed student in Shaoshan . There he spent much of his time reading , particularly historical works like Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian and Ban Gu 's History of the Former Han Dynasty , and political tracts like Feng Guifen 's Personal Protests from the Study of Jiao Bin .
Now considered part of the Mao family , Luo lived with Mao Yichang and Wen Qimei at their home , but was publicly humiliated by her husband 's disappearance ; some locals considered her to be Yichang 's concubine . Luo Yixiu died of dysentery on February 11 , 1910 , the day after Chinese New Year . Mao Zedong returned home ; his father forgave him for his disobedience , and in the autumn of 1910 agreed to finance his son 's studies at the Dongshan Higher Primary School , and so Mao left Shaoshanchong . When in 1936 Mao told Snow " I do not consider her my wife " , he made no mention of her death . Luo Yixiu 's grave is located on the mountain facing Mao Zedong 's former residence in Shaoshanchong , a few steps away from the tomb of his parents .
= = = Aftermath = = =
When Mao Zedong returned to Shaoshan in 1925 to organize a local peasant movement , he went to visit Luo Yixiu 's relatives , including her father Luo Helou and his nephew Luo Shiquan ( 石泉 ) . Luo Shiquan would join the Communist Party in the winter of that year and would remain a peasant activist until the 1949 revolution . Because Luo Yixiu had died without offspring , when the Mao lineage updated its genealogy book in 1941 , Mao Anlong ( 毛岸龙 ) , who was Mao Zedong 's third son with his second wife Yang Kaihui , was listed as Luo 's descendant . In 1950 , Mao sent his eldest son Mao Anying to Shaoshan and instructed him to visit Luo Shiquan . Mao also kept in contact with two men who had married Luo Yixiu 's sisters , and met one of these men when he returned to Shaoshan in 1959 for the first time since the 1920s .
= = Influence on Mao = =
In Mao : A Reinterpretation , American historian Lee Feigon argued that Mao 's experience with arranged marriage inspired him to become " a vehement advocate of women 's rights " in the late 1910s , as he began to write articles for the left @-@ wing press criticizing the traditional Chinese family system and arguing that love , rather than societal or family pressures , should be the primary determinant in marriage . This idea had previously been expressed by journalist and sinologist Clare Hollingworth . In their biography Mao : The Unknown Story , Jung Chang and Jon Halliday agreed , stating that it was this experience with Luo that turned Mao into a " fierce opponent " of arranged marriage .
Mao would marry three more women over the course of his life : Yang Kaihui in December 1920 , He Zizhen in May 1928 , and Jiang Qing in November 1939 .
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= Sector General =
Sector General is a series of twelve science fiction novels and various short stories by the Northern Irish author James White . The series derives its name from the setting of the majority of the books , the Sector 12 General Hospital , a huge hospital space station located in deep space , designed to treat a wide variety of life forms with a wide range of ailments and life @-@ support requirements , and to house an equally diverse staff . The Hospital was founded to promote peace after humanity 's first interstellar war , and in the fourth book the authorities conclude that its emergency services are the most effective way to make peaceful contact with new species .
In order to treat patients of other species , doctors must download into their brains " Educator tapes " containing the necessary medical knowledge , and these tapes also transmit the personalities of their donors . As a result doctors have to struggle with the tastes imported from their donors , ranging from a dislike of their own species ' normal food to sexual attraction for members of the donor 's species . Other running gags include the acerbic tongue of the Chief Psychologist and one very senior non @-@ human doctor 's love of gossip , especially about the sexual behavior of other species .
The series is noted for its diverse and believable non @-@ humanoid alien life forms , and for its pacifist philosophy . White chose the hospital setting as a way to generate dramatic tension without violence , and because in his youth he wanted to be a doctor but had to go to work . Some commentators have praised the whole series , while others have thought there was a decline after the sixth book . One reviewer described the last book as " in a very positive way , a throwback to an earlier era in science fiction " .
= = Background = =
Sector General is a gigantic multi @-@ species hospital space station founded as a peace @-@ promoting project by two heroes from opposite sides of humanity 's first full interstellar war . The hospital accommodates patients and staff from dozens of species , with different environmental requirements , behaviors and ailments , but many of the stories feature types of patient that the builders did not anticipate . Initially most of the stories center round the career of Doctor Conway , who rises from junior surgeon to the top level , Senior Diagnostician . In the fourth book the Galactic Federation decides that the emergency service which the hospital offers to victims of space accidents and planetary catastrophes is its most effective means of making peaceful contact with new spacefaring species , which allows the series to expand its range of plots , characters and locations .
White said that The Troubles in Northern Ireland induced him to write about the sort of world he would like to live in , and that he disliked war and militarists . As a youth he wanted to become a doctor , but had to go out to work . Hence he relied on epidemics and natural disasters to provide the conflicts that stories need to make them interesting . He credited his wife , who was an intensive care nurse at the height of The Troubles , for advice on medical details and for pointing out how padres often did more good than doctors for disturbed patients , which inspired The Genocidal Healer .
= = Challenges of inter @-@ species medicine = =
Sector General was founded to promote inter @-@ species harmony , and therefore all medical staff must be prepared to treat beings with very different physiologies and behavior patterns , and sometimes with environmental requirements that would be lethal to staff without suitable protection . The hospital uses a four @-@ letter system to assign patients to wards that provide suitable environments , a classification technique used earlier by E. E. " Doc " Smith 's Children of the Lens . White 's Star Healer introduces the classification " FOKT " , which is regarded as an in @-@ joke on the name of the Glasgow science fiction club Friends of Kilgore Trout . The List of Sector General species provides a partial list of the species to be found in the hospital .
Early on , it was learned that diseases were species specific , so there was no danger of a disease or virus spreading to other races and potentially causing a pandemic . Extreme care is still taken , as there only has to be single instance of this not being the case to have deadly consequences .
When necessary physicians , surgeons and pathologists download information about patients ' species into their minds from " Educator tapes " , recordings of the memories of great practitioners in the appropriate species . However , in addition to medical knowledge , the educator tapes also capture the personalities of the medical experts who recorded them . Thus having an educator tape active threatens the recipient with multiple personality disorder . The new personality is from a vastly different species , often with very different behavior codes and sexual preferences , and , to make matters worse , the donors were often very dominant personalities . The mildest symptom of such conflicts is a running gag in which users of these tapes are often seen in the Sector General 's cafeteria , eating a bland @-@ looking sandwich with closed eyes . On the other hand the risk of finding members of other species sexually attractive is a serious concern .
Junior doctors usually have these acquired memories erased as soon as possible . However as a doctor rises up through the hospital hierarchy , and if its mind proves to be sufficiently stable , it may find itself the permanent recipient of one or more tapes . Diagnosticians , the medical elite of Sector General , can have as many as ten different tapes active at one time , as they may have to supervise treatment of many species at the same time .
In the case of species with two permanent sexes , including but not limited to Earth @-@ humans , the stories state that females are psychologically incapable of allowing their psyches to be violated to the extent required by the educator tapes . However in one of the later books a very assertive non @-@ human female character accidentally acquires several sets of memories which cannot be erased , and adjusts to this with relative ease .
= = Regular characters = =
Although many of the characters are " Earth @-@ human " – " human " is ambiguous because all species refers to themselves as " human " in their own languages – the stories feature medical staff from a wide range of species . In each story characters belonging to species different from that of the protagonist are treated as neuter and referred to as " it " . Some species are touchy about any reference to sexual roles and behavior , some have more than two sexes and some change sex once or more during their lifetimes .
The following appear in nearly all the stories :
Dr. Conway
A male Earth @-@ human who starts as a junior intern and , over the course of the series , works his way up to Chief Surgeon and eventually Diagnostician in Charge of Surgery . Conway ( whose first name , Peter , is only revealed in the ninth book ) generally prefers extraterrestrial company to that of his own species , and has a habit of thinking aloud . His passions are healing and Murchison .
Murchison
A curvaceous female Earth @-@ human first seen as a senior nurse in the Pathology department . She eventually becomes a doctor and a Pathologist herself , and also Conway 's wife .
Dr. Prilicla
A large but fragile winged insect @-@ like being from the very low @-@ gravity planet Cinruss . In addition to being highly skilled in the more delicate types of surgery , Prilicla is an empath and therefore can sense the emotions of most other lifeforms including many non @-@ intelligent animals . Its tact and the desire of colleagues to avoid distressing it by displaying negative emotions generally makes others willing to follow its advice – a pattern that one reviewer described as " a pleasant Machiavellian streak . " Despite its natural timidity and the distress that other beings ' anger , fear and pain cause it , Prilicla uses its empathic ability in prolonged searches for survivors of space combat and accidents .
Major O 'Mara
The Earth @-@ human head of the hospital 's Psychology department , his job is to ensure that the hospital 's diverse species work together as harmoniously , efficiently and safely as circumstances allow , and particularly to save the staff from being driven insane by over @-@ use of Educator tapes . Since he is a very acute observer of behavior and often uses sarcasm " to shrink heads , not swell them " , he is sometimes called a " latter @-@ day Torquemada " .
Charge Nurse Naydrad
A member of the Kelgian species , Naydrad looks like a giant caterpillar . Since the involuntary movements of Kelgians ' fur completely show their emotions , the species is incapable of both lying and tact . Naydrad is a specialist in rescuing victims of space accidents .
Thornnastor
A native of the high @-@ gravity planet Traltha , Thornnastor ( nicknamed " Thorny " ) has a body like a six @-@ legged elephant , and its own keen senses are supplemented by a symbiont that provides acute vision over up to 360 degrees . Thornnastor is the Diagnostician in Charge of Pathology , and it carries ten Educator tapes . Its fascination with gossip , especially about the scandalous activities of a multi @-@ sexed , methane @-@ breathing , cryogenic species , is a running gag in the series .
= = Critical appraisal = =
The Sector General series defined the subgenre of multi @-@ species medical stories , although L. Ron Hubbard 's Ole Doc Methuselah stories and Murray Leinster 's Med Service stories , neither of which were highly regarded , had explored some similar themes . Sector General was " the first explicitly pacifist space opera " series , while much of contemporary space opera from the USA was notably military . Mike Resnick described the series ' characters as " the most memorable crew of aliens ever created " . Michael Ashley commented that the setting of the television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine is reminiscent of Sector General . The Babylon 5 television series was also set in space station with atmospheres for different species .
Many commentators attribute the series ' popularity to the altruism of its doctors and the emphasis on seeking to build peaceful relations between different species . John Clute wrote that " in the depiction of goodness may lie the real genius of James White . " White 's hatred of war and xenophobia is a constant theme of the series , notably in : Star Surgeon , where the Monitor Corps fights a savage battle in defence of the hospital space station , to prevent the conflict from escalating into a full interstellar war that can only end in genocide ; and in The Genocidal Healer , where an alien race 's sexual urges are almost eliminated by a plague and can only be stimulated by hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat .
The early stories focus almost entirely on medical problems , mainly from Conway 's viewpoint . In Dave Langford 's opinion the xenobiological novelties were becoming less credible by the end of Star Healer , and using a variety of alien viewpoint characters gave the later books " considerable new pep " . These also deal with deeper issues , notably in The Genocidal Healer , and better than most science fiction according to Resnick .
Opinions differ about the quality of the series as a whole . For example Gary Westfahl wrote that " the Sector General stories remained consistently fresh and involving , and they grew in prominence as the series progressed . " On the other hand Todd White wrote that the series declined after Star Healer ( 1985 ) , hitting a low point with the Galactic Gourmet ( 1996 ) , and that the later books tended to stretch a short story 's worth of content to the length of a novel . However he thought that Mind Changer ( 1998 ) represented an improvement .
Publishers Weekly described Mind Changer as " White 's finest performance , replete with wit , originality , medical expertise and sheer decency " and commented that the series shows no signs of aging , and Booklist described the book as an " enjoyable , witty resumé " of Chief Psychologist O 'Mara 's career .
Clinton Lawrence described the last Sector General book , Double Contact ( 1999 ) , as " in a very positive way , a throwback to an earlier era in science fiction " since it is optimistic and depicts several advanced species working harmoniously . The struggle to build trust and produce a successful first contact is , he thought , as exciting and suspenseful as one could wish for . However he noted that the level of characterization was the minimum required to support the plot .
= = Stories in the series = =
The Sector General series began as short stories published in New Worlds from 1957 onwards . Originally White intended to end the series with Star Healer ( 1985 ) , by which time the central characters had reached the top levels in their careers , but Ballantine Books persuaded him to continue . He extended the stories ' range by introducing new central characters beginning with Code Blue - Emergency ( 1987 ) , and The Genocidal Healer ( 1992 ) focused on psychological and theological issues of guilt and forgiveness rather than strictly medical ones .
The books in the series are :
Hospital Station ( 1962 : stories published in New Worlds 1957 – 1960 )
Star Surgeon ( 1963 )
Major Operation ( 1971 : stories published in New Worlds 1968 – 1971 )
Ambulance Ship ( 1979 )
Sector General ( 1983 )
Star Healer ( 1985 )
Code Blue - Emergency ( 1987 )
The Genocidal Healer ( 1992 )
The Galactic Gourmet ( 1996 )
Final Diagnosis ( 1997 )
Mind Changer ( 1998 )
Double Contact ( 1999 )
These were also published as omnibus editions :
Beginning Operations ( 2001 ) contains Hospital Station , Star Surgeon and Major Operation .
Alien Emergencies ( 2002 ) contains Ambulance Ship , Sector General and Star Healer .
General Practice ( 2003 ) contains Code Blue - Emergency and The Genocidal Healer .
Tales of Sector General ( 1999 ) contains The Galactic Gourmet , Final Diagnosis , and Mind Changer .
Notes :
White 's short story Sector General is in the book Hospital Station .
In addition to these books , several related short stories ( Countercharm , Tableau , Occupation : Warrior , and Custom Fitting ) appear in other collections by White . The first three are in The Aliens Among Us , the fourth in Futures Past .
The short story Custom Fitting does not mention Sector General , but does describe the Galactic Federation making its first contact with Earth . Tableau also does not mention Sector General but introduces the alien race , the Orligians , who appear in the series .
The short story Occupation : Warrior , published in 1959 , provides the backstory of the Monitor Corps ' Commander Dermod , who appears in some of the books . However the editor of Science Fiction Adventures removed all reference to Sector General from Occupation : Warrior because he thought it was too grim to be treated as part of the series . Countercharm is the only short story actually set in Sector General , not included in a Sector General book .
Alan E. Nourse also wrote a science fiction novel called Star Surgeon .
= = See Also = =
List of Sector General species
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= Washington State Route 502 =
State Route 502 ( SR 502 , officially known as the Battle Ground Highway ) is a 6 @.@ 12 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 85 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving the city of Battle Ground in Clark County . The highway travels due east from an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) north of Mount Vista through Dollars Corner and Battle Ground to an intersection with SR 503 , serving as connector between Battle Ground and I @-@ 5 . Prior to the 1964 highway renumbering , SR 502 was part of Secondary State Highway 1S ( SSH 1S ) , which was established in 1937 . The highway traveled south from its current western terminus until the construction of a new interchange with I @-@ 5 in 2008 , part of a project to widen SR 502 and install a median barrier on the roadway .
= = Route description = =
SR 502 begins as the four @-@ lane Battle Ground Highway at exit 11 on I @-@ 5 , a partial cloverleaf interchange located north of Mount Vista , and travels due east as 219th Street , crossing Gee Creek and passing the northbound Gee Creek rest area . The narrowed two @-@ lane highway travels east through rural Clark County and the community of Dollars Corner before it enters the city of Battle Ground , where it becomes four @-@ lane Main Street . SR 502 crosses over Mill Creek and travels through the city , ending at an intersection with SR 503 and Main Street .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 8 @,@ 200 and 26 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly within Battle Ground . The entire route is designated as part of the National Highway System , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
SSH 1S was created in 1937 during the formation of the primary and secondary state highways , traveling on a 57 @.@ 60 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 92 @.@ 70 km ) route east from Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) and U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) north of Mount Vista to intersect SSH 1U in Battle Ground and turned north towards Amboy and west to end at PSH 1 and US 99 in Woodland . After PSH 1 and US 99 was realigned onto a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access highway in the late 1940s , SSH 1S was extended south over the old highway to intersect PSH 1 and US 99 .
SR 502 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering and codified in 1970 as the successor to the Mount Vista – Battle Ground section of SSH 1S , while US 99 was replaced by I @-@ 5 . WSDOT constructed a new interchange between I @-@ 5 and 219th Street between April 2007 and October 2008 at a cost of $ 52 million . The new interchange and subsequent realignment shortened the total length of SR 502 by 1 @.@ 46 miles ( 2 @.@ 35 km ) , however , the mileposts were not updated , as of 2011 . During construction of the interchange , WSDOT uncovered archaeological remains belonging to a Coast Salish settlement at Gee Creek that were at least 8 @,@ 000 years old . The entire highway was christened the " Battle Ground Highway " in May 2009 to signify the importance of SR 502 connecting the city of Battle Ground to I @-@ 5 .
WSDOT began preparing to install a median barrier and widen SR 502 to four lanes between the I @-@ 5 interchange and the western Battle Ground city limit in July 2012 to accommodate increasing traffic on the highway , which has a speed limit up to 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . Construction for the $ 85 million project began in earnest in 2014 . New Mill Creek wetlands were created , to mitigate for wetlands buried by construction , which included the driving of 1 @,@ 200 concrete pilings . The new , four @-@ lane highway , which includes 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) shoulders for bicycle and pedestrian travel and traffic signals at major intersections , opened on June 27 , 2016 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Clark County .
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= Carbon monoxide poisoning =
Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after too much inhalation of carbon monoxide ( CO ) . Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas , but , being colorless , odorless , tasteless , and initially non @-@ irritating , it is very difficult for people to detect . Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion of organic matter due to insufficient oxygen supply to enable complete oxidation to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is often produced in domestic or industrial settings by motor vehicles that run on gasoline , diesel , methane , or other carbon @-@ based fuels and from tools , gas heaters , and cooking equipment that are powered by carbon @-@ based fuels such as propane , butane and charcoal . Exposure at 100 ppm or greater can be dangerous to human health .
Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include lightheadedness , confusion , headache , vertigo , and flu @-@ like effects ; larger exposures can lead to significant toxicity of the central nervous system and heart , and death . After acute poisoning , long @-@ term sequelae often occur . Carbon monoxide can also have severe effects on the fetus of a pregnant woman . Chronic exposure to low levels of carbon monoxide can lead to depression , confusion , and memory loss . Carbon monoxide mainly causes adverse effects in humans by combining with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin ( HbCO ) in the blood . This prevents hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the tissues , effectively reducing the oxygen @-@ carrying capacity of the blood , leading to hypoxia . Additionally , myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are thought to be adversely affected . Carboxyhemoglobin can revert to hemoglobin , but the recovery takes time because the HbCO complex is fairly stable .
Treatment of poisoning largely consists of administering 100 % oxygen or providing hyperbaric oxygen therapy , although the optimum treatment remains controversial . Oxygen works as an antidote as it increases the removal of carbon monoxide from hemoglobin , in turn providing the body with normal levels of oxygen . The prevention of poisoning is a significant public health issue . Domestic carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented by early detection with the use of household carbon monoxide detectors . Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries . Historically , it was also commonly used as a method to commit suicide , usually by deliberately inhaling the exhaust fumes of a running car engine . Modern automobiles , even with electronically controlled combustion and catalytic converters , can still produce levels of carbon monoxide which will kill if enclosed within a garage or if the tailpipe is obstructed ( for example , by snow ) and exhaust gas cannot escape normally . Carbon monoxide poisoning has also been speculated as a possible cause of apparent haunted houses ; symptoms such as delirium and hallucinations may have led people suffering poisoning to think they have seen ghosts or to believe their house is haunted .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Carbon monoxide is not toxic to all forms of life . Its harmful effects are due to binding with hemoglobin so its danger to organisms that do not use this compound is doubtful . It thus has no effect on photosynthesising plants . It is easily absorbed through the lungs . Inhaling the gas can lead to hypoxic injury , nervous system damage , and even death . Different people and populations may have different carbon monoxide tolerance levels . On average , exposures at 100 ppm or greater is dangerous to human health . In the United States , the OSHA limits long @-@ term workplace exposure levels to less than 50 ppm averaged over an 8 @-@ hour period ; in addition , employees are to be removed from any confined space if an upper limit ( " ceiling " ) of 100 ppm is reached . Carbon monoxide exposure may lead to a significantly shorter life span due to heart damage . The carbon monoxide tolerance level for any person is altered by several factors , including activity level , rate of ventilation , a pre @-@ existing cerebral or cardiovascular disease , cardiac output , anemia , sickle cell disease and other hematological disorders , barometric pressure , and metabolic rate .
The acute effects produced by carbon monoxide in relation to ambient concentration in parts per million are listed below :
= = = Acute poisoning = = =
The main manifestations of carbon monoxide poisoning develop in the organ systems most dependent on oxygen use , the central nervous system and the heart . The initial symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include headache , nausea , malaise , and fatigue . These symptoms are often mistaken for a virus such as influenza or other illnesses such as food poisoning or gastroenteritis . Headache is the most common symptom of acute carbon monoxide poisoning ; it is often described as dull , frontal , and continuous . Increasing exposure produces cardiac abnormalities including fast heart rate , low blood pressure , and cardiac arrhythmia ; central nervous system symptoms include delirium , hallucinations , dizziness , unsteady gait , confusion , seizures , central nervous system depression , unconsciousness , respiratory arrest , and death . Less common symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include myocardial ischemia , atrial fibrillation , pneumonia , pulmonary edema , high blood sugar , lactic acidosis , muscle necrosis , acute kidney failure , skin lesions , and visual and auditory problems .
One of the major concerns following acute carbon monoxide poisoning is the severe delayed neurological manifestations that may occur . Problems may include difficulty with higher intellectual functions , short @-@ term memory loss , dementia , amnesia , psychosis , irritability , a strange gait , speech disturbances , Parkinson 's disease @-@ like syndromes , cortical blindness , and a depressed mood . Depression may occur in those who did not have pre @-@ existing depression . These delayed neurological sequelae may occur in up to 50 % of poisoned people after 2 to 40 days . It is difficult to predict who will develop delayed sequelae ; however , advanced age , loss of consciousness while poisoned , and initial neurological abnormalities may increase the chance of developing delayed symptoms .
One classic sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is more often seen in the dead rather than the living – people have been described as looking red @-@ cheeked and healthy ( see below ) . However , since this " cherry @-@ red " appearance is common only in the deceased , and is unusual in living people , it is not considered a useful diagnostic sign in clinical medicine . In pathological ( autopsy ) examination the ruddy appearance of carbon monoxide poisoning is notable because unembalmed dead persons are normally bluish and pale , whereas dead carbon @-@ monoxide poisoned persons may simply appear unusually lifelike in coloration . The colorant effect of carbon monoxide in such postmortem circumstances is thus analogous to its use as a red colorant in the commercial meat @-@ packing industry .
= = = Chronic poisoning = = =
Chronic exposure to relatively low levels of carbon monoxide may cause persistent headaches , lightheadedness , depression , confusion , memory loss , nausea and vomiting . It is unknown whether low @-@ level chronic exposure may cause permanent neurological damage . Typically , upon removal from exposure to carbon monoxide , symptoms usually resolve themselves , unless there has been an episode of severe acute poisoning . However , one case noted permanent memory loss and learning problems after a 3 @-@ year exposure to relatively low levels of carbon monoxide from a faulty furnace . Chronic exposure may worsen cardiovascular symptoms in some people . Chronic carbon monoxide exposure might increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis . Long @-@ term exposures to carbon monoxide present the greatest risk to persons with coronary heart disease and in females who are pregnant .
= = Causes = =
Carbon monoxide is a product of combustion of organic matter under conditions of restricted oxygen supply , which prevents complete oxidation to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Sources of carbon monoxide include cigarette smoke , house fires , faulty furnaces , heaters , wood @-@ burning stoves , internal combustion vehicle exhaust , electrical generators , propane @-@ fueled equipment such as portable stoves , and gasoline @-@ powered tools such as leaf blowers , lawn mowers , high @-@ pressure washers , concrete cutting saws , power trowels , and welders . Exposure typically occurs when equipment is used in buildings or semi @-@ enclosed spaces .
Riding in pickup trucks has led to poisoning in children . Idling automobiles with the exhaust pipe blocked by snow has led to the poisoning of car occupants . Any perforation between the exhaust manifold and shroud can result in exhaust gases reaching the cabin . Generators and propulsion engines on boats , especially houseboats , has resulted in fatal carbon monoxide exposures .
Poisoning may also occur following the use of a self @-@ contained underwater breathing apparatus ( SCUBA ) due to faulty diving air compressors .
In caves carbon monoxide can build up in enclosed chambers due to the presence of decomposing organic matter . In coal mines incomplete combustion may occur during explosions resulting in the production of afterdamp . The gas is up to 3 % CO and may be fatal after just a single breath . Following an explosion in a colliery adjacent , interconnected , mines may become dangerous due to the afterdamp leaking from mine to mine . Such an incident followed the Trimdon Grange explosion which killed men in the Kelloe mine .
Another source of poisoning is exposure to the organic solvent dichloromethane , found in some paint strippers , as the metabolism of dichloromethane produces carbon monoxide .
= = Pathophysiology = =
The precise mechanisms by which the effects of carbon monoxide are induced upon bodily systems , are complex and not yet fully understood . Known mechanisms include carbon monoxide binding to hemoglobin , myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase and restricting oxygen supply , and carbon monoxide causing brain lipid peroxidation .
= = = Hemoglobin = = =
Carbon monoxide has a higher diffusion coefficient compared to oxygen and the only enzyme in the human body that produces carbon monoxide is heme oxygenase which is located in all cells and breaks down heme . Under normal conditions carbon monoxide levels in the plasma are approximately 0 mmHg because it has a higher diffusion coefficient and the body easily gets rid of any CO made . When CO is not ventilated it binds to hemoglobin , which is the principal oxygen @-@ carrying compound in blood ; this produces a compound known as carboxyhemoglobin . The traditional belief is that carbon monoxide toxicity arises from the formation of carboxyhemoglobin , which decreases the oxygen @-@ carrying capacity of the blood and inhibits the transport , delivery , and utilization of oxygen by the body . The affinity between hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is approximately 230 times stronger than the affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen so hemoglobin binds to carbon monoxide in preference to oxygen .
Hemoglobin is a tetramer with four oxygen binding sites . The binding of carbon monoxide at one of these sites increases the oxygen affinity of the remaining three sites , which causes the hemoglobin molecule to retain oxygen that would otherwise be delivered to the tissue . This situation is described as carbon monoxide shifting the oxygen dissociation curve to the left . Because of the increased affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen during carbon monoxide poisoning , little oxygen will actually be released in the tissues . This causes hypoxic tissue injury . Hemoglobin acquires a bright red color when converted into carboxyhemoglobin , so poisoned cadavers and even commercial meats treated with carbon monoxide acquire an unnatural reddish hue .
= = = Myoglobin = = =
Carbon monoxide also binds to the hemeprotein myoglobin . It has a high affinity for myoglobin , about 60 times greater than that of oxygen . Carbon monoxide bound to myoglobin may impair its ability to utilize oxygen . This causes reduced cardiac output and hypotension , which may result in brain ischemia . A delayed return of symptoms have been reported . This results following a recurrence of increased carboxyhemoglobin levels ; this effect may be due to a late release of carbon monoxide from myoglobin , which subsequently binds to hemoglobin .
= = = Cytochrome oxidase = = =
Another mechanism involves effects on the mitochondrial respiratory enzyme chain that is responsible for effective tissue utilization of oxygen . Carbon monoxide binds to cytochrome oxidase with less affinity than oxygen , so it is possible that it requires significant intracellular hypoxia before binding . This binding interferes with aerobic metabolism and efficient adenosine triphosphate synthesis . Cells respond by switching to anaerobic metabolism , causing anoxia , lactic acidosis , and eventual cell death . The rate of dissociation between carbon monoxide and cytochrome oxidase is slow , causing a relatively prolonged impairment of oxidative metabolism .
= = = Central nervous system effects = = =
The mechanism that is thought to have a significant influence on delayed effects involves formed blood cells and chemical mediators , which cause brain lipid peroxidation ( degradation of unsaturated fatty acids ) . Carbon monoxide causes endothelial cell and platelet release of nitric oxide , and the formation of oxygen free radicals including peroxynitrite . In the brain this causes further mitochondrial dysfunction , capillary leakage , leukocyte sequestration , and apoptosis . The result of these effects is lipid peroxidation , which causes delayed reversible demyelinization of white matter in the central nervous system known as Grinker myelinopathy , which can lead to edema and necrosis within the brain . This brain damage occurs mainly during the recovery period . This may result in cognitive defects , especially affecting memory and learning , and movement disorders . These disorders are typically related to damage to the cerebral white matter and basal ganglia . Hallmark pathological changes following poisoning are bilateral necrosis of the white matter , globus pallidus , cerebellum , hippocampus and the cerebral cortex .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
Carbon monoxide poisoning in pregnant women may cause severe adverse fetal effects . Poisoning causes fetal tissue hypoxia by decreasing the release of maternal oxygen to the fetus . Carbon monoxide also crosses the placenta and combines with fetal hemoglobin , causing more direct fetal tissue hypoxia . Additionally , fetal hemoglobin has a 10 to 15 % higher affinity for carbon monoxide than adult hemoglobin , causing more severe poisoning in the fetus than in the adult . Elimination of carbon monoxide is slower in the fetus , leading to an accumulation of the toxic chemical . The level of fetal morbidity and mortality in acute carbon monoxide poisoning is significant , so despite mild maternal poisoning or following maternal recovery , severe fetal poisoning or death may still occur .
= = Diagnosis = =
As many symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning also occur with many other types of poisonings and infections ( such as the flu ) , the diagnosis is often difficult . A history of potential carbon monoxide exposure , such as being exposed to a residential fire , may suggest poisoning , but the diagnosis is confirmed by measuring the levels of carbon monoxide in the blood . This can be determined by measuring the amount of carboxyhemoglobin compared to the amount of hemoglobin in the blood .
As people may continue to experience significant symptoms of CO poisoning long after their blood carboxyhemoglobin concentration has returned to normal , presenting to examination with a normal carboxyhemoglobin level ( which may happen in late states of poisoning ) does not rule out poisoning .
A CO @-@ oximeter is used to determine carboxyhemoglobin levels . Pulse CO @-@ oximeters estimate carboxyhemoglobin with a non @-@ invasive finger clip similar to a pulse oximeter . These devices function by passing various wavelengths of light through the fingertip and measuring the light absorption of the different types of hemoglobin in the capillaries .
The use of a regular pulse oximeter is not effective in the diagnosis of carbon monoxide poisoning as people suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning may have a normal oxygen saturation level on a pulse oximeter . This is due to the carboxyhemoglobin being misrepresented as oxyhemoglobin .
Breath CO monitoring offers a viable alternative to pulse CO @-@ oximetry . Carboxyhemoglobin levels have been shown to have a strong correlation with breath CO concentration . However , many of these devices require the user to inhale deeply and hold their breath to allow the CO in the blood to escape into the lung before the measurement can be made . As this is not possible in a nonresponsive patient , these devices are not appropriate for use in on @-@ scene emergency care detection of CO poisoning .
= = = Detection in biological specimens = = =
Carbon monoxide may be quantitated in blood using spectrophotometric methods or chromatographic techniques in order to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in a person or to assist in the forensic investigation of a case of fatal exposure . Carboxyhemoglobin blood saturations may range up to 8 – 10 % in heavy smokers or persons extensively exposed to automotive exhaust gases . In symptomatic poisoned people they are often in the 10 – 30 % range , while persons who succumb may have postmortem blood levels of 30 – 90 % .
The ratio of carboxyhemoglobin to hemoglobin molecules in an average person may be up to 5 % , although cigarette smokers who smoke two packs / day may have levels up to 9 % .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
There are many conditions to be considered in the differential diagnosis of carbon monoxide poisoning . The earliest symptoms , especially from low level exposures , are often non @-@ specific and readily confused with other illnesses , typically flu @-@ like viral syndromes , depression , chronic fatigue syndrome , chest pain , and migraine or other headaches . Carbon monoxide has been called a " great mimicker " due to the presentation of poisoning being diverse and nonspecific . Other conditions included in the differential diagnosis include acute respiratory distress syndrome , altitude sickness , lactic acidosis , diabetic ketoacidosis , meningitis , methemoglobinemia , or opioid or toxic alcohol poisoning .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Detectors = = =
Prevention remains a vital public health issue , requiring public education on the safe operation of appliances , heaters , fireplaces , and internal @-@ combustion engines , as well as increased emphasis on the installation of carbon monoxide detectors . Carbon monoxide is tasteless and odourless so can not be detected by smell .
The United States Consumer Product Safety Commission has stated , " carbon monoxide detectors are as important to home safety as smoke detectors are , " and recommends each home have at least one carbon monoxide detector , and preferably one on each level of the building . These devices , which are relatively inexpensive and widely available , are either battery- or AC @-@ powered , with or without battery backup . In buildings , carbon monoxide detectors are usually installed around heaters and other equipment . If a relatively high level of carbon monoxide is detected , the device sounds an alarm , giving people the chance to evacuate and ventilate the building . Unlike smoke detectors , carbon monoxide detectors do not need to be placed near ceiling level .
The use of carbon monoxide detectors has been standardized in many areas . In the USA , NFPA 720 @-@ 2009 , the carbon monoxide detector guidelines published by the National Fire Protection Association , mandates the placement of carbon monoxide detectors / alarms on every level of the residence , including the basement , in addition to outside sleeping areas . In new homes , AC @-@ powered detectors must have battery backup and be interconnected to ensure early warning of occupants at all levels . NFPA 720 @-@ 2009 is the first national carbon monoxide standard to address devices in non @-@ residential buildings . These guidelines , which now pertain to schools , healthcare centers , nursing homes and other non @-@ residential buildings , include three main points :
1 . A secondary power supply ( battery backup ) must operate all carbon monoxide notification appliances for at least 12 hours ,
2 . Detectors must be on the ceiling in the same room as permanently installed fuel @-@ burning appliances , and
3 . Detectors must be located on every habitable level and in every HVAC zone of the building .
Gas organizations will often recommend to get gas appliances serviced at least once a year .
= = = Legal requirements = = =
The NFPA standard is not necessarily enforced by law . As of April 2006 , the U.S. state of Massachusetts requires detectors to be present in all residences with potential CO sources , regardless of building age and whether they are owner @-@ occupied or rented . This is enforced by municipal inspectors , and was inspired by the death of 7 @-@ year @-@ old Nicole Garofalo in 2005 due to snow blocking a home heating vent . Other jurisdictions may have no requirement or only mandate detectors for new construction or at time of sale .
Despite similar deaths in vehicles with clogged exhaust pipes ( for example in the Northeastern United States blizzard of 1978 and February 2013 nor 'easter ) and the commercial availability of the equipment , there is no legal requirement for automotive CO detectors .
= = = World Health Organization recommendations = = =
The following guideline values ( ppm values rounded ) and periods of time @-@ weighted average exposures have been determined in such a way that the carboxyhaemoglobin ( COHb ) level of 2 @.@ 5 % is not exceeded , even when a normal subject engages in light or moderate exercise :
100 mg / m3 ( 87 ppm ) for 15 min
60 mg / m3 ( 52 ppm ) for 30 min
30 mg / m3 ( 26 ppm ) for 1 h
10 mg / m3 ( 9 ppm ) for 8 h
For indoor air quality 7 mg / m3 ( 6 ppm ) for 24 h ( so as not to exceed 2 % COHb for chronic exposure )
= = Treatment = =
Initial treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning is to immediately remove the person from the exposure without endangering further people . Those who are unconscious may require CPR on site . Administering oxygen via non @-@ rebreather mask shortens the half life of carbon monoxide from 320 minutes to 80 minutes on normal air . Oxygen hastens the dissociation of carbon monoxide from carboxyhemoglobin , thus turning it back into hemoglobin . Due to the possible severe effects in the fetus , pregnant women are treated with oxygen for longer periods of time than non @-@ pregnant people .
= = = Hyperbaric oxygen = = =
Hyperbaric oxygen is also used in the treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning , as it may hasten dissociation of CO from carboxyhemoglobin and cytochrome oxidase to a greater extent than normal oxygen . Hyperbaric oxygen at three times atmospheric pressure reduces the half life of carbon monoxide to 23 ( ~ 80 / 3 minutes ) minutes , compared to 80 minutes for regular oxygen . It may also enhance oxygen transport to the tissues by plasma , partially bypassing the normal transfer through hemoglobin . However , it is controversial whether hyperbaric oxygen actually offers any extra benefits over normal high flow oxygen , in terms of increased survival or improved long @-@ term outcomes . There have been randomized controlled trials in which the two treatment options have been compared ; of the six performed , four found hyperbaric oxygen improved outcome and two found no benefit for hyperbaric oxygen . Some of these trials have been criticized for apparent flaws in their implementation . A review of all the literature on carbon monoxide poisoning treatment concluded that the role of hyperbaric oxygen is unclear and the available evidence neither confirms nor denies a medically meaningful benefit . The authors suggested a large , well designed , externally audited , multicentre trial to compare normal oxygen with hyperbaric oxygen .
= = = Other = = =
Further treatment for other complications such as seizure , hypotension , cardiac abnormalities , pulmonary edema , and acidosis may be required . Increased muscle activity and seizures should be treated with dantrolene or diazepam ; diazepam should only be given with appropriate respiratory support . Hypotension requires treatment with intravenous fluids ; vasopressors may be required to treat myocardial depression . Cardiac dysrhythmias are treated with standard advanced cardiac life support protocols . If severe , metabolic acidosis is treated with sodium bicarbonate . Treatment with sodium bicarbonate is controversial as acidosis may increase tissue oxygen availability . Treatment of acidosis may only need to consist of oxygen therapy . The delayed development of neuropsychiatric impairment is one of the most serious complications of carbon monoxide poisoning . Brain damage is confirmed following MRI or CAT scans . Extensive follow up and supportive treatment is often required for delayed neurological damage . Outcomes are often difficult to predict following poisoning , especially people who have symptoms of cardiac arrest , coma , metabolic acidosis , or have high carboxyhemoglobin levels . One study reported that approximately 30 % of people with severe carbon monoxide poisoning will have a fatal outcome . It has been reported that electroconvulsive therapy ( ECT ) may increase the likelihood of delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae ( DNS ) after carbon monoxide ( CO ) poisoning .
= = Epidemiology = =
The true number of incidents of carbon monoxide poisoning is unknown , since many non @-@ lethal exposures go undetected . From the available data , carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common cause of injury and death due to poisoning worldwide . Poisoning is typically more common during the winter months . This is due to increased domestic use of gas furnaces , gas or kerosene space heaters , and kitchen stoves during the winter months , which if faulty and / or used without adequate ventilation , may produce excessive carbon monoxide . Carbon monoxide detection and poisoning also increases during power outages .
It has been estimated that more than 40 @,@ 000 people per year seek medical attention for carbon monoxide poisoning in the United States . 95 % of carbon monoxide poisoning deaths in the United States are due to gas space heaters . In many industrialized countries carbon monoxide is the cause of more than 50 % of fatal poisonings . In the United States , approximately 200 people die each year from carbon monoxide poisoning associated with home fuel @-@ burning heating equipment . Carbon monoxide poisoning contributes to the approximately 5613 smoke inhalation deaths each year in the United States . The CDC reports , " Each year , more than 500 Americans die from unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning , and more than 2 @,@ 000 commit suicide by intentionally poisoning themselves . " For the 10 @-@ year period from 1979 to 1988 , 56 @,@ 133 deaths from carbon monoxide poisoning occurred in the United States , with 25 @,@ 889 of those being suicides , leaving 30 @,@ 244 unintentional deaths . A report from New Zealand showed that 206 people died from carbon monoxide poisoning in the years of 2001 and 2002 . In total carbon monoxide poisoning was responsible for 43 @.@ 9 % of deaths by poisoning in that country . In South Korea , 1 @,@ 950 people had been poisoned by carbon monoxide with 254 deaths from 2001 through 2003 . A report from Jerusalem showed 3 @.@ 53 per 100 @,@ 000 people were poisoned annually from 2001 through 2006 . In Hubei , China , 218 deaths from poisoning were reported over a 10 @-@ year period with 16 @.@ 5 % being from carbon monoxide exposure .
= = Society and culture = =
As part of the Holocaust during World War II , German Nazis used gas vans at Chelmno camp and elsewhere to kill an estimated over 700 @,@ 000 prisoners by carbon monoxide poisoning . This method was also used in the gas chambers of several death camps such as Treblinka , Sobibor and Belzec . Gassing with carbon monoxide started in action T4 , the euthanasia programme developed by the Nazis in Germany to murder the mentally ill and disabled people before the war started in earnest . Many key personnel were recruited to murder much larger numbers of people in the gas vans and the special gas chambers used in the death camps such as Treblinka . Exhaust fumes from tank engines for example , were used to supply the gas to the chambers .
= = Research = =
Carbon monoxide is produced naturally by the body as a byproduct of converting protoporphyrin into bilirubin . This carbon monoxide also combines with hemoglobin to make carboxyhemoglobin , but not at toxic levels .
Small amounts of CO are beneficial and enzymes exist that produce it at times of oxidative stress . Drugs are being developed to introduce small amounts of CO during certain kinds of surgery , these drugs are called Carbon monoxide @-@ releasing molecules .
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= The Tribute Money ( Masaccio ) =
The Tribute Money is a fresco by the Italian renaissance painter Masaccio , located in the Brancacci Chapel of the basilica of Santa Maria del Carmine , Florence , and completed by his senior collaborator , Masolino . Painted in the 1420s , it is widely considered among Masaccio 's best work , and a vital part of the development of renaissance art .
The painting is part of a cycle on the life of Saint Peter , and describes a scene from the Gospel of Matthew , in which Jesus directs Peter to find a coin in the mouth of a fish in order to pay the temple tax . It owes its importance in particular to its revolutionary use of perspective and chiaroscuro . The Tribute Money suffered great damage in the centuries after its creation , until the chapel went through a thorough restoration in the 1980s .
= = The Brancacci Chapel = =
The Brancacci Chapel , in the basilica of Santa Maria del Carmine , was founded around 1366 / 7 by Piero di Piuvichese Brancacci . The chapel passed to Piero 's nephew , Felice Brancacci , who some time between 1423 and 1425 commissioned the painter Masolino to decorate the walls with a series of frescoes from the life of Saint Peter . Peter was the name @-@ saint of the founder , and the patron saint of the Brancacci family , but the choice also reflected support for the Roman papacy during the Great Schism .
At some point Masolino was joined by another artist , the eighteen years younger Masaccio . Masolino eventually left , either for Hungary in 1425 or for Rome in 1427 , leaving the completion of the chapel to Masaccio . In 1427 or 28 , before the chapel was completed , Masaccio joined Masolino in Rome . Only in the 1480s was the work finished , by Filippino Lippi . The Tribute Money , though , is considered Masaccio 's work entirely .
Over the centuries the frescoes were greatly altered and damaged . In 1746 the upper levels were painted over by the artist Vincenzo Meucci , covering up most of Masolino 's work . Then , in 1771 , the church was ruined by fire . The Brancacci Chapel , though structurally undamaged by the fire , suffered great damages to its frescoes . It was not until the years 1981 @-@ 1990 that a full @-@ scale restoration of the chapel was undertaken , restoring the frescoes to approximately their original state . The paintings had suffered some irreparable damage though , particularly the parts that were painted a secco : in The Tribute Money , the leaves on the trees were gone , while Christ 's robe had lost much of its original azure brilliance .
= = Subject matter = =
The scene depicted in The Tribute Money is drawn from Matthew 17 : 24 – 27 :
24 . And when they were come to Capernaum , they that received tribute money came to Peter , and said , Doth not your master pay tribute ? 25 . He saith , Yes . And when he was come into the house , Jesus prevented him , saying , What thinkest thou , Simon ? of whom do the kings of the earth take custom or tribute ? of their own children , or of strangers ? 26 . Peter saith unto him , Of strangers . Jesus saith unto him , Then are the children free . 27 . Notwithstanding , lest we should offend them , go thou to the sea , and cast an hook , and take up the fish that first cometh up ; and when thou hast opened his mouth , thou shalt find a piece of money : that take , and give unto them for me and thee .
The story is only found in Matthew , who was himself a tax collector according to Matthew 9 : 9 @-@ 13 . The passage has been used as a Christian justification for the legitimacy of secular authority , and is often seen in conjunction with another passage , the " render unto Caesar ... " story . In Matthew 22 : 15 – 22 , a group of Pharisees try to trick Christ into incriminating himself , by asking if it is " lawful to give tribute unto Caesar , or not . " Pointing out Caesar 's image on the coin , he replies " Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar 's ; and unto God the things that are God 's . "
= = Composition = =
The painting diverges somewhat from the biblical story , in that the tax collector confronts the whole group of Christ and the disciples , and the entire scene takes place outdoors . The story is told in three parts that do not occur sequentially , but the narrative logic is still maintained , through compositional devises . The central scene is that of the tax collector demanding the tribute . The head of Christ is the vanishing point of the painting , drawing the eyes of the spectator there . Both Christ and Peter then point to the left hand part of the painting , where the next scene takes place in the middle background : Peter taking the money out of the mouth of the fish . The final scene – where Peter pays the tax collector – is at the right , set apart by the framework of an architectural structure .
This work maintains a heavy importance in the Art History world , as it is widely believed to be the first painting , since the fall of Rome ( ca . 476 A.D. ) , to use Scientific Linear One Point Perspective , or , all the orthogonals point to one vanishing point , in this case , Christ . Also , it is one of the first paintings that does away with the use of a head @-@ cluster . A technique employed by earlier Proto @-@ Renaissance artists , such as Giotto or Duccio . If you were to walk into the painting , you could walk around Jesus Christ , in the semicircle created , and back out the painting again with ease .
Christ and the disciples are placed in a semicircle , reflecting the shape of the chapel 's apse . The tax collector , on the other hand , stands outside the holy space . While the group of holy men are dressed almost entirely in robes of pastel pink and blue , the official wears a shorter tunic of a striking vermilion . The colour adds to the impertinence expressed through his gestures . Another way contrast is achieved is in the way – both in the central scene and on the right – the tax collector 's postures are copying almost exactly those of Peter , only seen from the opposite angle . This gives a three @-@ dimensional quality to the figures , allowing the spectator to view them from all sides .
= = Style = =
Masaccio is often compared to contemporaries like Donatello and Brunelleschi as a pioneer of the renaissance , particularly for his use of single @-@ point perspective . One technique that was unique to Masaccio , however , was the use of atmospheric , or aerial perspective . Both the mountains in the background , and the figure of Peter on the left are dimmer and paler than the objects in the foreground , creating an illusion of depth . This technique was known in ancient Rome , but was considered lost until reinvented by Masaccio .
Masaccio 's use of light was also revolutionary . While earlier artists like Giotto had applied a flat , neutral light from an unidentifiable source , Masaccio 's light emanated from a specific location outside the picture , casting the figures in light and shadow . This created a chiaroscuro effect , sculpting the bodies into three @-@ dimensional shapes .
Masaccio is often justly praised for the variety of his facial depictions . In the case of this painting the accolade is somewhat diminished , however , by the fact that the work was unfinished at the time of his death , and the heads of Jesus and St Peter were painted by his senior collaborator Masolino da Panicale , ( who painted the corresponding perspective work on the other side of the Chapel , " Healing of the Cripple and Raising of Tabitha " .
= = Interpretations = =
Several theories have been proposed as to why this specific subject – not a very common theme in art history – was chosen . One suggestion sees the painting as a justification for the so @-@ called catasto of 1427 ; a new form of income tax . This is not a very likely explanation , however , as Brancacci would stand to lose from the new taxation , and would probably rather have been among its opponents . A more probable explanation links the painting to Pope Martin V 's 1423 agreement that the Florentine church be subjected to state tax . The money found in the fish 's mouth can also be seen as an expression of how Florence 's wealth came from the sea . Felice Brancacci , a silk merchant involved in Mediterranean trade , was also a member of the city 's Board of Maritime Consuls .
Central to an understanding of the painting , as well as the entire series , is the relationship the Brancaccis and the city of Florence had with the papacy in Rome . Florence was at the time at war with Milan , and needed the support of the Pope . The Brancacci frescos must therefore be seen in the context of a pro @-@ papal policy , and as an attempt to legitimise the Roman see through its association with Saint Peter – the first bishop of Rome , and first pope .
In the story , Peter is clearly singled out among the disciples , and his strong connection with Christ can be seen in Christ 's words " for me and thee " . Peter appears a majestic and energetic figure when he is with Christ and when he performs his work , in contrast to the diminutive shape on the left . This all points forward to his apostolic role as Christ 's vicar on earth . As such The Tribute Money represents a transitional scene in the chapel ; in doing Christ 's bidding Peter goes from being a disciple to being the master .
Only two of the disciples can be identified with any degree of certainty : Peter with his iconographic grey hair and beard , and blue and yellow attire , and John ; the young beardless man standing next to Christ . John 's head is reminiscent of Roman sculptures , and it is reflected in the very similar face of another disciple on the right . The person next to this disciple is assumed to be Judas , whose dark and sinister face mirrors that of the tax collector . It has been speculated – first by Vasari – that the face on the far right is a self @-@ portrait of Masaccio himself , as Thomas .
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= 1999 National League Wild Card tie @-@ breaker game =
The 1999 National League wild @-@ card tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1999 regular season , played between the New York Mets and Cincinnati Reds to determine the winner of the National League ( NL ) wild card . It was played at Cinergy Field in Cincinnati , on October 4 , 1999 . The Mets won the game 5 – 0 , with starting pitcher Al Leiter pitching a two @-@ hit shutout . As a result , the Mets qualified for the postseason and the Reds did not .
The game was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 96 – 66 . Some described the Mets as collapsing late in the season while the race between the Reds and their division rival Houston Astros was close enough to create the possibility of a three @-@ way tie . The Reds won a coin flip late in the season which , by rule at the time , awarded them home field for the game . Upon winning , the Mets advanced to NL Division Series ( NLDS ) where they defeated the Arizona Diamondbacks , three @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one . They then advanced to the NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) but were defeated by the Atlanta Braves in six games , bringing an end to the Mets ' season . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game by both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
Neither the Mets nor the Reds had made the playoffs the previous season . The Mets finished the 1998 season with an 88 – 74 record , while the Reds finished below .500 at 77 – 85 . The Mets had been tied with the Chicago Cubs and San Francisco Giants in the 1998 wild @-@ card race as late in the season as September 25 at 88 – 72 . However , the Mets did not win another game that year and finished their season one game back of the Cubs and Giants who tied at 89 – 73 . The Cubs and Giants played a tie @-@ breaker in 1998 , with the Cubs ultimately winning the wild card . Sports writers said the Mets " blew " their lead and " collapse [ d ] " , later comparing their 1998 season to the Mets ' troubles late in the 1999 season . Rickey Henderson and Robin Ventura joined the Mets prior to the 1999 season and spent the year as their starting left fielder and third baseman . The Reds added right fielder Michael Tucker , center fielder Mike Cameron , and starting pitchers Denny Neagle and Steve Avery during the offseason .
The Mets spent 34 days of the 1999 season leading the Eastern Division , but following a seven @-@ game losing streak from September 21 – 28 along with an eight @-@ game winning streak by their division rival Atlanta Braves from September 19 – 28 the Braves took a commanding 8 @-@ game lead in the division that they did not relinquish . Meanwhile , the Reds and Houston Astros were locked in a tight race for the Central division . The Astros led the division for much of the season , but did not lead by more than three games after August 1 except for one day . Ultimately , the Astros won the division with a 97 – 65 record , one game ahead of the 96 – 66 Reds . The Astros won their 97th game on the final day of the season . If Houston had not won that game the Astros , Reds , and Mets would have instead been locked in a three @-@ way tie . Bob Costas suggested that MLB was lucky to avoid this situation as he believed they had " no reasonable tiebreaker " to deal with it . Had this three @-@ way tie arisen the Mets would have won the wild card while the Astros and Reds would have played a tie @-@ breaker for the Central division title .
The Mets ' losing streak late in the season led Jayson Stark to label them a " sinking ship " in a column on September 30 . However , the Mets broke this streak with a win over dominant pitcher Greg Maddux and then , following a loss , swept three games from the Pittsburgh Pirates . The sweep included a walk @-@ off win in the final game of the series . The Mets and Pirates were tied 1 – 1 in the bottom of the ninth inning when Pirates closer Brad Clontz threw a wild pitch which allowed Melvin Mora to score and win the game 2 – 1 , tying the Reds ' 96 – 66 record . The New York Daily News described this late @-@ season performance as an " agonizing roller coaster ride " for Mets fans . With the Mets and Reds holding the best non @-@ division winning records in the league a tie @-@ breaker was necessary to determine the wild @-@ card winner . Bob Costas said at the time he did not like the wild @-@ card system as he believed it " diminishes the drama and authenticity of a pennant race " , although he approved of the playoff teams in 1999 . Tim McCarver disagreed , arguing that the late @-@ season race between the Mets , Astros , and Reds showed the excitement a wild card can add to the season . A coin flip conducted earlier that September set the Reds ' home park of Cinergy Field as the location for the tie @-@ breaker game .
= = Game summary = =
Box score for Monday October 4 , 1999 — 7 : 05 p.m. ( ET ) at Cinergy Field in Cincinnati , Ohio
The Mets took a quick 2 – 0 lead with a single by Rickey Henderson to open the game followed immediately by a home run by Edgardo Alfonzo . They added to this lead in the third as Alfonzo drew a walk and then John Olerud hit a double which advanced Alfonzo to third base . Reds starter Steve Parris intentionally walked Mike Piazza to load the bases and was relieved by Denny Neagle . However , Neagle then walked Robin Ventura to score Alfonzo and extend the lead to 3 – 0 . Neagle remained in the game and yielded a home run to Henderson to lead off the fifth inning for the Mets ' fourth run . Neagle then loaded the bases with two outs with walks to Piazza and Ventura followed by a Darryl Hamilton single , but escaped the inning without further scoring . The Reds pinch hit for Neagle in the bottom of the fifth , and Danny Graves entered for them to pitch the sixth inning . Graves walked Rey Ordóñez to leadoff the inning , Mets starter Al Leiter sacrifice bunted Ordóñez to second , and following an out he scored on a double by Alfonzo . Graves remained in the game until Mark Lewis pinch hit for him in the eighth and Dennys Reyes relieved him in the ninth . Graves and Reyes held the score steady after the sixth but the Reds ' offense did not score against Al Leiter and the Mets won the game , and with it the Wild Card , 5 – 0 .
Al Leiter pitched a complete game shutout , scattering two hits and four walks across the nine inning start . This was Leiter 's first complete game of the season . Pokey Reese was the only Reds player to reach scoring position for the entire game , doubling to lead off the bottom of the ninth inning and then advancing to third on a ground out . The Bergen Record labeled Leiter the Mets ' " flag bearer " , coming through in games such as this when the team needed him most . For example , Leiter had also defeated Greg Maddux in his previous start on September 29 to snap the Mets ' seven @-@ game losing streak . Leiter 's earned run average in the second half of the 1999 season was 1 @.@ 22 runs lower than in the first . Leiter 's start earned an 86 game score , which tied for the 14th best total in the National League that season .
= = Aftermath = =
New York 's win clinched the team 's fifth postseason berth in franchise history , their first since losing in the 1988 National League Championship Series . The playoff berth made the Mets the second team in MLB history to make the playoffs after being two games back of the leader with three games left to play in the season . The Mets defeated the Arizona Diamondbacks in the NLDS in four games . This win advanced the Mets to the NLCS where they were defeated by the Atlanta Braves in six games . After the defeat , Mets General Manager Steve Phillips summed up the harrowing weeks the team had been through saying that " we had destiny in our own hands , we lost destiny , we got it back in our own hands ... We didn 't choke . We didn 't fold . We won . "
The Mets performance in the playoffs drew heavy television viewership , with the decisive game of the NLCS scoring the highest ratings for any League Championship Series broadcast since 1993 . Overall the NLCS averaged 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , 18 % higher than the NLCS had drawn the year before . Variety writer Tom Bierbaum argued this was a good sign for the future of baseball because the Mets and Boston Red Sox had drawn younger viewers during their time in the postseason . Bierbaum believed that baseball needed fresh teams , not just the often @-@ successful Yankees and Braves , to draw new audiences and grow viewership .
In baseball statistics tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . For example , Mike Piazza grounded into his 27th double play of the season in the 9th inning , adding to his league @-@ leading total . Similarly , Leiter 's performance advanced his position on several 1999 statistical leaderboards including shutouts and walks issued . Reese , Ventura , and Ordóñez won Rawlings Gold Glove Awards for the season while Piazza and Alfonzo won Silver Sluggers . Robin Ventura also finished sixth in Most Valuable Player voting , with Chipper Jones taking the award .
The New York Yankees also made the playoffs in 1999 , eventually advancing to the 1999 World Series where they defeated the Atlanta Braves . Prior to the Mets ' elimination Mike Lupica noted the possibility of a " Subway Series " , a term for a World Series played between two New York @-@ based teams . The 1956 World Series between the Yankees and then @-@ Brooklyn Dodgers was the last such Series . Yankees pitcher David Cone told Lupica " I want a Subway Series , for selfish reasons . I want to play in one . " Although the Mets failed to make the Series in 1999 the two met the following year in the 2000 World Series where the Yankees won in five games . After their 2000 World Series appearance the Mets did not make the playoffs again until 2006 , where they lost in that NLCS in seven games . Meanwhile , the Reds did not place in the top two of their division until returning to the playoffs in 2010 . Jack McKeon managed the Reds from 1998 – 2000 and was fired after the 2000 season when the team finished 10 games back of the division leading Cardinals .
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= The Open Boat =
" The Open Boat " is a short story by American author Stephen Crane ( 1871 – 1900 ) . First published in 1897 , it was based on Crane 's experience of surviving a shipwreck off the coast of Florida earlier that year while traveling to Cuba to work as a newspaper correspondent . Crane was stranded at sea for thirty hours when his ship , the SS Commodore , sank after hitting a sandbar . He and three other men were forced to navigate their way to shore in a small boat ; one of the men , an oiler named Billie Higgins , drowned after the boat overturned . Crane 's personal account of the shipwreck and the men 's survival , titled " Stephen Crane 's Own Story " , was first published a few days after his rescue .
Crane subsequently adapted his report into narrative form , and the resulting short story " The Open Boat " was published in Scribner 's Magazine . The story is told from the point of view of an anonymous correspondent , with Crane as the implied author , the action closely resembles the author 's experiences after the shipwreck . A volume titled The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure was published in the United States in 1898 ; an edition entitled The Open Boat and Other Stories was published simultaneously in England . Praised for its innovation by contemporary critics , the story is considered an exemplary work of literary Naturalism , and is one of the most frequently discussed works in Crane 's canon . It is notable for its use of imagery , irony , symbolism , and the exploration of such themes as survival , solidarity , and the conflict between man and nature . H. G. Wells considered " The Open Boat " to be " beyond all question , the crown of all [ Crane 's ] work " .
= = Background = =
Hired by the Bacheller newspaper syndicate to serve as a war correspondent during the Cuban insurrection against Spain , the 25 @-@ year @-@ old Stephen Crane boarded the filibustering steamship SS Commodore on New Year 's Eve , 1896 . The ship sailed from Jacksonville , Florida , with 27 or 28 men and a cargo of supplies and ammunition for the Cuban rebels . On the St. Johns River , less than 2 miles ( 3 km ) from Jacksonville , Commodore struck a sandbar in a dense fog and damaged its hull . Although towed off the sandbar the following day , it was again beached in Mayport , Florida , and further damaged . A leak began in the boiler room that evening , and as a result of malfunctioning water pumps , the ship came to a standstill about 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Mosquito Inlet ( now called Ponce de León Inlet ) . As the ship took on more water , Crane described the engine room as resembling " a scene at this time taken from the middle kitchen of Hades . "
Commodore 's lifeboats were lowered in the early hours of the morning on January 2 , 1897 , and the ship sank at 7 a.m. Crane was one of the last to leave the ship in a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) dinghy . He and three other men ( including the captain , Edward Murphy ) floundered off the coast of Florida for a day and a half before attempting to land their craft at Daytona Beach . The small boat , however , overturned in the surf , forcing the exhausted men to swim to shore ; one of them , an oiler named Billie Higgins , died . The disaster was front @-@ page news in newspapers across the country ; rumors that the ship had been sabotaged were widely circulated but never substantiated .
Crane was reunited with his partner , Cora , several days after the ordeal , and quickly wrote his initial report of the sinking while waiting in Jacksonville for another ship . Desperate for work , he soon left for New York to secure a job covering the impending Greco @-@ Turkish War . Crane completed the story that would become " The Open Boat " a few weeks later , in mid @-@ February . According to fellow correspondent Ralph D. Paine , Crane had the opportunity to show the first draft of the short story to Murphy when Crane again passed through Jacksonville . When Crane asked his opinion , Murphy allegedly replied , " You 've got it , Steve ... That is just how it happened , and how we felt . Read me some more of it " .
= = Publication history = =
Crane 's report of the incident appeared on the front page of the New York Press on January 7 , 1897 , only three days after his rescue , and was quickly reprinted in various other papers . The account , titled " Stephen Crane 's Own Story " , concentrates mainly on the sinking of the Commodore , and the ensuing chaos . Crane dedicates just two paragraphs to the fate of his compatriots and himself on the dinghy , while detailing their inability to save those stranded on the sinking ship :
The cook let go of the line . We rowed around to see if we could not get a line from the chief engineer , and all this time , mind you , there were no shrieks , no groans , but silence , silence and silence , and then the Commodore sank . She lurched to windward , then swung afar back , righted and dove into the sea , and the rafts were suddenly swallowed by this frightful maw of the ocean . And then by the men on the ten @-@ foot dingy were words said that were still not words — something far beyond words .
The report caused a sensation and spurred the author to write a narrative version of the events . The short story first appeared in the June 1897 issue of Scribner 's Magazine . A second and lesser story , " Flanagan and His Short Filibustering Adventure " , based upon the same shipwreck but told from the point of view of the captain , was published in McClure 's Magazine in October 1897 . " The Open Boat " was published in the United States by Doubleday & McClure in April 1898 as part of the book The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure , which included additional works by Crane such as " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky " , " Death and the Child " , and " The Wise Men " . The English volume , published simultaneously with the American one , was titled The Open Boat and Other Stories and published by William Heinemann . Both editions included the subtitle " A Tale Intended to Be after the Fact . Being the Experience of Four Men from the Sunk Steamer ' Commodore ' " , and were dedicated " To the late William Higgins and to Captain Edward Murphy and Steward C. B. Montgomery of the Sunk Steamer Commodore " .
= = Plot summary = =
None of them knew the color of the sky . Their eyes glanced level , and were fastened upon the waves that swept toward them . These waves were of the hue of slate , save for the tops , which were of foaming white , and all of the men knew the colors of the sea . The horizon narrowed and widened , and dipped and rose , and at all times its edge was jagged with waves that seemed thrust up in points like rocks .
" The Open Boat " is divided into seven sections , each told mainly from the point of view of the correspondent , based upon Crane himself . The first part introduces the four characters — the correspondent , a condescending observer detached from the rest of the group ; the captain , who is injured and morose at having lost his ship , yet capable of leadership ; the cook , fat and comical , but optimistic that they will be rescued ; and the oiler , Billie , who is physically the strongest , and the only one in the story referred to by name . The four are survivors of a shipwreck , which occurred before the beginning of the story , and are drifting at sea in a small dinghy .
In the following four sections , the moods of the men fluctuate from anger at their desperate situation , to a growing empathy for one another and the sudden realization that nature is indifferent to their fates . The men become fatigued and bicker with one another ; nevertheless , the oiler and the correspondent take turns rowing toward shore , while the cook bails water to keep the boat afloat . When they see a lighthouse on the horizon , their hope is tempered with the realization of the danger of trying to reach it . Their hopes dwindle further when , after seeing a man waving from shore , and what may or may not be another boat , they fail to make contact . The correspondent and the oiler continue to take turns rowing , while the others sleep fitfully during the night . The correspondent then notices a shark swimming near the boat , but he does not seem to be bothered by it as one would expect . In the penultimate chapter , the correspondent wearily recalls a verse from the poem " Bingen on the Rhine " by Caroline Norton , in which a " soldier of the Legion " dies far from home .
The final chapter begins with the men 's resolution to abandon the floundering dinghy they have occupied for thirty hours and to swim ashore . As they begin the long swim to the beach , Billie the oiler , the strongest of the four , swims ahead of the others ; the captain advances towards the shore while still holding onto the boat , and the cook uses a surviving oar . The correspondent is trapped by a local current , but is eventually able to swim on . After three of the men safely reach the shore and are met by a group of rescuers , they find Billie dead , his body washed up on the beach .
= = Style and genre = =
Although autobiographical in nature , " The Open Boat " is a work of fiction ; it is often considered a principal example of Naturalism , an offshoot of the Realist literary movement , in which scientific principles of objectivity and detachment are applied to the study of human characteristics . While a majority of critics agree that the story acts as a paradigm of the human situation , they disagree as to its precise nature . Some believe the story affirms man 's place in the world by concentrating on the characters ' isolation , while others — including those who call " The Open Boat " ideologically Symbolist — insist that the story questions man 's place in the universe through metaphorical or indirect means .
Like other major works by Stephen Crane , " The Open Boat " contains numerous examples of symbolism , imagery and metaphor . Vibrant descriptions of color , combined with simple , clear writing , are also apparent throughout , and humor in the form of irony serves in stark opposition to the dreary setting and desperate characters . Editor Vincent Starrett stated in his introduction to the 1921 collection of Crane 's work entitled Men , Women and Boats that the author keeps " down the tone where another writer might have attempted ' fine writing ' and have been lost . " Other critics have noted similarities between the story and shipwreck @-@ related articles Crane wrote while working as a reporter for the New York Tribune earlier in his career . Articles such as " The Wreck of the New Era " , which describes a group of castaways drowning in sight of a helpless crowd , and " Ghosts on the Jersey Coast " contain stark imagery that strongly prefigures that of " The Open Boat " .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Man vs. nature = = =
Similar to other Naturalist works , " The Open Boat " scrutinizes the position of man , who has been isolated not only from society , but also from God and nature . The struggle between man and the natural world is the most apparent theme in the work , and while the characters at first believe the turbulent sea to be a hostile force set against them , they come to believe that nature is instead ambivalent . At the beginning of the last section , the correspondent rethinks his view of nature 's hostility : " the serenity of nature amid the struggles of the individual — nature in the wind , and nature in the vision of men . She did not seem cruel to him , nor beneficent , nor treacherous , nor wise . But she was indifferent , flatly indifferent . " The correspondent regularly refers to the sea with feminine pronouns , pitting the four men in the boat against an intangible , yet effeminate , threat ; critic Leedice Kissane further pointed to the story 's seeming denigration of women , noting the castaways ' personification of Fate as " an old ninny @-@ woman " and " an old hen " . That nature is ultimately disinterested is an idea that appears in other works by Crane ; a poem from Crane 's 1899 collection War is Kind and Other Lines also echoes Crane 's common theme of universal indifference :
A man said to the universe :
" Sir , I exist ! "
" However , " replied the universe ,
" The fact has not created in me
A sense of obligation . "
The metaphysical conflicts born from man 's isolation are also important themes throughout the story , as the characters cannot rely on a higher cause or being for protection . The correspondent laments the lack of religious support , as well as his inability to blame God for his misfortunes , musing : " When it occurs to a man that nature does not regard him as important , and that she feels she would not maim the universe by disposing of him , he at first wishes to throw bricks at the temple , and he hates deeply that there are no bricks and no temples . " Man 's perception of himself and the world around him are also constantly questioned ; the correspondent regularly refers to the way things " seemed " or " appeared " , leaving how a thing actually " was " entirely ambiguous . Wolford similarly pointed to the importance of the story 's strong yet problematic opening line — " None of them knew the color of the sky " — as one that sets the scene for the story 's sense of unease and uncertainty .
= = = Survival and solidarity = = =
Chester Wolford noted in his critical analysis of Crane 's short fiction that although one of the author 's most familiar themes deals with a character 's seeming insignificance in an indifferent universe , the correspondent 's experience in " The Open Boat " is perhaps more personal than what was described in earlier stories because of Crane 's obvious connection to the story . Sergio Perosa similarly described how Crane " transfigures an actual occurrence into existential drama , and confers universal meaning and poetic value on the simple retelling of man 's struggle for survival " .
Facing an ultimately detached nature , the characters find solace in human solidarity . They are often referred to collectively as " the men " , rather than singularly by their professions , creating a silent understanding between them of their togetherness . The first few sentences of section three attest to this connection : " It would be difficult to describe the subtle brotherhood of men that was here established on the seas . No one said that it was so . No one mentioned it . But it dwelt in the boat , and each man felt it warm him . They were a captain , an oiler , a cook , and a correspondent , and they were friends , friends in a more curiously iron @-@ bound degree than may be common . " Survival is also an important thematic element in itself , as it is contingent upon the men to battle the elements in order to save themselves . The correspondent 's desire to survive is evident in his refrain of the lyrical line : " If I am going to be drowned — if I am going to be drowned — if I am going to be drowned , why , in the name of the seven mad gods who rule the sea , was I allowed to come thus far and contemplate sand and trees ? " By repeating himself , the correspondent expresses himself ritualistically , and yet he remains existentially adrift .
= = = Sympathy = = =
In his 1990 book Sea @-@ Brothers : The Tradition of American Sea Fiction from Moby @-@ Dick to the Present , author Bert Bender noted Crane 's sympathetic portrayal of the oiler Billie , the most physically able of the four characters , and yet the only one to perish . The correspondent even notes with wonder Billie 's exceptional ability to row despite having worked a double shift before the ship sank . Bender wrote that Crane " emphasizes that Billie 's steady , simple labor is the tangible basis for his role here as a savior , " and that the oiler 's portrayal as a " simple , working seaman , clearly expresses his sympathy with the democratic ideal of the sailor before the mast that figures so crucially in the tradition of American sea fiction . " That Billie does not survive the ordeal , however , can be seen as an antithesis to Darwinism in that the only person to not survive was in fact the strongest physically .
" The Open Boat " directly references Lady Caroline Norton 's 1883 poem " Bingen on the Rhine " , which focuses on the death of a French Foreign Legionnaire , far from home , while grasping the hand of a comrade . Recalling the poem , the correspondent sees how the soldier 's dire circumstances mirror his own , leading him to feel sorry for the anonymous poetic figure ; noting the similarities between the dying soldier and the shipwrecked correspondent , critics such as Edward Stone and Max Westbrook believe this realization causes the correspondent to discover the necessity for human sympathy in an uncaring world . While the literary reference may be considered ironic , unsympathetic , and only of minor interest , Stone for one argued that this poem may also have served as a source for The Red Badge of Courage , which also explores man 's relationship with the metaphysical .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" The Open Boat " is one of the most frequently discussed works in Crane 's canon , and is regularly anthologized . Wilson Follett included the story in the twelfth volume of his 1927 collection of Crane 's work , and it also appeared in Robert Stallman 's 1952 volume Stephen Crane : An Omnibus . The story and its subsequent eponymous collections received high acclaim from contemporary critics and authors . Praising the merit of the story and his friend 's literary importance , journalist Harold Frederic wrote in his review for The New York Times that " even if he had written nothing else , [ " The Open Boat " would ] have placed [ Crane ] where he now undoubtedly stands . " English poet Robert Bridges likewise praised the story in his review for Life , stating that Crane " has indelibly fixed the experience on your mind , and that is the test of a literary artisan " . American Newspaperman and author Harry Esty Dounce praised the story as chief among Crane 's work , despite its seemingly simple plot , writing for the New York Evening Sun that " those who have read ' The Open Boat ' will forget every technical feat of construction before they forget the long , heartbreaking mockery of the day , with land so near , the bailing , the egg @-@ shell changes of seats , the terrible , steady cheerfulness and brotherhood of the queer little human group " .
After Crane 's premature death from tuberculosis at the age of 28 , his work enjoyed a resurgence of popularity . Author and critic Elbert Hubbard wrote in Crane 's obituary in the Philistine that " The Open Boat " was " the sternest , creepiest bit of realism ever penned " . Also noting the depressing Realism utilized in the story , editor Vincent Starrett stated : " It is a desolate picture , and the tale is one of our greatest short stories . " Another of the author 's friends , H. G. Wells , wrote that " The Open Boat " was " beyond all question , the crown of all [ Crane 's ] work . " Singling out Crane 's usage of color and chiaroscuro in his writing , Wells continued : " It has all the stark power of the earlier stories , with a new element of restraint ; the color is as full and strong as ever , fuller and stronger , indeed ; but those chromatic splashes that at times deafen and confuse in The Red Badge , those images that astonish rather than enlighten , are disciplined and controlled . " The story remains popular with critics ; Thomas Kent referred to " The Open Boat " as Crane 's " magnum opus " , while Crane biographer Stanley Wertheim called it " Crane 's finest short story and one of the masterworks of late nineteenth @-@ century American literature " .
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= Usain Bolt =
Usain St. Leo Bolt , OJ , CD ( / ˈjuːseɪn / ; born 21 August 1986 ) , is a Jamaican sprinter . Regarded as the fastest person ever timed , he is the first man to hold both the 100 metres and 200 metres world records since fully automatic time measurements became mandatory in 1977 . Along with his teammates , he also set the world record in the 4 × 100 metres relay . He is the reigning Olympic champion in these three events , and the first man at the modern Olympic Games to win six gold medals in sprinting , and an eleven @-@ time World champion . He was the first in the modern Olympics era to achieve the " double double " of winning 100 m and 200 m titles at consecutive games ( 2008 and 2012 ) , and topped this through the first " double triple " ( including 4 × 100 m relays ) .
Although gaining worldwide popularity for a sprint double victory at the Beijing Games , Bolt has had more victories as a 200 m runner . While he had not won any significant 100 m title prior to the 2008 Olympics , he had won numerous crowns in the 200 m event at the youth , junior and senior levels . Further , at the 2013 World Championships in Moscow , Bolt completed a hat @-@ trick of 200 m world titles by winning his third straight gold in the event . His 2009 record breaking margin for 100 m , from 9 @.@ 69 seconds ( his own previous world record ) to 9 @.@ 58 , is the highest since the start of fully automatic time measurements .
Bolt 's achievements in sprinting have earned him the media nickname " Lightning Bolt " , and awards including the IAAF World Athlete of the Year , Track & Field Athlete of the Year , and Laureus World Sportsman of the Year ( three times ) . He is the highest paid athlete ever in track and field . He has been called the world 's most marketable athlete . By winning three gold medals at the 2015 World Championships , Bolt became the first athlete in the 32 @-@ year history of the IAAF athletics world championships to complete a " triple triple " making him the most successful athlete at the IAAF championships .
On 14 February 2015 , Bolt announced that he intends to retire from athletics after the 2017 World Championships in London .
= = Early years = =
Bolt was born on 21 August 1986 in Sherwood Content , a small town in Trelawny , Jamaica , and grew up with his parents , Wellesley and Jennifer Bolt , his brother Sadiki , and his sister Sherine . His parents ran the local grocery store in the rural area , and Bolt spent his time playing cricket and football in the street with his brother , later saying , " When I was young , I didn 't really think about anything other than sports " .
As a child , Bolt attended Waldensia Primary , where he first began to show his sprinting potential , running in the annual national primary @-@ schools ' meeting for his parish . By the age of twelve , Bolt had become the school 's fastest runner over the 100 metres distance .
Upon his entry to William Knibb Memorial High School , Bolt continued to focus on other sports , but his cricket coach noticed Bolt 's speed on the pitch and urged him to try track and field events . Pablo McNeil , a former Olympic sprint athlete , and Dwayne Jarrett coached Bolt , encouraging him to focus his energy on improving his athletic abilities . The school had a history of success in athletics with past students , including sprinter Michael Green . Bolt won his first annual high school championships medal in 2001 , taking the silver medal in the 200 metres with a time of 22 @.@ 04 seconds . McNeil soon became his primary coach , and the two enjoyed a positive partnership , although McNeil was occasionally frustrated by Bolt 's lack of dedication to his training and his penchant for practical jokes .
= = = Early competitions = = =
Performing for Jamaica in his first Caribbean regional event , Bolt clocked a personal best of 48 @.@ 28 s in the 400 metres in the 2001 CARIFTA Games , winning a silver medal . The 200 m also yielded a silver as Bolt finished in 21 @.@ 81 s .
He made his first appearance on the world stage at the 2001 IAAF World Youth Championships in Debrecen , Hungary . Running in the 200 m event , he failed to qualify for the finals , but he still set a new personal best of 21 @.@ 73 s . Bolt still did not take athletics or himself too seriously , however , and he took his mischievousness to new heights by hiding in the back of a van when he was supposed to be preparing for the 200 m finals at the CARIFTA Trials . He was detained by the police for his practical joke , and there was an outcry from the local community , which blamed coach McNeil for the incident . However , the controversy subsided , and both McNeil and Bolt went to the CARIFTA Games , where Bolt set championship records in the 200 m and 400 m with times of 21 @.@ 12 s and 47 @.@ 33 s , respectively . He continued to set records with 20 @.@ 61 s and 47 @.@ 12 s finishes at the Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships .
Bolt is one of only nine athletes , ( along with Valerie Adams , Veronica Campbell @-@ Brown , Jacques Freitag , Yelena Isinbayeva , Jana Pittman , Dani Samuels , David Storl , Kirani James ) to win world championships at the youth , junior , and senior level of an athletic event . Former Prime Minister P. J. Patterson recognised Bolt 's talent and arranged for him to move to Kingston , along with Jermaine Gonzales , so he could train with the Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association ( JAAA ) at the University of Technology , Jamaica .
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
The 2002 World Junior Championships before a home crowd in Kingston , Jamaica , gave Bolt a chance to prove his credentials on the world stage . By the age of 15 , he had grown to 1 @.@ 96 metres ( 6 ft 5 in ) tall , and he physically stood out among his peers . He won the 200 m , in a time of 20 @.@ 61 s , 0 @.@ 03 seconds slower than his personal best of 20 @.@ 58 s set in the 1st round . Bolt 's 200 m win made him the youngest world @-@ junior gold medalist ever . The expectation from the home crowd had made him so nervous that he had put his shoes on the wrong feet . However , it turned out to be a revelatory experience for Bolt as he vowed never again to let himself be affected by pre @-@ race nerves . As a member of the Jamaican sprint relay team , he also took two silver medals and set national junior records in the 4 × 100 metres and 4 × 400 metres relay , running times of 39 @.@ 15 s and 3 : 04 @.@ 06 minutes respectively .
The flow of medals continued as he won four gold medals at the 2003 CARIFTA Games , and was awarded the Austin Sealy Trophy for the most outstanding athlete of the games . He won another gold at the 2003 World Youth Championships . He set a new championship record in the 200 m with a time of 20 @.@ 40 s , despite a 1 @.@ 1 m / s head wind . Michael Johnson , the 200 m world @-@ record holder , took note of Bolt 's potential but worried that the young sprinter might be over @-@ pressured , stating , " It 's all about what he does three , four , five years down the line " . Bolt had also impressed the athletics hierarchy , and he received the IAAF Rising Star Award for 2002 .
In his final Jamaican High School Championships in 2003 , he broke both the 200 m and 400 m records with times of 20 @.@ 25 s and 45 @.@ 35 s , respectively . Bolt 's runs were a significant improvement upon the previous records , beating the 200 m best by more than half a second and the 400 m record by almost a second . While Bolt improved upon the 200 time three months later , setting the still standing World youth best at the 2003 Pan American Junior Championships , it remains the No. 2 youth time . The 400 time remains No. 6 on all time youth list , only surpassed once since by future Olympic champion Kirani James .
Bolt turned his main focus to the 200 m and equalled Roy Martin 's world junior record of 20 @.@ 13 s at the Pan @-@ American Junior Championships . This performance attracted interest from the press , and his times in the 200 m and 400 m led to him being touted as a possible successor to Johnson . Indeed , at sixteen years old , Bolt had reached times that Johnson did not register until he was twenty , and Bolt 's 200 m time was superior to Maurice Greene 's season 's best that year .
Bolt was growing more popular in his homeland . Howard Hamilton , who was given the task of Public Defender by the government , urged the JAAA to nurture him and prevent burnout , calling Bolt " the most phenomenal sprinter ever produced by this island " . His popularity and the attractions of the capital city were beginning to be a burden to the young sprinter . Bolt was increasingly unfocused on his athletic career and preferred to eat fast food , play basketball , and party in Kingston 's club scene . In the absence of a disciplined lifestyle , he became ever @-@ more reliant on his natural ability to beat his competitors on the track .
As the reigning 200 m champion at both the World Youth and World Junior championships , Bolt hoped to take a clean sweep of the world 200 m championships in the Senior World Championships in Paris . He beat all comers at the 200 m in the World Championship trials . Bolt was pragmatic about his chances and noted that , even if he did not make the final , he would consider setting a personal best a success . However , he suffered a bout of conjunctivitis before the event , and it ruined his training schedule . Realising he would not be in peak condition , the JAAA refused to let him participate in the finals on the grounds that he was too young and inexperienced . Bolt was dismayed at missing out on the opportunity , but focused on getting himself in shape to gain a place on the Jamaican Olympic team instead . Even though he missed the World Championships , Bolt was awarded the IAAF Rising Star Award for the 2003 season on the strength of his junior record @-@ equalling run .
= = Professional athletics career = =
= = = 2004 – 2007 Early professional career = = =
Under the guidance of new coach Fitz Coleman , Bolt turned professional in 2004 , beginning with the CARIFTA Games in Bermuda . He became the first junior sprinter to run the 200 m in under twenty seconds , taking the world junior record outright with a time of 19 @.@ 93 s . For the second time in the role , he was awarded the Austin Sealy Trophy for the most outstanding athlete of the 2004 CARIFTA Games . A hamstring injury in May ruined Bolt 's chances of competing in the 2004 World Junior Championships , but he was still chosen for the Jamaican Olympic squad . Bolt headed to the 2004 Athens Olympics with confidence and a new record on his side . However , he was hampered by a leg injury and was eliminated in the first round of the 200 metres with a disappointing time of 21 @.@ 05 s . American colleges offered Bolt track scholarships on the strength of his performances , but the teenager from Trelawny refused them all , stating that he was content to stay in his homeland of Jamaica . Bolt instead chose the surroundings of the University of Technology , Jamaica , as his professional training ground , staying with the university 's primitive track and weight room that had served him well in his amateur years .
The year 2005 signaled a fresh start for Bolt in the form of a new coach , Glen Mills , and a new attitude toward athletics . Mills recognised Bolt 's potential and aimed to cease what he considered an unprofessional approach to the sport . Bolt began training with Mills in preparation for the upcoming athletics season , partnering with more seasoned sprinters such as Kim Collins and Dwain Chambers . The year began well , and in July , he knocked more than a third of a second off the 200 m CAC Championship record with a run of 20 @.@ 03 s , then registered his 200 m season 's best at London 's Crystal Palace , running in 19 @.@ 99 s .
Misfortune awaited Bolt at the next major event , the 2005 World Championships in Helsinki . Bolt felt that both his work ethic and athleticism had much improved since the 2004 Olympics , and he saw the World Championships as a way to live up to expectations , stating , " I really want to make up for what happened in Athens . Hopefully , everything will fall into place " . Bolt qualified with runs under 21 s , but he suffered an injury in the final , finishing in last place with a time of 26 @.@ 27 s . Injuries were preventing him from completing a full professional athletics season , and the eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Bolt still had not proven his mettle in the major world @-@ athletics competitions . However , his appearance made him the youngest ever person to appear in a 200 m world final . Bolt was involved in a car accident in November , and although he suffered only minor facial lacerations , his training schedule was further upset . His manager , Norman Peart , made Bolt 's training less intensive , and he had fully recuperated the following week . Bolt had continued to improve his performances , and he reached the world top @-@ 5 rankings in 2005 and 2006 . Peart and Mills stated their intentions to push Bolt to do longer sprinting distances with the aim of making the 400 m event his primary event by 2007 or 2008 . Bolt was less enthusiastic , and demanded that he feel comfortable in his sprinting . He suffered another hamstring injury in March 2006 , forcing him to withdraw from the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne , and he did not return to track events until May . After his recovery , Bolt was given new training exercises to improve flexibility , and the plans to move him up to the 400 m event were put on hold .
Upon his return to competition , the 200 m remained Bolt 's primary event , beating Justin Gatlin 's meet record in Ostrava , Czech Republic . Bolt had aspired to run under twenty seconds to claim a season 's best but , despite the fact that bad weather had impaired his run , he was happy to end the meeting with just the victory . However , a sub @-@ 20 @-@ second finish was soon his , as he set a new personal best of 19 @.@ 88 s at the 2006 Athletissima Grand Prix in Lausanne , Switzerland , finishing behind Xavier Carter and Tyson Gay to earn a bronze medal . Bolt had focused his athletics aims , stating that 2006 was a year to gain experience . Also , he was more keen on competing over longer distances , setting his sights on running regularly in both 200 m and 400 m events within the next two years .
Bolt claimed his first major world medal two months later at the IAAF World Athletics Final in Stuttgart , Germany . He passed the finishing post with a time of 20 @.@ 10 s , gaining a bronze medal in the process . The IAAF World Cup in Athens , Greece , yielded Bolt 's first senior international silver medal . Wallace Spearmon from the United States won gold with a championship record time of 19 @.@ 87 s , beating Bolt 's respectable time of 19 @.@ 96 s . Further 200 m honours on both the regional and international stages awaited Bolt in 2007 . He yearned to run in the 100 metres but Mills was skeptical , believing that Bolt was better suited for middle distances . The coach cited the runner 's difficulty in smoothly starting out of the blocks , and poor habits such as looking back at opponents in sprints . Mills told Bolt that he could run the shorter distance if he broke the 200 m national record . In the Jamaican Championships , he ran 19 @.@ 75 s in the 200 m , breaking the 36 @-@ year @-@ old Jamaican record held by Don Quarrie by 0 @.@ 11 s .
Mills complied with Bolt 's demand to run in the 100 m , and he was entered to run the event at the 23rd Vardinoyiannia meeting in Rethymno , Crete . In his debut tournament run , he set a personal best of 10 @.@ 03 s , winning the gold medal and feeding his enthusiasm for the event .
He built on this achievement at the 2007 World Championships in Osaka , Japan , winning a silver medal . Bolt recorded 19 @.@ 91 s with a headwind of 0 @.@ 8 m / s . The race was won by Tyson Gay in 19 @.@ 76 s , a new championship record .
Bolt was a member of the silver medal winning relay team with Asafa Powell , Marvin Anderson , and Nesta Carter in the 4 × 100 metres relay . Jamaica set a national record of 37 @.@ 89 s . Bolt did not win any gold medals at the major tournaments in 2007 , but Mills felt that Bolt 's technique was much improved , pinpointing improvements in Bolt 's balance at the turns over 200 m and an increase in his stride frequency , giving him more driving power on the track .
= = = World @-@ record breaker = = =
The silver medals from the 2007 Osaka World Championships boosted Bolt 's desire to run , and he took a more serious , more mature stance towards his career . Bolt continued to develop in the 100 m , and he entered to run in the event at the Jamaica Invitational in Kingston . On 3 May 2008 , Bolt ran a time of 9 @.@ 76 s , with a 1 @.@ 8 m / s tail wind , improving his personal best from 10 @.@ 03 s . This was the second @-@ fastest legal performance in the history of the event , second only to compatriot Asafa Powell 's 9 @.@ 74 s record set the previous year in Rieti , Italy . Rival Tyson Gay lauded the performance , praising Bolt 's form and technique especially . Michael Johnson , who was observing the race , said that he was shocked at how quickly he had improved over the 100 m distance . The Jamaican surprised even himself with the time , but coach Glen Mills remained confident that there was more to come .
Bolt set a new 100 m world record on 31 May 2008 . At the Reebok Grand Prix held in the Icahn Stadium in New York City , Bolt ran 9 @.@ 72 s with a tail wind of 1 @.@ 7 m / s . This race was Bolt 's fifth senior 100m . Gay again finished second and said of Bolt : " It looked like his knees were going past my face . " Commentators noted that Bolt appeared to have gained a psychological advantage over fellow Olympic contender Gay .
In June 2008 , Bolt responded to claims that he was a lazy athlete , saying that the comments were unjustified , and he trained hard to achieve his potential . However , he surmised that such comments stemmed from his lack of enthusiasm for the 400 metres event , and chose to not make the effort to train for distance running . Turning his efforts to the 200 m , Bolt proved that he could excel in multiple events — first setting the world @-@ leading time in Ostrava , then breaking the national record for the second time with a 19 @.@ 67 s finish in Athens , Greece . Although Mills still preferred that Bolt focus on the longer distances , the acceptance of Bolt 's demand to run in the 100 m worked for both sprinter and trainer . Bolt was more focused in practice , and a training schedule to boost his top speed and his stamina , in preparation for the Olympics , had improved both his 100 m and 200 m times .
= = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
Bolt announced that he would double @-@ up with the 100 metres and 200 metres events at the Beijing Summer Olympics , and the new 100 m world @-@ record holder was the favourite to win both . Michael Johnson , the 200 m and 400 m record holder , personally backed the sprinter , saying that he did not believe that a lack of experience would work against him . Bolt qualified for the 100 m final with times of 9 @.@ 92 s and 9 @.@ 85 s in the quarter @-@ finals and semi @-@ finals , respectively .
In the Olympic 100 m final , Bolt broke new ground , winning in 9 @.@ 69 s ( unofficially 9 @.@ 683 s ) with a reaction time of 0 @.@ 165 s . This was an improvement upon his own world record , and he was well ahead of second @-@ place finisher Richard Thompson , who finished in 9 @.@ 89 s . Not only was the record set without a favourable wind ( + 0 @.@ 0 m / s ) , but he also visibly slowed down to celebrate before he finished and his shoelace was untied . Bolt 's coach reported that , based upon the speed of Bolt 's opening 60 m , he could have finished with a time of 9 @.@ 52 s . After scientific analysis of Bolt 's run by the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics at the University of Oslo , Hans Eriksen and his colleagues also predicted a sub 9 @.@ 60 s time . Considering factors such as Bolt 's position , acceleration and velocity in comparison with second @-@ place @-@ finisher Thompson , the team estimated that Bolt could have finished in 9 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 04 s had he not slowed to celebrate before the finishing line .
Bolt stated that setting a record was not a priority for him , and that his goal was just to win the gold medal , Jamaica 's first of the 2008 Games . Olympic medalist Kriss Akabusi construed Bolt 's chest slapping before the finish line as showboating , noting that the actions cost Bolt an even faster record time . IOC president Jacques Rogge also condemned the Jamaican 's actions as disrespectful . Bolt denied that this was the purpose of his celebration by saying , " I wasn 't bragging . When I saw I wasn 't covered , I was just happy " . Lamine Diack , president of the IAAF , supported Bolt and said that his celebration was appropriate given the circumstances of his victory . Jamaican government minister Edmund Bartlett also defended Bolt 's actions , stating , " We have to see it in the glory of their moment and give it to them . We have to allow the personality of youth to express itself " .
Bolt then focused on attaining a gold medal in the 200 m event , aiming to emulate Carl Lewis ' double win in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics . Michael Johnson felt that Bolt would easily win gold but believed that his own world record of 19 @.@ 32 s set at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta would remain intact at the Olympics . Bolt eased through the first and second rounds of the 200 m , jogging towards the end of his run both times . He won his semi @-@ final and progressed to the final as the favourite to win . Retired Jamaican sprinter Don Quarrie praised Bolt , saying he was confident that Johnson 's record could be beaten . The following day , at the final , he won Jamaica 's fourth gold of the Games , setting a new world and Olympic record of 19 @.@ 30 s . Johnson 's record fell despite the fact that Bolt was impeded by a 0 @.@ 9 m / s headwind . The feat made him the first sprinter since Quarrie to hold both 100 m and 200 m world records simultaneously and the first since the introduction of electronic timing . Furthermore , Bolt became the first sprinter to break both records at the same Olympics . Unlike in the 100 m final , Bolt sprinted hard all the way to the finishing line in the 200 m race , even dipping his chest to improve his time . Following the race , " Happy Birthday " was played over the stadium 's sound system as his 22nd birthday would begin at midnight .
Two days later , Bolt ran as the third leg in the Jamaican 4x100 metres relay team , increasing his gold medal total to three . Along with teammates Nesta Carter , Michael Frater , and Asafa Powell , Bolt broke another world and Olympic record , their 37 @.@ 10 s finish breaking the previous record by three @-@ tenths of a second . Powell , who anchored the team to the finishing line , lamented the loss of his 100 m record to Bolt but showed no animosity towards his Jamaican rival , stating that he was delighted to help him set his third world record . Following his victories , Bolt donated US $ 50 @,@ 000 to the children of the Sichuan of China to help those harmed by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake .
Bolt 's record @-@ setting runs caused commentators not only to praise his achievements but also to speculate about his potential to become one of the most successful sprinters ever . Critics hailed his Olympic success as a new beginning for a sport that had long suffered through high @-@ profile drug scandals . The previous six years had seen the BALCO scandal , Tim Montgomery and Justin Gatlin stripped of their 100 m world records , and Marion Jones returning three Olympic gold medals . All three sprinters were disqualified from athletics after drugs tests detected banned substances in their systems . Bolt 's record @-@ breaking performances caused suspicion among some commentators , including Victor Conte , and the lack of an independent Caribbean anti @-@ doping federation raised more concerns . The accusations of drug use were vehemently rejected by Glen Mills ( Bolt 's coach ) and Herb Elliott ( the Jamaican athletics team doctor ) . Elliott , a member of the IAAF anti @-@ doping commission , urged those concerned about the issue to " come down and see our programme , come down and see our testing , we have nothing to hide " . Mills had been equally ardent that Bolt was a clean athlete , declaring to the Jamaica Gleaner : " We will test any time , any day , any part of the body ... [ he ] doesn 't even like to take vitamins " . Bolt stated that he had been tested four times prior to the Olympics , and all had tested negative for banned substances . He also welcomed anti @-@ doping authorities to test him to prove that he was clean , stating , " We work hard and we perform well and we know we 're clean " .
I was slowing down long before the finish and wasn 't tired at all . I could have gone back to the start and done it all over again .
= = = After the 2008 Olympics = = =
The end of the 2008 athletics season saw Bolt compete in the ÅF Golden League , beginning in Weltklasse Zürich . Despite having the slowest start among his competitors in the 100 m race , he still crossed the finishing line in 9 @.@ 83 s . Even though the time was slower than both his newly set world record and Asafa Powell 's track record , it was still among the top @-@ fifteen 100 m finishes by any sprinter to that date . Bolt admitted that he was not running at full strength , suffering from a cold , but he had concentrated on both winning the race and finishing the season in good health . At the Super Grand Prix final in Lausanne , Bolt ran his second @-@ fastest 200 m with a time of 19 @.@ 63 s , equalling Xavier Carter 's track record . However , it was the 100 m final , featuring Asafa Powell , that drew the most interest . Powell had moved closer to Bolt 's world record after setting a new personal best of 9 @.@ 72 s , reaffirming his status as Bolt 's main contender . Bolt 's final event of the season came three days later at the Golden League final in Brussels . This was the first 100 m race featuring both Bolt and Powell since the final in the Olympics . Both Jamaicans broke the track record , but Bolt came out on top with a time of 9 @.@ 77 s , beating Powell by 0 @.@ 06 s . Victory , however , did not come as smoothly as it had in Beijing . Bolt made the slowest start of the nine competitors and had to recover ground in cold conditions and against a 0 @.@ 9 m / s headwind . Yet the results confirmed Jamaican dominance in the 100 m , with nine of the ten @-@ fastest legal times in history being recorded by either Bolt or Powell . On his return to Jamaica , Bolt was honoured in a homecoming celebration and received an Order of Distinction in recognition of his achievements at the Olympics .
Additionally , Bolt was selected as the IAAF Male Athlete of the year and won a Special Olympic Award for his performances . However , he turned his attention to future events , suggesting that he could aim to break the 400 metres world record in 2010 as no major championships were scheduled that year .
= = = 2009 Berlin World championships = = =
Bolt started the season competing over 400 metres in order to improve his speed , winning two races and registering 45 @.@ 54 s in Kingston , and windy conditions gave him his first sub @-@ 10 second finish of the season in the 100 m in March . In late April Bolt suffered minor leg injuries in a car crash . However , he quickly recovered following minor surgery and ( after cancelling a track meet in Jamaica ) he stated that he was fit to compete in the 150 metres street race at the Manchester Great City Games . Bolt won the race in 14 @.@ 35 s , the fastest time ever recorded for 150 m . Despite not being at full fitness , he took the 100 and 200 m titles at the Jamaican national championships , with runs of 9 @.@ 86 s and 20 @.@ 25 s respectively . This meant he had qualified for both events at the 2009 World Championships . Rival Tyson Gay suggested that Bolt 's 100 m record was within his grasp , but Bolt dismissed the claim and instead noted that he was more interested in Asafa Powell 's return from injury . Bolt defied unfavourable conditions at the Athletissima meet in July , running 19 @.@ 59 seconds into a 0 @.@ 9 m / s headwind and rain , to record the fourth fastest time ever over 200 m , one hundredth off Gay 's best time .
At the 2009 World Championships in August , Bolt eased through the 100 m heats , clocking the fastest ever pre @-@ final performance of 9 @.@ 89 seconds . The final was the first time Bolt and Gay had met in the season , and Bolt improved his world record with a time of 9 @.@ 58 s to win his first World Championship gold medal . Taking over a tenth of a second off the previous best mark , this was the largest ever margin of improvement in the 100 m world record since the beginning of electronic timing . Gay finished with a time of 9 @.@ 71 s , 0 @.@ 02 s off Bolt 's 9 @.@ 69 s world @-@ record run in Beijing . Although Gay withdrew from the second race of the competition , the Jamaican once again produced world record @-@ breaking form in the 200 metres final . He broke his own record by 0 @.@ 11 seconds , finishing with a time of 19 @.@ 19 seconds . He won the 200 m race by the biggest margin in World Championships history , even though the race had three other athletes running under 19 @.@ 90 seconds , the greatest number ever in the event . Bolt 's pace impressed even the more experienced of his competitors ; third @-@ placed Wallace Spearmon complimented his speed , and the Olympic champion in Athens 2004 Shawn Crawford said " Just coming out there ... I felt like I was in a video game , that guy was moving – fast " . Bolt pointed out that an important factor in his performance at the World Championships was his improved start to the races : his reaction times in the 100 m ( 0 @.@ 146 ) and 200 m ( 0 @.@ 133 ) were significantly faster than those he had produced in his world record runs at the Beijing Olympics . However , he , together with other members of Jamaican 4x100 m relay team , fell short of their own world record of 37 @.@ 10 s set at 2008 Summer Olympics by timing 37 @.@ 31 s , which is , however , a championship record and the second fastest time in history at that date .
On the last day of the Berlin Championships , the Governing Mayor of Berlin , Klaus Wowereit , presented Bolt with a 12 @-@ foot high section of the Berlin Wall in a small ceremony , saying Bolt had shown that " one can tear down walls that had been considered as insurmountable . " The nearly three @-@ ton segment was delivered to the Jamaica Military Museum in Kingston .
Several days after Bolt broke the world records in 100 and 200 metres events , Mike Powell , the world record holder in long jump ( 8 @.@ 95 metres set in 1991 ) argued that Bolt could become the first man to jump over 9 metres , the long jump event being " a perfect fit for his speed and height " . At the end of the season , he was selected as the IAAF World Athlete of the Year for the second year running .
= = = 2010 Diamond League and broken streak = = =
Early on in the 2010 outdoor season , Bolt ran 19 @.@ 56 seconds in the 200 m in Kingston , Jamaica for the fourth @-@ fastest run of all @-@ time , although he stated that he had no record breaking ambitions for the forthcoming season . He took to the international circuit May with wins in East Asia at the Colorful Daegu Pre @-@ Championships Meeting and then a comfortable win in his 2010 IAAF Diamond League debut at the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix . Bolt made an attempt to break Michael Johnson 's best time over the rarely competed 300 metres event at the Golden Spike meeting in Ostrava . He failed to match Johnson 's ten @-@ year @-@ old record of 30 @.@ 85 and suffered a setback in that his 30 @.@ 97 @-@ second run in wet weather had left him with an Achilles tendon problem .
On his return from injury a month later , Bolt asserted himself with a 100 m win at the Athletissima meeting in Lausanne ( 9 @.@ 82 seconds ) and a victory over Asafa Powell at Meeting Areva in Paris ( 9 @.@ 84 seconds ) . Despite this run of form , he suffered only the second loss of his career in a 100 m final at the DN Galan . Tyson Gay soundly defeated him with a run of 9 @.@ 84 to Bolt 's 9 @.@ 97 seconds , and the Jamaican reflected that he had slacked off in training early in the season while Gay had been better prepared and in a better condition . This marked Bolt 's first loss to Gay in the 100 m , which coincidentally occurred in the same stadium where Powell had beaten Bolt for the first time two years earlier .
= = = 2011 World championships = = =
Considered the overwhelming favourite to win in the 100 metres at the 2011 World Championships in Daegu , Bolt was eliminated from the final , breaking " ridiculously early " according to the starter in an interview for BBC Sport , and receiving a false start . Usain Bolt 's countryman , Yohan Blake , won in a season best of 9 @.@ 92 seconds . In the 200 m , Bolt cruised through to the final which he won in a time of 19.40s. Bolt also won gold in 4 × 100 metres relay with team Jamaica setting a world record time of 37 @.@ 04 .
In June 2012 , Usain Bolt won the 100 m race in Diamond League in 9 @.@ 79 seconds .
= = = 2012 Summer Olympics , The Double Triple = = =
Before the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Bolt came in second at the Jamaican trials in both 100 m and 200 m . However , at the Olympics , he won the 100 metres gold medal with a time of 9 @.@ 63 seconds , setting a new Olympic record for that distance and defending his gold medal from the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics . He was followed by fellow Jamaican , Yohan Blake , who won silver with a time of 9 @.@ 75 seconds .
Following the race , seventh @-@ place finisher Richard Thompson of Trinidad and Tobago declared " There 's no doubt he 's the greatest sprinter of all time " , while USA Today referred to Bolt as a Jamaican " national hero " , noting that his victory came just hours before Jamaica was to celebrate the 50th anniversary of its independence from the United Kingdom . With his 2012 win , Bolt became the first man to defend an Olympic sprint title since Carl Lewis in 1988 .
I 'm now a legend . I 'm also the greatest athlete to live .
Bolt then " re @-@ defined everything " , by following up that impressive performance with a successful defence of his 200 metres gold medal with a time of 19 @.@ 32 seconds , followed by fellow Jamaicans second @-@ place Yohan Blake at 19 @.@ 44 and bronze medalist Warren Weir at 19 @.@ 84 . With this , Bolt became the first man in history to defend both the 100 m and 200 m Olympic sprint titles . In fact , Bolt was so comfortably ahead near the finish that he was able to slow down , put his left finger to his mouth and " tell everyone to shush . " As soon as Bolt crossed the finish line , he did five push @-@ ups , one for each of his Olympic gold medals . Following the race , eighth @-@ place finisher Anaso Jobodwana of South Africa compared Bolt to a " ghost " who " disappears in front of you " . When asked about his greatness as a sprinter following his victory , Bolt placed himself in the category of Michael Jordan and Muhammad Ali , in their respective sports . International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) President Jacques Rogge initially stated that Bolt was not yet a " legend " and would not deserve such acclaim until the end of Bolt 's career , but later called him the best sprinter of all time .
On the final day of the 2012 Olympics ' athletics , Bolt participated in Jamaica 's gold medal @-@ winning 4 × 100 metres relay team consisting of Bolt , Nesta Carter , Michael Frater and Yohan Blake . With a running time of 36 @.@ 84 seconds , they broke Jamaica 's previous world record of 37 @.@ 04 from 2011 . He celebrated by doing the " Mobot " in tribute to distance runner Mo Farah .
= = = 2013 = = =
On 6 June 2013 , Justin Gatlin beat Bolt by one @-@ hundredth of a second and won the 100 metres at the Golden Gala meet in Rome , Italy . Bolt appeared at the 2013 London Anniversary Games winning the 100 metres in 9 @.@ 85 seconds . He also participated in the 4 x 100m relay that was won by Jamaica .
On 11 August 2013 , Bolt regained the title as world 's fastest man by winning the World Championships 100m in Moscow , with a time of 9.77s ( − 0 @.@ 3 m / s wind ) , ahead of Justin Gatlin in second with a time of 9.85s. On 17 August , Bolt won the 200 @-@ metre race for his 2nd gold medal of the world championships with a time of 19.66s. Bolt won a third gold in the 4x100 m relay , which made him the most successful athlete in the 30 @-@ year history of the world championships .
For the fifth time in six years , Bolt was named IAAF World Male Athlete of the Year .
= = = 2014 Commonwealth Games = = =
An injury to Bolt 's hamstring in March 2014 caused him to miss nine weeks of training . Having recovered from surgery , Bolt competed in the 4 × 100 metres relay of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow , Scotland . Bolt said that he was " ... going there for my fans and I 'm going there to show I 'm getting back into shape and they can look for great things now and for the years to come . " Bolt and his teammates won the 4x100 relay in 37 @.@ 58 seconds ; a Commonwealth Games record .
In August 2014 Bolt set the indoor 100m world record in Warsaw with a time of 9 @.@ 98 seconds . Soon afterwards he ended his season early in order to be fit for the 2015 season .
= = = 2015 Beijing World championships = = =
On 23 August 2015 , Bolt won the final of the 100 metres with a time of 9 @.@ 79 seconds at the 2015 Beijing World Champions . On 27 August 2015 , Bolt won the 200 metres with a time of 19 @.@ 55 seconds .
= = Personal life = =
In his personal life , Bolt expresses a love for dancing and his character is frequently described as laid @-@ back and relaxed . His Jamaican track and field idols include Herb McKenley and former Jamaican 100m and 200m world record holder , Don Quarrie . Michael Johnson , the former 200 m world and Olympic record holder , is also held in high esteem by Bolt .
Bolt is Catholic and known for making the sign of the cross before racing competitively , and he wears a Miraculous Medal during his races . His middle name is St. Leo .
In 2010 , Bolt also revealed his fondness of music , when he played a reggae DJ set to a crowd in Paris .
The first sport to interest Bolt was cricket and he said if he was not a sprinter he would be a fast bowler instead . As a child he was a supporter of the Pakistani cricket team and admired the bowling of Waqar Younis . He is also a fan of Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar , West Indian opener Chris Gayle and Australian opener Matthew Hayden . During a charity cricket match Bolt clean @-@ bowled Chris Gayle . Gayle was complimentary of Bolt 's pace and swing . Bolt also struck a six off Chris Gayle 's bowling . Another bowler complimentary of Bolt 's pace was former West Indies fast @-@ bowling great Curtly Ambrose .
The Australian cricketer Shane Warne said in 2012 that Bolt would be interested in playing in the cricket Big Bash League , this was later confirmed by Bolt who said that " [ Shane Warne ] contacted me and asked me about if I am serious and if I really want to do it then he can put in a few words that should get it done . So we will see if I get the time off . I will try . " He also said he likes the Twenty20 version of the game : " Just the fact that it is so exciting , it 's about going hard the whole time , not just about playing shots . It 's about being aggressive and I like that style of batsman . If I get the chance I will definitely try because I know it 's going to be a lot of fun . I don 't know how good I am . I will probably have to get a lot of practice in . " In response to Bolt 's interest , Melbourne Stars chief executive Clint Cooper said : " We 're going to wait until the Olympics is over and re @-@ engage with him and his management company . We 've got a couple of spots left on our list . "
Bolt is also a fan of Premier League football team Manchester United . He has declared he is a fan of Dutch striker Ruud van Nistelrooy . Bolt was a special guest of Manchester United at the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final in London , where he stated that he would like to play for them after his retirement .
In 2013 , Bolt played basketball in the NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Celebrity Game . He scored two points from a slam dunk but acknowledged his other basketball skills were lacking .
= = Sponsorships and advertising work = =
After winning the 200 m title in the 2002 World Junior Championships in Kingston , Bolt signed a sponsorship deal with Puma . To promote Bolt 's chase for Olympic glory in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China , Puma released a series of videos including Bolt 's then @-@ world @-@ record @-@ setting run in Icahn Stadium and his Olympic preparations . After his world record breaking run in New York City , which was preceded by a lightning storm , the press frequently made puns on the Jamaican 's name , nicknaming him " Lightning Bolt " and the " Bolt from the blue " . During the Beijing 2008 100 m final , Bolt wore golden Puma Complete Theseus spikes that had " Beijing 100 m Gold " emblazoned across them . Writing of Bolt 's performance at the Olympics , the The Associated Press said :
Almost single @-@ handedly , Bolt has helped track transform itself from a dying sport to one with a singular , smiling , worldwide star .
In September 2010 , Bolt travelled to Australia where his sponsor Gatorade was holding an event called the " Gatorade Bolt " to find Australia 's fastest footballer . The event was held at the Sydney International Athletic Centre and featured football players from rugby league , rugby union , Australian rules football , and soccer . Prior to the race Bolt gave the runners some private coaching and also participated in the 10th anniversary celebrations for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games held in Sydney . Rugby Union international Lachlan Turner won the race in a time of 11 @.@ 10 seconds . His Sydney club team mate John Grant finished second in 11 @.@ 15 , with rugby league international Jarryd Hayne finishing 3rd with 11 @.@ 20 seconds .
In January 2012 , Bolt impersonated Richard Branson in an advertising campaign for Virgin Media . The campaign was directed by Seth Gordon and features the Virgin founder Branson to promote its broadband service . In March 2012 , Bolt starred in an advert for Visa and the 2012 Summer Olympics . In July 2012 , Bolt and RockLive launched Bolt ! , an Apple iOS game based on his exploits . Bolt ! quickly became the No. 1 app in Jamaica and climbed the UK iTunes charts to reach No. 2 on the list of Top Free Apps
Bolt 's autobiography ; My Story : 9 @.@ 58 : Being the World 's Fastest Man , was released in 2010 . Bolt had previously said that the book " ... should be exciting , it 's my life , and I 'm a cool and exciting guy . " His athletics agent is PACE Sports Management .
= = Recognition = =
IAAF World Athlete of the Year : 2008 , 2009 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013
Track & Field Athlete of the Year : 2008 , 2009
Laureus World Sportsman of the Year : 2009 , 2010 , 2013
BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year : 2008 , 2009 , 2012
L 'Équipe Champion of Champions : 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2015
Jamaica Sportsman of the year : 2008 , 2009 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013
AIPS Male Athlete of the Year : 2015
Marca Leyenda ( 2009 )
In October 2008 , he was made a Commander of the Order of Distinction , which entitles him to use the post nominal letters CD .
In 2009 , at age 23 , Usain Bolt became the youngest member so far , of the Order of Jamaica . The award was ' for outstanding performance in the field of athletics at the international level ' . In the Jamaican honours system , this is considered the equivalent of a knighthood in the British honours system , and entitles him to be formally styled " The Honourable " , and to use the post nominal letters OJ .
= = Personal appearances = =
Bolt made a cameo appearance in the opening sketch of 13 October 2012 broadcast of Saturday Night Live , hosted by Christina Applegate . The segment was a parody of the Vice Presidential debate between Joe Biden and Paul Ryan . In the sketch , Taran Killam mimicking Ryan had just lied about running a 2 : 50 marathon , a sub @-@ 4 @-@ minute mile on no training and winning the 100 metres in London when Bolt was introduced as his partner to confirm .
When Ryan asked Bolt " Who won the 100 metres ? " the Jamaican gold @-@ medalist answered simply . " I did . " Ryan followed up by asking Bolt about his ( Ryan 's ) finish . " You didn 't finish . You weren 't even there . "
Bolt appeared later in another sketch .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Personal bests = = =
= = = Records = = =
Bolt 's personal best of 9 @.@ 58 seconds in the 100 metres is the fastest ever run . Bolt also holds the second fastest time of 9 @.@ 63 seconds , the current Olympic record , and set two previous world records in the event . Bolt 's personal best of 19 @.@ 19 s in the 200 metres is the world record . This was recorded at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin against a headwind of − 0 @.@ 3 m / s . This performance broke his previous world record in the event , his 19 @.@ 30 s clocking in winning the 2008 Olympic 200 metres title .
Bolt has been on three world @-@ record @-@ setting Jamaican relay teams . The first record , 37 @.@ 10 seconds , was set in winning gold at the 2008 Summer Olympics . The second record came at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics , a time of 37 @.@ 04 seconds . The third world record was set at the 2012 Summer Olympics , a time of 36 @.@ 84 seconds .
Bolt also holds the 200 metres world teenage best results for the age categories 15 ( 20 @.@ 58 s ) , 16 ( 20 @.@ 13 s , world youth record ) , 17 ( 19 @.@ 93 s ) and 18 ( 19 @.@ 93 s , world junior record ) . He also holds the 150 metres world best set in 2009 , during which he ran the last 100 metres in 8 @.@ 70 seconds , the quickest timed 100 metres ever .
= = = Average speed = = =
From his record time of 9 @.@ 58 s for the 100 m sprint , Usain Bolt 's average ground speed equates to 37 @.@ 58 km / h ( 23 @.@ 35 mph ) . However , once his reaction time of 0 @.@ 15 s is subtracted , his time is closer to 9 @.@ 43 s , making his average speed closer to 38 @.@ 18 km / h ( 23 @.@ 72 mph ) . Bolt 's top speed , based on his split time of 1 @.@ 61 s for the 20 metres from the 60- to 80 @-@ metre marks ( made during the 9 @.@ 58 WR at 100m ) , is 12 @.@ 42 m / s ( 44 @.@ 72 km / h ( 27 @.@ 79 mph ) ) .
= = = International competition record = = =
= = = Images = = =
Lightning Strikes Twice in 2008 – slideshow by The First Post
Usain Bolt Wins 100 @-@ Meter Gold at 2012 Olympics – slideshow by USA Today
= = = Video = = =
Science Of Olympics : Usain Bolt 's Biomechanics – by NBC
Bolt Wins 2nd Consecutive 100m Gold – by NBC
Bolt Wins 2nd Consecutive 200m Gold – by NBC
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= Amrullah Saleh =
Amrullah Saleh ( Persian : امرالله صالح ; born 1971 ) is a politician in Afghanistan who served as head of the National Directorate of Security from 2004 until his resignation in 2010 . Prior to that he was a member of Ahmad Shah Massoud 's Northern Alliance .
In 1997 , Saleh was appointed by mujahideen leader Massoud to serve as Northern Alliance 's liaison office inside the Afghan Embassy in Dushanbe , Tajikistan , handling contacts to international non @-@ governmental ( humanitarian ) organizations and intelligence agencies . In late 2010 , Saleh created a pro @-@ democracy and anti @-@ Taliban movement called Basej @-@ e Milli ( National Mobilization ) and Green Trend .
= = Early years = =
Saleh was born in 1971 in the Panjshir Province of Afghanistan . He belongs to the Tajik group .
= = Careers = =
In 1990 , in order to avoid being conscripted into the Soviet @-@ backed Afghan army , Saleh joined the opposition mujahideen forces . He received military training in neighboring Pakistan and fought under mujahideen commander Ahmad Shah Massoud .
In the late 1990s , Saleh was a member of the Northern Alliance ( also known as the United Front ) and was fighting against the Taliban expansion . In 1997 , Saleh was appointed by Massoud to lead the United Front 's international liaison office at the Embassy of Afghanistan in Dushanbe , Tajikistan , where he served as a coordinator for non @-@ governmental ( humanitarian ) organizations and as a liaison partner for foreign intelligence agencies .
After the September 11 , 2001 attacks in the United States , Saleh participated in leading intelligence operations of the United Front on the ground during the toppling of the Taliban regime .
= = = National Directorate of Security = = =
After the formation of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in December 2004 , Saleh was appointed as head of the National Directorate of Security ( NDS ) by President Hamid Karzai . Saleh initiated structural reforms and helped rebuild the Afghan intelligence service . Saleh and former interior minister Hanif Atmar were viewed by the international community as two of the most competent cabinet members in the Afghan government . A western security expert told The Guardian that both men had a reputation for " clearing corruption within " their organs .
In 2005 , Saleh engaged several NDS agents infiltrating the Pakistani tribal areas to search for bin Laden and other al @-@ Qaeda and Taliban leaders . Several al @-@ Qaeda members could be identified , but it was determined that Bin Laden was not in the area . In 2006 , Saleh was presented with evidence that bin Laden was living in a major settled area of Pakistan just 20 miles from the town of Abbottabad , Pakistan . He shared the intelligence with former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf who angrily brushed off the claim , taking no action .
After the 2009 Afghan presidential election , Afghan President Karzai 's views about the security issues confronting Afghanistan and how best to deal with them reportedly changed . This impacted the working relationship between the President of Afghanistan and some of his cabinet ministers including his intelligence chief . Saleh said , " He [ Karzai ] thought democracy had hurt him as a person . His family had been attacked by the media unfairly , and the West was criticizing him unfairly . So after a presidential election , he was a changed man , and we could not have the same relationship as before the presidential election . " Political analyst Ahmed Rashid in 2010 observed the same , " Karzai 's new outlook is the most dramatic political shift he has undergone in the twenty @-@ six years that I have known him . " Both Saleh and Interior Minister Hanif Atmar subsequently had strong disagreements with Karzai on how to proceed against the Taliban , who Karzai began referring to as " brothers " . At that point Saleh and Atmar were increasingly isolated in the Karzai administration .
In early 2010 , an Afghan man approached the NDS claiming to represent senior Taliban commander Mullah Akhtar Muhammad Mansour . Offering a letter allegedly written by Mansour , he said Mansour was interested to open a channel for negotiations . Saleh 's people started testing the credentials of the supposed messenger , and judged them to be false , closing the case . The man then approached other Afghan government institutions . Saleh recounts , " When I learned ... that he was going through a different avenue , I warned the government that if it is this Aminullah , if he claims this , and if it is this guy , trust me , he is not representing anybody ; it 's a scam . ... Be careful . This is not Mansour . But there was a perception that Amrullah is against talks , so let 's sideline him . " The Afghan man , who lived in Pakistan where the Taliban 's leadership council is based , subsequently held three meetings with NATO and Afghan officials . Having been flown from Pakistan to Kabul on a NATO airplane , the man met with President Karzai in the presidential palace . In late 2010 , it turned out , that the supposed representative for Mansour was an impostor as Saleh had previously warned . The New York Times writes : " In an episode that could have been lifted from a spy novel , United States and Afghan officials now say the Afghan man was an impostor . "
On June 6 , 2010 , Saleh resigned from the NDS while Atmar resigned from his position as interior minister after a militant attack against the national peace jirga , although nobody had been killed or wounded and the attackers had been arrested . A few days after the jirga , Karzai had summoned Atmar and Saleh to discuss the attack against the jirga . After the meeting both men officially resigned because of the failure to stop the attack on the jirga . CNSNews writes : " Saleh told reporters he had submitted his resignation as general director of National Security because he had lost Karzai 's trust as a result of the attack . He said he and Atmar had briefed the president on the security preparations for the jirga , and the subsequent " success in ... capturing the facilitators " , but Karzai had not been satisfied . He had therefore felt unable to continue in his post . He also said there were " tens " of reasons for leaving his position , but would not elaborate on others . " The two men 's resignation led to widespread concerns among Afghanistan experts . Concerns were voiced over the direction the country was moving in .
The former United Nation 's Special Representative to Afghanistan Kai Eide writes :
" In June 2010 Atmar and Saleh were also gone . All ... had been highly respected among Afghans and among international partners . Since late 2008 I had been enthusiastic about the number of new reform @-@ oriented politicians in key government positions . That trend now seemed to have been reversed . "
President Karzai 's national security adviser , Rangin Dadfar Spanta , was quoted as saying :
" With Amrullah Saleh , the Afghan people have lost a huge treasure of commitment , awareness and experience in this struggle against terrorism , Al Qaeda and the ISI . I can ’ t think of anyone who will be able to even slightly fill the vacuum that he leaves behind . Besides being a highly efficient chief at the N.D.S. , he is a man of knowledge and research with an incredible memory and intellect . When he analyzed issues at international meetings , he exhibited tremendous ability at logical reasoning . He was head and shoulder above others . ... I had many differences in arguments with him , but I always saw his presence at the N.D.S. as a huge advantage to this country and this government . Despite my high respects for the president 's decisions , I am extremely mournful about Saleh 's departure . Extremely mournful . "
According to Ambassador Hank Crumpton from the CIA , who led the Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan in 2001 , Saleh possessed " good technical skills and emerging leadership traits " . Ambassador Crumpton also writes in his recent book that he found Saleh to be “ young , brilliant , honest , and devoted to a free Afghanistan " .
The resignation of Saleh and Atmar came amidst heavy disagreement between Hamid Karzai and Amrullah Saleh on how to proceed against the Taliban . Daoud Sultanzoi , a member of the Afghan parliament , said , he had observed that disagreement between Karzai on the one side and cabinet members such as Saleh and Atmar on the other side had been going on for a while . Saleh publicly blamed Pakistan for its support to the Taliban and other extremist groups and said talks with the Taliban should take place but not at the cost of democratic structures . Meanwhile Karzai had increasingly been placing his hopes on his attempts to reach a secret deal with the Taliban and Pakistan . Pakistan had repeatedly urged Karzai to oust Saleh from his position .
The Afghan media extensively covered the resignations with the daily liberal newspaper Hasht @-@ e Subh headlining an article : " Resignation of Atmar and Saleh : Accountability to the People or Tribute to Pakistan ? " Saleh said he considered Karzai a patriot , but that the president was making a mistake if he planned to rely on Pakistani support as Pakistan was trying to reimpose the Taliban .
" They are weakening him under the disguise of respecting him . They will embrace a weak Afghan leader , but they will never respect him . "
Saleh on the BBC 's Hard Talk explained and reiterated that Karzai in hoping to reach a deal with the Taliban and Pakistan 's ISI through appeasement policy had alienated his internal allies as well as Afghanistan 's external allies and had undermined the morale of Afghan security forces .
It was reported in 2010 that the Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) and the Taliban " regarded Saleh as their fiercest opponent . " He subsequently founded the Basej @-@ e Milli ( National mobilization ) and Green Trend as a pro @-@ democracy and anti @-@ Taliban movement .
= = Bin Laden – Musharraf controversy = =
Saleh has repeatedly stated that Afghan intelligence believed and had shared information about Osama Bin Laden hiding in an area close to Abbottabad , Pakistan , four years before he ( Bin Laden ) was killed there . Saleh had shared the information with Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf who had angrily brushed off the claim taking no action .
As early as 2004 , agents working for Afghan intelligence determined that Bin Laden was living in a major settled area in Pakistan proper , rather than the semi @-@ autonomous tribal areas on the Afghan @-@ Pakistan border , Amrullah Saleh told The Guardian . Leading Saleh and Afghan intelligence to that conclusion were " thousands of interrogation reports " and the assumption that Bin Laden " a millionaire with multiple wives and no background of toughness would not be living in a tent " . " I was pretty sure he was in the settled areas of Pakistan because in 2005 it was still very easy to infiltrate the tribal areas , and we had massive numbers of informants there . They could find any Arab but not Bin Laden . "
In 2007 , the Afghans specifically identified two Al @-@ Qaeda safe houses in Manshera , a town just miles from Abbottabad , leading them to believe that Bin Laden was possibly hiding there . But Amrullah Saleh says that Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf angrily smashed his fist on a table when Saleh presented the information to him during a meeting in which Afghan President Hamid Karzai also took part . According to Saleh , " He said , ' Am I the president of the Republic of Banana ? ' Then he turned to President Karzai and said , ' Why have you brought this Panjshiri guy to teach me intelligence ? ' "
A BBC journalist confronting Musharraf with Saleh 's allegations writes : " The former leader of Pakistan plays the dispassionate broker very well . ... [ But ] this is when Mr Musharraf 's camouflage starts to slip . The substance of the claim he handles like a politician ( it was actually a case of mistaken identity involving the CIA , he says ) . But he bristles with anger at the mention of Amrullah Saleh 's name . " Accusing Saleh of " impertinence " and being " lowly " , Musharraf stated : " Amrullah Saleh I have never liked and therefore he has no right to present anything to me . "
A December 2011 analysis report by the Jamestown Foundation , however , came to the conclusion that " in spite of denials by the Pakistani military , evidence is emerging that elements within the Pakistani military harbored Osama bin Laden with the knowledge of former army chief General Pervez Musharraf and possibly current Chief of Army Staff ( COAS ) General Ashfaq Pervez Kayani . Former Pakistani Army Chief General Ziauddin Butt ( a.k.a. General Ziauddin Khawaja ) revealed at a conference on Pakistani – U.S. relations in October 2011 that according to his knowledge the then former Director @-@ General of Intelligence Bureau of Pakistan ( 2004 – 2008 ) , Brigadier Ijaz Shah ( retd . ) , had kept Osama bin Laden in an Intelligence Bureau safe house in Abbottabad . " Pakistani General Ziauddin Butt said Bin Laden had been hidden in Abbottabad " with the full knowledge " of Pervez Musharraf . Butt later denied making any such statement .
= = Activity after resignation = =
In 2010 Saleh launched a peaceful campaign to warn that Hamid Karzai had lost conviction in the fight against the Taliban and was pursuing a compromise that could come at the cost of democracy , stability and human rights , especially women 's rights . He criticized Karzai 's policy , which he called a " fatal mistake and a recipe for civil war " .
" My view is there must not be a deal with the Taliban . Ever . There must be a process . And according to that process , based on that process , the Taliban should become part of the society and play according to the script of democracy . They should be demobilized , disarmed , reintegrated the way the Northern Alliance was . ... And also they should denounce violence . And that process will bring a lasting stability . Minus that , if there is a deal , deals never bring stability . They create fragile peace . ... if there is a deal , we will resist against the deal , " we " meaning all the forces who fought the Taliban . ... [ T ] he Taliban have no message , no vision except intimidation , spreading fear , bringing exclusion in the Afghan society , stopping development and destroying pluralism . ... We all want to make peace , but we do not want to Talibanize Afghanistan . "
He also warned :
" Psychologically , there is no government . People do not recognize an authority . There are people who are paid by the government , who protect themselves and there are Taliban groups who go around and spread intimidation and fear . In between , the population is caught between two fighting forces and they do not go to [ either ] for a solution . "
Amrullah Saleh consequently founded the Basej @-@ e Milli ( National Movement ) , also known as Afghanistan Green Trend , a political movement which has successfully established itself in Afghanistan . In May 2011 , more than 20 @,@ 000 of his followers took part in an anti @-@ Taliban demonstration in the capital Kabul .
In December 2011 , Saleh also criticized the corruption of the Karzai government . He warned that if the Afghan government did not commit itself to necessary reforms and to battling corruption , the year 2014 - when international troops plan on having finalized their exit strategy - would be " a year of challenges rather than opportunities " . Saleh especially emphasized the need for fundamental reforms in Afghanistan 's Independent Electoral Commission .
" 2014 is a year of opportunities , some coalitions will form and whoever wins transparently or in an almost transparent situation , the Afghan people will support the new order ... If there are no reforms , I can foresee a popular uprising , a just uprising different from the Taliban 's .
Amrullah Saleh has been speaking and writing extensively on these issues in both local and international media . He maintains that the Taliban need to disarm and honor the integrity of the Afghan constitution before they could be considered for any reconciliation process .
In an article that he wrote for the Wall Street Journal in February 2012 , he mentioned , " Talks and a potential ceasefire may provide the U.S. and its NATO allies their justification for a speedy withdrawal , but it won 't change the fundamentals of the problem in Afghanistan . Striking a deal with the Taliban without disarming them will shatter the hope of a strong , viable , pluralistic Afghan state . "
In his commentaries , Amrullah Saleh also discusses the negative influence of parochial politics and lack of incentives on the development of the Afghan National Security Forces . In an article for Al Jazeera in April 2012 , he wrote , " Idealism and belief in values are crucial to strengthening the ranks . But when the security forces witness the decay of values at the leadership level , the incentive for sacrifice plummets . The effectiveness of the force declines . And in such situations ethnic and regional divides , personal connections , and mistrust creep in . "
He warns that ethnic politics and internal fragmentation are serious challenges for Afghanistan . In an article for Al Jazeera in June 2012 , he wrote , " Pan @-@ Afghan parties don ’ t exist . Afghans of all ethnic groups have stood together for a common cause but they have failed to share a common platform . "
With the imminent draw @-@ down of the international assistance to Afghanistan and its implications on the programs and projects supporting Afghan economy and public institutions , Amrullah Saleh warns that , " The task of absorbing tens of thousands of low @-@ quality degree holders , hundreds of thousands of unskilled , unemployed youth , and an ever @-@ increasing ethnic quota in civil service and development projects will be monumentally difficult . This internal stress can only be overcome if Afghanistan diversifies its income sources and expands its extractive industries . "
He also mentions , " The Afghan Local Police should be strengthened ... but be insulated from political influence of current government stakeholders . "
Explaining the reason why the West has not succeeded in Afghanistan , Amrullah emphasized the lack of effort towards creating an anti @-@ Taliban constituency . He wrote , " The anti @-@ Taliban constituency is not an ethnic alliance against the south , but rather a political umbrella for all Afghans who seek a pluralistic society and oppose the Talibanization of the society as part of a so @-@ called reconciliation deal . Perhaps 80 percent of Afghans oppose the Taliban . Such an umbrella will be Afghans ’ best representative in any talks with the Taliban , since Karzai and his High Peace Council lack credibility among Afghans who experienced the Taliban ’ s oppressive rule . "
Speaking during the inauguration of an Islamic foundation in Kabul , Saleh said the Karzai government and the United States of America cannot represent the anti @-@ Taliban Afghan civilians and initiate peace talks while simultaneously excluding them . The former Afghan Intelligence Chief insisted on considering the views of the Afghan people during the peace talks process , as a majority of Afghans both in the northern and southern regions , he said , have negative views of the Taliban . He also questioned the honesty of the Taliban 's involvement in peace talks . The recent objections by nearly all major opposition parties come amid growing efforts by the US and Hamid Karzai to make headway in secret talks with the Taliban and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar 's Hezb @-@ i Islami . In these talks representatives from the anti @-@ Taliban United Front , which fought the Taliban from 1994 until 2001 and unites leaders representing roughly 60 % of Afghanistan 's population , are being excluded . Criticizing the secretive nature of US talks with the Taliban , which they suspect might end in a return of the Taliban to power , opposition leaders have asked for a transparent UN @-@ led peace process .
In a recent article for Foreign Policy , titled , “ What went wrong with Afghanistan ? ” published in March 2013 , Amrullah Saleh mentioned that the key reason for the current problematic situation in Afghanistan was the West 's ( US and NATO 's ) mistaken belief that Pakistan would change its policies in Afghanistan .
Starting with a rhetorical question – Is NATO losing and the Taliban winning ? – Amrullah Saleh discusses the uncertainty among the Afghans about 2014 – when NATO ends its combat mission in Afghanistan . He then mentions Afghans ’ perception that the US is funding both sides of the conflict because Pakistan remains the key country supporting the insurgency . Amrullah Saleh also discusses why the NATO and the US remain unwilling to confront Pakistan because of their own security concerns . He advocates for a surge in the capacity of the Afghan National Security Forces . Amrullah Saleh highlights the importance of both training and equipment to ensure that cleared areas of Afghanistan are held , communication lines are kept open , and major population centers are defended .
He specifically mentions , “ Maintaining military pressure on the Taliban is key for survival of the pluralistic state in Afghanistan . Otherwise , the democratic space will shrink , and the Taliban 's bargaining power in future talks will increase further . ” He then concludes presciently , “ Some analysts have tried to paint this war as a conflict between Afghans . It isn 't . In reality , it is a war between a Pakistan @-@ supported militant group and the rest of the world . There are only two possible solutions : A Western @-@ backed Afghan government decisively defeats the Taliban , or the Taliban agree to demilitarize and join the political process . The United States , however , should understand one thing very clearly : It would be making a huge error -- and confirming the Afghan people 's worst fears -- if it picked up and left Afghanistan to the Taliban 's brutal ways . ”
On May 3 , 2013 , the Afghan Green Trend - the grassroots movement led by Amrullah Saleh - organized a large athletic demonstration in support of the Afghan National Security Forces ( ANSF ) . It also aimed at denouncing corruption , calling for a clean city and a clean municipality . The demonstration passed through the Afghan parliament building . The demonstrators chanted against the parliament ’ s alleged corruption and denounced MPs who take bribes .
They ended their run at the steps of the historical Darulaman palace and read a declaration : “ Our aim is to announce our political and moral support for those who are in the trenches defending the country ’ s sovereignty . ” Amrullah Saleh said , “ To the soldiers who are martyred in line of duty – you lost your lives , but your dreams live on ” . He also warned against the “ politicization of the country ’ s security forces and their misuse towards political means . ”
On June 9 , 2013 , in the 10th annual US @-@ Islamic forum organized in Doha by the Brookings institution in partnership with the state of Qatar , Amrullah Saleh spoke in a plenary session titled “ Transitions in Afghanistan and Pakistan ” . Amrullah Saleh warned , “ While America ’ s war on terror may be winding down , the war between democratic forces and extremist groups in Afghanistan has not come to an end due to the widespread presence of terrorist sanctuaries , ongoing hostilities between Afghanistan and Pakistan , and the rising momentum in the Taliban 's insurgency . ”
He added , “ A British soldier was cut into pieces [ in ] broad daylight in London or near London . Will [ the ] British government ever , instead of putting that guy to justice , put him in a five @-@ star hotel and say , ' Brother , what made you do this ? Can we accommodate your grievances ? ' That is what the West is expecting [ of ] us - to bring the killers of our brothers , to bring those who cut the noses of the Afghan women , to bring those who do suicide bombings in our wedding parties , to put them on the other side of the table and say , ' Brother , you represent our religion and I have lost my direction . Let us talk . ' That is because there is not much respect for the dignity of the nation called Afghanistan when it comes to geopolitics . ”
= = Assassination attempts = =
Saleh has become a target of assassination a number of times . During a 60 Minutes interview in the United States , Saleh stated :
" Sure , and if they kill me , I have told my family and my friends not to complain about anything , because I have killed many of them with pride , so , I am a very , very legitimate target , very legitimate , because when I stand against them , the desire to stand against them is part of my blood . I believe they are wrong . "
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= Over the Rainbow ( Connie Talbot album ) =
Over the Rainbow is the debut album of child singer Connie Talbot , and was released 26 November 2007 by Rainbow Recording Company . Most of the album 's recording was done in a spare room in the house of Talbot 's aunt , in an attempt to preserve her childhood by not interrupting her regular activities . Although initially public appearances were kept to a minimum , Talbot did make appearances to promote the album , and performed in public several times after the British release . It received poor reviews from critics and peaked at number 35 on the UK Albums Chart . Despite this , additional copies of the album had to be pressed after sales were higher than expected . She later toured Asia in support of the album . Over the Rainbow achieved more success on the Asian charts , reaching number one in Taiwan , South Korea and Hong Kong .
Over the Rainbow was rereleased on 18 June 2008 with an updated track list , replacing some of the Christmas themed tracks of the original with more general covers . The first single from the album , " Three Little Birds , " was released in June 2008 , and a music video for the song was shot in Jamaica . On 14 October , the album was released in the US , appearing on several Billboard charts . Talbot visited the US to promote the album , appearing on national television .
= = Recording and release = =
Connie Talbot raised to prominence after reaching the final of the first series of Britain 's Got Talent . After briefly recording with Sony BMG , Talbot was signed to Rainbow Recording Company , an offshoot of Rhythm Riders made specifically for her . To produce Over the Rainbow , Talbot worked with John Arnison , then @-@ manager to Gabrielle and Billy Ocean , and Marc Marot , former managing director of Island Records . It was produced and mixed by Simon Hill and Rob May . A recording schedule was worked out so Talbot could continue with her normal school activities while recording the album in her aunt Vicky 's spare bedroom , which her mother described as " a better solution " than the one offered by Sony BMG , " which has not robbed her of her childhood " . Talbot said that " it was just amazing that we could do it in my auntie 's house " . Arnison and Marot asked the Talbot family to " write down a list of the songs that Connie would sing at her birthday party " to help choose the track listing , and then " thought long and hard " about including more adult songs on the album . Talbot herself insisted that they should . The final version of Over the Rainbow was recorded at Olympic Studios , on 12 October 2007 . Arnison described the recording process by saying that Talbot " hadn 't sung nursery rhymes ; she 'd always sung classic tracks . So it was actually quite an easy task to make the record . " The album was released on 26 November 2007 , with an initial pressing of 50 @,@ 000 copies . However , an additional 120 @,@ 000 had to be pressed after the album sold out in a matter of days . The album was released in the US on 14 October 2008 .
Over the Rainbow was rereleased on 18 June 2008 , and was available for preorder in May , with three new tracks to replace the Christmas @-@ themed songs on the original album . The new tracks were made available from Talbot 's official website so that those who bought the original need not buy the rerelease . Talbot 's song " Three Little Birds " , a cover of the Bob Marley song of the same name , was released as a single on 10 June 2008 , and a music video was shot in Jamaica to for the release . The album was released in the US on 14 October , and Talbot travelled to America with her family to publicise it . Talbot 's cover of " I Will Always Love You " was released as a single in the US on 7 April , along with a newly recorded " You Raise Me Up " .
= = Publicity = =
Although Arnison claimed he did not " want to put [ Talbot ] through the promotional grind which most artists go through because she is too young " , Talbot made several public appearances after the album 's release . These included headlining the Great Bridge Christmas and Winter Festival , which local police threatened to cancel unless crowds clamouring to reach the tent in which Talbot was performing could be brought under control . At the event , on 7 December 2007 , Talbot was quoted as saying " I love it here , it 's brilliant , really fun " , but she had to be ushered off @-@ stage by the police . Talbot performed publicly in Walsall 's HMV store , and in Birmingham 's Centenary Square . TV appearances included GMTV and Channel 5 news , both on the day of the album 's release .
In April and May 2008 , Talbot toured Asia to promote Over the Rainbow . Asian press attributed her success to her videos on YouTube , with writers for the Sun.Star noting that her most viewed video had been watched over 14 million times , and Bernard Koh , of The Straits Times , saying that videos of Talbot 's performances have been watched over 30 million times . The tour made stops in South Korea , Taiwan , Hong Kong and Singapore , and Talbot and her family returned to England in late May . News that Talbot was to release the album in the US resulted in attention from American press sources including Fox Business Network and MarketWatch . Kerri Mason , writing for Reuters , described Talbot 's videos as " viral " , and added that she had been watched on YouTube over 46 million times . Talbot travelled to the US for a promotional tour to coincide with the release , where she performed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , appeared as a guest on The Oprah Winfrey Show , and appeared in Los Angeles , Philadelphia , New York City and Washington D.C. Following the television appearances , sales of the album were boosted in the US . Talbot again travelled to the US to promote her single " I Will Always Love You " on 30 April 2009 , and returned again in May . Appearances have included a performance on Good Day New York on Fox Broadcasting Company 's WNYW .
= = Critical reception = =
The album was received mostly negatively by critics . Sharon Mawer , of Allmusic , praised Over the Rainbow by saying " [ Talbot ] can sing , for a seven @-@ year @-@ old , and most of the notes ( if not all of them ) are in the right order and sung to the right pitch ; the timing is fine too " . However , she criticised the album , saying " there 's no feeling , no emotion , no realization of what each song is about ; they 're just pretty little songs " , giving the album 2 / 5 . Nick Levine , of Digital Spy , said in a review of the album that Talbot had a " sweet , pure voice " , but that there is " no nuance or depth to her performance " . However , he said that " There 's something inherently wrong about awarding a star rating to a seven @-@ year @-@ old " , and that " the decidedly adult concept of musical merit should have nothing to do with [ her music ] " , rating the album 2 / 5 . Reviewers in the Harlow Star also commented on her age , saying " There 's no doubt she 's a sweet little girl with a nice voice , but surely there 's something inherently wrong with thrusting a child into the limelight at such a young age ? " Rashvin Bedi , writing for Malaysian newspaper The Star , praised the album , saying that " Connie sings with ease and manages the high notes admirably " , but asked whether " people would buy an album of the same songs sung by a 20 @-@ year @-@ old girl " .
= = Chart performance and sales = =
The album entered in the British album charts at 35 on 8 December 2007 , but was at the bottom of the charts by Christmas , despite having been tipped as a potential Christmas number one . It remained in the charts for five weeks , peaking at 35 . However , the album was certified gold in Britain in early December , with Talbot being presented a gold disc by Phillip Schofield on daytime television programme This Morning . Following Talbot 's tour of Asia , it was reported that the album had reached number one on the charts in Taiwan , South Korea and Hong Kong , as well as reaching number three in Singapore . The album has gone platinum in Taiwan and Hong Kong , and double platinum in Korea , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies . In the US , the album appeared on three charts . It featured on the Top Heatseekers for nine weeks , peaking at number 7 , on the Kid Albums for four weeks , peaking at number 8 , and on Top Independent Albums for one week , at number 43 .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Orchestra = = =
= = = Choir = = =
= = = Production and publicity = = =
= = Track listings = =
= = = Original track listing = = =
= = = Rerelease track listing = = =
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= Martin AM Mauler =
The Martin AM Mauler ( originally XBTM ) was a single @-@ seat shipboard attack aircraft built for the United States Navy . Designed during World War II , the Mauler encountered development delays and did not enter service until 1948 in small numbers . The aircraft proved troublesome and remained in front @-@ line service only until 1950 , when the Navy switched to the smaller and simpler Douglas AD Skyraider . Maulers remained in reserve squadrons until 1953 . A few were built as AM @-@ 1Q electronic @-@ warfare aircraft with an additional crewman in the fuselage .
= = Design and development = =
In the 1930s and early 1940s , the Navy divided carrier @-@ borne bombers into two types : the torpedo bomber and the dive bomber , each with crews of two or three men . Wartime experience showed that pilots could aim bombs and torpedoes without assistance from other crewmembers as well navigate with the aid of radio beacons and the development of more @-@ powerful engines meant that faster aircraft no longer needed a rear gunner for self @-@ defense . Furthermore , the consolidation of the two types of bombers greatly increased the flexibility of a carrier 's air group and allowed the number of fighters in an air group to be increased .
In 1943 the US Navy invited proposals for a new multi @-@ purpose bomber and selected four designs in September : the Curtiss XBTC , Douglas XBT2D Skyraider , Kaiser @-@ Fleetwings BTK and the Martin XBTM . Martin was tasked to provide a back @-@ up to the Curtiss design which had been selected as a replacement to the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver . Due to the US Navy 's concern that the Curtiss design was overly complex and that the company 's record was particularly poor during the Helldiver 's development , Martin was instructed to create an " unexperimental " design that would be a reliable platform for the Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 4360 Wasp Major radial engine that powered both aircraft . Two prototypes were ordered from Martin on 31 May 1944 with the internal designation of Model 210 .
The XBTM @-@ 1 was a low @-@ winged , all @-@ metal monoplane with folding wings to allow more compact storage in carrier hangar decks and conventional landing gear . Its fuselage was an oval @-@ shaped stressed @-@ skin semi @-@ monocoque with the single @-@ seat cockpit and its teardrop @-@ shaped canopy positioned just aft of the air @-@ cooled engine . Just behind the cockpit was a 150 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 570 l ; 120 imp gal ) fuel tank . The large wing consisted of a two @-@ spar center section with hydraulically @-@ folded three @-@ spar outer panels . A large dive brake was positioned on the trailing edge of the wing . When closed it could be lowered for use as a landing flap or it could be split into alternating upper and lower section with inter @-@ meshing " fingers " for use in its intended role . It was very effective in this role , mainly due to its great surface area , but this was at the cost of the width of the ailerons , which significantly reduced their efficiency . A pair of 180 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 680 l ; 150 imp gal ) fuel tanks were positioned in the roots of the center section . All fuel tanks were self sealing and the pilot and oil cooler were protected by 297 pounds ( 135 kg ) of armor .
The fixed armament of four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) T @-@ 31 autocannon was fitted in the center section adjacent to the outer wing panels with 200 rounds per gun . A centerline hardpoint and a pair of outer hardpoints were installed on the center section and rated to take bombs , fuel tanks or torpedoes up to 2 @,@ 300 pounds ( 1 @,@ 043 kg ) in weight . The outer hardpoints could also carry an AN / APS @-@ 4 search radar in a pod . A dozen hardpoints could be installed on the outer wing panels to carry 250 @-@ pound ( 113 kg ) bombs or 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) High Velocity Aircraft Rockets . In service the Mauler earned the nickname " Able Mable " because of its remarkable load @-@ carrying ability , once lifting 10 @,@ 648 pounds ( 4 @,@ 830 kg ) of ordnance ( three 2 @,@ 200 @-@ pound ( 998 kg ) torpedoes , a dozen 250 @-@ pound bombs plus its 20 mm guns and their ammunition ) on 30 March 1949 , perhaps the heaviest load ever carried by a single @-@ engine , piston @-@ powered aircraft .
The first XBTM @-@ 1 made its maiden flight on 26 August 1944 and began flight testing after it reached the Naval Air Test Center ( NATC ) on 11 December . The Navy ordered 750 more aircraft on 15 January 1945 although this was reduced to 99 aircraft after the surrender of Japan in August . The second prototype made its first flight on 20 May . Initial flight tests conducted with the first two prototypes revealed significant problems with the engine , its cowling , the vertical stabilizer and rudder . In response , the cowling was lengthened 6 inches ( 152 mm ) and the engine mount was canted two degrees to the right to offset the engine 's tremendous torque . The length of the carburetor air scoop was extended and the propeller spinner , rudder , and the vertical stabilizer were redesigned . In April 1946 the aircraft designation was changed to AM @-@ 1 when the Navy replaced its Bomber @-@ Torpedo classification with Attack , well before the redesign was completed in early 1947 .
First deliveries began in March 1947 and a flight test program began that month that lasted three years before the major deficiencies identified were fully corrected . Carrier landing trials revealed a structural weakness of the rear fuselage when one aircraft was severed in half during a heavy landing . Severe vibrations in the tail upon engaging the arresting wire were cured by adding a roller bearing to the tailhook to counter the sideways forces placed on the tailhook . Other necessary changes were the addition of spoiler ailerons and an elevator control boost to improve the aircraft 's poor controllability at low speeds . In addition the cockpit layout was unsatisfactory and had to be redesigned . The NATC finally deemed the Mauler acceptable for carrier landings in August 1948 even though aircraft had been issued to one squadron earlier in the year and a new batch of 50 aircraft had been ordered in May . Despite all of the modifications to the aircraft over its short life , it remained a maintenance nightmare , especially the leaky hydraulic systems .
The AM @-@ 1Q was developed for electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) duties . The fuselage fuel tank was removed to make room for the ECM operator and his equipment in a windowless compartment . The aircraft carried several radio and radar receivers , transmitters and a signal analyzer . The operator could also drop bundles of chaff through a chute to block radar signals .
Pilots found the Mauler a heavy handling aircraft that was difficult to fly in formation , and hard to land aboard a carrier because a less than perfect landing often caused the aircraft to bounce over the arresting wires and into the safety barrier . It was a very stable dive bomber , more so than the Skyraider , and could carry more ordnance . Maintenance problems and the difficulty of landing aboard a carrier caused some pilots give it the nickname of " Awful Monster " .
= = Operational history = =
With the prospect of flying the AD @-@ 1 Skyraider and AM @-@ 1 in carrier operations , the US Navy assigned the Maulers to Atlantic Fleet squadrons . Attack Squadron 17A ( VA @-@ 17A ) was the first unit to get the AM @-@ 1 and received its 18 aircraft in March and April 1948 . It was redesignated as VA @-@ 174 on 11 August and began carrier qualification trials aboard the USS Kearsarge on 27 – 28 December and completed them aboard the USS Leyte in January 1949 with all assigned pilots completing their day qualifications . During this latter deployment the squadron participated in the unsuccessful search for a British South American Airways Avro Tudor airliner missing in the Caribbean . The squadron made a brief deployment aboard the USS Midway , one of the largest carriers in the US Navy , in early 1949 . The longer flight deck of the Midway @-@ class carriers made landings easier for the AM @-@ 1 pilots and the squadron did not have a single landing accident during its deployment . Upon its return the unit transferred its aircraft to VA @-@ 44 and VA @-@ 45 , both newly assigned to the Midway , and converted to the Skyraider before being disbanded in January 1950 .
The two squadrons began receiving their aircraft in March 1949 and conduced their carrier qualifications from 2 to 7 May . VA @-@ 45 became the only Mauler squadron to complete qualification without any accidents . They made a short deployment aboard the carrier from 1 to 9 September and began converting back to Skyraiders the following month .
Carrier Air Group 8 ( CVG @-@ 8 ) was established on 15 September 1948 in response to the Berlin Blockade with newly qualified pilots and reservists who volunteered for active duty . VA @-@ 84 and VA @-@ 85 , the air group 's attack squadrons , began receiving Maulers in November and the last aircraft was delivered in January 1949 . Later that month the air group made a flyover of President Harry Truman 's Inauguration ceremony . The squadron conducted their qualifications aboard the Midway from 3 to 6 May with 10 Maulers crashing into the safety barrier between them . CVG @-@ 8 made a two @-@ week cruise aboard the Midway beginning on 27 June along the East Coast of the United States before it was disbanded in November after the peaceful resolution of the Berlin Blockade .
Many of the AM @-@ 1Q electronic @-@ warfare variants were assigned to Composite Squadron 4 ( VC @-@ 4 ) , based at NAS Atlantic City , and were detached in small groups for each Atlantic Fleet carrier deployment . Little is known about their service and the squadron is last known to have Maulers assigned on 1 October 1950 .
Although the Skyraider was a third smaller and carried a third less bombload , it proved more reliable in service and easier to fly and land , and Navy pilots preferred it . In 1950 the decision was made to use the Mauler only from shore @-@ based units and later that year all but Naval Reserve units abandoned the type . The aircraft operated with reserve squadrons until 1953 .
= = Variants = =
XBTM @-@ 1
Two prototypes built .
BTM @-@ 1 / AM @-@ 1
A total of 131 production aircraft , another 651 aircraft were cancelled .
AM @-@ 1Q
A electronic @-@ warfare variant , 18 aircraft built and / or converted .
JR2M @-@ 1
Proposed carrier onboard delivery variant of the AM , named Mercury ; not built .
= = Operators = =
United States
United States Navy
VA @-@ 44 , VA @-@ 45 , VA @-@ 84 , VA @-@ 85 , VA @-@ 174 , VC @-@ 4 .
Reserve attack squadrons at NAS Grosse Ile , NAS St. Louis , NAS Glenview , NAS Dallas , NAS Columbus , and NAS Atlanta .
= = Survivors = =
Out of 151 Maulers built , only four complete air @-@ frames are known to still exist with a fifth partial air @-@ frame in storage :
On display
AM @-@ 1
122397 - National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola , Florida .
22275 - Tillamook Air Museum , Tillamook , Oregon . ( formerly from the Erikson Aircraft Collection in Madras , Oregon )
In storage or under restoration
AM @-@ 1
22260 - this aircraft formerly belonged to the Commemorative Air Force ( formerly the Confederate Air Force ) . In storage , ( along with 122401 ) at the Glenn L. Martin Maryland Aviation Museum in Middle River , Maryland . Not currently listed on the museum 's website and the museum did not respond to a query on its status . Previously restored to airworthy status in 1984 and subsequently crashed same year .
122401 - Partial air frame stored ( along with 22260 ) , at the Glenn L. Martin Maryland Aviation Museum in Middle River , Maryland .
122403 - in storage at the Planes of Fame in Chino , California as of 2014 .
= = Specifications ( AM @-@ 1 Mauler ) = =
Data from American Combat Aircraft of the 20th Century
General characteristics
Crew : 1 ( 2 for AM @-@ 1Q )
Length : 41 ft 3 in ( 12 @.@ 57 m )
Wingspan : 50 ft 0 in ( 15 @.@ 24 m )
Height : 16 ft 10 in ( 5 @.@ 13 m )
Wing area : 496 sq ft ( 46 @.@ 1 m2 )
Empty weight : 15 @,@ 257 lb ( 6 @,@ 920 kg )
Gross weight : 25 @,@ 737 lb ( 11 @,@ 674 kg )
Fuel capacity : 510 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 900 l ; 420 imp gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 4360 @-@ 4 Wasp Major Radial , 3 @,@ 000 hp ( 2 @,@ 200 kW )
Propellers : 4 @-@ bladed , 14 ft 8 in ( 4 @.@ 47 m ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 334 mph ( 538 km / h ; 290 kn )
Cruise speed : 189 mph ( 164 kn ; 304 km / h )
Combat range : 1 @,@ 524 mi ; 2 @,@ 452 km ( 1 @,@ 324 nmi )
Service ceiling : 27 @,@ 000 ft ( 8 @,@ 230 m )
Time to altitude : 5 @.@ 9 minutes to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 048 m )
Wing loading : 48 @.@ 7 lb / sq ft ( 238 kg / m2 )
Armament
Guns : 4 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) T @-@ 31 cannon @ 200 r.p.g.
Hardpoints : 15
Rockets : 12 × 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) HVAR
Missiles : 3 × Mark 13 torpedoes
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= Dracula 's Daughter =
Dracula 's Daughter is a 1936 American vampire horror film produced by Universal Studios as a sequel to the 1931 film Dracula . Directed by Lambert Hillyer from a screenplay by Garrett Fort , the film stars Otto Kruger , Gloria Holden in the title role , Marguerite Churchill and features , as the only cast member to return from the original , Edward Van Sloan – although his character 's name was altered from Van Helsing to Von Helsing .
Dracula 's Daughter tells the story of Countess Marya Zaleska , the daughter of Count Dracula and herself a vampire . Following Dracula 's death , she believes that by destroying his body she will be free of his influence and can live as a human . When this fails , she turns to psychiatry and Dr. Jeffrey Garth . When his efforts fail , she kidnaps Janet , the woman Jeffrey loves , and flees with her to Transylvania in an attempt to bind Jeffrey to her . She is foiled and destroyed when her jealous manservant shoots her with an arrow .
Ostensibly based on a short story titled " Dracula 's Guest " by Bram Stoker , the film bears little or no resemblance to the original source material . David O. Selznick initially purchased the rights to the story for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . Selznick , probably knowing he could not legally make the film because of Universal 's copyright on the original film , sold the rights to Universal . After first assigning the picture to James Whale , Universal production head Carl Laemmle , Jr. finally put Hillyer in the director 's chair .
Dracula 's Daughter was not as successful as the original upon its release , although it was generally critically well @-@ reviewed . In the intervening decades , criticism has been deeply divided . Modern critics and scholars have noted the strong lesbian overtones of the film , which Universal acknowledged from the start of filming and exploited in some early advertising .
= = Plot = =
Dracula 's Daughter begins a few moments after Dracula ends . Count Dracula has just been destroyed by Professor Von Helsing ( Edward Van Sloan ) . Von Helsing is taken by police to Scotland Yard , where he explains that he indeed did destroy Count Dracula , but because he had already been dead for over 500 years , it cannot be considered murder . Instead of hiring a lawyer , he enlists the aid of a psychiatrist , Dr. Jeffrey Garth ( Otto Kruger ) , who was once one of his star students .
Meanwhile , Dracula 's daughter , Countess Marya Zaleska ( Gloria Holden ) , with the aid of her manservant , Sandor ( Irving Pichel ) , steals Dracula ’ s body from Scotland Yard and ritualistically burns it , hoping to break her curse of vampirism . However , Sandor soon makes her realize that her thirst for blood has not been quenched and that all that is in her eyes is " Death " . The Countess resumes her hunting , mesmerizing her victims with her exotic jeweled ring . After a chance meeting with Dr. Garth at a society party , the Countess asks him to help her overcome the influence she feels from beyond the grave . The doctor advises her to defeat her cravings by confronting them and the Countess becomes hopeful that her will plus Dr. Garth 's science will be strong enough to overcome Dracula 's malevolence .
The Countess sends Sandor to fetch her a model to paint ; he returns with Lili ( Nan Grey ) . Countess Zaleska initially resists her urges but succumbs and attacks Lili . Although the girl survives the attack , when Dr. Garth tries to hypnotize her to learn what happened , she suffers heart failure and dies . As the Countess comes to accept that a cure is not possible — and the doctor discovers the truth about her condition — she lures him to Transylvania by kidnapping Janet ( Marguerite Churchill ) , the woman he loves . She intends to transform him into a vampire to be her eternal companion ; Dr. Garth agrees to exchange his life for Janet 's . Before he can be transformed , Countess Zaleska is destroyed when Sandor shoots her through the heart with an arrow as revenge for her breaking her promise to make him immortal . He takes aim at Dr. Garth but is shot dead by a policeman .
= = Cast = =
Otto Kruger as Dr. Jeffrey Garth
Gloria Holden as Countess Marya Zaleska - Dracula 's Daughter
Marguerite Churchill as Janet
Edward Van Sloan as Professor Von Helsing
Gilbert Emery as Sir Basil Humphrey , Scotland Yard
Irving Pichel as Sandor
Halliwell Hobbes as Hawkins
Billy Bevan as Albert
Nan Grey as Lili
Hedda Hopper as Lady Esme Hammond
Claud Allister as Sir Aubrey
Edgar Norton as Hobbs
E. E. Clive as Sergeant Wilkes
Vernon Steele as Squires
Hedwiga Reicher as the innkeeper 's wife ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
Universal originally did not hold the rights to " Dracula 's Guest " , a chapter excised from Bram Stoker 's original novel and the purported source material for the film . The story includes an encounter between a man ( presumed by some to be Jonathan Harker although the character is not identified as such ) and a female vampire . The story does not establish a filial relationship between the female vampire and Dracula . Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer executive David O. Selznick negotiated a contract in 1933 with Stoker 's widow , Florence , to buy the rights to the chapter for an advance of $ 500 against a purchase price of $ 5 @,@ 000 . MGM 's lawyers and executives were worried about the use of the word " Dracula " in the film 's title , fearing that Universal would take legal action , although Selzick 's contract with Stoker explicitly listed " Dracula 's Daughter " as a possible alternate title . The project was code @-@ named " Tarantula " in correspondence .
Selznick hired John L. Balderston , who had previously worked on the 1931 Dracula and Frankenstein , to write the screenplay . Balderston 's screenplay involved tying up loose ends from the original film . In it , Von Helsing returns to Transylvania to destroy the three vampire brides seen in Dracula but overlooks a fourth tomb concealing Dracula 's daughter . She follows him back to London and operates under the name " Countess Szekelsky " . She attacks a young aristocrat and Von Helsing and the aristocrat 's fiancée track her back to Transylvania and destroy her . The script included scenes that implied that Dracula 's daughter enjoyed torturing her male victims and that while under her control the men liked it too . Also included were shots of the Countess 's chambers being stocked with whips and straps , which she would never use on @-@ screen but whose uses the audience could imagine . Regardless of any objections that the Production Code Administration ( PCA ) would have raised to many aspects of the scenario , Balderston 's script could never have been filmed because Selznick 's contract with Stoker expressly barred him from using any Bram Stoker characters that did not appear in " Dracula 's Guest " . Selznick re @-@ sold the rights to " Dracula 's Guest " to Universal in September 1935 for $ 12 @,@ 500 , which included the rights to Balderston 's scenario . Horror film scholar David J. Skal theorizes that this was Selznick 's actual motivation in buying the rights in the first place , to profit from Universal 's desire for a sequel by tying up the only obvious source material .
= = = Director = = =
Universal studio head Carl Laemmle , Jr . ( nicknamed " Junior " ) wanted James Whale , fresh from his great success with Bride of Frankenstein , to direct Dracula 's Daughter . Whale was idle , waiting for Irene Dunne to finish work on Magnificent Obsession so she could begin work on Whale 's Show Boat . Wary of directing two horror films in a row , Whale instead convinced Laemmle to buy the rights to a mystery novel called The Hangover Murders . Laemmle agreed only after extracting a promise from Whale that he would direct Dracula 's Daughter next . Whale completed work on the film , titled Remember Last Night ? for release , on September 14 , 1935 . Magnificent Obsession completed filming on October 29 . With Dunne freed up , Whale went to work on Show Boat . Laemmle replaced him with A. Edward Sutherland , who was best known for his work on comedies . Sutherland had as little interest in Dracula 's Daughter as Whale and soon left the studio , and Hillyer came on to direct .
= = = Universal script = = =
The earliest scenario for the Universal film was written by R. C. Sherriff . It began with three scenes set in the 14th Century and centered on the Dracula legend . It then switched to the present day , focusing on two engaged couples who visit Transylvania . The men explore the ruins of Dracula 's castle . One is later found , insane , and the other goes missing . Professor Von Helsing is summoned and he tracks the missing man to London , where he is in thrall to Dracula 's daughter , the Countess Szelinski ( sic ) . When she attempts to flee with her thrall to the Orient by ship , Von Helsing and three others book passage on the same ship . During a violent storm , Von Helsing destroys Dracula 's daughter and , with her hold over the men broken , the scenario closes with a double wedding . This version was submitted on August 28 , 1935 to the British Board of Film Censors , which rejected it , saying in part " ... Dracula 's Daughter would require half a dozen ... languages to adequately express its beastliness . " On September 10 Sherriff met with BBFC representatives and submitted a revised scenario two days later . This scenario was passed but because its details were not recorded by the BBFC it is unknown how much it differed from the original or how much if any of that scenario was retained in the final script .
Universal also submitted Sheriff 's first draft to the PCA on September 5 , 1935 and encountered stronger resistance from PCA enforcer Joseph Breen than it had from the British . Breen reported back that the script " contains countless offensive stuff which makes the picture utterly impossible for approval under the Production Code . " A second draft was submitted on October 21 , but it too was rejected , with many of Breen 's objections centering on the 14th Century scenes in which Dracula himself appeared . It is unclear whether this submission was the same submission that the BBFC had previously passed . A third Sheriff draft was submitted on October 24 and Sherriff 's fourth and final draft on November 10 . All remained unacceptable , and Whale biographer James Curtis suggests that Whale , who had no interest in the project and feared that his commitment to it might cost him control over the filming of Show Boat , encouraged Sherriff to submit ever more wildly unacceptable versions in hopes of getting himself off the film . On January 14 , 1936 , producer E. M. Asher advised Breen that the Sherriff script was not going to be used and that a new script would be put together from scratch . Screenwriting duties were assigned to Garrett Fort .
= = = Casting = = =
Dracula 's Daughter was Gloria Holden 's first starring role and reportedly she was extremely displeased at having been assigned it . Like many actors , Holden looked down on horror films . She had also seen Bela Lugosi struggle over the years since Dracula was made to free himself from typecasting and feared that the role would lead to the same fate for her . Critic Mark Clark believes that ironically it may have been Holden 's disgust for the role that led to the quality of her performance . " Her disdain for the part translates into a kind of self @-@ loathing that perfectly suits her troubled character . "
Initially Lugosi and Jane Wyatt were set to star in the film . Universal also announced that Boris Karloff and Colin Clive , who had starred together in Frankenstein and Bride of Frankenstein , would appear , and that Cesar Romero would play Dr. Garth . According to the Hollywood Reporter , before casting Pichel Universal had sought Herbert Marshall for the role of Sandor . None of them appeared except , after a fashion , Lugosi , in the form of a wax bust molded in his image for use in Dracula 's coffin . Some sources report that Lugosi was paid as much as $ 4 @,@ 000 for his abortive involvement , but the only confirmed record of any financial arrangement is a letter in which Lugosi consents to the use of his likeness at no cost to create the wax bust .
= = = Shooting = = =
Shooting on Dracula 's Daughter began on February 4 , 1936 , rushed into production before Fort had completed the script , because of a deadline clause in Universal 's option of the property from Selznick . The script was not finalized until shooting had been underway for three weeks . The film was completed on March 10 . Despite studio orders that the film be shot on a seven @-@ day @-@ per @-@ week schedule , filming ran seven days over its schedule and $ 50 @,@ 000 over budget , with the final cost of the film tallied at $ 278 @,@ 380 .
Dracula 's Daughter was the last in the first cycle of Universal Horror films that reached back into the 1920s . Publicly , Universal said it was because a British ban on horror films would cut too deeply into the revenue such films could generate . In truth , the cycle was suspended because , just before filming on Dracula 's Daughter had wrapped , the Laemmle family had lost control of Universal . Because of cost overruns on a number of pictures , Junior Laemmle was forced to borrow $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on November 1 , 1935 . The money came from J. Cheever Cowdin , head of the Standard Capital Corporation , and from Charles R. Rogers . When the loan was called in March of the following year , Universal was unable to repay it . Standard assumed control of the studio on March 4 , 1936 and Rogers replaced Junior as head of production . Rogers did not like horror films and he shut down production on them following the release of Dracula 's Daughter to focus on fare like Deanna Durbin musicals . Universal would not return to the horror genre for three years , when it released Son of Frankenstein in 1939 .
= = = Other production aspects = = =
Makeup artist Jack Pierce and special effects supervisor John P. Fulton worked together closely , especially on Holden 's make @-@ up design . They combined special lighting with a greyish @-@ green make @-@ up for Holden 's final scenes , creating a pallor that contrasted with the more normally flesh @-@ toned make @-@ ups of the others in the scene . Heinz Roemheld composed the score and Albert S. D 'Agostino redressed Charles D. Hall 's set of Dracula 's castle and created new sets including a London bridge , the moor where Dracula 's body is burned and Countess Zaleska 's apartment .
= = Reception and influence = =
The New York Times gave Dracula 's Daughter a solid , albeit somewhat tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , review upon its release , citing the film 's " blood @-@ curdling events " and noting that " Gloria Holden is a remarkably convincing bat @-@ woman " in concluding that the film is both " quite terrifying " and " a cute little horror picture . " Variety also praised the production and Holden 's performance in particular . Despite critical approval , Dracula 's Daughter did not have the same box office success as the original .
Recent reviews of Dracula 's Daughter are sharply split . Entertainment Weekly , reviewing the film following its video release , called it " one of the most satisfying vampire pictures ever made " . Describing director Hillyer 's visuals as " lush , evocative , and suffused with just the right gothic chiaroscuro " and noting that " Gloria Holden , as the reluctant vampire protagonist , absolutely drips patrician eroticism " , EW concludes that this film is better than Lugosi 's original Dracula .
Ryan Cracknell of Apollo Movie Guide , while echoing the praise for Holden 's performance , nonetheless found that the film " doesn 't hold up so well today " . Citing what he sees as slow pacing and " long bouts of over @-@ the @-@ top dialogue " , Cracknell compares the film to " reading a textbook – not the most exciting thing in the world , but it does provide insights into and perspectives on the foundation of early horror movies and how many similarities carry over into movies half a century and more later . " Michael W. Phillips , Jr. concurs , calling the film " a marked improvement on the original film [ but ] still a bit of a snooze , relying too much on forced comedy and not enough on suspense or fright . " Phillips again praises Holden 's performance and also Pichel 's portrayal of Sandor , but finds the rest of the cast weak .
Horror author Anne Rice has named Dracula 's Daughter as a direct inspiration for her own homoerotic vampire fiction . She named a bar in her novel Queen of the Damned " Dracula 's Daughter " in honor of the film . Author Ramsey Campbell , under the pseudonym " Carl Dreadstone " , wrote a novelization of the film also entitled Dracula 's Daughter that was published in 1977 . A juvenile fiction version , written by Carl R. Green , William R. Sanford and Howard Schroeder , was published in 1985 . Some observers have suggested that the film served as an inspiration for Sunset Blvd . , noting similarities between the outlines of each film . Michael Almereyda 's 1994 film Nadja has been described as an " unofficial remake " of Dracula 's Daughter .
= = Lesbian implications = =
The lesbian vampire has been a trope in literature dating back to Joseph Sheridan le Fanu 's 1872 novella " Carmilla " . Dracula 's Daughter marked the first time that the trope was incorporated into a film . The lesbian implications of Dracula 's Daughter were obvious from the start and were of great concern to the Production Code Administration . PCA head Breen took special notice of the scene between the Countess and her model , Lili , writing , " This will need very careful handling to avoid any questionable flavor . " The day before the scene was to be shot , Universal 's Harry Zehner asked Breen to read a draft of the scene . In response , Breen wrote :
" The present suggestion that ... Lili poses in the nude will be changed . She will be posing her neck and shoulders , and there will be no suggestion that she undresses , and there will be no exposure of her person . It was also stated that the present incomplete sequence will be followed by a scene in which Lili is taken to a hospital and there it will be definitely established that she has been attacked by a vampire . The whole sequence will be treated in such a way as to avoid any suggestion of perverse sexual desire on the part of Marya or of an attempted sexual attack by her upon Lili . "
Gay film historian Vito Russo noted in his book The Celluloid Closet that Universal highlighted Countess Zaleska 's attraction to women in some of its original advertising for the film , using the tag line " Save the women of London from Dracula 's Daughter ! " He further cited Countess Zaleska as an example of the presentation of the " essence of homosexuality as a predatory weakness " . Some reviewers of the day picked up on and condemned the lesbian content , including the New York World @-@ Telegram which noted the Countess 's tendency to wander around " giving the eye to sweet young girls " . Other reviews missed it entirely , including the aforementioned New York Times which advised " Be sure to bring the kiddies . " Entertainment Weekly describes the encounter between the Countess and Lili as " so hot it 's impossible to imagine how it ever got past ' 30s censors " whereas Time Out London finds only a " subtle suggestion " of lesbianism . Horror scholar Skal notes that the scene has come to be seen as a " classic ' lesbian ' sequence , although of a decidedly negative stripe " . The scene between Countess Zaleska and Lili was included in the 1995 documentary film adaptation of Russo 's book .
Another lesbian @-@ tinged scene which has received less critical attention comes when the Countess is holding Janet captive . Described as " the longest kiss never filmed " , Countess Zaleska " hovers lovingly over Janet ... hovers ... and hovers ... slowly descending to kiss the recumbent Janet ... " until interrupted by the arrival of Dr. Garth .
Bright Lights Film Journal , after noting that " Gloria Holden in the title role almost singlehandedly redefined the ' 20s movie vamp as an impressive Euro @-@ butch dyke bloodsucker " , draws an implicit comparison between Countess Zaleska 's seeking to cure her vampirism through psychiatry and the former position of mainstream psychiatry of homosexuality as a mental illness ( a view still held by a minority in the profession ) . Zaleska 's cruising the streets of London is seen as parallel to cruising for sex ( although that tends to be a gay male activity ) and as suggesting " society 's image of the lesbian as soulless predator " but the conclusion is that " Holden 's striking , masklike face and haunting , luminous eyes [ are ] the intoxicating essence of transgressive lesbian power . "
= = In popular culture = =
A joke pop @-@ song Dracula 's Daughter was issued in 1962 by Screaming Lord Sutch and the Savages , a British rock group with an ever @-@ changing line @-@ up of musicians and a taste for horror themes and zany humour .
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= Weiquan movement =
The Weiquan movement is a non @-@ centralized group of lawyers , legal experts , and intellectuals in China who seek to protect and defend the civil rights of the citizenry through litigation and legal activism . The movement , which began in the early 2000s , has organized demonstrations , sought reform via the legal system and media , defended victims of human rights abuses , and written appeal letters , despite opposition from Communist Party authorities . Among the issues adopted by Weiquan lawyers are property and housing rights , protection for AIDS victims , environmental damage , religious freedom , freedom of speech and the press , and defending the rights of other lawyers facing disbarment or imprisonment .
Individuals involved in the Weiquan movement have met with occasionally harsh reprisals from Chinese officials , including disbarment , detention , harassment , and , in extreme instances , torture . Authorities have also responded to the movement with the launch of an education campaign on the " socialist concept of rule of law , " which reasserts the role of the Communist Party and the primacy of political considerations in the legal profession , and with the Three Supremes , which entrenches the supremacy of the Communist Party in the judicial process .
= = Background = =
Since the legal reforms of the late 1970s and 1980s , the Chinese Communist Party ( CCP ) has moved to embrace the language of the rule of law and establish a modern court system . In the process , it has enacted thousands of new laws and regulations , and begun training more legal professionals . The concept of " rule of law " was enshrined in the constitution , and the CCP embarked on campaigns to publicize the idea that citizens have protection under the law . At the same time , however , a fundamental contradiction exists in the implementation of rule of law wherein the CCP insists that its authority supersedes that of the law ; the constitution enshrines rule of law , but also emphasizes the principle of the " leadership of the Communist Party . " The judiciary is not independent , and is therefore subject to politicization and control by the Communist Party . This has produced a system that is often described as " rule by law , " rather than rule of law .
Because judicial decisions are subject to the sometimes arbitrary assessments of the CCP , citizens who attempt to make use of the legal system to pursue grievances find that , if their cause is determined to have the potential to undermine the authority of the Communist Party , they may be suppressed . Defendants who find themselves facing criminal charges , such as for conducting activism or for their religious beliefs , often have few means of pursuing an effective defense .
The Weiquan movement coalesced in the early 2000s in response to these inherent contradictions and the arbitrary exercise of legal authority in China , though its roots could be traced to the consumer protection movement that began in the 1990s . The movement is informal , and can be understood as including lawyers and legal activists who advocate for civil rights and defend the interests of citizens against corporations , government or Communist Party organs . Fu Hualing and Richard Cullen note that Weiquan lawyers " are generally always on the side of the weaker party : ( migrant ) workers v. employers in labor disputes ; peasants in cases involving taxation , persons contesting environmental pollution , land appropriation , and village committee elections ; journalists facing government censorship ; defendants subject to criminal prosecution ; and ordinary citizens who are discriminated against by government policies and actions . "
The emergence of the Weiquan movement was made possible by a confluence of factors , including a market for their services , and an emerging rights consciousness . It was also facilitated by the 1996 " Lawyers Law , " which changed the definition of lawyers from " state legal workers " to professionals holding a legal certificate who perform legal services . The law effectively delinked lawyers from the state , and gave lawyers greater ( though still limited ) autonomy within the profession .
Weiquan lawyers tend to be especially critical of the lack of judicial independence in China . Rather than challenging particular laws , they frame their work as being in keeping with Chinese laws , and describe their activities as a means of defending and upholding the Constitution against abuses . As such , Weiquan lawyering has been described as a form of Rightful resistance .
= = Weiquan lawyers = =
Weiquan Lawyers ( Chinese : 维权律师 ) , or " rights protection " lawyers , refer to a small but influential movement of lawyers , legal practitioners , scholars and activists who help Chinese citizens to assert their constitutional , civil rights and / or public interest through litigation and legal activism . In the context of a rising number of lawyers in China , the proportion of Weiquan lawyers is very small Weiquan Lawyers face considerable personal , financial and professional risks .
Notable Weiquan Lawyers include He Weifang , Xu Zhiyong , Teng Biao , Guo Feixiong and Chen Guangcheng , Gao Zhisheng , Zheng Enchong , and Li Heping . Many barefoot lawyers are peasants who teach themselves enough law to file civil complaints , engage in litigation , and educate fellow citizens about their rights . Some Weiquan lawyers are the pragmatists and some are more radical .
= = Major fields = =
= = = Freedom of expression = = =
Although freedom of speech is enshrined in Article 35 of the Constitution of the People 's Republic of China , Chinese authorities enforce restrictions on political and religious expression . Such restrictions are sometimes in accordance with Article 105 of the criminal code , which contains vague and broadly defined provisions against " inciting subversion of state power " . Weiquan lawyers , along with international human rights organizations , have argued that the provisions against subversion are inconsistent both with China 's own constitution and with international human rights standards , particularly in light of the lack of transparency and clear guidelines used in applying the laws .
Several Weiquan lawyers have been involved in litigation and other forms of advocacy to defend the rights to free expression for individuals charged with the crime of subversion . Notable cases include that of Liu Xiaobo , a prominent Beijing intellectual sentenced to 11 years in prison for inciting subversion in December 2009 . Chengdu activist Tan Zuoren was sentenced to five years for inciting subversion for publishing writings on the 1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre , advocating for the families of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake victims , and accepting interviews from the Falun Gong @-@ affiliated Sound of Hope radio . His lawyers were reportedly barred from entering the courtroom . In October 2009 , intellectual Guo Quan was sentenced to 10 years in prison for publishing " reactionary " articles online .
Weiquan lawyers have also challenged the application of state secret laws , which are sometimes used to prosecute individuals who disseminate information on politically sensitive issues . In November 2009 , for instance , lawyers were involved in arguing for Huang Qi , a Sichuan activist who had advocated online for the parents of Sichuan earthquake victims . Huang was sentenced to three years in prison for possession of state secrets .
= = = Judicial independence = = =
The Chinese Constitution enshrines rule of law , but simultaneously emphasizes the principle of the " leadership of the Communist Party . " The legal profession itself is subordinate to the authority of the Communist Party ; the Ministry of Justice , not the bar associations , is responsible for issuing and renewing lawyers ' licenses . Weiquan lawyers have argued that this structure precludes the emergence of genuine rule of law , and in some cases have advocated for reforms to advance judicial independence and the protection of legal professionals .
In late August 2008 , a collection of several dozen Beijing lawyers signed a petition stating that the Beijing Bar Association leaders should be elected by the organization 's members , rather than being appointed . The petition letter stated that selection process in place for the Association 's directors is inconsistent with official guidelines and the Chinese constitution , and should be replaced with a democratic voting process . The Beijing Bar Association responded to the campaign by asserting that " Any individual who uses text messages , the web or other media to privately promote and disseminate the concept of direct elections , express controversial opinions , thereby spreading rumors within the Beijing Bar Association , confuse and poison people 's minds , and convince people of circumstances that do not exist regarding the so @-@ called ' Call For Direct Elections For the Beijing Bar Association ' is illegal . " The following year , the Beijing Bureau of Justice refused to renew the licenses of 53 Beijing Weiquan lawyers , all of whom had signed the petition for elections to the Bar Association .
= = = Land rights = = =
Under Chinese property law , there is no privately held land ; " urban land " is owned by the state , which grants land rights for a set number of years . Rural , or " collectively owned land , " is leased by the state for periods of 30 years , and is theoretically reserved for agricultural purposes , housing and services for farmers .
Forced evictions are forbidden under International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights , which China has ratified . Under China 's constitution and other property laws , expropriation of urban land is permitted only if it is for the purpose of supporting the " public interest , " and those being evicted are supposed to receive compensation , resettlement , and protection of one 's living conditions . The " public interest " is not defined , however , and abuses are common in the expropriation process , with many citizens complaining of receiving little or no compensation .
Forced evictions with little or no compensation occur frequently in both urban and rural China , with even fewer legal protections for rural citizens . Collectively owned rural land may be " reallocated " at the discretion of authorities , and in many regions local governments collude with private developers to reclassify rural land as urban land , which can then be sold. from the mid @-@ 1990s to mid @-@ 2000s , an estimated 40 million Chinese peasants were affected by land requisitions . Citizens who resist or protest the evictions have reportedly been subjected to harassment , beatings , or detention , and land @-@ related grievances occasionally escalate into large @-@ scale protests or riots .
Several Weiquan lawyers have advocated for the rights of individual citizens whose land and homes were taken with inadequate compensation , including Shanghai lawyer Zheng Enchong . Ni Yulan , a Beijing lawyer , was herself left homeless by forced eviction , and became an outspoken advocate for victims before being sentenced to two years in prison .
In 2007 , a 54 @-@ year @-@ old farmer in Heilongjiang Yang Chunlin published numerous articles on human rights and land rights , and helped to organise a petition entitled : " We want human rights , not the Olympics . " The petition reportedly collected over ten thousand signatures . Yang was put to trial , and sentenced to five years in prison , where he has allegedly been tortured . Li Fangping was hired to defend him , but was denied access to his client .
= = = Defense of ethnic minorities = = =
Several Weiquan lawyers , including Teng Biao , Jiang Tianyong , and Li Fangping , offered legal aid to Tibetans in the wake of the March 2008 Tibetan protests . The protests resulted in the imprisonment of at least 670 Tibetans , and the execution of at least four individuals . Chinese government sources asserted that the unrest and violence in Tibet had been masterminded by the Dalai Lama and executed by his followers for the purpose of fomenting unrest and disrupting the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . The Open Constitution Initiative ( OCI ) , operated by several Weiquan lawyers and intellectuals , issued a paper in May 2009 challenging the official narrative , and suggesting that the protests were instead a response to economic inequities , Han Chinese migration , and religious sentiments . The OCI recommended that Chinese authorities better respect and protect the rights and interests of the Tibetan people , including religious freedom , and pursue the reduction of economic inequality and official corruption .
Tibetan Filmmaker Dhondup Wangcheng was sentenced to six years in prison for making a documentary on human rights in Tibet in the run @-@ up to the Beijing Olympics . Two lawyers who sought to represent him , Chang Boyang and Li Dunyong , faced threats and harassment for their advocacy .
In July 2010 , a group of Chinese activists including Teng Biao co @-@ signed a letter to the Chinese leadership to protest the 15 @-@ year prison sentence that had been meted out to Uighur journalist Halaite Niyaze . Niyaze was not permitted to have a lawyer at his trial , where he was charged with " endangering state security . " According to reports , Niyaze was being charged because he had criticized the Chinese government in an interview with a Hong Kong news agency for not doing enough to prevent the July 2009 Ürümqi riots .
= = = Falun Gong = = =
Falun Gong , a spiritual qigong discipline that once claimed tens of million adherents in China , was banned in July 1999 under the leadership of the Communist Party , and a campaign was launched to suppress the group . In an attempt to have Falun Gong adherents renounce their belief in the practice , they are subject to state @-@ sanctioned , systematic violence in custody , sometimes resulting in death . Some sources indicate hundreds of thousands may have been detained in reeducation @-@ through @-@ labor camps for practicing Falun Gong and / or resisting persecution .
In November 1999 , the Supreme People 's Court offered a judicial interpretation of article 300 of the criminal code , stating that Falun Gong should be regarded as a " xie jiao , " or cult . Large numbers were subsequently sentenced to long prison terms , often under article 300 , in what are typically very short trials without the presence of a lawyer . In 2009 alone , the Falun Dafa Information Center reported that several hundred Falun Gong adherents have been sentenced to prison terms of up to 18 years . Human rights groups , including Amnesty International , note that the application of the law to persecute Falun Gong adherents contravenes both China 's own constitution and international standards . Several Weiquan lawyers have argued similarly while defending Falun Gong adherents who face criminal or administrative sentencing for their beliefs . Lawyers who have defended Falun Gong include Guo Guoting , Zhang Kai and Li Chunfu , Wang Yonghang , Tang Jitian and Liu Wei , among others .
In addition to litigation work , Weiquan lawyers like Gao Zhisheng have also advocated publicly and in the media for human rights for Falun Gong . In 2004 and 2005 , Gao wrote a series of letters to China 's top leadership detailing accounts of torture and sexual abuse against Falun Gong practitioners , and calling for an end to the persecution of the group . In response , Gao lost his legal license , was put under house arrest , detained , and was reportedly tortured .
= = = HIV / AIDS = = =
Some Weiquan lawyers have advocated for the rights of HIV / AIDS victims who contracted the virus as a result of state @-@ sponsored blood drives . In the 1990s , government officials in central China , and especially in Henan , encouraged rural citizens to sell blood plasma in order to supplement their incomes . Gross mismanagement of the process resulted in hundreds of thousands of individuals being infected with HIV . According to activists , victims have not been compensated , and no government officials were held accountable . Authorities continue to suppress information about the epidemic , which is particularly sensitive in light of the involvement of Li Changchun , the Communist Party Propaganda head and formerly Party chief in Henan .
Hu Jia is arguably the most well known advocate for HIV / AIDS victims , having served as the executive director of the Beijing Aizhixing Institute of Health Education and as one of the founders of the non @-@ governmental organization Loving Source .
= = = Women 's rights = = =
Chen Guangcheng , a blind self @-@ taught Weiquan lawyer , rose to prominence for defending victims of China 's one @-@ child policy . First implemented in 1979 , the one @-@ child policy mandates that couples may only have one child , though there are exceptions for some rural citizens , ethnic minorities , and couples who were themselves only children . Though Chinese laws condemn harsh enforcement measures , Chinese authorities and family planning staff have been accused of carrying out coercive , late @-@ term forced abortions , sterilization , incarceration and torture to enforce the policy . In 2005 , Chen Guangcheng filed a class action case against family planning officials in Linyi , Shandong , who were accused of subjecting thousands of women to sterilization or forced abortions .
= = = Underground Christians = = =
China 's constitution guarantees freedom of religion , yet also provides a caveat specifying that only " normal " religious activities are permitted . In practice , religious freedom is granted only within the strictly prescribed parameters of the five officially sanctioned " patriotic " religious associations of Buddhism , Taoism , Islam , Protestantism and Catholicism . Groups falling outside the state @-@ administered religions , including " underground " or " house church " Christians , are subject to varying degrees of repression and persecution .
Although there are no definitive figures on the number of underground Christians in China , some estimates have put their total number in excess of 70 million . At least 40 Catholic bishops operate independent of official sanction , and some are under surveillance , house arrest , detention , or have disappeared . Several leaders and members of underground Protestant churches have also been detained and sentenced to reeducation through labor or prison terms . Violent raids and demolitions have been carried out on underground churches , sometimes resulting in injury to congregants inside . Chinese officials have labelled several underground Protestant churches as a xie jiao ( translated literally as " evil religion " ) , or cult , thus providing a pretext for harsher punishment of members .
Several prominent Weiquan lawyers themselves identify with the underground Protestant movement , and have sought to defend church members and leaders facing imprisonment . These include Zhang Kai , Li Heping , and Gao Zhisheng . Former house church leader Bob Fu 's US @-@ based organization " ChinaAid " has sponsored legal cases , and provided " rule @-@ of @-@ law training " and legal help for distressed clients in China .
= = = Other initiatives = = =
A number of specific events have attracted the help and attention of Weiquan activists . In the March 2008 earthquake in Sichuan province , shoddy school construction resulted in the collapse of several schools full of students . A number of Weiquan lawyers , including Tan Zuoren , were involved in advocating for the rights of parents , and in investigating allegations that corrupt officials were responsible for the poor construction . Parents and lawyers met with reprisals from Chinese officials for their activism .
Later the same year , it was revealed that large quantities of infant formula had been tainted with melamine , causing 300 @,@ 000 infants to fall ill and resulting in several deaths . A group of parents of the victims were reportedly detained for attempting to draw media attention to their plight . Dozens of lawyers — particularly from the provinces of Hebei , Henan and Shandong — offered pro @-@ bono legal services to victims , but their efforts were obstructed by authorities .
Individual human rights cases , such as the Deng Yujiao incident and the death of Qian Yunhui , have also drawn help from rights defenders such as Wu Gan .
In 2003 , a group of legal scholars , including Teng Biao and Xu Zhiyong , formed the Open Constitution Initiative ( Chinese : 公盟 ) to advocate for greater rule of law . The organization was involved in the Sun Zhigang case , and has advocated for petitioners , labor rights , freedom of expression , HIV / AIDS victims , Tibetans , land rights , and protection of public health , among other issues .
= = Government response = =
= = = Retrenchment on rule of law = = =
In response to the emergence of the Weiquan movement , which often makes use of the official language about " rule of law " to justify its work , in April 2006 a political campaign was launched to solidify the Communist Party 's leadership over judicial work , combat the idea of greater independence for judges and lawyers , and educate people and judicial authorities about the " socialist concept of rule of law . " The campaign was announced by Luo Gan , then the head of the Party Central Committee 's Political and Legislative Affairs Committee . Luo urged that in order to protect political stability , " forceful measures " be adopted " against those who , under the pretext of rights @-@ protection ( weiquan ) , carry out sabotage . " The launch of the campaign coincided with a crackdown on Weiquan lawyers .
Shortly after the campaign 's launch , Party Committees provided instruction to judges reminding them of the political goals that their work must uphold . According to one document issued to judges in Zhejiang and quoted by Human Rights Watch , " Recently , some judges have started to believe that to be a judge you just have to strictly apply the law in a case . In fact , this kind of concept is erroneous [ ... ] all the legal formulations have a clear political background and direction [ ... ] We must stamp out the kind of narrow viewpoint that thinks that you can also do court work by having judicial independence . "
During a December 2007 conference on political @-@ legal work , CCP general secretary Hu Jintao articulated the theory of the " Three Supremes , " which emphasized again that legal work should regard as supreme the concerns and interests of the Communist Party . In March 2008 , Wang Shengjun was confirmed as the new head of the Supreme People 's Court . Wang , who has no formal legal training himself , abandoned the efforts of his predecessors to improve judicial competence , training , and autonomy , and instead placed primary importance on the ideological implications of the " Three Supremes " theory and upholding the leadership of the Communist Party .
In 2010 , China 's Ministry of Justice issued two new regulations intended to " strengthen the supervision and management of lawyers and law firms " . According to the Associated Press , the new regulations would serve to " allow authorities to punish lawyers ... for actions such as talking to the media or even causing ' traffic troubles . ' "
In March 2012 , China 's Ministry of Justice issued a new directive requiring lawyers first obtaining their license or renewing an existing license to swear an oath of loyalty to the Communist Party . According to the Ministry 's website , a section of oath includes the following : “ I swear to faithfully fulfill the sacred mission of legal workers in socialism with Chinese characteristics . I swear my loyalty to the motherland , to the people , to uphold the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the socialist system , and to protect the dignity of the Constitution and laws . "
= = = Suppression of lawyers and coercive measures = = =
Weiquan lawyers have faced various challenges to their work from the Chinese government , including disbarment or suspension , violence , threats , surveillance , arbitrary detention , and prosecution . This is particularly true for lawyers who take up politically sensitive cases . Reports of harassment , intimidation , and violence against Weiquan lawyers increased in 2006 following the launch of the campaign to promote the " socialist concept of the rule of law . " Authorities have refused to renew the licenses of several dozen Weiquan lawyers , and several have effectively been banned for life from the legal profession . In 2009 , for instance , at least 17 Weiquan lawyers were not permitted to renew their legal licenses after taking on politically sensitive cases . Several Weiquan lawyers have themselves been sentenced to prison in response to their activism . A selection of notable instances of suppression are listed here :
Gao Zhisheng , once recognized as one of China 's ten most promising lawyers , was an advocate for a range of disenfranchised individuals and minorities . In 2006 , after he wrote a series of letters to the Chinese leadership concerning the torture of Falun Gong adherents , Gao had his legal license revoked and his law firm was shut down . His family was placed under house arrest , and he was detained for six months . Gao was sentenced , with a five @-@ year reprieve , to four years in prison . He has been the subject of several prolonged disappearances into custody , during which he has reportedly been tortured .
On 27 December 2007 , AIDS and pro @-@ democracy activist Hu Jia was detained as part of a crackdown on dissents during the run @-@ up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics . A well known rights advocate who had advocated on behalf of AIDS victims , peasants , victims of land requisitions , Hu had also been critical of the lack of human rights progress that had been made ahead of the Olympic games . Hu pleaded not guilty at his trial in March 2008 . On 3 April 2008 , he was sentenced to 3 @.@ 5 years in prison for " inciting subversion of state power . " He had previously been under house arrest , and has reportedly been beaten by police .
In response to his work to bring a class action lawsuit against family planning authorities in Linyi , Shandong Province in 2005 , Chen Guangcheng was put under house arrest , threatened , detained , and beaten . Three other Weiquan activists – Li Fangping , Li Subin , and Xu Zhiyong — visited him to offer support , but were themselves beaten and interrogated . On 24 August 2006 , he was sentenced to four years and three months in prison for " damaging property and gathering crowds to disturb transport order . " Following his release , he remains under house arrest .
On 22 April 2010 , Beijing lawyers Liu Wei and Tang Jitian were permanently disbarred for defending Falun Gong practitioners .
On 13 May 2009 , lawyers Zhang Kai and Li Chunfu are violently beaten and detained in Chongqing for investigating the death of Jiang Xiqing , a 66 @-@ year @-@ old Falun Gong practitioner killed in a labor camp . One month earlier , Beijing lawyer Cheng Hai was similarly beaten by police in Sichuan province for seeking to defend a Falun Gong adherent .
Yang Chunlin was arrested in July 2007 and charged with " inciting subversion of state power " . His trial began in February 2008 in the city of Jiamusi . Yang was sentenced to five years in prison on 24 March 2008 . He maintained his innocence throughout the trial . During and after the hearing at which he was sentenced , Yang was reportedly beaten with an electric rod on at least two occasions .
On 4 July 2009 , around 20 security agents broke into the home of Wang Yonghang . Wang , a Weiquan lawyer from Dalian City , had defended Falun Gong adherents . He was taken into custody for interrogation and was reportedly beaten severely . Wang 's lawyers were not permitted to contact him . In November 2009 , Wang was sentenced in a closed court to seven years in prison for his advocacy on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners . When his lawyers were permitted to see him in January 2010 , they reported that he had been tortured .
On 17 July 2009 , authorities in Beijing raided and shuttered the Open Constitution Initiative , an NGO established by legal scholars Teng Biao and Xu Zhiyong .
On 20 February 2011 , several Weiquan activists were detained following online calls for pro @-@ democracy protests in China , including Chen Wei , Jiang Tianyong , Tang Jitian , and Teng Biao .
In May 2014 , as multiple Chinese activists began preparing for the 25th anniversary of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , a number of lawyers were arrested for planning or being suspected of planning demonstrations . Among those arrested was Pu Zhiqiang , a lawyer who was involved in organising the demonstrations in 1989 .
= = International response = =
Although there is relatively little awareness of the Weiquan phenomenon as a movement outside of China , Western governments and human rights organizations have consistently expressed concern over the treatment of individual Weiquan lawyers in China , some of whom have faced disbarment , imprisonment , prolonged disappearance , sentencing and alleged torture for their work in promoting civil rights and speaking out against one @-@ party rule . In October 2010 , a bipartisan group of 29 members of the U.S. House of Representatives pressed President Obama to raise the cases of Liu Xiaobo and Gao Zhisheng with the Chinese leadership , writing of Gao Zhizheng 's prolonged detention : " If lawyers are hauled away for the " crime " of defending their clients , then even the pretense of rule of law in China has failed . " The U.S. State Department claims to have raised the cases of these two individuals with their Chinese counterparts .
In 2008 , Hu Jia was awarded the Sakharov Prize by the European Parliament recognizing his human rights advocacy . The same year , Hu and Gao Zhisheng received nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize , and were considered to be favorites for the award . Two years later , seven members of the U.S. House of Representatives nominated imprisoned lawyers Gao Zhisheng and Chen Guangcheng , along with fellow dissident Liu Xiaobo for the prize . The letter noted that these individuals have sought to " raise the Chinese people 's awareness of their dignity and rights , and to call their government to govern within its constitution , its laws , and the international human rights agreements it has signed , " and thereby made a significant contribution to peace . The Nobel Prize Committee awarded the honor to Liu in absentia in December 2010 .
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= Federal prosecution of public corruption in the United States =
Several statutes , mostly codified in Title 18 of the United States Code , provide for federal prosecution of public corruption in the United States . Federal prosecutions of public corruption under the Hobbs Act ( enacted 1934 ) , the mail and wire fraud statutes ( enacted 1872 ) , including the honest services fraud provision , the Travel Act ( enacted 1961 ) , and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ( RICO ) ( enacted 1970 ) began in the 1970s . " Although none of these statutes was enacted in order to prosecute official corruption , each has been interpreted to provide a means to do so . " The federal official bribery and gratuity statute , 18 U.S.C. § 201 ( enacted 1962 ) , the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act ( FCPA ) ( enacted 1977 ) , and the federal program bribery statute , 18 U.S.C. § 666 ( enacted 1984 ) directly address public corruption .
The statutes differ in their jurisdictional elements , the mens rea that they require ( for example , a quid pro quo or a nexus ) , the species of official actions that are cognizable , whether or not non @-@ public official defendants can be prosecuted , and in the authorized sentence . The statutes most often used to prosecute public corruption are the Hobbs Act , Travel Act , RICO , the program bribery statute , and mail and wire fraud statutes .
These statutes have been upheld as exercises of Congress 's Commerce Clause power , or in the case of the mail fraud and program bribery statutes , the Postal Clause and the Spending Clause , respectively . In the special case where a member of Congress is the defendant , the Speech or Debate Clause places certain restrictions on the actions that can be prosecuted and proved up . Some commentators have argued that prosecutions of state and local officials under these statutes pose substantial federalism questions , while others argue that the Guarantee Clause provides additional authority for such prosecutions .
= = History = =
Article Two , Section Four of the United States Constitution provides that : " The President , Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States , shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for , and Conviction of , Treason , Bribery , or other High crimes and Misdemeanors . " For a time in the early history of the country , corrupt public officials could be charged with the common law crimes related to corruption ; such crimes could continue to be charged in the D.C. circuit court , where the laws of Maryland and Virginia remained in force , even after the Supreme Court 's decision abolishing federal common law crimes in United States v. Hudson ( 1812 ) .
The First Congress passed the " first federal law against bribery " in 1789 , which provided that bribed customs officers would be disqualified from office and payors would be liable for the amount of the bribe . The judicial bribery provision of the Crimes Act of 1790 , passed the following year , provided for disqualification , and a fine and imprisonment " at the discretion of the court , " for both the judge and the payor . The Crimes Act of 1825 added the offenses of extortion under color of office , theft or embezzlement by a Second Bank employee , and coin embezzlement or dilution by a Mint employee .
The mail fraud statute , 18 U.S.C. § 1341 , " [ t ] he oldest statute used to address public corruption , " was enacted in 1872 and first used against public corruption in the 1940s . While several early cases employed the " intangible right to honest government , " United States v. States ( 8th Cir . 1973 ) was the first case to rely on honest services fraud as the sole basis for a conviction .
The prosecution of state and local political corruption became a " major federal law enforcement priority " in the 1970s . United States v. Addonizio ( 3d Cir . 1971 ) and United States v. Kenny ( 3d Cir . 1972 ) — both brought by U.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey , Herbert Jay Stern ( later a federal judge ) — were the first prosecution of political corruption pursuant to the economic fear prong and the " under color of official right " prong of the Hobbs Act , respectively . Henderson describes these cases as the " New Jersey breakthroughs . "
In 1976 , the Public Integrity Section was established within United States Department of Justice Criminal Division with general supervisory jurisdiction over public corruption offenses . By 1977 , " [ t ] he four United States attorney 's offices most active in this field — the Southern District of New York , New Jersey , Maryland , and the Northern District of Illinois — " had " developed coteries of high skilled prosecutors and a tradition of success that encourages an atmosphere of alertness to potential corruption cases . "
In 1977 , Thomas H. Henderson , Jr . , the Chief of the Public Integrity Section , wrote :
Until recently , the full panoply of potential federal resources had not been brought to bear effectively on corruption schemes at the state and local level . These schemes are at least as corrosive of the governmental process as corruption at the federal level . From the time of Tammany Hall this country has been painfully aware of the existence of corrupt practices in many of our metropolitan areas , and of the " machines " and " rings " which siphon off millions of dollars from public treasuries for private gain . Most state and local prosecutors , beset by inadequate resources and the overwhelming demands of a rising rate of street crime , are simply unable to deal with this type of corruption . Moreover , in some cases , local law enforcement is part and parcel of the problem itself , due to the outright corruption of its own establishment .
To fill this enforcement role , federal prosecutors during the last decade began to assume a much more active and creative role in attempting to use federal statutes to attack corruption at the state and local level .
In 1976 , there were 337 indictments of state and local officials for public corruption , compared to 63 in 1970 . Between 1970 and 1981 , there were 520 federal indictments of state officials , and 1 @,@ 757 indictments of local officials , for public corruption ; over that period , 369 state officials , and 1 @,@ 290 local officials , were convicted . In 1986 , there were 916 indictments of public officials for corruption , 320 of which concerned state and local officials . In 1990 , there were 968 such indictments , 353 of which were against state and local officials .
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act ( FCPA ) , 15 U.S.C. § 78dd @-@ 1 , was passed in 1977 . The program bribery statute , 18 U.S.C. § 666 , was passed in 1984 . In the program bribery statute , " Congress , for the first time , directly federalized the crime of bribery of or by local officials . "
For example , between 1985 and 1991 , over 75 public officials were convicted of corruption offenses in the Southern District of West Virginia alone . By comparison , the only appellate court decision citing West Virginia 's Bribery and Corrupt Practices Act , in 1991 , was a federal court decision involving the state statute as a federal RICO predicate . And it goes much deeper than that . There have been many cases filed against corruption and other crimes by former agents who commit crimes , as well as attorneys , judges , etc. that can be easily found online , although the option of finding those actual cases continues to diminish even further , in preferential interests of commerce and social media markets taking precedence . Internet searches are becoming intentionally narrowed to restrict citizen 's awareness of such corruption . Stonewalling by both media and law @-@ enforcement in failing to implement the very legislation they create at tax @-@ payer expense , continues unabated in many cases that can be found online .
= = Doctrinal overview = =
The legal elements and features of the major federal public corruption offenses differ . The various jurisdictional elements of the offenses require that the prosecution prove , alternatively : that the payee was a federal official ; that the payee organization received $ 10 @,@ 000 in federal funds ; that the corrupt communications involved the use of the mail or interstate wires ; that the corruption affected interstate commerce or interstate travel . The mens rea elements differ in whether they require a quid pro quo ; a mere nexus is an easier element to prove ; more difficult elements to prove include the intent to be influenced and inducement . The offenses also differ in whether the act to be procured from the public official must be an official , a violation of an official duty , a fraud on the United States , or an official transaction . The offenses also differ in whether the payor may be prosecuted in addition to the public official . Finally , the offenses differ in whether they are predicates for Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act and money laundering prosecutions , and in the maximum authorized prison sentence that may be imposed upon conviction .
= = Federal officials = =
The federal bribery and gratuity statute , 18 U.S.C. § 201 , was enacted in 1962 as part of a comprehensive conflict @-@ of @-@ interest legislative reform . The Supreme Court considers subsections ( b ) and ( c ) to be " to separate crimes — or two pairs of crimes . "
In Dixson v. United States ( 1984 ) , the Court held that , under the federal bribery and gratuity statute , the definition of a " public official " includes anyone in a " position of public trust with official federal responsibilities , " including for example the employees of a non @-@ profit that administers a federal block housing grant . The term " official act " is limited to acts which are performed within the scope of the official 's employment . It is no defense that the official action was otherwise meritorious .
For both the bribery and gratuity subsections , the courts have interpreted an implicit exception for campaign contributions .
= = = Bribery = = =
The federal bribery statute , 18 U.S.C. § 201 ( b ) , criminalizes the corrupt promise or transfer of any thing of value to influence an official act of a federal official , a fraud on the United States , or the commission or omission of any act in violation of the official 's duty . 18 U.S.C. § 201 ( b ) ( 1 ) – ( 2 ) provides :
( b ) Whoever –
( 1 ) directly or indirectly , corruptly gives , offers or promises anything of value to any public official or person who has been selected to be a public official , or offers or promises any public official or any person who has been selected to be a public official to give anything of value to any other person or entity , with intent –
( A ) to influence any official act ; or
( B ) to influence such public official or person who has been selected to be a public official to commit or aid in committing , or collude in , or allow , any fraud , or make opportunity for the commission of any fraud , on the United States ; or
( C ) to induce such public official or such person who has been selected to be a public official to do or omit to do any act in violation of the lawful duty of such official or person ;
( 2 ) being a public official or person selected to be a public official , directly or indirectly , corruptly demands , seeks , receives , accepts , or agrees to receive or accept anything of value personally or for any other person or entity , in return for :
( A ) being influenced in the performance of any official act ;
( B ) being influenced to commit or aid in committing , or to collude in , or allow , any fraud , or make opportunity for the commission of any fraud , on the United States ; or
( C ) being induced to do or omit to do any act in violation of the official duty of such official or person . . .
shall be fined under this title or not more than three times the monetary equivalent of the thing of value , whichever is greater , or imprisoned for not more than fifteen years , or both , and may be disqualified from holding any office of honor , trust , or profit under the United States .
= = = Gratuity = = =
Text
The federal gratuity statute , 18 U.S.C. § 201 ( c ) , criminalizes the transfer of any thing of value to a federal official for or because of an official act . 18 U.S.C. § 201 ( c ) ( 1 ) provides :
( c ) Whoever –
( 1 ) otherwise than as provided by law for the proper discharge of official duty –
( A ) directly or indirectly gives , offers , or promises anything of value to any public official , former public official , or person selected to be a public official , for or because of any official act performed or to be performed by such public official , former public official , or person selected to be a public official ; or
( B ) being a public official , former public official , or person selected to be a public official , otherwise than as provided by law for the proper discharge of official duty , directly or indirectly demands , seeks , receives , accepts , or agrees to receive or accept anything of value personally for or because of any official act performed or to be performed by such official or person . . .
shall be fined under this title or imprisoned for not more than two years , or both .
Interpretation
In United States v. Sun @-@ Diamond Growers of California ( 1999 ) , the Supreme Court held that the gratuity statute required a nexus to an official act , but not a quid pro quo . Both past and future official acts are cognizable , but not payments for status , access , generalized goodwill , or unspecified acts . Sun @-@ Diamond defined the nexus as follows : " We hold that , in order to establish a violation of 18 U.S.C. § 201 ( c ) ( 1 ) ( A ) , the Government must prove a link between a thing of value conferred upon a public official and a specific ' official act ' for or because of which it was given . "
= = Program bribery = =
The program bribery statute , 18 U.S.C. § 666 , was enacted in 1984 . Previous prohibitions required the specific funds to have been under federal control ( 18 U.S.C. § 641 ) or the involvement of federal employees ( 18 U.S.C. § 201 ) .
Text
The program bribery statute , 18 U.S.C. § 666 , criminalizes the corrupt offer of anything of value intending to influence an agent in connection with a transaction exceeding $ 5 @,@ 000 , and involving a government or organization receiving at least $ 10 @,@ 000 in federal funds . 18 U.S.C. § 666 ( a ) – ( c ) provides :
( a ) Whoever , if the circumstance described in subsection ( b ) of this section exists –
( 1 ) being an agent of an organization , or of a State , local , or Indian tribal government , or any agency thereof . . .
( B ) corruptly solicits or demands for the benefit of any person , or accepts or agrees to accept , anything of value from any person , intending to be influenced or rewarded in connection with any business , transaction , or series of transactions of such organization , government , or agency involving any thing of value of $ 5 @,@ 000 or more ; or
( 2 ) corruptly gives , offers , or agrees to give anything of value to any person , with intent to influence or reward an agent of an organization or of a State , local or Indian tribal government , or any agency thereof , in connection with any business , transaction , or series of transactions of such organization , government , or agency involving anything of value of $ 5 @,@ 000 or more ;
shall be fined under this title , imprisoned not more than 10 years , or both .
( b ) The circumstance referred to in subsection ( a ) of this section is that the organization , government , or agency receives , in any one year period , benefits in excess of $ 10 @,@ 000 under a Federal program involving a grant , contract , subsidy , loan , guarantee , insurance , or other form of Federal assistance .
( c ) This section does not apply to bona fide salary , wages , fees , or other compensation paid , or expenses paid or reimbursed , in the usual course of business .
Interpretation
In Fischer v. United States ( 2000 ) , the Court held that the jurisdictional requirement of $ 10 @,@ 000 in federal funds can be satisfied by any funds that flow through the organization , for example Medicaid reimbursements which a hospital receives indirectly through the patients . The only requirement is that the funds be traced to a statutory appropriation , and that their receipt be in furtherance of a federal policy .
Despite academic suggestions to the contrary , in Salinas v. United States ( 1997 ) , the Supreme Court held that the transaction itself need not involve federal funds . The $ 5 @,@ 000 transactional amount may be satisfied by the value of intangible goods or services .
§ 666 does not apply to the corrupt solicitation of political services in exchange for a municipal job .
Both § 666 ( a ) ( 1 ) ( B ) and § 666 ( a ) ( 2 ) contain both an " intent to influence " and an " intent to reward " prong . Under " intent to influence " prong , both a quid pro quo and an actual intent to influence / be influenced are required . Under the " intent to reward " prong , the majority of circuits permit prosecutions for mere gratuities , but some do not .
Because " organization " is defined as non @-@ governmental and " local government " is defined as a subdivision of a state , public officials of federal territories cannot be prosecuted under § 666 . Members of tribal governments may be prosecuted .
= = Foreign Corrupt Practices Act = =
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act , 15 U.S.C. § 78dd @-@ 1 , criminalizes the corrupt offer , by mail or in commerce , of anything of value from a publicly traded company to a foreign official for an official act to do business .
= = Mail and wire fraud = =
= = = Obtaining money or property = = =
Text
The federal mail fraud , 18 U.S.C. § 1341 , and federal wire fraud , 18 U.S.C. § 1343 , statutes criminalize any scheme or artifice to obtain money or property by fraud in connection with a mail or wire communication , respectively . The mail fraud statute , § 1341 provides , in relevant part :
Whoever , having devised or intending to devise any scheme or artifice to defraud , or for obtaining money or property by means of false or fraudulent pretenses , representations , or promises , or to sell , dispose of , loan , exchange , alter , give away , distribute , supply . . . for the purpose of executing such scheme or artifice or attempting so to do , places in any post office or authorized depository for mail matter , any matter or thing whatever to be sent or delivered by the Postal Service , or deposits or causes to be deposited any matter or thing whatever to be sent or delivered by any private or commercial interstate carrier , or takes or receives therefrom , any such matter or thing , or knowingly causes to be delivered by mail or such carrier according to the direction thereon , or at the place at which it is directed to be delivered by the person to whom it is addressed , any such matter or thing , shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 20 years , or both .
The wire fraud statute , § 1343 provides , in relevant part :
Whoever , having devised or intending to devise any scheme or artifice to defraud , or for obtaining money or property by means of false or fraudulent pretenses , representations , or promises , transmits or causes to be transmitted by means of wire , radio , or television communication in interstate or foreign commerce , any writings , signs , signals , pictures , or sounds for the purpose of executing such scheme or artifice , shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 20 years , or both .
Interpretation
The mail and wire fraud statutes may be used to prosecute public corruption by both elected and appointed public officials , political party officials , candidates for party offices , members of tribal governments , and others , including foreign public officials .
" The major problems faced by federal prosecutors in applying [ the mail and wire fraud statutes ] to political schemes is establishing that the defendant intentionally attempted to defraud the victims of something of value within the meaning of the States . " The salary and benefits of an elected public employee are not " property " for the purposes of the mail and wire fraud statutes , but the salary and benefits of an unelected public employee are . One intangible form of property recognized under the mail and wire fraud statutes is the right to control the disposition of government funds .
In 1983 , Curato et al. noted that :
[ F ] ederal courts and prosecutors are now realizing the potential uses for the mail fraud statute in combating political corruption . The relative ease of proving mail fraud violations and the apparent increase in corrupt political activities have caused more political officials to face mail fraud prosecutions . The recent successful prosecution of a non @-@ elected political official foreshadows the continuing evolution of the mail fraud act as one of the public 's protectors against bribery and extortion committed by government personnel .
= = = Honest services fraud = = =
At least from the 1970s , and perhaps earlier , the federal appellate courts permitted mail fraud prosecutions of public officials deprive the public of their intangible right to honest services . According to Professor John C. Coffee , " [ t ] he mid 1970s saw the flowering of the ' intangible rights doctrine , ' an exotic flower that quickly overgrew the legal landscape in the manner of the kudzu vine until by the mid @-@ 1980s few ethical or fiduciary breaches seemed beyond its potential reach . " In McNally v. United States ( 1987 ) , the Supreme Court held that a " scheme or artifice to defraud " under the mail and wire fraud statutes did not include a scheme or artifice to defraud another of the intangible right to honest services . In 1988 , Congress responded by adding 18 U.S.C. § 1346 which provides :
For the purposes of this chapter , the term “ scheme or artifice to defraud ” includes a scheme or artifice to deprive another of the intangible right of honest services .
§ 1346 was known as the " McNally fix . " In Skilling v. United States ( 2010 ) , the Court construed § 1346 to apply only to bribes and kickbacks . Post @-@ Skilling is it unclear whether a mere gratuity can be prosecuted as a " kickback . " Skilling adopted the definition of " kickback " used in 41 U.S.C. § 52 ( 2 ) :
" [ K ] ickback " means any money , fee , commission , credit , gift , gratuity , thing of value , or compensation of any kind which is provided , directly or indirectly , to any prime contractor , prime contractor employee , subcontractor , or subcontractor employee for the purpose of improperly obtaining or rewarding favorable treatment in connection with a prime contract or in connection with a subcontract relating to a prime contract .
Post @-@ Skilling , some courts have held that gratuities may be reached as kickbacks , while others have held that they may not . Prof. Coffee has argued that honest services fraud doctrine should explicitly distinguish between public and private corruption .
= = Hobbs Act = =
The Hobbs Act , 18 U.S.C. § 1951 , provides , in relevant part :
( a ) Whoever in any way or degree obstructs , delays , or affects commerce or the movement of any article or commodity in commerce , by . . . extortion or attempts or conspires so to do . . . shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than twenty years , or both .
( b ) As used in this section . . .
( 2 ) The term “ extortion ” means the obtaining of property from another , with his consent , induced by wrongful use of actual or threatened . . . fear , or under color of official right .
The Hobbs Act 's definition of " extortion " was " copied from the New York Code substantially . " The New York extortion law provided : " Extortion is the obtaining of property from another , or the obtaining the property of a corporation from an officer , agent , or employee thereof , with his consent , induced by a wrongful use of force or fear , or under color of official right . " Blackstone described extortion as " an abuse of public justice , which consists of an officer 's unlawfully taking , by colour of his office , from any man , any money or thing of value that is not due to him , or more than is due , or before it is due . "
= = = Fear = = =
The Hobbs Act criminalizes , inter alia , the obtaining of property with consent by actual or threatened fear , if interstate commerce is affected . The economic fear prong of the Hobbs Act may be used to prosecute political corruption , as long as there is an affirmative act of inducement ; but only the payees ( bribe @-@ takers ) , and not the payors may be reached ( the latter have a defense of duress ) . Under the economic fear prong , " [ t ] he absence or presence of fear of economic loss must be considered from the perspective of the victim , not the extortionist ; the proof need establish that the victim reasonably believed : first , that the defendant had the power to harm the victim , and second , that the defendant would exploit that power to the victim 's detriment . "
= = = Under color of official right = = =
The Hobbs Act also criminalizes the obtaining of property under color of official right , if interstate commerce is affected . In a law review article published while the appeal in Kenny was pending , Stern wrote :
At a time when the institutions of government , both local and federal , are being subjected to increasing attack and cynicism , those responsible of the enforcement of the law and the administration of justice cannot afford to allow one of the most powerful means of combatting official corruption to be emasculated by unwarranted , restrictive interpretation . The distinction between bribery and extortion that has developed under the Hobbs Act is unnecessary when that Act is used to prosecute corruption in public office . The phrase " under color of official right " which appears in the Act 's definition of extortion renders that distinction moot .
In 1971 , Stern wrote that the Hobbs Act was " one of the major statutes under which the federal government can combat local political corruption where the state is either unable or unwilling to do so , " citing the Travel Act as the " other major statute . " In 1977 , Charles Ruff wrote that the Hobbs Act " has become the principal vehicle for this rapidly expanding federal effort . " Ruff describes Stern 's article as " [ t ] he only detailed analysis of the problem before the recent flood of cases . " By 1977 , the Third Circuit 's interpretation in Kenny had been adopted by the First , Second , Fourth , Seventh , Eighth , and Tenth Circuits . The Fifth , Sixth , and Ninth Circuits followed suit by 1986 . Some commentators have argued that the Hobbs Act should not be interpreted to reach public corruption at all .
In McCormick v. United States ( 1991 ) , the Supreme Court held that the " under color of official right " prong of the Hobbs Act could be used to prosecute political corruption as long as there was a quid pro quo . Prior to McCormick , there was a circuit split on this question . The next year , in Evans v. United States ( 1992 ) , the Court held that no affirmative act of inducement is required on the part of the public official . Prior to Evans , there was also a circuit split on this question . Nor is a nexus required ; nor is the quo required to be within the de jure power of the public official , as opposed to access , generalized goodwill , or unspecific acts .
Payors may not be prosecuted under the " under color of official right " prong , but have no duress defense under other statutes . Successful candidate for public office may be prosecuted for their pre @-@ election actions , but unsuccessful candidates may not .
= = Travel Act = =
The Travel Act , 18 U.S.C. § 1952 , criminalizes , inter alia , the use of interstate travel or the mail to distribute the proceeds of , or promote or manage , unlawful activity , including extortion or bribery . The Travel Act has been used to prosecute political corruption . For example , the Travel Act may be used to prosecute public officials for extortion and bribery in violation of state law , as the Supreme Court held in United States v. Nardello ( 1969 ) . According to Curato et al . :
From passage in 1961 until approximately 1971 , political officials were not prosecuted under the Travel Act . Since then , however , prosecutors and courts alike have found the Travel Act to be another valuable weapon in their continuing battle against the debilitating effects of political corruption .
= = As a predicate = =
= = = RICO = = =
" In the 1970s , federal prosecutors began to argue that RICO was applicable to corrupt state and local government bodies . " With the exception of program bribery , all of the aforementioned offenses are predicates for liability under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ( RICO ) . A state or local governmental unit may be named as part of the charged RICO " enterprise . " As Henderson wrote in 1977 , " if a governmental unit can be classified as an enterprise within the meaning of the statute , it could have great impact on the ability of prosecutors to reach political crimes . "
= = = Money laundering = = =
All RICO predicates are also money laundering predicates . Federal program bribery , while not a RICO predicate , is a money laundering predicate .
= = Other statutes = =
Chapter 11 - Bribery , Graft , and Conflicts of Interest
18 U.S.C. § 203 : unauthorized compensation of officials for representing persons before the government ( formerly codified at Rev. Stat . § 1782 ) ( enacted 1864 )
18 U.S.C. § 204 : prohibiting members of Congress from practicing before the United States Court of Claims or the Federal Circuit
18 U.S.C. § 205 : officials prosecuting claims against or before the United States ( enacted 1962 )
18 U.S.C. § 207 : " revolving door " statute ( enacted 1962 )
18 U.S.C. § 208 : executive branch conflict of interest ( enacted 1962 )
18 U.S.C. § 209 : executive branch salary supplementation ( enacted 1962 )
18 U.S.C. § 211 : sale of appointive office ( formerly codified at 18 U.S.C. § 150 , and then 18 U.S.C. § 215 ) ( enacted 1926 )
Other
18 U.S.C. § 371 : conspiracy to defraud the United States ( formerly codified at Rev. Stat . § 5440 , and then 18 U.S.C. § 88 ) ( enacted 1867 )
18 U.S.C. § 610 : coercion of political activity
18 U.S.C. § 872 : extortion under color of office ( enacted 1825 )
= = Constitutional issues = =
= = = Enumerated powers = = =
The Hobbs Act , the Travel Act , and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ( RICO ) have been upheld under the Commerce Clause . The mail fraud statute has been justified under the Postal Clause . In Sabri v. United States ( 2004 ) , the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the program bribery statute , 18 U.S.C. § 666 , under the Spending Clause ( with Justice Clarence Thomas citing the Commerce Clause in concurrence ) . Prior to Sabri , several circuit courts had already so held .
Professor Adam Kurland has proposed the Guarantee Clause of Article Four of the United States Constitution — which provides that " [ t ] he United States shall guarantee to every State in the Union a Republican Form of Government " — as a constitutional basis for corruption statutes as applied to state and local officials . Professor John C. Coffee argues that " there is a more modest role for the Guarantee Clause " in distinguishing between public and private corruption under the same statutes .
= = = Speech or Debate Clause = = =
The Speech or Debate Clause of Article One of the United States Constitution provides that : " [ F ] or any Speech or Debate in either House , [ Senators or Representatives ] shall not be questioned in any other Place . " United States v. Johnson ( 1966 ) was the first case in which the Supreme Court held that the Clause barred a corruption prosecution . Specifically , the Court held that a floor speech by a Congressperson could not be admitted as evidence in a prosecution under 18 U.S.C. § 281 ( the federal conflict @-@ of @-@ interest statute ) or § 371 ( conspiracy to defraud the United States ) to show the motivation for the introduction of a private bill . Representative Thomas Francis Johnson had agreed to make a speech in the House and intercede with the Department of Justice on behalf of a savings and loan association in exchange for a campaign contribution and legal fees .
The Court has twice considered the role of the Clause in the prosecution of federal members of Congress for bribery under § 201 . In United States v. Brewster ( 1972 ) , the Court held that a § 201 prosecution of a Congressperson does not violate the Clause so long as " no inquiry into legislative acts or motivation for legislative acts is necessary for the Government to make out a prima facie case . " Brewster reinstated a dismissed § 201 indictment because the crime of bribery is complete once the bribe is accepted , whether or not the official performs the promised act . In United States v. Helstoski ( 1979 ) , the Court held that the prosecution may not introduce any evidence of a past " legislative act " at trial . According to Weeks , " [ a ] s a practical matter , it is extremely difficult to successfully prosecute a section 201 action if reference to a defendant 's legislative acts is forbidden . "
= = = Federalism = = =
Charles Ruff referred to " the prosecution of local officials for acts of public corruption " as " perhaps the most sensitive area of federal @-@ state cooperation . " Several other commentators have expressed federalism concerns about such prosecutions . Others have disagreed . But , as Whitaker notes , " Congress and the courts have not raised potential federalism concerns and , in fact , appear to approve of increased use of federal law to prosecute low @-@ level bribery at the state and local levels . " According to Professor John C. Coffee , " [ a ] lthough this prophesy that the Supreme Court will curb the federal fraud statutes may yet prove accurate , that is not the direction in which the lower federal courts have been moving . "
In United States v. Gillock ( 1980 ) , a prosecution under the Hobbs Act and Travel Act , the Supreme Court declined to recognize a legislative act privilege for state legislators analogous in scope to the Speech or Debate Clause , either under the Tenth Amendment or Federal Rule of Evidence 501 . Gillock argued that " recognition of an evidentiary privilege for state legislators for their legislative acts would impair the legitimate interest of the Federal Government in enforcing its criminal statutes with only speculative benefit to the state legislative process . " Similarly , the courts have consistently rejected claims by convicted state legislators that their prosecutions violate the Tenth Amendment .
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= Hurricane Keith =
Hurricane Keith was a storm in October 2000 that caused extensive damage in Central America , especially in Mexico and Belize . It was the fifteenth tropical cyclone , eleventh named storm , and seventh hurricane of the that year 's Atlantic hurricane season . Keith developed as a tropical depression from a tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea on September 28 . The depression gradually strengthened , and became Tropical Storm Keith on the following day . As the storm tracked westward , it continued to intensify and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 30 . Shortly thereafter , Keith began to rapidly deepen , and peaked as a Category 4 hurricane less than 24 hours later . Keith then began to meander erratically offshore of Belize , which significantly weakened the storm due to land interaction . By late on October 2 , Keith made landfall in Ambergris Caye , Belize as a minimal hurricane . It quickly weakened to a tropical storm , before another landfall occurred near Belize City early on the following day . While moving inland over the Yucatán Peninsula , Keith weakened further , and was downgraded to a tropical depression before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on October 4 . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , Keith began to re @-@ strengthen and was upgraded to a tropical storm later that day , and a hurricane on the following day . By late on October 5 , Keith made its third and final landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas , Mexico as a moderately strong Category4 hurricane . The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated as a tropical cyclone by 24 hours after landfall .
Keith brought heavy rainfall to several countries in Central America , which resulted in extensive flooding , especially in Belize and Mexico . In Guatemala , the storm flooded 10 towns , and caused one fatality . Similarly , one fatality also occurred in El Salvador , and at least 300 people were affected by flooding in that country . Thirteen communities in Nicaragua were completely isolated after Keith made roads impassable . Twelve deaths were reported in Nicaragua , all of which were flood @-@ related . Five people were presumed dead in Honduras after an aircraft disappeared near Roatán ; one other fatality occurred due to flooding . The storm brought torrential rainfall to Belize , with many areas reporting at least 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rain , while highest reported amount of precipitation was greater than 30 inches ( 760 mm ) . In Belize , a village reported that only 12 houses remained , while elsewhere in the country , at least 60 homes were destroyed or damaged ; several houses in Belize City suffered minor roof damage . At least 19 people were killed in Belize and damages totaled to $ 280 million ( 2000 USD ) . Heavy rainfall also occurred in Mexico , especially in the states of Nuevo León and Tamaulipas . Flooding from Keith caused several mudslides and a few rivers reached historic levels . Throughout Mexico , at least 460 houses were damage or destroyed and other losses in infrastructure occurred . In addition , one person drowned due to heavy rainfall . Damages incurred in associated with Keith in Mexico totaled to approximately $ 365 @.@ 9 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 38 @.@ 7 million 2000 USD ) . Overall , Keith was responsible for 40 deaths and $ 319 million ( 2000 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 16 , 2000 a tropical wave – an elongated area of low air pressure moving from east to west – exited the west coast of Africa . It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development due to the presence of upper @-@ level wind shear . After moving across the Caribbean Sea , a disturbance along the wave started to become better organized on September 27 . The next day , a Hurricane Hunters flight indicated a closed circulation and winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) ; upon receiving the data , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Fifteen at 2100 UTC . The NHC later estimated the depression had formed three hours earlier , about 70 mi ( 110 km ) north @-@ northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios . Upon forming , the depression had good outflow , although the convection was not as organized . With an anticyclone over the system , the depression was expected to gradually intensify while moving slowly to the west @-@ northwest , a motion caused by weak steering winds . Late on September 28 , the NHC upgraded the depression to tropical storm status and named it Keith , after another Hurricane Hunters mission reported flight @-@ level winds of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) .
By the time Keith became a tropical storm , it was beginning to undergo rapid deepening , fueled by warm waters , low wind shear , and an organizing cloud pattern . There initially was uncertainty in the storm 's future movement , due to a ridge in the Gulf of Mexico . Tropical cyclone prediction models differed on their assessments ; three models anticipated a turn to the northeast toward Florida due to a trough , while others predicted a continued slow motion to the west @-@ northwest , eventually reaching the Bay of Campeche . After continued strengthening , Keith became a hurricane on September 30 , just 18 hours after becoming a tropical storm , and making it the seventh such storm of that intensity of the season . That day , an eye began developing as the structure became much better organized . In a 13 ‑ hour period beginning at 1808 UTC on September 30 , Keith underwent explosive deepening , as its barometric pressure dropped at a rate of nearly 3 mbar ( 0 @.@ 089 inHg ) per hour . The NHC noted that Keith experienced conditions " ideal for strengthening " , with the exception of the approaching land interaction with the Yucatán peninsula . The hurricane slowed until stalling offshore eastern Belize , caused by the ridge to the north and the precursor to Tropical Storm Leslie forming over Cuba . By early on October 1 , Keith had developed a well @-@ defined eye about 20 mi ( 32 km ) in diameter , with what the NHC described as a " spectacular appearance . " Later that day , Hurricane Hunters estimated a minimum pressure of 939 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) and deployed a dropsonde that observed peak winds of 176 mph ( 283 km / h ) . Based on the data , the NHC estimated that Keith attained peak winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) at 0700 UTC on October 1 , while just offshore eastern Belize . This made it a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Shortly after Keith reached peak intensity , the eye had moved over portions of Belize , causing it to lose definition . Outflow became restricted , and the developing disturbance to the northeast increased wind shear . As a result , Keith began to weaken steadily , moving over Ambergris Cay and Caye Caulker as a Category 3 hurricane late on October 1 . While remaining nearly stationary , Keith made a second landfall on Ambergris Cay late on October 2 as a minimal hurricane . Shortly thereafter , Keith weakened into a tropical storm , and its convection became limited to the southeastern quadrant . At 0300 UTC , the storm made landfall about 30 mi ( 48 km ) north of Belize City , and within nine hours weakened into a tropical depression . The building ridge to the north caused the system to accelerate more to the west @-@ northwest across the Yucatán peninsula . Early on October 4 , Keith emerged into the Bay of Campeche , where favorable conditions allowed convection to quickly redevelop . Later that day , it re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm , with improved outflow and convective organization . On October 5 , the Hurricane Hunters reported a circular eye had reformed along with winds supporting an upgrade to hurricane status . Keith intensified further that day , until it made its final landfall 23 mi ( 37 km ) north of Tampico with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . It rapidly weakened over the high terrain of northeastern Mexico , dissipating late on October 6 .
= = Preparations = =
On September 29 , shortly after Keith formed , a hurricane watch was issued for the Yucatán peninsula from Chetumal to Cabo Catoche in Quintana Roo . The next day as Keith was nearing hurricane intensity , the watch was upgraded to a warning , and a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch was issued for the Belize coastline from Belize City to the Mexican border . At that time , the trajectory was expected to go more to the northwest , and when the storm turned to a slow westward drift , hurricane warnings were issued for the Belize coast with only about 24 hours of lead time for the offshore islands . The warnings for the Yucatán peninsula were dropped as Keith weakened .
On October 2 , the government of Belize declared a state of emergency and activated the entire Belize Defence Force due to the storm 's threat . The airport in Belize City was closed during Keith 's passage , limiting transportation from the country 's mainland to its offshore islands . In Corozal , Belize , authorities evacuated the entire city of 10 @,@ 000 people to numerous shelters in Orange Walk . Officials were also ordered evacuations for Belize City , setting up shelters in Belmopan . Overall , about 25 @,@ 000 people evacuate , or about 10 % of Belize 's population . Three hospitals were evacuated in the country . In a post @-@ storm assessment , residents on the offshore islands acknowledged they were unprepared for the storm and did not anticipate such intensity .
In Quintana Roo , 5 @,@ 000 people from Chetumal and surrounding low @-@ lying areas were forced to evacuate to 30 shelters . Offshore along a coral reef , about 50 fishermen stayed on a coral reef during the storm . In the Bay of Campeche , Pemex evacuated about 6 @,@ 300 workers from its offshore oil platforms . Officials in Yucatán and Veracruz declared states of emergency . When Keith reached the Gulf of Mexico and began re @-@ intensifying , a hurricane warning was issued from Tuxpan to Matamoros in northeastern Mexico , with a tropical storm watch issued northward to Port Mansfield , Texas . About 3 @,@ 000 residents in Tamaulipas evacuated to 250 shelters , and in neighboring Veracruz , about 175 people left their houses before the storm struck . The threat of Hurricane Keith caused Mexican authorities to close most ports along the gulf coast , and many schools in the area were closed .
= = Impact = =
Keith 's slow and erratic movement caused it to produce strong winds and heavy rainfall in Central America . Belize bore the brunt of the storm , with about $ 280 million in damage and 19 confirmed fatalities , primarily related to flooding . Several other countries reported significant but less severe flooding , including El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Mexico , and Nicaragua . Overall , Keith was responsible for 40 deaths , as well as approximately $ 319 million in damage .
= = = Belize = = =
While Keith was offshore from Belize , northerly winds blew water out of the Bay of Chetumal . There were reports of people walking onto the temporarily dry bay floor , despite the potential for the waters to return in the event of shifting winds . At Caye Caulker , the hurricane produced a 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) storm surge from the west . Winds were unofficially estimated to have reached 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) in the offshore islands of Belize . Wind gusts on the mainland reached 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) at Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport . Due to its slow motion , Keith dropped heavy rainfall , amounting to over 10 in ( 250 mm ) in many parts of the country . The highest recorded precipitation total was 32 @.@ 67 inches ( 830 mm ) at the international airport in Belize City .
The strong winds destroyed 130 houses in Belize . Two hotel roofs were wrecked , and the winds knocked down trees and power lines . Widespread areas of Belize lost power and telephone service , including Belize City . There , the heavy rainfall flooded streets , reaching 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) deep . Twenty homes were damaged to some degree in the capital , while many more suffered minor roof damage . The rains flooded the first floor of the primary hospital in the city , causing severe damage . Nationwide , 11 health facilities were damaged . Elsewhere in the country , the rains increased levels along rivers , including the Belize River , Rio Hondo , and New River . The Belize River rose for several days after the storm , reaching record levels of 21 ft ( 6 @.@ 6 m ) in width , which isolated 15 villages . Flooding covered Northern Highway and Western Highway as well as the primary bridge from Belmopan to the rest of Cayo District . Residual floodwaters persisted due to the low @-@ lying land of the country and poor drainage . Floods contaminated water supply in the northern four districts , causing an E. coli outbreak and food poisoning . In Belize , Corozal , and Orange Walk districts , about 30 % of the houses were severely damaged by flooding .
Damage was heaviest in the northern offshore islands and in the northern portion of the mainland . On the offshore islands , downed trees and power lines blocked most roads . In Caye Caulker and San Pedro , Keith damaged the roofs of about 90 % of houses and damaged or destroyed 676 houses , leaving 3 @,@ 279 people homeless . About 50 % of the houses in Caye Caulker were destroyed , with reports of only five dwellings still standing after the storm . In San Pedro , about 30 % of houses , or at least 50 , were wrecked . On Ambergris Caye , four airplanes were destroyed . At Turneffe Atoll , about 35 % of the landmass was affected , with many trees in that section uprooted and numerous tree branches snapped .
Five individuals died in maritime accidents involving at least one catamaran . There was an accident involving a bus carrying evacuees , killing four people on board . Three people died on the offshore Ambergris Caye . Overall , 19 people perished in the country . Several injuries , mainly from flying debris , were reported in San Pedro , and there were 142 people who were injured in the storm . Throughout the country , approximately 3 @,@ 279 homes were either damaged or destroyed . The damage total from Keith was initially estimated at $ 200 million , about half of which to tourism facilities ; the remainder was roughly split between crop and infrastructure damage . About 75 % of the crops in the country were damaged , including much of the corn harvest that was expected to begin in October . The damage total was later estimated at $ 280 million , most of it on the offshore Ambergris Cay and Caye Caulker .
= = = Mexico = = =
Hurricane Keith caused damage in three Mexican states – Quintana Roo along the Yucatán peninsula , Tamaulipas where the hurricane made landfall , and Sonora farther inland . In Quintana Roo , Keith left $ 2 @.@ 7 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 294 @,@ 000 2000 USD ) in damage , and caused an additional $ 39 @.@ 7 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 4 @.@ 2 million 2000 USD ) in indirect costs . While crossing the Yucatán peninsula , Keith dropped heavy rainfall , including over 10 in ( 250 mm ) in Campeche state . Chetumal , Quintana Roo reported 9 @.@ 65 in ( 245 mm ) of precipitation .
When Keith made its final landfall , Tampico reported tropical storm force winds , with gusts to 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) . The winds damaged billboards and some trees in the city , and elsewhere along the coast , Keith knocked down trees and power lines . About 200 @,@ 000 people in northeastern Mexico lost power , and 100 @,@ 000 people were left without water . About 400 houses were damaged in Veracruz , and many roads and bridges were destroyed . Heavy rainfall occurred in the interior of northeastern Mexico , peaking at 24 @.@ 55 in ( 624 mm ) in González , Tamaulipas . In a reporting station in the municipality of Gómez Farías , the pluviometer reported a 24 @-@ hour rain total of 13 @.@ 24 inches ( 336 mm ) , and a storm total of 18 @.@ 44 inches ( 468 mm ) , which broke the precipitation record for that location , which counted with 35 years of data . This rain also caused rivers to reach record levels , as the Sabinas River rose 10 @.@ 95 m ( 35 @.@ 9 ft ) on October 6 , to a new historical peak , and the Guayalejo River rose 77 @.@ 46 ft ( 23 @.@ 61 m ) , slightly under the 1976 record . This rainfall caused the Las Ánimas dam to catch 525 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 648 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water between October 5 and October 17 ; however , some of this water had to be released , as the upstream face of the dam was damaged by debris , and had to be repaired . Overall , the storm produced $ 117 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 2000 MXN , $ 12 @.@ 4 million 2000 USD ) in the state .
In Nuevo León , the remnants of Keith interacted with a cold front to produce heavy rainfall , reaching 14 @.@ 43 in ( 367 mm ) in Sabinas . The average precipitation in the state was 5 inches ( 130 mm ) , and the deluge caused causing mudslides in several cities , including San Pedro , Guadalupe and Escobedo . High rainfall also caused flash flood in mountainous areas near Monterrey , forming swift river currents that rose up to 9 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ( 250 m ³ / s ) , and dragged 130 people into local rivers ; however , all were rescued . The rivers also dragged 30 vehicles , all of which were moderate to total losses . The storm runoff caused the El Cuchillo dam to receive 105 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 130 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water daily , and the La Boca dam to receive 810 acre feet ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per hour . About 13 @,@ 000 residents lost power . About 5 @,@ 000 people were forced evacuated from several municipalities in the state , including 2 @,@ 465 from Monterrey and 1 @,@ 900 from rural areas , at a cost of $ 400 @,@ 000 ( 2000 MXN ) . The total damages in the state rose to $ 115 @.@ 6 million ( 2000 MXN , US $ 12 @.@ 2 million in year 2000 ) , with the damage to urban infrastructure being the most expensive portion of the damage , with $ 44 @.@ 2 million ( 2000 MXN , US $ 4 @.@ 6 million in 2000 ) used to repair damage in eight municipalities ; in particular , San Pedro Garza García received approximately three quarters of the infrastructure damage , with $ 30 @.@ 8 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 3 @.@ 3 million 2000 USD ) . Additionally , about 460 homes were damaged or destroyed , and 300 families had to be relocated to safer areas .
In other states , damage was lighter , but still significant . In Sonora , total damages rose to $ 64 @.@ 4 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 6 @.@ 8 million 2000 USD ) ; in Chiapas , $ 25 @.@ 6 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 2 @.@ 7 million 2000 USD ) of property damage were caused by the storm . This brings up the total damage in Mexico to $ 365 @.@ 9 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 38 @.@ 7 million 2000 USD ) . In Tabasco , flooding damaged 7 @,@ 896 houses . Approximately 24 @,@ 000 residents in the state were impacted by flooding . At the capital city of Villahermosa , large rivers in the area overflowed , flooding some streets . However , dikes and sandbags along the banks of the rivers prevented further flooding . Overall , about 46 @,@ 000 people had to evacuate Mexico due to the storm and its flooding . There was one fatality when a man in Tampico was electrocuted by a downed power line . In Xicoténcatl , Tamaulipas , a swollen river killed a family of six when their house was flooded . Overall , Keith killed 23 people in Mexico – 13 in Veracruz , 4 in Puebla , and 6 in Tamaulipas . There were six indirect deaths when a plane crashed while attempting to land in Reynosa , Tamaulipas .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
The outerbands of Keith brought intermittent rainfall to several areas of Cuba , though the amounts were very light . While Keith was organizing , the storm drew moisture from the eastern Pacific Ocean across Central America , producing heavy rainfall . In Guatemala , the rains caused flooding in ten towns and inundated approximately 500 farms in the Melchor de Mencos municipality with about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of water . Additionally , one fatality was reported . Governor of Petén Department Adán Regalado remarked that , " many communities are cut off by flooded rivers " . In El Salvador , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old man drowned in a river , and 200 families had to evacuate after several houses were damaged or destroyed . Rainfall in Honduras forced over 200 families to evacuate their houses . One person died when a wall collapsed , and there were five other fatalities an aircraft disappeared near Roatan Island . A bridge along the Pan @-@ American Highway between Honduras and Nicaragua was destroyed , which had been rebuilt following Hurricane Mitch . Additionally , a government agency reported that as many as 80 @,@ 000 people in southern Honduras were left isolated .
In Nicaragua , floods from the storm forced 3 @,@ 962 people to evacuate their houses to 57 shelters , many of which were schools . Floods affected 11 of the 17 Departments of Nicaragua , which began receding on October 5 as Keith exited the region . The floods caused several landslides and covered roads , which isolated communities . Keith damaged 436 houses in the country and destroyed another 160 . There were 12 fatalities due to the storm in Nicaragua , one of whom a boy who was swept away by a fast moving flooded river northeast of Managua , while another death occurred after a man drowned in Lake Managua . A man in the western portions of the country died after stepping on a power lines , which had fallen due to strong winds . Fifty communities were isolated , with at least thirteen of them due to impassable roads . Several neighborhoods in Corinto flooded , forcing the Civil Defense to evacuate 9 families . One house collapsed in Los Ángeles , though its ten occupant escape without injury . After rainfall lashed In Villanueva , Chinandega , for six days , the resultant flooding forced 300 families evacuated , while there was significant losses the corn , beans and plantains crops . An additional 20 families left their homes due to flooding in Poneloya . About 15 families in the port city of Puerto Sandino were evacuated after the El Contrabando river overflowed . Another 18 homes were flooded in the region of Salinas Grandes . About 52 fled Troilo after at least 11 homes flooded .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 3 , a Belize ambassador issued an appeal to the international community for food and money due to the damage from Keith . United Nations Development Programme received $ 30 @,@ 000 from the Government of Norway to give immediate relief to the country of Belize . United Nations Children 's Fund also gave out $ 150 @,@ 000 for relief in areas not focused on by other relief groups . The Peace Corps , the Red Cross , and the United States Navy black hawk helicopters worked together to deliver rice , corn , sugar , salt , cooking oil , toilet paper , and medications to about 700 families in Bermuda Landings and adjacent isolated villages . The American Red Cross donated about $ 28 @,@ 500 and 4 @,@ 080 family hygiene kits . Between October and November 2000 , the National Society distributed 5 @,@ 289 food and hygiene parcels to 26 @,@ 293 people in Belize City , Orange Walk , and Belmopan . Around that time , the Belize Red Cross Society ( BRCS ) distributed relief items to 4 @,@ 622 victims in Belize City . The BRCS also shipped two containers with kitchen sets and water buckets for 1 @,@ 600 families , donated by the German Red Cross . A donation account to help the relief effort , titled Hurricane Keith Relief Fund , was set up by the town of Placencia , in the local Atlantic Bank . The Belize Consulate in California also set up a donation fundraiser . Placencia also delivered a boat full of donated food , clothing , and building supplies to the San Pedro and Caye Caulker area .
In the immediate aftermath , officials enacted a curfew for Belize City , Caye Caulker and San Pedro to curtail looting , and the latter two areas were declared disaster areas . The entirety of the northern three districts ( out of six total ) were also declared disaster areas . There were initial difficulties in determining the needs in the affected residents , due to cut communications . The government sent planes with emergency supplies to the most affected offshore islands . Several emergency teams were sent to Caye Caulker and San Pedro as soon as weather conditions permitted it . Widespread road repairs also began almost immediately after Keith 's occurrence . The Belize International Airport was back online by the morning of October 4 , only a single day after the tropical cyclone passed through the area . By that time , boat service was re @-@ instated with the most affected areas to pick up stranded tourists . Workers quickly restored power and water in Belize City . In the days after the storm struck , residual flooding sparked fears for the spread of disease . In Orange Walk and Cayo District , residents were advised to stay indoors to avoid bites from poisonous snakes .
In Nicaragua , the United States ambassador declared a disaster , which prompted various United Nations departments to provide $ 25 @,@ 000 to the country .
The name Keith was retired in the spring of 2001 and will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane . The name was replaced with Kirk for the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . However , since the name Kirk was not used during the course of 2006 , it was then first used during the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season .
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= Typhoon Yagi ( 2006 ) =
Typhoon Yagi was an intense typhoon , the strongest of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season , which reached the equivalence of Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Forming out of a tropical depression on September 16 , Yagi quickly strengthened as it executed a slow clockwise loop over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean . On September 19 , Yagi strengthened into a typhoon as a subtropical ridge steered the storm towards the west . Two days later , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) with a minimum pressure of 910 hPa ( mbar ) . The typhoon gradually weakened as it recurved towards the northeast and was downgraded to a severe tropical storm on September 24 and became extratropical the next day . The storm was last noted near the Aleutian Islands on September 27 . The typhoon caused severe damage on the island of Chichijima but no injuries were reported as a result of the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 16 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring an area of convection as a tropical depression about 1 @,@ 270 km ( 790 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Guam . The depression was located within an area of low to moderate wind shear under an upper @-@ level anticyclone . Flaring convection was noted along the eastern portion of the developing system before the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert later that day . Early on September 17 , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Depression 16W . Located within a weak steering environment , the storm executed a clockwise loop while quickly strengthening . Several hours after the JTWC issued their first advisory , the JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm and gave it the name Yagi ; the name was contributed by Japan , and is the Japanese word for " goat " . Late on September 18 , the JMA upgraded Yagi to a severe tropical storm while the JTWC classified the storm as a minimal typhoon .
Early on September 19 , the JMA upgraded Yagi to a typhoon . After completing the loop , Yagi 's track was influenced by a subtropical ridge located to the southeast of Japan . The typhoon continued to intensify and reached its peak intensity on September 21 with winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) with a minimum pressure of 910 hPa ( mbar ) , making it the strongest storm of the season according to the JMA . At the same time , the JTWC classified Yagi as a Category 5 super typhoon with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . On September 22 , Yagi passed by the islands of Iwo Jima and Chichijima as the storm recurved towards the northeast . With increasing wind shear , the typhoon began to weaken and also began to undergo an extratropical transition . Late on September 24 , the JTWC classified the storm as an extratropical cyclone and issued their final advisory . The JMA kept Yagi as a tropical system for another day as it weakened to a severe tropical storm . Early on September 25 , they classified it as extratropical . The remnants of Yagi continued towards the northeast and crossed the International Date Line on September 27 . The storm was last noted near the Aleutian Islands .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On September 23 , Typhoon Yagi passed directly over the resort island of Chichijima which has a population of about 2 @,@ 000 . The cyclone brought winds up to 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) , making it the strongest typhoon in 20 years to hit the island . About 1 @,@ 000 of the 1 @,@ 270 homes were without power during the height of the storm . About 150 residents evacuated to local shelters during the storm to escape the high winds and heavy rains . At least one structure was destroyed and numerous others sustained damage . The storm reportedly produced torrential rains , but there are no known measurements . Several homes had their roofs blown off and windows broken . Street lamps were knocked down by the strong winds produced by Yagi . Ferry service for several ports was cancelled for 29 days following the typhoon . Fallen trees knocked down power lines and cut communications . Some homes were reported to have lost water pressure also . The storm passed close to Iwo Jima on September 22 , with the island being within the range of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) winds . No loss of life or injuries were related to Typhoon Yagi .
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= MILF Island =
" MILF Island " is the eleventh episode of NBC 's second season of 30 Rock and thirty @-@ second episode overall . It was written by the series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey and producer Matt Hubbard . The director of the episode was Kevin Rodney Sullivan . It aired on April 10 , 2008 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Timothy Adams , Tim Conway , Pierra Francesca , Deidre Goodwin , Rob Huebel , Christina Ianelli , John Lutz and Maulik Pancholy .
The episode revolves around the season finale of Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) reality television show hit , MILF Island , which parallels the " real world " incidents happening in the office . Someone tells a reporter for The New York Post that Jack is a " Class A Moron " and that he can " eat my poo . " The writers of TGS with Tracy Jordan argue as they suspect one of them made the comment .
= = Plot = =
The cast and crew of TGS with Tracy Jordan gather to watch the season finale of Jack 's summer reality show hit MILF Island , a series the plot of which is described as " 25 Super @-@ Hot Moms , 50 eighth grade boys , no rules . " The staff soon discover that one of them told a reporter for The New York Post that Jack was a " Class A Moron " and that " He can eat my poo . " They then spiral into an argument as they try to find out who made the statement . Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) later recalls that he heard Liz , in an elevator , making the statement to the journalist . Liz makes a false promise that she will tell Jack that it was her to avoid him hearing the truth from Kenneth . Liz finally reveals the truth to Jack only to find out that he already knew it was she who said it , and he 's not going to fire her — instead , she has to put together a new TV series for MILF Island 's manipulative competitor Deborah .
Meanwhile , as he is planning to watch the season finale of MILF Island alone in his office , Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) gets stuck in a vending machine while trying to steal a candy bar . Pete 's many attempts to break free from the machine end in failure when the machine ends up falling on him .
= = Production = =
" MILF Island " was filmed in early March 2008 . The episode of 30 Rock which aired the following week , " Subway Hero , " was originally expected to air on April 10 , 2008 in place of this episode , but for unknown reasons " MILF Island " aired on that date instead . This marked the only time in the series ' first four seasons that completed episodes were not broadcast in the same order as they were produced .
Confusion was caused prior to the broadcast of this episode when many critics speculated about how the episode would tackle the use of the word MILF without actually explaining that it is an acronym for " Mother I 'd Like to Fuck " , as that would have broken Federal Communications Commission rules . The situation was compared to the episode of Seinfeld called " The Contest " which features the subject of masturbation but the characters could never actually say the word " masturbation " and did so via metaphors .
" MILF Island " was the first episode of 30 Rock to be broadcast since " Episode 210 , " on January 10 , 2008 , due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . The Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) went on strike at 12 : 01AM Eastern Standard Time on November 5 , 2007 . Filming of 30 Rock 's final written episode concluded on November 9 , 2007 . Members of Writers Guild of America , East and Writers Guild of America , West voted to end the 100 @-@ day strike on February 12 , 2008 . Writers were allowed to return to work on the same day . The WGA allowed for show runners to return to work on February 11 , in preparation for the conclusion of the strike . The show runner for 30 Rock is executive producer Robert Carlock . The writers returned to work on February 13 . During the strike , executive producer , writer and star of 30 Rock Tina Fey had to balance her duties in order not to breach WGA strike rules . Fey took to the picket lines along with co @-@ star Jack McBrayer , while Alec Baldwin also blogged on The Huffington Post website in support of the WGA writers .
= = Reception = =
" MILF Island " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 7 million American viewers , performing similarly to previous episodes of the second season . This episode achieved a 2 @.@ 7 / 7 in the key 18 – 49 demographic ; the 2 @.@ 7 refers to 2 @.@ 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. while the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S.
Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " after three months of strike @-@ enforced exile , [ this episode of ] 30 Rock generated the expectations and excitement normally reserved for a season premiere , " also saying that " the show [ is ] in midseason form . " Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide said that he would " be lying if [ he ] said this was a super @-@ great episode . " Webb Mitovich went on to say that " [ He ] did like , though — and thought they should have done a lot more with — the " parallels " between the MILF events and the strategizing staff . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad thought that " It 's almost as if this was the season opener " and that this episode was " ambitious . " Michael N of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a grade of B. Robert Canning of IGN said that " the overall story arc was less than what we had anticipated from this critical favorite making its post @-@ writers @-@ strike return , the episode was still pretty damn funny . " Canning also said that this was " an episode that was divided between a less @-@ than @-@ average story and many hilarious moments . " Canning criticized how " 30 Rock has never really given [ Pete Hornberger and Scott Adsit ] ( the character or the actor ) the showcase that he deserves . "
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= HMS Amphion ( 1911 ) =
HMS Amphion was an Active @-@ class scout cruiser built for the Royal Navy before the First World War . Completed in 1913 , she was initially assigned to the First Fleet and became a destroyer flotilla leader in mid @-@ 1914 . When the war began , her flotilla was assigned to the Harwich Force . While patrolling on the first full day of the war , Amphion and her destroyers encountered and sank a German minelayer , SMS Königin Luise , but not before she had laid many of her mines . While returning from patrolling the following morning , Amphion accidentally struck a mine on 6 August 1914 off the Thames Estuary and sank with the loss of 132 crewmen killed . She was the first ship of the Royal Navy to be sunk in the First World War . The wreck site is protected and may not be dived upon without permission from the Ministry of Defence .
= = Design and description = =
The Active @-@ class ships were the last class of turbine @-@ powered scout cruisers ordered by the Admiralty . These ships were intended to work with destroyer flotillas , leading their torpedo attacks and backing them up when attacked by other destroyers , although they quickly became less useful as destroyer speeds increased before the First World War . Amphion had a length between perpendiculars of 405 feet ( 123 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) and a draught of 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 340 long tons ( 3 @,@ 394 t ) at normal load and 3 @,@ 945 long tons ( 4 @,@ 008 t ) at deep load . Her crew consisted of 289 officers and other ranks .
The main armament of the Active class consisted of ten breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk VII guns . The forward pair of guns were mounted side by side on a platform on the forecastle , six were amidships , three on each broadside , and the two remaining guns were on the centreline of the quarterdeck , one ahead of the other . The guns fired their 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shells to a range of about 11 @,@ 400 yards ( 10 @,@ 400 m ) . Her secondary armament was four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) three @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 in ( 47 mm ) ) Vickers Mk I guns and two submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes .
As scout cruisers , the ships were only lightly protected to maximise their speed . They had a curved protective deck that was one inch ( 25 mm ) thick on the slope and 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) on the flat . Their conning tower was protected by four inches of armour .
= = Construction and career = =
Ordered as part of the 1910 Naval Programme , Amphion was laid down at Pembroke Dockyard 's No. 5 Slipway on 15 March 1911 and launched on 4 December by Mrs. Mundy , wife of the dockyard 's Captain @-@ Superintendent , Captain Geoffrey Mundy . She was completed in March 1913 and her first commander was Captain Frederic Dreyer with Lieutenant John Tovey as his First Lieutenant . Amphion was commissioned on 2 April and assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron of the First Fleet . A month later , the ship was assigned to the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron by 18 May . She remained with the squadron for nearly a year and was serving as the flotilla leader of the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla by 18 June 1914 .
By the start of the First World War in August , Amphion and her flotilla was assigned to the Harwich Force , defending the eastern approaches to the English Channel , under the command of Captain Cecil H. Fox . In the morning of 5 August , Amphion and the 3rd Flotilla sortied into the North Sea to patrol the area between Harwich and the Dutch island of Terschelling for German activity . At 10 : 15 a ship in the black , buff , and yellow colours of the Great Eastern Railway 's steamers that plied between Harwich and the Hook of Holland was spotted . Fox sent the destroyers Lance and Landrail to investigate and shortly afterwards another destroyer reported that a trawler had seen a suspicious ship , ' throwing things overboard , presumably mines ' . Amphion led the flotilla to investigate and observed that the fleeing ship was deploying mines even then . At 10 : 45 , Lance opened fire at a range of 4 @,@ 400 yards ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) .
The target was SMS Königin Luise , a former Hamburg @-@ Heligoland excursion boat that had been converted to an auxiliary minelayer by the Germans . They had planned to mount a pair of 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns on board , but they did not have the time to do so ; her only armament was a pair of lighter guns and 180 mines . On the night of 4 August , she had departed Emden and headed into the North Sea to lay mines off the Thames Estuary , which she began at to do at dawn .
The fire from the destroyers was ineffective until Amphion closed to a range of 7 @,@ 000 yards ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) and began hitting the German ship at about 11 : 15 . By noon , Königin Luise was sinking and the three British ships rescued 5 officers and 70 ratings . The flotilla proceeded onwards with their patrol until they reached the Dutch coast around 21 : 00 and turned for home . Fox was uncertain as to the locations of the mines laid by Königin Luise and laid a course that was seven nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) west of where he thought the mines were . He guessed wrongly and led his flotilla over the danger area .
At 06 : 35 , Amphion struck a mine that detonated underneath her bridge . The explosion set her forecastle on fire and broke the ship 's keel . The destroyer Linnet attempted to tow the cruiser , but a deep crack across her upper deck showed that she was hogging badly and Fox ordered his crew to abandon ship . Shortly afterwards , her forward magazine exploded , throwing one 4 @-@ inch gun into the air that narrowly missed Linnet . One of Amphion 's shells burst on the deck of the destroyer Lark , killing two of her men and the only German prisoner rescued from the cruiser . Amphion then rapidly sank within 15 minutes of the explosion losing 1 officer and 131 ratings killed in the sinking , plus an unknown number of the crew rescued from Königin Luise . The wreck is a protected site under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 .
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= Gerlachovský štít =
Gerlachovský štít ( Slovak pronunciation , translated into English as Gerlach Peak ) is the highest peak in the High Tatras , in Slovakia , and in the whole 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) long Carpathian mountain chain , as well as in northern and central Europe ( Visegrád Group ) .
Usually listed at 2 @,@ 655 metres AMSL ( 8 @,@ 711 ft ) , its exact elevation is actually 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 feet ) lower . The pyramidal shape of the massif is marked by a huge cirque . Despite its relatively low elevation , the about 2 @,@ 000 m vertical rise from the valley floor makes Gerlachovský štít soar . Mistaken for an average mountain in the rugged High Tatras range in the more distant past , it has since played a symbolic role in the eyes of the rulers and populations of several Central European nations , to the point that between the 19th and mid @-@ 20th century , it had four different names with six name reversals . It managed to be the highest mountain of the Kingdom of Hungary , and of the countries of Czechoslovakia and Slovakia within the span of only about two decades of the 20th century .
Gerlachovský štít shares its geology and ecology with the rest of the High Tatras , but provides a worthwhile environment for biologists as the highest ground anywhere in Europe north of the parallel linking approximately Munich , Salzburg , and Vienna . With the travel restrictions imposed by the Eastern Bloc , the mountain was particularly treasured as the loftiest point available to climb to by Czechs , East Germans , Hungarians , Poles , and Slovaks . It continues to attract its share of visitors although the local authorities have been continually adding new restrictions on access .
= = Names = =
= = = Present = = =
Gerlachovský štít means the " Peak ( of the village ) of Gerlachov " . The Slovak colloquial name is Gerlach . The Polish names are Gerlach or Gierlach , while its Polish colloquial names are Girlach and Garłuch .
= = = Past = = =
The peak 's earliest recorded name was the Szepes @-@ German Kösselberg ( Cauldron Mountain ) on a map from 1762 . The Slovak name of the mountain was first recorded as Kotol , also meaning " Cauldron " , in 1821 . Both names referred to the peak 's characteristic cauldron @-@ like cirque .
The name that became common in travel books and other literature in the 19th century , however , is its current name , linking the mountain to the village of Gerlachov at its foot . It echoed the oldest known undifferentiated reference to the peaks on or near Gerlachov 's municipal lands , Gerlachfalvenses montes ( Latin with Hungarian elements for the " Gerlachov Village Mountains " ) , in a drawing of the High Tatras from 1717 . It also paralleled the name Gerlsdorfer Spitze ( Gerlachov Peak ) used by the first person to identify it as the highest peak in the Tatras in 1838 ( see below ) , which was rendered as gerlachovský chochol ( Gerlach crest ) in a Slovak version of his report in 1851 . Several other mountains in the High Tatras have acquired their names from villages in the foothills .
Once it was determined that the mountain was the highest point in the region , the succession of the authorities that held control over it took an interest in its name and changed it periodically for symbolic reasons . In 1896 , as part of Austria @-@ Hungary , the highest peak of the Carpathians received its first government @-@ sponsored name − after the contemporary head of state Emperor Francis Joseph I. Guidebooks sometimes did not catch up on these name changes . After the dissolution of the monarchy in 1918 , the mountain continued to be known simply as Gerlachovský štít because it belonged to the village of Gerlachov . The Polish government , claiming the territory of the High Tatras for Poland , simultaneously called the mountain Szczyt Polski ( Polish Peak ) , but never gained control over it . The new Czechoslovak government changed the name to Štít legionárov ( Legionnaires Peak ) in honor of the Czechoslovak Legions in 1923 , but the name was dropped in favor of the earlier Gerlachovský štít in 1932 . As a result of the Communist coup d 'état in 1948 , the mountain was renamed once more − to Stalinov štít ( Stalin Peak ) in 1949 . Its traditional name Gerlachovský štít was restored yet again a decade later and has remained unchanged through the present .
= = History = =
Gerlachovský štít was not always considered the highest mountain in the Tatras . After the first official measurement of peaks in the Tatras during the period of the Habsburg Monarchy in the 18th century , Kriváň ( 2 @,@ 494 m ) was considered the highest . Other candidate peaks for the status of the highest mountain at that time were Lomnický štít ( 2 @,@ 633 m ) and Ľadový štít ( 2 @,@ 627 m ) . The first person to accurately name Gerlachovský štít as the highest peak was the forester Ľudovít ( Ludwig ) Greiner in 1838 . Greiner 's measurement was formally confirmed by an Austrian Army survey party in 1868 . However , it was generally accepted only after the Vienna Military Institute for Geography issued a new , authoritative collection of maps of Central Europe in ca . 1875 .
The first confirmed ascent was made by Ján ( Johann ) Still from the village of Nová Lesná in 1834 . In 1880 , the routes through the Velická próba ( Velická Challenge ) and Batizovská próba ( Batizovská Challenge ) were secured by chains .
= = Access = =
Only members of a national UIAA club are allowed to climb the peak on their own . Other visitors have to take a certified mountain guide . The two easiest routes , usually up the Velická próba and down the Batizovská próba named after their respective valleys , are protected by chains . Because of an exposed section along the Velická próba and tricky orientation especially on the ridge , both are among the more difficult scrambling routes in the High Tatras , although it 's rather climbing , since there are many moments when one must rely on ones hands to hold ones bodyweight . With no snow , guidebooks grade the routes as a II or III climb ( UIAA scale ) or lower . The total elevation gain is about 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) for those who spend the night at the Sliezsky Dom Hotel or are driven there by a mountain guide , and about 1 @,@ 665 m ( 5 @,@ 463 ft ) for those who hike from Tatranská Polianka . In winter , Gerlachovský štít offers a challenging alpine climb , with mixed climbing and a risk of avalanches .
The unmarked trailhead is on the green @-@ marked trail leading up Velická Valley near the southern edge of the first plateau ( Kvetnica ) above the Sliezsky Dom . The equally unmarked , indistinct route to Gerlach veers off north @-@ west towards the mountain 's eastern slopes at the elevation of ca . 1 @,@ 815 m ( 5 @,@ 955 ft ) , but occasional cairns begin to appear farther on . The fastest and easiest descent is down the Batizovská próba . Mountain guides always follow the route in the east @-@ west direction , ascending from Velická Valley and descending into Batizovská Valley , in order to reduce logjams .
Two most popular multi @-@ pitch routes for technical climbing are on the eastern and south @-@ western walls . Both are exceptionally long and situated on solid granite walls . The best season for climbing is mid September to mid October or until the snow falls . Another good season lasts from late June to early August .
The route to Gerlachovský štít falls under the Tatra National Park ordinance , according to which hikers who depart from marked trails may be subject to fines unless they are UIAA members , or are led by an IFMGA @-@ certified mountain guide . Camping is subject to similar restrictions . Rangers and some mountain guides are authorized to collect fines on the spot . Cairns that hikers build to mark the trailhead are periodically taken apart .
= = Conditions at the summit = =
= = = Human response = = =
Although authors estimate that at least some of the manifestations of altitude sickness may appear at elevations as low as 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 900 – 7 @,@ 900 ft ) and it affects the fit and unfit in equal measure , its incidence is reported as lower than 1 % even at elevations of 4 @,@ 600 m ( 15 @,@ 100 ft ) and has not been reported in the Tatras . Low air pressure begins to have marginal but detectable effects at the summit ( 2 @,@ 654 @.@ 4 m ; 8 @,@ 709 ft ) . Water boils at about 91 @.@ 5 ° C ( 196 @.@ 7 ° F ) and arterial oxygen saturation is about 8 % lower than at most visitors ' places of residence , but it is difficult to distinguish slight oxygen deprivation at the summit from fatigue caused by the exertion required to reach it . Authors speak of possible minimal sensory impairment above 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . Unlike fitness , age in itself is not a determinant factor in reaching the highest point in the Tatras . The famed Tatra guide Ján Počúvaj took clients to the summit of Gerlach until the age of 76 .
= = = View = = =
Like a 19th @-@ century comment in a British guidebook , " impressive and picturesque " , modern hikers usually appreciate the panoramic view of the highest and many other peaks in the High Tatras , from Kriváň in the west to Široká in the north and Lomnický štít in the east . Farther on , but often visible , are the eastern Low Tatras in the south and part of the Belianske Tatras in the east . Better than usual visibility , a rare occurrence except in the fall and winter , is needed to see the Stolické vrchy , Volovské vrchy , the Slovak Paradise region , and Branisko . Quite exceptionally , visibility may extend to the Austrian Alps and the Polish – Czech Giant Mountains hundreds of miles away .
Hikers ' reported enjoyment of the view is at least partly attributable to their awareness that they are at the highest point in all of northern and central Europe ( Visegrád countries ) . Visibility is merely 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) or less on most summer afternoons because of the amount of water vapor in the air or because of cloudiness ( fog ) . Days with afternoon visibility of 50 km ( 31 mi ) or more are common only later in the fall and in winter . The view is partly blocked by the long ridge of Končistá in the west , areas near the mountain towards the south and north are obscured by the Gerlach massif itself . Several other summits in the High Tatras , including some with marked trails , offer more spectacular views with precipitous drops , varied scenery , and encompassing vistas .
= = = Weather = = =
The effects of high @-@ altitude weather on those who ascend Gerlachovský štít may be more pronounced than its altitude alone . The temperature gradient between the Tatra mountain resorts ( 900 – 1 @,@ 350 m or 2 @,@ 950 – 4 @,@ 430 ft ) and the summit can be steep . Low air temperature higher up can be masked by high insolation under clear skies , but will take its effect with increased cloud cover . Combined with windy conditions , the impact may be considerably detrimental even without rain or snow . The summit disappears in the clouds for periods of time on most days , which translates to fog at that elevation and possible disorientation as well as anxiety .
While temperatures are somewhat lower on Gerlachovský štít because of its elevation , the weather and its potential impact on visitors is little different from other summits in the High Tatras both with and without marked trails . The typical daily weather pattern in the summer is a clear morning , clouds gathering by mid @-@ morning — noon , occasional showers and storms in the afternoon . The chance of rain is lowest between 9 – 10 am and peaks between 2 – 3 pm , with a drop @-@ off after 6 pm . The frequency of storms with lightning ( as opposed to rainstorms ) on Gerlach 's summit and on the other highest ridges is little different from lower elevations , too , but people exposed to wind , ( sometimes freezing ) rain , and lightning have greater difficulty to cope . The nearest shelter for those who ascend Gerlach is the Sliezsky Dom Hotel , there are no natural shelters along the route .
= = = Climate = = =
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= Wetheral Priory Gatehouse =
Wetheral Priory Gatehouse is a 15th @-@ century stone fortification in Wetheral , Cumbria . The priory was founded at the start of the 12th century and the gatehouse controlled the entrance to its outer courtyard . When the priory was dissolved in 1538 the gatehouse and a nearby stretch of wall were the only parts to survive . The gatehouse passed into the control of Carlisle Cathedral and became the local vicarage during the 16th and 17th centuries , before being used to store hay . Now part of a modern farm that occupies the former priory site , it is controlled by English Heritage and open to visitors . The crenellated gatehouse has three storeys , with the main entrance and porters ' lodge on the ground floor and two domestic chambers on the upper floors . English Heritage considers the building to be " the finest medieval gatehouse in Cumbria " .
= = History = =
Wetheral Priory Gatehouse was probably built in the 15th century and formed the entrance to the priory 's outer courtyard . Wetheral Priory was a small Benedictine institution , founded by Ranulf le Meschin following the Norman invasion of Cumbria at the beginning of the 12th century . The motherhouse of the priory was St Mary 's Abbey in York . The priory was known for a special right of sanctuary for criminals that had been granted to it by Henry I , allowing the priory to shelter felons who could reach the church and ring the bell there .
The gatehouse originally formed part of a range of buildings running along the side of the outer courtyard , and would have controlled access to the institution , as well as symbolising its power and status . The Anglo @-@ Scottish border was also still dangerous in the 15th century , and many monasteries in the area , like Wetheral , had protective fortifications .
By the 16th century , the priory was in decline , but its closure came as a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in England and Wales under Henry VIII . To help speed the process of closing the institution , Ralf Hartley was appointed as the prior of Wetheral by Henry 's minister , Thomas Cromwell ; royal commissioners visited in 1536 , and the priory was finally surrendered to the Crown in 1538 . The priory 's belongings were sold off or taken by Henry , depending on their value , but the lands were given to Carlisle Cathedral . Although the rest of the priory soon fell into disrepair , the gatehouse became the local vicarage ; it was still intact and in use by the minister in 1687 .
The gatehouse was later used as a hayloft . In 1978 it passed into the guardianship of the state , and is now in the care of English Heritage and open to the public . Still well preserved , it is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building .
= = Architecture = =
English Heritage considers the building to be " the finest medieval gatehouse in Cumbria " . It closely resembles the larger fortifications at Thornton and Tynemouth abbeys , forming a three @-@ storey building built of coursed red sandstone , and now stands on the edge of the modern Wetheral Priory Farm , which occupies the site of the original priory . The gatehouse is 12 @.@ 5 by 8 @.@ 9 metres ( 41 by 29 ft ) across , with the floors linked by a spiral staircase in the north @-@ east corner , and an adjacent barrel vaulted cellar . The marks of the range of buildings that once ran alongside the gatehouse can be seen on the external walls , and the gatehouse is topped by battlements .
The ground floor includes a barrel vaulted entrance passageway and a porters ' lodge , the latter 5 @.@ 3 by 3 metres ( 17 @.@ 4 by 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in size . The first and second floors both formed single rooms , approximately 7 @.@ 6 by 5 @.@ 2 metres ( 25 by 17 ft ) across internally , and would have been used as domestic chambers for the officials of the priory . They had fireplaces , garderobes and small bed chambers in the walls . The roof is predominantly built of timbers dating from between 1512 to 1536 ; the current structure was probably built around 1540 , possibly when the building was converted for use as a vicarage .
North @-@ east of the gatehouse is a 23 metres ( 75 ft ) medieval , red sandstone wall , 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) high , probably originally the east wall of the priory 's chapter house . This medieval wall had four windows running along it , with a staircase at one end .
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= Air well ( condenser ) =
An air well or aerial well is a structure or device that collects water by promoting the condensation of moisture from air . Designs for air wells are many and varied , but the simplest designs are completely passive , require no external energy source and have few , if any , moving parts .
Three principal designs are used for air wells , designated as high mass , radiative , and active :
High @-@ mass air wells : used in the early 20th century , but the approach failed .
Low @-@ mass , radiative collectors : Developed in the late 20th century onwards , proved to be much more successful .
Active collectors : these collect water in the same way as a dehumidifier ; although the designs work well , they require an energy source , making them uneconomical except in special circumstances . New , innovative designs seek to minimise the energy requirements of active condensers or make use of renewable energy resources .
= = Background = =
All air well designs incorporate a substrate with a temperature sufficiently low so that dew forms . Dew is a form of precipitation that occurs naturally when atmospheric water vapour condenses onto a substrate . It is distinct from fog , in that fog is made of droplets of water that condense around particles in the air . Condensation releases latent heat which must be dissipated in order for water collection to continue .
An air well requires moisture from the air . Everywhere on Earth , even in deserts , the surrounding atmosphere contains at least some water . According to Beysens and Milimouk : " The atmosphere contains 12 @,@ 900 cubic kilometres ( 3 @,@ 100 cu mi ) of fresh water , composed of 98 percent water vapour and 2 percent condensed water ( clouds ) : a figure comparable to the renewable liquid water resources of inhabited lands ( 12 @,@ 500 km3 ) . " The quantity of water vapour contained within the air is commonly reported as a relative humidity , and this depends on temperature — warmer air can contain more water vapour than cooler air . When air is cooled to the dew point , it becomes saturated , and moisture will condense on a suitable surface . For instance , the dew temperature of air at 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and 80 percent relative humidity is 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) . The dew temperature falls to 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) if the relative humidity is 50 percent .
A related , but quite distinct , technique of obtaining atmospheric moisture is the fog fence .
An air well should not be confused with a dew pond . A dew pond is an artificial pond intended for watering livestock . The name dew pond ( sometimes cloud pond or mist pond ) derives from the widely held belief that the pond was filled by moisture from the air . In fact , dew ponds are primarily filled by rainwater .
A stone mulch can significantly increase crop yields in arid areas . This is most notably the case in the Canary Islands : on the island of Lanzarote there is about 140 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) of rain each year and there are no permanent rivers . Despite this , substantial crops can be grown by using a mulch of volcanic stones , a trick discovered after volcanic eruptions in 1730 . Some credit the stone mulch with promoting dew ; although the idea has inspired some thinkers , it seems unlikely that the effect is significant . Rather , plants are able to absorb dew directly from their leaves , and the main benefit of a stone mulch is to reduce water loss from the soil and to eliminate competition from weeds .
= = History = =
Beginning in the early 20th century , a number of inventors experimented with high @-@ mass collectors . Notable investigators were the Russian engineer Friedrich Zibold ( sometimes given as Friedrich Siebold ) , the French bioclimatologist Leon Chaptal , the German @-@ Australian researcher Wolf Klaphake and the Belgian inventor Achille Knapen .
= = = Zibold 's collector = = =
In 1900 , near the site of the ancient Byzantine city of Theodosia , thirteen large piles of stones were discovered by Zibold who was a forester and engineer in charge of this area . Each stone pile covered just over 900 square metres ( 9 @,@ 700 sq ft ) and was about 10 metres ( 33 ft ) tall . The finds were associated with the remains of 75 @-@ millimetre diameter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) terracotta pipes that apparently led to wells and fountains in the city . Zibold concluded that the stacks of stone were condensers that supplied Theodosia with water ; and calculated that each air well produced more than 55 @,@ 400 litres ( 12 @,@ 200 imp gal ; 14 @,@ 600 US gal ) each day .
To verify his hypothesis Zibold constructed a stone @-@ pile condenser at an altitude of 288 metres ( 945 ft ) on mount Tepe @-@ Oba near the ancient site of Theodosia . Zibold ’ s condenser was surrounded by a wall 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) high , 20 metres ( 66 ft ) wide , around a bowl @-@ shaped collection area with drainage . He used sea stones 10 – 40 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 – 15 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter piled 6 metres ( 20 ft ) high in a truncated cone that was 8 metres ( 26 ft ) in diameter across the top . The shape of the stone pile allowed a good air flow with only minimal thermal contact between the stones .
Zibold 's condenser began to operate in 1912 with a maximum daily production that was later estimated to have been 360 litres ( 79 imp gal ; 95 US gal ) – Zibold made no public record of his results at the time . The base developed leaks that forced the experiment to end in 1915 and the site was partially dismantled before being abandoned . ( The site was rediscovered in 1993 and cleaned up . ) Zibold 's condenser was approximately the same size as the ancient stone piles that had been found , and although the yield was very much less than the yield Zibold had calculated for the original structures , the experiment was an inspiration for later developers .
= = = Chaptal 's collector = = =
Inspired by Zibold 's work , Chaptal built a small air well near Montpellier in 1929 . Chaptal 's condenser was a pyramidal concrete structure 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) square and 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) high , it was filled with 8 cubic metres ( 280 cu ft ) of limestone pieces being about 7 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . Small vent holes ringed the top and bottom of the pyramid . These holes could be closed or opened as required to control the flow of air . The structure was allowed to cool during the night , and then warm moist air was let in during the day . Dew formed on the limestone pieces and collected in a reservoir below ground level . The amount of water obtained varied from 1 litre ( 0 @.@ 22 imp gal ; 0 @.@ 26 US gal ) to 2 @.@ 5 litres ( 0 @.@ 55 imp gal ; 0 @.@ 66 US gal ) per day depending on the atmospheric conditions .
Chaptal did not consider his experiment a success . When he retired in 1946 , he put the condenser out of order , possibly because he did not want to leave an improper installation to mislead those who might later continue studies on air wells .
= = = Klaphake 's collectors = = =
Wolf Klaphake was a successful chemist working in Berlin during the 1920s and 1930s . During that time , he tested several forms of air wells in Yugoslavia and on Vis Island in the Adriatic Sea . Klaphake 's work was inspired by Zibold and by the works of Maimonides , a known Jewish scholar who wrote in Arabic about 1 @,@ 000 years ago and who mentioned the use of water condensers in Palestine .
Klaphake experimented with a very simple design : an area of mountain slope was cleared and smoothed with a watertight surface . It was shaded by a simple canopy supported by pillars or ridges . The sides of the structure were closed , but the top and bottom edges were left open . At night the mountain slope would cool , and in the day moisture would collect on and run down the smoothed surface . Although the system apparently worked , it was expensive , and Klaphake finally adopted a more compact design based on a masonry structure . This design was a sugarloaf @-@ shaped building , about 15 metres ( 49 ft ) high , with walls at least 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) thick , with holes on the top and at the bottom . The outer wall was made of concrete to give a high thermal capacity , and the inner surface was made of a porous material such as sandstone . According to Klaphake :
Traces of Klaphake 's condensers have been tentatively identified .
In 1935 , Wolf Klaphake and his wife Maria emigrated to Australia . The Klaphakes ' decision to emigrate was probably primarily the result of Maria 's encounters with Nazi authorities ; their decision to settle in Australia ( rather than , say , in Britain ) was influenced by Wolf 's desire to develop a dew condenser . As a dry continent , Australia was likely to need alternative sources of fresh water , and the Premier of South Australia , whom he had met in London , had expressed an interest . Klaphake made a specific proposal for a condenser at the small town of Cook , where there was no supply of potable water . At Cook , the railway company had previously installed a large coal @-@ powered active condenser , but it was prohibitively expensive to run , and it was cheaper to simply transport water . However , the Australian government turned down Klaphake 's proposal , and he lost interest in the project .
= = = Knapen 's aerial well = = =
Knapen , who had previously worked on systems for removing moisture from buildings , was in turn inspired by Chaptal 's work and he set about building an ambitiously large puits aerien ( aerial well ) on a 180 metres ( 590 ft ) high hill at Trans @-@ en @-@ Provence in France . Beginning in 1930 , Knapen 's dew tower took 18 months to build ; it still stands today , albeit in dilapidated condition . At the time of its construction , the condenser excited some public interest .
The tower is 14 metres ( 46 ft ) high and has massive masonry walls about 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) thick with a number of apertures to let in air . Inside there is a massive column made of concrete . At night , the whole structure is allowed to cool , and during the day warm moist air enters the structure via the high apertures , cools , descends , and leaves the building by the lower apertures . Knapen ’ s intention was that water should condense on the cool inner column . In keeping with Chaptal ’ s finding that the condensing surface must be rough and the surface tension must be sufficiently low that the condensed water can drip , the central column 's outer surface was studded with projecting plates of slate . The slates were placed nearly vertically to encourage dripping down to a collecting basin at the bottom of the structure . Unfortunately , the aerial well never achieved anything like its hoped @-@ for performance and produced no more than a few litres of water each day .
= = = International Organisation for Dew Utilization = = =
By the end of the twentieth century , the mechanics of how dew condenses were much better understood . The key insight was that low @-@ mass collectors which rapidly lose heat by radiation perform best . A number of researchers worked on this method . In the early 1960s , dew condensers made from sheets of polyethylene supported on a simple frame resembling a ridge tent were used in Israel to irrigate plants . Saplings supplied with dew and very slight rainfall from these collectors survived much better than the control group planted without such aids – they all dried up over the summer . In 1986 in New Mexico condensers made of a special foil produced sufficient water to supply young saplings .
In 1992 a party of French academics attended a condensed matter conference in Ukraine where physicist Daniel Beysens introduced them to the story of how ancient Theodosia was supplied with water from dew condensers . They were sufficiently intrigued that in 1993 they went to see for themselves . They concluded that the mounds that Zibold identified as dew condensers were in fact ancient burial mounds ( a part of the necropolis of antic Theodosia ) and that the pipes were medieval in origin and not associated with the mounds . They found the remains of Zibold 's condenser , which they tidied up and examined closely . Zibold 's condenser had apparently performed reasonably well , but in fact his exact results are not at all clear , and it is possible that the collector was intercepting fog , which added significantly to the yield . If Zibold 's condenser worked at all , this was probably due to fact that a few stones near the surface of the mound were able to lose heat at night while being thermally isolated from the ground ; however , it could never have produced the yield that Zibold envisaged .
Fired with enthusiasm , the party returned to France and set up the International Organisation for Dew Utilization ( OPUR ) , with the specific objective of making dew available as an alternative source of water .
OPUR began a study of dew condensation under laboratory conditions ; they developed a special hydrophobic film and experimented with trial installations , including a 30 square metres ( 320 sq ft ) collector in Corsica . Vital insights included the idea that the mass of the condensing surface should be as low as possible so that it cannot easily retain heat , that it should be protected from unwanted thermal radiation by a layer of insulation , and that it should be hydrophobic , so as to shed condensed moisture readily .
By the time they were ready for their first practical installation , they heard that one of their members , Girja Sharan , had obtained a grant to construct a dew condenser in Kothara , India . In April 2001 , Sharan had incidentally noticed substantial condensation on the roof of a cottage at Toran Beach Resort in the arid coastal region of Kutch , where he was briefly staying . The following year , he investigated the phenomenon more closely and interviewed local people . Financed by the Gujarat Energy Development Agency and the World Bank , Sharan and his team went on to develop passive , radiative condensers for use in the arid coastal region of Kutch . Active commercialisation began in 2006 .
Sharan tested a wide range of materials and got good results from galvanised iron and aluminium sheets , but found that sheets of the special plastic developed by the OPUR just 400 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 016 in ) thick generally worked even better than the metal sheets and were less expensive . The plastic film , known as OPUR foil , is hydrophilic and is made from polyethylene mixed with titanium dioxide and barium sulphate .
= = Types = =
There are three principal approaches to the design of the heat sinks that collect the moisture in air wells : high mass , radiative and active . Early in the twentieth century , there was interest in high @-@ mass air wells , but despite much experimentation including the construction of massive structures , this approach proved to be a failure .
From the late twentieth century onwards , there has been much investigation of low @-@ mass , radiative collectors ; these have proved to be much more successful .
= = = High @-@ mass = = =
The high @-@ mass air well design attempts to cool a large mass of masonry with cool nighttime air entering the structure due to breezes or natural convection . In the day , the warmth of the sun results in increased atmospheric humidity . When moist daytime air enters the air well , it condenses on the presumably cool masonry . None of the high @-@ mass collectors performed well , Knapen 's aerial well being a particularly conspicuous example .
The problem with the high @-@ mass collectors was that they could not get rid of sufficient heat during the night – despite design features intended to ensure that this would happen . While some thinkers have believed that Zibold might have been correct after all , an article in Journal of Arid Environments discusses why high @-@ mass condenser designs of this type cannot yield useful amounts of water :
Although ancient air wells are mentioned in some sources , there is scant evidence for them , and persistent belief in their existence has the character of a modern myth .
= = = Radiative = = =
A radiative air well is designed to cool a substrate by radiating heat to the night sky . The substrate has a low mass so that it cannot hold onto heat , and it is thermally isolated from any mass , including the ground . A typical radiative collector presents a condensing surface at an angle of 30 ° from the horizontal . The condensing surface is backed by a thick layer of insulating material such as polystyrene foam and supported 2 – 3 metres ( 7 – 10 ft ) above ground level . Such condensers may be conveniently installed on the ridge roofs of low buildings or supported by a simple frame . Although other heights do not typically work quite so well , it may be less expensive or more convenient to mount a collector near to ground level or on a two @-@ storey building .
The 600 square metres ( 6 @,@ 500 sq ft ) radiative condenser illustrated near the start of this article is built near the ground . In the area of north @-@ west India where it is installed dew occurs for 8 months a year , and the installation collects about 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) of dew water over the season with nearly 100 dew @-@ nights . In a year it provides a total of about 9 @,@ 000 litres ( 2 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 2 @,@ 400 US gal ) of potable water for the school which owns and operates the site .
Although flat designs have the benefit of simplicity , other designs such as inverted pyramids and cones can be significantly more effective . This is probably because the designs shield the condensing surfaces from unwanted heat radiated by the lower atmosphere , and , being symmetrical , they are not sensitive to wind direction .
New materials may make even better collectors . One such material is inspired by the Namib Desert beetle , which survives only on the moisture it extracts from the atmosphere . It has been found that its back is coated with microscopic projections : the peaks are hydrophilic and the troughs are hydrophobic . Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have emulated this capability by creating a textured surface that combines alternating hydrophobic and hydrophilic materials .
= = = Active = = =
Active atmospheric water collectors have been in use since the commercialisation of mechanical refrigeration . Essentially , all that is required is to cool a heat exchanger below the dew point , and water will be produced . Such water production may take place as a by @-@ product , possibly unwanted , of dehumidification . The air conditioning system of the Burj Khalifa in Dubai , for example , produces an estimated 15 million US gallons ( 57 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water each year that is used for irrigating the tower 's landscape plantings .
Because mechanical refrigeration is energy intensive , active collectors are typically restricted to places where there is no supply of water that can be desalinated or purified at a lower cost and that are sufficiently far from a supply of fresh water to make transport uneconomical . Such circumstances are uncommon , and even then large installations such as that tried in the 1930s at Cook in South Australia failed because of the cost of running the installation – it was cheaper to transport water over large distances .
In the case of small installations , convenience may outweigh cost . There is a wide range of small machines designed to be used in offices that produce a few litres of drinking water from the atmosphere . However , there are circumstances where there really is no source of water other than the atmosphere . For example , in the 1930s , American designers added condenser systems to airships – in this case the air was that emitted by the exhaust of the engines , and so it contained additional water as a product of combustion . The moisture was collected and used as additional ballast to compensate for the loss of weight as fuel was consumed . By collecting ballast in this way , the airship 's buoyancy could be kept relatively constant without having to release helium gas , which was both expensive and in limited supply .
More recently , on the International Space Station , the Zvezda module includes a humidity control system . The water it collects is usually used to supply the Elektron system that electrolyses water into hydrogen and oxygen , but it can be used for drinking in an emergency .
There are a number of designs that minimise the energy requirements of active condensers :
One method is to use the ground as a heat sink by drawing air through underground pipes . This is often done to provide a source of cool air for a building by means of a ground @-@ coupled heat exchanger ( also known as Earth tubes ) , wherein condensation is typically regarded as a significant problem . A major problem with such designs is that the underground tubes are subject to contamination and difficult to keep clean . Designs of this type require air to be drawn through the pipes by a fan , but the power required may be provided ( or supplemented ) by a wind turbine .
Cold seawater is used in the Seawater Greenhouse to both cool and humidify the interior of greenhouse @-@ like structure . The cooling can be so effective that not only do the plants inside benefit from reduced transpiration , but dew collects on the outside of the structure and can easily be collected by gutters .
Another type of atmospheric water collector makes use of desiccants which adsorb atmospheric water at ambient temperature , this makes it possible to extract moisture even when the relative humidity is as low as 14 percent . Systems of this sort have proved to be very useful as emergency supplies of safe drinking water . For regeneration , the desiccant needs to be heated . In some designs regeneration energy is supplied by the sun ; air is ventilated at night over a bed of desiccants that adsorb the water vapour . During the day , the premises are closed , the greenhouse effect increases the temperature , and , as in solar desalination pools , the water vapour is partially desorbed , condenses on a cold part and is collected .
A French company has recently designed a small wind turbine that uses a 30 kW electric generator to power an onboard mechanical refrigeration system to condense water .
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= DragonFly BSD =
DragonFly BSD is a free and open source Unix @-@ like operating system created as a fork of FreeBSD 4 @.@ 8 . Matthew Dillon , an Amiga developer in the late 1980s and early 1990s and a FreeBSD developer between 1994 and 2003 , began work on DragonFly BSD in June 2003 and announced it on the FreeBSD mailing lists on 16 July 2003 .
Dillon started DragonFly in the belief that the methods and techniques being adopted for threading and symmetric multiprocessing in FreeBSD 5 would lead to poor system performance and cause maintenance difficulties . He sought to correct these suspected problems within the FreeBSD project . Due to ongoing conflicts with other FreeBSD developers over the implementation of his ideas , his ability to directly change the FreeBSD codebase was eventually revoked . Despite this , the DragonFly BSD and FreeBSD projects still work together contributing bug fixes , driver updates , and other system improvements to each other .
Intended to be the logical continuation of the FreeBSD 4.x series , DragonFly 's development has diverged significantly from FreeBSD 's , including a new Light Weight Kernel Threads ( LWKT ) implementation , a lightweight ports / messaging system , and feature @-@ rich HAMMER file system . Many concepts planned for DragonFly were inspired by the AmigaOS operating system .
= = System design = =
= = = Kernel = = =
DragonFly 's kernel is a hybrid , containing features of both monolithic and microkernels , such as the message passing capability of microkernels enabling larger portions of the OS to benefit from protected memory , as well as retaining the speed of monolithic kernels for certain critical tasks . The messaging subsystem being developed is similar to those found in microkernels such as Mach , though it is less complex by design . DragonFly 's messaging subsystem has the ability to act in either a synchronous or asynchronous fashion , and attempts to use this capability to achieve the best performance possible in any given situation .
According to developer Matthew Dillon , progress is being made to provide both device input / output ( I / O ) and virtual file system ( VFS ) messaging capabilities that will enable the remainder of the project goals to be met . The new infrastructure will allow many parts of the kernel to be migrated out into userspace ; here they will be more easily debugged as they will be smaller , isolated programs , instead of being small parts entwined in a larger chunk of code . Additionally , the migration of select kernel code into userspace has the benefit of making the system more robust ; if a userspace driver crashes , it will not crash the kernel .
System calls are being split into userland and kernel versions and being encapsulated into messages . This will help reduce the size and complexity of the kernel by moving variants of standard system calls into a userland compatibility layer , and help maintain forwards and backwards compatibility between DragonFly versions . Linux and other Unix @-@ like OS compatibility code is being migrated out similarly .
= = = = Threading = = = =
As support for multiple processor architectures complicates symmetric multiprocessing ( SMP ) support , DragonFly BSD now limits its support to the x86 @-@ 64 platform . DragonFly originally ran on the x86 architecture , however as of version 4 @.@ 0 it is no longer supported . Since version 1 @.@ 10 , DragonFly supports 1 : 1 userland threading ( one kernel thread per userland thread ) , which is regarded as a relatively simple solution that is also easy to maintain . Inherited from FreeBSD , DragonFly also supports multi @-@ threading .
In DragonFly , each CPU has its own thread scheduler . Upon creation , threads are assigned to processors and are never preemptively switched from one processor to another ; they are only migrated by the passing of an inter @-@ processor interrupt ( IPI ) message between the CPUs involved . Inter @-@ processor thread scheduling is also accomplished by sending asynchronous IPI messages . One advantage to this clean compartmentalization of the threading subsystem is that the processors ' on @-@ board caches in Symmetric Multiprocessor Systems do not contain duplicated data , allowing for higher performance by giving each processor in the system the ability to use its own cache to store different things to work on .
The LWKT subsystem is being employed to partition work among multiple kernel threads ( for example in the networking code there is one thread per protocol per processor ) , reducing competition by removing the need to share certain resources among various kernel tasks .
= = = = Shared resources protection = = = =
In order to run safely on multiprocessor machines , access to shared resources ( like files , data structures ) must be serialized so that threads or processes do not attempt to modify the same resource at the same time . In order to prevent multiple threads from accessing or modifying a shared resource simultaneously , DragonFly employs critical sections , and serializing tokens to prevent concurrent access . While both Linux and FreeBSD 5 employ fine @-@ grained mutex models to achieve higher performance on multiprocessor systems , DragonFly does not . Until recently , DragonFly also employed spls , but these were replaced with critical sections .
Much of the system 's core , including the LWKT subsystem , the IPI messaging subsystem and the new kernel memory allocator , are lockless , meaning that they work without using mutexes , with each process operating on a single CPU . Critical sections are used to protect against local interrupts , individually for each CPU , guaranteeing that a thread currently being executed will not be preempted .
Serializing tokens are used to prevent concurrent accesses from other CPUs and may be held simultaneously by multiple threads , ensuring that only one of those threads is running at any given time . Blocked or sleeping threads therefore do not prevent other threads from accessing the shared resource unlike a thread that is holding a mutex . Among other things , the use of serializing tokens prevents many of the situations that could result in deadlocks and priority inversions when using mutexes , as well as greatly simplifying the design and implementation of a many @-@ step procedure that would require a resource to be shared among multiple threads . The serializing token code is evolving into something quite similar to the " Read @-@ copy @-@ update " feature now available in Linux . Unlike Linux 's current RCU implementation , DragonFly 's is being implemented such that only processors competing for the same token are affected rather than all processors in the computer .
DragonFly switched to multiprocessor safe slab allocator , which requires neither mutexes nor blocking operations for memory assignment tasks . It was eventually ported into standard C library in the userland , where it replaced FreeBSD 's malloc implementation .
= = = = Virtual kernel = = = =
Since release 1 @.@ 8 DragonFly has a virtualization mechanism similar to UML , allowing a user to run another kernel in the userland . The virtual kernel ( vkernel ) is run in completely isolated environment with emulated network and storage interfaces , thus simplifying testing kernel subsystems and clustering features .
The vkernel has two important differences from the real kernel : it lacks many routines for dealing with the low @-@ level hardware management and it uses C standard library ( libc ) functions in place of in @-@ kernel implementations wherever possible . As both real and virtual kernel are compiled from the same code base , this effectively means that platform @-@ dependent routines and re @-@ implementations of libc functions are clearly separated in a source tree .
The virtualized platform vkernel runs on is built on top of high @-@ level abstractions provided by the real kernel . These abstractions include the kqueue @-@ based timer , the console ( mapped to the virtual terminal where vkernel is executed ) , the disk image and virtual kernel Ethernet device ( VKE ) , tunneling all packets to the host 's tap interface .
= = = Package management = = =
Third @-@ party software is available on DragonFly as binary packages via pkgng or from a native ports collection – DPorts .
DragonFly originally used the FreeBSD Ports collection as its official package management system , but starting with the 1 @.@ 4 release switched to NetBSD 's pkgsrc system , which was perceived as a way of lessening the amount of work needed for third @-@ party software availability . Eventually , maintaining compatibility with pkgsrc proved to require more effort than was initially anticipated , so the project created DPorts , an overlay on top of the FreeBSD Ports collection .
= = = CARP support = = =
The initial implementation of Common Address Redundancy Protocol ( commonly referred to as CARP ) was finished in March 2007 . As of 2011 , CARP support is integrated into DragonFly BSD .
= = = HAMMER file system = = =
Alongside the Unix File System , which is typically the default file system on BSDs , DragonFly BSD supports HAMMER file system . It was developed specifically for DragonFly BSD to provide a feature @-@ rich yet better designed analogue of the increasingly popular ZFS . HAMMER supports configurable file system history , snapshots , checksumming , data deduplication and other features typical for file systems of its kind .
The next generation of HAMMER file system ( HAMMER2 ) is being developed by Dillon . DragonFly BSD 3 @.@ 8 @.@ 0 was the first released to include support for HAMMER2 , though it is declared as not ready for general use in release notes .
= = = devfs = = =
In 2007 DragonFly BSD received a new device file system ( devfs ) , which dynamically adds and removes device nodes , allows accessing devices by connection paths , recognises drives by serial numbers and removes the need for pre @-@ populated / dev file system hierarchy . It was implemented as a Google Summer of Code 2009 project .
= = = Application snapshots = = =
DragonFly BSD supports Amiga @-@ style resident applications feature : it takes a snapshot of a large , dynamically linked program 's virtual memory space after loading , allowing future instances of the program to start much more quickly than it otherwise would have . This replaces the prelinking capability that was being worked on earlier in the project 's history , as the resident support is much more efficient . Large programs like those found in KDE Software Compilation with many shared libraries will benefit the most from this support .
= = Development and distribution = =
As with FreeBSD and OpenBSD , the developers of DragonFly BSD are slowly replacing K & R style C code with more modern , ANSI equivalents . Similar to other operating systems , DragonFly 's version of the GNU Compiler Collection has an enhancement called the Stack @-@ Smashing Protector ( ProPolice ) enabled by default , providing some additional protection against buffer overflow based attacks . It should be noted that as of 23 July 2005 , the kernel is no longer built with this protection by default .
Being a derivative of FreeBSD , DragonFly has inherited an easy @-@ to @-@ use integrated build system that can rebuild the entire base system from source with only a few commands . The DragonFly developers use the Git version control system to manage changes to the DragonFly source code . Unlike its parent FreeBSD , DragonFly has both stable and unstable releases in a single source tree , due to a smaller developer base .
Like the other BSD kernels ( and those of most modern operating systems ) , DragonFly employs a built @-@ in kernel debugger to help the developers find kernel bugs . Furthermore , as of October 2004 , a debug kernel , which makes bug reports more useful for tracking down kernel @-@ related problems , is installed by default , at the expense of a relatively small quantity of disk space . When a new kernel is installed , the backup copy of the previous kernel and its modules are stripped of their debugging symbols to further minimize disk space usage .
= = = Distribution media = = =
The operating system is distributed as a Live CD and Live USB ( full X11 flavour available ) that boots into a complete DragonFly system . It includes the base system and a complete set of manual pages , and may include source code and useful packages in future versions . The advantage of this is that with a single CD you can install the software onto a computer , use a full set of tools to repair a damaged installation , or demonstrate the capabilities of the system without installing it . Daily snapshots are available from the master site for those who want to install the most recent versions of DragonFly without building from source .
Like the other free open source BSDs , DragonFly is distributed under the terms of the modern version of the BSD license .
= = = Release history = = =
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= Terri Schuester =
Terri Schuester ( née Del Monico ) is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Jessalyn Gilsig , and has appeared in Glee from its pilot episode , first broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . Terri was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . She is introduced as the wife of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) . Her storylines have seen her experience a false pregnancy , attempt to adopt the baby of pregnant glee club member Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , and become involved in a love triangle between herself , Will and school guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) .
Gilsig has characterized Terri as being emotionally still in high school , and lacking the skills to make her marriage work . She has explained that Terri feels threatened by her husband 's commitment to the glee club , worried that it is pulling him away from her , and will stop at nothing to keep her marriage together . She does not know how long Terri will be featured in the series , as she was initially created simply as an obstacle to come between Will and Emma .
Terri has been poorly received by critics . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan has called her " the worst thing about Glee " , and the show 's " one big flaw " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly has described her as a " shrill , lying nag " , whose main function is to bring the audience down . Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times , however , has praised Gilsig 's acting in the role , and stated that his hatred of the character dissipated once her fake pregnancy was exposed . He noted that : " Gilsig 's superb acting isn 't exactly doing anything to extinguish those flames " , and while he still isn 't " in full @-@ on Team Terri uniform [ ... ] she did at least have my attention on the sidelines , as opposed to filing my nails until halftime . Baby steps , right ? "
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Terri is the wife of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) . Believing herself to be pregnant , Terri pressures Will to quit his job as a Spanish teacher at William McKinley High School , in order to take a better paying job as an accountant . She later discovers she has actually experienced a hysterical pregnancy , but hides this from Will , afraid he will leave her . After she confides her deception in her sister Kendra ( Jennifer Aspen ) , Terri approaches the recently revealed to be pregnant cheerleader Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , with an interest in her baby . Terri briefly becomes the school nurse , albeit unqualified , and uses the position to keep a closer eye on Will , whom she believes may be cheating on her with guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) . She is fired as the nurse by Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , however , after it is discovered that she has given the glee club members pseudoephedrine tablets . Terri and Kendra bully her OB @-@ GYN ( Kenneth Choi ) into faking an ultrasound to convince Will the baby is real . In the episode " Mattress , " Will uncovers Terri 's ruse when he discovers her pregnancy pad in a drawer . He angrily confronts her , then walks out , but remains undecided over whether to end their marriage . Terri begins attending therapy , but Will tells her he no longer loves her and is leaving her . Later , in " Hell @-@ O , " Terri returns to warn Emma that she is not going to give Will up without a fight , and also reveals that the song that Will planned on dancing with Emma is also the song Terri and Will had danced to at their prom . Despite this attempted sabotage , Terri and Will still finalize their divorce ; Terri then briefly befriends Glee member and newly hired Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) as her protegee at Sheets @-@ N @-@ Things , because he reminds her of a younger Will .
= = = Season 2 = = =
At the start of the second season , Terri still wants her ex @-@ husband Will back . She is nearly run over as she confronts Will and Emma when they begin to go for a test drive in his spontaneously acquired Corvette . Terri tells Will to get out of the car and they get into an argument , which causes Emma to leave the scene . The words simmer down and Terri advises Will to return the car to the dealership , because he cannot afford it . Before leaving , she says that Emma will break Will 's heart again and he 'll return to her eventually . In " The Substitute " , Terri returns to take care of a sick Will . They have sex , but the next day when she sees Will 's substitute , Holly Holliday ( Gwyneth Paltrow ) at his apartment having a beer with him , she becomes suspicious and makes several snarky comments to Holly . Even after Terri apologizes , Will tells her it is over . A heartbroken Terri promises Will he will regret it , and she storms out of the door . In the episode " A Night of Neglect " , Sue Sylvester recruits Terri for her " League of Doom " , a new group that Sue hopes will help her bring down Will and the glee club before they can compete in Nationals . In " Funeral " , Terri succeeds in sabotaging the club 's travel plans to New York , but fixes the damage and tells Will that she has been promoted to manager for Sheets @-@ N @-@ Things at a location in Miami . She plans to take the job as a chance to move on with her life and give herself a fresh start in a new location .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In Season 4 's Christmas episode " Glee , Actually " , Terri made a cameo appearance in Artie Abrams 's ( Kevin McHale ) dream sequence , where she successfully did her false pregnancy and Will , who is an alcoholic , is too drunk to recognize that the baby Terri is carrying is a baby doll . She also tells Artie that Emma and Ken are married and living in Hawaii .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Terri appears in the first part of the series finale , " 2009 " , which is a parallel episode to the pilot . She is not happy that Will takes over the Glee Club and rudely dismiss Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) request to convince Will to stay for the newly reformed Glee Club , as Terri wants Will to get a better job for a better living , ignoring his dreams . In the series finale " Dreams Come True " , during the last moments of the series , Terri returns to Lima for the first time since season 2 . She joins in to attend a rededication to the McKinley 's auditorium to the late Finn Hudson and enjoys the final performance by the New Directions of all generation . She reunites with Will and takes a bow with the rest of the Glee Cast .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Terri Schuester is portrayed by actress Jessalyn Gilsig . Prior to her casting in Glee , Gilsig was an established actress in both the television and film industry , but had little theatrical experience . In casting Glee , series creator Ryan Murphy sought actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . For the first two seasons of Glee , Gilsig was billed as a contract player for the show . However , it was reported that Gilsig has been bumped down to a recurring character for the show 's third season , set to air in September 2011 .
When asked what originally drew her to the role of Terri in an interview with TheTVChick , Gilsig said : " Well , first of all , Ryan Murphy . Because I had worked with him on Nip / Tuck . And that was one of the best experiences as an actor I ’ ve ever had in my career . He really challenges you as an actor , and he really pushes you , and he really puts a lot of faith in actors to be able to — I think go further than they ’ ve ever gone before . Certainly for me on Nip / Tuck . You know , for obvious reasons … things I never thought I ’ d do . ( laughs ) But also just emotionally and character @-@ wise and comedically . Every script was just this amazing emotional gymnastics . So that first of all : I was like great , I ’ d love to work with Ryan . And for me , the opportunity to do a comedy is something that I ’ ve been itching to do for many years now and also if I was going to do that – which is kind of a big risk for me – to be able to do that with Ryan , who I know so well , and then so much of the crew that I was familiar with from Nip / Tuck was kind of a dream scenario I would say . "
= = = Characterization = = =
Discussing the workplace flirtation between Will and Emma , Gilsig deemed Terri " a woman of conviction " , willing to do " whatever it takes " to keep Will from leaving her , " even if that means finding this woman and hunting her down " . She explained that Will and Terri 's communication is weak and that Terri is " missing a lot of the skills for the marriage " , and commented that Terri feels threatened by Will 's commitment to the glee club , worried that it will pull him away from her . Gilsig characterized Terri as emotionally still being in high school , and explained : " I think Terri still lives in that world , where I can move the pieces in such a way to create a picture , and that will make it real . I don 't think she 's learned that you can actually just have open conversations and talk about your fears and ask for your needs to be met in a direct , compassionate way . I think she 's still in high school and thinking whatever you do , just don 't let anybody know that you don 't know what you 're doing . " Discussing Terri 's relationship with her sister Kendra , Gilsig commented : " When Kendra tells Terri to do something , Terri does it . As crazy as Terri might be , she 's actually pretty normal in the face of her sister . This [ fake pregnancy ] is Kendra 's brainchild , and she just trusts her implicitly . "
Gilsig referred to the confrontation between Terri and Will in the episode " Mattress " as " The Reckoning " . She described it as sad to shoot , as she and Morrison were so invested in the storyline , and explained : " What I hope is conveyed is that you see the child inside Terri . You see the fear . " Gilsig commented that viewers had been wondering why Will was taking so long to discover Terri was not actually pregnant : " I think people have been asking ' How slow is this guy ? ! ' . But [ in " Mattress " ] Will finally reflects that he is a fully evolved human being and puts two and two together . " She noted that while Will and Emma " are adorable together " , she still believes in Terri and Will as a couple : " I think that she really loves him . People do crazy things out of deep , deep insecurity . She 's obviously flawed , but I think she has love in her heart . " Gilsig has further discussed the development of Terri 's relationship with Will :
Overall , while fan reaction to her character had previously resulted in a backlash Gilsig found " tough " , she hoped that " Mattress " would be the episode in which " anti @-@ Terri fans joined Team Terri " . Asked how she felt about Terri being a ' love to hate ' character , Gilsig replied : " As long as you love to hate her , that 's OK . It would be a different show if there weren 't characters like Terri or Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , otherwise you 'd be at Disneyland . It would be the happiest place on Earth . " Gilsig does not know how long her character will feature in the series , and has explained " When Terri was created , she was created obviously to be an obstacle between Emma and Will . They needed an obstacle , otherwise there 's no show . What 's been fun about it is that she 's managed to emerge as a character unto herself with her own complexities . "
= = Reception = =
The critical reception of the character has been generally negative . Robert A. George of the New York Post has written that Glee has : " the most unpleasant pack of female characters of any show in recent memory " , and deemed Terri the " biggest culprit " . George called Terri 's hysterical pregnancy " Freudian " and wrote : " The Terri @-@ Quinn plot sends the message that the devious gender will use every trick to lure and trap its mate — including lying about pregnancy . " Variety 's Brian Lowry commented : " Perhaps to foster a rooting interest ( or at least sympathy ) for a Will @-@ Emma pairing , [ Terri ] ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) is initially presented as a ditsy shrew . " The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan has called Terri " the worst thing about Glee " , and opined : " As written by Murphy and played by Gilsig , the character is screechy , unfunny and deeply unpleasant . It 's as if Ryan didn 't trust that the audience would get behind Will and the saga of his ragtag glee club and so saw fit to give the teacher the shrewish , nagging wife from hell . " Ryan later deemed Terri the " one big flaw in Glee , commenting that she : " manages to drain all the fun out of Glee every time she appears . Not only is this shrill character intensely annoying , but she makes you wonder whether Will has brain damage . What other explanation could there be for his ending up with this materialistic harpy ? " . Furthermore , Terri was included in TV Guide 's list of The Most Loathed TV Characters .
Robert Bianco for USA Today noted after the episode " Showmance " : " Jessalyn Gilsig 's self @-@ centered , ridiculously strident Terri just needs to go , period . " Shawna Malcom for the Los Angeles Times deemed Terri " beyond annoying " in the following episode , " Acafellas " , but wrote : " I have confidence that creator Ryan Murphy will flesh out Jessalyn Gilsig ’ s character over time . Her seemingly sincere apology to Will for not being more supportive of his boy band was a nice first step . " Eric Goldman for IGN commented after the episode " Preggers " : " So far , Terri has been an incredibly unlikable character . More firmly establishing her as this devilish type of schemer at least pushes her far enough to make her actions entertaining , even as we root against her . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly noted of the episode " Throwdown " : " the pregnancy subplot is dragging down the show , and tonight that subplot nearly derailed an otherwise @-@ excellent episode . Terri 's fake pregnancy and Quinn ’ s real one started out a few weeks ago as an interesting way to insert some realism and tension into a delightfully surreal musical @-@ comedy universe . By now , however , I watch Glee and feel sorry for Jessalyn Gilsig . I ’ ll bet the actress didn ’ t initially sign on to have her character Terri become a shrill , lying nag whose main function is to bring husband Will — and by extension , us — down . "
Gerrick Kennedy , in a review of " Mattress " for the Los Angeles Times , noted that in previous reviews he had " never been shy of [ his ] disdain for Mrs. Schuester " . He called her " manipulative , heartless [ and ] shrill " , and added that " this whole train wreck of a fake pregnancy just added fuel to the fire that became a raging inferno of hate for Terri . " He also noted : " Gilsig 's superb acting isn 't exactly doing anything to extinguish those flames " , and while he still isn 't " in full @-@ on Team Terri uniform [ ... ] she did at least have my attention on the sidelines , as opposed to filing my nails until halftime . Baby steps , right ? " Kennedy praised the confrontation scene , and wrote that it was " devastating " to watch and that his hate for Terri " vanished " once the lie was over . Kennedy described :
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= Voyage of the Damned ( Doctor Who ) =
" Voyage of the Damned " is an episode of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who . First broadcast on 25 December 2007 , it is 72 minutes long and the third Christmas special since the show 's revival in 2005 . The narrative continues from the final scenes of both " Last of the Time Lords " and the mini @-@ episode " Time Crash " , when a luxury space liner called the Titanic , a pastiche of the historical ocean liner , breached the walls of the TARDIS . The ship 's captain , Hardaker ( Geoffrey Palmer ) , sabotages the ship shortly after the Titanic 's collision with the TARDIS . The Doctor ( David Tennant ) works with a waitress named Astrid Peth ( Kylie Minogue ) to prevent an imminent collision with Earth .
The episode features the only performance in Doctor Who by the Australian singer and actress Kylie Minogue . Executive producer and writer Russell T Davies described her casting as a " very exceptional case " , having written the part of Astrid specifically for Minogue . On its original airdate , " Voyage of the Damned " was watched by 13 @.@ 31 million viewers , the highest viewing figure for Doctor Who since the 1979 serial City of Death and as of December 2015 it still has the highest viewership of any episode since the show 's revival . It was the second most @-@ watched programme of 2007 , beaten only by the episode of EastEnders which aired immediately after it . Critical opinion about the episode was divided ; the writing and Minogue 's performance were both praised and criticised .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens immediately following the events of " Time Crash " , with the bow of the Titanic crashing into the TARDIS . The Doctor repairs the damage before landing the TARDIS on the ship . He discovers it 's not the famed RMS Titanic , but instead is a starliner hailing from the planet Sto .
The Titanic is orbiting present day Earth to observe the traditions of primitive cultures , specifically Christmas . The Doctor dons a tuxedo and joins the reception on board , meeting waitress Astrid Peth . The Doctor convinces Astrid to join him on a brief excursion to the surface of Earth . They are accompanied by married couple Morvin and Foon Van Hoff , a Zocci named Bannakaffalatta , and historian and guide Mr. Copper . While on Earth , specifically a commercial district of London , the Doctor notes that London seems abandoned , and questions a man in a newspaper stand about it . The man , Wilfred Mott , tells the Doctor that most people have left London because of the previous two years of alien activity in London on Christmas ( " The Christmas Invasion " and " The Runaway Bride " ) .
Back on the Titanic , Captain Hardaker dismisses the ship 's officers from the bridge . Citing regulations , that require at least two officers remain on the bridge at all times , Midshipman Alonso Frame stays . After the group returns from their excursion , Hardaker drops the vessel 's protective shielding and magnetises the hull . This causes nearby meteors to be pulled toward the ship on a collision course . Midshipman Frame attempts to reactivate the shields but is shot by Hardaker as the meteors collide with the ship . The collision causes hull breaches , most of the 2 @,@ 000 passengers and staff are killed , and the vessel begins plunging toward the Earth . The Doctor makes contact with the wounded Midshipman Frame , who stabilises and maintains the power from the damaged engines .
The Doctor and the rest of the excursion party attempt to reach the bridge but are repeatedly attacked by the ship 's Angel Hosts , androids resembling angels who were programmed to supply information but are now eliminating all passengers and crew . Morvin falls off of a ledge into the ship 's engine , and the rest of the group are surrounded by Angel Hosts . Bannakaffalatta reveals that he is a cyborg , and uses his internal EMP device to disable the Hosts . The EMP burst drains the Zocci 's power cells and he dies . Mr. Copper takes the EMP device , saying that if they can manage to recharge it , they can use it against the Hosts again . A lone Angel Host attacks them again , and Foon ties herself to it and throws them both into the ship 's engine . The Doctor separates from the rest and attempts to reach Deck 31 , where he hopes to find the controls for the Heavenly Hosts . He convinces the Hosts that he is a stowaway - neither passenger nor crew and thus not in the Hosts ' kill mandate - and the confused androids take him to see their operator , Max Capricorn . Max explains that he planned the Titanic 's inevitable collision with Earth to bankrupt the company that voted him out . To save the Doctor , Astrid uses a forklift to ram Max Capricorn and push him into the ship 's engine . The forklift falls on top of him , seemingly killing Astrid as well .
With Max Capricorn dead , the Heavenly Host divert to the next highest authority , the Doctor , and aid him in quickly reaching the bridge . Together with Midshipman Frame , he uses the heat from the entry into the Earth 's atmosphere to restart the ship 's auxiliary engines . The ship stabilises and narrowly avoids a collision with Buckingham Palace . The Doctor then realizes that Astrid was wearing a teleport bracelet when she fell into the engine . In an emergency , the teleport bracelets were programmed to hold a person 's molecular pattern in stasis until it can be recovered . The Doctor frantically attempts to retrieve Astrid 's pattern , but the machine is too badly damaged . The Doctor reluctantly allows the ghostly remains of Astrid 's atoms to dissipate into space . As the surviving passengers wait for rescue , the Doctor and Mr. Copper , who would otherwise be sent to prison for committing fraud in order to get a job with the company , teleport to Earth and find that the TARDIS landed unharmed , thrown from the ship after the collision . An ecstatic Mr. Copper is left to live on Earth with a credit card he preloaded with a million pounds , unaware of the conversion between pound sterling and Sto credits .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
During the third series press launch in March 2007 , the production team was approached by Will Baker , Kylie Minogue 's creative director , about her appearing in the show . Executive producer Julie Gardner replied that Minogue could guest star if her schedule was free . Minogue officially registered her interest on 26 March 2007 and was subsequently given a one @-@ off role as the Doctor 's companion . Minogue 's appearance would allow the show to easily transfer the lead companion role from Martha Jones ( Freema Agyeman ) to " Penny " — the intended companion for the fourth series , eventually replaced by Catherine Tate as Donna Noble — and provide a " big name " star to appear in the Christmas special . Her casting was first reported in the News of the World in April 2007 . Davies initially dismissed the story , but Baker and Minogue contemporaneously confirmed she would star in the show . Her role was officially confirmed on 3 July 2007 . Both Minogue and Doctor Who had acknowledged each other before : " The Idiot 's Lantern " mentions Minogue as a real person ; and Baker , a fan of Doctor Who , included aspects of the classic series in Minogue 's tours : the Raston Warriors ( from The Five Doctors ) in the Fever tour ; and the Cybermen in the Showgirl tour .
Clive Swift and Geoffrey Palmer have had previous roles in Doctor Who . Swift portrayed Jobel in Revelation of the Daleks , while Palmer played Undersecretary Masters in Doctor Who and the Silurians , and the Administrator in The Mutants . Jessica Martin had played Mags in The Greatest Show in the Galaxy . In addition , Bernard Cribbins played Tom Campbell in Daleks ' Invasion Earth : 2150 A.D. , the second Doctor Who feature @-@ film adaptation starring Peter Cushing as well as Arnold Korns in the audio play Horror of Glam Rock . Colin McFarlane , who provided the voices of the Heavenly Host for the episode , went on to play General Pierce in Torchwood : Children of Earth , before later reappearing in Doctor Who as Moran in " Under the Lake " .
= = = Minogue 's costume = = =
Minogue met designer Louise Page four times during pre @-@ production to discuss her costume . Page rejected a long dress because it was atypical to Minogue ; she instead elected for a " cigarette girl " image , similar to a " 1950s [ ... ] cinema usherette " . Five costumes were made for different scenes and Minogue 's stunt doubles , and each part of each costume was made separately to keep Minogue 's role secret . After filming , Minogue told Page that the costume was " the most comfortable [ she ] had worn in years " .
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was primarily written by Russell T Davies after Minogue was cast . Davies described his pitch to Minogue as " busking " . The character of Astrid Peth was written for Minogue . Davies later stated that Minogue was a " very exceptional case " ; he considered writing a role specifically for one actor " dangerous territory " because the desired actor may be unavailable or decline the part . In early drafts of the episode , Astrid did not die . Davies decided Astrid 's death was necessary to allow Minogue focus on her musical career . Davies described the original nature of her death — falling over a precipice during a fight with Capricorn — as " fleeting " . He intensified the scene by changing Max from mobile to cybernetic and Astrid 's attack from an altercation to a fork @-@ lift truck . Davies felt the revised scene was " such a beautiful image " and romanticised Astrid 's " ultimate sacrifice " .
Davies based the episode on the traditional disaster film format . He was highly influenced by the 1972 film The Poseidon Adventure : he considered " [ turning ] the spaceship upside down " before cutting the concept for monetary constraints ; and the character of Foon Van Hoff ( Debbie Chazen ) was heavily based on Belle Rosen ( Shelley Winters ) . He diverged from the trope in its climax ; the format of Doctor Who dictated the requirement of an antagonist : Max Capricorn , whose plan was to sabotage the ship as part of an insurance scam . Davies based the portrayal of Kansas in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz as an analogue for Sto .
The episode includes several references to outside the show 's fictional universe : the episode is dedicated to Verity Lambert , Doctor Who 's founding producer , who died on 22 November 2007 , a day before the show 's forty @-@ fourth anniversary ; and the malfunctioning Host stuttering over the name " Max " is a reference to 1980s virtual presenter Max Headroom ; Davies inserted references to other Doctor Who episodes in the script : he emphasised society 's increasing awareness of aliens and the tradition of London 's consecutive Christmas attacks in the script , describing the latter as " becoming a bit of an in @-@ joke " ; the Doctor 's use of the catchphrase " allons @-@ y Alonso " in the episode when he helps Frame stabilise the ship continues a running gag originating in " Army of Ghosts " ; and the Host continue the thematic motif of angels . Angels previously appeared in " Blink " , where the antagonists of the episode were Weeping Angels , and in " The Sound of Drums " and " Last of the Time Lords " , where the Master 's communication network was called the " Archangel Network " . Despite angels being the antagonist in two episodes that aired close to each other , which dismayed writer and executive producer Russell T Davies when he read Steven Moffat 's script for " Blink " , the Host are functionally different as subordinate " robot butlers " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming primarily took place between 9 July and 11 August 2007 ; the first scene filmed depicted the group being accosted by the Host while crossing over the engines . On 12 July , Tennant 's mother , Helen McDonald , began to succumb to her cancer . Filming was rescheduled to allow Tennant to be present when she died and was buried ; she died on 15 July and was buried on 21 July . During Tennant 's absence , scenes in the Titanic 's reception area were filmed at the Exchange in Swansea and the Coal Exchange in Cardiff Bay . Tennant filmed his scenes in the area on 16 and 17 July . The last use of the Coal Exchange was on the 18th ; scenes depicting the ship 's collision with meteors were filmed on that day .
One week of filming was conducted primarily at the old DuPont site in Pontypool which provided the sets for Deck 31 — Capricorn 's refuge and command centre , Much of the old extrusion machinery still in situ and their corresponding control " Thorn Drive " panels — and the various stairwells and corridors of the ship . Scenes on Deck 31 were filmed on 19 and 20 July . A double , Danielle de Costa , operated the fork @-@ lift truck because Minogue didn 't have the required license . Shooting was staggered as a result of Tennant 's departure : 21 July focused on the supporting characters ; and 23 July focused on Tennant . The aftermath of the meteor strike was filmed between 25 July and 27 July .
Filming returned to the Exchange in Swansea to film two more scenes : The denouément of the episode was filmed on 28 July ; and the pre @-@ credits sequence on 30 July . The most important day of filming was on 31 July 2007 : an evening location shoot of the party 's arrival in London . Before filming commenced , Minogue covered her death scene above a chroma key mattress . The scene in London commenced filming at sunset in Cardiff city centre . For security concerns — specifically , protecting Minogue — the street was sealed off for the first time since the show 's revival in 2005 .
Filming finished in the first two weeks of August 2007 : the closing scene was filmed in Cardiff Docks on 1 August ; Hardaker 's death was filmed at Upper Boat on 2 August ; scenes in the ship 's kitchen was filmed on 3 August ; and scenes on the bridge were filmed on 6 — 8 August . The last day of filming was on 21 August 2007 ; cameo scenes by BBC reporters Jason Mohammad and Nicholas Witchell were filmed at BBC 's broadcasting houses in Llandaff and London .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Murray Gold , arranger Ben Foster , and singer Yamit Mamo make cameo appearances as part of the ship 's band . Mamo , primarily a soul singer , was approached by Gold after his friends saw her performing , and she unconditionally accepted his offer . She performed the songs " My Angel Put the Devil in Me " and " The Stowaway " on the third series soundtrack . The latter was specifically composed for this episode and was recorded in September 2007 at AIR Studios in London . The song features everyone who was present in the studios during recording as backing vocals . " The Stowaway " continues the tradition of a Christmas song from " The Christmas Invasion " ( " Song for Ten " ) and " The Runaway Bride " ( " Love Don 't Roam " ) . The song was influenced by Irish folk music , and contrasts the upbeat " under deck " feeling with melancholy lyrics about unrequited love . The episode features a new version of the theme tune during its credits , comparable to Peter Howell 's version from the 1980s , which contains a new bass line , drums , and piano .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
Overnight figures estimated that the episode 's Christmas Day broadcast was watched by 12 @.@ 2 million viewers . The final viewing figures were 13 @.@ 31 million viewers with a peak of 13 @.@ 8 million , the second highest audience for any programme during 2007 : the episode of BBC soap EastEnders which aired after " Voyage of the Damned " was watched by 13 @.@ 9 million viewers . The viewing figure is the highest for the new series , exceeding the previous record set by " Rose " . The figure is also the highest for Doctor Who overall since 1979 , specifically , the final episode of " City of Death " . The episode 's Appreciation Index rating was 86 ( " excellent " ) , above the average score of 77 for drama programmes , and was the highest Index rating for any programme shown on terrestrial television on Christmas Day . Although not filmed in HD , the BBC aired it on BBC One HD , Wednesday 29 December 2010 , having up @-@ scaled the program to HD and also including Dolby Surround sound . This is the first Doctor Who episode , filmed in SD , to have been up @-@ scaled to HD for broadcast on television , and the second episode , overall , to be up @-@ scaled from SD to HD , the first being the 2008 Christmas Special , The Next Doctor , for the Blu @-@ ray release of the Complete Specials Boxset .
This special first aired in Canada on Space in April 2010 .
= = = Criticism and review = = =
The episode was criticised by Millvina Dean , the last survivor of the 1912 Titanic sinking , who stated that it was " disrespectful to make entertainment of such a tragedy . " The organisation Christian Voice expressed offence at the religious imagery of a scene in which the Doctor is lifted through the ship by robot angels , believing the messianic portrayal of the Doctor as " inappropriate " ; however , in April 2008 , vicars were encouraged to use the same scene to " illustrate themes of resurrection , redemption and evil " to young people .
Gareth McLean , who reviewed a preview screening for The Guardian 's TV and radio weblog , appreciated the episode 's use of " the disaster movie template " and came to a favourable overall conclusion : " For the most part , The Voyage of the Damned is absolutely smashing . " Its main flaw , in his view , was the " blank and insipid " acting of Kylie Minogue . James Walton of The Daily Telegraph gave the episode a positive review , summarising it as " a winning mixture of wild imagination and careful writerly calculation " . Alex Clark of The Observer commented that the death toll was rather high , but she still thought the episode was " an oasis of cheeky nonsense and careless invention " . Harry Venning of The Stage concluded his positive review of the episode by stating it " was well up to Doctor Who 's impeccably high standards " . Doctor Who Magazine placed two of the deaths in the episode in its list of the top 100 deaths in the history of the show . Bannakaffalatta 's death , a self @-@ sacrifice to save the Doctor 's party , was placed in the " top 20 tearjerkers " category . Astrid 's death was given the title of " Doctor Who 's all @-@ time greatest death scene " , commenting it " ticks boxes in all of our main categories [ ( gruesome , scary , self @-@ sacrifice , tearjerking , surprising ) ] " , and " her death would truly make a glass eye cry . " Tim Teeman of The Times gave the episode a negative review , stating that " It was boring , despite the endless dashing about and CGI flimflam . " The Daily Mirror commented the episode had " some brilliant psychedelic Pink Floyd @-@ esque imagery " , " great baddies " , and " neat jokes " , but lamented that " the plot was a mess , consisting mostly of one hi @-@ tech chase scene after another , and it descended into noise and bluster . "
= = = DVD release = = =
The ten Christmas specials between " The Christmas Invasion " and " Last Christmas " inclusive were released in a boxset titled Doctor Who – The 10 Christmas Specials on 19 October 2015 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Voyage of the Damned " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide - Fan reviews
= = = BBC trailers = = =
BBC Christmas 2007 publicity trailer
First teaser trailer
Cinematic trailer
" Trailer A "
" Trailer B "
20 @-@ second trailer
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= Zoe Arancini =
Zoe Arancini ( born 14 July 1991 ) is an Australian club water polo player who plays driver , counter @-@ attacker , or outside shooter . Several of her family members have represented her country in water polo . She plays club water polo in the National Water Polo League for the Fremantle Marlins , where she has won the league championship in 2005 , 2007 and 2008 and is coached by her mother . She has represented the country as a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team on the junior and senior level , with over eighty appearances for national team between the two levels . She has earned a gold medal at the 2011 Canada Cup , silver medals at the 2010 FINA World League Super Finals and 2010 FINA World Cup , and bronze medals at the 2009 FINA World League Super Finals and 2011 FINA Junior World Championships . She has been included on the roster to represent the country at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
= = Personal = =
Arancini was born on 14 July 1991 in Perth , Western Australia . She attends Curtin University where she is working on a degree in Agriculture and Environment majoring in Coastal Zone Management . She lives in East Victoria Park , Western Australia . She is 170 cm ( 5 ft 7 in ) tall , weighs 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) and is right @-@ handed .
Several of Arancini 's family members have represented Australia in water polo on the international level including her mother , Wendy Meloncelli , her father Peter Arancini and her aunt Megan Meloncelli . Her parents involvement were one of the reasons she chose to compete in water polo , alongside the fact she found the sport more interesting to play than swimming .
= = Water polo = =
Arancini plays driver , counter @-@ attacker , or outside shooter , and has held a water polo scholarship from the Western Australian Institute of Sport and the Australian Institute of Sport . She plays club water polo for the Melville , Western Australia team in the Premier League . In 2009 , she played for them in a match against City Beach and scored three goals where her team won 9 – 8 . She is a member of the Fremantle Marlins of the National Water Polo League from 2005 to the present . In her first season in the league , she scored 7 goals . During the 2007 and 2008 season , she scored 42 and 32 goals respectively . In the 2009 and 2010 seasons , she scored 64 goals and followed this up with 66 in the 2011 season . As of April 2012 she has scored 63 goals in the season . Her mother is her coach on the Marlins . Between the junior and senior sides , she has represented Australia in over eighty games . Her club won the league championships in 2005 , 2007 and 2008 .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Arancini has represented Australia on the junior national team . In July 2006 , she was a member of the Youth Girls squad that competed in an international series in Auckland , New Zealand . In 2007 , she was a member of the U16 national team . She was a member of the junior national side at the 2007 FINA U20 World Championships in Porto , Portugal . In January 2009 , she was a member of the national team that competed at the Australian Youth Olympic Festival held in Sydney . She competed in the preliminary match against China where Australia won 17 – 10 . She scored three goals in the match . She also scored three goals in a 19 – 17 preliminary round loss to Hungary . At the same tournament , she competed in the gold medal finals where her team took silver following a 10 – 9 loss to Hungary . She scored one goal in the finals match . She represented Australia at the 2009 FINA Junior World Championships , where she was the team captain . Her team finished seventh in the tournament . She was a member of the Australian side that finished third at the 2011 FINA Junior World Championships .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Arancini is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . She made her debut on the senior side in May 2009 in Auckland , New Zealand in a game against China . In 2009 , she was a member of national team that competed at the World Championships , which were held in Russia . That year , she also competed at the 2009 FINA World League Super Finals held in Russia , and where her team finished third . She was a member of the national team that competed in the preliminary rounds of the 2010 FINA World League in Japan from 21 – 23 May and in China from 26 – 28 May . The team went on to play in the finals of the World League , and finished second overall in the tournament , behind the victorious Americans . She was a member of the 2010 Stingers squad that competed at the FINA World Cup in Christchurch , New Zealand . In the team 's finals 10 – 8 victory over the United States , she scored a goal . Her team finished second in the tournament . Late in August 2010 , she competed for the national team at the 10th Anniversary Tournament at Sydney Olympic Park . In the preliminaries , she competed in the team 's 10 – 8 win over the United States . She scored a goal from five metres out that helped provide the Australian side with a two @-@ goal lead . In late 2010 , she had her 50th cap with the national team . At the 2011 Canada Cup , she scored a goal in the third period in the gold medal match against China that the Australian team ended up winning . She competed in the Pan Pacific Championships in January 2012 for the Australian Barbarians . In February 2012 , she was named to the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics . She attended training camp that started on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on13 June 2012 . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years .
= = Recognition = =
In 2009 , Arancini was named the Australian Junior Women 's Player of the Year . In 2010 , the Australian Water Polo Hall of Fame named her as the female young player of the year .
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= Sun Tzu =
Sun Tzu ( / ˈsuːnˈdzuː / ; also rendered as Sun Zi ) was a Chinese general , military strategist , and philosopher who lived in the Spring and Autumn period of ancient China . Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author of The Art of War , a widely influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and Eastern philosophy . Aside from his legacy as the author of The Art of War , Sun Tzu is revered in Chinese and Asian culture as a legendary historical figure . His birth name was Sun Wu , and he was known outside of his family by his courtesy name Changqing . The name Sun Tzu by which he is best known in the West is an honorific which means " Master Sun " .
Sun Tzu 's historicity is uncertain . Sima Qian and other traditional historians placed him as a minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544 – 496 BC . Modern scholars accepting his historicity nonetheless place the existing text of The Art of War in the later Warring States period based upon its style of composition and its descriptions of warfare . Traditional accounts state that the general 's descendant Sun Bin also wrote a treatise on military tactics , also titled The Art of War . Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as Sun Tzu in classical Chinese texts , some historians believed them identical prior to the rediscovery of Sun Bin 's treatise in 1972 .
Sun Tzu 's work has been praised and employed throughout East Asia since its composition . During the twentieth century , The Art of War grew in popularity and saw practical use in Western society as well . It continues to influence many competitive endeavors in Asia , Europe , and America including culture , politics , business , and sports , as well as modern warfare .
= = Life = =
The oldest available sources disagree as to where Sun Tzu was born . The Spring and Autumn Annals states that Sun Tzu was born in Qi , while Sima Qian 's later Records of the Grand Historian states that Sun Tzu was a native of Wu . Both sources agree that Sun Tzu was born in the late Spring and Autumn Period and that he was active as a general and strategist , serving king Helü of Wu in the late sixth century BC , beginning around 512 BC . Sun Tzu 's victories then inspired him to write The Art of War . The Art of War was one of the most widely read military treatises in the subsequent Warring States period , a time of constant war among seven nations – Zhao , Qi , Qin , Chu , Han , Wei , and Yan – who fought to control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China .
One of the more well @-@ known stories about Sun Tzu , taken from Sima Qian , illustrates Sun Tzu 's temperament as follows : Before hiring Sun Tzu , the King of Wu tested Sun Tzu 's skills by commanding him to train a harem of 180 concubines into soldiers . Sun Tzu divided them into two companies , appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders . When Sun Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right , they giggled . In response , Sun Tzu said that the general , in this case himself , was responsible for ensuring that soldiers understood the commands given to them . Then , he reiterated the command , and again the concubines giggled . Sun Tzu then ordered the execution of the king 's two favored concubines , to the king 's protests . He explained that if the general 's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey , it was the fault of the officers . Sun Tzu also said that , once a general was appointed , it was his duty to carry out his mission , even if the king protested . After both concubines were killed , new officers were chosen to replace them . Afterwards , both companies , now well aware of the costs of further frivolity , performed their maneuvers flawlessly .
Sima Qian claimed that Sun Tzu later proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective ( for example , at the Battle of Boju ) , that he had a successful military career , and that he wrote The Art of War based on his tested expertise . However , the Zuozhuan , a historical text written centuries earlier than the Records of the Grand Historian , provides a much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju , but does not mention Sun Tzu at all .
= = The Art of War = =
The Art of War is traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu . It presents a philosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning battles . It is accepted as a masterpiece on strategy and has been frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists since it was first published , translated , and distributed internationally .
There are numerous theories concerning when the text was completed and concerning the identity of the author or authors , but archeological recoveries show The Art of War had taken roughly its current form by at least the early Han . Because it is impossible to prove definitively when the Art of War was completed before this date , the differing theories concerning the work 's author or authors and date of completion are unlikely to be completely resolved . Some modern scholars believe that it contains not only the thoughts of its original author but also commentary and clarifications from later military theorists , such as Li Quan and Du Mu .
Of the military texts written before the unification of China and Shi Huangdi 's subsequent book burning in the second century BC , six major works have survived . During the much later Song dynasty , these six works were combined with a Tang text into a collection called the Seven Military Classics . As a central part of that compilation , The Art of War formed the foundations of orthodox military theory in early modern China . Illustrating this point , the book was required reading to pass the tests for imperial appointment to military positions .
Sun Tzu 's Art of War uses language that may be unusual in a Western text on warfare and strategy . For example , the eleventh chapter states that a leader must be " serene and inscrutable " and capable of comprehending " unfathomable plans " . The text contains many similar remarks that have long confused Western readers lacking an awareness of the East Asian context . The meanings of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and practice . Sun Tzu viewed the ideal general as an enlightened Taoist master , which has led to The Art of War being considered a prime example of Taoist strategy .
The book has also become popular among political leaders and those in business management . Despite its title , The Art of War addresses strategy in a broad fashion , touching upon public administration and planning . The text outlines theories of battle , but also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state .
On April 10 , 1972 , the Yinqueshan Han Tombs were accidentally unearthed by construction workers in Shandong . Scholars uncovered a collection of ancient texts written on unusually well @-@ preserved bamboo slips . Among them were The Art of War and Sun Bin 's Military Methods . Although Han dynasty bibliographies noted the latter publication as extant and written by a descendant of Sun , it had previously been lost . The rediscovery of Sun Bin 's work is regarded as extremely important by scholars , both because of Sun Bin 's relationship to Sun Tzu and because of the work 's addition to the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity . The discovery as a whole significantly expanded the body of surviving Warring States military theory . Sun Bin 's treatise is the only known military text surviving from the Warring States period discovered in the twentieth century and bears the closest similarity to The Art of War of all surviving texts .
= = Historicity = =
It has been long debated whether or not Sun Tzu and the traditional dating of The Art of War existed . Skeptics cite possible historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in the text , and that the book was actually a compilation from different authors and military strategists . Attribution of the authorship of The Art of War varies among scholars and has included people and movements including Sun ; Chu scholar Wu Zixu ; an anonymous author ; a school of theorists in Qi or Wu ; Sun Bin ; and others . Traditionalists attribute the authorship of The Art of War to the historical figure Sun Wu who is chronicled in the Records of the Grand Historian and the Spring and Autumn Annals . However , his place of origin varies from the two books ; in the former he was from the Kingdom of Wu , while the latter stated that he was from the State of Qi . The name " Sun Wu " ( 孫武 ) does not appear in any text prior to the Records of the Grand Historian , and has been suspected to be a made @-@ up descriptive cognomen meaning " the fugitive warrior " : the surname " Sun " is glossed as the related term " fugitive " ( xùn 遜 ) , while " Wu " is the ancient Chinese virtue of " martial , valiant " ( wǔ 武 ) , which corresponds to Sunzi 's role as the hero 's doppelgänger in the story of Wu Zixu . Historically , Sun Tzu name is not mentioned in the Commentary of Master Tso and the Zuo Zhuan , which are the primary record of events from the 4th century BC . The name Sun Wu does appear in other sources such as Shih chi and the Wu Yueh ch 'un @-@ chiu . The only historical battle attributed to Sun Tzu , the Battle of Boju , had no records of him fighting in that battle . The scholar Eno writes , “ The Spring and Autumn Annals … is brief , not very informative , and inconsistent in its choice of events to note . "
The appearance of features from The Art of War in other historical texts is considered to be proof of his historicity and authorship . Certain strategic concepts , such as terrain classification , are attributed to Sun Tzu . Their use in other works such as The Methods of the Sima is considered proof of Sun Tzu 's historical priority . According to Ralph Sawyer , it is very likely Sun Tzu did exist and not only served as a general but also wrote the core of the book that bears his name . It is argued that there is a disparity between the large @-@ scale wars and sophisticated techniques detailed in the text and the more primitive small @-@ scale battles that many believe predominated in China during the 6th century BC . Against this , Sawyer argues that the teachings of Sun Wu were probably taught to succeeding generations in his family or a small school of disciples , which eventually included Sun Bin . These descendants or students may have revised or expanded upon certain points in the original text .
Skeptics who identify issues with the traditionalist view point to possible anachronisms in The Art of War including terms , technology ( such as anachronistic crossbows and the unmentioned cavalry ) , philosophical ideas , events , and military techniques that should not have been available to Sun Wu . Additionally , there are no records of professional generals during the Spring and Autumn period ; these are only extant from the Warring States period , so there is doubt as to Sun Tzu 's rank and generalship . This caused much confusion as to when The Art of War was actually written . The first traditional view is that it was written in 512 BC by the historical Sun Wu , active in the last years of the Spring and Autumn period ( c . 722 @-@ 481 BC ) . A second view , held by scholars such as Samuel Griffith , places The Art of War during the middle to late Warring States period ( c . 481 @-@ 221 BC ) . Finally , a third school claims that the slips were published in the last half of the 5th century BC ; this is based on how its adherents interpret the bamboo slips discovered at Yin @-@ ch ’ ueh @-@ shan in 1972 AD . These varying theories are evidence that the Art of War was a compilation by other military strategists in later years , instead of being written by the historical Sun Wu .
= = Legacy = =
Sun Tzu 's Art of War has influenced many notable figures . Sima Qian recounted that China 's first historical emperor , Qin 's Shi Huangdi , considered the book invaluable in ending the time of the Warring States . In the 20th century , the Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 victory over Chiang Kai @-@ shek and the Kuomintang to The Art of War . The work strongly influenced Mao 's writings about guerrilla warfare , which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world .
The Art of War was introduced into Japan c . AD 760 and the book quickly became popular among Japanese generals . Through its later influence on Oda Nobunaga , Toyotomi Hideyoshi , and Tokugawa Ieyasu , it significantly affected the unification of Japan in the early modern era . Prior to the Meiji Restoration , mastery of its teachings was honored among the samurai and its teachings were both exhorted and exemplified by influential daimyo and shoguns . Subsequently , it remained popular among the Imperial Japanese armed forces . The Admiral of the Fleet Tōgō Heihachirō , who led Japan 's forces to victory in the Russo @-@ Japanese War , was an avid reader of Sun Tzu .
Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study . His general Vo Nguyen Giap , the strategist behind victories over French and American forces in Vietnam , was likewise an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu 's ideas .
America 's Asian conflicts against Japan , North Korea , and North Vietnam brought Sun Tzu to the attention of American military leaders . The Department of the Army in the United States , through its Command and General Staff College , has directed all units to maintain libraries within their respective headquarters for the continuing education of personnel in the art of war . The Art of War is mentioned as an example of works to be maintained at each facility , and staff duty officers are obliged to prepare short papers for presentation to other officers on their readings . Similarly , Sun Tzu 's Art of War is listed on the Marine Corps Professional Reading Program . During the Gulf War in the 1990s , both Generals Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. and Colin Powell employed principles from Sun Tzu related to deception , speed , and striking one 's enemy 's weak points . However , the United States and other Western countries have been criticised for not truly understanding Sun Tzu 's work and not appreciating The Art of War within the wider context of Chinese society .
Daoist rhetoric is a component incorporated in the Art of War . According to Steven C. Combs in " Sun @-@ zi and the Art of War : The Rhetoric of Parsimony , " warfare is " used as a metaphor for rhetoric , and that both are philosophically based arts . " Combs writes “ Warfare is analogous to persuasion , as a battle for hearts and minds . " The application of The Art of War strategies throughout history is attributed to its philosophical rhetoric . Daoism is the central principle in the Art of War . Combs compares ancient Daoist Chinese to traditional Aristotelian rhetoric , notably for the differences in persuasion . Daoist rhetoric in the art of war warfare strategies is described as " peaceful and passive , favoring silence over speech . " This form of communication is parsimonious . Parsimonious behavior , which is highly emphasized in The Art of War as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature , shapes basic principles in Daoism .
Mark McNeilly writes in Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance throughout Chinese history is critical in understanding China 's push to becoming a superpower in the twenty @-@ first century . Modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategic lessons and The Art of War in developing their theories , seeing a direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu 's time . There is a great perceived value in Sun Tzu 's teachings and other traditional Chinese writers , which are used regularly in developing the strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders .
In 2008 , producer Zhang Jizhong adapted Sun Tzu 's life story into a 40 @-@ episode historical drama television series entitled Bing Sheng , starring Zhu Yawen as Sun Tzu .
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= Wittelsbach @-@ class battleship =
The Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships were a group of five pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Imperial German Navy . They were the first battleships produced under the Navy Law of 1898 . The class was composed of the lead ship , Wettin , Zähringen , Schwaben , and Mecklenburg . All five ships were laid down between 1899 and 1900 , and finished by 1904 . The ships of the Wittelsbach class were similar in appearance to their predecessors of the Kaiser Friedrich III class , however , they had a flush main deck , as opposed to the lower quarterdeck of the Kaiser Friedrich class , and had a more extensive armor belt . Their armament was almost identical , though more efficiently arranged .
The ships were commissioned into the German fleet between 1902 and 1904 , where they joined the I Squadron of the battle fleet . They were rapidly made obsolete by the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 . By the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , they were no longer fit for front @-@ line service , though they saw some limited duty in the Baltic Sea against the Russian Navy . In 1916 the five ships were disarmed and employed in secondary roles . Wittelsbach , Wettin , and Schwaben became training ships , Mecklenburg was used as a prison ship and later as a floating barracks , and Zähringen became a target ship . All of the ships save Zähringen were broken up in 1921 – 22 . Zähringen was rebuilt as a radio @-@ controlled target ship in the mid @-@ 1920s . During World War II , she was badly damaged in a bombing raid in 1944 and scuttled in the final days of the war . She was eventually broken up in situ in 1949 – 50 .
= = Design = =
The ships of the Wittelsbach class were the first battleships built under the first Naval Law of 1898 . The ships represented an incremental improvement over the preceding Kaiser Friedrich III class . They were equipped with the same armament of 24 cm guns , but were given an additional torpedo tube . They also had improved defensive capabilities , as they were protected by a more extensive armored belt . They also differed from the preceding ships in their main deck , the entire length of which was flush ; in the Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class ships , the quarterdeck was cut down .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Wittlesbach class were 125 @.@ 2 meters ( 410 ft 9 in ) long at the waterline and 126 @.@ 8 m ( 416 ft 0 in ) overall . They had a beam of 22 @.@ 8 m ( 74 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 95 m ( 26 ft 1 in ) forward . The Wittelsbachs were designed to displace 11 @,@ 774 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 588 long tons ) with a standard load , and displaced up to 12 @,@ 798 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 596 long tons ) at full combat weight . The Wittelsbach @-@ class ships ' hulls were built with transverse and longitudinal steel frames . Steel hull plates were riveted to the structure created by the frames . The hull was split into 14 watertight compartments and included a double bottom that ran for 70 percent of the length of the ship .
The ships were regarded in the German Navy as excellent sea boats with an easy roll ; the ships rolled up to 30 ° with a period of 10 seconds . They maneuvered easily ; at hard rudder the ships lost up to 60 percent speed and heeled over 9 ° . However , they suffered from severe vibration , particularly at the stern , at high speeds . They also had very wet bows , even in moderate seas . The ships had a crew of 33 officers and 650 enlisted men . However , when serving as a squadron flagship , the crew was augmented by an additional 13 officers and 66 enlisted men . While acting as a second command ship , 9 officers and 44 enlisted men were added to the standard crew . Wittelsbach and her sisters carried a number of smaller vessels , including two picket boats , two launches , one pinnace , two cutters , two yawls , and two dinghies .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The five ships of the Wittelsbach class each had three three @-@ cylinder triple expansion steam engines . The outer engines drove a three @-@ bladed screw that was 4 @.@ 8 m ( 15 ft 9 in ) in diameter ; the central shaft drove a four @-@ bladed screw that was slightly smaller , at 4 @.@ 5 m ( 14 ft 9 in ) in diameter . To produce steam to power the engines , each ship had six marine @-@ type boilers , with the exception of Wettin and Mecklenburg , which had six Thornycroft boilers , along with six transverse cylindrical boilers . Steering was controlled by a single large rudder .
The propulsion system was rated at 14 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 13 @,@ 808 ihp ; 10 @,@ 297 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . On trials , however , the five ships had significantly varied performances . Schwaben , the slowest ship , reached 13 @,@ 253 metric horsepower ( 13 @,@ 072 ihp ; 9 @,@ 748 kW ) for a top speed of only 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 19 @.@ 4 mph ) . Wettin , the fastest , managed 15 @,@ 530 PS ( 15 @,@ 318 ihp ; 11 @,@ 422 kW ) and a top speed of 18 @.@ 1 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 mph ) . They carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) in their holds , but fuel capacity could be nearly tripled to 1 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 772 long tons ) with the usage of additional spaces in the ships . This provided a maximum range of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 260 km ; 5 @,@ 754 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Electrical power was supplied by four generators that each produced 230 kilowatts ( 310 hp ) at 74 volts , although in Wittelsbach the generators were rated at 248 kilowatts ( 333 hp ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' armament was nearly identical to the preceding Kaiser Friedrich III class . The primary armament consisted of a battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . The guns were mounted in Drh.L. C / 98 turrets , which allowed elevation to 30 ° and depression to − 5 ° . At maximum elevation , the guns could hit targets out to 16 @,@ 900 meters ( 18 @,@ 500 yd ) . The guns fired 140 @-@ kilogram ( 310 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 690 m / s ( 2 @,@ 263 ft / s ) . They had a rate of fire of three to four shots per minute . Each gun was supplied with 85 shells , for a total of 340 .
Secondary armament included eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns ; four were emplaced in single turrets amidships and the rest were mounted in MPL casemates . These guns had a fired armor @-@ piercing shells at a rate of 4 – 5 per minute . The ships carried 120 shells per gun , for a total of 2 @,@ 160 rounds total . The guns could depress to − 7 degrees and elevate to 20 degrees , for a maximum range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 14 @,@ 990 yd ) . They were manually elevated and trained .
The ships also carried twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns , also mounted in casemates and pivot mounts . These guns were supplied with between 170 and 250 shells per gun . These guns fired 13 @.@ 8 kg ( 30 @.@ 4 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of 590 mps ( 1 @,@ 936 fps ) . Their rate of fire was approximately 15 shells per minute ; the guns could engage targets out to 10 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 480 yd ) . The gun mounts were manually operated . The ships ' gun armament was rounded out by twelve machine cannons .
The ships were also armed with six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . Four tubes were mounted on the sides of the ship , another in the bow , and the last in the stern . These weapons were 5 @.@ 1 m ( 201 in ) long and carried an 87 @.@ 5 kg ( 193 lb ) TNT warhead . They could be set at two speeds for different ranges . At 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , the torpedoes had a range of 800 m ( 870 yd ) . At an increased speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , the range was reduced to 500 m ( 550 yb ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The five Wittelsbach class battleships were armored with Krupp steel . Their armored decks were 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick , with sloped sides that ranged in thickness from 75 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The sloped section of the deck connected it to the main armored belt , which was 225 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) in the central citadel , where the ship 's vitals were . This included ammunition magazines and the propulsion system . The belt was reduced to 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) on either end of the central citadel ; the bow and stern were not protected with any armor . The entire length of belt was backed by 100 mm of teak planking .
Directly above the main belt , the 15 cm casemate guns were protected with 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick steel plating . The 15 cm guns in turrets were more exposed and therefore slightly better protected : their side armor was increased to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , with 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick gun shields . The 24 cm gun turrets had the heaviest armor aboard ship : 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick sides and 50 mm thick roofs . The forward conning tower also had 250 mm thick sides , though its roof was only 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The rear conning tower was much less protected . Its sides were only 140 mm thick ; the roof was 30 mm thick .
= = Construction = =
Wittelsbach was ordered for the German fleet under the contract designation " C. " She was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven in 1899 , under construction number 25 . She was launched on 3 July 1900 ; once she left the stocks fitting out work commenced . This included the installation of the ship 's armament , completion of the interior compartments , and the finishing of the superstructure . By late 1902 work on the ship was finished . Wittelsbach was commissioned into the fleet on 15 October of that year . Wettin was ordered as " D " and laid down at the Schichau @-@ Werke in Danzig in 1899 . Although she was launched on 6 June 1901 — nearly a full year after Wittelsbach — she was commissioned on 1 October 1902 , two weeks earlier than her sister ship .
Zähringen was laid down at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel under the provisional name " E " in 1899 . She was launched on 12 June 1901 and commissioned into the fleet on 25 October 1902 . In 1900 , Schwaben followed Wittelsbach at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven , under the provisional name " G. " She was launched on 19 August 1901 and commissioned on 13 April 1904 , the last ship of the five to join the fleet . Mecklenburg was ordered from the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin under the contract name " F. " Her keel was laid there in 1900 . Launched on 9 November 1901 , Mecklenburg was completed by May 1903 and commissioned on the 25th .
= = Service history = =
In the early 1900s , the German fleet was organized as the Home Fleet ( German : Heimatflotte ) . After joining the fleet , the Wittelsbach @-@ class ships were assigned to the I Battle Squadron , where they replaced the older Brandenburg @-@ class battleships . By 1907 , the Braunschweig and Deutschland classes had come into service . With two full battle squadrons , the fleet was reorganized as the High Seas Fleet .
Like the Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class ships , the Wittelsbachs were withdrawn from active service after the advent of the dreadnoughts . The five ships were recalled to active service at the outbreak of war in 1914 . They were assigned to the IV Battle Squadron and deployed to the Baltic . The ships were based in Kiel and placed under the command of Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt . In early September 1914 , the ships conducted a result @-@ less sweep into the Baltic against the Russian navy operating there . In May 1915 , four of the Wittelsbachs sailed into the Baltic and bombarded Libau , which was subsequently captured by the German army . The five ships of the class were moved to Libau during the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 , though they did not see any combat during the operation .
British submarines were becoming increasingly active in the Baltic by late 1915 ; several cruisers had been sunk and the elderly Wittelsbach @-@ class ships could no longer be risked there . Therefore , due to their age and vulnerability , they were withdrawn from active service and disarmed by 1916 . They were used as training ships , with the exception of Mecklenburg , which was used as a prison ship . In 1919 , Wittelsbach and Schwaben were converted into depot ships for minesweepers . The entire class , with the exception of Zähringen , were struck from the navy list after the end of World War I. Mecklenburg was struck on 27 January 1920 , Wettin followed on 11 March 1920 , and Wittelsbach and Schwaben were struck on 8 March 1921 . The four ships were broken up between 1921 – 22 . Zähringen was converted into a radio @-@ controlled target ship in 1926 – 27 . Royal Air Force bombers sank the ship in Gotenhafen in 1944 ; the wreck was broken up in 1949 – 50 .
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= Under the Bridge =
" Under the Bridge " is a song by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , released on September 24 , 1991 as the second single from the group 's fifth studio album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Vocalist Anthony Kiedis wrote the lyrics to express feelings of loneliness and despondency , and to reflect on narcotics and their impact on his life . Kiedis initially did not feel " Under the Bridge " would fit into the Chili Peppers ' repertoire and was reluctant to show it to his band mates until producer Rick Rubin implored him to do so . The rest of the band was receptive to the lyrics and wrote the music .
The song became a critical and commercial success , peaking at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The single 's success was widened with the release of its accompanying video , which was frequently played on music television channels . It won the " Viewer 's Choice Award " and " Breakthrough Video " at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards .
" Under the Bridge " allowed the Red Hot Chili Peppers to enter the mainstream . David Fricke of Rolling Stone said the song " unexpectedly drop @-@ kicked the band into the Top 10 " , while Philip Booth of The Tampa Tribune commented that it was a " pretty , undulating , [ and ] by @-@ now omnipresent single . " Its success led in part to the departure of guitarist John Frusciante , who preferred the band to remain underground . The song has become an inspiration to other artists , and remains a seminal component of the alternative rock movement of the early and mid @-@ 1990s .
" Under the Bridge " follows " Give It Away " as the band 's second most performed live song , having been performed over 600 times .
= = Origins and recording = =
During the production of the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' 1991 album Blood Sugar Sex Magik , producer Rick Rubin regularly visited singer Anthony Kiedis to review Kiedis 's new material . He found a poem titled " Under the Bridge " while flipping through Kiedis ' notebook and instantly took an interest in the poignant lyrics . Rubin suggested Kiedis show it to the rest of the band : " I thought it was beautiful . I said ' We 've got to do this . ' " Kiedis was reluctant as he felt the poem was too emotional and did not fit the Chili Peppers ' style . After singing the poem to guitarist John Frusciante and bassist Flea , Kiedis recalls that they " got up and walked over to their instruments and started finding the beat and guitar chords to match it " . Frusciante chose the chords he played in the introduction to balance out the depressing nature of the lyrics , saying " my brain interpreted it as being a really sad song so I thought if the lyrics are really sad like that I should write some chords that are happier " .
For several days Frusciante and Kiedis worked on the song , and it became one of the few tracks written and completed prior to the band moving into The Mansion where they recorded the album . After the song was recorded , Rubin felt the grand and epic outro would benefit from a large group of singers . Frusciante invited his mother , Gail , and her friends , all of whom sang in a choir , to perform .
= = Lyrics and meaning = =
Kiedis wrote much of the song 's lyrics during a period when he felt distraught and emotionally drained . He had maintained sobriety for roughly three years and felt that this had distanced him from his bandmates . While the group worked on Blood Sugar Sex Magik , Frusciante and Flea often smoked marijuana together , ignoring Kiedis , who felt that Frusciante was " no longer in [ his ] world . " Driving home after rehearsal in April 1991 , Kiedis thought of his heroin and cocaine addiction during his relationship with former girlfriend Ione Skye : " the loneliness that I was feeling triggered memories of my time with Ione and how I 'd had this beautiful angel of a girl who was willing to give me all of her love , and instead of embracing that , I was downtown with fucking gangsters shooting speedballs under a bridge . "
Kiedis ' feelings of alienation from his bandmates led him to feel that the city of Los Angeles was his only companion : " I felt an unspoken bond between me and my city . I 'd spent so much time wandering through the streets of L.A. and hiking through the Hollywood Hills that I sensed there was a nonhuman entity , maybe the spirit of the hills and the city , who had me in her sights and was looking after me . " The lines " Sometimes I feel like / My only friend / Is the city I live in / The City of Angels / Lonely as I am / Together we cry " show a direct link to Kiedis ' isolation and sense of susceptibility . Despite these emotions , Kiedis believed his life was better without drugs , telling Rolling Stone that " no matter how sad or lonely I got , things were a million percent better than they were two years earlier when I was using drugs all the time . There was no comparison . " The optimistic ideology gave birth to the chorus of the song : " I don 't ever want to feel / Like I did that day / Take me to the place I love " , the place he loves being his band mates , friends , and family .
One of the most notable verses in the song discusses the harsh effects of drugs , their role in destroying many of Kiedis 's relationships , and impact on his happiness . Based on one of Kiedis 's experiences , the verse of " Under the Bridge " illustrates his efforts to enter gang territory under a bridge to purchase drugs . Kiedis pretended that a sister of one of the gang members was his fiancée to be permitted inside . Although he successfully acquired the drugs , Kiedis considers this moment to be one of the worst of his life as it demonstrated the level to which he was willing to sink in order to feed his addiction . Kiedis refuses to acknowledge the location of the bridge , though he notes that it is in downtown Los Angeles . Using clues provided by Kiedis in previous interviews and in his autobiography Scar Tissue , writer Mark Haskell Smith concluded that the bridge that inspired the song was located in the city 's MacArthur Park . Other possible cited locations have included the Belmont Tunnel about half a mile from MacArthur Park , and more recently , the overpass where Interstate Highway 10 ( the Santa Monica Freeway ) crosses over Hoover Street close to downtown LA .
= = Music and composition = =
" Under the Bridge " is performed in 4 / 4 time in the key of A major , shifting from the key of E major after the first verse . The song marks an important shift in style for Kiedis , who had spent most of his career singing rapidly due to his limited ability to reach high notes . The song begins with Frusciante playing a moderately slow intro that the guitarist said drew heavily on the 1967 Jimi Hendrix song " Little Wing " . As Kiedis begins to sing , the guitar playing becomes more rapid until it reaches an E major seventh chord that halts the song ; the silence is broken by Chad Smith 's closed hi @-@ hat and wood block struck at a moderately fast tempo . Frusciante borrowed the E major seventh chord technique from British guitarist Marc Bolan of the glam rock band T. Rex , who initially wrote it in the song " Rip Off " from the group 's 1971 album Electric Warrior ; Frusciante lightheartedly noted that " I ripped off a song called ' Rip Off ' . I thought that was interesting . "
The song continues with another verse and subsequent chorus , when the bass finally enters . After the next verse an E major seven chord again marks a break before the start of the chorus . The second chorus transitions into a different verse , where Chad Smith begins to play the drums , and Kiedis sings " Take me all the way / Yeah / Yeah @-@ e @-@ yeah / Oh no , no . " After Kiedis cues " One time , " a choir , whose presence was added to make the ending sound more epic , sings " Under the bridge downtown , " in which Kiedis sings " Is where I drew some blood / I could not get enough / Forgot about my love / I gave my life away " in between . As the choir , Kiedis and drums stop , Frusciante and Flea play the outro until the song ends .
= = Release and reception = =
The first single off Blood Sugar Sex Magik was " Give It Away " , which reached number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart in late 1991 . The band did not foresee " Under the Bridge " being as successful , but understood the potential commercial viability . Warner Bros. Records sent representatives to a Chili Peppers concert to determine which song should be the next single . When Frusciante began playing " Under the Bridge " , Kiedis missed his cue and the entire audience began singing the song instead . Kiedis was initially " mortified that I had fucked up in front of Warner 's people [ ... ] I apologized for fucking up but they said ' Fucking up ? Are you kidding me ? When every single kid at the show sings a song , that 's our next single ' . " " Under the Bridge " became the album 's second single in October 1991 ; upon release , journalist Jeff Apter noted that it " was the bona fide , across @-@ all @-@ formats radio hit that the band had been working towards for seven years . " It spent twenty @-@ six cumulative weeks on the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart , peaking at number two , being one of the several songs stuck behind Kris Kross ' 8 @-@ week reign of " Jump " . The single has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Tom Moon of Rolling Stone felt the song " revealed new dimensions . The rhythm section displays a growing curiosity about studio texture and nuance " . David Fricke of Rolling Stone said " Under the Bridge " is a " stark and uncommonly pensive ballad " , commenting that the song " drop @-@ kicked the band into the Top 10 " . Philip Booth of The Tampa Tribune believed the single was " undulating [ and ] omnipresent " not only in the alternative rock genre , but pop music as a whole . Ben DiPietro of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch praised the record as a whole , but was most impressed by Chili Peppers ' shift from exclusive hard rock to adding more moderately paced tracks : " there 's still plenty of sonic funk to bang heads to , but the best tracks are the slower ones such as ' Under the Bridge ' " . Nick Griffiths ( Select ) described the song as " all mellow strumming and thoughtfully shallow vocals , though it 's almost exonerated by a shrill unexpectedly choral middle eight . " Amy Hanson of Allmusic noted that the song has " become an integral part of the 1990s alterna @-@ landscape , and remains one of the purest diamonds that sparkle amongst the rough @-@ hewn and rich funk chasms that dominate the Peppers ' own oeuvre " . She went on to praise " Under the Bridge " for being a " poignant sentiment that is self evident among the simple guitar which cradles the introductory verse , and the sense of fragility that is only doubled by the still down @-@ tempo choral crescendo " .
" Under the Bridge " has been included in many publications ' " Best of ... " lists . In 2002 , Kerrang ! placed the song at number six on their list of the " 100 Greatest Singles of All Time " . Q ranked the song number 180 on their compilation of the " 1001 Best Songs , Ever " . Life included " Under the Bridge " in the compilation " 40 Years of Rock & Roll , 5 Songs Per Year 1952 – 1991 " , with the year being 1991 . Pause and Play included the song in their unordered list of the " 10 Songs of the 90 's " ; and the song ranked fifteenth in VH1 's " 100 Greatest Songs of the 90s " . Rolling Stone and MTV compiled a list of the " 100 Greatest Pop Songs Since The Beatles " in 2000 , with " Under the Bridge " coming in fifty @-@ fourth . " Under the Bridge " was also ranked # 98 in the list of Rolling Stone " 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Under the Bridge " was directed by Gus Van Sant , who photographed the band during their stay at The Mansion and provided the art direction for Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Van Sant knew Flea due to the bassist 's role in his 1991 film My Own Private Idaho . The members of the band respected Van Sant both as a person and an artist and were elated when he agreed to direct the video for " Under the Bridge " . Flea credits the video as " the thing that really made us break through the mainstream of American and worldwide pop culture " .
The video was shot on the streets of Los Angeles and in a studio soundstage . It begins with Frusciante standing alone on a pedestal wearing a red @-@ and @-@ white @-@ striped collared shirt , brown khaki pants , brown shoes , and a purple , green and multicolored chullo , with white stitched wolves in the middle . He plays a 1966 Ocean Turquoise Fender Jaguar behind the backdrop of a desert and an inverted cloudy sky . His shadow is projected on the left and right of where he stands . Frusciante 's girlfriend of the time , Toni Oswald , selected his clothes that day . Frusciante remembers Van Sant 's surprised , though favorable , reaction : " when I got [ to the studio ] Gus Van Sant was just looking at me and going ' God I 'm so glad you wore that hat . I 'm so glad you wore that shirt . Oh ! Those pants are so great I 'm so glad you wore those ' " . The video marks a significant shift in Frusciante 's on @-@ camera behavior ; he no longer wished to jump around fervently as he had done in the band 's prior music videos .
As Kiedis begins to sing he appears on camera bathed in purple light with blue fluorescent stars as a backdrop , surrounded by clouds . As the camera pans closer , an image of the skyline of Van Sant 's home city , Portland , is superimposed from his chin downwards . Flea and drummer Chad Smith are then placed into the image while playing their instruments . Van Sant wanted superimposing to be a notable component in the overall theme of the video ; the idea came from a project he worked on with novelist William S. Burroughs . The scenes in the studio are coupled with scenes of Kiedis walking the streets of LA , wearing a white T @-@ shirt with " To Hell And Back " printed on the front ; as he walks , the camera focuses on various people . He can , at various points in the video , be seen standing in front of Belmont Tunnel before its closure . This , according to Kiedis , was vital ; he felt the studio portion alone would not convey enough emotion : " the first time we shot [ the video ] it was all in a studio and that didn 't seem to capture everything we needed to capture . It needed more ; it needed to be combined with an outdoor , streets @-@ of @-@ Los @-@ Angeles thing " . Towards the end , Kiedis is seen running down the Los Angeles River in slow motion ; the background is a shot of an atomic bomb exploding . The video ends with various superimposed images of the band , followed by Frusciante playing alone on a pedestal — this time with an inverted shot of the ocean as the sky .
MTV placed the " Under the Bridge " video on heavy rotation . At the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards the Red Hot Chili Peppers led the nominations , which included the categories of " Best Video " , " Best Group " , and " Best Direction " . " Under the Bridge " won the group " Breakthrough Video " and " Viewers Choice Best Video " ; the band 's video for " Give It Away " won " Best Art Direction " . The video ranked eighth best in a poll dictated by the readers of the Chicago Tribune called " The Best and Worst of ' 92 " .
= = Live performances = =
The song 's widespread success has made it indispensable to the band 's live set @-@ lists . Unlike several of the Chili Peppers ' other songs , " Under the Bridge " is not interpreted in a different manner than what is on the record — aside from being played acoustically the track is performed the same as it appears on Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Kiedis is , however , notorious for being incapable of achieving several high notes in live performances ; the vocalist has noted that he sometimes forgets or rearranges song lyrics in the verses . Therefore , the song has sometimes suffered from his limitations as a singer . After being released as a single in March 1992 , the song would be included in virtually all concerts ; Frusciante , however , began to resent the song 's popularity and would play convoluted intros , purposefully throwing Kiedis off . An example of this was during a televised performance on the highly rated program Saturday Night Live on February 22 , 1992 . Kiedis said it " felt like I was getting stabbed in the back and hung out to dry in front of all of America while [ Frusciante ] was off in a corner in the shadow , playing some dissonant out @-@ of @-@ tune experiment . " The guitarist used a distortion pedal for the ending verse and screamed incomprehensibly into the microphone when providing backup vocals , neither of which were originally planned or typical of live performances . Nevertheless , sales of Blood Sugar Sex Magik skyrocketed following the show .
At times Kiedis has also resented singing the song , especially during instances when he felt distanced from the song 's lyrics . In the past few years , however , Kiedis has experienced a revival in interest : " Although there have been times when I was over [ ' Under the Bridge ' ] , I 've rediscovered it and now I feel close to it and it still has power , and life , and purpose as a song . " Frusciante believed the flexibility of " Under the Bridge " has contributed to its success : " A lot of the time that is one of the ingredients of a hit ; you can hear it over and over and it will still always mean new things , but you do go through cycles . " Flea believes the reason " Under the Bridge " had a recent revival in relevancy was due to Frusciante 's return to the band from 1998 – 2009 after quitting in 1992 . Flea believed it was vital to have the four members who wrote the track together .
" Under the Bridge " was played at the 1999 Woodstock Festival , which the Red Hot Chili Peppers headlined . They were the final act to perform . Attempts at distributing candles that were to be lit during the song backfired . The crowd , which was already disorderly , instead created a bonfire . Lighthearted foul @-@ play escalated into violence when several women who had been crowd surfing and moshing were raped and nearby property was looted and destroyed . Other notable performances were at Slane Castle in August 2003 to 80 @,@ 000 attendees ; and in 2004 at London 's Hyde Park , in which , over the course of three days , an estimated 250 @,@ 000 people were in attendance . Released as the band 's first live album , the event became the highest grossing concert at a single venue in history , with a total revenue of $ 17 @.@ 1 million . " Under the Bridge " is also performed on the Chili Peppers ' concert video Off the Map released in 2001 , and on an exclusive performance for iTunes in 2006 .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = All Saints version = =
" Under the Bridge " was the third single released from the All Saints debut album , All Saints . It became their second number @-@ one single on the UK Singles Chart . A total of 424 @,@ 799 singles have been sold in the United Kingdom . The song was cover of Red Hot Chili Peppers and releases as a double A @-@ side with " Lady Marmalade " , also a cover , by LaBelle . In Europe , a " Lady Marmalade " only single was also released . The proceeds from the single went to breast cancer charities .
= = = Background = = =
" Under the Bridge " was slightly altered since it contained personal lyrics by Anthony Kiedis and the All Saints covered it because they liked the overall sound and feeling of the recording . The All Saints version contains samples of the original recording , the most important one being the distinctive guitar playing in the beginning . The original Japanese edition of the album version features a different , more R & B version of the song . Anthony Kiedis said of All Saints ' version " It was kind of funny , they looked so pretty and clean , it looked like they didn 't know what they were singing about " . The Red Hot Chili Peppers ' original is said to deal lyrically with Kiedis 's drug addiction , and the final section which contains the line " Under the bridge downtown / is where I drew some blood " was omitted in the All Saints version . The guitar on " Under the Bridge " was played by Richard Hawley .
= = = Music video = = =
Both videos were shot as a set and cost £ 500 @,@ 000 to make . The videos took four months of production before release . The girls chose to perform their own stunts in the video , and at one point Natalie Appleton was knocked over by an explosion , although she remained unhurt .
The videos are in a futuristic big city . In the " Lady Marmalade " video , there is a party which causes several floors of a tall building to cave in . The " Under the Bridge " video appears to be set immediately after as there is already a hole in the floor of the room which appears to be a bottomless pit . In reality there was a hole which was indeed one floor deep . The 3D dimensional effect was computer generated and made by the team who also made the film Batman & Robin . Both videos were shown together as " The Bridge " at cinemas before the showing of the Quentin Tarantino film , Jackie Brown .
= = = Track listings and formats = = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Under the Bridge / Lady Marmalade " .
= = = Personnel = = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = Other cover versions = =
" Under the Bridge " has been covered several times since its release in 1992 . The song was first transcribed in 1994 by the a cappella group The Flying Pickets from their album The Original Flying Pickets : Volume 1 . Notable jazz musician Frank Bennett covered the song by fusing elements of big bands and bebop in his 1996 album Five O 'Clock Shadow . Hip hop artist Mos Def included the beginning verse of " Under the Bridge " in the song " Brooklyn , " from his 1999 record Black on Both Sides . He , however , changed the line " the city I live in , the City of Angels " , which refers to Los Angeles , to " the city I live in is beautiful Brooklyn , " to match his song 's premise . Tony Hadley covered the song on his 1995 album Obsession . Britain 's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra has modified " Under the Bridge " at several concerts — they perform various rock pieces combined into a single orchestral ensemble , often including the Chili Peppers ' hit . Taylor Dayne covered the song for her 2008 studio album Satisfied .
Alternative hip hop band Gym Class Heroes performed " Under the Bridge " on the 2006 assemblage Punk Goes ' 90s , an album that compiled popular rock songs from the 1990s being covered by contemporary artists . Gym Class Heroes continued to play " Under the Bridge " during their tour ; lead singer Travis McCoy has said it is " a timeless song . It 's one of those songs you hear and are like ' Damn did this shit just come out ? ' " The most successful cover version of " Under the Bridge " was released in 1998 by the British / Canadian pop band All Saints and reached number one in the United Kingdom . The cover removed the final verse of the song that discusses drug use . Red Hot Chili Peppers were , however , displeased with this version ; Kiedis felt the cover was poorly recreated and , with the omission of the final verse , it lost all personal significance . The 1993 " Weird Al " Yankovic song " Bedrock Anthem " is part parody of " Under the Bridge " and " Give It Away . " Yankovic 's satire includes an intro similar to that of " Under the Bridge " . In 2009 , the Stanley Clarke Trio covered the song on the album Jazz in the Garden . John Craigie covers the song on his album Leave the Fire Behind . Santana covered the song on their 2010 cover album Guitar Heaven : The Greatest Guitar Classics of All Time as a bonus track on the Deluxe Edition .
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= God of War : Betrayal =
God of War : Betrayal is a two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) side @-@ scrolling action @-@ adventure mobile game developed by Javaground and Sony Online Entertainment 's ( SOE ) Los Angeles division , and published by Sony Pictures Digital . Released for mobile phones supporting the Java Platform , Micro Edition ( Java ME ) on June 20 , 2007 , it is the third installment in the God of War series , and the fifth chronologically . Loosely based on Greek mythology , Betrayal is set in ancient Greece with vengeance as its central motif . The player controls the protagonist Kratos , who became the new God of War after killing the former , Ares . Kratos is framed for the murder of Argos and pursues the true assassin across Greece , resulting in a confrontation with Olympian messenger Ceryx .
Betrayal is the only installment in the series to be released on a non @-@ PlayStation platform and presented as a 2D side @-@ scrolling game . Despite the limitations of the mobile platform , in comparison to its home console counterparts , it retains the action @-@ oriented approach of its predecessors , with the same combination of combo @-@ based combat , platforming , and puzzle game elements . Although God of War is primarily a home console series , Betrayal was praised for its fidelity to the series in terms of gameplay , art style , and graphics : " the real deal third game in the killer franchise " . It received awards for " Wireless Game of the Month " ( June 2007 ) and " Best Platform Game " ( wireless ) of 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Although presented in two @-@ dimensional side @-@ scrolling format , the game retains the action @-@ oriented approach of its predecessors , with the player controlling the character Kratos in the same combination of combat , platforming , and puzzle game elements . Platforming elements include jumping across chasms , climbing ladders , and swinging on ropes . Some puzzles require Kratos to move a box on top of a switch ( thus activating it ) , or moving a box to use it as a jumping @-@ off point to reach a pathway unreachable with normal jumping . Game length is approximately two to four hours , and it consists of ten levels .
Kratos retains his main weapon of the previous installments , the Blades of Athena : a pair of blades attached to chains that are wrapped around the character 's wrists and forearms . In gameplay , the blades can be swung offensively in various maneuvers . Kratos utilizes the magical abilities Medusa 's Gaze and Army of Hades acquired in the original God of War , as well as the secondary weapon , the Blade of Artemis , with each offering alternative combat options , giving him a variety of ways to attack and kill enemies ( e.g. , Medusa 's Gaze briefly turns enemies to stone ) . Foes encountered in Betrayal primarily stem from Greek mythology , including Gorgons , minotaurs , and cerberuses , as well as those created for the game , such as the humanoid minions of the god Hades , including dead riders and undead legionnaires . In addition to the main gameplay , Betrayal includes a bonus " Arena Mode " where players must kill a certain number of enemies without dying before gaining access to the Arena 's upper levels .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
As with the previous games in the God of War franchise , God of War : Betrayal is set in an alternate version of ancient Greece , populated by the Olympian Gods and other beings of Greek mythology . Events are set between those of the games Ghost of Sparta ( 2010 ) and God of War II ( 2007 ) . The protagonist is Kratos , a former Captain of Sparta 's army who became the new God of War after killing his predecessor , Ares , the previous God of War . Other characters include Argos , the giant pet of the goddess Hera ; an unknown assassin ; and the Olympian messenger Ceryx , the son of Hermes and main antagonist . Zeus , the King of the Gods , is an unseen character .
= = = Plot = = =
Kratos is leading the Spartan army in a rampage across Greece . During the campaign , he is attacked by a number of beasts led by Argos , who was sent by the gods to stop Kratos . After a series of skirmishes , Argos is killed by an unknown assassin , who frames Kratos in an attempt to turn the gods against him . The Spartan pursues his foe across Greece to discover the identity of the assassin , but is slowed by constant attacks from the minions of Hades , the God of the Underworld . Zeus sends Ceryx to deliver a message to Kratos : stop the relentless pursuit and take heed of the destruction already caused . Kratos , however , battles and kills Ceryx , which inadvertently allows the assassin to escape . Kratos then realizes his actions have further alienated the gods , and Zeus will soon act in response to his defiance .
= = Development = =
God of War : Betrayal was announced by Sony Online Entertainment at a press conference in Los Angeles in May 2007 . The game utilizes a total of 110 different animations and features a 2D rendition of the series ' three dimensional ( 3D ) graphics . The character art and animation were done by WayForward Technologies . The only audio components are an orchestral score in the main menu and background sounds ( e.g. , clashing weapons ) . In August 2007 , Phil Cohen , producer , designer , and game director for Betrayal , spoke of the difficulties in developing a God of War game for a mobile device . Cohen said that although enjoyable , the greatest challenge was creating a single tileset and palette swapping scheme that was diverse enough to portray multiple environments with only several hundred kilobytes , and that met series creator Santa Monica Studio 's high standards . He wrote the initial design document between September and October 2005 , and revisited it in August 2006 , the month development started . The versions for high @-@ end handsets were completed in April 2007 , with final versions for low @-@ end handsets completed by June 2007 . The porting team adapted the game to over 200 handsets in a matter of weeks .
Cohen stated that one challenge was capturing the feel of God of War 's visual look and gameplay design , given the limited processing power and memory on most handsets — complicating puzzle design , traps , environment interaction , and enemy behavior . He noted that both David Jaffe and Cory Barlog ( game directors of God of War and God of War II respectively ) ensured the Betrayal development team captured the feel of the combat and visual style , and were " helpful with feedback and positive support " . The team also worked closely with Eric Williams , the console game 's lead combat designer . In keeping the " look and feel " true to the franchise , the development team played God of War extensively to study the pacing and tricks in the console releases . The development team also worked closely with Marianne Krawczyk , the writer of the God of War console games . Krawczyk used Betrayal to bridge the events between God of War and God of War II , include additional backstory , and to explain why the relationship between the gods and Kratos had changed .
= = Reception = =
Betrayal received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception , including praise for its fidelity to the series in terms of gameplay , art style , and graphics . Levi Buchanan of IGN called it " the real deal third game in the killer franchise " . Similarly , Matt Paprocki of Blogcritics wrote , " Betrayal is a full @-@ fledged extension of the God of War franchise , and it earns its title " . He said it is " one of the best mobile games you ’ ll ever play , and has truly made the format a relevant part of the current video game scene . " In regards to violence , Chris Antista of GamesRadar stated that it is " quite possibly the goriest thing your mobile 's ever seen " . Although not a " revolutionary experience " , Pocket Gamer 's Will Freeman said " it is a thoroughly impressive , utterly solid release that mobile platform fans will relish . " Modojo 's Justin Davis said that while Betrayal is compelling enough to play all the way to the end , " [ it did not ] feel like I was having fun . "
The context @-@ sensitive attacks received praise and criticism . Antista said , " [ the thing ] fans will be thankful for is the triumphant return of the contextual attacks " , but added that the control limitations were the " only real problem " , as the sensitivity of the cursor button can result in a failed combo , " And the jump button sends you forward in the direction you 're facing automatically . " Buchanan noted that the contextual attacks " can prove frustratingly tricky as you have a brief amount of time to input the commands , but the controls on most handsets are quite small " .
Commenting on the combat , Paprocki said that despite the simplified combo system , the developers have " managed to infuse the sheer brutality and force God of War is known for within the confines of the [ mobile ] platform . " Because of the simplified system , situations which call for Kratos ' magical abilities are rare . However , if players do choose to use these abilities , selecting them is a " burden in the haste of a battle " , requiring players to cycle through their entire inventory . Paprocki also criticized the lack of an autosave feature , as the game does not save the player 's position when receiving a phone call , which " can lead to unbearable frustration . " Freeman said that the combination of the weapons and QTEs make the combat " a convincing interpretation of the action in the original console games " . Davis said that although there are puzzle and platforming elements , the focus is " clearly on the combat " and felt that the combat system was " a little shallow " . He said it seems as if the abundance of enemies " exist solely to act as punching ( or slicing , as it were ) bags for Kratos " .
= = = Awards = = =
IGN named Betrayal " Wireless Game of the Month " for June 2007 . In their Best of 2007 – Wireless Awards , they named it the " Best Platform Game " .
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= Myles Standish =
Myles Standish ( c . 1584 – October 3 , 1656 ) was an English military officer hired by the Pilgrims as military adviser for Plymouth Colony . He accompanied the Pilgrims on their journey on the Mayflower and subsequently Standish played a leading role in the administration and defense of Plymouth Colony from its inception . On February 17 , 1621 , the Plymouth Colony militia elected him as its first commander and continued to re @-@ elect him to that position for the remainder of his life . Standish served as an agent of Plymouth Colony in England , as assistant governor , and as treasurer of Plymouth Colony . He was also one of the first settlers and founders of the town of Duxbury , Massachusetts .
A defining characteristic of Standish 's military leadership was his proclivity for preemptive action which resulted in at least two attacks ( or small skirmishes ) on different groups of Native Americans — the Nemasket raid and the conflict at Wessagusset Colony . During these actions , Standish exhibited considerable courage and skill as a soldier , but also demonstrated a brutality that angered Native Americans and disturbed more moderate members of the Colony .
One of Standish 's last military actions on behalf of Plymouth Colony was the botched Penobscot expedition in 1635 . By the 1640s , Standish relinquished his role as an active soldier and settled into a quieter life on his Duxbury farm . He was still nominally the commander of the Pilgrim military forces in the growing Plymouth Colony , although he seems to have preferred to act in an advisory capacity . He died in his home in Duxbury in 1656 at age 72 . He supported and defended the Pilgrims ' colony for much of his life , though there is no evidence to suggest that Standish ever joined their church .
Several towns and military installations have been named for Standish , and monuments have been built in his memory . One of the best known depictions of Standish in popular culture was the 1858 poem The Courtship of Miles Standish by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . The highly fictionalized story presents Standish as a timid romantic . It was extremely popular in the 19th century and played a significant role in cementing the Pilgrim story in US culture .
= = Biography = =
= = = Birthplace and early military service = = =
Little is definitively known of Myles Standish 's origins and early life . His place of birth has been subject to debate among historians for more than 150 years . At the center of the debate is language in Myles Standish 's will , drafted in Plymouth Colony in 1656 , regarding his rights of inheritance . Standish wrote :
I give unto my son & heire apparent Alexander Standish all my lands as heire apparent by lawfull decent in Ormskirke ( Ormskirk ) Borscouge ( Burscough ) Wrightington Maudsley ( Mawdesley ) Newburrow ( Newburgh ) Crowston ( Croston ) and in the Isle of man [ sic ] ( to the west of Croston ) and given to mee as Right heire by lawfull decent but Surruptuously detained from mee My great Grandfather being a 2cond or younger brother from the house of Standish of Standish .
The places named by Standish are all in Lancashire , England , with the exception of the Isle of Man , leading some to conclude that he was born in Lancashire — possibly in the vicinity of Chorley where a branch of the Standish family owned a manor known as Duxbury Hall . However , efforts to link Standish to the Standishes of Duxbury Hall have been inconclusive . A competing theory focuses on Standish 's mention of the Isle of Man and argues that he belonged to a Manx branch of the Standish family . No definitive documentation exists in either location to provide clear evidence of Standish 's birthplace .
Possibly the best source , however brief , on Standish 's origins and early life is a short passage recorded by Nathaniel Morton , secretary of Plymouth Colony , who wrote in his New England 's Memorial , published in 1669 , that Standish :
... was a gentleman , born in Lancashire , and was heir apparent unto a great estate of lands and livings , surreptitiously detained from him ; his great grandfather being a second or younger brother from the house of Standish . In his younger time he went over into the low countries , and was a soldier there , and came acquainted with the church at Leyden , and came over into New England , with such of them as at the first set out for the planting of the plantation of New Plymouth , and bare a deep share of their first difficulties , and was always very faithful to their interest .
The circumstances are vague at best concerning Standish 's early military career in Holland ( the " low countries " to which Morton referred ) . At the time , the Dutch Republic was embroiled in the Eighty Years ' War with Spain . Queen Elizabeth I of England chose to support the Protestant Dutch Republic and sent troops to fight the Spanish in Holland . Historians are divided on his role in the English military . Nathaniel Philbrick refers to Standish as a " mercenary " , suggesting that he was a hired soldier of fortune seeking opportunity in Holland , but Justin Winsor claims that Standish received a lieutenant 's commission in the English army and was subsequently promoted to captain in Holland . Jeremy Bangs , a leading scholar of Pilgrim history , noted that Standish likely served under Sir Horatio Vere , an English general who had recruited soldiers in both Lancashire and the Isle of Man , among other places , and who led the English troops in Holland at the time Standish was there .
Whether commissioned officer , mercenary , or both , Standish apparently came to Holland around 1603 and , according to historian Tudor Jenks , may have seen service during the siege of Sluis in 1604 , in which Vere 's English troops were involved . The subsequent Twelve Years ' Truce ( 1609 – 1621 ) between Spain and the Dutch Republic might have ended Standish 's service .
Standish was certainly still in Holland in 1620 and living in Leiden when he was hired by a group of refugee dissenters from England — Puritans — to act as their adviser on military matters . At that time , he was using the title of " Captain . " When considering candidates for this important position , the Puritans had at first hoped to engage Captain John Smith . As one of the founders of the English colony at Jamestown , Virginia , Smith had explored and mapped the North American coast . When they approached him to return to the New World , Smith expressed interest . His experience made him an attractive candidate , but the Pilgrims ultimately decided against him ; his price was too high and they feared that his fame and bold character might lead him to become a dictator . Standish lived in Leiden with his wife Rose and was apparently already known to them .
= = = Voyage to New Plymouth = = =
On July 22 , 1620 ( Old Style date ) , the initial group of English Dissenters living in Leiden boarded the Speedwell , which was meant to accompany another ship to be hired in England . This initial group included the mostly Brownist congregation . Myles and Rose Standish were aboard , along with the Bradfords , Winslows , Carvers , and others . The small , 60 @-@ ton pinnace sailed to Southampton with about 30 passengers , to be provisioned there and join a much larger vessel for the voyage to the New World . Another 90 passengers would board the 180 ton Mayflower . The Speedwell had some significant leaks while in port that caused delays , but both vessels departed Southampton August 5 .
The leaders of the colony decided to leave the smaller Speedwell behind after numerous delays caused by leaking , which had caused them to return to port twice . They sold some valuable supplies such as butter to pay the mounting port fees , and finally departed Plymouth , England on September 6 , 1620 on board the Mayflower , bound for the northern part of the Virginia Colony . The Speedwell , now with only a few passengers , went on to London to be resold ; she subsequently made numerous successful journeys as a cargo vessel for her new owners , but never sailed to the New World . The Standishes and most of the Speedwell passengers crowded into the Mayflower .
The passage of the Mayflower across the North Atlantic lasted more than two months , with 102 passengers crowded onto the cargo ship 's gun deck and about 30 crew members . The seas were not severe during the first month of the voyage but , by the second month , the ship was being hit by strong autumn gales , causing it to be badly shaken with water leaks from structural damage . There were two deaths , but this was just a precursor to what happened after their Cape Cod arrival , when almost half the company died in the first winter .
On November 9 , 1620 , lookouts spotted land , but it was quickly appreciated that their location was about 200 miles east @-@ northeast of their planned destination of northern Virginia — near what is now called Cape Cod . They tried briefly to sail south , but strong seas forced them to retreat to Cape Cod to harbor near the " hook " – present @-@ day Provincetown Harbor . It became apparent that the weather would not permit the passage south , so they decided to settle near Cape Cod . Shortage of supplies ( including wood and beer ) and the roaring Atlantic made it too dangerous to press on for a Virginia landing . They anchored at the hook on November 11 , but not before signing a significant document . The leaders of the colony wrote the Mayflower Compact to ensure a degree of law and order in this place where they had not been granted a patent to settle . Myles Standish was one of the 41 men who signed the document .
= = = Establishment of Plymouth Colony = = =
When the Mayflower was anchored off Cape Cod , Standish urged the colony 's leaders to allow him to take a party ashore to find a suitable place for settlement . On November 15 , 1620 , he led 16 men in a foot exploration of the northern portion of the Cape . On December 11 , a group of 18 settlers , including Standish , made an extended exploration of the shore of Cape Cod by boat , spending their nights ashore surrounded by makeshift barricades of tree branches . The settlers were attacked one night by a group of about 30 Native Americans . At first , the Englishmen panicked , but Standish calmed them , urging the settlers not to fire their matchlock muskets unnecessarily . The incident took place in present @-@ day Eastham , Massachusetts and came to be known as the First Encounter .
After further exploration , the Pilgrims chose a location in present @-@ day Plymouth Bay in late December 1620 as the site for their settlement . Standish provided important counsel on the placement of a small fort in which cannon were mounted , and on the layout of the first houses for maximum defensibility . Only one house ( consisting of a single room ) had been built when illness struck the settlers . Of the roughly 100 who first arrived , only 50 survived the first winter . Standish 's wife Rose died in January .
Standish himself was one of the very few who did not fall ill and William Bradford ( soon to be governor of Plymouth Colony ) credited Standish with comforting many and being a source of strength to those who suffered . Standish tended to Bradford during his illness , and this was the beginning of a decades @-@ long friendship . Bradford held the position of governor for most of his life and , by necessity , worked closely with Standish . In terms of character , the two men were opposites — Bradford was patient and slow to judgment , while Standish was well known for his fiery temper . Despite their differences , the two worked well together in managing the colony and responding to dangers as they arose .
= = Defense of Plymouth Colony = =
By February 1621 , the colonists had sighted Native Americans several times , but there had been no communication . The men of the colony were anxious to prepare themselves in case of hostilities , so they formed a militia on February 17 , 1621 consisting of all able @-@ bodied men , electing Standish as their commander . The leaders of Plymouth Colony had already hired him for that role , but this vote ratified the decision by democratic process . The men of Plymouth Colony continued to re @-@ elect Standish to that position for the remainder of his life . As captain of the militia , Standish regularly drilled his men in the use of pikes and muskets .
Contact with the Native Americans came in March 1621 through Samoset , an English @-@ speaking Abenaki who arranged for the Pilgrims to meet with Massasoit , the sachem of the nearby Pokanoket tribe . On March 22 , the first governor of Plymouth Colony John Carver signed a treaty with Massasoit , declaring an alliance between the Pokanoket and the Englishmen and requiring the two parties to defend each other in times of need . Governor Carver died the same year and the responsibility of upholding the treaty fell to his successor William Bradford . Bradford and Standish were frequently preoccupied with the complex task of reacting to threats against both the Pilgrims and the Pokanokets from tribes such as the Massachusetts and the Narragansetts . As threats arose , Standish typically advocated intimidation to deter their rivals . Such behavior at times made Bradford uncomfortable , but he found it an expedient means of maintaining the treaty with the Pokanoket .
= = = Nemasket raid = = =
The first challenge to the treaty came in August 1621 when a sachem named Corbitant began to undermine Massasoit 's leadership . Corbitant worked to turn the people of Nemasket against Massasoit in the Pokanoket village of Nemasket , now the site of Middleborough , Massachusetts , about 14 miles ( 23 km ) west of Plymouth . Bradford sent two trusted interpreters to determine what was happening in Nemasket : Tisquantum ( known to the English as Squanto ) and Hobbamock . Tisquantum had been pivotal in providing counsel and aid to the Pilgrims , ensuring the survival of the colony . Hobbamock , another influential ally , was a pniese — a high @-@ ranking advisor to Massasoit — and a warrior who commanded particular respect and fear among Native Americans . When Tisquantum and Hobbamock arrived in Nemasket , Corbitant took Tisquantum captive and threatened to kill him . Hobbamock escaped to warn Plymouth .
Bradford and Standish agreed that this represented a dangerous threat to the English @-@ Pokanoket alliance and decided to act quickly . On August 14 , 1621 , Standish led a group of 10 men to Nemasket , determined to kill Corbitant . They were guided by Hobbamock who quickly befriended Standish . The two men were close for the remainder of their lives . In his old age , Hobbamock became part of Standish 's household in Duxbury .
Reaching Nemasket , Standish planned a night attack on the wigwam in which Corbitant was believed to be sleeping . That night , Standish and Hobbamock burst into the shelter , shouting for Corbitant . As frightened Pokanokets attempted to escape , Englishmen outside the wigwam fired their muskets , wounding a Pokanoket man and woman who were later taken to Plymouth to be treated . Standish soon learned that Corbitant had already fled the village and Tisquantum was unharmed .
Standish had failed to capture Corbitant , but the raid had the desired effect . On September 13 , 1621 , nine sachems came to Plymouth , including Corbitant , to sign a treaty of loyalty to King James .
= = = Palisade = = =
In November 1621 , a Narragansett messenger arrived in Plymouth and delivered a bundle of arrows wrapped in a snakeskin . The Pilgrims were told by Tisquantum and Hobbamock that this was a threat and an insult from the Narragansett sachem Canonicus . The Narragansetts lived west of what is now known as Narragansett Bay in present @-@ day Rhode Island , and were one of the more powerful tribes in the region . Bradford sent back the snakeskin filled with gunpowder and shot in an effort to show that they were not intimidated .
Taking the threat seriously , Standish urged that the colonists encircle their small village with a palisade made of tall , upright logs . The proposal would require a wall more than half a mile ( or 0 @.@ 8 km ) long . In addition , Standish recommended the construction of strong gates and platforms for shooting over the wall . The colony had recently been reinforced by the arrival of new colonists from the ship Fortune , but there were still only 50 men to work on the task . Despite the challenges , the settlers constructed the palisade per Standish 's recommendations in just three months , finishing in March 1622 . Standish divided the militia into four companies , one to man each wall , and drilled them in defending the village in the event of attack .
= = = Wessagusset = = =
A more serious threat came from the Massachusett tribe to the north and was precipitated by the arrival of a new group of English colonists . In April 1622 , the vanguard of a new colony arrived in Plymouth . They had been sent by merchant Thomas Weston to establish a new settlement somewhere near Plymouth . The men chose a site on the shore of what is now the Fore River in present @-@ day Weymouth , Massachusetts , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Plymouth . They called their colony Wessagusset . The settlers of the poorly managed colony infuriated the Massachusett tribe through theft and recklessness . By March 1623 , Massasoit had learned that a group of influential Massachusett warriors intended to destroy both the Wessagusset and the Plymouth colonies . Massasoit warned the Pilgrims to strike first . One of the colonists of Wessagusset named Phineas Pratt verified that his settlement was in danger . Pratt managed to escape to Plymouth and reported that the English in Wessagusset had been repeatedly threatened by the Massachusett , the settlement was in a state of constant watchfulness , and that men were dying at their posts from starvation .
Bradford called a public meeting at which the Pilgrims decided to send Standish and a small group of eight , including Hobbamock , to Wessagusset to kill the leaders of the alleged plot to wipe out the English settlements . The mission had a personal aspect for Standish . One of the warriors threatening Wessagusset was Wituwamat , a Neponset who had earlier insulted and threatened Standish .
Arriving at Wessagusset , Standish found that many of the Englishmen had gone to live with the Massachusett . Standish ordered them to be called back to Wessagusset . The day after Standish 's arrival , Pecksuot , a Massachusett warrior and leader of the group threatening Wessagusset , came to the settlement with Wituwamat and other warriors . Standish claimed simply to be in Wessagusset on a trading mission , but Pecksuot said to Hobbamock , " Let him begin when he dare ... he shall not take us unawares . " Later in the day , Pecksuot approached Standish , looking down on him , and said , " You are a great captain , yet you are but a little man . Though I be no sachem , yet I am of great strength and courage . "
The next day , Standish arranged to meet with Pecksuot over a meal in one of Wessagusset 's one @-@ room houses . Pecksuot brought with him Wituwamat , a third warrior , an adolescent boy ( Wituwamat 's brother ) , and several women . Standish had three men of Plymouth and Hobbamock with him in the house . On an arranged signal , the English shut the door of the house and Standish attacked Pecksuot , stabbing him repeatedly with the man 's own knife . Wituwamat and the third warrior were also killed . Leaving the house , Standish ordered two more Massachusett warriors to be put to death . Gathering his men , Standish went outside the walls of Wessagusset in search of Obtakiest , a sachem of the Massachusett tribe . The Englishmen soon encountered Obtakiest with a group of warriors and a skirmish ensued , during which Obtakiest escaped .
Having accomplished his mission , Standish returned to Plymouth with Wituwamat 's head . The leaders of the alleged plot to destroy the English settlements had been killed and the threat removed , but the action had unexpected consequences . The settlement of Wessagusset was all but abandoned after the incident , which Standish had been trying to protect . Most of the settlers departed for an English fishing post on Monhegan Island . The attack also caused widespread panic among Native Americans throughout the region . Villages were abandoned and the Pilgrims had difficulty reviving trade for some time .
Pastor John Robinson was still in Leiden , but he criticized Standish for his brutality . Bradford , too , was uncomfortable with Standish 's methods , but defended him in a letter : " As for Capten Standish , we leave him to answer for him selfe , but this we must say , he is as helpfull an instrument as any we have , and as carefull of the generall good . "
= = = Dispersal of Merrymount settlers = = =
In 1625 , another group of English settlers established an outpost not far from the site of Wessagusset , located in what is now Quincy , Massachusetts , about 27 miles ( 43 km ) north of Plymouth . The settlement was officially known as Mount Wollaston , but soon earned the nickname " Merrymount . " Thomas Morton , leader of the small group of Englishmen , encouraged behavior that the Pilgrims found objectionable and dangerous . The men of Merrymount built a maypole , drank liberally , refused to observe the Sabbath , and sold weapons to Native Americans . Bradford found the weapons sales particularly disturbing and ordered Standish to lead an expedition to arrest Morton in 1628 .
Standish arrived with a group of men to find that the small band at Merrymount had barricaded themselves within a small building . Morton eventually decided to attack the men from Plymouth , but the Merrymount group was allegedly too drunk to handle their weapons . Morton aimed a weapon at Standish , which the captain purportedly ripped from Morton 's hands . Standish and his men took Morton to Plymouth and eventually sent him back to England . Later , Morton wrote the book New English Canaan , in which he referred to Myles Standish as " Captain Shrimp , " and wrote , " I have found the Massachusetts Indians more full of humanity than the Christians . "
= = = Penobscot expedition = = =
Having defended Plymouth from Native Americans and other Englishmen , Standish 's last significant expedition was against the French . The French established a trading post in 1613 on the Penobscot River , in what is now Castine , Maine . English forces captured the settlement in 1628 and turned it over to Plymouth Colony . It was a valuable source of furs and timber for the Pilgrims for seven years . However , in 1635 , the French mounted a small expedition and easily reclaimed the settlement . William Bradford ordered Captain Standish to take action , determined that the post be reclaimed in Plymouth Colony 's name . This was a significantly larger proposition than the small expeditions which Standish had previously led . To accomplish the task , Standish chartered the ship Good Hope , captained by a man named Girling . Standish 's plan appears to have been to bring the Good Hope within cannon range of the trading post and to bombard the French into surrender . Unfortunately , Girling ordered the bombardment before the ship was within range and quickly spent all the gunpowder on board . Standish gave up the effort .
By this time , the neighboring and more populous Massachusetts Bay Colony had been established . Bradford appealed to leaders of the colony in Boston for help in reclaiming the trading post . The Bay Colony refused . The incident was indicative of the rivalry which persisted between Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies . In 1691 , the two colonies merged to become the royal Province of Massachusetts Bay .
= = = Settlement in Duxbury = = =
In 1625 , Plymouth Colony leaders appointed Standish to travel to London to negotiate new terms with the Merchant Adventurers . If a settlement could be reached and the Pilgrims could pay off their debt to the Adventurers , then the colonists would have new rights to allot land and settle where they pleased . Standish was not successful in his negotiations and returned to Plymouth in April 1626 . Another effort was successful later in 1626 , this time negotiated by Isaac Allerton , and several leading men of Plymouth , including Standish , paid off the colony 's debt to the Adventurers .
Now free of the directives of the Merchant Adventurers , the leaders of Plymouth Colony exerted their new @-@ found autonomy by organizing a land division in 1627 . Large farm lots were parceled out to each family in the colony along the shore of the present @-@ day towns of Plymouth , Kingston , Duxbury , and Marshfield , Massachusetts . Standish received a farm of 120 acres ( 49 ha ) in what became Duxbury . He built a house and settled there around 1628 .
There are indications that Standish began to seek a quieter life by 1635 ( after the Penobscot expedition ) , maintaining the livestock and fields of his Duxbury farm . Standish was about 51 years old at that time , and he began to relinquish the responsibility of defending the colony to a younger generation . A note in the colony records of 1635 indicates that Lieutenant William Holmes , Standish 's immediate subordinate , was appointed to train the militia . When the Pequot War loomed in 1637 , Standish was appointed to a committee to raise a company of 30 men , but it was Holmes who led the company in the field .
The families living in what had come to be referred to as Duxbury ( sometimes " Duxborough " ) requested to be set off from Plymouth as a separate town with their own church and minister . This request was granted in 1637 . Some , including historian Justin Winsor , have insisted that the name of the town of Duxbury was given by Standish in honor of Duxbury Hall , near Chorley in Lancashire , which was owned by a branch of the Standish family . The coincidence would suggest that Standish had something to do with the naming of Duxbury , Massachusetts , though no records exist to indicate how the town was named .
= = = Last years = = =
During the 1640s , Standish took on an increasingly administrative role . He served as a surveyor of highways , as Treasurer of the Colony from 1644 to 1649 , and on various committees to lay out boundaries of new towns and inspect waterways . His old friend Hobbamock had been part of his household , but he died in 1642 and was buried on Standish 's farm in Duxbury .
Standish died on October 3 , 1656 of " strangullion " or strangury , a condition often associated with kidney stones or bladder cancer . He was buried in Duxbury 's Old Burying Ground , now known as the Myles Standish Cemetery .
= = Marriages and family = =
Myles Standish married :
Rose Handley ( 1601 – 1621 ) by about 1618 . She died on January 29 , 1621 . She was buried in an unmarked grave at Coles Hill Burial Ground in Plymouth , as were many others who died the first winter . She is named on the Pilgrim Memorial Tomb on Cole 's Hill as " Rose , first wife of Myles Standish " .
Barbara Mullins by about 1624 . Per Banks , she had come to Plymouth in 1623 on either the ' Anne ' or ' Little James ' , and they were married the following spring . In the past , historians have suggested that she may have been a sister of Standish 's first wife , Rose , and that he specifically sent for her . They had seven children . She died after October 6 , 1659 and her burial place is unknown .
Children of Myles and Barbara Standish :
Charles ( 1 ) was born in 1624 . He died between May 22 , 1627 and 1635 .
Alexander was born about 1626 and died July 6 , 1702 . He was buried in Myles Standish Burying Ground in Duxbury , Massachusetts . Alexander married first : Sarah Alden by about 1660 and had eight children . She died before June 13 , 1688 . Her father was Mayflower passenger John Alden . Second , he married Desire ( Doty ) ( Sherman ) Holmes by 1689 and had three children . She died in Marshfield on January 22 , 1731 . Her father was Mayflower passenger Edward Doty .
John was born about 1627 . No further record .
Myles was born about 1629 and died at sea after March 20 , 1661 . His body was lost at sea . Myles married Sarah Winslow in Boston on July 19 , 1660 , but there is no record of children .
Loara ( Lora ) was born about 1631 and died by March 7 , 1655 / 6 . Unmarried .
Josiah was born about 1633 and died in Preston , Connecticut , on March 19 , 1690 . He was historically known as Capt. Josiah Standish . His burial place is unknown . Josiah married first : Mary Dingley in Marshfield on December 19 , 1654 and died in Duxbury on July 1 , 1655 . Second , Sarah Allen after 1655 and had eight children . She died after September 16 , 1690 .
Charles ( 2 ) was born by about 1635 . He was still living on March 7 , 1655 / 6 . No further record . _ _ _ _ _ _ _
= = Legacy = =
Standish 's true @-@ life role in defending Plymouth Colony and the sometimes brutal tactics that he employed were largely obscured by the fictionalized character created by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his narrative poem The Courtship of Miles Standish . Historian Tudor Jenks wrote that Longfellow 's book had " no claim to be considered other than a pleasant little fairystory , and as an entirely misleading sketch of men and matters in old Plymouth . " However , the book elevated Standish to the level of folk hero in Victorian America . In late 19th century Duxbury , the book generated a movement to build monuments in Standish 's honor , a beneficial by @-@ product of which was increased tourism to the town .
The first of these monuments was the largest . The cornerstone was laid for the Myles Standish Monument in Duxbury in 1872 , with a crowd of ten thousand people attending the ceremonies . It was finished in 1898 , the third tallest monument to an individual in the United States . It is surpassed only by the first dedicated Washington Monument ( 178 feet ) in Baltimore , Maryland ( finished in 1829 ) and the Washington Monument ( 555 feet ) in Washington , D.C. ( dedicated in 1885 ) . The top of the monument is 116 feet ( 35 m ) overall , and at the top stands a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) statue of Standish .
A second , smaller monument was placed over the alleged site of Myles Standish 's grave in 1893 . Two exhumations of Standish 's remains were undertaken in 1889 and 1891 to determine the location of the Captain 's resting place . A third exhumation took place in 1930 to place Standish 's remains in a hermetically sealed chamber beneath the grave @-@ site monument .
The site of Myles Standish 's house reveals only a slight depression in the ground where the cellar hole was , but it is now a small park owned and maintained by the town of Duxbury .
Standish , Maine is named for the Captain , as well as the neighborhood of Standish , Minneapolis . At least two forts were named after Standish : an earthen fort on Plymouth 's Saquish Neck built during the American Civil War , and a larger cement fort built on Lovells Island in Boston Harbor in 1895 . Both forts are now abandoned . Camp Myles Standish in nearby Taunton was also named for Standish .
Standish is buried in Myles Standish Burial Ground , obviously named after him .
Myles Standish State Forest is located in the towns of Plymouth and Carver in southeastern Massachusetts , approximately 45 miles ( 70 km ) south of Boston . It is the largest publicly owned recreation area in this part of Massachusetts , and is managed by the Department of Conservation and Recreation ( DCR ) .
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= Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy =
Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy is a centre for the sport of sailing on the Isle of Portland , Dorset , on the south coast of England . The academy building is located in Osprey Quay on the northern tip of the island , and the waters of Portland Harbour and Weymouth Bay , adjacent to the site , are the main areas used for sailing . Local , national and international sailing events have been held at the site since it was opened in 2000 , and in 2005 WPNSA was selected to host the sailing events at the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games .
= = History = =
The academy was formed as a not @-@ for @-@ profit company in 1999 and officially opened on 1 April 2000 . It occupied converted naval premises until a clubhouse was built , which was opened in June 2005 by the Princess Royal . £ 7 @.@ 85 million of funding for the project was donated by charities , individuals and local councils ; the National Lottery donated £ 3 million in 2003 , and the South West Regional Development Agency added £ 3 @.@ 34 million . The academy 's aims are to promote the sport of sailing at all levels of competence and ability , through courses , training and events , and to contribute to the economic regeneration of the area . Since opening it has created a demand in service and marine industries worth around £ 10 million . WPNSA continues to promote sailing to local schools , offering benefits such as free boat hoist and storage . Use of the facilities and access to training is open to anyone in return for an annual membership fee . On 6 July 2005 , London was chosen to host the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games , and the WPNSA was chosen to host the sailing events .
= = Facilities = =
Portland Harbour and Weymouth Bay are the main areas used for sailing . The harbour covers an area of 8 @.@ 6 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 125 acres ) , and is ideal for sailing as it is exposed to reliable winds from most directions , but is sheltered from large waves and currents by Chesil Beach and the breakwaters . The clubhouse houses facilities on two floors , including a gymnasium , seven lecture and meeting rooms for 260 people , an event hall with kitchens and a bar , VIP meeting rooms and offices , a lounge bar and cafeteria seating 350 people , and two balconies . The outside of the academy complex has a 40 @-@ metre ( 131 ft ) slipway and two deep water slipways , 30 pontoons with disabled access , cranage and boat hoists , boat storage and parking areas . WPNSA also operates Boscawen House , formerly an admiral 's residence , which offers accommodation for a maximum of 47 people . The clubhouse generates 15 – 20 % of its electricity from solar cells , and rainwater is collected from the roof to wash boats .
= = = Osprey Quay = = =
In November 2007 , the South West Regional Development Agency signed a deal with Sutton Harbour Group to construct a 3 @-@ hectare ( 7 @-@ acre ) year @-@ round tourist and leisure complex in Osprey Quay , between Portland Castle and the academy . The £ 30 million scheme , called Castle Court , includes a hotel , apartments , public areas , a restaurant , shops and other employment space , and is expected to create 300 jobs . A permanent base for the Royal Yachting Association 's senior , youth , junior and paralympic national sailing squads is to be provided .
= = Events = =
Since opening the academy has hosted national and international sailing events , including the J / 24 World Championships in 2005 , staging trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics , the ISAF World Championship 2006 , the BUCS Fleet Racing Championships , and the RYA Youth National Championships . Local events are also held at the academy ; nearby schools have extra @-@ curricular sailing lessons , and in October each year WPNSA hosts Weymouth Speed Week . The British Olympic Sailing Team train at WPNSA .
= = = 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games = = =
In 2005 , the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy ( WPNSA ) was chosen as the venue for the sailing competition at the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic games . WPNSA was chosen to host these events due to its existing World class facilities . The Olympic Delivery Authority has built upon these facilities providing a new 220m slipway accessible at all states of tide and wind , an additional 70 marina berths and an extended dinghy park with capacity for 600 boats . In addition , the Academy provides direct access to Portland Harbour and Weymouth Bay which have been credited as some of the best sailing waters in the World . Olympic sailing events took place between 28 July and 11 August 2012 , and Paralympic events between 31 August and 5 September . One course was in Portland Harbour and four in Weymouth Bay . Sailors from all over the world competed for 30 medals in the Olympic Games and 18 medals in the Paralympic Games . A cruise liner berthed at Portland Port was used as accommodation .
The academy is around 190 kilometres ( 120 mi ) from the Olympic Zone in central London . There was concern about the logistics of transporting athletes from London to the academy , as there is no motorway in Dorset , and transport links are already often congested in summer . Weymouth and Portland Borough Council lobbied the Department for Transport to lay dual railway track and increase services from Weymouth railway station to London and Bristol , and to introduce new direct services to Exeter . Services to London Waterloo began running every 30 minutes from December 2007 , but services through Bristol to Cardiff were stopped . On 5 April 2007 , Dorset County Council granted planning permission for a relief road scheme to alleviate congestion between Weymouth and Dorchester , which includes a single carriageway running 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) north of Weymouth , and a 1000 @-@ space park @-@ and @-@ ride scheme , costing £ 84 @.@ 5 million . Work on the road commenced in 2008 , and as anticipated it was completed in three years , in time for the 2012 Olympic sailing events .
The academy also hosted the Moth World Championships in 2008 .
= = = 2016 Vintage Yachting Games = = =
The Vintage Yachting Games ( Vintage ) are the International Post @-@ Olympic Yachting / Sailing event for former Olympic classes . The Vintage is held every four years .
During the closing ceremony of the 2012 Vintage Yachting Games at Lake Como Italy , the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy ( WPNSA ) was formally announced as the venue for the 2016 Vintage Yachting Games .
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= Shannon Rutherford =
Shannon Rutherford was a fictional character played by Maggie Grace on the ABC drama television series Lost , which chronicled the lives of the survivors of a plane crash in the South Pacific . Shannon was introduced in the pilot episode as the stepsister of fellow crash survivor Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) . She was a series regular until her funeral in " What Kate Did " . For most of her time on the Island , she was unhelpful and spent much of her time sunbathing . She formed a relationship with another survivor from the plane crash , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) . Shannon was accidentally shot by Ana Lucia Cortez who mistakes her for an Other .
During the casting process , she was compared to Paris Hilton . Naveen Andrews , who played the character Sayid on the show , had the idea of encouraging the writers to write a romantic relationship between his character and Shannon into the story . Critics found her to be a largely unsympathetic character until only shortly before her death . Nonetheless , Grace received a Teen Choice Award nomination for her role as Shannon .
= = Arc = =
= = = Prior to the crash = = =
When Shannon is eight , her father marries Sabrina Carlyle ( Lindsay Frost ) , and she spends much of her adolescence with her stepbrother Boone . She studies ballet and , as she gets older , teaches dance classes to young girls . When she is eighteen , Shannon 's father dies in a car crash . He did not have a will prepared , so all of his money and property goes to his wife . Sabrina refuses to help Shannon financially , despite Shannon winning a prestigious yet non @-@ paying internship to the Martha Graham Dance Company in New York . Unable to come up with the money herself , Shannon moves to France for a short time to work as an au pair . Shannon later forms a plan to con her stepbrother , Boone Carlyle , into giving her some of the inheritance she rightly deserved . Playing on her knowledge of Boone 's love for her , she makes it appear her boyfriend Brian abuses her . Boone pays Brian to leave her , and Shannon plans to secretly take half the money . During one con in Sydney , her " abusive boyfriend " ruins Shannon 's ruse after Boone cuts him a check . Boone storms off to his hotel room and plans to return to the States . When Shannon 's boyfriend takes off with all of the money , Shannon goes to Boone 's hotel room in Sydney , drunk , and Boone allows her to seduce him . After they have sex , Shannon tells Boone things will go back to the way they had been before . He expresses anger because , as always , they both know she is in control of their situation / relationship . The following morning at the Sydney airport , Sayid Jarrah approaches Shannon , asking her to watch his bag for him . She deftly obliges , but soon leaves it unattended . Before the doomed Flight 815 takes off , Shannon rummages through her hand @-@ luggage for her asthma inhaler , which Boone casually hands to her . She smiles , the platonic love she has for Boone briefly relieving her of her misery . Six hours into the flight , only moments before the crash , Shannon and Boone are momentarily seen as Charlie Pace stumbles through their row .
= = = After the crash = = =
Upon landing on the Island , she decides to join Sayid on a hike to transmit a distress signal , after she and Boone have an argument about her selfishness . When they discover a French looped signal already being transmitted , Shannon 's knowledge of the language is used to translate it . Later , Shannon has an asthma attack , but her inhalers are nowhere to be found . Sun ( Yunjin Kim ) cures her , by using eucalyptus plants to help her breathing . Because of her selfish and manipulative behavior , Boone brands Shannon useless . Sayid enlists her to help translate the maps belonging to the French woman who made the radio transmission , Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) . Shannon and Sayid soon form a romantic relationship . After returning from a romantic night along the beach with Sayid , she learns Boone has died after falling from a great height . At his funeral , Shannon does not speak , but allows Sayid to talk instead . Shannon holds Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) responsible for Boone 's death , and asks Sayid to take action . When he refuses , she steals the key to the gun case from Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and holds Locke at gunpoint in the jungle . When Rousseau arrives on the beach one morning to warn the camp of the Others ' imminent arrival , Shannon prepares to migrate to the caves with the rest of the group . Before leaving on the raft the survivors have built , Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) gives Shannon guardianship of his dog , Vincent , as a means to help her recover from her loss .
At the start of season two , Shannon loses Vincent in the jungle . While searching for him , she is shocked to find Walt standing before her , dripping wet . However , when Sayid finds her , Walt disappears . Over the next few days , Sayid builds Shannon a shelter on the beach . He brings her to it and they soon decide to sleep together for the first time . Sayid leaves to get a bottle of water for Shannon and in his absence , Shannon again sees a vision of Walt , standing in the shelter with her . Sayid brushes off her experience as a dream . She uses Vincent to try to find Walt , only for him to lead her to Boone 's grave . After a while , she takes Vincent into the jungle again , with Sayid in pursuit . As it starts to rain , Sayid and Shannon admit their feelings for each other before both seeing Walt . Shannon runs after him , only to be accidentally shot by Ana Lucia ( Michelle Rodriguez ) , who mistakes her for an Other . She dies moments later in Sayid 's arms . Shannon 's death not only left Sayid heartbroken , but also caused a rift between the survivors and the Tailies . Throughout the rest of the season , Ana Lucia is shown to be guilt @-@ ridden over killing Shannon .
During season six the afterlife experienced by the survivors is shown as an alternate timeline where the plane never crashed . Boone is seen on the plane traveling alone and explains he went to save Shannon from a bad relationship , but she did not want to come with him . In the series finale " The End " Boone is being attacked by someone outside a local bar , with Hurley and Sayid watching from afar . Shannon tries to defend him but is overpowered . Sayid gets out of the car and knocks the attacker unconscious . He gets down to help Shannon , and they remember their lives on the island and realize they are in the afterlife . Later that night she is reunited with the other passengers of Oceanic 815 and they all " move on " together .
= = Personality = =
During the casting process , Shannon was compared to Paris Hilton , and Lost producer Damon Lindelof described her as a " bitch . She is like a typical spoiled daddy 's girl who gets whatever she wants and is not responsible to the slightest bit . " Eirik Knutzen of The Repository found Shannon to be " a self @-@ centered twit , " and she was also called a " spoiled daddy 's girl . " Boone describes her as a " self @-@ centered little bitch . " On her first night on the Island , Shannon is confident they will be rescued , refusing to help the others organize the luggage . She does not care Rose ( L. Scott Caldwell ) has lost her husband , and spends much of her time sunbathing . She manipulates Charlie ( Dominic Monaghan ) into catching a fish for her , after which Boone apologizes on behalf of Shannon for " using this poor guy like [ she ] use [ s ] everyone else . " In " Whatever the Case May Be , " Boone says to Shannon , " Don 't you see the way they look at us around here ? They don 't take us seriously . We 're a joke . I 'm trying to contribute something . You 're just – you 're useless . " This motivates her to help Sayid translate maps he obtained from Rousseau .
= = Development = =
The producers were looking for someone who had a " Paris Hilton quality " to play Shannon , but she could not just be shallow , as the storyline would require more than that . A lot of women auditioned before the producers finally settled on Maggie Grace . She was written to be a bitch in the first season as the producers needed a character they could use to create opposition and conflict . The producers thought it would be interesting for there to be more to Shannon and Boone 's relationship than just Boone 's possessive brotherly interest . They came up with the idea for them to be unrelated stepsiblings , who have a romantic encounter , which became the twist for their backstory . When Boone is killed at the end of season one , it forces Shannon into a more adult existence on the Island . Grace noted Boone is " the only person that ever really knew and loved Shannon , in spite of herself . Of course , losing him , especially with so much left unsaid and unresolved , will change her irrevocably . " This freed her up to develop her relationship with Sayid . Naveen Andrews , who plays Sayid , came up with the idea for Shannon and Sayid relationship . He thought , " What would really shock Middle @-@ America ? What if Sayid was to have a relationship with a woman that looked like Miss America ? The most unlikely pairing … to come completely from left field . " This pairing made Shannon " less flighty ... more of a person to be reckoned with . " According to Lost producer Carlton Cuse , " The relationships [ the audience ] expect on the show are not necessarily the ones that we [ the producers ] necessarily are going to give you , but we want to try to find ways in which characters that you don 't expect to kind of connect to one another to connect in ways that are kind of surprising . "
Shannon 's flashbacks in " Abandoned " were used to allow the audience to get to a " really emotional level with the character , [ to ] finally understand ... why she was the way she was . " Her death was planned before the start of season two , as the producers wanted the survivors in the tail section of the plane and the survivors of the fuselage to be forced to come together under difficult circumstances . Her death was also used to " spin Sayid off in another direction . " Damon Lindelof commented " It 's sort of understood on Lost that that 's what you sign up for . There 's going to be constant character turnover , because the stakes on the Island are life @-@ or @-@ death . " Lindelof felt an " intense , emotional sense of loss " when watching her death . In her post @-@ death appearance in " Collision , " Maggie Grace was credited as " special guest star . " She received the same billing when she returned in season three , appearing in Nikki and Paulo 's flashbacks . Carlton Cuse noted " it was really fun for us to actually have Boone and Shannon reemerge in the stories . " Shannon was originally in " LA X " , the season premiere for the sixth and final season , but had to be written out as Grace was unavailable . The producers eventually arranged for Grace to appear in " The End " .
= = Reception = =
Chris Carabott from IGN was critical of both Shannon and her relationship with Boone before the plane crash , commenting " Shannon 's ability to ' sort @-@ of ' understand French and Boone 's lifeguard training have had little impact and as characters they bring very little to the table . There are also too many more intriguing storylines and characters around them that deserve attention . " On their relationship he added , " except for the final act , when they finally succumb to their lust for one another ... There 's nothing exciting here or anything that will ultimately be built upon in the Lost universe . " In a later review , for the episode following Boone 's death , he commented " [ Boone and Shannon ] were both left with very little to do this season . Especially Shannon , whose high point of usefulness was deciphering Rousseau 's documents for Sayid . Well , Maggie Grace is given an opportunity to shine and she does an acceptable job as the distraught sibling who is now looking for someone to blame for Boone 's death . We finally get to see some real depth to Shannon 's character and her quest for vengeance is believable . " According to Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , Shannon is " the least deserving of sympathy of all the previously known survivors . "
C. K. Sample , III , from AOL 's TV Squad , joked , " Boone 's mother is the devil . How else to make us sympathize with Shannon right before killing her off of the show . " Virginia Rohan of The Seattle Times thought the " death of troubled Shannon , just as she was becoming more likable and had found love with Sayid , was sadder than the first @-@ season death of her stepbrother , Boone . Still , it would grieve me far more to lose Jack , Kate , Sawyer , Locke , Sun or Jin . " Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune felt fans echoed this view , describing their reaction as " muted , " as they were more angry at Ana Lucia for shooting Shannon . Maggie Grace co @-@ won the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award for " Best Ensemble - Drama Series . She was also nominated for the Teen Choice Award for " Choice TV Breakout Performance - Female , " but lost out to Desperate Housewives ' Eva Longoria .
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